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THE  LIBRARY 

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THE 


Jewish  Encyclopedia 


A    DESCRIPTIVE     R.ECORD    OF 


THE    HISTORY,    RELIGION,    LITERATURE,    AND    CUS- 
TOMS   OF    THE    JEWISH    PEOPLE    FROM    THE 
EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  THE  PRESENT  DAY 


Prepared    by    More    than    Four    Hundred    Scholars    and    Specialists 

UNDER   THE    DIRECTION    OF    THE    FOLLOWING    EDITORIAL   BOARD 


CVRUS  Adler,  Ph.D.  (Departments  of  Post- 
Biblical  Antiquities  ;  the  Jews  of  America) . 

GOTTHARD  Deutsch,  Ph.D.  (Department 
of  History  from  14^2  to  jgot) . 

Louis  Ginzberg,  Ph.D.  (Department  of 
Kabbinical  Literature) . 

Richard  Gottheil,  Ph.D.  i  Departments  of 
History  from  Ezra  to  14^2 ;  History  of 
Post '  Talmudic  Literature) . 

Joseph  Jacobs,  B.A.  (Departments  of  the 
Jews  of  England  and  Anthropology  ;  Revi- 
sing Editor) . 

ISAAC    K.    FUNK,    D.D.,  LL.D. 
Chairman  o/tht  Board 


Marcus  Jastrow,  Ph.D.  (Department  of  the  Talmud). 

Morris  Jast  row,  Jr.,  Ph.D.  (Department  of  the  Bible) . 

Kaufmann  Kohler,  Ph.D.  (Departments  of  Theology 
and  Philosophy) . 

Frederick  de  Sola  Mendes,  Ph.D.  (Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Translation  ;  Revising  Editor). 

Isidore    Singer,    Ph.D.    (Department   of   Modem 
Biography  from  17 jo  to  igoi) . 

Crawford    H.  Toy,    D.D.,  LL.D.    {Departments   of 
Hebrew  Philology  and  Hellenistic  Literature)  . 

FRANK   H.  VIZETELLY 

Secretary  c/tke  Board 


ISIDORE     SINGER,     Ph.D. 

Projector  and  Managing  Editor 

ASSISTED     l;V    AMERICAN    AND    FOREIGN     BOARDS    OF    CONSri-TING    EDITORS 


COMPLETE   IN   TWELVE   VOLUMES 
EMBELLISHED  WITH   MORE  THAN   TWO  THOUSAND  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW      YORK     AND     LONDON 

FUNK 

AND     W  A  G  N  A  L  L  S     C  ()  M  P  A  N  V 

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' *!iH*LLS  COMPANY. MY, 


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Copyright,  1901,  by 

FUNK    &   WAGNALLS    COMPANY 

A II  rights  0/ translation  reserved 


Registered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London,  England 
{Printed  in  the  United  States  of  A  merica'] 


i^orary 


LITEUARY  DIllEaORATE        I^^ 

V.I 


EDITORIAL  BOARD 


CYRUS  ABLER,  Ph.D. 

IDepartincntii  of  Pvnt-liilAiitil  AiitUiuitkx ;  the  Jews  nf 
Amtricti.) 

President  of  the  Aiiieritan  Jiwlsli  Historical  Society  ;  Librarian, 

Siuitlisniiian  Iii>tilutinii.  WasliinLn-'U.  I),  f. 


GOTTHARD  DEUTSCH,  Ph.D. 

Ill,  liinlno  III  III   lli.'liini  In, in  l'.:i;  In  I'.nil.t 

Proftssor  of  Jewish  History,  Hebrew  Union  College,  Cincinnati, 

Ohio  :  Kdltor  of  "  Deborah." 

LOUIS  GINZBERG,  Ph.D. 

iDtiMirtnitnt  nf  HaliliinWtil  Littnittire.) 
New  York :  Author  of  "  Die  Hajriraria  t>c!  <lcn  Kiri'henviitem." 

RICHARD  GOTTHEIL,  Ph.D. 

WepartincnU  nf  HiMnriifriim  Kzra  tn  /W-' ;  llistm-y  of  Post- 

Talinudic  Lileraturc.) 

Professor  of  Semitic  Uintruages.  Columhia  rnlverslty.  New  York: 

Chief  of  the  Oriental  Depiirtinent,  New  York  Public  Library ; 

President  of  the  Federation  of  American  Zionists. 

JOSEPH  JACOBS,  B.A. 

iDepiirtmentti  >>/  Ih,  J,ii>  ,,'   KinjUm,!  mi, I  .Inthriipulouu; 
liii'ixini/  Kflitor.) 

Formerly  President  of  the  JewLsh  Historical  Society  of  England ; 
Author  of  "Jews  of  Aneevin  England,"  etc. 

MARCUS  JASTROW,  Ph.D. 

'Ii,  ,„irlf,i,  nl  ,il  Ih,    r,lhiiu,l., 

Rabbi  Emeritus  of  the  Congregation  Ilodef  Shalom.  Philadel- 
phia. Pa. ;  Author  of  "  Dictionary  of  the  Talmud." 


MORRIS  JASTROW,  Jr.,  Ph.D. 

(ill jw;-(i)ini(  1./  the  BHih.) 
Professor  of  Sem'tli'  Language's  and  Librarian  In  the  Lniversity 
of  Penn-sylvania,  Philadelphia,  I'a. ;  Author  of  "  Relig- 
ion of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians."  etc. 

KAUFMANN  KOHLER,  Ph.D. 

{Diportineiits  nf  Tin:nUt\jii  and  I'hiloifnijhu-) 
Rabbi  of  Temple  lieth-El,  New  York  :  President  of  the  Board  of 

.Jewish  Ministers.  New  V..rk. 

FREDERICK  DE  SOLA  MENDES,  Ph.D. 

(C/k'c/  nf  the  Bureau  nf  Tiitiiflutinii ;  llcvmng  KdUur.) 
Rabbi  of  the  Wi-st  End  Synagogue,  New  Y'ork  ;  Vice-President 

(tf  I'uarii  *'f  Jewish  .Ministers,  New  Y'ork. 

ISIDORE  SINGER,  Ph.D. 

MAN.v<;i.\ii  EniToit. 

Wcprtrtmnil  ,,f  M,,il,  ni  Bi,,(irniih)i  frnm  vr.otn  1901.) 

CRAWFORD  HOWELL   TOY,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

(DcparfmcHts  of  Hclircw  I'hiloUtuil  and  Hellenistic 

Litei'ature.) 

Professor  of  Hebrew  In  Hanard  University,  Cambridge.  Mass.; 

Author  of  "The  Religion  of  Israel,"  "Judaism  and 

Chri.slianity,"etc. 


I.  K.  FUNK,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

(CVjair/Hon  nf  the  Bnard.) 

Editor-In-Chlef  of  the  St.vmi.vrd  Dictiox.vky  ok  the  Engi.ish 

L.vxcirAOE,  etc. 

FRANK  H.  VIZETELLY. 

iSiinlarii,,!  Ill,  Ilminl.) 

Associate  Editor  of  "  The  Columbian  Encyclopedia,"  and  on  the 

Sta.ndari)  Drtio.narv  Editorial  Staff,  etc. 


a:\ierican  board  of  consulting  editors 


BERNARD  DRACHMAN,  Ph.D., 

Rabbi  of  the  (  onLrtix'aiK'ii  /.Ichn'ri  Ki'litiiiiij.  Iii-anuf  the  Jewish 
Th»Hfl«.gical  Semlnai'y.  .New  York. 

B.  FELSENTHAL,  Ph.D., 

llabbl  Emerlliis  of  /Ion  i  ongregatinn.  Chicagu  ;  Author  of  "A 
Pmciical  tjfaiiimar  <'f  the  Mel>rf\v  Langnage." 

GUSTAV  GOTTHEIL,  Ph.D., 

Rabltl  Kineritils  ttf  Teriiple  Kmanu.KI.  New  York. 

EMIL  G.  HIRSCH,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 

Ratitil  of  Chicago  siiail  (  oiiifii-gatlon,  chicat'o.  III.;  Professor  of 

Rabblidcal  I.ltentlun*  and  Philosophy.  University  of 

Chicago ;  Editor  of  the  "  Iteforin  AdviKiile." 

HENRY  HYVERNAT,  D.D., 

Head  of  the  Iicpiiri tit  uf  Semitic  and  ligyptlan  l.lleniture^. 

(■alli..llc  I  ol\cr-itv  ..f  Aiiicil.M,  Waslilngton,  li,  C. 

J.  FREDERIC  McCURDY,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 

Profes.s4ir  of  tirienlal  l.tinguagi-?(.  University  College.  Toronto, 

Canada;  Author  of  "  History,  Pniphecy,and 

the  Moniimenl.H." 


H.  PEREIRA  MENDES,  M.D., 

Rabbi  of  the  Stiearitli  Isnul  Congn-g:iiiiin  ispanishand  Portu- 
guese), New  York  ;  Pri'sldenl  of  the  .^dvls«iry  Board  of 
Ministers  of  the  Jewish  Tlietiloglcal  Seminary. 

MOSES  MIELZINER.  Ph.D.,  D.D., 

Professor  of  Talnmdli-  Literature,  Hebrew  Union  CoUege,  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio ;  Author  of  "  IniriHlucllon  to  the  Talmud." 

GEORGE  F.  MOORE,  M.A.,  D.D., 

Professor"!  Ili-iirew  IjiiigiiaL'c  and  [.Iteraiiin*  ami  Prvsldeni  of 

Andover  Thwilogical  Seminao",  Andover,  Ma.ss. ;  Author 

of  a  Commentary  on  the  Biwik  of  Jinlges,  etc. 

DAVID  PHILIPSON,  D.D., 

Rabbi  of  the  r..ngregiiilun  lien.   I-:  ,.| ;  l'1'..fi.s.s..rof  Homlletic*, 
Hebrew  Union  ( ..ILw.  Ciiielnnati.  Ohio;  Pn'sldent  of 

lliLrivv  Sal.l.atli  Si-liri..l  Union  of  America. 

IRA  MAURICE  PRICE,  B.D.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Seiulile  Laiigiingc.!<  anil  Llteratun-ji,  University  of 

Chicago,  111. ;  .\ulhor  of  "  The  Monuments  and 

the  Old  Testaraenu"  I'ic. 


LITERARY  DIRECTORATE 


HERMAN  ROSENTHAL, 

ODIO  or  TIIK    IRSSIAN    SKCTION    Ol-    TIIK  JKWISII   ENCTCLO- 
PKDIA. 

In  cliarKP  "f  Slavonic  rx^imrlmcnt.  Ni'W  York  Ptihllc  Library. 

JOSEPH  SILVERMAN,  D.D., 

Pnsldent of  ivntnil  ("nfcnMitf  "f  Ami-rituu  KabUls :  Rabbi  oJ 

Temple  Eiuunu-EI,  New  York. 


JACOB  VOORSANGER.  D.D., 

Rabbi  of  tbe  I'onjrn'Uutlon  Kinaiiti-EI.  s^m  Fniurlsuu,  Gai. ;  Pro- 
fessor of  S4*iiiltli'  I.ai)t?tm(:es  ami  Lileraliire:^  Uni- 
versity of  Califomln,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

EDWARD  J.  "WHEELER,  M.A., 

Editor  of  "  The  I.ilerjry  Di|.'e>l."  New  York. 


FOREIGN  BOARD  OF  CONSULTING  EDITORS 


ISRAEL  ABRAHAMS,  M.A., 

Coedltor  of  the  "  J>'«bh  yiuirtcily  Ilivicw  "  :  .\mhor  of  "Jew- 

Isli  Life  In  the  MliUlle  Aces,"  eir. ;  .-ieiilor  Tutor 

In  Jews'  Colletfe,  Loudon,  Enghinil. 

W.  BACKER,  Ph.D., 

Professor   In    ilic    Ji\vi>li    Tl]e..l'ii,'i<:il    Seminary,   Budapest, 
Hiiiitniry. 

M.  BRANN,  Ph.D., 

Professor  in  the  JewLsli  Thwjlojfical  .Seminars',  Breslau,  Ger- 
many: Editor  of  "  Moiiaus-sehrift  furtieschichte  und 
WIssenschaft  des  JudeiUhuuis." 

H.  BRODT,  Ph.D., 

Rabbi,  Nacbod,  Bohemin.  .\iisirla  ;  c.uilitor  of  " Zeitsclirlf t  fflr 

Hebriibohe  Bibliogniphie." 

ABRAHAM  DANON, 

Prlocipal  of  tbe  Jewish  Tlu'olofiial  Siiuinary,  Constantinopie. 

Turkey. 

HARTWIG  DERENBOTJRG,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Literary  Aiabie  at  the  Special  School  of  Oriental 
Languages,  Paris,  France. 

S.  M.  DUBNOW, 

Author  of  "  lsl"i-iya  Yc\rf>i-v.'"  D.Iessa.  Russia. 

MICHAEL  FRIEDLANDER,  Ph.D., 

Prlludpalot  Jews'  College,  London,  England;  Author  of  "The 
Jewish  Religion."  etc. 

IGNAZ  GOLDZIHER,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Semitic  Philology,  University  of  liudapest,  Hungary. 

M.  GUDEMANN,  Ph.D., 

Chief  Kabbi  of  Vienna,  Austria. 

BARON  DAVID  GUNZBURG, 

St.  Petersburg.  Uussia. 

A.  HARKAVT,  Ph.D., 

Cblef  of  tbe  Hebrew  Department  of  thu  Iiii|>erial  Public  Library, 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia. 

ZADOC  KAHN, 

Cblef  Rabbi  of  France;   liouoniry  I'resident  of  the  Alliance 

Israelite  L'niverselle ;  Olllcer  of  the  Legion 

of  Honor,  Paris,  France. 

M.  KAYSERLING,  Ph.D., 

Rabbi,  Budapest,    Hungary;    ( orresiKindIng   Member  of   the 
Royal  Academy  of  History,  Madrid,  Spain. 

MORITZ  LAZARUS,  Ph.D., 
Professor  Emeritus i>t  I'syiboiogy,  i  niveiviiy  of  Berlin;  Meran, 


ANATOLE  LEROY-BEAULIEXJ, 

Member  of  ilie  FiimhIi  Institute:   Professor  ai  ilic  Free  School 

of  Political  Science,  Paris.  Friinci- :  Author  of 

"  Israel  Chez  les  Nations." 

ISRAEL  LEVI, 

Professor  in  the  Jewish  I'heological  St'iuinary ;   Editor  of 
"  Revue  des  £tudes  Juives,"  Paris,  France. 

ETTDE  LOLLI,  D.D., 

Chief  Kabbi  of  Padua;  I'p.fi^ssor  <.f  Hclniw  at  the  University, 
l*a<iiia.  Italy. 

IMMANUEL  LOW,  Ph.D., 

Chief  Kabbi  of  Szegedin.  Hungary;  .\uthorot  "Die  Aramalscben 

Ptlallzi'Tinaineu." 

S.  H.  MARGULIES,  Ph.D., 

Principal  of  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary ;  Chief  Rabbi  of 

Florence.  Italy. 

H.  OORT,  D.D., 

Professor  of  HebR'W  Language  and  Archeology  at  the  State 
University,  Leyden,  Holland. 

ABBE  PIETRO  PERREAU, 

Formerly  Libiaiiau  of  the  Ucale  Bihlioteca  Palatlna,  Parma, 
Italy. 

MARTIN  PHILIPPSON,  Ph.D., 

Formerly  Professor  of  History  at  the  liiiversities  of  Bonn  and 

Brussels :  President  of  the  Deutsch-Jiidische 

Gemeindehund.  Berlin,  Germany. 

SAMUEL  POZNANSKI,  Ph.D., 

lialilii  in  A\'ars;iw.  Ilu^sia. 

SOLOMON  SCHECHTER,  M.A.,  Litt.D., 

Professor  of  Hebrew,   University  College,  Loudon,  England; 

Reader  in  Rabbinic,  University  of  Cambridge: 

Author  of  "Studies  in  .ludaism." 

E.  SCHWARZFELD,  Ph.D., 

Secretary-General  of  the  Jewish  Colonization  .\ssociation,  Paris, 
France. 

LUDWIG  STEIN,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of  Bern.  Switzerland;  Editor 

of  "  Archiv  fflr  Geschlchte  der  Philosophie."  etc. 

HERMANN  L.  STRACK,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  E.xegesis  and  Semitic  Languages, 
University  of  Berlin,  Germany. 

CHARLES  TAYLOR,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Master  of  St.  John's  College.  Cambridge.  England;   Editor  of 
"  Sayings  of  tbe  Jewish  Fathers,"  etc. 


PREFACE 


0\\'LXG  to  their  long  history  and  thoir  wido  dispersion,  the  Jews  have  been  con- 
nected with  most  of  the  imi)ortant  movements  in  the  history  of  the  human  race. 
The  great  monotheistic  religions  are  based  upon  the  Jewish  Bible;  medieval 
pliilosopliy  and  science  are  inseparably  associated  with  the  Jews  as  intermediators;  and 
in  modern  times  there  has  been  hardly  a  phase  of  human  thought  and  activity  in 
which  the  participation  of  Jews  may  not  be  discerned.  Wliile  they  ha\e  thus  played  a 
jjiominent  part  in  the  develoi)ment  of  human  thought  and  social  progress  throughout  the 
centuries,  there  lias  been  no  faithful  record  of  their  multifarious  activity.  The  Jewish 
Encyclopedia  is  intended  to  sujjply  such  a  record,  utilizing  for  this  purpose  all  the 
resources  of  modern  .science  and  scholarship.  It  endeavors  to  give,  in  systematized, 
<'t)miirehensive,  and  yet  succinct  form,  a  full  and  accurate  account  of  the  history  and 
litei'ature,  the  social  and  intellectual  life,  of  the  Jewi.sh  people — of  their  ethical  and 
religious  view.s,  their  cu.stoms,  rites,  and  traditions  in  all  ages  and  in  all  lands.  It  also 
offers  detailed  biographical  infornmtion  concerning  re])resenfatives  of  the  Jewish  race 
who  havt^  achieved  distinction  in  any  of  the  waiks  of  life.  It  will  accordingly  cast 
light  ujion  the  successive  phases  of  Judaism,  furnish  ])recise  information  concerning  the 
activities  of  the  Jews  in  all  branches  of  human  endeavor,  regi.ster  their  influence  upon 
the  manifold  development  of  human  intelligence,  and  describe  their  mutual  relations  to 
surrounding  creeds  and  jH'oples. 

The  need  of  such  a  work  is  sulliciently  ob\'iou.s.  Jewi.sh  hi.story  is  unique  and  there- 
fore particularly  lial)le  to  he  misunderstood.  The  Jews  are  closely  attached  to  their 
national  traditions,  and  yet,  in  their  dispersion,  are  cosmopolitan,  l)oth  as  to  their  con- 
cei)tions  of  world-duty  and  their  participation  in  the  general  advancement  of  mankind. 
To  exhil)it  both  sides  of  their  character  has  been  one  of  the  objects  of  The  Jewish 

EXCVCLOPEDIA. 

The  hi.story  of  the  .Icwisli  |)coi)le  lia.s  an  absoibiiig  intcrcsl  for  all  who  arc  concerned 
ill  llic  developnu'ut  of  Inuuanity.  Connected  in  tuiii  with  the  principal  empires  of 
anlii|uity,  and  clinging  faithfully  to  tiirir  own  ideals,  the  Jews  developed  a  legal  system 
wiiich  ])roved  in  couise  of  time  their  bulwark  of  safi'ty  again.st  the  destruction,  through 
external  f<u-ces,  of  tlieir  national  life.  The  Eoman  code,  in  its  Christian  development, 
assigned  an  exce])tional  ])osilion  to  the  Jews;  and  it  Ix'comes  one  of  the  most  interesting 
proldcnis  for  the  student  of  Euroi>ean  constitutions  to  reconcile  tlie  .status  thus  allotted 
lo  the  .lew  with  the  con.stitntional  i)rinciplesof  the  various  Christian  states.  The  struggle 
of  llic  .b'W  to  emancipate  himself  fi-om  liiis  ])eculiar  ])osition  has  made  him  an  ellicient 
ally  intiie  heroi<'  <'ndi'a\(U-s  of  modern  peoples  toward  the  a.s.sertion  of  human  rights. 

Throughoul  all  the  divergences  produced  by  ilitVerent  social  environments  and  intel- 
lectual iMilucnces,  the  .lews  have  in  e\"ei-y  gcneiatiou  conserved  the  twot'old  ehaniclei' 
referred  to  al>o\-e:  as  representatives  of  a  nation,  they  liave  ke))!  ali\e  their  Hebrew 
Iraditicms;  and,  as  cosinoijolitan.s,  they  ha\e  taken  |)arl  in  the  .social  and  intellectual  life 
of  almost  all  eiillureil   nations,      hi  the  jierioii  when  . Jewish  and  Helleiiie  tlmught  cann^ 


PREFACE 


into  mutual  contact  in  Alexandria,  they  originated  new  currents  of  philosophic  specula- 
tion. They  then  joined  with  the  Arabs  in  tlic  molding  of  the  new  faith,  Islani,  and  of 
the  entire  ArabiauS]»anisli  civilization.  In  tlic  l^niope  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  jirocess 
by  which  the  science  of  Greece  icaclicd  the  schools  of  Bologna,  Paris,  and  Oxford  can  be 
made  clear  onlj-  by  taking  account  of  the  part  jjlayed  by  Jewish  translators  and  teachei-s. 
Scholastic  jiliilosojihy  was  also  influenced  by  such  great  nie<lieval  Jewish  thinkers  as  Ibn 
Gabirol  and  Mainionides,  while  the  epoch-making  thought  of  Sjjinoza  can  be  understood 
ouly  by  reference  to  his  Jewish  predecessoi-s.  In  modern  times  the  genius  of  the  Jews 
has  asserted  its  claim  to  intellectual  leadershij)  through  men  like  Mendelssohn,  Heine, 
Lassalle,  and  Disraeli.  The  twofold  si)irit  of  Judaism  is  displayed  even  through  the 
medium  of  the  Yiddish  dialect,  that  modern  representative  of  the  Judu'o-fU-rman  of  the 
^liddle  Ages.  Preserved  in  this  dialect,  Jewish  legends,  customs,  and  superstitions,  all 
of  which  still  retain  the  traces  of  their  connection  with  the  various  lands  wherein  the 
Jews  have  dwelt,  serve  to  elucidate  many  an  obscure  featiu-e  of  general  folk-lore  and 
ethnic  superstition. 

In  the  d(■^•elopment  of  the  Jewish  faith  and  religious  literature  the  same  processes 
of  internal  growth  and  of  modification  through  environment  have  inccss;intly  gone  on. 
The  Bible,  that  perennial  source  of  all  great  religious  movements  in  western  civilization, 
has  been  interjjreted  by  the  Jews  from  their  own  peculiar  point  of  view ;  but  their  tradi- 
tions on  the  whole  represent  the  spirit  of  progress  ratlier  than  tlie  blind  worship  of  the 
letter.  The  Biblical  characters  as  they  lived  in  Jewish  traditions  dilfered  greatly  from 
the  presentation  in  the  Scripture  record.  These  traditions  are  embodied  in  the  Eabbin- 
ical  literature,  with  its  corresponding  Hellenic  counterparts,  those  numerous  Ajjocryjiha 
which  form  the  connecting  links  between  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New,  between  the 
Bible  and  the  Talmud  on  the  one  hand  and  the  patristic  literature  and  the  Koran  on  the 
other.  Drawing  upon  these  traditions,  the  Jews  have  gradually  formulated  their  inter- 
pretation of  the  Law  and  an  elaborate  system  of  religious  belief — in  a  word,  Jewish  the- 
ology. So,  too,  the  Jewish  system  of  ethics  has  numerous  points  of  contact  with  the 
ethical  and  philosopliical  systems  of  all  other  peoples. 

The  Jews  have  beeu  important  factors  in  commerce  through  all  the  ages ;  the  Egypt 
of  the  Ptolemies,  the  Eome  of  the  emperors,  the  Babylonia  of  the  Sassanid  rulei-s,  and 
the  Europe  of  f'harlemagne  felt  and  acknowledged  the  gain  to  commerce  wrought  by 
their  international  connections  and  affiliations.  In  all  the  great  marts  of  European 
commerce  they  were  pioneers  of  trade  until,  with  the  rise  of  the  great  merchant -gilds, 
they  were  in  some  degree  ousted  from  this  si)liei-e  and  confined  to  lower  i)ursuits.  Tt 
becomes  thus  a  matter  of  supreme  interest  to  follow  the  Jews  through  all  their  wander- 
ings, to  observe  how  their  religious,  social,  and  philanthropic  activities  were  variously 
developed  wherever  they  dwelt.  To  give  a  faithful  record  of  all  this  abundant  and 
Strenuous  activity  is  the  proper  purpose  of  a  Jewish  encyclopedia. 

Hitherto  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  such  an  adequate  and  impartial  presentation  have 
been  insuperable.  Deep-rooted  iirejndices  have  prevented  any  sympathetic  interest  in 
Judaism  on  the  part  of  Christian  theologians,  or  in  Christianity  on  the  part  of  the  rabbis. 
These  theological  antipathies  have  noM'  abated,  and  both  sides  are  better  prepared  to 
receive  the  truth.  Tt  is  only  within  the  last  half-century,  too,  that  any  serious  attempts 
have  beeu  made  to  render  accessible  the  original  sources  of  Jewish  history  scattered 
throughout  the  libraries  of  Europe.  As  regards  Jewish  literature,  the  works,  produced 
in  many  ages  and  languages,  exist  in  so  many  instances  in  maTiuscript-sources  not  yet 
investigated,  in  archives  or  in  yenizot,  that  Jewish  scholars  can  liaidly  be  said  to  com- 
mand a  full  knowledge  of  their  own  literature.  The  investigation  of  the  sociological 
conditions  and  the  anthropology  of  the  .Jewish  people  is  even  now  only  in  its  initial  stages. 


PHEFACE 


lu  all  (liiectious,  the  facts  of  Jewish  theoloj^y,  history,  life,  and  literatuie  remain  iu  a 
large  measure  hidden  from  the  world,  even  from  Jews  themselves.  With  the  publication 
of  Tin-;  JEWisir  ENTvcLOPKniv  a  scriuus  att«'iiipt  is  made  for  the  first  time  to  systematize 
and  render  ycnerally  accessible  the  iinowlcdf^e  thus  far  obtained. 

That  this  has  now  become  possible  is  due  to  a  series  of  labors  carried  on  throughout 
the  whole  of  flu;  nincteentli  centniy  and  rejjresenfing  the  cffoi-ts  of  three  generations  of 
Jewish  scliolars,  mainly  in  (Jerniany.  An  attempt  was  made,  indeed,  in  the  sixteenth 
century  by  Azariah  de'  Kossi  toward  a  critical  study  of  Jewish  historj'  and  theology. 
But  his  work  remained  without  influence  until  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  Krodimal,  Kapopoi-t,  and  Zunz  de\(itcd  their  wide  erudition  and  iTitical  ingeniuty 
to  the  investigation  of  the  Jewish  life  and  thought  of  the  past.  Their  efforts  were 
emulated  by  a  number  of  scholars  who  haveducitlated  alnnist  all  sides  of  Jewish  activity. 
The  researches  of  I.  M.  Jost,  II.  (Jraetz,  and  M.  Kayserling,  and  theii-  followers,  have 
laid  a  firm  foundation  for  the  main  outlines  of  Jewish  history,  as  the  labors  of  Z. 
Frankel,  A.  Geiger,  and  J.  Derenbourg  jxived  the  way  for  investigation  into  the 
various  domains  of  Jewish  literature.  The  painstaking  labors  of  that  Xestor  of  Jew- 
ish bibliography,  IMoritz  Steinschneider — still  happily  with  us — have  made  it  possible 
to  ascertain  the  full  range  of  Jewish  literary  activity  as  recorded  both  in  books  and  in 
manuscripts.  Till-;  .Fkwisii  Excvci.opedi.v  now  enters  ui>on  the  field  covered  by  the 
laboi-s  of  these  and  other  scholars,  too  numerous  to  mention,  many  of  whom  have  lent 
their  efforts  toward  its  ]iroductioii  and  have  been  seconded  by  eminent  coworkers  from 
the  ranks  of  Christian  critics. 

With  the  material  now  available  it  is  possible  to  present  a  tolerably  full  accouut  of 
.Tews  and  Judaism.  At  the  same  time  the  world's  interest  in  Jews  is  perhaps  keener 
than  ever  before.  Recent  events,  to  which  more  direct  refei'encc  need  not  be  made,  have 
aroused  the  world's  curiosity  as  to  the  history  and  condition  of  a  people  which  has  been 
able  to  accomplish  so  much  under  such  a<lverse  conditions.  TiiE  Jewish  1']xcvcloi'edia 
aims  to  s;itisf'v  this  curiosity.  Among  the  .lews  themselves  there  is  an  increasing  interest 
in  these  .subjects  in  the  present  critical  period  in  their  development.  Old  bonds  of  tradi- 
tion are  iM'ing  broken,  and  the  attention  of  the  Jewish  jieople  is  neces.^irily  brought  to 
iM-ar  upon  their  distinctive  position  in  the  nn)dern  world,  which  can  be  understood  only 
in  the  light  of  historical  research. 

The  subject  matter  of  this  Excvclopedia  naturally  falls  info  three  main  divisions, 
which  have  been  subdivided  into  depart nu'ut.s,  each  under  the  control  of  an  editor 
<lirectly  responsible  for  the  accuracy  and  thoroughness  of  the  articles  embraced  in  his 
(lepartment.  These  are:  (1)  History,  l>iogi-a]ihy,  .Sociology,  and  Folklore;  (2)  Liter- 
ature, with  its  departments  treating  of  Uihlical,  Hellenistic,  Talmndical,  Rabbinical, 
Jledieval,  and  Xeo-llebi-aic  Literatures,  and  including  .Inri.sprudence,  Philology,  and 
Bibliography;  (.J)  Theology  and  I'hilosopliy. 

I.    HISTORY,    BIOGRAPHY,    AND  SOCIOLOGY. 

From  the  time  of  .losi^phus  anil  llie  author  of  I'iist  Maccabees  down  to  the  nine- 
teenth centniy  .Imlaism  did  not  i)rodiu'e  a  historian  worthy  of  the  name.  What  medie- 
\al  times  brought  forth  in  this  branch  of  litei-ature  were  nn)stly  crude  chronicles,  full  of 
miraculous  stories.  Xor  were  tiie  chronicles  of  the  sevenfeenfli  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies much  better. 

Hut  the  infiiest  dis]ilayed  by  Christian  scholars  of  llu'  s«'venteenth  century  in  Uab- 
binical  literature  had  tlieefVect  of  directing  affenf ion  tothe  history  of  the  Jew.s.  Jact|ues 
Basnage   de    l{eau\al,   a    I'niKli    I'mleslaiil    clergyman    f  1(>.").'!-17'_'.'! ).   has   the    merit    of 


PREFACE 


Iniving  done  pioueer  work  with  his  "Histoire  de  la  Religion  des  Juifs"  (5  vols.,  Rotter- 
dam, 1707-11). 

The  i>i(iiuHT  of  inodorn  .Jewish  history  is  Isiuic  Marcus  Jost  (KO.'^-l.SfiOt.  His"All- 
genieine  (iesriiiclite  des  .ruedischeii  Volke.s,"  and  "NcUfrc  (icscliicliU'  der  Isiaeliten,"  iu 
spite  of  their  shortcomings  due  to  the  lack  of  preparatory  .studies,  were  real  historio- 
graphic  acliicvemiMits,  while  his  "Geschiclite  des  .Indent hums  und  seiner  S«'kton " 
remains  a  standard  W(nk  to  the  present  day.  Next  to  .[osi  is  to  l)e  mentioned  Sclig 
(Paidus)  Civssel  (1821-92),  whose  article  on  Jewish  history  in  the  "AUgemeiue  Eucy- 
clopadie  der  Wissenseliaften  und  Kiinste"  of  Erseh  and  Gruber  (vol.  xxvii.)  may 
juslly  he  called  a  memorable  work.  I5oth  of  these,  however,  were  overshadowed  by 
H.  Graetz  (1817-91),  whose  "Greschichte  der  Juden,"  in  eleven  volumes,  although  iu- 
adcMjuate  in  many  details,  owing  mainly  to  the  absence  of  sufficient  prejiaratory  investi- 
gations, is  .still  the  only  eompreheiisive  and  indispensable  woik  on  tlie  subject.  Since 
the  appearance  of  Graetz's  history,  a  great  deal  of  critical  research  ha.s  been  carried 
on  by  a  number  of  younger  scholars,  the  results  of  which  have  been  published  in  mouo- 
grapiis  and  magazines.  The  labors  of  Isidore  Loeb,  D.  Kaufmann,  and  A.  Harkavy 
in  this  field  deserve  special  mention.  The  Jewish  Excyceopedia,  by  stimulating 
research  in  detail,  xNill  have  paved  the  way  for  the  future  writer  of  a  universal  Jewish 
hi.story  based  on  thoroughgoing  scieutitic  investigation. 

The  historical  matter  iu  this  work  is  presented  according  to  a  .system  which  may  be 
indicated  as  follows:  The  history  of  all  communities  of  any  importance  is  given  in 
detail;  this  information  is  .summarized  in  connection  with  the  various  divisions  of  the 
difl'ereut  countries  containing  Jewish  comnumities;  lastly,  a  general  sketch  with  cross- 
references  to  these  subdivisions  has  been  provided  for  each  country.  In  addition  to  this, 
numerous  general  topics  have  been  dealt  with  in  tlieir  relations  to  the  Jews,  such  as 
the  Papacy,  the  Crusades,  the  Inquisition,  Piotestantism,  etc.  St)-ange  as  it  may  seem, 
there  is  no  country  that  possesses  an  adecjuate  history  of  its  Jews,  though  of  late  years 
considerable  activity  has  been  shown  iu  collecting  material  for  such  histories.  There 
exists  no  comprehensive  history  of  the  .Tews  of  Germany,  Austria,  France,  Holland, 
England,  Italy,  Poland,  or  the  United  States,  or  eveu  of  such  political  divisions  as 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Galicia,  or  of  congregations  of  such  historic  importance  as  those 
of  Amsterdam,  Fraukfort-ou-the-Main,  London,  Prague,  or  Wilna. 

The  entire  field  of  the  history,  sociology,  economies,  and  statistics  of  the  Jews  in 
America  has  hitherto  been  left  almost  uuculti^•ated.  There  has,  for  example,  been  no 
attempt  to  present  a  comprehensive  account  concerning  the  foundation  of 
Jews  in  ^^''  earliest  Jewish  communities,  either  in  North  or  South  America  or  in  the 
America.  West  Indies.  The  developmental  stages  through  which  Judaism  has  passed 
in  America,  although  of  extreme  interest,  not  only  iu  them.selves,  but  as 
])romising  to  react  upon  the  shaping  of  Judai-sm  over  all  the  world,  have  received  but 
little  attention.  In  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia  the  facts  concerning  Jews  and  Juda- 
ism in  the  New  World  are  for  the  first  time  adequately  presented. 

There  is  no  section  of  Jewi-sh  history  that  has  been  more  meagerly  treated  than  that 
pertaining  to  the  Jews  of  Ru.ssia.  Graetz  in  his  work  devotes  very  little  space  to  Russia, 
Poland,  and  Lithuania,  a  defect  remedied  to  some  extent  in  the  Hebrew  translation  of 
his  history,  by  S.  P.  Rabbiuowitz,  with  uotes  by  A.  Harkavy.  In  the  reform  period 
of  Emperor  Alexander  II.  the  government  archives  were  partially  thrown  open,  so 
that  scholars  like  Harkavy,  Orshanski,  Fuenu,  and  Bershadski  were  enabled  to  furnish 
valuable  material  for  the  early  history  of  the  Russian  Jew.s.  Dubnow  has  contributed 
largely  to  the  history  of  the  Hasidim,  the  Frankists,  and  the  old  Jewish  communities. 
In  1000  the  first  volume  of  the  "Regesti  i  Nadpisi "  (documents,  epitaphs,  and  extracts 


PREFACE 


from  old  writers)  was  published  by  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Culture  among  the 
.lews  of  Kussia ;  it  covers  the  jx-riod  fniia  70  to  1()74.  TIk^  0(52  docnmeuts  collected  by 
IJershadski  and  publisiied  by  the  same  society  in  18S2,  under  the  title  of  "Russko- 
Yevreiski  Archiv,"  contain  material  relating  to  the  Jews  in  Lithuania  from  1388  to 
]')i>'.).  Very  little  has  been  written  about  the  ilevelopnient  of  the  Russian  Jews  in  the 
second  half  of  tlie  nineteentli  century,  althougli  many  of  them  have  distin- 

Jews  guished  themselves  in  the  industries  and  professions,  finance,  railroad- 
in  Russia,  biiildinj;,  science,  litei'atui-e,  and  the  line  arts.  Al>out  1, .")<)()  topics  dealing 
with  the  Jews  in  Russia  will  lie  funiul  included  in  TilK  Jewish  Encyclo- 
PKDiA,  the  greater  part  figuring  for  the  fii-st  time  in  an  English  work,  and  the  infor- 
mation being  drawn  in  large  measure  from  the  most  recent  collections  of  Russian 
sources. 

Of  all  liranches  of  the  science  of  Judaism,  biography,  and  especially  modern  biog- 
ia])ii.\,  lias  been  most  neglected.  The  whole  Jewish  biographical  literature  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  general  and  individual,  of  any  .scientitie  value,  would  form  only  a  very 
moderate  collection.  In  the  great  biographical  dictionaries  of  a  general  character,  like 
those  of  Bayle,  ^loreri,  Ladxocat,  Michand,  and  Iloefer,  the  '•  Allgemeine  Deutsche  llio- 
graphie,"  etc.,  Jews  were  almo.st  entirely  omitted.  Only  in  the  last  two  or  three  editions 
of  such  comprehensive  encyclopedias  as  those  of  Meyer  and  of  Brockhaus  has  Jewish 
bidgiajihy  received  some  attention,  but  tlie  natural  limitations  of  these  liooks  do  not 
admit  of  detailed  treatment.  To  a  greater  degree  the  want  has  been  supplied  by '"La 
(irande  Eucyclopiidie "  and  the  "Dictionary  of  National  Biography."  But  were  one 
to  take  all  national,  local,  and  professional  biogra])hical  dictionaries  of  the  world 
together,  one  would  lind  in  them  but  a  very  small  projiortion  of  the  Jewish  biographies 
that  appeal-  in  this  Jewish  Encyclopedia.  There  are  biograjihieal  dictionaries  of 
(lead  and  of  living  divines  and  benefactors  of  the  \aiious  Christian  churches,  but  tliere 
is  not  a  single  .systematically  compiled  collection  of  the  biographies  of  the  thousands  of 
rabbis  and  Hebrew  scholars,  educators,  and  philanthropists  who  have  worked  promi- 
nently in  the  \arious  countries  of  the  world,  and  ha\e  contributed  by  their  deeds  to  the 
spiritnal  and  moral  uplifting,  as  well  as  to  the  material  welfare,  of  the  Jewish  people. 
The  Jewish  Encyclopedia  is  an  endeavor  to  supply  this  deficiency. 

While  the  i)resent  work  has  studiously  sought  to  avoid  exaggerating  the  merits  of  the 
more  ilistinguished  subjects  of  its  biographical  sketches,  it  has  felt  bound,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  give  due  prominence  to  those  less  known  men  and  women  who  have  played  an 
lionoiable  ])art  in  .Tewish  life,  and  whose  names  should  be  recleemed  from  undeserved 
oliliv  ion.  TiieJewisii  K.n<V(L<>I'i;i>ia  will  tlinsotferanalpliabetically  arrangeil  register, 
as  complete  as  possible,  of  all  Jews  and  .lewesses  who,  however  unequal  their  merits, 
have  a  claim  to  recognition.  T'nder  no  eiieumstances,  howe\('r,  have  personal  or  other 
motives  been  ])ei-mitted  to  lower  the  standard  of  inelnsion  ado]ited  foi'  the  l^Ni'Ycl.orEDiA. 

A  word  must  be  s;iid  tonrliiii;;'  two  iVainres  pertaining  particularly  to  tlir  bio- 
gra]ihical  department  of  a  . Jewish  encyclopedia.  It  is  often  ditlicnlt  in  the  ca.se  of 
writers,  artists,  and  others,  to  determine  positixcly  whelliei-  they  belong  to  the  Jewi.sh 
race,  owing  to  the  fact  that  social  conditions  may  ha\c  impelled  t hem  to  conceal  their 
origin.  To  s«'ttle  such  delicate  (piestions  it  has  fre(|iieiitly  been  iieces.siiry  to  consult  all 
manner  of  records,  pid)lie  and  private,  and  e\cn  to  ask  for  int'ormation  from  the  persons 
Ihems4'lves.  While  every  care  has  been  taken  lo  insure  accuracy  in  this  i-egjird,  it  is 
possible  that  in  a  few  instances  pei-sons  haxf  \>ri-\\  included  wholia\c  no  claim  to  a  place 
in  a  .lewisli  encychipedia. 

An  e\cn  moic  delicate  problem  that  jiresented  itself  at  the  very  outset  was  the 
attitude  to  be  obscrxcd   b\  tin-   l'',N<V(  i.i  in;i)i  a  in   re'Mril  to  those  .b>ws  who.  while  born 


I'KEFAC'E 


wiiliiii  the  Jewish  comimmity,  liii\i',  tor  oiii'  leasoii  or  aiiothei-,  aliaiid d  it.     As  tlie 

pics^Mit  work  (loiils  with  tin-  Jews  as  a  rare,  it  was  loiiiid  iiiii)ossiblf  to  exclude  tliose 
wlio  were  of  that  race,  whatever  their  leliyious  alliliatioiis  may  have  lieeii.  It  would  be 
natmal  to  look  in  a  Jewish  encyclopedia  for  such  names  as  Heinrieh  Heine,  Ludwig 
Biirne,  Theodor  IJeiifey,  Lord  Beacoiistield,  Eniiii  Pasha:  to  mention  only  a  few.  Even 
those  who  have  Jewish  blood  only  on  one  side  of  their  parentage — as  .Sir  John  Adolphus, 
Paul  Heyse,  and  Georg  Ebers — have  been  included. 

In  treating  of  those  Jews  whose  activities  have  lain  outside  of  distinctively  Jewish 
spheres,  it  has  been  deemed  sutlicient  to  gi\e  short  sketches  of  their  lives  with  a  simple 
indication  of  what  their  contributions  have  been  to  their  particular  fields  of  labor.  Only 
occasionally,  and  for  reasons  of  weight,  has  a  departure  been  made  from  this  policy.  A 
summary  of  the  contributions  thus  made  to  the  various  scieuces  will  be  found  under  the 
respective  headings. 

II.    LITERATURE. 

How  to  deal  with  the  vavSt  amount  of  literary  material  that  offered  itself  to  the 
pages  of  a  Jewish  encyclopedia  was  a  serious  problem.  M'hile  the  Old  Testament  is  the 
foundation  of  Jewish  literature  iu  all  its  aspects,  as  well  as  of  Jewish  life  and  thought, 
information  on  Biblical  subjects  is  so  readily  accessible  elsewhere  that  it  did  not  seem 
desirable  to  develo])  the  treatment  of  purely  Biblical  topics  in  these  pages  to  the  length 
which  would  be  demanded  in  a  work  whose  scope  was  confined  to  the  Bible  alone.  In 
particular,  it  was  considered  unnecessary  to  compete  with  the  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible," 
l)rei)aredunderthe  direction  of  Dr.  Hastings,  orwith  the  "Encycloptedia  Biblica"  of  Pro- 
fessor Cheyne,  both  published  simultaneously  with  this  Encyclopi-:dia.     ^\'hile  all  sides 

of  Biblical  research  are  represented  in  these  pages,  they  are  treated  concisely 
Bible.        and,  in  many  cases,  with  little  reference  to  disputed  points.     With  regard, 

however,  to  two  special  aspects  of  Biblical  subjects,  it  has  seemed  desirable 
to  treat  the  Scriptures  on  somewhat  novel  principles.  Among  Jews,  as  among  ( 'hristiaus, 
there  exists  a  wide  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  character  of  the  revelation  of  the  Old 
Testament.  There  are  those  who  hold  to  the  literal  inspiration,  while  otheis  reject  this 
view  and  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  circumstances  under  which  the  vaiious  texts  were 
produced  can  be  ascertained  by  what  is  known  as  the  Higher  Criticism.  It  seemed 
appropriate  in  the  more  important  Biblical  articles  to  distinguish  sharply  between  these 
two  points  of  view,  and  to  give  in  separate  paragraphs  the  actual  data  of  the  Maso- 
retic  text  and  the  critical  views  regarding  them.  Again,  there  exists  nowhere  a 
full  and  adequate  account  of  the  various  rabbinical  developments  of  Bible  exegesis — 
which  would  be  of  especial  value  to  the  Christian  theologian  and  Bible  exegete — and 
it  was  evidently  desirable  in  a  Jewish  encyclopedia  to  devote  considerable  attention  to 
this  aspect  of  Bil)lical  knowledge.  The  plan  was  adopted  of  treating  the  more  impor- 
tant Biblical  articles  under  the  three  heads  of  (a)  Biblical  Data,  giving,  without  com- 
ment or  separation  of  "sources,"  the  statements  of  the  text;  (6)  Rabbinical  Literature, 
giving  the  interpretation  placed  upon  Biblical  facts  by  the  Talmud,  :\Iidrash,  and  later 
Jewish  literature;  (c)  Critical  View,  stating  concisely  the  opinions  held  by  the  so-called 
Higher  Criticism  as  to  the  sources  and  validity  of  the  Biblical  statements.  As  kindred  to 
the  rabbinical  treatment  of  Bible  traditions,  it  has  been  thought  well  to  add  occasionally 
(d)  a  statement  of  the  phases  under  which  they  appear  in  the  Koran  and  traditions  of 
Islam  generally. 

It  is  here  proper  to  point  out  that,  inasmuch  as  the  treatment  of  Biblical  passages  is 
mainly  from  the  Jewish  point  of  view,  the  chapter  and  verse  divisions  of  the  Hebrew 


PREFACE  xiU 


text  have,  as  a  rule,  beeu  adhered  to  iu  eitatious,  while  any  discrejiaucies  between  them 
and  those  of  tlio  Autliorized  Version  Iiavf  been  duly  noted. 

In  thus  kccpinj;-  abreast  of  tlic  tinu's  in  iiiblical  luattei-s,  The  Jewish  Encyclo- 
pedia aims  to  acquaint  the  student  with  the  results  of  modern  research  in  many  fields 
that  are  altogether  new  and  bristlinji' with  interest iii<;  diseo\eries.  This  feature  of  the 
woi'k  extends  over  the  lields  of  Assyriology,  Egyptology,  and  archeologieal  investigation 
in  Palestine,  the  inexhaustible  treasures  of  which  are  constantly  casting  unexpected 
light  on  every  branch  of  Iiiblical  history  and  archeology.  The  soil  of  Africa  has  within 
tlie  last  thirty  years  euriclied  our  know  ledge  of  the  life  of  the  Jews  of  Egypt,  and  many 
ai)0cryplial  works  unearthed  there  form  a  valuable  link  in  connecting  the  Old  Testament 
with  the  Xew,  and  the  I5i1)lical  with  the  Eabbinical  literature.  The  nineteenth  century 
witne.s.sed  a  gieat  advance  in  the  investigation  of  Hellenistic  literature.  The  forms  and 
syntactical  constructions  of  the  Hellenistic  dialect  have  been  set  forth  in  dictionaries  and 
grammars,  so  as  greatly  to  facilitate  the  study  of  the  documents.     Yalual)le  critical  and 

exegetical  works  have  shed  light  ujion  such  tojiics  as  the  texts  of  the  Seii- 
Hellenistic  t>'agint,  of  Aquila,  and  of  Theodotion.  Two  new  editions  of  Jo.sephus  have 
Literature,    apix'ared,  and  the  .sources  of  his  history  have  been  investigated.     The  dates 

and  origins  of  the  ai)ocryphal  and  p.seudepigrapiiic  l)ooks  have  been  approxi- 
mately determined.  Around  Philo  of  Alexandria,  a  whole  literature  has  grown  up, 
and  the  tine  nature  of  his  thought  has  been  fairly  well  estalilished.  The  result  has  been 
to  determine  with  some  deliuiteness  the  relation  of  tlie  Hellenistic  literature  to  the  Jewi.sh 
and  Greek  thought  of  the  period,  and  its  position  in  the  general  intellectual  development 
of  the  age  whicli  produced  Christianity.  In  these  investigations  Jewish  scholars  have 
taken  a  distinguished  i)art.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  THE  Jkwi.sii  E.Ncvcloi'EDIA  to  pre- 
sent in  the  most  thorough  manner  the  results  achieved  by  critical  investigation  in  the 
domain  of  Hellenistic  literature.  Of  all  Hellenistic  productions  of  Jewish  interest 
cijtical  aci'ounts  anil  critical  discu.ssions  are  given,  and  the  necessity  of  apprehending  the 
ideas  contained  in  tiiem  as  products  of  their  times,  and  of  tracing  their  origin  and  devel- 
ojiment  and  tiieir  inliuence  on  contemporaiy  and  on  later  life,  has  constantly  l)een  kept 
in  \ie\v.  Tlie  New  Testament,  as  representing  the  rise  of  a  new  religion,  stands  in  a 
sei>arate  categi>ry  of  its  own;  yet  from  one  point  of  view  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  Hel- 
lenistic work — .some  of  its  authors  having  been  Jews  who  wrote  in  fireek  and  more  or 
less  under  the  inliuence  of  Greek  thought — and  tliei-efore  its  literature  properly  tinds  a 
l>lace  in  the  Encyclopedia. 

The  Talmud  is  a  world  of  its  own,  awaiting  the  attention  of  the  nuxlern  reader.  In 
its  encyclopedic  compass  it  comprises  all  the  variety  of  thought  and  opinion,  of  doctrine 

and  science,  accumulated  by  the  Jewish  people  in  the  course  of  more  than 
Talmud.      si'ven  centuries,  and  formulated  for  the  most  part  by  their  teacheix.     Full 

of  the  loftiest  spiritual  truth  and  of  fanta.stic  imagery,  of  clos(^  and  learned 
legal  disi|uisitioii  and  of  extravagant  exege.si.s,  of  earnest  doctrine  and  of  minute  c;isu- 
istry,  of  accurate  knowledge  and  of  popidar  conce]»tions,  it  invites  the  wcn-ldof  to-day  to 
a  closer  ac(|uaintance  with  its  \oluminous  contents.  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia  has 
allotlecl  to  the  subject  of  the  Talmud  an  amount  of  space  commensui-.ite  with  its  impor 
lance.  Kcsides  the  |-al>iiinical  ti'ealnient  of  Biblical  lopi<-s  referred  to,  the  Talmudic 
department  includes  those  two  great  divisions  known  as  the  Halakah  an<l  the  Ilagg-.idali. 
the  one  repi'e.seuting  the  deveIo])nu'nl  of  the  law,  civil,  <'riminal,  ami  ceremonial;  the 
other,  the  growth,  progressi\c  and  reactionary,  of  the  ethical  princij)les  of  the  Torali. 
Tlie  legal  topics  are  treated  from  a  strictly  ol)jective  jioinl  of  \iew,  iri-espective  of  their 
ap|)lication,  or  even  ap])licability,  to  our  own  «lays  and  conditions,  but  with  incidental 
comparisons  with  (ireek  and   Woman  or  with  modern  law.  such  as  may  be  of  interest  to 


PHEFACE 


the  student  of  comparative  jurisprudence  and  of  social  economy.  The  Ha};{l'.»*liiJi,  on  the 
ntlicr  hand,  attaiuiuj;  its  I'ulk'St  development  in  its  treatment  of  the  Biblical  text,  is 
llRMvftire  frequently  included  in  the  sec(.>nd  paraj;rapli  of  the  UiUlicul  articles.  While  in 
other  directions  its  utterances  bear  more  directly  upon  nuittere  of  theolojrj-,  much 
n-niains  both  in  legend  and  in  proverbial  wisdom  which  is  discussed  under  the  appro- 
prial*'  heads. 

The  rabbis  of  Talmudic  times — the  Tanuaim  and  Amoraim — those  innumerable 
transmitters  of  traditiou  and  creators  of  new  laws,  receive  ample  treatment  in  the  pages 
of  the  Excvc'LOPKDiA.  Not  a  few  of  them  mark  epochs  in  the  develoi)ment  and  growth 
of  the  halakic  material,  while  others  are  interesting  from  their  personal  history  or  from 
the  representative  pictures  of  their  times  which  their  lives  and  teachings  afford.  Most 
of  them  being  at  the  same  time  teachers  and  preachers,  their  biographies  would  be  incom- 
plete without  specimens  of  their  homiletic  and  ethical  utterances.  Those  familiar  with 
the  labyrinthine  structure  of  the  Talmudim  and  Midrashim  as  far  as  arrangement  of  sub- 
jects and  chronological  order  are  concerned,  and  with  the  chaotic  state  of  the  text,  par- 
ticularly with  regard  to  proper  names,  need  not  be  told  that  the  dilliculties  in  identifying 
men  and  times  are  sometimes  insurmountable,  and  much  must  be  left  to  conjecture,  in 
spite  of  the  efforts  made  both  in  early  ages  and  in  recent  days.  The  composition  not  only 
of  well-known  haggadic  and  halakic  collections,  but  also  of  the  single  treati.ses  of  the 
Mishnah,  will  be  separately  treated.  The  work  of  Zunz,  Buber,  and  Ejisteiu  in  the 
provinces  of  Haggadah,  and  that  of  Frnnkel,  Briill,  and  Weiss  in  llalakah,  have  ren- 
dered it  possible  to  give  a  history  of  Talmudic  literature. 

What  the  Bible  had  been  for  the  Talmud,  the  Talmud  itself  became  lor  the  later  liab- 
binical  literature,  which,  based  on  the  Talmud,  applied  itself  to  the  further  development 
of  the  flalakah  and  the   Ilaggadah.     Although  this  Rabbinical  literature  extends  over 
a  period  of  1,400  years,  and  represents  the  only  genuinely  Jewish  writings  of  that  period, 
it  is  the  least  understood,  not  to  say  the  most  misunderstood,  depart - 
Rabbinical    "lent  of  Jewish  literature.     The  present  Encyclopedia  affords  for  the  tirst 
Literature,    time  a  survey  of  the  growth  of  the  Halakah  and  the  Haggadah  in  post-Tal- 
mudic  times  (500-1900).     During  that  period,  the  civil  and  religious  laws 
of  the  Jews,  although  based  upon  the  Talmud,  underwent  many  a  change,  while  the 
Hiiggadah  developed  new  motiAcs  and  broadened  its  foundations,  until  it  diti'ered  essen- 
tially in  character  from  the  Haggadah  of  the  Talmudic  times.     Two  new  branches  were 
dcveloi)ed:  the  disjiersiou  of  the  Jews  in  this  period  throughout  the  civilized  world  pro- 
duced the  responsii  literature;  and  the  exclusion  of  the  German-Polish  Jews  from  all 
share  in  general  cultiu-e  produced  casuistry.     A  subject  that  has  received  due  considera- 
tion is  the  period  of  the  Geonim  (500-1000),  which,  though  not  spiritually  productive, 
powerfully  iniluenced  rabbinical  Judaism. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  fill  the  hitherto  existing  gap  in  literary  history 
in  regard  to  the  activity  of  the  Arabic-Spanish  .school  (1000-1.500)  in  the  labyrinth  of 
the  Talmud,  and  equal  consideration  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  French,  German,  and 
Italian  Talmudists  of  the  same  period,  to  whom  is  largely  due  our  knowledge  of  the 
Talmud,  and  through  whose  initiative  the  Jewish  spirit  was  diverted  to  new  lines  of 
activity  and  kept  alive,  when  it  was  denied  every  other  mode  of  asserting  itself.  Ade- 
quate attention  has  been  given  to  the  Rabbinical  literature  of  the  past  four  centuries, 
which  have  been  chiefly  characterized  by  the  casuistic  works  of  the  German  and  Polish 
Talmudi.sts,  and  the  critical  treatment  of  the  Talmud  in  recent  times  finds  full  expres- 
sion in  these  pages. 

Jews  have  written  in  almost  all  languages  that  have  a  literature,  and  the  Ency- 
clopedia has  taken  account  of  this  literary  acti\  ity  in  its  broadest  range.     The  vast 


PREFACE 


majority  of  productions  of  Jewish  interest  are,  however,  written  in  Hebrew  and  the 
allied  ton<rues,  and  greater  attention  has  naturally  been  paid  to  this  section  of  Jewish 
literature.  While  the  Encyclopedia  does  not  attempt  to  give  a  complete  bibliography 
of  this  extensive  subject,  it  is  hoped  that  there  will  be  found  under  the  various  authors' 
names  an  account  of  almost  all  works  of  importance  written  in  Hebrew. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  national  life  of  the  Jews,  nearly  their  whole  energy  was 
directed  toward  the  inner  life  ami  found  expression  in  their  literature.  Their  productive- 
ness iu  this  respect  was  remarkable,  and  is  testified  to  by  the  lai-ge  collec- 
History  of  tious  of  Hebrew  manuscripts  and  books  which  are  to  be  found  in  private  and 
Literature,  jn  public  libraries.  When  printing  was  invented  they  eagerly  seized  upon 
the  new  art,  as  it  ga\e  them  a  further  means  of  spreading  within  their  own 
ranks  a  knowledge  of  their  literature.  The  history  of  Jewish  books  and  Jewish  book- 
making  from  the  technical  point  of  view  is  one  of  great  interest  and  has,  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  hardly  received  systematic  treatment. 

For  the  history  of  their  own  literature  the  Jews  did  little  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  even  when  they  did  work  along  these  lines  the  motive  was  in  most  cases  other  than 
l)urely  literary.  Such  works,  for  example,  as  the  "Seder  Tannaim  we-.\moraini,"  and 
the  well-known  "Letters"  or  "Hesponsii"  by  Slier ira  Gaon  on  the  composition  of  the 
Talmudic  literature,  were  not  written  with  the  purpose  of  giving  a  history  of  literature, 
but  of  proving  the  validity  of  tnulition. 

In  modern  times  Christian  scliolars  were  among  the  first  to  attempt  a  comprehensive 
view  of  the  contents  of  Jewish  literature,  though  important  bio-bibliographical  works 
were  compiled  by  Coiiforte,  Hfilpriu,  and  Azulai.  Ilottiuger  (died  ICG")  gave  this 
literature  a  place  in  his  ••  Bibliothcca  Orientalis,"  and  Otho  (1072)  sought  to  describe  in 
the  form  of  an  encyclopedia  the  work  and  times  of  the  teachers  of  the  Mishiiah.  The 
most  ambitious  work  of  this  kind  was  the  "Biljliotheca  Magna  Rabbinica  "  of  Hartoloc<'i 
(died  l()87j,  together  with  the  additions  of  Imbunati  (1G94),  which  was  followed  up  by 
the  colossal  work  of  Johann  Christian  Wolf  (1683-1739).  That  these  attempts  failed  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  any  such  comprehensive  presentation,  as 
the  preliminary  work  in  detail  was  still  to  be  done.  Order  was  lirsl  wrought  in  this 
chaos  when  the  modern  spirit  of  research  had  engendered  what  is  now  known  as  "  the 
science  of  .Judaism."  Zunz's  great  work,  "  Die  Gottesdienstlichen  Vortriige  "  (1S32),  was 
the  first  attempt  to  give  an  accurate  account  of  tlie  development  of  one  branch  of  this 
literature,  the  homiletic.  He  followed  this  up  with  histories  of  the  religious  poetry  and 
of  the  literary  productions  connected  with  the  Synagogue;  and  in  lS.'5(i,  a  few  yeai-s  after 
Zunz's  lirst  book,  a  Chiistian  scholar,  Franz  Delitzsch,  in  his  "Zur  (ieschichte  der  Jiidi- 
schen  Poesie,"  wrote  a  liistory  of  Jewish  poetry  which,  even  at  this  date,  has  not  been 
superseded.  Steinschueidei-'s  remarkable  attem])t  at  a  comprehensive  history  of  Jewish 
literature,  first  pnlilished  (ISHO)  in  I'asch  and  ( iruber's  "  Allgemcine  iMicvdopadie  der 
W  isseuschaft«Mi  iind  Kiinste,"  and  translated  into  English  (London,  1857)  and  Hebrew 
(  W'arsjiw,  1000),  has  as  yet  found  no  imitator,  though  special  departments  have  received 
careful  treatment  at  various  hands.  Xeubauer's  exhaustive  volumes  on  the  history  of 
Jewisli  literature  in  France  during  the  fourteenth  centuiy  have  at  least  placed  all  the 
material  for  (hat  period  at  our  dispos:d,  and  St<Mnschneider's  "  Hebraische  Uebei-sefzungeu 
d<'s  ."\Iitt<lalters"  has  brought  together  a  mass  of  mat«'rial  on  the  special  activity  of  the 
Jews  in  tr.m.smitting  the  science  of  anticjuity  to  western  Europe.  In  addition  to  the 
above  publications,  atteiiii)ts  have  been  ma<le  at  a  more  comprehensive  poi^ular  pi-es- 
entation  in  the  compendium  (i!  David  Ca.s.s<'l  (187it),  in  Karpele.s'  "Gest-hichte  der 
.liidiselien  Literatur"  (188()),  and  in  Winter  and  Wiinsche's  "Jiidisehe  Lileratur,"  the 
last   of  which  is  rather  a  collection  of  extracts  than  a  history.      Making  use  of  all  this 


I'lJEFACE 


material,  The  Jewish  Excyclopedia  has  endeavored  to  present  a  faithful  picture  of 
what  the  Jews  have  doue.  not  only  for  their  own  special  literature,  but  also  for  the 
{jreat  literatures  of  the  world  in  the  various  countries  in  which  they  have  had  their 
abode.     Due  attention  has  also  been  paid  to  the  varied  activity  of  the  Jewish  press. 

Hebrew  philolofry  possesses  peculiar  interest.     The  hi.story  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
iu  its  origin  and  chanf;es,  sliows  the  relation  of  the  Jews  in  the  most  ancient  times  to  their 
Semitic  neighbors,  while  its  development  follows  certain  lines  of  cleavage 
Hebrew       which  indicate  actual  divisions  among  the  Jewish  people.     Certain  pecu- 
Philology.     liarities  of  grammar  and  vocabulary,  when  traced  historically  to  their 
source,  determine  whether  the  Jews  developed  their  language  solely  on  their 
own  national  lines  or  whether  they  borrowed  from  other  nations,  of  their  own  or  of  dif- 
ferent stock.     These  points  are  brought  out  in  the  Encyclopedia  under  various  general 
heads,     ximong  the  Jews  Hebrew  philology  followed  two  distinct  lines  of  development. 
The  one  was  purely  from  within ;  for  the  desire  to  i)reserve  the  text  of  the  Bible  intact, 
for  future  generations,  gave  rise  to  the  school  of  IMasoretes,  who  laid  the  foundation  upon 
which  future  scholars  built.     The  othei-  starts  from  without  and  is  due  to  the  influence 
of  the  Arabs,  to  whom  the  science  of  philology  Wius  (;us  Steinschneidcr  hius  said)  what 
the  Talmud  was  to  the  Jews.     Under  this  influence  and  commencing  with  Saadia,  a  long 
line  of  grammarians  and  philologists  appears,  extending  not  only  through  Europe  but 
into  Africa  and  even  into  Persia. 

Of  course,  an  encyclopedia  like  the  present  can  not  confine  itself  to  the  philological 
work  done  by  the  Jews  themselves.  The  Encyclopedia  contains  articles  upon  the  chief 
non-Jewish  Hebrew  philologists,  whether  they  were  influenced  by  Jewish  writers  as  were 
Reuchlin  and  his  followers,  or  were  not  .so  influenced,  as  is  the  case  with  most  of  the 
niodeiii  school,  fiesenius,  Ewald,  Stade,  and  otliers.  This  is  all  the  more  nccess;u-y  as 
during  the  nineteenth  century  Jews  themselves  took  but  a  small  part  in  the  philological 
study  of  their  ancient  tongue.  The  reverse,  however,  is  true  of  the  post-Biblical 
Hebrew.  A\Tiile  in  the  Middle  Ages  only  one  dictionary  of  the  Talmudic  language  was 
produced,  the  "  Aruk"  of  Xathan  ben  Jehiel,  in  recent  times  and  upon  the  basis  of  this 
splendid  work,  a  baud  of  Jewish  scholars  have  made  this  subject  peculiarly  their  own. 

A  great  deal  of  attention  is  paid  in  this  work  to  Jewish  bibliography.     From  Barto- 
locci  to  Steiuschneider  and  his  pupils,   there  is  a  vast  amount  of  unclassitted  biblio- 
graphical material.     The  Encyclopedia  furnishes,  for  the  first  time,  the 
Jewish  Bib-  ancient  and  the  modern  literature  of  many  thousand  topics  in  alphabetical 
liography.    order;  and  thus  includes,  besides  complete  dictionaries  of  the  Bible,  of  the 
Talmud,  and  of  the  history  and  literature  of  the  .Jewish  people,   some 
appi-oach  to  a  handbook  of  Hebrew  bibliography  cliissified   as   to   subjects,    at  lesist. 
Containing,  as  it  does,  however,  the  contributions  of  so  many  collaborators,  this  work 
has  done  its  best  to  introduce  some  degree  of  uniformity  in  the  methods  of  citation 
employed  by  the  various  scholars  of  different  countries. 

With  regard  to  proper  names,  it  was  found  impossible  iu  the  present  state  of  Hebrew 
bibliography  to  follow  a  consistent  plan ;  the  reader  will  understand  this  if  he  considers 
the  fact  that  until  the  eighteenth  century  the  Jews  in  many  countries  had  no  family 
names.  The  best-known  forms  of  the  names  have  been  .selected  (to  facilitate  reference), 
but  in  all  cases  the  variant  forms  have  been  indicated.  It  has  not  been  thought  wi.se  to 
follow  exclusively  either  Zedner's  sy.stem,  ii.s  .shown  in  his  masterly  "  Catalogue  of  Hebrew 
Books  in  the  British  Mu-seum, "  nor  that  of  Steiuschneider,  iuthat  mai/nuvi  opusoi  Hebrew 
bibliography,  the  "Bodleian  Catalogue";  instead,  what  seemed  to  be  the  best  features  of 
the  entire  bibliographical  literature  have  l)een  combined. 

Valuable  information  may  be  found  concerning  the  most  importa.nt  Jewish  libraries 


PREFACE 


(past  and  present),  as  well  as  the  Jewish  departments  of  the  public  libraries  of  America 
and  of  Europe.  Sunmiaiy  liistories  of  the  chief  Jewish  presses  are  introduced,  together 
with  technical  ih'tails  of  the  typographic  art  as  api)lied  to  IIel)rew.  ^\jiiong  the  numer- 
ous illustrations  whicli  enrich  this  department  of  the  Encyclopedia  are  facsimiles  of 
fragments  of  the  oldest  and  most  interesting  Hebrew  manuscripts  in  the  world. 

in.     THEOLOGY   AXD   PHILOSOPHY. 

The  broad  subject  of  theology,  including  the  Jewish  religious  philosophy  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  has  never  yet  received  systematic  treatment  at  the  hands  of  Jews.  Thus 
far  very  little  has  been  done  either  in  the  way  of  expounding  from  a  philosoi)hical 
I)oint  of  view  the  various  subjects  pertaining  to  Jewish  belief  and  doctrine,  or  of  present- 
ing them  historically  in  their  successive  phases  as  they  developed  from  their  origins  in 
Scriptiiie  and  tradition,  and  as  they  were  influenced  l)y  other  creeds  and  beliefs.  Only 
a  few  sporadic  attempts  have  been  made  in  our  age  to  bring  the  religious  ideas  and  moral 
teachings  of  Kabbinical  Judaism  into  anything  like  systematic  form.  We  may  in.stance 
Zacharias  Frankel,  Solomon  Mnnk,  Leopold  Loew,  J.  Hamburger,  S.  Schechter,  David 
Ivaufmanu,  M.  Lazarus,  and  S.  Bernfeld  as  having  made  \aluable  contributions  in  this 
direction.  It  was  oidy  the  jiractical  side  of  religion — the  Law  in  all  its  ramifications,  the 
rites  and  observances — which  was  systematically  codified  and  sunnnarized  by  the  medieval 
authorities.  The  doctrinal  side  of  Judaism,  with  its  theological  and  ethical  problems, 
was  never  treated  with  that  clearness  and  thoroughness  or  with  that  many-sidedness  and 
object i\ity  which  historical  research  in  our  modern  .sense  of  the  word  demand.s.  Even 
the  great  philosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages  who  molded  Jewish  thought  for  centuries 
approached  their  themes  only  with  the  view  of  proving  or  sn]iporting  their  own  .specific 
doctrines,  and  omitted  all  (piestions  that  did  not  come  within  the  s('oi)e  of  their  argument. 
Consecpiently,  many  topics  had  to  be  formulated  for  treatment  in  Thk  Jewish  Excyclo- 
PEDl.v,  and  many  of  them  were  suggested  by  the  theological  works  of  non-Jewi.sh  writei'S. 
Desiring  to  i)re.sent  both  the  doctrines  and  the  jiractises  of  Judaism  in  that  scientific 
spirit  which  seeks  nothing  but  the  truth,  and  this  in  the  light  of  historical  develop- 
ment. The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  in  its  theological  deiiartment,  takes  full  cognizance 
of  the  pre-Talmudic  .sources,  the  Ilelleni.stic  and  New  Testament  literature,  and,  in 
addition  to  the  copious  Rabbinical  literature,  treats  of  the  successive  stages  of  Jewish 
l)hilosophy  and  Cabala.  The  various  sects  (including  the  Samaritans  and  Karaites), 
lalionalism  and  my.sticism,  conservative  and  jjrogressive  Judaism,  are  di.scnssed  fully  and 
imi)artially.  The  mutual  relations  of  Jewish  and  non -Jewish  creeds  and  philo.sopliical 
systems  and  the  attitude  of  .Tudaism  to  the  social  and  etliical  i)i-o1)le!ns  of  the  day  receive 
due  consideration. 

Among  the  .services  which  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia  has  undertaken  to  render 
to  the  general  reader  is  tliat  of  enlightening  him  with  regard  to  characteristic  terms  (famil- 
iar enough  perhaps  to  the  Jew)  pertaining  to  .lewish  folk  lore  and  to  ancient  and  mod- 
ern customs  and  superstitions,  and  (what  will  Im?  a  distinctive  feature)  of  acquainting 
him  with  the  important  jiarts  of  the  Jewish  liturgy,  its  genend  hi.story  and 
Anthro-       it«  music.     It  is  ho])ed  that  nothing  of  inteiv.st  concerning  the  char.icter 
polony.       jind  life  of  the  Jew  has  In-en  omitted. 

'["here  remains  a  cla.ss  of  topics  relating  to  tiie  Jews,  such  as  their  claims 
to  purity  of  race,  their  special  aptitudes,  their  lial)ilily  to  disi-iuse,  etc.,  which  niay  l>e 
incluih'd  under  the  general  term  of  anthropology.  Very  little  research  has  hitherto  been 
lievoled  to  tliis  .subject,  and  it  is  in  this  Encvci.opkdi.v  that,  for  the  fii-st  lime,  the 
attemjit    is  made   to  sy.stematize  the  existing  infoiination  rt'garding  the  aiithro])ometry 


llai  ivirb  ^u  b«n  fcl)upprnlor«n'S'W»n  9fvif)tt.  t«"n  ®»n«^  nod)  (JcB.  II,  10.) 
unt>  (,i>«iit.  It,  10.)  bm  Sfratlitfn  untjrfagt  if}.  Bed)  l)at(e  bc:.-it«  9\.  ?(Mi« 
on  cinfffl  b«m  Xil«  a?nlid)cn  gifclx,  d''S»'i  ^aS  Sonmiilidit  flofialtcn,  biinne 
(Sdiuppen  tcmttfe  (.^{bcba  f.iM  09 a),  ivtIdjeS  bi«  n«iur«  DJ.itiirfotfdiuna  nud) 
binfid)llid)  bc8  gimeincn  3(aI3  (imiraoiia  au|;«illa)  beft.Uigt.  OJad)  rabbinic 
fd)tn  GHUiibf.H*'"  iff  utrigcna  bet  (^Jonuf  cintS  gifd)c«  9«(lalttt,  refnn  bcffeit 
<Sd)uppm  iiiid)  fo  unmecflid)  finb,  bap  fie  ni.l;t  mie  blojitn  iivg^tn,  fenbcrn  ctfl 
bann  cnttccft  ivetbcn,  wtm  man  ben  gifdi  in  fin  ZuA)  obct  in  fin  roit  'Bajjet 
onflffiillicS  Wcfiif!  9f(«9t  l)af.  3o«  bca  t<3,  3.  SBgl.  gifd)f. 
SCttroit  f.  ^(f)ton. 

•Jla^,  grfaldntS  9}icb/  ~.^^.',  btfffn  fficuuf!  unUtragf  ba«  mofaiMje  G5ff  fj 
(D«ut.  1-1,  31-)  ten  Csfta.'Iitfn,  ttlaubt  jtbod),  tS  ,,him  in  belnin  Z-tjonn  f(m 
nufi)a;t{nbeii  grembm"  su  fditnfjn  ob«r  „btm  ?(ii«(anbft''  ju  m-rtaiiftn,  gtflatttt 
fonad)  bie  OJu idling  tiS  mc9.  —  9?adi  bcc  oom  3iib»ntf)um  oufgtnommine 
^iuffviffimg  etftrtctt  fidi  itncS  SJ.-tbct  nid)t  auf  UMtflid)  gtfallcnfS,  fortnn  gild) 
nuf  a\iti  ind)t  prrmeijs  bf«  i'or9«fd)ri«bcncn  ^a.Ufd)ni!tc3  gtfcbladjtefc*  SUitf)  ob«c 
G^flliigel  Cfflifdjnn  CSfiulin  2,  4.  93gl.  ed)Iad)tun9),  wogcgen  tigentlid)  flin- 
f«nbt8  Hai  (rn--.D),  a(g  o{)n«I)in  ungcniepbat  nidjt  iint«  bem  gefi(j!i<l!cn  9?«tbot 
begriffm  ivitb,  ivcil  bletbei  bie  in  bet  beil.  (Sd)ri!'t  gegebene  SSefiigni^,  c9  einem 
grtmbtn  rd)cnfen  511  fonncn,  nid)t  aiumvenbtn  ift  (2(bo^a  fara  (i7lt.).  —  (S.vit. 
I  .  2'i,  S.  unb  ©jedi.  44,  31.)  rcirb   bet  ©enup   gefalienen  unb   ;ntlf|.nen  S3ief)«8 

I    ■  mit  bcn^tiejttrn  inabefonbete  (raitbin  nid)t  all.-n  2frae(iten)  wtbottn  ^jgt.  and) 

e^cd).  4,  M.)i  adcin  etflere  <£t«((e  ivitb  u.  X  babin  cttlatt,  bnp  boit  niel)t  ba3 
ajcrunrcinigenfce  fold)cn  ®:nii(|e8,  befonber^  fiit  bie  ^Pticfiet,  iv((d>'  q^opert  Ur-- 
fadie  baben,  fid)  rein  511  ^aUtn,  t)ttvorQtf)obtn  i(l;  ivit  aud)  bie  SUcttt  „iim 
nid;t  babuvd)  unrein  ^u  tvetbcn"  aubcuten;  (Siedjiel  abet  fd),uft  ba«  <!?etbct  i'or= 
nc{)mlid)  barum  ben  ^tieftctn  ein,  bamit  Cf(;tere,  gemobnt  ben  ©efliigetcpfern 
btn  itcpf  abjufnfipen  (reie  Seoit.  1,  15,  »org»fd)rieben  l|l)  nid)t  etira  In  ben 
3tttl)um  getatf)en,  it)nen  al«  ^deftetn  fie  ati«naf)m«roeife  ben  Gicnuj;  ungefd)(ad)= 
tcten  93iei)cS  geilattet  (OTenad).  45a).  —  2(ud)  Betunrcinlgie  tat  93etiibren 
unD  3;raflfn  be«  3(afe«,  tvotiiber  vgl.  !)vcinf)eit.  Or.  B.  Beer. 

5lbbtC0tatuVC»  im  Jptbraifdicn  tefteJ)en  vorjiiglicb  in  3(nfan9«bnd)(l<i5 
ben  (r.O'D  'E'n-i,  3iafd)e  *Iebotb;,  on*  SJaumofonomie,  gard)t  ii.  0.  Uifad}en. 
2(1  tec  It.  dntftebung  bet  31.  fo  njie  bet  Mermen  bafiic  ifl  ncd)  febt  unfidiet'), 
5n  bet  Sibel  bat  man  21.  bi«b«  "'<')'  nad)geirlefon.  Die  biblifd)e  9?am«n6eu(ung 
bat  fr(!lid)  ben  Cbnroftt'c  einci  fo  ju  (agen  mrinb[id)en  '.'(.  j.  iS.  q--i;n  =  2n 
\i  I'Dn'')  (®»n.  17,  4.).     ©patere  Salmubiften   fucb^'n  nad)  ibtet  5!3cife  ben  Qt'^t. 

>  braud)  ber  3f.  in  bee  SSibcl  nadijinveifen  (Sabb.  i05a.)  u.  bewcifen  bamit  tuit 

bie  Unl:efanmfd}aft  mit  bem  altetn  Utfpning  u.  bie  5pcrrfd),ift  betftlb.-n  ju  ibret 
3eit.     2(13  fpiclenbct  tnibtafd)ifd)et  QSifc  ift  St'n  =  (Sfra'O  abnlid^e  I^eutiing  von 


■•)  ©djoii  bic  Bticc^cnfanntenK.  Cjjjuf/OJ'iO'P)  btc  eJcfcbivinbfdrcibcv  (ctjudnyQixqot). 

Jinnirt  i235  ».)  bitbcte  biefe  Jfunfl  aiis  unb  Sito  ecvocUflinbi.jte  (ic     5JJacb  il;m  tiannte 
j*  man  bie  7(.   (uotac)  fpAtct-  notac  lironianae  (wctjcv  nad)  Ginigcn  lipn::u)  imb 

•T  .al|iLabc((iiu  tiiuiiianiim  (no  f]'?N).    3>ic  Jviinfl  bic6  ais  nolaria,  I'on  ben  SS^rcjs 

bctii  nolarii  (in'OO  j.  Sota  7,  5.  Sota  35b.    N^-iBU  Scbcni.  SH-  c.  3J.  unb  babec 
;._  bie  ti.  (sigfimni)  notariciini,   in  bet  SOJifdjna  gticifirt  „notaricoii''   (jipnoiJ)/ 

^-  n)dl;venb  bie  ©cmaca  baS  td)t  gritcbifdjc  lO"!:!  b^t. 

*;  ilSicUeicbt  irac  bcc  uii'ptiinglid^c  JCuSfprud)  92.  3ofc  6.  ©imra'S  (©abb.  I05a.) 

)o  JU  'Bafl(t;cn  unb  bie  Ecutung  boh  ]icn  ~N  nacb  3nitialcn  erft  (Sigcntbum  bcS  JHefe^ 
^  rentcn  tR.  3od)anan.    2tb«ba  bi  SKobena  (Ccb  lia.-Mil«l)  II,  c.  1.  bcjeic(;net  bit  1>'M. 

S)iamengcbnng  ali  mncmot(d)nif(b> 


M 


Sample  Page  uy  the  Stkinschneider  and  Cassel  Encyclopedia. 


PREFACE 


and  vital  statistics  of  the  Jews,  and  to  present  a  view  of  their  social  and  economic 
condition. 

It  has  been  one  of  the  special  aims  of  the  Enx'Yclopedia  to  Ijiiny;  together  as  full  a 
body  of  illustrative  material  as  possible.  3Iany  topics  of  a  historical  or  archeological 
character  lend  themselves  to  illustratiou  through  thi;  reproduction  of  the  remains  of 

antiquity  or  of  ecclesia.stical  art.  Object.s  connected  with  the  Jewish  syna- 
Illustrations.  gogue  .service  and  Jewish  modes  of  woi-ship  will  be  found  fully  illustrated. 

Prominent  .Jewish  personages  are  portrayed,  the  chief  monuments  of  .Jewish 
architecture  are  represented  by  pictures  of  such  synagogues  a.s  are  remarkable  archi- 
tecturally or  historically,  and  the  department  of  literature  is  enriched  with  illustrations 
of  the  externals  of  book-lore.  This  feature  of  the  work,  which  was  placed  in  charge 
of  Mr.  Joseph  .J.vcob.s,  will,  it  is  believed,  prove  of  great  educational  value  in  every 
Jewi.sh  household. 

In  determining  the  plan  and  proportions  of  the  present  undertaking,  the  Editorial 
Board  has  labored  under  the  special  ditliculties  that  attach  to  pioneer  work.  No  .success- 
ful attempt  has  heretofore  been  made  to  gather  under  oue  alphabetical  arrangement  all  the 

innumerable  topics  of  interest  to  Jews  as  Jews.     Ai)art  from  the  Bil)le,  the 

Former       only  department  which  ha.s  as  yet  been  put  in  encyclopedic  form  is  that  of 

Attempts.     Kabbinic  Literature,  for  which  there  exist  encyclopedias,  oue — the  pnx'  nns 

fPaliad  Yizliak) — (•(imjjilcd  l)y  Isaac  Lampronti  in  the  se\enteenth  century 
ill  Hel)rew,  and  one  prci)ared  in  modern  times  by  J.  Hamburger,  the  "Eealencyklopiidie 
fiir  Bibel  und  Talmud,"  in  German.  Each  of  these  productions  labors  under  the  disad- 
vantage of  being  the  work  of  mu-  num.  Of  the  more  cominciiensive  encyclojjcdia  i)lan!ied 
by  Rapoport,  P^O  pv  ('Erek  Milliu),  only  the  first  letter  appeared  in  18.j2.  The  plan  of 
a  publication  somewhat  ou  the  same  lines  a.s  the  present  was  drawn  up  by  Steinschueider 
ill  conjunction  witli  Cassel  as  far  back  as  1.S44,  in  the  ''Litei-atuiblatt  des  Orients."  l)ut 
the  project  did  not  proceed  Ix-yond  the  prospectus  (a  specimen  i)age  from  which  is  shown 
Oil  the  oppo.site  page)  and  a  preliminary  list  of  subjects.  Dr.  L.  Philippson  in  1869 
and  Professor  Graetz  in  1SS7  also  threw  out  .suggestions  for  a  Jewish  encyclopedia,  but 
nothing  came  of  them. 

The  present  undertaking  is  the  realization  of  an  ideal  to  which  Du.  Lsidore  Sixgee 
has  devoted  his  energies  for  the  last  ten  years.  Alter scNcial  years si)ent  in  enlisting  the 
interest  of  European  scholars  in  the  enterprise,  he  found  that  it  was  only  in  America 
that  he  could  obtain  both  that  material  aid  and  practical  .scholarly  cooperation  nece.s.s;xry 

to  cany  out  the  schein«>  on  the  large  scale  which  he  had  i)lanned.     Thanks 

The  Present   '•'  '•"'  enterprise  and  liberality  of   the   FrxK    &    Wa(;nai.i.s  Company, 

Work.       whicli  generously  seconded  the    energetic  initiative  of  Dr.  Sixger,  the 

coopeiatioii  of  the  undeisigiifd  .siaff  of  editors,  together  with  tliat  of  the 
consulting  boards,  both  .\niericaii  and  foreign,  was  rendered  possible.  The  i>ieliminary 
work  wius  done  in  the  winter  of  1808-99,  by  Dr.  Singer,  Professor  Gottheil,  and 
Dr.  Koiii.ek.  These  were  soon  joineil  by  Dh.  rvurs  Ai)I,i;k.  of  Washingttui,  D.  ('.  ; 
Dr.  G.  Dkitsch,  of  Cincinnati;  1)K.  Makcis  JastkoW  and  Puof.  .Mokkis  Jastkow, 
.In.,  of  riiiladelphia;  and  Prof.  George  F.  Moore,  of  Andover.  Organization  of  the 
work  was  ffTectcd  by  tliesf  gentlemen  at  nuM-tings  held  in  New  York,  Mairh  1  anil  U, 
and  .July  I'-',  ls<l<»,  Du.  I.  K.  Fink,  of  the  I'ink  \-  Wacxalls  Company,  presiding, 
and  the  plan  ofojieration  submitted  by  the  linn  was  ailoph'd  li\  them.  To  these  wjis 
added  later  Mk.  .Joseph  .Iacoh.s,  of  l.onilon.  as  well  as  im.  l.oiis  (iiNZUEKii  and  Di?. 
I".  DE  Sot, A  Mendes,  iiotii  of  New  Yolk  city.  I'lJOKl-ssoij  Moore,  having  assumed 
additional  duties  as  ])iesideiit  of  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  found  him.self 
obliged  to  withdraw,  and  I'ljoi'.  C.  II.  TuV  was  elected  in  his]ilace  in  .January.  1900. 


PREFACE 


The  carrying  out  of  the  project  on  so  large  a  scale  presented  jiecnliar  ditticulties. 
To  reduce  the  work  of  nearly  400  contributors,  writing  in  various  tongues,  to  aiiytiiing 
like  uniformity  was  itself  a  task  of  great  magnitude,  and  necessitated  the  establish- 
ment of  a  complete  bureau  of  translation  and  revision.  The  selection  of  the  topics 
suitable  for  insertion  in  such  an  encyclopedia  involved  labor  extending  over  twelve 
months,  and  resulted  in  a  trial  index  of  over  25,000  captions.  The  determination  of 
the  appropriate  space  to  which  each  of  these  subjects  was  entitled  was  no  easy  task 
in  the  absence  of  any  previous  attem])t  in  the  same  direction.  The  ])robl('ni  of  the  trans- 
literation of  Hebrew  and  Arabic  words  has  been  very  perplexing  for  the  members  of  the 
Editorial  Board.  While  they  would  have  preferred  to  adhere  stiictly  to  the  somewhat 
elahorate  method  current  among  most  Semitic  scholars,  the  reiiellent  etfect  of  strange 
characters,  accentual  marks,  and  superscript  letters  deterred  them  from  using  it  in  a  work 
intended  as  much  for  the  general  public  as  for  scholarly  use.  There  were 
Translit-  also  typographic  difVicnlties  in  the  way  of  using  the  more  elaborate  scheme, 
eration.  'phe  board  trusts  that  the  system  pursued  here,  which  is,  in  the  main,  that 
proposed  by  the  Geneva  Congress  of  Orientalists,  and  adopted  by  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  of  England,  the  Societe  Asiatifpie  of  Paris,  and  the  American  Oriental 
Society,  will  sullice  to  recall  to  the  Jewish  scholar  the  original  Hebrew,  while  indicating 
to  the  layman  as  clo.se  an  approximation  to  the  proper  pronunciation  as  possible.  Even 
here,  however,  having  to  deal  with  contiituitions  emanating  from  scholars  using  different 
schemes  of  transliteration,  they  can  not  hope  to  have  succeeded  altogether  in  avoiding 
lack  of  uniformity.  It  may  perhaps  be  well  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  names  occurring 
in  the  IJible  have  been  throughout  kept  iu  the  form  familiar  from  the  King  James  Version 
of  Kill. 

WTiile  acknowledging  the  possibility — nay,  the  certainty — of  errors  and  omissions 
in  a  work  so  comprehensive  and  so  full  of  minnte  details  as  the  present  work  is,  the  edi- 
tors consider  themselves  justified  in  asserting  that  no  pains  have  Ix'cn  spared  to  secure 
accuracy  and  thoroughness.  Each  article  has  been  subjected  to  a  most  elaborate  system 
of  revision  and  verification,  extending  in  each  case  to  no  less  than  twelve  different  proc- 
esses. Pbof.  Wilhelm  Backer,  of  the  Budapest  Seminary;  Eev.  Dr.  F.  de  Sola 
Mendes,  Mk.  Louis  Heilprin,  and  other  scholars,  iu  addition  to  the  departmental 
editors,  have  read  through  all  the  proof-sheets  \\ith  this  special  end  in  view. 

It  remains  only  to  give  due  acknowledgment  to  the  many  institutions  and  friends, 
other  than  contributors,  who  have  rendered  services  to  the  Encyclopedia.     The  Hon. 
Mayer  Sulzberger,    of  Philadelphia,  has  loaned  many  valual)le   and 
Acknowl-     I'are   works    for    the   i^urposes  of  verification  and  illustration.     Much  is 
edgmenta.     ^\y^Q  to  the  Kew  York  PUBLIC  LIBRARY,   particularly  to  its  director, 
Dr.   J.    S.   Billings,    to  Mr.    Charles    Bjerregaard,    chief  of   the 
Reatlers'  department,  and  to  Mr.  A.  S.  Freidus,  chief  of  the  Jewish  department,  for 
special  privileges  accorded  and  assistance  rendered ;  to  the  United  States  National 
Museum,  Smithsonian  Institution,  which  has  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Encyclo- 
pedia photographs  of  many  objects  of  Jewish  worship  preserved  in  the  department  of 
Oriental  Antiquities ;  to  the  Columbia  University  Library  ;  to  the  American  Jewish 
press  for  repeated  notices;  and  to  the  proprietors  of  the  "Jewish  Chronicle"  (Lon- 
don), for  having  placed  the  files  of  their  journal  at  the  disposal  of  the  Encyclopedia. 
M.  ViGOUROUx's  " Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible,"  now  in  process  of  publication,  has  been 
of  especial  value  in  suggesting  the  latest  sources  of  Biblical   illustration.      Pictorial 
material  has  been  loaned  by,  among  others,  Mr.  J.  D.  Eisenstein,  Mr.  Frank  Haes, 
Mr.  Arnold  Brunner,  Prof.  R.  Gottheil,  and  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund, 
for  which  the  editors  and  publishers  beg  to  return  their  acknowledgments. 


PREFACE 


The  Editorial  Board  desires  especially  to  thank  the  Rev.  Dk.  I.  K.  Funk  for  the 
unfailing  tact  and  niatclilcss  j^cnerosity  with  which  he  has  met  all  tlicir  wishes  and 
smoothed  away  many  ililliculties.  Pioneer  work  as  this  liii.s  been,  the  need  of  encourage- 
ment to  perseverance  under  adverse  conditions  was  repeatedly  felt  t)y  all  concerned,  and 
this  encouragement  has  been  continuously  extended  to  us  by  our  respected  chief.  Our 
thanks  for  courteous  consideration  are  also  eminently  due  to  Mk.  A.  W.  Wagxalls, 
vice-president  of  the  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Company  ;  to  Mk.  E.  J.  Cuddihy,  its  treasurer 
and  general  manager,  for  his  organizing  skill;  to  I\Ik.  EuM'AKD  J.  "Wiikkler,  literary 
editor  of  the  <"(>mpany  and  member  of  the  American  Board  of  Consulting  Editors  of  this 
work;  and  to  Me.  WILLIAM  Neisel,  chief  of  the  manufacturing  department,  and  his 
assistant,  31r.  Arcfiibai.d  Rkid.  JfR.  nER:\rAX  Rosenthal,  to  whom  the  important 
section  of  tlie  history  and  lit«Mature  of  the  Jews  in  Russia  has  l)een  entrusted,  has  faith- 
fully discharged  his  difficult  task. 

We  are  indebted  for  much  valuable  cooperation  and  watchful  care  to  the  restless 
energy  of  Frank  H.  Vizetelly,  the  Secretary  of  the  Editorial  Board,  to  whom  was 
entrusted  the  general  office  supervision  of  this  work  in  all  its  stages,  and  whose  execu- 
tive ability,  practical  knowledge,  and  experience  have  been  most  useful.  Mr.  Isaac 
Broydk,  by  Ills  thorough  knowledge  of  Aiabic,  has  been  of  the  greatest  service  to  the 
work;  while  3lR.  Albert  Porter,  formerly  of  "The  Forum,"  as  chief  of  the  sub- 
editorial  staff  of  the  Encyclopedia,  has  rendered  intelligent  and  attentive  service  in 
the  preparatitin  of  the  copy  for  the  pres.s.  Mr.  Moses  Beer,  who  has  been  connected 
with  the  work  almost  from  the  beginning,  has  been  of  great  iissistance  to  the  office-statf 
in  various  dejiartments,  and  especially  in  verifying  the  Hebrew.  Hearty  thanks  are 
due  also  to  all  the  members  of  the  office-stall' — translators,  revisers,  proof-readere,  and 
others — for  their  faithful,  painstaking  service  in  their  respective  departments. 

The  editors  have  felt  a  special  .sense  of  responsibility  with  regard  to  this  work,  in 
which  for  the  tii-st  time  the  claims  to  recognition  of  a  whole  race  and  its  ancient  religion 
are  put  forth  in  a  form  approaching  completeness.  They  have  had  to  consider  sus- 
ceptibilities among  Jews  and  uthci-s,  and  have  been  esjiecially  solicitous  that  noth- 
ing should  be  set  down  which  could  hurt  the  feelings  of  the  most  sensitive.  They 
(•(insider  it  especially  appropriate  that  a  work  of  this  kind  should  appear  in  America, 
where  each  man's  creed  is  judged  by  his  deeds,  without  reference  to  any  preconceived 
opinion.  It  stH'med  to  them  pcculiai-ly  appropriate  under  these  circumstances  that  TilE 
Jewish  Excyclopedia  should  ajipear  under  the  auspices  of  a  publishing  house  none  of 
whos<_'  members  is  connected  with  the  liistory  or  tenets  of  the  people  it  is  designed  to 
portray.  Placing  before  the  reading  ])ublic  of  the  world  the  history  of  the  Jew  in  its 
fullest  scope,  with  an  exhaust iveness  which  ha.s  never  been  attempted  lH?fore — without 
concealing  facts  or  resorting  to  apology — The  Jewish  Encyclopedia  hopes  to  con- 
tril)ute  no  unimportant  share  to  a  just  estimate  of  the  Jew. 

Cyrus  Adler,  Marcus  Jastrow, 

Gotthard  Dei'tscii,        .MdRRis  Jastrow,  Jr., 
Louis  (Jinzherc;,  Kaufmann  Kohler, 

Richard  Gottheil,        Frederick  de  Sola  Mendes, 
Joseph  Jacohs,  Crawkord  H.  Toy, 

Isidore  Sinoer. 


New  York,  May  1,  1901. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


I.  History,  Biography,  and  Sociology. 

1.  History  of  the  Jews,  as  based  on  the  Biblical  accounts  and  on  the  Discoveries  in  Assyria,  Baby- 
lonia, Ejrvpt,  Palestine,  and  Persia;  later  phases  according  to  the  narratives  of  Greek  and  Roman  authors; 
the  Taltiiudic  sources;  modern  local  researches;  Documents  found  in  archives,  etc. 

2.  General  Historical  Movements  inlluencing  Jewish  historv:  such  as  the  Crusades,  the  Black 
Death,  I'lTsccutions,  Expiilsiciiis,  Hlciud  Accusation,  Inquisition,  Discovery  of  America,  Reformation,  the 
EmancipatiiiM.  aiiti-Si'Miitic  and  Zimiistic  niovenicnts. 

3.  Jewish  Settlements  and  Congregations  in  the  Old  World  and  the  New. 

4.  Jewish  Societies,  Religious,  Literary,  Philanthropic,  etc.,  which  have  become  an  important 
feature  in  [be  life  of  the  modern  .Jew:  Fraternities  and  Sisterhoods,  Alliance  Israelite  Universelle,  Anglo- 
Jewish  A.ssiiciation,  Central  Conference  of  American  Rabbis,  Deutsch-Israelitischcr  Gemeindebund,  etc. 

6.  Documents  having  special  significance  with  regard  to  the  Jews  and  their  history;  such  as  decrees, 
edicts,  bulls,  etc. 

6.  Civilization  (Culturgetchiehte)  of  the  Jews,  including  Customs,  Education.  Art.  The  part  taken 
by  the  Jews  in  the  development  and  advancement  of  civilization,  in  ancient,  medieval,  and  modem  times; 
in  the  arts  and  sciinces;  in  slatesmanshi])  and  politics,  jurispnidence.  sociology,  and  economics. 

7.  Historical  Geography  and  Archeology  of  Palestine  and  other  countries  intimately  connected 
with  Jewisli  liisiiiry. 

8.  Biography  of  Biblical  Characters  and  Post-Biblical  Personages:  Medieval  and  modem 
men  of  einin<-nce;  scholars;  teachers;  theologians;  men  of  letters;  artists;  statesmen;  soldiers;  inventors; 
philanthropists;  foumlers  of  important  branches  of  commerce  and  industry. 

9.  Distinguished  Jewish  Families  :  Their  history  and  genealogy. 

10.  Accounts  of  Prominent  Non- Jews :     Kings,  Popes,  Statesmen,   Men   of  Letters  who  have 
exercised  inlhience  upon  Jewish  history. 

11.  Anthropology,  Hiostatics,  Measurements;  Morbidity  of  Jews  with  special  reference  to  their  lia- 
bility to,  or  iiiiiuuniiy  from,  particular  diseases;  question  of  purity  of  race. 

12.  Sociology:    Statistics  of  Jewish  co?nmunities;  occupations  of  Jews;   number  of  Artisans  and 
Agriculturists;  social  condition  and  Criminology. 

13.  Folk-lore;  Superstitions;  Customs;  Folk-Medicine;  Legends  and  Fables. 

II.  Literature. 

1.  The  Old  Testament:  History  of  the  Canon;  Masorah;  history  of  Bible  exegesis  among  Jews  and 
Christians  from  Talupidieal  times;  translations  of  the  Bible;  Bible  concordances  and  dictionaries;  Biblical 
chronolou'v. 

2.  Hellenistic  Literature:  .Vpoervpha,  Apocalyptic  and  Pseudepigraphic  Literature;  Xew  Testa- 
ment in  so  far  as  it  concerns  .ludaism. 

3.  Talmud  and  Midrash :  Critical  analysis  of  each  treatise;  Talmudical  jurisprudence  compared 
with  (inck  and  Roman  co<les  and  modern  law. 

4.  Rabbinical  Literature:  Connnentaries  and  supcrcommcntaries  of  Talmud  and  Midrash;  codes 
of  Ijiw  ;  Respnnsa,  Casuistics. 

6.  Literature  of  the  Hiddle  Ages  and  Modern  Times:  BellesLettres;  secular  poetry  of  the 
medieval  and  innrlern  aires;  nlalioii  of  Neo  Heliniic  literature  to  the  literature  of  the  world. 

6.  Historical  and  Geographical  Literature:  Travels,  etc. 

7.  Translations  by  ,lews  in  the  .Middle  Ages  and  in  recent  times. 

8.  Dialect-Literature  :    La<lino,  Juda'oGermau.  and  Yiddish. 

9.  Periodical  Literature;  annuals;  (luarterlies;  monthly,  weekly,  and  daily  papers;  almanacs. 

10.  Hebrew  Philology;  history  and  principles  of  Hebrew  Grammar  and  Ix'xicogniphy;  prosody. 

11.  Hebrew  Bibliography;    Paleography;  Typography;  Catalogues;  History  of  Jewish  libraries: 
llistorv  of  llelirew  book  trade 


xsiv  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 

12.  History  of  Jewish  Learning  and  Education;  the  Academics;  elementary  Schools  [Jjiedarim); 

History  of  tlic  Yesliibalis  ami  mndcru  Hiibl)iiiicnl  scmiunrics. 

III.  Theology  and  Philosophy. 

1.  Doctrines  of  Judaism  in  their  development  from  Biblieal  times.  Angelology;  Demonology; 
Eschatology;  Creeds;  Attributes  of  Deity;  Free  Will  and  Providence;  Problem  of  Evil;  Sin  and  Atone- 
ment, etc. 

2.  Relation  of  Judaism  to  Christianity,  Islam,  and  other  religions;  Conversion  and  Apostasy; 
Apologetic  imd  I'lilciuic  litenitiire. 

3.  Jewish  Religious  Life  in  home  and  synagogue:  Sacrifices;  Festivals;  Priesthood;  Temple; 
Customs;  t'creiiiciiiics;  Kitual  Observances. 

4.  Synagogue  Liturgy,  Poetry,  and  Music;  History  of  Reform  Movement  in  Europe  and  America. 

5.  Jewish  Sects:  Pliarisecs;  Saddiieees;  Es.senes;  Tlierapeutae ;  Samaritans:  Karaites;  Sabbatarians; 
Hasidim:  Fr:inUi>;ls;  and  minor  sects;  Messianic  movements. 

6.  Jewish  Philosophy:  Alexandrian  School;  Religious  Philosophy  in  the  Middle  Ages;  Cabala; 
Systems  of  .Icwisli  pliilosophcrs. 

7.  Jewish  Ethics  in  its  historic  development;  Altruism  and  Hedonism;  Motives  and  Standard; 
Ideals;  Ethical  Wills. 

8.  Homiletical  Literature  and  history  of  modem  pulpit  eloquence. 


SYSTEMS  OF  TRANSLITERATIOX  AND  OF  CITATION 

OF  PIIOPER  XA3IES* 


A.— Rules  for  the  Transliteration  of  Hebrew  and  Aramaic. 

1.  All  important  names  which  occur  in  the  Bible  are  cited  as  found  in  the  authorized  King  Jamea 
version;  e.g.,  Moses,  not  Mosheh ;  Isaac,  not  Yizhalf  ;  Saul,  not  Sha'ul  or  Shaul;  Solomon,  not 
Shelomoh,  etc. 

4,  Names  that  have  gained  currency  in  English  books  on  Jewish  subjects,  or  that  have  become 
familiar  to  Knglish  readers,  are  always  retained  and  cross-references  given,  though  the  topic 
be  treated  under  the  form  transliterated  according  to  the  system  tabulated  below. 

3.  Hebrew  subject-headings  are  transcribed  according  to  the  echeme  of  transliteration ;  cross-refer- 
ences are  made  as  in  the  case  of  personal  names. 

4.  The  following  system  of  transliteration  has  been  used  for  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  : 

K    Not  noted  at  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  a  word  ;  otheneise'  orhy  dieresis;  e.g.,  Me'irorMeir. 
36  T    2  7    I  3   "■'"'  (Ingesh,  p  ^  sh 

i    g  n  /i  O  TO  B  icithout  dagesh,  f  ~  s 

-\    d  0  t  3    n  V?  n« 

n   h  -    !/  OS  p  k 

Note  :  The  presence  of  dagesh  lene  is  not  noted  except  in  the  case  of  pe.    Dagesh  forte  ia  indi- 
cated by  doubling  the  letter. 

5.  The  vowels  have  been  transcribed  as  follows  : 


— 

a 

\ 

u 

-:- 

a 

— 

e 

rr 

e 

T- 

e 

— 

0 

^~r 

r 

-.- 

t 

, 

e 

'-T 

a 

\ 

u 

Kamez  l.iatuf  is  represented  by  o. 

The  so-called  "  Continental "  pronunciation  of  the  English  vowels  is  implied. 

0.  The  Hebrew  article  is  transcribed  as  ha,  followed  by  a  hyphen,  without  doubling  the  following 

letter.    [Not  hak-Kohen  or  hak-Cohen,  nor  Rash  ha-shshanah.] 

B. — Rules  for  the  Transliteration  of  Arabic. 

1.  All  Arabic  names  and  words  except  such  as  have  become  familiar  to  English  readers  in  another 
form,  as  Mnhantmed,  Kurnii,  nionnue,  are  transliterated  according  to  the  following  system  : 

^   <i  ^  h  I  -'"''  P   oh  li>  " 

(^ '  J  '^'  J> ''  J  <•  }  '" 

cj  (/i  J  r  ]g  I  ^k  ^  y 

^  h  {J"  !t  f    • 

!i.  Only  the  three  vowels  —  a,  i,  u — are  represented: 
—    a  or  It  -r     I  or  i 

No  account  has  been  taken  of  the  imdlah:  i  has  not  beeo  written  i',  nor  u  written  a. 


I  ah 

^f 

c' 

cJA- 

J' 

fm 

or  « 

•  In  all  oUicr  mattcre  of  orthography  the  epvUiUK  prcft'rrol  by  the  STj^noahu  Dh  tiunaiiv  has  bwu  followed. 


xxvi        SYSTEMS  OF  TRANSLITERATION  AND  OF  CITATION  OF  PROPER  NAilES 

3.  The  Arabic  article  is  invariably  written  al:  no  account  being  taken  of  the  assimilation  cf  the  I  to 

the  following  letter;  t'.;;.,  Abu  al-Salt,  not  Al>u-l-tialt ;  Aafis  al-Daxilah,  not  Nafis  ad-Daxilah. 
The  article  is  joined  by  a  hyphen  to  the  following  word. 

4.  At  the  end  of  words  the  feminine  termination  is  written  ah  ;  but,  when  followed  by  a  genitive, 
at ;  e.g.,  Risalah  dhat  al-Kursiyy,  but  Hi'at  al-Aflak. 

6.  No  account  is  taken  of  the  overhanging  vowels  which  distinguish  the  cases  ;  e.g.,  'Amr,  not  'Amru 
or  'Amrun;  Ya'akiib,  not   ywakubuji;  or  in  a  title,  Kitab  at-amdnat  wal-'itikHdat. 

C. — Rules  for  the  Transliteration  of  Russian. 

All  Russian  names  and  words,  except  such  as  have  become  familiar  to  English  readers  in  another 
form,  as  Czar,  Alexander,  deciatine,  Moscmc.  are  transliterated  according  to  the  following  system  : 


Aa 

a 

Hn 

n 

mm 

shch 

B6 

b 

Oo 

0 

1,1, 

mute 

Bb 

V 

Tin 

V 

Uu 

y 

rr 

h,  V,  or  g 

Pp 

r 

1.  b 

halfmute 

Ak 

d 

Cc 

8 

it 

ye 

Ee 

e  and  ye 

at  the 
beginning. 

Tt 

t 

93 

e 

}K  7& 

zJi 

^'y 

u 

lOio 

yu 

33 

z 

4>cl) 

f 

Hr 

ya 

Hh 

i 

Xx 

kh 

ee 

F 

K  K 

k 

^^ 

tz 

Vv 

ce 

Aji 

I 

Hq 

ch 

fift 

i 

Mm 

m 

mm 

8h 

Rules  for  the  Citation  of  Proper  Names,  Personal  and  Otherwise. 

1.  Whenever  possible,  an  author  is  cited  under  his  most  specific  name:  e.g.,  Moses  Nigrin  under 
Nigrin ;  Jloses  Zacuto  under  Zacuto :  Moses  Rieti  under  Rieti;  all  the  Kiml.iis  (or  Kaml.iis) 
under  Kimhi;  Israel  ben  Joseph  Drohobiczer  under  Drohobiczer.  Cross-references  are  freely 
made  from  any  other  form  to  the  most  specific  one  ;  e.g.,  to  Moses  Vidal  from  Moses  Narboni  ;  to 
Solomon  Nathan  Mdal  from  Menahem  Meiri ;  to  Samuel  Kansi  from  Samuel  Astruc  Dascola; 
to  Jedaiah  Penini,  from  both  Bedersi  and  En  Bonet ;  to  Johtt  of  Avignon  from  Moses  de 
Roquematire. 

3.  When  a  person  is  not  referred  to  as  above,  he  is  cited  imder  his  own  personal  name  followed 
by  his  official  or  other  title  :  or,  where  he  has  borne  no  such  title,  by  "of"  followed  by  the  place 
of  his  birth  or  residence ;  e.g.,  Johanan  ha-Sandlar  ;  Samuel  ha-Nagid  ;  Judah  ha-Hasid  ;  Gershom 
of  Metz,  Isaac  of  Corbeil. 

3.  Names  containing  the  word  d',  de,   da,   di,  or  van,   von,   y,  are  arranged  under  the  letter  of 

the  name  following  this  word:  e.g..   de  Pomis  under  Pomis,  de  Barrios  under  Barrios,  Jacob 
d'lUescas  under  Illescas. 

4.  In  arranging  the  alphabetical  order  of  personal  names  the  words  ben,  da,  de,  di,  ibn,*  of,  have  not 

been  taken  into  account.     These  names  thus  follow  the  order  of  the  next  succeeding  capital  letter : 

Abraham  of  Augsburg  Abraham  de  Balmes  Abraham  ben  Benjamin  Aaron 

Abraham  of  Avila  Abraham  ben  Baruch  Abraham  ben  Benjamin  Ze'eb 

Abraham  ben  Azriel  Abraham  of  Beja  Abraham  Benveniste 

5.  In  order  to  facilitate  reference,  complete  groups  of  all  persons  bearing  such  common  names  as 

Aaron,  Abraham,  Jacob,  are  given  in  small  type  in  a  group  immediately  under  the  first  key-word. 


•  When  Ibn  has  come  to  be  a  specific  part  of  a  name,  as  Ibn  Ezba,  such  name  is  treated  in  ita  alphabetical  place  onder  "  I.' 


LIST  OF  AP>r>l{EVIATIONS 


[Self-evident  abbreviations,  particularly  those  used  in  the  bibliography,  are  not  included  here.] 


Ab Abot,  I'irkc 

Ab.  R.  N Abot  ilu  liabbi  Nathan 

*Ab.  Zarah '  Aboduh  Zurah 

Allg.  Zcit.  d.  Jud . . .  AJlgtnieine  Zeitunc  des  JadenthiimB 
Am.  Jew.  Hist.  Soc.Americaii  Jewieh  Historical  Sociity 

Am.  Jour.  Semit.    I.  American  Journal  of  Stmitic  Languages 

Lang t 

Apoc Apocalyiine 

Apocr Apocrypha 

Apost.  Const Apostolical  Constitutions 

Aq Aquila 

'At ' Arakin  (Talmud) 

Arch.  Isr Archives  Israelites 

art article 

A.  T Das  Altc  Testament 

A.  V ■  .Authorized  Version 

b ben  or  bar 

Bab Babli  ilialiylonian  Talmud) 

Bachcr,  Ag.  Bab.    i.  gacher,  Ajrada  der  Babylouischcn  AmorSer 

Amor \  " 

Bacher,  Ag.  I'al.    i  Bacher,  Agada  der  Pal&stincnsischcQ  Amor. 

Auior l'     ler 

Bachcr,  Ag.  Tan.. .  .Bacher,  Agada  der  Tannalten 
Bar Baruch 

B.  B Baba  Batra  (Talmud) 

B.<- Before  the  Cbristiau  era 

Bfk Bekorot  (Talmud) 

Benzlnger,  Arch Benzinger,  Ilebrnische  Archaologle 

Ber.. .     Bcrakot  Craluuiil) 

Birluicr's  I  Berliner's  .Mat;uziu  fOr  die  Wissenschaft  dea 

Magazin i'     Judenthuius 

Bik Bikkurtm  (Talmud) 

B.  K Baba  Kamma  (Talmud) 

B.  M  Baba  .MezI'  a  (Talmud) 

_  .„.    ...  I  Broil's  .iiihrliOcher  fQr  JOdlache  Geechichte 

Brnil.Jahrb ,     uml  Litteratur 

Cant Canticles  (Song  of  Solomon) 

Cant  H Canticles  Kabbah 

ch.      JluBibllog.l^^ 
chap.  I  In  text         (        »^ 

'''euc' x""Blhl'""^'''  I'  '^'"■J""-' ""'*  ^'»<^''> Encyclopiedla Biblica 

I  Chron I  Chronicles 

II  Chron II  Chronicles 

C.  I.  A Corpus  Inscriptionum  Attlcartirn 

C]  I.  G Corixitt  Itifcripticinum  (inrcarum 

CI.  H Corpus  Inhcriptionum  ilcljraicarum 

C  I.  L Corpus  iiis('rJ|>lionum  Latinurum 

c!  I.  8 Corpus  Inscriptionuni  Semiticamm 

Col Colossians 

Cor Corinthians 

D Deuteronomist 

Dan Daniel 

Dem Demai  (Talmud) 

I>eut Deuteronomy 

DeuL  R Deuteronomy  Kabbah 

E Elohlst 

Eccl Ecclesuistes 

Eccl.  R Eccle,*iiu*te8  Kabbah 

Ecciue.  (Sirach) Ecclesiusticus 

e<l edition 

•  Eduy 'Ednyyot  (Talmud) 

Encyc.  Brit Encyclopedia  Britaunlcs 

Eng English 

Eph Epheslans 

•  Er '  Erubln  (Talmud) 

E«l Esdraa 

Keth Esther 

Esther  R Eather  Kabbah 

et  ffq and  followtog  pagc« 

EuBcbius,  Hist.  Eccl.Euselilus,  lllsturia  EcclesiasUca 

Ex Exodus 

Ex.  II ExtMlus  Rabbah 

Ezek Ezeklel 

Kdrst,  Bibl.  Jud f  Drst,  Blbllothcca  Judaic* 

KOrst,  lltwch.  d.     I  p^    ,  Qc^hlchtc  de«  Karlcrtbome 

Kar&ert ( 

Gal Qalatlana 

^  ,      .    Tn  1  .»  I.   )  Gelger's     JOdlschc     Zeltschrift    fOr    Wis 
Oelger  .  JDd.  Zelt.  \     ^^„«,„„,t  „„ j  Leben 

Gem Gennira 

Gen Genesis 

Gen.  R Genesis  Kabbah 

Gcsch Gcwhichte  ^ 

Gesentus,  Gr Cii-seuliis,  (Grammar 

Qesenius,  Th Giseulus.  Thewiurus 

oin.hnr<.'.  Rlhl..    i  GInsburg's    >las..r.Uco-CrlUc«l   KdlUon    of 
Glnsburg  a  BlWe..  j     j,,,.  ^^,.y„^.^^  „l^l„ 

Olt Gi|(ln  (Talmud) 


Hab  Habakkuk 

Hag Haggai 

Sag lloL'igah  (Talmud) 
af. Hallah  (Talmud) 

Hamburger,  i  Hamburger.    Realencyklopidie    fflr    Bibel 

R.  B.  T f     und  Talmud 

Hastings,  Diet.       (  HaeUngs.  DicUonary  of  the  Bible 

Bible )  ® 

Heb Masorctic  Text 

Ilcbr Epistle  to  the  Hebrewe 

Horn HomiletiCB  w  Homily 

Hor Ilorayot  (Tabnud) 

Hul I.Iullin  (Talmud) 

it) same  place 

idem same  author 

Isa Isaiah 

Isr.  Letterbode Isrnelitische  Letterbode 

J Jahvist 

( Jaarboekcn    voor  de  Isrieliten    in  Neder- 


Jaarboeken. 


land 


Jacobs,  Sources.. 


t  Jacobs.  Inquiry  into  the  Sources  of  Span- 
■|     ishJeM  isn  History 
Jacobs  and  ■^•olf,  (  j^^q^s  and  Wolf,  Bibliotheca  Anglo-Judaica 

Blbl.  Anglo-Jud.  i  ..,,,. 

Jahrb.  Gcsch.  I  Jahrbuch  f  Ur  du'  Geschichte  der  Juden  und 

Jud  .  ("     dee  Judenthums 

"t^,  .  t  Jastrow.  Dictiiuuirv  of  the  Targumim,  Tal- 

Jastrow,  Diet .j     n,,,,]!,,,,  „„a  Mi.lrnshim 

Jelllnek,  B.  II Jcllinck.  Bet  ha.Midrash 

Jer lereuiiuh 

Jew.  Chron Jewish  Chronicle,  London 

Jew.  Hist.  Soc.  Eng. Jewish  Historical  Society  of  England 

Jew.  C>uart.  Kev Jewish  (Quarterly  Review 

Jew.  World Jewish  World,  London 

Josephus,  .\nt losepluis,  .Xntiipiities  of  the  Jews 

Josephiis,  B.  J Josephus,  l)e  Bello  Judaico 

Josephus,  Contra   [.josephus.  Contra  Apionem 

Ap ) 

Josh Joshua 

Josfs  Annalen Jost's  Israelitische  Annalen 

Justin.   Dial,  cum  i.  j,|g(i„   Diulogus  cum  Trvphone  Judieo 

Trvph (  *^ 

Kayserling,    Bibl.  i  Kayserling,  Biblioteca  EspaBola-Portugneza- 

Esp.Poft.Jud..  )■     .luduica 

Ker Keritot  (Talmud) 

Ket Ketuliot  (Talmud) 

l^id Kiddushin  (Taluuid) 

Kil Kllayim  (Talmud) 

Ijin liinnim  (Talmud) 

Lam Lamentations 

I^m.  R Lamentations  Rabbah 

/.c loco  citato 

Lev Leviticus 

Lev.  R Leviticus  Rabbah 

^'',\h  9''u''  !^  Levy,  Chaldaischce  WOrterbnch 

WOrterb t        '' 

H^7;3'k '"'"'■       I  Levy,  Neuhebriisches  WOrterbnch 

WOrterb \        ^ 

LXX Septuagint 

Ma'  as Ma'  aserot  (Talmud) 

Ma'as.  Sh Ma'aser  Sheui  (Talmod) 

Mace ilnccabi-cs 

Mak Mukkot  (Talmud) 

Maksh .Makshlriu  (Talmud) 

Mai Malachl 

Mas Masora 

Maesek .Masseket 

Matt Matthew 

Meg .MegiUah  (Talmiid) 

Mu'l Me'ilah  (Talmud) 

Mek Mekilia 

Men Menahot  (Talmud) 

Mid Middol  (Talmud). 

Midr Midrash 

Midr.  R M  iilrash  Rahbnh 

MIdr.  Teh .Mldnwh  Tehllllm  (Psalms) 

Mlk MIkwaot  (Talmud) 

M.K Mo''«l  Knpiu  (Talmud) 

...      .    ,,.  1  Monal*srlirift  fOr  (Jeschlchtc  und  Wissen. 

Monatsschrirt.....  I     ^,,„f, ,),.,  judenthums 

MS Manu8crl])t 

MOIier,  Frag.  Hist.  I.  Mniler,    Fragmenta     Ulstoricorum    Gneco- 

Gncc f     rum 

Nai Naxlr  (Talmud) 

n.d no  dale 

Ned Nedartm  (Talmud) 

Neg Negalm 

Nch Neilemlnh 

N.  'T New  Testament 


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


NcQbauer,  Cat.       ( Nciibauur,    CaUUogus    BodleianoB   Hebrew 
Bodl.  Hebr.  M8S.  )     Manuscript 

Neubaaer,  G.  T Neiibaucr.  CI6i>)^apbie  du  Talmud 

Num Numbcre 

Num.  R Numbt-rs  Kabbah 

Obad Obadiah 

Oeat.Wochenschrift.tk'BlerrL'ichische  Wochcnachrlft 

Oh Ohalot  (Talttiud) 

Onk OnkeIo8 

O.  T Olil  Teetamfiit 

P Prit'ytly  code 

Pal.  Explor.  Fund.. Palestine  Es|>loratlon  Fund 

PeDt Pentateuch 

Pes Pesahini  (Talmud) 

Pesh Peshito.  Pt-ghitta 

Pesik.  K Peeikta  RaWiall 

Peeik.  R.  K Pegikta  de-Rab  Kahaua 

Phil ! PhillppianH 

Pirke  R.  El Pir^e  Rabbi  Eliezcr 

Pro'v Proverbs 

P« Psalms 

R Rabbi  or  l^b  (before  names) 

^Lit'-Blatt""^'        [Ral'mcr"8  Judisches  Lltteratur-Blatt 

Rev.  As Revue  Asiatique 

Rev.  Bib Revue  liibliqne 

Rev.  £t.  Julves Revue  det*  lotudes  Juives 

Rev.  S6m Hevue  Seuiitique 

R.  H Ko8h  ha-Shanuli  (Talmud) 

Rom Romans 

R.  V Revised  Version 

I  Sam 1  Samuel 

II  Sam II  Samuel 

Sanh Sanbedrin  (Talmud) 

a  n  r>   T  J  (Sacred  Books  of  the  Old  Testament)  Poly- 

°-  "•  "•  * )     chrome  Bible,  cd.  Paul  Haupt 

Schrader,  f  Schrader,  Cuneiform   Inscriptions  and  the 

C.  I.  O.  T f     Old  Testament,  Eng.  trane. 

aoh..«/i,.,.  IT    *    T  i  Schrader,  Keilinschriiteri  und  das  Alte  Tes- 
acnraacr.ii.  A.  l.j     ,a„ent 

Schrader,  K.  B Schrader,  KciliUBchriftliche  Bibliothck 

Schrader  K  G  F  '  Schrader,   Keilinschriften  und  Gcschichts- 
*     *     '     *  I      forschung 

Schiirer,  Gesch Schiirer,  (Jeschichte  des  Jiidischen  Volkes 

Sem Semaliot  (Talmud) 

Shab Shabliat  (Talmud) 

Sheb Shebi'it  (Talmud) 

Shebu Shebu'ot  (Talmud) 

Shek Shekalim  (Talmud) 

Smith,  Rel.  of  Sem. .Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites 

Stade's  Zeitschrift-l  ^'fi''^'\.?>''*'""'i'V  "■■   ^'^   Altteetament- 

t     liche  W  iesenschaft 
Steinechneider,       /  Steinechneider,   Catalogue  of  the    Hebrew 
Cat.  Bodl I      Books  iu  British  Museum 

^'Heb^Bib".'       [ S'einschneider,  Hebraieche  Bibliographic 
^'nebrl'uebers       \  S'einschneider,  Hebr&ische  Uebersetznngen 
8uk .Sukkah  (Talmud) 


$.v under  the  word 

Sym Symmachus 

Ta'an Ta'anit  (Talmud) 

?ah Taharol  (Talmud) 
an i'anhumu 

Targ Targundm 

Targ.  O Targum  Onkelos 

Targ.  Yer Targum   Verushalml  or  Targum  Jonatbaa 

Tern Tenmrah  (Talmud) 

Ter Terumot  (Talmud) 

Theod Theodoilon 

Tbeu Thessalonians 

Tim Timothy 

Toe Tosafot 

ToBcf Tosefta 

Tr.  Soc.  Bibl.  I  Transactions   of    the   Society   of     Biblica 

Arch (      Arehieology 

transl translalion 

T.  Y febul  Vom  (Talmud) 

'U^ 'Ukzin  (Talmud) 

T'n'iv.  Isr tJnivers  Israelite 

I'rkundcnb Urkundenbuch 

Vess.  ler Veeeillo  Isrnelitico 

Vos Voskhod  (Russian  magazine) 

Vulg Vulgate 

Weiss,  Dor Weiss.  Dor  Dor  we-Dorshaw 

Wellhauscn,  iWcllhausen,     Israelltische     und    JQdlache 

I.  .1.  G f     Geschichte 

Winer,  B.  R Winer,  Biblisches  Realwiirterbuch 

Wlsd.  Sol Wisdom  of  Solomon 

Wolf,  Bibl.  Hebr... Wolf,  Hibliothecn  llebrica 

W  7  K  M  J  Wiener    Zeiischrift     fllr    die    Kunde    dee 

^      Morgenlanilcs 

Yad Yadayiui  (Talmud) 

Yalk Yalkut 

Yeb. Yeb'amot  (Talmud) 

Yer Ycrushalmi  (Jerusalem  Talmud) 

Yhwh Jehovah 

Zab Zabin  (Talmud) 

7  T»  \f  n  J  Zeitscbrift    der     Deutschen     MorgeDlUnd- 

'^-  "•  "•  " 1     ischeu  Gcsellschaft 

Zeb Zcbahim  (Talmud) 

Zech Zechariah 

Zedner,  Cat.  Hebr.  /  Zedncr,  Catalogue  of  the  Hebrew  Books  of 

BooksBrit.Mue.  (     the  Britisb  Museum 
Zeit.  f.  Aesyr Zeitschrift  fUr  Aseyriologie 

^"paias™  Ver  \  Z<^>'schrift  des  Deutschen  Pal&stina-Vercins 

Zeit.  f.  llebr.  Bibl..  .Zeitschrift  fiir  IlebrSische  Bibliograptue 

Zeph Zepbaniah 

Zunz,  G.  S Zunz,  Gesammelte  Schriften 

Zunz,  G.  V Zunz,  Gottesdienstliche  Vortrftge 

Zunz,  Literatur-      I  Zunz.  Literaturgeschichtc  der  Synagogalen 

gesch (         Poesie 

7,,,,,    »ii„=  1  Zunz,  Die  Ritns  des  Synagogalen    Gottcs- 

£unz,  Kiius -J     dienstes 

Zunz,  S.  P Zunz,  Synacogale  Poesie  des  Mittelaltere 

Zunz,  Z.  G Zunz,  Zur  deschichte  und  Literatur 


Note  to  the  Reader. 
Subjects  on  which  further  information  is  afforded  elsewhere  in  this  work  are  indicated  by  the 
use  of  capitals  and  small  capitals  in  the  text ;  as,  Abba  Arika  ;  Pumbedita  ;  Vocalization. 


CONTllIBUTOllS  TO  VOLUME  I 


A.  A.  a. 


A.  B.  D. 

A.  Bu.   . 


A.  D. 


A.  F. 


A. 

Fe 

A 

F.-Q 

A. 

H 

A. 

H.  N 

A.  K 

A.  L 
A.  Le 
A.  L.  L 

A.  Lo 

A.  M.. 
A.  P. 

AS.  C 

A.  S.  W.  R 

A.  W.  B 

B.  B 
B.  D  . 


..Cyrus  Adler,  Ph.D., 

President  of  Ilif  Amerlran  Jenlsh  Historical 
Society:    Libniriun  Suiilhsoiiluu    Instltutiou, 
Wiushliifftuii.  I).  C. 
Amfelie  Andr6  Gedal^e, 

Paris.  Friiun-. 

.  A.  B.  Dobsevage  (deceased). 

..Adolf  Buchler,  Ph.D., 

rrures.sor  Jewlsb  Theological  Seminary,  Vi- 
enna, .\nstrla. 
Abraham  Danon, 

I'lirii'lpal.  Jewl.sh  Theolo(rleal  Seminary,  Con- 
slanilniMile,  Turkey. 

..A.  [J.l  Freimann,  Ph.D., 

Libntrlun  "t  the  Hebrew  Department,  SUult- 
blblliilhek.  Fniiikfort-on-the-.Malu,  Germany. 
Alfred  Feilchenfeld,  Ph.D., 

rriiiilpai  .pf  ihi'  K'-alsehule.  Fiirth,  Germany. 

Adolf  Frankl-Oriln,  Ph.D., 

Itiilihl  ill  Kn'iiwiir,  .\ll.^trla. 

A.  Harkavy,  Ph.D., 

Ubruriaii  of  the  llebri'w  Departmentof  the  Im- 
perial Public  Library.  St.  PetersburK,  Russia. 

A.  H.  Newman,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Pnifessur  of  Ib'tirew  and  Cnirnate  Lanpuaires 

ami  iilil  Testament  F-xegesIs,  McMaater  Uni- 
versity. T"inint«i.  Canada. 
A.  Kaminka,  Ph.D., 

V  it. una,  .\uslrlu. 
Alfred  Lfivy, 

I  liicf  Uaiibi  of  Lyons,  France. 
A.  Levin,  Ph.D., 

Itahiii.  FreibiiiK-in-nrelsirau,  Germany. 
Albert  L.  Leubuscher, 

New  Vnrk. 
A.  Loewenthal,  Ph.D., 

Itablii,  Tarnuwitz.  (iermanv. 
Axel  Uoth,  LL.B., 

Niw  Vrk  I'ublle  Library,  New  York. 
Albert  Porter, 

Formerly  Associate  Editor  of  "The  Forum," 

New  Vnrk. 
Alexanders.  Chessln, 

.\s.v.elair  I'mtrs-sor  ill  Malliematlrs  nt  Juhns 

ll"l>kiiis  lni\vi>ilv.  Ilalilmun..  Mil. 
Abram  S.  Wolf  Rosenbach, 

Atliinii'V  at  \mi\,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
A.  W.  Brunner, 

Anlilli-.t,  Ni'W  V.irk. 

Benuol  H.  Brumberff, 

New  Vnrk. 

Bernard  Drachman,  Ph.D., 

IlabbI  of  the  I'uuKreKallon  Zlehnin  Epbralm. 
Dean  of  the  Jewl.sh  TheoluKleul  Seminary, 
New  York. 


B.  F 

C.  C.  T.. 

C.  F.  K. 

C.  J.  M.. 
O.L. 


C.  R.  0. 


D.  O 

D.  O.  L. 

D.  I.  F... 
D.  P 


D.  W.  A. 


E.  a.  H. 


F 

H 

E. 

L 

E. 

N.  A... 

F 

S 

E. 

Sob 

.B.  Felsenthal,  Ph.D., 

Uaiibl  Emeritus  nf  /.inn  ( 'iiiigrei?atlon,  Chicago. 

.Charles  C.  Torrey,  Ph.D., 

Proft^ssor  of  s<.*mUie  Lani^uagcs,  Yale  Uni- 
versity, New  Haven.  Conn. 

Charles  Foster  Kent,  Ph.D., 

Pnifessor  i»f  lliblleai  Lileniture  and  History, 
Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  Author 
of  "A  HLstory  of  the  Hebrew  People,"  etc. 

Charles  J.  Mendelsohn, 
Phllaileipliia,  Pa. 
..Caspar  Levias,  M.A., 

Instnielorlii  K.xeueslsand  Talmudic  Aramaic, 
Hebrew  Unittn  Cnllepe.  Cincinnati.  Ohio. 

.Lieut. -Col.  Claude  R.  Couder,  LL.D., 
Formerly   Superintendent   of    the   Survey  of 
Palestine  by  Palestine  K.\piorallun  Fund. 

.Ootthard  Deutsch,  Ph.D., 

Prtjfessor  of  Jewish  History,  Hebrew  Union 
ColleKe.  CInclnnali.  Ohio;  Editor  of  "Deb- 
orah." 

.Baron  David  von  Giinzbur^, 

St.  Pctci^laiiv.  Hiissia. 
David  Gordon  Lyon.  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  iilti  'i'esiainciit  K.xeKt^ls  and  Sem- 
itic Lan(.'uat;es,  Curator  of  the  Semitic  Mu- 
seum, Harvanl  University.  Cambridge,  Mass. 

.  D.  I.  Freedman,  B.A., 

Italibl  in  Pertli,  Western  Australia. 

.  David  Philipson,  D.D., 

Rahlii  of  tlic  Ccini.'rej.iitlc)n  B'ne  Israel;  Pro- 
fes.sor  of  Homilelics.  Hebrew  Union  College, 
Cincinnati,  (ililo. 
David  Werner  Amram,  LL.B,, 

.\ltorney  at  Law.  Philadclpliia,  I'a. ;  Author 
of  ••  The  Jcwisli  Law  of  Dlvonc" 

Emil  G.  Hirsch,  Ph,D,,  LL.D., 

Kalilii  of  CbicnKo  Sinai  Con^rrvjration.  Chicago, 

III, ;  Pnifessor  of  Rabbinical  Literature  and 

Philosophy  In  the  University  of  Chicago. 
Ell  Hazan, 

Chief  Rabbi  of  Alexandria,  Egypt. 
Eude  LoUi, 

(  hli'f  Habblof  I*adun:  I*rof(>ssorot  Hebrew  U 

liie  liiivcisiity.  Padua,  Italy. 
Elkan  N,  Adler, 

S^iiiciior.  London,  England. 

Erik  Stave,  Ph.D., 

PMfi~«<ir  of  Theology  at  the  University  of 
Uiwalii,  Swi-den. 

Emil  Schiirer,  Ph.D., 

Pnifeswir  of  New  TesUiinent  Exegesis  at  Ibe 
Unlvemlty  of  (iOtllngen,  (iennany :  Author  of 
"(iiwhlcbte  di^s  Vulki-s  Israel  Ini  Zellalter 
Chrbtl,"  etc. 


CONTRIBUTORS   TO   VOLUME   I 


F.  Bu Frants  Buhl,  Ph.D., 

Pmtwisur  "f  ^oiultlc  I'hlloloify  at  the  Copen- 
biiReD  University,  Copenhagen,  Denmark : 
Author  of  ■■  Geograpble  des  Alien  Palestlna." 

F.  C.  C Frederick  C.  Conybeare,  If  .A., 

Liil.-  Fi-lln\v  ..f  I  rilvirsjiy  lolU'Re,  Olford, 
Liik'land  ;  .\iiIhor  o(  "  Tlir  lin\vfus  CaK'." 

F.deS.U... Frederick  de  Sola  Uendes,  Pb.B., 

Rabbi  of  tbe  West  Knd  Synagoifue,  New  York : 
Vice-President  of  Board  of  Jewish  Ministers, 
New  York. 

F.  H.  K Frank  H.  Knowlton,  M.S.,  Ph.D., 

A-sst.-ftani  Cunilor  of  Botany,  Smithsonian  In- 
slllullon.  Wasliinpton,  D.  C. 

F.  H.  V Frank  H.  Vizetelly, 

.\s.suriate  Kditor  of  the  "Columbian  Cyclo- 
pi'dla,"  and  on  Sia.ndard  Dictio.nart  Edi- 
torial Stall,  etc. 

F.  L.  C Francis  L.  Cohen, 

Itablil.  Boniutrh  New  Synagofnie.  London, 
England;  (Vtediior  of  "Voice  of  Prayer  and 
Praise." 

F.  S Flaminio  Servi, 

Chief  liabbi  of  Casale-Montermto,  Italy ;  Edi- 
tor of  "  II  Vi«<sillo  Israelitlco." 

F.  S.  W Franklin  S.  Wilson,  M.A. 

New  York. 

G Richard  Gottheil,  Ph.D., 

Professor  <if  Semitie  Languages,  Columbia 
University,  .New  York ;  Chief  of  the  Oriental 
Department,  New  Y'ork  Public  Library ;  Presi- 
dent of  the  Federation  of  American  Zionists, 
ete. 

G.  A.  B Georg-e  A.  Barton,  Ph.D. , 

.Vssoriale  Professor  iu  Biblical  Literature  and 
SiMiiitic  Languages  at  Bryn  Mawr  College, 
P.ryn  -Mawr.  Pa. 

G.  A.  D G.  A.  Danziger, 

New  York. 

G.  A.  K George  Alexander  Kohut, 

Formerly  Habbi  in  Dallas,  Texas. 

G.  B.  L  Gerson  B.  Levi, 

Pbilaclelphia,  Pa. 

O.  H George  S.  Hellman,  M.  A., 

N.-w  York. 

G.  H.  C       ..G.  Herbert  Cone, 

.Vtiorm  y  at  Law,  Albany,  N.  T. 

G.J Giuseppe  Jare, 

chief  Kabbi  of  Kerrara.  Italy. 

O.  li Goodman  Lipkind,  B.A., 

Ralibi  in  Lonfion,  Kimlanil. 

Q.  S Gabriel  Schwarz,  Ph.D., 

Ralihi  of  larlstadt,  Austria. 

G.  Sa G.  Sacerdote,  Ph.D., 

Berlin,  (ieniiany. 

H.  B H.  Brody,  Ph.D., 

Rabbi,  Naebod,  Bohemia,  Austria ;  Coeditor  of 
"Zeitschrift  fiir  Hebniisehe  BibUographie." 

§•  p^ {-Herbert  Friedenwald,  Ph.D., 

Formerly  Superintendent  of  Department  of 
Manuscripts,  Library  of  Congress,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. ;  Secretary  American  Jewish  His- 
torical Society,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

H.  G.  E      . .  H.  G.  Enelow,  D.D., 

Assistant  Ralihi.  Adas  Israel,  Louisville,  Ky. 

H.  H Henry  Hyvernat,  D.D., 

Head  of  ibe  Department  of  Semitic  and 
Egyptian  Literatures,  Catholic  University  of 
America,  Washington,  D.  C. 


H.  Hir Hartwig  Hirschfeld,  Ph.D. , 

lYofessor  lu  Jews'  College,  London,  England ; 
Editor  and  Translator  of  the  .\rablc  te«  of 
Judab  ha-Levi's  "  Cuzarl." 

H.  U Henry  Malter,  Ph.D., 

Assistant  Professor  Hebrew  Union  College, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

H.  P.  M H.  Pereira  Mendes,  M.D., 

Rabbi  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Con- 
gregation, Ni'W  York:  President  of  the  Ad- 
visory Board  of  Ministers  of  the  Jewish  Theo- 
logical Seminary. 

H.  B Herman  Rosenthal, 

Chief  if  the  Slavonic  Department  of  the  New 
York  Public  Library. 

H.  S Henrietta  Szold, 

Strri'tary  of  ilie  Publication  Committee  of  the 
Jewish  Publication  Society  of  America. 

H.  V Hermann  Vogelstein,  Ph.D., 

Uablil  in  Koiiigslicrg.  (iermany  ;  Joint  Author 
with  Paul  Kieger  of  the  "  History  of  the  Jews 
ill  Rome." 

I.  A Israel  Abrahams,  M.A., 

Coedllor  of  the  "Jewish  Quarterly  Review"; 
Author  of  "Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages," 
etc. :  Senior  Tutor  of  Jews"  College,  London. 

I.  B Isaac  Bloch, 

I  hief  Rabbi  of  Nancy,  France. 

I   Br  ) 

j'  g ;  f  Isaac  Broydfi, 

Author  of  article  on  ".\nonymous  Works"  In 

this  volume;  Diploiiie  de  I'Ecole  des  Halites 

Etudes;  Late  Librarian  of  Alliance  Isra<;Ute 

Unlverselle,  Paris;  Author  of  "  ReUexlons  sur 

r.tine." 

I.  D Israel  Davidson,  A.M., 

New  York. 

I.  L Israel  Lfevi, 

Pr^.fessor  in  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary, 
Paris,  France ;  Editor  of  "  Revue  des  Etudes 
J Hives." 

I.  M.  C I.  M.  Casanowicz,  Ph.D., 

U.  S.  NatiMiiul  .Museum.  Washington,  D.  C; 
Author  of  "  Paronomasia  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment." 

I.  M.  P Ira  Maurice  Price,  B.D.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Litera- 
ture in  the  University  of  Chicago.  III.;  Author 
of  "The  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament," 
etc. 

J Joseph  Jacobs,  B.A., 

Formerly  President  of  the  Jewish  Historical 
Society  of  England ;  Corresponding  Member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  History,  Madrid ; 
Author  of  "Jews  of  Angevin  England,"  etc. 

J,  Jr Morris  Jastrovr,  Jr.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  an<i  Librarian 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Philadel- 
phia. Pa.;  .\iithor  of  "Religion  of  the  Baby- 
lonians and  .\ssyrians,"  etc. 

J.  Sr Marcus  Jastrow,  Ph.D., 

Rjibbi  Emeritus  of  the  Congregation  Rodef 
Shalom,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Author  of  "Dic- 
tionary of  the  Talmud." 

J.  A.  H J.  A.  Hourwich,  Ph.D., 

Chief  of  the  Tninslating  Staff,  U.  S.  Census 
Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C. 
J.  B Same  as  I.  B.  (above). 


COXTRIBLTOKS   TO   VOLUME  I 


J.  Bi Jacques  Big-art, 

s<(riiary-<ieniral  of  the  Alliance  Israelite 
I'lilvfnii-llc.  I'arls.  France. 

jQ^ |j.  Chotzner,  Ph.D., 

Montflliirf  CollcKe,  Ramsgate,  Enprland. 

J.  C.  R J.  C.  Reis,  Ph.D., 

New  Yi.rk. 

J.  D.  E J.  D.  Eisenstein, 

Nfw  York. 
J.  D.  P John  Dyneley  Prince,  Ph.D., 

1'rotes.siir  of  Si-inllli-  Liiupimnes,  New  Tork 

University. 
J.  F Same  as  A.  F.  (above). 

J.  F.  McC  ..J.  Frederic  McCurdy,  Ph.D.,  LLi.D., 

I'roffxv.r  of  uriciiiiil  Lan^'lla^'^•s  in  the  L'nt- 
verslly  ltille(,'e,  Toronto,  tanada ;  Author  of 
"  Hl.stoi7,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments." 

J.  O J.  O-uttmann,  Ph.D., 

Itahlil  111  Hn-slaii,  dennany;  Author  of  "Die 
I'lii:osoiihle  Ues  Solouio  Ibn  Gablrol." 

J.  K  ..Julius  Klein, 

Ijite  t  hlif  Kabbl  of  Presburg,  Hungary. 

J.  Le J.  Levi,  Ph.D., 

Itahl)!  In  .\l/ey,  (Jc^niiany. 
J.  Li.  S         ..Joseph  I>.  Sossnitz, 

Uablil  In  .N'eH-  York. 

J.  P.  P John  P.  Peters,  D.D., 

lU'ctipr  I'l  St.  Michael's  Church,  New  York; 
.\uthor  of  "Nippur, or  Explorations  and  Ad- 
ventures on  the  Euphrates." 

J.  S SameimS.  ihelow). 

J.  S.  R Jacob  S.  Raisin, 

Italilil  In  Port  (ilbson.  Miss. 
J.  Sto    Joseph  Stolz,  Ph.D., 

Ual)l)l  In  Cliliiik'o.  ill. 

J.  V Jacob  VoorsanKer,  D.D., 

Itiilihl  of  the  t'ontrrecatlon  Emonu-El,  San 
Francisco.  Cal.;  Profes.S(»r  of  Semitic  Lan- 
guages anil  I.ltemture  In  the  University  of 
California,  lierkeley.  Cal. 

J.  Vr J.  Vredenburtr,  M.A., 

Italihl  In  Amsterdam,  Holland. 

J.  W JullenWeUl, 

Halibl  In  Paris,  France. 

K Kauftnann  Kohler,  Ph.D., 

Hal. 1.1  of  Teiiii.le  Hcth-EI.  New  Y'ork :  Prcsl- 
ileiu  of  Hoard  of  Jewish  Mlnlstere,  New  York. 

K.  B  ..Karl  Budde,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  (lid  Testament  Exegesis  at  the 
University  of  Marbiirk'.  (ieniiany;  Author  of 
"  Die  HIbllsthe  Urgesihlchte,"  etc. 

K.T  ..K.  Thielber^er, 

Ilal.l.l  of  Jeiilkaii.  Ilohemla. 

L.  B Ludwlsr  Blau,  Ph.D., 

Pn.fi-s-ior  ai  the  .lewisli  Thmloglcal  Seminary. 
BudaiM-st.  Hungary;  Editor  of  "  Magyar  Zsldii 
Szemie":  Author  of  "Das  Alt-JQdIsche  Zau- 
l)erw<*en." 

L.  O Louis  Oinzber^,  Ph.D., 

New  York  ;  .Miilior  ..f  "  We  Haggoda  bel  den 

Klrchenviiifrn."  ete. 

L.  N.  D Lewis  N.  Dembitz, 

Attorney  at  Ijiw,  Ixiulsrllle,  Ky.;  .Author  of 
"Jewish  S*'n'lces  In  Synagogue  and  Houie." 


L.  S Ludwigr  Stein,  Ph.D., 

Pnifi-s.«.r  of  Philosophy  at  the  University  of 
Beni,  Switzerland  :  EdlUir  of  "  Archlv  fur  Ge- 
schlchte  der  Philosophic,"  etc. 

L.  Wi Leo  Wise, 

Editor  of  "The  American  Israelite,"  Cln- 
cilHlall.  Ohio. 

M.  A Michael  Adler,  B.A., 

Itahlil  of  Hammensmlth  Synagogue,  London, 

England. 
M.  B Moses  Beer, 

Now  York. 

M.  Br M.  Brann,  Ph.D., 

Professor  In  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary, 
Breslau,  Gennany ;  Editor  of  "  Monatssi-hrltt 
fiir  Geschlchte  und  WIssenschaft  des  Juden- 
thums." 

M.  Bu Moses  Buttenwieser,  Ph.D., 

Assistant  Professor  In  Exegesis,  Hebrew 
I'll!. .11  College,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

M.  D M.  Duparc, 

Sei-reiary  of  Anglo-Jewish  Association. 

M.  F Michael  Friedlander,  Ph.D., 

Prineliml,  Jews'  College.  London.  England; 

Translator  of  Malmonldes'  "  G  ulde  of  the  Per- 

plexeil,"  etc. 
M.  Ga Moses  Gaster,  Ph.D., 

I.lakaiii  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews, 

Lonilon.  England. 

M.  Gr M.  Griinwald,  Ph.D., 

Ilabbi  In  Haiiiburg,  Germany. 

M.  J.  K Max  J.  Kohler,  M.A.,  LL.B., 

Attorney  at  Law;  Recording  Secretary  of  the 
American  Jewish  Historical  Society,  New 
York. 

M.  K Moritz  Kayserling-,  Ph.D., 

Kalil.l,  Hudaiiost.  Hungary:  .\uthor  of  " Ge- 
sihlihte  derJuden  In  Portugal,"  "BlbUoteca 
Espunola  Portugueza  JudaIca,"  etc. 

M'  Lan    'I  ™**  Landsbergr,  Ph.D., 

.       Ilalibl  in  H.HhesIer,  N.  Y. 

M.  Li Mark  Lidzbarsky,  Ph.D., 

Pnvai-DcHent  of  Seiiiliic  Philology  at  the  Dnl- 
verslty,  Kiel,  Geriimny ;  Author  of  "  Hand- 
buch  der  Nordsemltlschen  Epigraphlk." 

M.  L.  M Max  L.  Marg-olis,  Ph.D., 

Assislant  Pn. lessor  of  SMiiltlc  Languages  In 
the  liilverslty  of  California,  lierkeley,  Cal. 

M.  M Moses  Mielziner,  Ph.D.,  D.D., 

Pn.fi's.sor  of  Taliniidlc  Literature  and  .U'ting 
Pnsideiit  Hebri'W  Union  College.  Cincinnati, 
Ohio;  Author  of  "An  Introduction  to  the 
Talmud." 

M.  E Milton  Reizenstein,  Ph.D., 

New  York. 

M.  Ra Max  Raisin, 

clni'lniiHii.  Ohio. 

M.  S Moise  Schwab,  Ph.D., 

I.llirarlan  ..f  the  llelin'vv  Department  at  the 
Illblloilii'i|ue  Natlonale,  Purls,  France ;  Tnm»- 
lalor  of  the  Jenisalem  Tahnud. 

M.  Si M.  Sllberstein,  Ph.D., 

Hal. hi  of  Wii-sliaden.  (iennuny. 

M.  W Max  Welsz,  Ph.D., 

Hat.l.i  III  HtiduiM-st.  HiingiU7. 

P.  B Philipp  Bloch,  Ph.D., 

Ilablil  III  Piwn,  (iermany. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  VOLUJIE  I 


P.  W Paul  Wendland,  Ph.D., 

BiTlln.   Uerm«ny;     Cot-dltor    ot    "Phllonls 

p;  w^ . V ;     I  Peter  Wiernik, 

Author  of  urtlcle  on  "Aga"  la  tlila  volume, 
New  York. 

B.  K Rebecca  Kohut, 

New  York ;  Pix'sldpnt  of  the  New  York  Section 
of  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women. 

B.  B R.  Reuss, 

Lciiureron  History,  feeoledes  Bautes  fitudes, 

I'jiiis.  Knmrt'. 

R.  W.  R Robert  W.  Rog-ers,  D.D.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Hehrew  iiuU  old  Tcstanient  Exe- 
gesis, Drew  TlieoloKieal  Seminary,  Madison, 
N.  .1. 

S Isidore  Singer,  Ph.D.,  Managing  Editor. 

S.  A.  B Samuel  Augrustus  Binion,  M.D., 

.\uthor  of  "  Mizniini  or  .\ni'lciit  Egypt." 

S.  A.  H S.  A.  Hirsch,  Ph.D., 

rrofessorlu  Jews*  College,  London,  England. 
S.  B Samuel  Baeck,  Ph.D., 

Itahbi  In  I.Issh,  Germany. 

S.  Ho S.  Horovitz,  Ph.D., 

rrnfHssor  ai  Jewish  Theological  Seminary, 
lireslau,  Germany. 

S.  K S.  Kahn, 

IlabbI  In  Ninies,  France. 

I;  ^;;;-  [s.  Krauss,  Ph.D., 

Author  of  artiele  on  ".\frlca"  in  thl.i  volume. 
Professor  Normal  College,  Buda|)est.  Hungary; 
Author  of  "  Griechlsche  und  Latelnlscbe  Lehn- 
wOrter  in  Talmud." 


S.  M S.  Mendelsohn,  Ph.D., 

Hablil  Iti  Wiliiilngton,  N.  C. 

a.  M.  D S.  M.  Dubnow, 

.\ttornfy  at  \m\v,  Odessa,  Russia. 

S.  Se Sigmund  Seeligman, 

lialilii  111  AnistiMdiun.  Holland. 

T Crawford  Howell  Toy,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Pmfi'ssor  of  Hebrew  in  Harvard  University, 
Camlirldge,  Mass. :  Author  of  "The  Religion 
itf  Israel."  "Judaism  ami  <"hrlstlanity,"  et^'. 

T.  S Tobias  Shanfarber,  Ph.D., 

Rabbi  of  Ansclie  Ma'arab  Congregation,  Chi- 
cago. III. 

V.  C Victor  Castiglione, 

Profi-ssor.  Tilesi.  ,\uslrla. 

W.  B W.  Bacher,  Ph.D., 

Professor  at  tbo  .Icwish  Theological  Seminary, 
Budapi'st,  Hungary;  Author  of  "Die  Agada 
der  Tannaim,"  et*'. 

W.  U William  Milwitzky, 

Late  of  Hanard  University  Library,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

W.  Ma W.  Marfais, 

Tlelln;en,  A  Igeria. 

W.  M.  M...  W.  Max  Muller,  Ph.D., 

Pnifessor  of  Hlble  Exegesis  In  the  Ueformed 
Episcopal  Theological  Seminary,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 

W.  S William  Salant,  M.D., 

N.-w  York. 
W.  S.  O William  S.  Gottheil,  M.D., 

Consulting  I'hysiilan  at  licth  Israel  Hospital; 

Visiting    Physician    Lebanon    Ht>spital,   etc.. 

New  Y'ork. 


LIST  OF  TLLUSTRATIONS  U  Y0LU3IE  I 


N.  B. — In  the  following  list  subjects  likely  to  be  sought  for  under  various  headings  are  repeated  under 
each.     Traditional  ascriptions  are  denoted  by  quotatiou-marks. 


PAGE 

"Aaron,  Son  of  the  Devil" 8 

"Aaron's  House "  at  Lincoln 17 

Aaron's  Rod 5 

Ab,  Eve  of  Ninth  of 25 

Ninth  Day  of 23 

Syna;,'ogue  Service  on 24,  25 

Abana  Uiver,  Damascus 26 

Abarbanel  Library  in  Jerusalem 27 

Abendana  Family  Seal 52 

Aboab,  Isaac  da  Fonseca,  Hakam  at  Amsterdam 74 

" '  Abodah  "  Music 77,  78 

Atualiam,  Bernard,  French  General 100 

Abraham  de  Cologna,  Italian  Member  of  Napoleon's  Sanhedrin  in  1807 100 

Abraham  Offering  Isaac 85 

"Abraham's  House"  at  Hebron 84 

"  Abraham's  Oak "  in  1847 93 

in  1897 93 

Abramowitsch,  S.  J.,  Yiddish  and  Hebrew  Author 125 

Abravanel  Coat  of  Arms 127 

Abravanel,  Isaac,  Statesman  and  Author 127 

Abraxas,  Gnostic  Gem,  Obverse  and  Reverse 129,  130 

Absalom  Caught  in  a  Tree 133 

"Absalom's  Tomb" 133 

Showing  Position  near  Wall  of  Jerusalem 134 

Abyss,  the  Assyrian  (Tiamat) 144 

Acacia  Tree,  Flowering  Branch  and  Seed-Pod 144 

Accents,  Hebrew,  Illustrated  by  I'salm  ex.  1^ 163 

Aceldama,  in  the  Valley  of  Uinnom 104 

Acosta,  Uriel,  Signature  of 167 

Acre,  Modern  City  of 170 

AcsiUly,  Igiiatz,  Hungarian  Historian 172 

"  Adam  and  Eve  " 175 

Adam  Kadmon 181 

Adam-Siilomon,  French  Sculptor 184 

Addax  Antelope  (Addax  Nasomaculatua) plate  between  606-007 

"  Addir  Hu,"  Music  of 187,  188 

Adler,  Hermann,  Chief  Rabbi  of  British  Empire 195 

Licbmann,  Habbi 197 

Nathan  Marcus,  Chief  Rabbi  of  Great  Britain 198 

"  Adonai,  Adonai,"  Music  of 202 

" Adonai   Bekol  Shofar"  Music •-'03 

"  Ailonai  Mclek."  Music  of 204 

"  Adon  ' ( Ham,"  Music  of 206,  '207 

Adoration,  Egyptian  Mode  of 210 

Mohammedan  Form  of 210 

AduUam,  Site  of  Ancient 216 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUSIE   I 


PAGE 

Afka,  Ancient  Apliek 004 

Agricultural  Colonies  :  see  Colonies. 

Agricultural  Inipleuient  (Modern  Sickle) 268 

Agrippa  I.,  Coin  of,  Celebrating  Treaty  with  Rome 271 

1.,  Coin  of,  Showing  Royal  Umbrella 271 

II.,  Coin  of,  10th  Year 272 

11.,  Coin  of,  nth  Year 272 

II.,  Copper  Coin  of,  14th  Year,  Under  Vespasian 272 

II.,  Coin  of,  20th  Year,  with  S[cnatusJ  C[ou8ultiim] 272 

Aguilar,  Baron  d',  on  Starvation  Farm 274 

Grace,  Authoress 275 

"  Ahahali  Rabbah,"  Fragment  from  a  Prayer-Book  Containing plate  facing  280-281 

Ahasuerus ;  Alaba.ster  Vase  with  Name  of  Xerxes  in  Persian,  Susian,  Assyrian,  Cuneiform,  and  Kgyp- 

tian  Hieroglyphics 284 

"  Ahot  Ketannah,"  Music  of 295 

Ahriman  in  Form  of  a  Dragon 296 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  Synagogue  at 300 

Ajalon  :  General  View  of  Yalo,  Palestine 301 

"  Akdauuil,"  Music  of 303 

Akiba  ben  Joseph,  Rude  Drawing  of 310 

Alatri,  Sanuiel,  Italian  Deputy 319 

Albany  (X.  Y.)  Synagogue 321 

Alchemy,  Apparatus  Used  in 329 

Maria  Ilebrsea,  Inventor  of  the  Bain-Marie 330 

" '  Alenu,"  Music  of 339 

Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  Abrahamson's  Medal  Commemorating  the  Emancipation  of  the  Jews  by 124 

Jannseus,  Coins  of 352,  353 

the  Great,  Coin  with  Aramaic  Inscription .342 

Alexandra,  Salome,  Coin  of 359 

Alexandria,  Map  of.  Showing  Jewish  Quarter 363 

"Alfasi,  Isaac,"  Traditional  Portrait 375 

Algerian  Jewess,  Costume  of 384 

Algiers  :  Jewish  Quarter  After  the  Riots  of  1898 382 

Synagogue  During  the  Riots  of  1898 383 

<"  Al  ha-Rishonim,"  Music  of 388-390 

" '  Al  Het , "  JIusic  of 392 

Alliance  Isra(;lite  Universelle,  Official  Device 421 

see  Tunis  (Apprentices'  Farm-School). 

Almanac,  Hebrew,  Pubii-shed  in  London,  1813 428 

Almanzi,  Joseph,  Bibliophile 429 

Almemar:  see  "Chair  of  Moses";  Florence;  Jerusalem;  Zabludow. 

Almosnino,  Solomon,  Secretary  of  Sephardic  Community,  London 435 

Aloe  :  1 .  Plant  Showing  Method  of  Growth  ;  2.  Flower-Stalk  ;  3.  Leaf 4.38 

Alpha  and  Omega  on  Antique  Finger-Ring 439 

Alphabet,  Origin  and  Development  of  Old  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Manuscript,  and  Cursive    (see  also 

Seals) .- 449-463 

Altar,  Assyrian 465 

of  Incense  Restored 468 

of  the  Temple  Restored 466 

Portable  Persian  Fire- 465 

Alt-Ofen  Synagogue 471 

Altona,  Charter  Given  to  the  Jews  of  Altona  by  King  Christian  of  Denmark 473 

Portuguese  Cemetery 475 

Amador  de  los  Rios,  Jos^,  Spanish  Historian  of  the  Jews 482 

Amber,  Showing  Embedded  Flies,  Spiders,  and  Beetles 487 

American  Jewish  Publication  Society,  Official  Device 520 

Amnion  :  Ruins  of  Roman  Theater 525 

Anion,  the  Egyptian  God 526 

Aniorites 529 

Amraphel :  .see  Hammi'rabi. 

Amsterdam,  Ashkenazic  Congregation,  Official  Device 546 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN   VOLUME   I 


PAGE 

Amsterdam,  Ashkenazic  Synagogue 541 

Portuguese  Cemetery 644 

Portuguese  Congregation  Seal 545 

see  AiioAU,  Isaac  da  Fonseca. 

Sephardic  Synagogue 539 

Interior 543 

Showing  Position  on  Canal 538 

Amulet  for  Protection  Against  Lilith plate  between  548-549 

for  Protection  in  Childbirth plate  between  548-549 

for  Success  in  Business 548 

Golden  Hand,  for  Protection  Against  the  "  Evil  Eye  " plate  between  548-549 

Mizrah  with  the  Sixty-seventh  Psalm  in  the  Shape  of  Menorah  Surrounded  by  Magical  Formulas 

plate  between  648-549 

Silver  Medallion  with  <Tt^  on  Obverse  and  "David's  Shield,"  Enclosing  Fleur-de-Lis,  on  Reverse 

plate  between  SiS-MQ 

with  Foriimla  Inscribed  Around  Menorah plate  between  548-549 

with  Inverted  Pyramidal  Inscription  After  the  Style  of  Abracadabra jjifi^e  between  548-549 

with  Permutations  of  ■<-fC',  niiT.  and  n'nx plate  between  548-549 

with  Shield  of  David 549 

Anathoth,  View  of  Modern 562 

Ancona,  Alessandro  d',  Italian  Historian 574 

Andernach,  Jewish  Bath  at 577 

Angel,  Moses,  Head  Master  of  Jews'  Free  School,  London 583 

Anglo-Jewish  Exhibition,  Plan  of 003 

"  An'im  Zemirot,"  Music  of 608 

Animals:   see  Audax  ;    Apes;    Ass;    Bear;   Bubale  ;   Cony;   Dog;   Dromedary;   Fox;   Gazelle; 

Goat;   Hake;  Horse;  Hyena;  Ibex;  Jackal;  Leopard;  Leucoryx  ;  Lion;  Ox;  Porcupine; 

Sheep plate  between  000-00" 

Anklets 009 

"  Anna  Bekorenu,"  Music  of 610 

Anointing  an  Egjptian  King 611 

Antelope  :  see  also  Animals 019 

Antlgonus,  Copper  Coins  of 028 

Antiochus  II.,  Silver  Coin  of 033 

III.,  Silver  Coin  of 033 

IV.,  Epiphanes,  Silver  Coin  of 034 

IV.,  Epiphanes,  Tetradrachm  of 034 

v..  Silver  Coin  of 0.35 

VII. ,  Si  her  Coin  of <m 

I.\..  Silver  Coin  of 036 

Antokolski,  Mark,  Russian  Sculptor 053 

Antokolski's  Bust  of  Mephistopheles 053 

Statue  of  I  )eatli  of  Socrates 053 

Statue  of  Ivan  the  Terrible 054 

Antonia  P'oitress,  Kuius  of 055 

Antoninus  Pius 657 

Antu 618 

Antwerji  Synagogue 059 

Apes  Led  and  Carried  as  Tribute 003 

'  Arak-el-Emir,  Inscription  in  Caveni  at 443 

Architecture:  sccAlmemar;  Synaoooi-e. 

Argentine  Republic:  see  Clara  Colony;  Mauricio,  AdminiBtration  Building;  Mauricio,  Group  at. 

Ark  of  the  Law frontispiece 

Ass  (Asinus  Ileniippus) jilate  between  000-007 

Bain-Marle  as  Used  by  Alchemists 381 

Bath  :    Entrance  to  Jewish  Bath  at  Atidernach 577 

Interior  of  Jewish  B:uh  at  Andernach 577 

Bear  ( frsiis  Syriwits) plate  betioeen  000-007 

Bone  Ilezir :  Inscription  on  Family  Vault 443 

" Bimlierali,"  Music  of 187 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  I 


PAGE 

Boumiary  Stone  :  Inscription  at  Gezer 444 

"Breath  of  Life,  Receiving  the" 174 

Bubale  (Bubalis  lioselaphus) plate  between  606-007 

Buffalo  (N.  Y.)  Synagogue 608 

Cabala:  see  Adam  I^admon. 

Cemetery:  see  Alton  a  ;  Amsterdam;  Chatham  Square;  Newport. 

Ceremonial :  see  An,  Ninth  Day  of  ;  Prostratiox. 

"Chair  of  Moses"  in  Synagogue  at  Kai-Fung-Fu,  China 431 

Chatham  Square  Cemetery,  New  York 611 

Chicago,  Sinai  Temple 608 

Clara  Colony  Children  on  Horseback,  Starting  for  School 244 

Coat  of  Arms:   see  Abesdana  Seal;  Abravanel  Coat  of  Arms. 

Coins  :  see  AoRirrA  I.  ;  Acrippa  II.  ;  Alexander  the  Great  ;  Alexandra  ;  Antiochus  II.  ;  Anti- 
OCHUS  III.  ;  Antiochus  IV. ;  Antiochus  V.  ;  Antiochus  VII.  ;  Antiochus  IX.  ;  ANXiocHns 
Epiphanes  ;  Herod  Antipas  ;   Nero,  Revolt  against  ;   Shekel  of  Simon  Maccabeus. 

Colonies:  see  Mauricio  ;  Metullah  ;  Palestine,  Map  of;  Reuoboth  ;  Rishon  le-Zion  ;  Woodbine, 
N.  J.  ;  ZiKRON  Y'a'aijob. 

Cony  (Procavia  Syriaca) plate  between  (!00-G07 

Costume  :  see  Algerian  Jewess  ;  Anklets. 

Cursive  Writing 463 

Device :  see  Alliance  Israelite  Universelle  ;  American  Jewish  Publication  Society  ;  Amster- 
dam Ashkenazic  Congregation. 

Dog  (Greyhound)  (Cam's  Familiaris  Grajus) plate  between  600-607 

Dromedary  (Cainelus  Dromedarius) plate  between  00()-607 

Emancipation  of  Russian  Jews,  Medal  Commemorating 124 

Ethnology  :  see  Amorites. 

Eve  of  Ninth  Day  of  Ab 25 

Fields,  as  Divided  in  Modern  Palestine 263 

Florence,  Almemar  of  Synagogue  at 430 

Fox  (^'ldl)eK  Nilolicxts) plate  between  000-607 

Gazelle  ( GaziUa  Dorcas) plate  between  006-607 

Gezer,  Inscription  on  Boundary  Stone  of  City  of 444 

Goat  (Capra  Mambrica) plate  between  606-607 

Hammurabi  (Amraphel?),  Effigy  of 536 

Hananyahu  bar  Achbor,  Seal  with  Name  of 165 

Hare  {Lepus  ^■Egijptiac.us) plate  between  606-607 

Hebrew  Accents,  Illustrated  by  Psalm  ex.  1-4 153 

Hebrew  Square  Alphabet,  Development  of 450 

Herod  Antipas.  Copper  Coin  of 639 

Horse  (Equus  Caballus) plate  between  600-607 

"Hou.se  of  Aaron  "  at  Lincoln 17 

"  House  of  Abraham  "  According  to  Tradition 84 

Hyena  {Eycena  Striata) plate  between  000-607 

Ibex  {Capra  Beden) plate  bettceen  006-607 

Incense,  Altar  of 468 

Inscription  on  Column  Discovered  near  Amwas 441 

see  Arak  el-E.mir;    Bene  Hezir  ;    Inscription  on  Column,  etc.;   Judah  the  Scribe;   Kefr 

BiHi'.M  Synagogue;  Shelam  Zion  ;  Siloam. 

Inscriptions :  Coins  of  the  Revolt  Against  Nero  (60-67) 441 

Hebrew 451 

Plate  Showing  Form  of  Letters  in 451 

Jackal  {Canis  Aureus) plate  between  606-607 

Jerusalem,  Almemar  of  Ashkenazic  Synagogue 432 

Judah  the  Scribe,  Inscription  on  Tomb  of 443 

Kefir  Biri'm  Synagogue  Inscription 446 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS   IN  VOLUME   I 


PAGE 

Leopard  (Felia  Leopardus) plate  between  600-60" 

Leutoryx  (Oryx  Leucoryx) plaie  between  006-607 

Library,  Abarbanel 27 

"Life,  Keceiviiig  the  Breath  of" 174 

Lilith,  Amulets  for  Protection  Against plate  between  648-549 

Lion  (Felis  Leo) plate  between  606-607 

Liiah  or  Almanac,  Published  in  London,  1813 428 

Man,  Temptation  of,  Supposed  Assyrian  Representation 174 

Maniiscript  Hebrew  Writing 452 

Maps  :  see  Ai.kxandhia  ;  Colonies. 

"Maria  Hebr.-ea,"  Inventor  of  the  "Bain-Marie" 330 

Mauricio,  Argentine  Colony,  Administration  Buildings 243 

Group  of  Colonists 243 

Russo-Jewish  Colony 242 

Mausoleum  of  Seligman  Family,  Cypress  Hills,  N.  Y 509 

of  Stern  Family,  Cypress  Hills,  N.  Y 509 

Medals:  see  Alexandkr  I.  ;  Westphalia. 

Menorah :  Amulet  in  Form  of  Branched  Candlestick plate  between  548-»49 

Mejullah  Colony  in  Palestine 250 

Miljwah  (Bath)  at  Andernach 577 

Mouse,  Sacrificial 105 

Music,  "  Aboilah  "... 77-78 

"  Addir  Hu  " 187,  188 

"  Adonai,  Adonai  " 202 

" Adonai  Bekol  Shofar" 203 

"  Adonai  Mcick  " 2W 

"Adon  -Olam" 206,  207 

"  Ahoi  Iye(annah  " 295 

" '  Alenii " :M9 

" •  Al  ha-Rishonim " .•588-390 

" '  A 1  Ilet  " 392 

"  Aii'im  Zeniirot" 608 

"  Anna  Bekorenu  " 010 

of  "  Alfdamut " 303 

Nero,  Copper  Coin  of  the  Revolt  Against 441 

Newport  (R.  I.),  Synagogue 507 

Touro  Cemetery 510 

New  York  Cemetery:  see  Ciiatuaji  Square  Cemktery  ;  Mausoleum  of  Seligman  Family;  Maiso- 
LEUM  OF  Steus  Family. 

New  York,  Shearith  Israel  Synagogue 508 

Temple  KmanuEl .lOS 

Ninth  of  Ab,  Synagogue  Service 24,  25 

"  Oak  of  Abraliam  " 93 

Ornament:  see  Alpha  ani>  Omega  ;  Anklets. 

Ox  (Boa  Taurus) plate  bettoeen  606-007 

Palestine,  ^lap  of  Agricultural  Colonies  in 251 

sec  also  Aiiiiauam's  House;   Abraham's  Oak;  Absalom's  Tomb;  Acacia;  Aceldama;  Acre; 

Adcllam  ;  AouiciLTiRAL  Implements  ;  Aloe;  Amnon  ;  Anathoth  ;  Field  nivii>Ei> ;  Plowing 
AMI  HoEiM)  ;  PiiTTERY  Traiie-Mark  ;  Hehouotii  Colony  ;  Rishon  le-Zion  Colony  ;  Tiiresh- 
iNo  ;  Wateu-Wmeel;  Zikron  YA'A^toB  Colony. 

Philadelphia,  Temple  Kcnescth  Israel 509 

Plowing  and  Hoeing  in  Egypt 204 

Plowing  in  Palestine 2(!6 

Porcupine  (Ih/strix  Cristald) plate  between  60<S-607 

Portraits:  see  Aikiaii,  Isaac  pa  Fonseca  ;  Abraham,  Bernard;  Abraham  de  Cologna  ;  Aiiramo- 
wiTscii,  S.  .1.;  Abravanel,  Isaac;  Ai>ler,  Hermann;  Aih.er,  I.iebmann  ;  Ai>ler,  Nathan 
Marois;  Aouilar,  liAitux  d' ;  Aoi'ilar,  fiitAiE;  Alatri,  .Samuel;  Alman/i,  .Ihseph  ;  Al- 
MOSNiNO,  S0LO.MON  ;  Amador  de  los  Rios,  Joaf.  ;  Ancona,  Alessandro  d'  ;  Antokolski,  Mark. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLU]^IE  I 


PAGE 

Pottery  Trade-Mark  Found  at  Lachish ...  441 

Prostration,  Egyptian  Mode  of 210 

Mohammedan  Form  of 210 

Rehoboth  Colony  in  Palestine 249 

Kiuts  in  Algiers,  Synagogue  During 383 

Rishon  le-Zion  Colony  in  Palestine 246 

"Rod  of  Aaron" 5 

Russia :  see  Alexander  I.  ;  Zabludow. 

Sacrifice  of  Isaac 85 

Samaritan  Alphabets 449 

Sculpture  :  see  Axtokolski,  Statues  by. 

Seals  with  Ancient  Hebrew  Characters 440 

see  also  Abendana  Family  Seal;  Austerdau  Portuocesb  Conoregation  ;   Hakantaru  bar 

AcnnoR. 

Sephardic  Script  447 

Shalam  Zion,  Epitaph  of 443 

Sheep  ( Ovis  Aries  Dolichura) plate  between  606-(507 

Shekel  of  Simon  Maccabeus,  Second  Year  of  Independence  (140-139  B.C.) 441 

Siloam  Aqueduct,  Inscription  on 440 

Stars.  Worshipers  of  the 209 

Starvation  Farm,  Baron  d'Aguilar's 274 

Synagogues:  see  Aix-la-Chapelle  ;  Albany,  N.  Y.  ;  Alt-Ofen  ;   Amsterda.m  ;  Antwerp;  Buffalo, 

N.  Y.  ;  Chicago;  New  York,  Shearith  Israel;   New  York,  Temple  £manu-El;   Newport, 

R.  I.  ;  Philadelphia,  Temple  Keneseth  Israel. 

Temple:  see  Altar  of  the  Temple  Restored. 

Temptation  of  Man,  Supposed  Assyrian  Representation  of 174 

Threshing  in  Palestine 269 

Tiamat,  the  Assyrian  Abyss 144 

"Tomb  of  Absalom."  Traditional 133 

Tombstone  :  see  Judah  the  Scribe  ;  Mausoledm. 

Totem-Mouse 165 

Tunis :  Apprentices'  Farm-School 420 

United  States:  see  Buffalo;  Chicago;  New  York;  Newport;  Philadelphia;  Woodbine  Colony 
(N.  J.) ;  see  also  Cemeteries  ;  Synagogues. 

Vase,  Alabaster,  with  Name  of  Xerxes 284 

Water-Wheel  in  Palestine 267 

Westphalia.  Medal  Commemorating  Enfranchisement  of  Jews  in 123 

Woodbine  Colony,  New  Jersey,  General  View 257 

Band  at 261 

Schoolhouse 258 

Worshipers  of  the  Stars 209 

Talo  (Ajalon),  Palestine,  General  View  of 301 

Zabludow,  Russian  Poland,  Almemar  of  Synagogue  at 431 

Zikron  Ya'akob  Colony,  Administration  Building  of 248 

Palestine 247 


THE 


Jewish  Encyclopedia 


AACH  :  A  small  town  in  the  circle  of  Constance, 
Bailcii,  Ueriniuiy.  at  one  time  belouginj;  to  tlie  land 
j;niviate  of  Nellenbur!;,  The  first  mention  of  Jews 
in  Audi  is  found  in  a  docnmcnt  of  the  year  1518,  in 
whidi  the  Jews  of  Geisiniren  arc  aceuse<l  of  liavinj; 
murdered  a  Christian  child.  In  anotliir  ilex  iinicnt. 
of  the  year  \')'i'i,  reference  is  made  to  a  delit  due  to 
a  Jewish  tnidesnum  of  Aach  from  an  inhabitant  of 
Benren.  In  the  archives  of  Carlsruhe  tlicr<'  are  three 
documents  dealing;  cs|)ecially  willi  the  Jews  of  Aacli 
durinju'  tlie  last  lialf  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Every 
ten  years  the  Jews  of  Ntllenliuri^  were  re(|uired  to  re- 
new their  |ierniits  of  residence  in  the  landirniviate. 
The  first  document  shows  that  between  tlie  yeare 
15(S0  and  ITiTO  only  five  Jewish  families  received  such 
jK-rniits;  and  it  is  expressly  state<l  that  they  were 
then  entitled  to  all  the  rights  enjoyed  by  the  other 
citizens  of  Aach;  hut  no  Jew  was  allowed  to  harbor 
Diori'  than  five  strangers  in  his  house.  The  arrival 
of  any  Jewish  visitor  had  to  be  annoimced  to  the 
L<iiulnir/t  anil  buriromaster:  but  no  such  stranijer 
■was  allowed  to  trade  with  the  people  of  Aach.  'I'hi' 
second  document  is  an  eiliet  of  Emperor  Fmliuand 
I.,  dated  Au;r.  1,  I.").")!),  which  deals  wilh  the  laws  re 
giirding  usury.  The  tliird  document,  dated  at  Inns 
bruck,  Oct.  10,  l.">8;i,  renews  the  right  of  residence 
for  six  Jewish  families  of  Aach.  The  provisions  of 
this  act  are  much  ukuc  .severe  than  those  included 
in  the  ddcument  relating  to  the  period  between  the 
years  l.ltiOand  I'uH.  referred  to  above.  The  renewal 
of  residenc<'  was  granted  for  five  years  only:  Jews 
■were  forbidden  to  deal  in  agricidtural  products,  and 
they  were  no  longer  allowed  to  chant  in  the  syna- 
gogue. ThisdilTeience  in  the  treatment  of  the  Jews 
of  Aach  was  due  to  the  attitude  of  Kmperor  Rudolph 
1 1.  The  landgraviale  of  Nellenburg  was  sold  in  \i>4~) 
to  Austria,  and  has  belonged  to  IJaden  since  1^10. 

flic    Ot"f*c/i.  fUr 


Bini.iiMMiAi'Mv:    f.i'.wi'nattln.  In  Xiit.    f\l\ 
.hill,  M  ill  1 1,  iilniiUliul,  If.  lilKKJKS,  111.  74-; 


G. 


AACHEN.     See  Aix-la-Ciiai'ei.le. 

AAROATT :  A  canton  in  northern  Switzerland, 
foniiiily  l|]i-  only  one  in  which  Ji'ws  were  per- 
mitted io  live.  'file  two  townships  Kndlngen  and 
I.<Mignau.  situated  in  the  district  of  Baden  and  about 
three  miles  apart,  formed  for  several  cent uric'S  the 
Swiss  ghetto.  Ill  the  seveiiteeiilh  cenlnry,  or  ))iob- 
ably  at  an  earlier  period,  when  the  .b'Ws  were  ban- 
ished from  till-  coiifcdiration,  several  Jewish  fami 
lies  were  coUectiil  h<re  under  speiial  protection  as 
"Schinn-  uiid  Schiilzjuden."  They  were,  however, 
forbidden  to  buy  lanil  or  to  own  liouses,  and  they 
were  not  permitted  to  live  under  thesjiine  riM)r  with 
Christians, 


The  gulf  separating  them  from  the  Christians  was 
further  widened  in    KiTl,  when  a  special  oath  was 

formulated  for  all  Jews  who  appeared 
Rene^wals  in  ihi'  court  of  justice  (sec  O.vtit, 
of  Charter.  Jews').      The  Jews  were  also  heavily 

taxed.  The  authorities,  who  renewed 
their  charter  every  sixteen  yeais,  received  i)ay  for 
protection.  The  provost  and  the  district  clerk  and 
his  secretary  received  ■'recognition  money  "  and 
"settlement  dues":  and  whenever  the  Jews  pas.sed 
through  a  locality  in  the  canton  they  paid  a  polllax. 
In  171-,  when  the  Jewsat  Lengiiau  were  pillaged  by 
the  country  people,  the  former  had  their  charier  re- 
newed for  sixteen  years,  and  again,  at  its  recurrent 
expiration,  in  1728,  1744,  and  17(!0 — on  the  last  oc- 
casion even  in  spite  of  the  snbprovost's  urgent  de- 
mands that  they  lie  banished. 

The  renewal  of  the  charter  to  tlu'  Jews  in  1760  was 
granted  only  upon  the  express  condition  that  "they 
should  not  multiply  nor  allow  niarriagi-s  between 
poor  persons,  and  that  all  brides  from  without  should 
bring  with  them  .i  dowry  of  at  least  ."ilHI  gulden"; 
liut  there  was  the  further  restriction  that  "they  could 
neither  acipiire  houses,  nor  pnictise  usury,  nor  buy 
estates,  nor  discount  notes,  without  the  permission 
of  the  aulhorities."  In  17!)2  a  condition  was  added 
forbidding  Christian  and  .lew  to  live  under  the  same 
roof  :  but  this  was  the  last  time  that  the  "Hebrews," 
as  the  Swiss  were  accustomed  to  call  the  Jews,  had 
to  renew  the  charter.  Influenced  by  the  results  of  the 
Hevolutioii  in  France,  several  broad  minded  Swi.ss 
statesmen  gave  their  attention  to  the  im]irovenieut 

of  the  precarious  position  of  the  Jews, 

Emancipa-  who  had  increased  from  thirty-five  to 

tion  one  hundred  and  forty  seven  families 

Movement,  diirini;  the  interval  between  the  vears 

17ir,>-!l2.  In  the  year  17!)!l  all  special 
tolls  and  imposts  were  abolished,  and  in  lisb','  the 
polltax  was  also  abrogated.  On  Sipt,  21  of  the 
same  year,  during  the  French  occupation,  a  riot 
broke  out  at  Eiidin.iren  and  l.eiignau;  the  .lews' 
dwellings  were  sacked,  and  they  lost  nearly  all  tlu^ir 
possessiims  in  spile  of  General  Ney's  atleinpls  to 
protect  them.  Yet  this  check  could  not  stem  the 
tide  of  Jewish  emancipation,  lly  a  law  of  May  .'», 
1SII!».  the  right  of  cili/eiiship  was  gninled  to  Jews, 
and  they  were  perniitted  to  engage  in  tnide  and 
airriciillure.  The  right  of  settleiiii'iit,  however, 
still  remained  restricted  to  Kndiiigeii  and  Lengnnu 
until  May  7.  |K-I(l,  when  they  weri'  allowed  to  set- 
tle ill  any  portion  of  tlie  "anton  of  .\argau.  Ten 
years  later  (Sept.  '24,  18."i(t)  the  fedcnil  council  voted 
them  ei|ual  political  rights  wilh  other  Swiss  citi- 
zens in  that  canton,  as  well  as  entire  freeiloni  of 


Aargau 
Aaron 


THE  .IKWISII  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


commerce;  but  the  opposition  of  tlic  Cliristiiin  iiopu- 
latiou  picvcntwl  the  tlecislou  from  beiiii;  generiilly 
ciirrieil  out. 

Ill  lS(io  the  irovernineiit  of  Aariraii  seriously  cou- 
siilered  a  bill  fjraiitiiii;  full  ciifraiichisemciil  to  llie 
Jews,  the  iiiteiilioii  beiiiir  to  irive  them 
En&an-  sulTra.i^e  in  allcoiiiiiuiiial  and  cantonal 
chisement  rights,  and  to  coustituli'  the  eoiiiniiiiii- 
Considered,  ties  of  Eiidingen  and  Leiiiriiau  autoiio- 
iiious  villiiires.  This  bill  was  strenu- 
ously opposed  by  the  Clirisliaii  iiopiilalioii,  and  led 
to  serious  disorders  which  threati'iied  Jewish  [irop- 
erty.  Notwithstanding  the  violent  opposition  of 
the  Ultnimontano  jiarty  throutrli  its  jiress,  the  gov- 
ernment bill  was  carried  .May  1">,  \H(i'i,  by  a  vote  of 
113  to  2.  This  law  should  have  become  operative 
on  July  1  of  that  year:  but  the  dissalisfaclion  hav- 
ing become  general  throughout  the  canton,  the  law 
was  rejiealed  by  a  rel'ereiiduni.  Jewish  enianeipa- 
lion  now  liecaiiie  a  fi'deral  alfair.  and  was  submitted 
for  decision  to  the  federal  council.  The  federal  au- 
thorities in  July,  IWB;!,  granted  the  Swiss  Jews  the 
fulU'St  ri.ghts  of  citizens,  ii  result  due  largely  to  the 
ollorts  of  the  Swiss  Jewish  "  Kullurverein  "  (Cult- 
ure Society),  founded  in  ISOS  and  dissolved  after  an 
existence  of  twenty  years.  Full  civil  eciualily  was 
obtained  only  when  they  n'Ceived  the  formal  righls 
of  citizenship,  whi<h  had  long  been  withhehl  from 
them  in  their  own  cominuiiities  of  Eiidiiigeii  and 
Lengnau.  A  resolution  of  the  "Grosse  lialli"  of 
Aargau,  May  15,  11S77,  granted  citiz<'ns'  lights  to  the 
members  of  the  Jewish  communities  of  those  places, 
giving  them  charters  under  the  names  of  New  En- 
dingen  and  New  Lengnau.  The  iirohibitioii  against 
the  Jewish  mode  of  slaughtering,  which  by  a  Jile- 
biscitum  Ijecame  the  law  of  the  canton  (see  Switz- 
khi..\nd),  bore  especially  hard  on  the  Jewish  com- 
munities of  Aargau. 

The  civil,   intellectual,  and  religious  life  of  the 
Jews  in  Aargau  dilTered  little  from  that  in  other 
countries.     For  a  long  time  the  Swiss 
Religious     Jews  were  not  allowed  to  bury  their 
and  dead    in    Swiss    soil.      Their   burial- 

General  place  was  an  island  in  the  Rhine  near 
Progress.  C'oblenz  (Switzerland),  which  is  still 
called  Judenilule,  or  Jews'  Isle, 
bought  for  that  purpose  from  the  community  of 
■Waldshut.  in  Baden.  It  was  only  about  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  that  they  received  per- 
mission to  ac((uire  a  joint  cemetery  situated  be- 
tween Endingen  and  Lengnau,  which  has  been  in 
use  ever  since.  The  first  synagogue  was  erected 
at  Lengnau  in  IT.'io,  it  being  the  first  on  Swiss  soil 
after  the  general  expulsion  ;  and  nine  years  later  the 
congregation  of  Endingen  had  the  satisfaction  of 
assembling  in  their  own  house  of  worship.  After 
a  lapse  of  ninety  years  beautiful  synagogues  were 
erected  in  both  communities.  In  1810  considerable 
funds  were  collected  for  the  maintenance  of  com- 
munal schools,  which  were  put  on  an  equal  footing 
with  tlio.se  of  the  Christians  in  18:55  and  subsidized 
by  the  goveniment. 

Originally  one  rabbi  served  both  communities. 
The  first  one  mentioned  Loeb  Pinschow.  is  buried 
with  his  wife  on  Jews'  Isle.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Jacob  ben  Isserle  Schvaich.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  Raphael  Ris,  surnamed  Raphael 
Hagenthal.was  appointed  rabbi  of  the  two  communi- 
ties. He  died  in  1818,  and  was  succeeded  by  Isaac 
Luutschi'itz,  surnamed  Isaiicof  Westhofen.  who  held 
the  office  but  one  year.  His  successor  was  Raiihael 
Kis'  son,  Abraham  Ris,  previou.sly  rabbi  at  Mfihriu- 
gen.  After  a  lapse  of  three  years  a  conflict  arose  be- 
tween the  two  communities,  which  was  settled  bv 


the  government's  appointing  Abraham  Ris  rabbi  for 

Endingen  only  and  \Volf  Dreifus  for  Lengnau.     The 

suhseipieiit   ap|ioinlment  of    Leo|)old 

Dissen-  Wyler  as  rabbi  of  Endingen  gave  rise 
sious.  to  grave  dissensions  in  the  commun- 
ity,which  culminated  in  his  retirement 
from  ofllcc.  The  government  issued  a  decree  in  is.);', 
regulating  the  appointment  and  the  duties  of  the 
rabbis,  and  in  18.')4  .lulius  Fhrst  was  elected  nibbi  of 
Endingen.  hut  ri'signed  three  years  later.  After  the 
death  of  Dreifus  the  t  wo comniunilies  reiiniled;  and 
at  the  close  of  1801  the  government  appointed  M. 
K.wsEUMXG  to  the  rabbinical  ollice,  which  he  held 
until  1870. 

Resides  that  of  Endingen  and  Lengnau,  there  e.\- 
ists  in  the  canton  Aargau  a  Jewish  community  at 
Hadeil  with  about  "J. 000  ])ersons,  who  have  a  rabbi 
and  a  school.  A  few  families  live  at  Aarau  and  Bri'in- 
.uarten.  In  1H75  there  were  1,808  Jews  at  .\argau 
(Engelbert).  Since  the  right  of  free  movement  has 
been  accorded  to  them,  Jews  have  settled  in  several 
cantons  of  the  Swiss  Confederation. 

IJIBLIOGR.VPIIY:  J.  C.  Ulricli,  Siimmliinu  JIhl.  Ocuch.  in  Ocr 
Sc/(HV'I2,  pp.;iti*wt  sfi/,;  tllf  siiltie.  t'.i'l\ti  ni'issi.'^rhr  Alischicite^ 
vill.  477  il  .••■<■(/.;  Mif  s;ime.  .l;"i/"fi.(.  li.  I.'iii  1 1  ^f  </.;  Hiiil,  Jv.  KW 
('(  seq.;  F.  .v.  SttK-ker,  I)if  Virhi'lltKis.-^,  tl>  rjwhn  iiii  .tfiri/iiM, 
Aarau,  ISfJl ;  tin*  suiir',  Itit-  Jtutin(vn{ic  vur  tit  in  firosstn 
liatbc  (tf;,s  Kiinli»ii<  Aaiynn^  Auniii,  Jsty;  Kuyserltni:,  IMe 
Kmnncipatiiin  im  Aomtju^  in  Mmmlsttcliri/t^ xil.  4\'^it  .•>■»■</.; 
i7)tV/,  441-t.>t :  the  same,  hit- Jmli  itiit.^tt  utiii  tier  Schifflirui'h 
hei  Kttlilcuz.  Ein  (itthuhhltill,  Hmli^n,  1873;  RatimcUi  II- 
luKtriiic  liimitr  lUi  </<(.i  VtilU,  ls«l,  Nus.  48  et  «•>/.;  (irfilz, 
<ie!<clt.  il,  Judau  vii,  3(5.5  et  vfii. 

M.  K. 

AARON.— Biblical  Data  :  One  of  two  brothers 
who  |ilay  a  uiii(iiie  part  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrew- 
people,  lie  was  the  elder  soil  of  .Vmram  and  Joche- 
bed  of  the  tribe  of  Levi;  Moses,  the  other  si>n,  being 
three  years  younger,  and  JIiniAM,  their  sister,  .sev- 
eral years  older  (Ex.  ii.  4).  Aaron  was  the  great- 
grandson  of  Levi  (Ex.  vi.  10-'20)niid  represented  the 
priestly  functions  of  his  tribe.  While  Jloses  was 
receiving  his  education  at  the  Egyptian  court  and 
during  his  e.xile  among  the  Midianites,  Aaron  and 
his  sister  remained  with  their  kinsmen  in  the  eastern 
border-land  of  Egypt.  Here  he  gained  a  name  for 
eloquent  and  persuasive  spei'ch:  so  that  when  the 
time  came  for  the  demand  upon  Piiahaou  to  release 
Israel  from  captivity,  Aaron  became  his  brother's 
niihi,  or  spokesman,  to  his  own  peojile  (Ex.  iv.  10) 
and,  after  their  unwillingness  to  hear,  to  Pharaoh 
himself  (Ex.  vii.  'J). 

Aaron's  function  included  the  duties  of  speaker 
and  implied  personal  dealings  with  the  court  on 

behalf   of    Moses,    who    was    always 

His  tli(^  central  moving  ligure.     The  part 

Function,     jilayed  by  Aaron  in  the  events  that 

|ucceded  the  Exoilus  was,  therefore, 
ministerial,  and  not  directive.  He  shared  the  mi- 
raculous powers  of  Moses,  and  performed  "  signs  " 
before  his  people  which  imjiressed  them  with  a 
belief  in  the  reality  of  the  ilivine  mission  of  the 
brothers  (Ex.  iv.  15.  10).  At  the  command  of  Moses 
he  stretched  out  his  rod  in  order  to  firing  on  the 
first  three  plagues  (Ex.  vii.  10,  viii.  1,  Vi).  In  the 
inlliction  of  the  remaining  plagues  he  appears  to 
have  acted  merely  as  the  attendant  of  Mo.ses,  whose 
outstretched  rod  drew  the  divini^  wrath  upon  Pha- 
raoh and  his  subjects  (Ex.  ix.  23.  x.  13.  22).  The 
])otency  of  Aaron's  rod  liad  already  been  demon- 
strated by  its  victory  over  the  rods  of  the  Egyptian 
magicians,  which  it  swallowed  after  all  the  rods 
alike  had  been  turned  into  serpents  (Ex.  vii.  {)  etner/.). 
During  the  journey  in  the  wilderness  Aaron  is  not 
always  prominent  or  active;  and  he  sometimes  ap- 
pears guilty  of  rebellious  or  treasonable  conduct. 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aargau 
Aaron 


At  tlip  buttle  with  Aiiialik  lie  is  chosen  with  Hur 
to  support  the  hand  of  Moses  tliiit  hekl  the  "rod  of 
God  "  (Ex.  xvii.  9  ct  «e(j.).  When  the  revelation  was 
^iven  to  Moses  at  Sinai,  he  lieaded  the  elders  of 
Israel  who  aecomjianied  5Ioses  on  the  way  to  the 
summit.  Joshua,  however,  was  admitted  with  his 
leader  to  the  very  presence  of  the  Lord,  while  Aaron 
and  Hur  remained  helow  to  look  after  the  people 
(Ex.  xxiv.  9-14).  It  was  duriu!;  the  prolonu'ed  ab- 
sence of  Moses  that  Aaron  yielded  to  the  clamors  of 
the  people,  and  made  a  frolden  calf  as  a  visible 
image  of  the  divinity  who  had  delivered  them  from 
Ejrypi  (Ex.  xxxii.  1-ti).  At  the  intercession  of  Moses, 
Aaron  was  sjivcd  from  the  plajrue  which  smote  the 
people  (Deut.  ix.  2();  Ex.  xxxii.  :!.")),  althouj^h  it  was 
to  Aaron's  tribe  of  Levi  that  the  work  of  |)unitive 
vengeance  was  committed  (Ex.  xxxii.  20  c?  dec/.).    At 

the  time  when  the  Iribeof  Levi  was  set 

Becomes     apart  for  the  priestly  service,  Aaron 

Priest    of    was  anointed  and  consecrated  to  the 

Israel.       priesthofid,  arrayed  in  the  robes  of  his 

otlice,  and  instructed  in  its  manifold 
liuties  (Ex,  xxviii.  and  xxix.).  On  the  very  day  of 
his  eonsecnition  his  sons.  Nadab  ami  Abihu,  were 
consumed  l)y  tire  from  the  Lord  for  having  ollered 
incense  in  an  unlawful  manner  (Lev.  x.).  This  stroke 
Aaron  bore  in  silence. 

From  the  time  of  the  sojourn  at  Sinai,  where  he 
became  the  anointed  priest  of  Israel,  Aaron  ceased 
to  be  tlie  minister  of  Jlo.ses,  his  place  being  taken 
by  Joshua.  He  is  mentioned  in  as.sociation  with 
Miriam  in  a  jealous  complaint  against  the  ex- 
clusive claims  of  Closes  as  the  Lord's  ])roi)het. 
The  presuminion  of  the  munuurers  was  nbuked, 
and  >Iiriam  was  smitten  with  leprosy.  Aaron  en- 
treated Moses  to  intercede  for  her,  at  the  same 
time  confis,sing  the  sin  and  folly  that  prompted 
the  uprising.  Aaron  himself  was  not  struck  with 
the  plague  on  aceoimt  of  siuerdotal  immunity  ;  and 
Miriam,  after  seven  days'  quarantine,  was  healed 
and  restored  to  favor  (Num.  xii.).  It  is  noteworthy 
that  the  jirophet  Mieah  (vi.  4)  mentions  Moses, 
Aaron,  and  Miriam  as  the  leaders  of  Israel  after  the 
E.xodus  (a  judgment  wholly  in  accord  with  the  tenor 
of  the  narratives).  In  the  present  instance  it  is  made 
clear  by  the  express  words  of  the  oracle  (Num.  xii. 
6-t*)  that  Moses  was  unii|Ue  among  men  as  the  one 
with  whom  the  Lord  spoke  face  to  face.  The  failure 
to  recognize  or  concede  this  jirerogative  of  their 
brother  was  the  sin  of  Miriam  and  Aaron.  The  va- 
lidity of  the  exclusive  priesthood  of  the  family  of 
Aaron  was  at  tested  after  the  ill- fated  rebellion  of  Ko- 

ii.vH.  who  was  a  lirst  cousin  of  Aaron. 
Rebellion  AVhen  the  larth  had  o|iened  and  swal- 
of  Korah.     lowed  up  the  lea<lers  of  the  insurgents 

(Num.  xvi.  2.')-:{.')),  Ei.e.vz.vh,  the  son 
of  Aaron,  was  commissioned  to  take  charge  of  the 
censers  of  Ihi'dead  priests.  .\nil  when  the  i)lague 
had  broken  out  among  the  people  who  had  sympa- 
thized with  the  rebels,  Aaron,  at  the  command  of 
Moses,  took  his  censer  and  stood  between  the  living 
nud  thediad  till  the  plague  was  stayi-d  (Num\.  xvii. 
1-15,  xvi.  ;!»>-,")(),  A. v.).  Another  memorable  trans- 
action followed.  Each  of  the  tribal  i)rinees  of  Is- 
rael took  a  rod  and  wrote  his  name  upon  it.  and 
the  twelve  rods  were  hiid  up  over  nii;hl  in  the  tent 
of  meeting,  Dn  the  morrow  .\aron's  rod  was  found 
to  have  budded  and  blossomed  an<l  borne  ripi- 
almonds  (Num.  xvii.  S:  .see  Aaiion's  Kdd).  The 
miracle  proved  merely  the  prerogative  of  the  tribe 
of  L<'vi:  but  now  a  formal  disiinetion  was  maile 
in  perpetuity  between  the  family  of  Aaron  a[id  the 
other  Leviles.  While  all  the  Levites  (and  only 
Levites)  were  to  be  devoted  to  sacred  services,  the 


special  charge  of  the  sanctuary  and  the  altar  was 
committed  to  the  Aaronites  alone  (Num.  xviii.  1-7). 
The  scene  of  this  enactment  is  unknown,  nor  is  the 
time  mentioned. 

Aaron,  like  Moses,  was  not  permitted  to  enter 
Canaan  with  the  successful  invaders.  The  reason 
alleged  is  that  the  two  brothers  showed  impatience 
at  Meribah  (Kadesh)  in  the  last  year  of  the  desert 
pilgrimage  (Num.  xx.  12,  i:5i,  when  they,  or  rather 
Moses,  brought  water  out  of  a  rock  to  quench  the 
thirst  of  the  people.  The  action  was  construed  as 
displaying  a  want  of  defirence  to  the  Lord,  since 
they  had  been  commanded  to  speak  to  the  rock, 
whereas  Moses  struck  it  with  the  wonder-working 
rod  (Num.  xx.  7-11).  Of  the  death  of  Aaron  we 
have  two  accounts.  The  principal  one  gives  a  de- 
tailed statement  to  the  elTect  that,  soon 
Death.  after  the  above  incident,  Aaron,  with 
his  son  Eleazar  and  Closes,  ascended 
MoiXT  Hon.  There  Jloses  stripped  him  (Aaron) 
of  his  priestly  garments,  and  transferred  them  to 
Eleazar.  Aaron  died  on  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tain, and  the  people  mourned  for  him  thirty  days 
(Num.  XX.  22-29;  compare  xxxiii.  :i8,  89).  Theotlur 
account  is  found  in  Deut.  x.  (i.  where  Moses  is  re- 
ported as  saying  that  Aaron  died  at  Mi)SiiK.\  and  was 
l)uried  there.  Mosera  is  not  on  Mount  Hor,  since 
the  itinerary  in  Num.  xxxiii.  31-37  records  seven 
stages  between  Moseroth  (Mosera)  and  Moimt  Hor. 

J.  F.  McC. 
In  Apocryphal  and  Rabbinical  Litera- 
ture :  The  older  |)rophets  and  prophetical  wri- 
ters beheld  in  their  jiriests  the  representatives  of 
a  religious  form  inferior  to  the  prophetic  truth; 
men  without  the  spirit  of  God  and 
Tjrpical  lacking  the  will-i)ower  reciuisite  to  re- 
Sig-nifica-  sist  the  multitude  in  its  idolatrous  pro- 
tion.  divities.  Thus  Aaron,  the  typical 
l)riest,  ranks  far  below  Moses;  he  is 
but  his  mouth])iece.  and  the  executor  of  the  will 
of  God  revealed  through  Moses,  although  it  is 
pointed  out  (Sifra.  Wayikra,  i.)  that  it  is  sjiid  fif- 
teen times  in  the  Pentateuch  that  "the  Lord  spoke 
to  Jloses  iiiul  Aaron."  Under  the  influence  of  the 
liriesthood  which  shaped  the  destinies  of  the  nation 
under  Pei-sian  rule,  a  dilTerent  ideal  of  the  jiriest 
was  formed,  as  is  learned  from  JIal.  ii.  4-7;  and  the 
prevailing  tendency  was  to  place  Aaron  on  a  footinir 
eipial  with  !Moses.  ".Vt  times  Aaron,  and  at  other 
times  Moses,  is  mentioned  first  in  Scripture — this  is 
to  show  that  they  were  of  eipial  rank,"  says  Mekilta 
X3.  1;  and  Ecclesiasticus  (Sirach),  xlv.  6-24.  ex- 
pressly infers  this  whin  introducing  in  his  record 
of  renowned  men  the  glowing  description  of  Aaron's 
ministration.  According  to  Tan.  (ed.  H\iber.  ii.  12), 
.\aron's  activity  as  a  prophet  began  earlier  than 
that  of  Moses.  The  writer  of  the  Testaments  of 
the  Patriarchs,  however,  hesitates  to  rank  Moses 
till'  faithful,  "him  that  speaks  with  God  as  with  a 
father,"  as  icpial  with  Aaron  (Testament  of  Levi, 
viii,  17).  The  rabbis  are  still  more  emphatic  in 
their  praise  of  Aaron's  virtues.  Thus  Hillel.  who 
in  Herod's  time  saw  ln'fore  hin\  mainly  a  degenerate 
class  r)f  priests,  seltish  and  quarnlsome.  held  Aaron 
of  old  up  as  a  mirror,  saying;  "He  of  the  disciples 
of  Aaron,  loving  peace  and  pursuiuir 
Moses  and  peace;  love  your  fellow  creatures  and 
Aaron  draw  them  nigh  unto  the  IjiwI"  (Abot. 
Compared,  i,  12),  This  is  further  illustrated  by 
the  traililion  preserved  in  Abot  de-  K. 
N.  xii.  ."^anh.  (Vi.  and  elsewhere,  according  to  which 
Aaron  was  an  ideal  prii-st  of  the  people,  far  more 
beloveil  for  his  kindly  ways  than  wius  Mos<'S. 
While  Mi>sea  was  stern  ami  uncompromising.  briMik- 


Aaron 
Aaron's  Bod 


THE  JEWISH   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


ing  no  wrong,  Aaron  went  abont  as  poacemakor. 
reconciling  man  iiuil  wife  wlicii  lie  sjiw  llicni  cs 
trangcd.  or  a  iniiii  with  liis  neighbor  wlnii  llicv 
quarn-U'il.  and  winning  evil  doers  hiiek  into  the  right 
way  by  his  friendly  inlercourse.  The  mourning  of 
the  people  at  Aaron's  death  was  greater,  tin  refore, 
than  at  that  of  Moses:  for  wherca.s,  when  Aaron  dieil 
the  whole  house  of  Israel  wept,  including  the  women 
(Xum.  xx.  'ii)),  Moses  was  bewailed  b^-  "the  sons 
of  Israel"  only  (l)eut,  xxxiv.  8).  Even  in  the  ma 
king  of  the  Golden  Calf  the  rabbis  find  extenua- 
ting circumstances  for  Aaron  (Sauli.  7^).  llis  forti- 
tude and  silent  submission  to  the  will  of  God  on  the 
loss  of  his  two  sons  are  referred  to  as  an  excellent 
example  to  men  how  to  glorify  God  in  the  midst  of 
great  affliction  (Zeb.  IIT)/;;  Josephus,  "Ant."iii.  !:<, 
§  T).  Especially  signiticant  are  the  words  represented 
as  being  spoken  by  God  after  the  princes  of  the 
Twelve  Tribes  had  brought  their  didication  offer 
ings  into  the  newly  n'ared  Tabernacle:  "Say  to  thy 
brother  Aaron:  Greater  than  the  giflsof  the  jirinces 
is  thy  gift;  for  thou  art  called  upon  to  kindle  the 
light,  and,  while  the  sacrifices  shall  last  only  as  long 
as  the  Temple  lasts,  thy  light  of  the  Law  shall  last 
forever"  (Tan.,  ed.  Buber,  in^yna.  6). 

In  fulfilment  of  the  promise  of  peaceful  life,  sym- 
bolized by  the  pouring  of  oil  up<in  his  head  (Lev. 
U.  X.,  Midr.  Teh.  cxxxiii.  1),  Aaron's 

Death  of  death,  as  described  in  the  Ilaggadah, 
Aaron.  was  of  a  wonderful  tranquillity.  Ac- 
companied by  Jloses,  his  brother,  and 
by  Eleazar,  his  .son,  Aaron  went  to  the  siunmit  of 
Mount  Hor,  where  the  rock  suddenly  opened  be- 
fore him  and  a  beaiitifid  cave  lit  by  a  lamp  pre- 
sented itself  to  his  view.  ''Take  off  thy  jiricstly 
raiment  and  place  it  upon  thy  son  Eleazar!  "  said 
Closes;  "and  then  follow  me."  Aaron  did  as  com- 
manded; and  they  entered  the  cave,  where  was  pre- 
pared a  bed  aroimd  which  angels  stood.  "Go  lie 
down  upon  thy  bed,  my  brother,"  Jloses  continued  : 
and  Aaron  obeyed  without  a  nnuniur.  Then  his  sold 
departed  as  if  liy  a  kiss  from  God.  The  cave  closcfl 
behind  Moses  as  he  left ;  and  he  went  down  the  hill 
with  Eleazar,  with  garments  rent,  and  crying:  "Alas, 
Aaron,  my  brother!  thou,  the  ]iillar  of  sui)plication 
of  Israel  I  "  When  the  Israelites  cried  in  bewilder- 
ment," Where  is  Aaron?  "  angels  were  seen  carrying 
Aaron's  bier  through  the  air.  A  voice  was  then  heard 
saying:  "The  law  of  truth  was  in  hismotith,  and  in- 
iquity was  not  found  on  his  lips:  he  walked  with 
me  in  righteousness,  and  brought  many  Itack  from 
sin"  ( Mai.  ii.  6,  7).  lie  died,  according  to  Seder  '( Jlam 
R.  ix.,  R.  H.  2.  3'!,  and  .losephus,"  Ant."  iv.  A,  ^  7,  on 
the  first  of  Ab.  .losephus  says  also  that  "he  died 
while  the  multitude  looked  upon  him."  The  pillar 
of  cloud  which  proceeded  in  front  of  Israel's  camp 
disappeared  at  Aaron's  death  (see  Seder  'Olam,  ix. 
and  R.  H.  2l/-3u).  The  seeming  C(mtradiclion  be- 
tween Num.  XX.  '22  et  ner/.  and  Dent.  x.  6  is  solved 
by  the  rabbis  in  the  following  manner  :  Aaron's 
death  on  Mount  Hor  was  marked  by  the  defeat  of 
the  peo]iIe  in  a  war  with  the  king  f)f  Arad.  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  Israelites  fled,  marching  seven 
stations  backward  to  Jlosera,  where  they  jierformed 
the  rites  of  mouridng  for  Aaron ;  wherefore  it  is  said : 
"There  fat  Mosera]'died  Aaron."  See  Mek.,  Besh- 
allah,  Wayassii',  i. ;  Tan.,  Hukkat,  18;  Yer.  Sotah,  i. 
17c.  and  Targ.  Yer.  Num.  and  Deut.  on  the  above- 
mentioned  passages. 

The  rabbis  also  dwell  with  special  laudation  on 
the  brotherly  sentiment  which  united  Aaron  and 
Moses.  AYhen  the  latter  was  appointed  rider  and 
Aaron  high  priest,  neither  betrayed  any  jealousy; 
instead  they  rejoiced   in   one  another's  greatness. 


When  Moses  at  first  declined  to  go  to  Pharaoh, 
.saying:  "()  my  Lord,  seial,  I  pray  thee,  by  the  hand 
"f  him  whom  thou  wilt  send"  (ICx.  iv.  13),  he  was 
unwilling  to  dei)rive  Aaron,  his  brother,  of  the  high 
position  the  latter  had  held  for  so  many  years; 
hut  the  Lord  rea.ssured  him,  saying:  "Behold,  when 
he  seeth  thee,  he  will  be  glad  in  his  heart  "  (Ex.  iv. 
1-1).  Indeed,  Aaron  was  to  find  his  reward,  .says 
Simon  ben  Yohai  ;  for  that  heart  which  bad  leaped 
with  joy  over  his  younger  brother's  rise  ti)  gliiry 
gicate'-  than  his  was  decorated  with  the  Urim  and 
Thummiin,  which  were  to  "be  upon  Aaron's  heart 
when  he  goeth  in  before  the  Lord"  (Cant.  R.  i.  10). 
Moses  and  Aaron  met  in  gladness  of  heart,  kissing 
each  other  as  true  brothers  (Ex.  iv.  37;  compare  Song 
of  Songs,  viii.  l),and  of  them  it  is  written:  "Behold 
how  giiod  and  how  i>lea.sant  [it  is]  for  brethren  to 
dwell  together  in  unity  !"  (Ps.  cxxxiii.  1).  Of  them 
it  is  said  (Ps.  Ixxxv.  1(1):  "  .Mercy  and  truth  are  met 
together;  righteousness  and  jxaee  have  kis.sed  [each 
i>ther|";  for  .Moses  stood  for  righteousness,  according 
to  Deut.  xxxiii.  21,  and  Aaron  for]>eace,  according  to 
Mai.  ii.  (>.  Again,  mercy  was  personified  in  Aaron,  ac- 
cording to  Deut.  xxxiii.  S,  and  truth  in  Moses,  accord- 
ing to  Num.  xii.  7  (Tan.,  Shcmot,  cd.  Buber,  2-1-26). 
When  .Moses  poiu'ed  the  oil  of  anointment  upon 
t!i<'  head  of  Aaron,  Aaron  modestly  shrank  back  and 
said:  "Who  knows  whether  I  have  not  cast  some 
blemish  upon  this  sacred  oil  so  as  to  forfeit  this  high 
ollice."  Then  the  Holy  Spirit  spake  the  words: 
"Behold  the  precious  ointment  upon  the  hca<l,  that 
ran  down  upon  the  beard  of  Aaron,  that  even  went 
down  to  the  skirts  of  his  garment,  is  as  pure  as  the 
dc'w  of  Ilermon  "  (P.s.  cxxxiii.  2,  3,  Jfili.  ;  Sifra.  She- 
mini,  Milluim;  Tan.,  Korah,  cd.  Buber,  14). 

liiBLioiiKAi'iiv;  !\'um.  Ii.  xix.;  Lev.  R.  x.;  Mtdr.  Pctirat 
AJiartm  In  Jellineli's  lict  ha-MidriiKh,  ).i)l-iVi;  Yalh.  yum. 
7'14:  BariDjr-Gould.  it'i/cH^/.v  i if  Old  Tc.^'lnmcnt  Chn'rnctent; 
lltritnivlfs  of  Ji-rnhitttrl,  ed.  M.  (Vaster,  pp.  cxi.  l:J(>-i:j:(;  B. 
Beer,  in  Wertlieimer's  Ja?(r/*.,  18.%;  HaniburRer. /At  Gcit^ 
tier  Hiiiitiiula,  pp.  l-S;  the  same,  ReaUncyklnpOdic  fUr 
liihii  inttt  Tiiliiiud.  s.  v. 

K. 

Critical    'Vie-w :    It  has   always  been  found 

dirticult  to  construct  a  comjilete  and  consistent  bio- 
graphical story  from  the  Bii)lical  details  as  outlined 
above.  According  to  most  modern  critics,  the  <litli- 
culties arise  from  the  fact  that  these  details  come  from 
different  sources,  and  that  the  sources  themselves  are 
of  different  dates  and  represent  separate  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  Hebrew  religion  and  ritual. 
The  .Jahvistic  document  (usually  cited  as  .1)  and 
the  Elohistic  (E)  are  held  to  have  iiroceeded  from 
the  idntli  or  eighth  century  li.c. ;  while  the  Peule- 
ronomic  (I)>  rellects  the  time  of  .losiiih.  an<l  the 
priestly  document  (P)  the  i)eriods  of  the  Exile  and 
the  Return.  The  genealogy  (Ex.  vi.)  belongs  to  the 
priestly  source  ((listinguished  as  P),  while  the 
details  are  about  evenly  divided  between  P  and  J 
(.Jahvist)  and  E  (Elohist)  narratives,  and  one  ac- 
count of  Aaron's  death  apjiears  in  the  Deuteronomic 
source.  It  is  found  that  what  concerns  Aaron's  con- 
secration to  the  ]iriesthood  and  the  acts  of  himself 
and  his  family  in  that  otiice,  as  well  as  his  relations 
to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  ])roceed  from  the  jiriestly  source 
(P).  This  embraces  most  of  what  is  said  on  these 
topics  in  Exodus  (xxv.-xl.),  Leviticus,  and  Niun- 
bers.  Now  itisclaimcd  thatforhistorical  purposesa 
sharp  dividing-line  must  be  drawn  between  P  (which 
has  for  its  aim  to  describe  the  rise  and  progress  of 
the  Aaronic  iiriesthood)  and  the  earlier  documents. 
The  explanation  of  the  distinction  takes  account 
of  the  fact  that  Moses  and  Aaron  represent  the  genius 
and  the  mi-ssion  of  Israel  as  no  other  men  do;  the 
one  being  the  great  lawgiver  and  prophet,  the  other 


TUK  J  K WISH  E^X•YCLOPEDIA 


Aaron 
Aaron's  Rod 


the  first  and  typical  liiiili  priest.  Tojjfcthcr  llicy  thus 
represent  the  moral  and  relif^ious  functions  wliich 
Israel  had  to  fulfil.  Willi  this  idea  in  mind,  the 
later  liililical  writers  treated  the  ciharaeter  and  work 
of  tlie  two  men  represenlalively.  so  that  they  pre- 
sent not  only  a  historical,  hut  an  idcali/ed.  Moses 
and  Aaron,  It  is,  moreover,  sijinifieant  that,  leavinj; 
P  aside,  a  fairly  consistent  hio^'ra])hy  may  lie  macU' 
out,  and  this  must  he  adhered  loin  Ihe  main;  for 
P  throujfhout  is  constructive  and  idealistic,  usiuf;  its 
narrative  to  indicate  how  the  postexilian  priestly 
system  must  have  grown  u])  to  its  ideal  complete 
ncss  in  the  course  of  Israel's  history.  Much  has 
been  Iheori/.ed  by  some  crilics.  ten<linir  to  show  that 
Aaron  the  priest  was  a  fiirment  devised  to  .ifivc 
validity  to  the  siccrdotal  order.  Even,  however,  if 
some  interpolations  in  the  documents  earlier  than 
P,  (hie  to  priestly  hands,  lie  assumed,  there  remains 
asuhstantial  historical  liasis  of  fact  for  thccareerof 
Aaron  as  the  assistant  and  spokesman  of  Moses,  as 
the  deputy  of  his  lirotlier  (luriii!;  the  desert  wan- 
dcrinps,  and  as  Ihe  chief  priest  of  his  people. 
AmoiiiT  other  consideralions,  a  .iruaninty  for  the 
soundness  of  the  tradition  in  the  record  of  personal 
actions  is  alforded  hy  the  fact  tliat  what  is  disad 
vanlafreous  to  Aaron  is  t<ild  as  well  as  what  is 
favoralile,  and  that  he  is  shown,  especially  in  Ihe 
affair  of  the  calf-worship,  to  have  been  infiuenced 
by  the  moral  and  spiritual  limitations  of  his  aire 
and  environment.  See  also  Phiksts,  PitiEsxirooi). 
etc.  J.  F.  McC. 

AARON'S     ROD.— Biblical     Data:     A  rod 

whii  li.  ill  III.'  hand-,  i.r  .Viinm.  the  liiLrh  priest,  was 
cikIowiiI  with  miraculous  power  durinir  the  several 
plagues  that  preceded  the  Kxodiis.  In  this  function 
the  rod  of  Mo.ses  was  ((iiially  potent.  l'i>ou  two 
occasions,  however,  the  simnilar  virtue  of  spon- 
tuneoiis  power,  when  not  in  the  grasp  of  its  posses 
sor,  was  exiiihited  liv  Aaron's  Hod.  At  one  lim<' 
it  swaUowed  Ihe  rods  of  the  Egyptian  magicians, 
anil  at  another  it  hlos,somed  and  liore  fruit  in  the 
Tabernacle,  as  an  evidenc<'  of  the  exclusive  right  to 
the  jiriesthood  of  the  Iribe  of  Levi  (see  A.mion).  In 
commemoration  of  this  decision  it  was  coniinanded 
that  Ihe  rod  be  imt  again  "hefore  th<'  testimony'' 
(Num.  .wii.  111).  A  later  tradition  asserts  (Ileb.  ix.  4) 
that  Ihe  rod  was  kept  in  the  Ark  of  tlie  Covenant. 
The  main  fact,  however,  is  thus  confirmed,  that  a 
rod  was  iireserved  in  the  Tabi'rnacle  as  a  relic  of  the 
institution  of  the  Aaronic  priislliood. 

J,  F.  McC. 

In  Rabbinical    Literature :    The  Bible  as 

cribes  similar  niirueulous  powiis  to  Ihe  Hod  of  Aaron 
and  lo  IheslalVof  Moses  (compare.  forexam|de,  Ex. 
iv.  'i  it  mij.  and  vii.  ill.  The  IhiL'i.'udah  goes  a  stc)! 
further,  and  enlinly  identiras  the  Hod  of  Aaron  witli 
that  of  Sloses.  Thus  Ihe  Midrash  Yelaindenu  ("Valk. 
on  Ps.  ex.  S  H«9)  stales  that 

"tlie  stiilT  Willi  wlilili  Jiicet)  eniswMl  Ihe  .Innliin  Is  lilentlcnl 
Willi  Unit  wtili-h  ,lti(liih  iriivu  to  IiI.h  (liiiij^hler-iii-liiw.  Tainiir 
(IJi-Il.  .I.xxll.  Ill,  .\.v.xvlll.  ISI.  II  Is  likewise  Ihe  huly  hkI  with 
which  Miise.s  wnrki'il  (Kx.  Iv.  ai,  L'h.  with  wtilih  .\iiniii  |«t- 
funiM'd  wniiilers  liefure  Phiinioh  (Kx.  vll.  liii.  itiiil  wtlli  whl<ii, 
llimlly,  Iluvlil  slew  tlie  irliilit  (inllnlh  II  Sum.  xvll.  -III).  Imvlil 
left  li  III  Ills  ilesielliliinl.s,  mill  the  Diulillr  kink's  used  It  US 
n  seepter  until   the  ileslnietlnll  nf  Ihe 'rellllile.  When  It  nilnirll- 

Inusly  illsii|i|«iin'il  CJJJi,    When  the  Messlal nies  It  will  1k' 

(riven  III  hliii  for  u  we|iler  In  t4>ken  of  his  uiithorlly  over  Ihe 
heathen." 

That  so  wonderful  a  rod  should  bear  external  signs 
of  its  importance  is  easily  to  be  understood  ll  was 
made  of  sapphire,  weighed  forty  sea  lis  (a  scab  —  10  711 
poundsl.aiid  bore  the  inscription  2  nN3  t'  HV  1  VH. 
which  is  composed  of  Ihe  initials  of  the  Hebrew 
nnmesof  thcTeii  I'lagiies(Tan.,  WaPra  H,  ed.  IJuberl. 


Legend  has  still  more  to  say  concerning  this  rod 
God  created  it  in  the  twilight  of  the  sixth  dav  of 
Creation  (Ab.  v.  9,  and  Mek.,  Heshallah,  ed.  Wei.ss, 
iv.  (iO),  and  delivered  it  to  Adam  when  the  latter  was 
driven  froni  jairadise.  After  it  had  jiassed  through 
the  hands  of  Sheiii,  J2noch,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob  successively,  it  came  into  the  iiossession  of 
Jo.sepli.  On  Joseph's  death  the  Egyptian  nobles 
stole  some  of  his  belongings,  and,  among  Iheni, 
.letliro  appid|)riated  the  staff.  Jethro  planted  the 
stair  in  his  garden,  when  its  marvelous  virtue  was 
revealed  by  the  fact  that  nobody  could  withdraw  it 
from  the  ground;  even  lo  touch  it  was  fraught  wiiii 
danger  to  life.  This  was  because  the  Ineffable  Name 
of  Odd  was  engraved  upon  it.  When  Moses  entered 
Jethro's  household  he  read  the  Name,  and  by  means 
of  it  was  able  lo  draw  up  the  rod,  for  which  service 
Zipporah,  Jethro's  daughter,  was  given  to  liim  in 
marriage.     Her  father  had  sworn  that  she  should 


Aaron's  Hod.    (Ki-oiu  the  Senijevo  HaKpidah.l 

become  the  wife  of  the  man  who  should  be  able  to 
master  the  miraculous  rod  and  of  no  other  (Pirke 
H.  El.  40;  Sefer  lia-Yasliar;  Yalk.  E.x.  Ills,  end).     It 

must,  liowever,  be  remarked  that  the 
Haggadic     Mishnah  (Ab.  v.  9)  as  yet  knew  notli 
Modi-         iiigof  the  miraculous  creation  of  Aa 
fication.       ron's  Hod.  which  is  lirst  mentioned  liv 

the  Mekilta  (I.  c.)  and  Sifre  on   neiii 
(Ber.  xxxiii.  '21;  ed.  Kriedinann,  ]i,  :!5,")),     This  sup 
posed  fact  of  the  supernatural  origin  of  the  rod  e\ 
plains  the  statement  in  the  New  Testament  (Heb.  i\. 
4)  and  Tosef. ,  Yonia,  iii,  7  (it  is  to  be  interpreted  thus 
according  to  B.  B.  14").  Ihat  Aaron's  Hod,  together 
with  its  blo.ssoms  and   fruit,  was  iireservcd  in  the 
Ark.     King  Josiah,  who  foresaw  the  imiieiidiiig  na 
tional  catastroidie.   concealed  the  Ark  and  its  con- 
tents (Tosef,,   Sotah,   l:'..')  ;    and  their  whereabouts 
will  reiiiain  iinknnwii  until,  in  the  Messianic  age,  Ihe 
Jiropliet  Elijah  .shall  reveal  them  (Mek.  /.  «'. ).     A  later 
.Midrash  (Num.  H.  xviii.  end)  confuses  the  legends  of 
the  iiid  thai   blos-somed  willi  those  of  Ihe  rod   Ihal 
worked  miracles,  Ihus  giving  us  contradictory  stale- 
inents.     There  exists  a  legend  that  Moses  split  a  tree 
trunk  into  twelve  liortions.  and  gave  one  portion  lo 
each  tribe.     When  Ihe  Hod  of  Aaron  prodneed  bios 
soms,  the  Israelites  could  not  but  acknowledge  the 
significance  of  the  token.    The  account  of  Hie  bios 
somiiig  of  Aaron's  Hod  contained  in  ClemciU's  fii"sl 
letter  lo  the  Coriiilhians  (ep.  4:!)  is  (iiiile  in  liagga 
dicniidnisliic  style,  and  must  probalily  lie  n.scribed 
lo  Jewish   or.  more  sirielly   speakiiii;,  Jewish-Ilel 
lenistic  .sources.     According  to  Ihat   account,  Moses 
lilaced   upon  each   of  Ihe   twelve   staffs   tile   corre- 
sponding seal  of  the  head  of  a  tribe.     The  (h)ors  of 


Aaron's  Rod 

Aaron  the  Bookseller 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


the  sanctuary  were  similarly  sealed,  to  prevent  any 
one  from  haviujr  aciess  to  the  rods  at  nisrlit.  This 
legend  of  the  ro<l  as  given  bv  the  Syrian  Solomon  in 
his  •'  Book  of  tlie  Hcc  ''"("  Auecdota  Ox- 
Christian  oniensia.  Scniilie  Series,"  vol.  i.  part 
Modifi-  ii.)  has  Christian  rhanieteristies.  Ac- 
cations,  cording  to  it  the  statT  is  a  fragment  of 
the  Tree  of  Knowledge,  and  was  succes- 
sively in  the  possession  of  Shem,  of  the  three  Patri- 
archs, and  of  Judah,  just  as  in  the  Jewish  legend. 
From  Judah  it  descended  to  Pliarez,  anceslorof  David 
and  of  tin-  Messiah.  After  Pliarez 's  death  an  angel 
carried  it  to  tlie  mountains  of  Moab  and  buried  it 
tliere.  when' the  pious  Jethro  found  it.  When  Jloses, 
at  Jethro's  rei|U<st.  went  in  search  of  it.  the  rod  was 
brought  to  him  by  an  angel.  With  this  stall  Aaron 
and  Mo.ses  |»erfornied  all  the  miracles  related  in  Scrip- 
ture, noteworthy  among  which  was  the  swallowing 
np  of  the  wonder-working  rods  of  the  Egyptian 
Posdi.  Joshua  received  it  from  Closes  and  made 
use  of  it  in  his  wars  (Josh.  viii.  18):  and  Jusluia.  in 
tiirn.  delivered  it  to  Phinehas.  who  buried  it  in 
Jerusalem.  There  it  remained  hidden  until  the  birth 
of  Jesus,  when  the  place  of  its  concealment  was  re- 
vealed to  Joseph,  who  took  it  with  him  on  the  jour- 
ney to  Egy)it.  Judas  Iscariot  stole  it  from  James, 
brother  of  Jesus,  who  had  received  it  from  Joseph. 
At  Jesus'  crucifixion  the  Jews  had  no  wood  for  the 
transverse  beam  of  the  cross,  so  Judas  prodiiced 
the  stalT  fur  that  purpose  ("Book  of  the  Bee,"  Syr. 
eil.,  pp,  "lO-.JS;  Eiig.  cd.,  pp.  .jO—VJ).  This  typo- 
logical explanation  of  Moses'  rod  as  the  cross  is  not 
a  novel  one.  Origen  on  Exodus  (chap,  vii.)  says: 
"This  rod  of  Moses,  with  which  he  sididued  the 
Egyptians,  is  the  syndwl  of  the  cross  of  Jesus,  who 
c<uii|uered  the  world."  Christian  legend  has  pre- 
served the  Jewish  accounts  of  the  rod  of  the  Mes- 
siah and  made  concrete  fact  of  the  idea.  Other 
Western  le.trends  concerning  the  connection  of  the 
cross  and  the  rod  maj'  be  foimd  In  Seymour,  "The 
Cross,"  1898,  p.  83. 

The  rod  is  likewise  glorified  in  Mohammedan 
le.srend.  which,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  the  Bib- 
lical accounts  of  the  Mohammedans,  is  plainly  de- 
rived from  Jewish  sources.  The  following  passage 
■will  serve  as  an  illustration: 

"  Moses  fliinp  his  staff  upon  the  prouncl.  .inci  instantly  it  was 
chantreil  into  a  serpent  as  hu^'e  as  the  largest  caniel.  It  elared 
at  I'haraoh  with  llre-ilaoins  e.ves.  and  liftcil  his  tlirone  to  the 
ceilinp.  Opening  its  jaws.  It  cried  aloud.  '  If  it  ]>it'<i.sed  Allah. 
I  could  not  onl.v  swallow  up  the  throne  with  tliee  and  all 
that  are  here  present,  but  even  thy  pala<'e  and  all  that  it  con- 
tains, without  any  ipue  perceiving  the  slightest  change  in  me '  " 
(G.  Weil.  "Bllilische  Lcgenden  der  Muselmiinner,"  p.  140, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.  l.'^.ii. 

L.  G. 

AARON'S  TOMB  :  The  burial-place  of  Aaron. 
Avhich,  according  to  Num.  xx.  23-t]8,  was  Jlount 
Hor,  on  the  ed.ee  of  the  land  of  Edom.  A  later 
tradition,  evidently  of  Mohammedan  origin,  refers 
to  this  hill  as  the  one  near  Petra.  called  the  Hill  of 
Aaron.  On  its  summit  Aaron's  tomb  is  still  pointed 
out.  This  identification,  however,  does  not  a.irree 
with  the  itinerary  of  the  Hebrews  from  Kadesh,  as 
given  in  Num.  xxsiii.  37,  38.  G.  B.  L. 

AAKON :  An  amora  mentioned  twice  in  the 
Babylonian  Talmud  <B.  K.  Miilh.  .Men.  74/;).  In  both 
places  he  is  represented  as  furnishing  Rabina.  head 
of  the  rabbinical  academy  at  Sura  from  488  to  40!) 
and  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud, 
with  information  concerning  the  Baraitot  (tannaitic 
traditions  not  embodied  in  the  Mishnah)  of  which 
the  latter  was  i.srnni-aiit.  L.  G. 

AARON  ABATOR.    See  Abiob,  Aaron. 


AARON  ABBA  HA-LEVI  BEN  JOHANAN  : 

A  prominent  rabbi;  born  about  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century;  died  in  Lemberg,  Jiuie  18.  1643. 
He  was  ]iresident  of  a  nibbinical  college  in  Lem- 
berg. His  decisions  are  found  in  llie  resjionsji  of 
Abraham  Uapoporl.  Joel  Silrkes.  and  Meir  Lublin; 
the  last named  especially  speaks  very  highly  of  him. 
While  he  hardly  iiresentsan  individual  type,  it  may 
be  stated  that  in  one  case  he  condemns  rigorism  in 
the  Law. 

Bibliography:  But>er.  AnOie  Shrm.  p.  21,  Cracow,  18a">. 

D. 

AARON  ABRAHAM  BEN  BARUCH  SIM- 
EON HA-LEVI:  A  eab.ilUr.  Imni  in  the  liist 
quarter  of  the  si.xteeiitli  cenluiy.  He  ptiblished  a 
small  cabal  isti<-  work,  "  Iggenl  lia-Teamim"  (Letter 
on  the  Accents),  about  the  middle  of  the  century, 
in  which  each  accent  and  its  specific  name  are  ex- 
plained as  containing  references  to  both  the  Ten 
Sefirot  and  the  people  of  Isniel,  I'pon  this  work 
Shabbethai  Slieftel  ben  Akiba  Ilnrwitz,  cabalist 
and  physician  at  Pnigiie.  wrote  in  \(iVl  a  volumi- 
nous commentary,  "Shefa"  Tal."  as.serting  in  the 
introduction  (|i.  i'.i)  thiit  1{,  Aaron  was  one  of  the 
greatest  masters  of  the  Cabala,  anil  that  his  work 
contained  the  most  prf)foun(l  ,secrets  which  he  (Hur- 
witz)  wished  to  disclose.  But  in  reality  it  contains 
only  cabalistic  trifles  which  attempt  to  show  that 
the  solution  of  the  mystery  of  the  Ten  Sefirot  is  in- 
dicated in  the  names  of  the  accents  iU'ninim). 

Aaron  Abraham  b.  Baruch  is  not  identical  with 
Aauon  of  Cakdkna. 

BiBi.ioOKAPHV :  Steinschneider.  Cal.  BoiU.  Nos.  ViU.  W\'> ;  Xeu- 
liaucr.  Cat.  Ilndl.  lUhr.  MSS.  Nos.  1S18,  1956;  .Michael,  Or 
h(i-H(t]niim.  No.  :2t'vS. 

L,  i:. 

AARON  BEN  ABRAHAM  IBN  HATYIM. 

See  1i;n  IIwvim.  .\\1!ii\  r.iA  AnuAirAM. 

AARON  BEN  ABRAHAM  BEN  SAMUEL 
SCHLETTSTADT.  See  Sciii.ettstadt,  Aauo.n. 
BKN  .\r.ii\iiAM  i;i;.N  Sami'f.t,. 

AARON  BEN  ABRAHAM  BEN  VIDAL 
ZARFATI.    S(  e  Zaiikati.  Aahon  j;i,.n  Aisi;aiiam 

BKN   \lli  \l.. 

AARON    ALFANDARI.       See    Ai.fandahi, 

AaKhN. 

AARON  BEN  ASHER  OF  KARLIN  (Rabbi 

Aaron  II.  of  Karlin):  <  ine  of  tlie  nidsi  lainoiis 
rabbis  of  the  IIasidim  in  northwestern  Russia;  lioru 
in  \Wi:  died  June  '23.  1872.  He  had  an  immense 
number  of  followers,  and  many  thousands  of  them 
used  to  visit  him  annually,  iibout  the  time  of  the 
.Jewish  New  Year,  as  is  Ihecustomamong  that  sect. 
Not  withstanding  his  seveiity  of  manner  and  the  not 
infretpient  rudeness  of  his  l)chavior.  he  was  highly 
esteemed  by  his  adherents.  He  "rei.iined"  in  Kar- 
lin. near  Pinsk.  in  the  government  of  Minsk,  in  suc- 
cession to  his  father  and  his  granilfathi'r.  Aaron  ben 
.Jacob:  but  a  few  years  before  his  death  he  had  a 
quarrel  with  a  rich  family  of  Karlin  and  removed 
from  there  to  Stolin.  ;i  town  several  miles  distant. 
Considering  the  amotmt  of  business  that  the  yearly 
influx  of  strangers  brought  to  the  city  where  he  re- 
sided, his  removal  was  regarded  as  a  misfortune  for 
Ivarlin.  He  died,  aged  seventy  years  and  seventeen 
days,  in  ilalinovka.  near  Dubno,  in  Volhynia.  while 
on  a  journey  to  the  wedding  of  his  granddaughter, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Asher  of  Stolin, 
whose  chief  claim  to  distinction  is  that  he  spent 
most  of  his  time  at  the  mikinih  (bath).  Asher  died 
in  Drohobycz  about  one  year  after  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  five-year-old  .son, 
the  so-called  Yemika  (Baby)  of  Stolin,  against  whose 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aaron's  Rod 

Aaron  the  Bookseller 


ralibinate  (in  the  Hasidie  sense)  Sclmt/.kes — or.  ac- 
cordinir  to  ntlicrs.  .ludali  Loli  Levin  (called  Yeliallel 
of  Kiev) — under  till-  pseudiinyni  "Ilad  niin  Haliraya" 
((Jiie  (if  llie  sliidenls).  wrote  a  well-known  salire 
in  ■'  Ha-Sliahar  "  (vi.  ■J.")-44).  Aaron  is  the  author  of 
■•  I'i't  Aharon  "  (Aaron's  House:  Brody,  IsTo),  wliieh 
eontains  his  ealialistie  and  etiiieal  expositions  of  the 
Pentateueh.  It  also  contains  all  the  extant  writings 
of  his  grandfather,  of  his  father,  and  of  his  son. 

Bini.innRAPnv:  Walden.  .>>/ii»i  lut-deilnUin  hi-lliulii.ih,  p.  IS; 
Kimil  Sdjeriin,  nute  1-W,  Lemberti,  IHie. 

P.  Wi. 

AARON  THE  BABYLONIAN.  See  A.uiox 
bi;n  S  wn  II.  Fi  \  N  A-i 

AAKON,  BARNEY:  Kiiglisli  pngilist.  nick- 
named "The  Star  of  the  Kast " ;  born  in  London. 
November  21.  ISIM).  at  Duke's  Place.  Alilgate;  died 
in  Whit<'chai)el,  IS.'iO.  His  career  as  a  ])ugilist  ex- 
tended over  fifteen  years.  When  but  nineteen  years 
ohi  he  met  and  defeated  in  turn  William  Connelly 
(l^TJ),  Mamiy  Lyons.  Ely  IJendon.  and  Samuel 
Helaseo.  He  also  opposed  Angel  Hyams  and  Tom 
Collins  in  interrupted  contests.  In  !N'23  he  met 
Ned  Stockman  (.May  (1).  whom  he  defeated  after  a 
battle  of  forty  rounds;  Tom  Leniiey  (.\ugust  /i  and 
Xoveml)er  11).  and  Fraidc  Hedmond  (December  :!()). 
The  next  year  he  beat  Peter  Warren  (April  C).  but 
two  months  later  was  defeated  after  fifty-seven 
rounds  l>y  Arthur  Mat  the  wson  (June  21).  He  fought 
Dick  Hares  (>hireh  ','1,  bSiti).  who.  after  forty-three 
rounds,  claimed  the  tight  on  a  foul  blow,  which  was 
disallowed,  the  contest  being  awarded  to  Aaron. 
The  latter  nut  Dick  Curtis  at  Andover.  England 
(Fibruary  2T.  1M2T),  and  after  lighting  tifty  minutes 
kiKieked  him  out  by  a  blow  on  the  lliri>at.  Aaron 
again  fought  Fraid<  Kedmond.  on  October  2:i,  and 
defeated  him  in  forty-two  rounds.  Among  other 
combatants  whom  Aaron  met  and  fought  with  vary- 
ing sn<-cess  were  Marsh  IJateman  (July  -1,  1(S2S). 
Harry  Jones  (November  21).  Jem  Raines  (.Mav  2(i. 
1X2!))".  and  Tom  Smith  (April  1,  lH:i4).  See  PforLisM. 

I)ini.in(;RAPnv  :  Kgan  Miles,  PualliKtim.  \m\  II.  50t-'>1.5  (with 
\<ttn.) ;  liitxiana  (Anon.);  FMuiiut  (.\non.). 

F.  H.  V. 

AARON  BEN  BENJAMIN  FORGES.     See 

Poiii.i  ~,  .\m;ii\  i;i.\  Uin.mmin 

AARON  BEN  BENJAMIN  WOLF  :  lijibbi 
at  liiiliii  anil  aU"  at  Friinklnri  cm  the  Oder;  born 
about  KiTll  ;  died  in  Fraidifori  im-the-Oiler.  July  2.'"). 
1721.  His  father.  Isiuie  I{enjamiii  Wolf  ben  Eliezer 
Liebman.  author  of  "  Naldat  Hinyamin  "  (.Vinster- 
dani.  l(iH2),  rabbi  in  the  mark  of  nrandenbmg,  was 
the  brother  of  the  court  Jiw  Jost  Liebman.  who 
playr'd  a  prominent  part  in  the  congregation  of 
IJerlin  in  tlie  earliest  ]ieriod  of  its  history.  Aaron 
married  Hesel.  tli<'  daughter  of  his  imcle,  who 
founded  for  him  a  Talmiidical  school  and  sujiported 
not  only  .\aron  but  also  his  disciples.  In  H!!»7.  when 
tlie  declining  hi-allli  of  Sbemariah.  then  rabbi  of 
Berlin,  ni'ressitaled  the  appointment  of  a  successor. 
.\aron  was  ma<le  rabbi  of  tin-  mark,  and  in  IT(li) 
was  apjiointed  by  King  Frideriek  I.  to  the  olllci'  of 
chief  rablii  of  Merlin,  with  jurisdiction  overall  the 
Jews  living  in  the  mark,  lint  with  the  death  of 
King  Fredeiick  I.  conditions  changed.  Esther,  the 
widow  of  Jost  Liebman,  fell  inio  disfavor  with 
Freilerick  William  I.,  her  property  was  conliscated. 
nnil  she  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  1714.  These  re- 
verses made  it  impossible  for  Aaron  to  maintain  his 
sludents;  anil  the  factions  in  the  congregation  of 
Herlin  caused  him  conslant  anxiety,  especially  since 
he  had  always  sided  with  his  wife's  fandly.  which 
was  very  unpopidar  with  the  conunnnily.     He  was 


finally  forced  to  leave  Berlin  and  went  to  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder.  where  he  ofiiciated  as  rabbi  until  his 
death.  He  left  .some  works,  though  none  has  been 
printed.  He  wrote  several  approbations  (hnxbiiiiut) 
to  books,  published  in  l!i-rliii,  notably  tliat  to  the 
first  edition  of  Samml  ben  .Meir's  commentary  on 
the  Pentateuch  (170")).  the  manuscript  of  whiehwas 
in  the  possession  of  David  Oppenheimer.  to  whom  he 
was  related  by  marri.ige.  His  approbation  of  Xe- 
hemiah  Hayviin's  cabalistic  work.  "'Oz  le-Elohim" 
(1712).  caused  him  great  annoyance,  because  of  the 
charges  of  heresy  brought  against  the  work,  which 
he.  like  David  ()p])enheiim'r,  liad  indorseil  without 
readini:.  In  Berlin  his  brother-in-law  JUichael  Hasi<i 
succeeded  him. 

lilBi.ioc.KAfnv  :  Mletiael.r>rfm-J/(Ti;)/i'm.  No.  279.  Frankfert-on- 
the-MiUn.  ISiU ;  (iratz,  (icxch.  ilir  Jwhu.  .3(1  ed..  x.  :tlti;  1,. 
(ielKcr.  (Jcscli. dcr  Judin  in  Berlin.  I. ij.  nerlln,  1871 :  Lands- 
laitti.  c^'v,:'j,s  nn'?i.-i.  pp.  0-8,  Berlin,  1874;  -ipinn,  ed.  S. 
Fuclis,  I.  l.w. 

D 

AARON  BERECHIAH  BEN  MOSES  BEN 
NEHEMIAH  OF  MODENA  :  Italian  eabalist. 
who  died  in  l(;:!ll.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Habbi  Ilillel 
of  -Modena  (suriiamed  Hasid  we-Kaddosh.  that  is, 
"The  Pious  and  Holy'')  and  of 'Pabbi  Menahem 
Azariah  of  Fano.  At  the  request  of  the  Ilebrah  Kad- 
disha(Uurial  Society)  at  Mantua  he  instituted  rites 
for  them.  He  is  the  author  of  "  Ma'abar  Yabbok." 
which  contains  dissert.-ilions  on  niL'""lD  (separation), 
nnriD  (purity),  and  nt'np  (holiiu'ss).  Added  to 
these  are  prayers  to  be  oll'ered  for  the  .sick  and  the 
dead,  as  well  as  ndes  for  their  treatment.  To  avert 
possible  criticism  for  failing  to  discuss  these  themes 
philosophically,  he  makes  use  of  the  statement  of 
Isaac  Arama  in  his  book  ""Akedat  Yizhak  "  (cha]). 
XXV.):  "  Heason  must  surrender  .some  of  its  rights 
to  the  divine  revelations  which  are  superior  to  it." 
Other  works  written  by  him  are:  (l)Ashmoret  ha- 
I5oker"(The  Watches  of  the  Morning),  prayers  to 
be  said  in  the  early  morning,  arranged  for  the  soci- 
ety called  "Me'ire  ha-Shahar"  (Awakeners  of  the 
Morning),  and  therefore  also  ]ndilished  under  this 
name.  (2)  A  commeiitarv  on  "Tikkimc  ha  Zohar." 
C!)  "Me'il  Zedakah"  (Tin''  Cloak  of  Uighteousne.ss), 
on  worship  and  study,  indilisljcil  at  Mantua  in  1707, 
together  with  (4)  "  Digde  Kodesh "  (Oarments  of 
Holiness),  on  the  same  sidiject.  (o)  "Ilibbur  be- 
Kabbalah."  a  work  on  the  Cabala,  consisting  of  four 
volumes:  (k)  "Shemen  .Mishhat  Kodesh  "(The  Oil 
of  Holy  -Vnointment).  on  the  jirinciplesof  the  Cabala 
according  to  Moses  Cordovero  and  Isaac  Luria:  (li) 
"Shemen  Zait  Zak  "  (The  Pure  Oil  of  the  Olive), 
public  addresses  on  the  sjime  subject;  (c)  ".Shetil 
Poreah  "  (The  Blossoming  Plant),  on  the  mysterious 
meiuiing  of  prayers  and  ceremonies:  ((/)  "  Imre  Shef- 
er"  (Words  of  Beauty),  and  miscellaneous  matter; 
this  whole  work  was  seen  in  manuseri]i|  by  .Vzulai 
at  Modena,  and  is  found  in  parts  in  some  libraries. 
((!)  "  Magcn  Aharon  "  (Shield  of  .Varon).  containing  a 
compendium  of  Luria's  works.  This  fertile  writer 
is  siud  to  have  been,  like  .Joseph  Cam.  in  constant 
conunmiion  with  a  s]iirit  called  the  M.\(i(iiD. 

iniii.ioiaiAi'iiv  :  MIctiacl.  Or  U(t-}hi\i\iim,  No.  ani;  Benjnroh, 
( i^iii-  lut-St/diiiiu  p.  IW) ;  Steliisihneldur,  Cut.  UihII.  .No.  WIS. 

J.    L.   S. 

AARON  THE  BOOKSELLER  :  Italian  dealer 

in  llrlurw  anil  oilii-r  anririii  niiiiiUM-ripts:  flourished 
at  the  beginning  of  the  toiuleenth  <-entury.  He 
spent  seven  years  in  Toledo,  searching  successfully 
for  .\rabie  aiul  lb  brew  books,  and  was  ableloeir- 
eidate  among  the  yoimg  students  of  Perugia  a  cata- 
logue of  eiglity  Hebrew  and   .\rabic  nmnuscrijils. 


Aaron  of  Canterbury 
Aaron  ben  Elijah 


THE  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Immanucl  de  Romi  and  his  friends,  ou  one  occa- 
sion, took  advantnfic  of  Aaron's  iiliscncc  from  liiinic, 
broki'opcn  his  book  cases,  hastily  <i>pi<'<i  sonic  man- 
uscripts, anil  Ininianiicl  added  insult  to  the  harm 
done  liy  writing,  in  the  fiirm  of  a  letter,  a  bitter 
satire  im  Aaron. 

BlBi.ioiiKAiMir:  Immnnuel.  Malitirrnt,  vlll.  Vtlt-i^,  1st  (it.; 
V(iKi'lsti'ln  nml  lUi'Ri'r,  (Irxcli.  il.  .hiiirn  In  Itnm,  1.  330. 

L.  G. 

AARON  OF  CANTERBURY:  EnRlish  e.\e- 
gele.  iiHiilioniil  ill  ••  Miiiliul  ^rlmilah  "  (The  Olfer- 
inj;  of  .liiiliili)  \i\  .lud.'ih  ben  Klie/er  on  heiit.  .\xvi. 
'i.  ill  association  with  Kaslii  anil  H.  .laiob  of  ( )rleans. 
and  thus,  seemingly,  of  the  twelfth  century.  I5ut  a 
passage  in  the  Close  Roll  of  l','4'i  refers  the  decision 
in  a  divorce  case  to  three  "  magistri."  Mosse  of  Lon- 
don. Aaron  of  Canterbury,  and  Jacob  of  (».\foriI.  and 
makes  it  probable  that  the  Aaron  mentioned  in 
"Minliat  Yeluidali  "  was  of  the  thirteenth  century 
and  acted  as  an  ecclesiastical  assessor,  or  dayyan, 
in  London  about  1242.  If  so,  his  name  was  Aaron 
fll  (son  of)  Samson. 

BIBI.I0GR.4P1IV:  Zunz,  Z.  O.  p.  DO;  i'nivcru  /sro/litf.  1S.")2.  p. 
■V>7 :  Jiir.  i^iiirl.  lici:  v.  Bl :  Jurol>9,  Jcwuof  Atificviii  Knu- 
html.  pp.  lis.  417. 

J. 

AARON  OF  CARDENA  :  A  cabalist.  abotit 
whose  life  little  is  known.  He  wrote  a  book  con- 
taining  "  profound  secrets  "  under  the  title  of  "  Kar- 
nayiin  "  (IJays) — see  Hab.  iii.  4.  The  work  was  er- 
roneously ascribed  to  Isaac  b.  Abnihani  b.  David, 
surnamed  "the  Blind."  which  fact  shows  the  esteem 
in  wliieh  it  was  held  and  also  the  age  in  which 
it  was  written.  The  author  refers  at  the  close  of 
chap,  iii,  and  at  the  beginninjr  of  chajis.  v.  and  vii. 
to  two  of  his  other  works.  "Kitro  Veshu'ah''  (His 
Crown  is  Salvation — coni])uie  Ps.  xx.\iii.  10)  and 
"  Perah  Ziz  "  (The  Hlossom  of  the  Priestly  Diadem- 
compare  Num.  .xvii.  23).  the  titles  of  which  .seem 
to  refer  to  his  name,  Aaron,  as  priest.  The  work 
"  Karnayim  "  was  first  published  at  Zolkiew.  in  170!). 
together  with  a  conunentary.  "Dun  Yailin."  by  H. 
Simon  b.  Pcsah  of  Astropol.  and  additions  by  his 
nephew,  luiiler  the  title  of  "Likkute  Shoshanim." 
In  18()")  it  was  reiiublished  at  Jitomir  together  with 
tlio  commentary  "  Parashat  Eliezcr.''  by  Eliezer 
Fishcl,  grandson  of  K.  Isiiac  of  Cracow-,  and  in  ISH.") 
it  was  again  ]niblisheil  at  Legliorn  together  with  the 
commentary  "  Keren  Zebi  "  and  aiiotlier  work."  Perah 
Shoshan."  by  Samuel  b.  Joseph  Shamama. 

Regarding  another  work.  "Iggcret  ha  Tc'nmim." 
ascribed  to  our  author,  see  A.viiox  Ani!AH.\.\i  n. 
n\i;rrii  Simon  J.  L.  S. — K. 

AARON  CHORIN.     See  ('iroiti.N.  A.\kon. 

AARON  CTJPINO  or  KUPINO :  Talmudist 
and  head  of  a //<■«//*'/(  at  Coiislaiitiiiople;  flourished 
about  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Ilayyim  Shabbethai  at  Siilonica.  whence 
he  afterward  moved  to  Constantinople.  Here  he 
founded  a  Tahnudic  school,  from  which  were  gradu- 
ated several  piijiils  who  afterward  ac(|uired  notable 
reputations,  among  whom  were  Aaron  ben  Isaac  Sa- 
son  and  Isaac  R;i|>hael  Alfandari.  Aaron  Cuiiino 
maintained  a  scholarly  correspondence  with  R  lien 
veniste  (lCOl-76).  the"  author  of  the  "  Keueset  ha- 
Gedolah,"  and  with  several  other  scholars. 

BlBi.iOfiH.iPHY  :  Mioliapl.  Or  ha-Hntni>m.  No.  312.  p.  14". 

L.  G. 

AARON  BEN  DAVID  COHEN  OF  RA- 
GTJSA:  Habbi  in  Ragusa;  tioni  about  l.")SO.  His 
maternal  grandfalber  was  Solomon  Oheb.  also  rabbi 


in  tlie  same  city.  Aaron  studied  in  his  native  city 
and  later  in  Venice,  whence  he  returned  to  occiijiy 
a  pulpit  in  Ragusa.  In  1(123  he  was  imprisoned  as  a 
supplied  accomplice  of  Isaac  Jeshurun.  who  had 
been  falsely  aceused  of  ritual  minder.  IJjibbi  Aaron  s 
sermons.  "Zekan  Aharon  "  (Aaron's  Reanl).  together 
with  his  grandfather's  .sermons.  "Sliemen  ha  Tub  " 
(The  Good  Uil).  and  the  history  of  I.saac  Je.shuruns 
martyrdom,  were  published  at  'Venice  in  1657,  after 
his  death. 

Aaron's  account  of  the  alleged  ritual  murder,  to- 
gether with  documents  from  the  IJagusa  archives, 
were  published  in  18H2. 

liiiii.ioiiKAi'iiY:  .lelllnek,  LilniiturhUitt  iltK  Orientf,  vil.  2W; 
Mii'liuel.  Or  ha-}liimi<'»'  No.  :iS3;  lialimiT's  Lileraturhlatl, 
1HN3. 

D. 

AARON  BEN  DAVID  HAYYUN.    See  Hay 
YfN.    .\\i;oN    i;i  N    Dwih 
"AARON,    SON   OF    THE    DEVIL":     The 

name  given  to  a  port  rait  or  cariialuie  of  an  English 
Jew  of  the  year  1277.  drawn  on  a  forest  roll  of  the 
county  of  E.ssex,  in 
coimection  with  a 
number  of  lines  im- 
posed on  some  Jews 
and  Christians  who 
pursued  a  doe  that 
iiad  eseaped  from  the 
hounds  near  the  city 
of  Colchester.  This 
was  an  oll'ense 
against  the  forest 
laws  of  the  time,  and 
a  line  had  to  be  paid 
by  a  Jew  who  had 
evaded  arrest  and 
who,  when  he  re- 
turned, was  probably 
the  subject  of  the 
caricature. 

This  caricature  is 
the  earliest  dated  por 
trait  of  a  Jew.  and 
shows  marked  Jew- 
ish traits.  The  Jew 
wears  a  cowl,  a  sign 
that  he  had  no  out- 
door work  to  )<erforiii 
and  that  he  belonged 
to  the  professional 
classes:  on  his  up]ier 
garments  is  tixed  the 
English  form  of  a  Jewish  badge,  which  was  in  the 
shape  of  the  two  tables  of  the  Law.  in  saiTron  taffeta, 
six  lingerbreadths  long  and  three  broad.  This  dif- 
fers from  all  the  other  forms  of  the  badge,  which  was 
generally  in  the  shape  of  a  quoit. 

BiBMOiiRAPHv:  .lacobs,  Jciowh  Irlrah.  pp.  229-23.1;  W.  live. 
Hinlnrii  itf  N(yrf(i\k.  1887,  p.  m ;  J.  R.  Green,  Sluirl  HMom 
nf  Die  Eiiglinh  People,  illus.  ed.,  1893, 1.  393. 

J. 

AARON  IBN  EL-BARGARDI.      See    Bau- 

G.\U1>1.    .\  m:on    ii;\    i;i. 

AARON  BEN  ELIEZER:  German  Tahnud 
ist.  who  Itourisliecl  in  I  he  Ibirleenth  century.  That 
he  was  considered  a  great  man  at  that  timi-  is  ])roved 
liy  the  actions  of  his  contemporary.  R.  Meir  ben  Ba 
ruch  of  Rothenbcrg.  acknowledged  to  be  the  great 
est  rabbinical  authority  of  that  age.  Of  R.  Aaron  the 
latter  modestly  remarks,  in  one  of  his  res])onsa  fed. 
Prague,  p.  24<i).  "I  must  be  brief,  the  matter  being 
under  consideration  by  great  men:  namely,  by  the 
high  court  of  R.  Aaron."    Abigdor  ha-Kohen,  chief 


"Aaron,  Son  of  tlie  Devil.' 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Aaron  of  Canterbury 
Aaron  ben  Elijah 


rabbi  of  Austria,  who  kept  up  a  rtfiular  corrfspond- 
ence  with  liim,  referred  to  liiiii  witli  great  respect, 
railing  him  "my  teacher."  He  appears  to  lie  iden- 
tical with  that  |{.  Aaron  of  whom  it  is  said  in  "Or 
Zani'a  "  (p.  10:W),  "Now  everything  depends  on  H. 
Aaron,  the  only  man  who  (f^nbiues  scholarship,  ripe 
t'.xperiencc,  and  antliority  in  one;  he  is  called  upon 
to  tight  for  God  anil  His  law,  and  we  are  ready  to  fol- 
low him." 


BlBLIOORAPiiY:   MIehael,  f)r  ?Ki-Hn);|/ii»,  Nos.  10, 
Kfhkut  (Hi-t)rew  Eniychipedlio.  I.  Vyt. 


Iln- 


h.  O. 


AABON  BEN  ELIEZER  (railed  Saggi  Ne- 
hor — eiipheiiiisiii  tor  "'I'ln'  Blind  "l:  A  lil  uri;ie;il 
]K)et.  who  livid  in  Salid  froni  the  year  l.-)4."i.  lie 
was  the  author  of  a  i  ollectioii  of  iioenisiind  iirayers 
printed  at  .Mantua  in  l.")(il.  entitled  "  Sefer  ha-^liz 
nefct"  (The  Hook  of  the  .Miter).  His  booklet  treats 
chietly  of  the  glories  of  Palestine,  for  love  of  which 
land  lie  had  left  his  home;  and  it  includes  a  niunber 
of  poems  upon  the  thirteen  articles  of  the  Jewish 
creed.  This  Aaron  is  probably  the  same  as  the  one 
honorably  mentioned  bv  a  writer  of  l.")llll-;!.")  given 
in  LwiCY..  "Jcru.salem  Yearbook."  iii.  iJS,  104,  lie 
brew  part. 

BiiiLionRArilv :    Michael,  Or  ha-Hamiinu  No.  306,  and  Dukes 
In  (jrient,  lHU.  p.  453. 

L.  G. 

AARON  BEN  ELIEZEK  LIPMAN :  Rabbi 
of  Ihr  town  i'{  Ziinpi-Uiurg.  Wi-i  I'russia,  fornierly 
includiil  in  Ihe  kingdom  of  Poland;  tlourished  to- 
ward the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
wasan  intimate  friend  of  Shalil)ilhai  Hurwitz.  rabbi 
of  Prairue.  His  work.  "  Korban  .\liaron  '  (The  Of- 
fering of  Aaron),  waslirst  pulilishrd  at  .Vmslerdani. 
in  I<!4li.  and  has  gone  llimugli  several  editions.  It 
summarizes  in  alphabetical  order  I  he  decisions  which 
K.  Moses  Is.serles  (1{.M.\)  has  laid  down  in  his  ritual 
istic  work,  "Torat  I.Iatat  "  Aaron  is  also  known 
as  the  author  of  an  acrostic  meditation  (lehinnnln. 
beginning  "Elohai  dalfah  "cni "  (.My  eye  droi)petli 
tears.  O  my  God  I). 

Bini.iiiiiUAfHv:     Henjarob.  (t^r  ha-Scfarim.  p.  636;8teln- 
-  hiieliler.  (■<((.  ItiKll.  No.  4:i>». 

P.  n. 

AARON  BEN  ELIJAH,  THE  YOUNGER, 

of  Nicomedia  :  Kmi^iIii-  Ihrdlniri.ni.  licnii  in  (aim 
iiboul  UiOO;  died  in  t'onslanliiiople  in  i:ili!».  To 
dislinguish  him  from  .\aron  lien  Joseph,  the  elder 
Karaile  theologian  of  Conslanlinople.  he  w.is  called 
Aaron  the  Younger,  or  the  l.alir.  Aaron  ben  Elijah 
lived  for  a  long  lime  in  Nicomedia.  Asia  Minor 
(hence  hisagnonien.  "Niconiedi"l.  but  spent  the  do 
sing  years  of  his  life  in  Constantinople,  at  that  lime 
the  center  of  Karaite  learning.  Of  his  eliaracter 
little  is  known.  The  Kaiailes  ilaiiii  for  him  a  rank 
eipial  to  Hint  of  Maimonides  in  rabbinical  Judaism. 
In  point  of  fact,  he  seems  to  have  made  it  the  am 
liilion  of  bis  life  to  rival  the  famous  Habbi  Moses  of 
Cairo,  defending  at  Ihe  same  time  I  he  doctrines  of  his 
own  seel  against  Maimonides'  attacks.  For  this  pur 
pose  he  sludied  carefully  the  eiilire  pliilosophieal 
literature  of  Ihe  .Moslems  and  Jews,  familiarizing 
himself  with  Ihe  rabbinical  writings  as  well  as  with 
all  the  works  of  his  Kaniile  predecessors.  Thus 
prepared,  he  took  as  a  model  Maimonides'  "Moreli 
Nebuklni."  and.  imitating  il  both  in  plan  and  style — 
belmying  also  at  times  an  almost  slavish  depenilenee 
upon  il  in  malters  ofdetail — he  wrol<'  his  plillosoph 
ical  work  "'Ez  ha  H".'''.V'"> "  (The  Tree  of  Life), 
which  he  linishi'il  in  the  year  i:!4<l.  In  i:t.>l.  while  in 
Conslanlinople.  he  compos<'d  his  work  "(ian  Eden" 


(The  Garden  of  Eden),  on  the  Biblical  command- 
incuts,  andtiually,  in  the  jear  I'iG'i,  he  wrote  "Keter 
Torah  "  (The  Crown  of  the  Law),  a  comprehensive 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch. 

Aaron  was  not  of  the  same  profound  and  indepen- 
dent cast  of  mind  as  Maimonides.  for  whom  lie  enter- 
tained great  esteem  even  when  ojiposing  him,  but 
was  a  versatile  compiler  and  eclectic  philo.so])her 
rather  than  an  original  thinker.  Still  he  was  emi- 
nently successful  in  his  masterly  efforts  to  restore 
to  Ihe  Karaites  some  of  the  prestige  and  self-respect 
wliieli  bad  shown  signs  of  decline  ever  since  Saadia 
of  Fayoum  bad  begun  his  sy.stematic  warfare  against 
them.  He.  like  his  predecessor,  Aaron  the  Elder, 
elTected  a  healtliy  regeneration  of  Karaite  theology, 
a  fact  which  the  partiality  of  Giiltz,  the  historian, 
failed  to  ap|ireciate  (see  "Gescli.  d.  Juden."  vi.  ISTo. 
;i7li).  Nor.  in  fact,  can  an  impartial  judgment  deny 
him  the  merit  of  having  often  criticized  ^Maimonides 
quite  justly,  and  of  having  advanced  sounder,  be- 
cause less  rationalistic,  theological  views. 

Like  Maimonides  and  all  oilier  Judivo- Arabic  stu- 
dents of  philo.sopliy,  Aaron  stands  under  the  domi- 
nating intluence  of  Aristotelianisin.  There  is.  how- 
ever, a  flistinction  between  Aaron  and  >hiimonides. 
The  latter,  in  his  "Moreli  Nebukim.''  i.  71.  disiigrees 
with  Ihe  Jlolazililes.  or  liberal  Mos- 

Aaron's      1cm  theologians,  regarding  their  sj-s- 
Phi-        tini  of  the  K.\i..\M  theology,  because, 

losophy.  in  order  to  harmonize  revelation 
with  philosophy — es])ecially  on  the 
(lucstion  of  creation — the  Jlotazililes  combine  atom- 
ism with  the  llieories  of  Aristotle,  while  Maimon- 
ides defends  the  dogma  of  the  creation  against  Ihe 
Slagiiile,  himself  making  use  of  that  ]ibilosopher's 
own  argumi'nts.  Aaron  is  opposed  to  Aristotelian- 
ism,  and,  like  the  rest  of  the  Karaite  theologians,  ad- 
heres to  the  liberal  sysli'in  of  Ihe  Molazililes;  herein 
ilifTering  from  Aaron  ben  .Tosepli,  who  frequently 
sides  with  the  rabbinisis  against  the  Karaile  tradi- 
tions. Aieonlingly,  at  the  very  beginning  of  his 
book,  "  'Ez  ha-Hayyim,"  he  declares  that  the  theol- 
ogy of  the  Kalam  is  the  natural  religion  arrived  at  by 
Abraham  throuLdi  meditation  and  systemalized  by 
Ihe  Mosaic  Law;  while  Greek  philosophy,  adojiled 
by  Christianity  because  of  its  hostility  to  Judaism, 
is  a  helerogeneous  foreign  product  and  obno.xioiis 
to  the  development  of  the  Torah  in  its  purity.  He 
further  declares  the  restoration  and  clearer  presen- 
tation of  the  Kalam  to  be  the  object  of  his  work. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  fourteen  chapters  which 
the  book  contains  the  tirsl  Hftcen  are  devoteil  to  the 
doctrine  conceniing  God's  existence.  His  incorpo- 
reality,  and  the  cnalion  of  Ihe  world,  the  heavenly 
spheres  being  considered,  as  in  the  "Moreh."  as 
ruled  by  separate  inlelligenees  or  angels.  All  these 
doctrines  are  shown  to  be  logical  deductions  and 
Ihircfori'  prior  to  his  "  'Ez  ha-Hayyim"  revelation, 
which  is  only  the  contirmation  of  truth  otherwise 
known. 

In  the  succeeding  forly-seven  chapters.  Ihe  Bib- 
lical aiilliroiioniorpliic  expressions  (see  AsTllItoi'o- 
MoitfiiisM)  are  explained  as  tigunilive  expres.sions 
of  Ihe  divine  energies  and  activities,  the  words  of 
Abiimoiiides  being  at  limes  literally  reileraled  or 
epitomized,  though  .Varon  claims  that  Maimonides 
merely  followed  Judali  Hadassi,  whose  work.  "Ha 
Eshkol."  appeared  Iweiilynine  years  liefore  ihe 
"Vail  ha  I.Iazakah."  To  iiini  also,  as  to  Maimon- 
ides. Ihe  Itiblical  Iheophany  of  Ezekiel  ("Merka 
ball")  has  a  ]>hysical  meaning,  and  so  lias  the 
Tabernacle  with  its  symbolism.  In  deinonslraling 
the  unity  of  God  in  the  following  chapters  Ihe  nu- 
llior  opposes  Maimonides  and  Iladassi,  who  reject 


Aaron  ben  ELijab 
Aaron  ibn  ^ayyim 


THK  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


10 


all  but  the  uepilivc  iHtriliuti's;  Aaron,  however,  (K-- 
clares  power.  kiiowle(l;.'c.  life,  will,  and  existence  to 
be  positive  (allirmalive)  attributes  inseparable  from 
His  es.sence  and  e(>nsi'i|Uenlly  in  no  way  infrinKin;: 
upon  His  unity.  This  leads  hini  to  an  explanation 
of  the  usual  names  of  (Jod  which  denole  His  a<tivity 
as  distinguished  from  His  speeilie  name,  the  Titni- 
gmmmaton  denotiDg  His  essence  as  the  author  of  all 
existence. 

In  chapters  78-9r(  divine  providence  is  then  dis- 

cus.sed  with  special    reference  to  the  existence  of 

evil   in   its   fourfold   nature,   physical 

His  Views   and  |isy<liiial,  moral  luid  non  moral. 

of  This  had  been  a  favorite  toi>ic  of  the 

Divine  older  Kannle  philosophers  such  as 
Providence.  Jo.seph  al  Hazir  and  Joshua,  based 
upon  the  Aristotelian  view,  followed 
also  by  Maimonides.  that  evil  is  only  a  defect  in- 
herent" in  matter,  and  therefore  not  to  be  ascribed 
to  God,  unles.s — and  this  is  well  broujrht  out  by 
Aaron  and  his  Karaite  predeces.sors — God  makes 
it  the  means  of  man's  moral  iinprnvement.  While 
JIaimonides  assiunes  an  especial  providence  of  God 
only  for  man  and  not  for  creatures  without  reason, 
Aaron  extends  divine  providence  over  all  beings. 
God's  universiil  knowledire  embracinjr.  according  to 
Karaite  theology,  also  sympathy  with  all  beings. 
The  ruling  principle  of  divine  action  he  takes  to  be 
not  His  wisdom,  as  does  Maimonides,  but,  with  a 
far  deeper  theological  insight,  Ilis  justice. 

Accentuating  the  superiority  of  the  moral  above 
the  intellectual  power.  Aaron  takes  a  higher  view 
of  the  suflfering  of  the  righteous  than  do  Maimonides 
and  some  of  his  Karaite  predecessors,  who  speak 
of  temurah  (the  law  of  compensation  for  grief. 
■which  also  rules  over  animal  life);  and  he  postti- 
lates,  with  especial  reference  to  Abraham  and  Job, 
goodness  as  u  divine  principle  ini<lcrlying  all  trials 
imposed  upon  man  for  his  spiritual  benefit.  As  to 
the  purposes  of  the  world,  man  can  only  compre- 
hend his  own  sublunary  world,  of  which  he  forms 
the  highest  end  as  God's  servant.  From  chapter  9.5 
to  the  end  of  the  work,  revelation  and  law,  with  the 
soul's  perfection,  its  immortality  and  future  bliss, 
are  the  subjects  treated.  The  two  trees  in  paradise 
are  taken  as  symbols  of  the  higher  and  the  lower 
spheres  of  human  life,  man's  fall  from  the  one  to 
the  other  necessitating  the  special  commandments 
of  God.  tmlil  finally  the  Law  becomes  the  means  of 
man's  fidl  restoration  to  his  twofoUl  nature.  This 
leads  to  a  discussion  of  the  nature  of  prophecy  in 
general  and  of  its  highest  degree  attained  by  Jloses; 
also  of  the  object  of  the  Law  and  its  various  com- 
mandments given  for  the  |iur]iose  of  the  perfection 
of  the  individual  as  well  as  of  the  human  race  in 
general. 

The  Law  of  Closes  was  intended  for  and  offered  to 
all  nations,  and  it  can  never  be  changed,  improved, 
or  (as  the  rabbanites  claim)  augmented  by  an  oral 
law.  Essentially  ditTerent  from  the  attitude  of  !Mai- 
monidcs,  and  in  fact  from  that  of  all  Aristotelian 
thinkers,  is  Aaron's  attitude  toward  immortality, 
which  he  bases  chiefly  upon  moral  grounds,  the 
postulate  of  retribution;  but  for  this  very  reason 
his  eschatology  is  rather  obscure,  being  half-ra- 
tional and  half-mystical,  a  blending  of  many  be- 
liefs. A  call  to  repentance  forms  the  conclusion  of 
his  work. 

In  his  great  work  on  the  Commandments,  entitled 
"Gan  Eden,"  consisting  of  twenty-tive  sections  and 
one  htmdred  and  ninety-four  chapters,  besides  nine 
smaller  juridical  articles,  which  became  of  para- 
mount importance  to  the  Karaites,  Aaron  follows  a 
system  of  rationalism  similar  to  the  one  expounded 


by  Maimonides  in  his  "Moreh  Nebukim,"  whereas 
the  Karaites  jirefer  tocompareit  with  the  "  Ya<l  ha- 

Ha/.akah."      He  starts  with  the  (irin- 

Aaron's      ciple  enunciated  in  the  "  Ez  ha  Hay- 

Interpreta-  yim.''  that  the  inculcation  of  the  belief 

tion  of  the   in  God's  unity,  and  es]iecially  in  His 

Law.  government  of  the  world,  is  the  main 

purposi-  of  every  single  iirecepl  of 
the  Law;  wherefore  it  is  our  dvity  to  search  after 
the  object  of  each  commandment.  The  8abl)ath 
day  has  for  its  special  object  the  inculcation  of  the 
beiief  in  the  divine  creation  and  guidance  of  the 
world,  while  other  festivals  are  intendi'il  to  coimter- 
act  the  inlluences  of  paganism  and  fatalism.  Two 
treatises  of  this  work  have  appeared  as  separate 
books:  one  comprising  five  sections  and  twenty-two 
chapters  on  nhrhiUih  (the  law  for  the  slaughtering 
of  animals):  another,  "Zofnat  Paaneah"  (Disclo- 
ser of  Secrets),  comprising  eight  chapters  on  inces- 
tuous mamagcs.  The  whole  work  is  the  best  and 
most  comprehensive  exposition  of  the  Karaite  sys- 
tem of  the  Law.  and  ]>resents  the  opinions  of  all 
Aaron's  predecessors  with  imp.'irtial  and  frank  criti- 
cism. It  is  chiefly  owing  to  this  work  that  he  ex- 
erts a  great  influence  upon  the  Karaites. 

Aaron's  third  work.  "  Keter  Torah  ''  (the  Crown  of 
the  Law),  is  coiuposed  after  the  manner  of  Ibn 
Ezra's  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch.  Like  his 
other  works,  it  also  contains  a  review  of  the  philo- 
sophical and  exegetical  inter|n-etalions  by  all  his 
predecessors,  with  a  fair  criticism  of  the  same,  and 
helps  to  supplement  and  cluciihite  his  ritual  work. 
Of  special  interest  is  his  preface,  in  which  are  stated 
the  main  differences  between  the  rabbanites  and 
Karaites  in  regani  to  Biltlical  exegesis. 

The  "'Ez  lia  Hayyim."  of  which  many  maiiu- 
sciiptsexist  in  Lcyd<-n.  Munich. Vienna,  and  Liiji.sic, 

was  first  jmblislicil,  with  a  large  com- 

Editions  of  m<'ntary  ("Or  ha  l.Iayyim")  by  Luzki. 

Aaron's       in  Koslov,  18:W.      A  critical  edition. 

■Works.       with  valuable  infonnation  and  a  sum- 

luaryofthe  one  hundred  and  fotirteen 
chapters  in  Hebrew  by  Caleb  Afandojiulo.  and  one 
in  (jerman  by  the  editor,  Franz  Delitzsch,  ajipeared 
in  Lcipsic,  1841.  Of  the  "Keter  Torah"  there  is 
extant  a  Koslov  edition  (1860),  besides  manuscripts 
in  the  Bodleian  Library.  Oxford,  in  Vienna,  and  in 
Lcipsic:  while  the  "Gan  Eden  "  exists  in  manuscript 
only,  in  Leyden  and  Leipsic.  Portions  of  the  latter 
have  been  published  by  Schuparth,  Trigland.  Danz, 
and  Lanzhausen. 

BinLroijRAPiiY:  Jost.  Annalen.  1830,  No.  11;  .lost,  Gench.  •!. 
Jriih  nlhttms^  ii,  ;iti2-366;  Fiirst.  Gi'sch,  d.  Kitr&frt .  ii.  tUM- 
2.SII;  Neiihiincr,  AuK  ihr  I'ltirsliurticr  liiliUnthih:.  p.  5S; 
Hanilmrtrer,  in  Winter  and  Wiinsehe's  JUdisrhr  Literature  ii. 
9t»-lt)S,  where  a  few  speeinien.s  of  ,\anin's  wrltincs  are  piveo 
In  German  translation  :  M.  s.lireiner,  Der  Kniiim  hi  itrr  .111- 
ilische  Litrrntur.  in  Thirtfiitli  Hijiurl  of  tin  Ikriiii  Lfh- 
ranstalt,  IsiK.  pp.  ."iT  «i. 

K. 

AARON  EZEKIEL,  HARIF  iiii.re  fully 
AARON   JACOB   BEN   EZEKIEL  HARIF  T: 

Huiigaiiun  siholar;  di<(l  at  Nikolslmrg,  April  10, 
1670.  As  successor  to  Gcrson  Ashkenazi  he  held  the 
post  of  rabbi  in  Xikolsburg  at  the  same  time  that  he 
was  chief  rabbi  of  the  province  of  Moravia.  The 
epithet  "Ilarif "  (The  Keen  Thinker)  was  also  be- 
stowed upon  four  of  his  ancestors.  Ezekiel.  .Jacob, 
Ezekiel.  and  Isaac.  Possibly  he  attained  to  the  title 
by  personal  meiit;  for  an  inscription  on  his  tomb- 
stone compares  his  death  to  the  loss  of  the  Ark  of 
the  Covenant. 

niBi.io(iR.*pnY:  M  H.  Friedlander,  Bcitragc  zur  OenchicMe 
tier  Judcn  in  JIUhren.  187ii,  p.  34. 

A.  F.  G. 


11 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aaron  ben  Elijah 
Aaron  ibn  Hayyim 


AARON    FRANCO    PINHERO.      See    Pin 

IIKl:i>.    A  AKiiN    Kit  \N(  i< 

AARON  BEN  GERSHON  ABULRABI  OF 
CATANIA  (ctllLil  also  Aldabi  or  Alrabi): 
hicilian  scholar,  cabalist,  and  aslroldj^cr;  tlinirislied 
bi'twecn  1400  and  14.">0.  He  was  a  son-iu  law  of 
Don  Mosos  Gabhai,  an  exile  from  Jlajorca.  Aaron 
was  the  youngest  of  five  brothers,  all  rabbinic 
scholars;  the  others  were  Shalluin,  liarnch,  Moses, 
and  Isaac.  He  studied  in  Trcviso,  lluly.  and  was 
familiar  with  the  seicniitic  and  philiisopliic  litera- 
ture of  his  ai;i-;  he  was  u  jioiid  f;i'annnari;in.  and 
well  acquainted  with  the  Arabic  laniruaire.  Like  liis 
father,  he  believed  in  astrolojry,  and  loved  to  observe 
the  horoscope.  He  was  also  an  adej)!  in  the  Cabala, 
thoujsrh  at  times  his  critical  spirit  came  in  conllict 
with  its  doctiines.  On  his  travels  he  visited  Tur- 
key, Eirypt,  Palestine,  I)ainas<us,  and  KalTa  in  the 
Crimea.  In  .lerusjdcm  lie  hail  many  disputations 
with  the  Karaites,  to  which  hi;,  commenlary  on  the 
Pinlateucli  refers  with  evident  pride,  as  liavinir  vin- 
dicated the  cause  of  rabbinical  theolo.u'y.  While 
in  Home  he  was  admitted  to  the  itresence  of  Pope 
Martin  V.,  who  was  surrounded  by  his  cardinals. 
Martin  V.  was  kindly  disposed  lowanl  the  Jews,  and 
often  discussed  relijrious  (|uestions  witli  them  in  a 
friendly  manner.  On  this  occasion  he  projKJunded 
to  Aaron  a  number  of  very  pointed  i|Uestions  con- 
cerninj;  Biblical  and  Tahnudical  pas.siiir(s.  Amoni; 
other  lliinirs  he  asked  if  the  use  of  the  cherubin\  in 
the  Holy  of  Holies  was  not  rather  antajrf>nistic  to 
the  Second  Comman<lnient,  which  prohibits  idolatry. 
Aaron  in  his  commentary  refers  severid  times  to  this 
discussion  and  to  the  answers  he  jrave. 

Cominir  often  in  contact  with  learned  Christians, 
Aaron  had  many  occasions  to  defend  Judaism  airainst 
the  polendcs  of  the  Church,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  attacks  of  the  Karaites  on  the  oilier.  It  was 
this  unceasinfT  conliici  that  induced  him  to  write  a 
book,  called  "  Matteh  Aharon  "  (The  Stall  of  Aaron), 
in  defen.se  of  the  Law  and  tradition.  Keenly  ob- 
servant, and  of  an  independent  and  critical  spirit, 
he  judjared  persons  and  opinions  freely  and  openly. 
He  e.\cels  as  a  writer  and  as  a  Bible  commentator, 
and  often  upliraids  the  Jews  of  his  native  land  for 
thc-lr  iL'norance  and  hollnw  prcliiisions,  at  the  same 
timi'  iiointinir  with  a<lmi  rat  ion  to  Ihr  numerous  Jews 
of  hi^'h  breeding,'  he  has  met  on  his 
As  Writer  travels.  Followinf;  the  principle  of 
and  Bible  a  rational  Biblical  e.xcfresis,  lie  does 
Commenta-  not  h<sitate  occasionallj'  to  refute  hag- 
tor,  fiadic  traditions  which  seem  to  conflict 
with  reason  and  common  sense;  and 
al  limes,  like  Ibn  Ezra  and  Samuel  ben  >I<ir,  he 
even  stales  his  disjigreenient  with  lialaUic  interpre- 
tation. He  was  fully  conversant  wilh  the  views 
of  the  Karaites  and  Samaritans  and  eatrer,  in  his 
explanation  of  the  Bible,  to  refute  now  Christian 
and  now  Jlohaminedan  doctrines.  He  boldly  ex- 
poses errors  wherever  he  finds  them,  claiminjr  "that 
it  is  more  honorable  for  the  wise  lo  conunil  an  error 
than  knowinfrly  lo  misrepresent  thi'  Irulh." 

Nor  does  lie  shrink  from  poinlinir  oiil  Ihe  blem- 
i.slies  he  finds  in  the  chanicler  of  Ihe  Patriarchs. 
Bein;;  piiided  solely  by  a  love  of  truth,  he,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  does  not  spare  such  fjiTat  Bible 
commentators  as  Rashi  and  Nahnianides.  For  the 
former  Aaron  enlerlaineil  n  very  hiirh  reirard;  of 
the  latter  he  freiiuenlly  says,  "Willi  due  diference 
to  his  honor,  he  misunderstood  the  Talmud"  (sic 
his  coiiiinentary  upon  (ieii.  xxvii.  'J".2;  Ex.  xxiii.  11, 
x\v  '.».  Like  Samuel  Inn  Meir  and  Maimonides, 
lie  explains  the  law.  "Thou  shall  not  seethe  a  kid 
in  iN  iMotliir's  milk"iK.\    x\iii    ID),  us  u  wariiiiiL' 


ajrainst  a  certain  idolatrous  practise.  Notwith- 
slandinj;  his  liberal  mind  and  his  keen  investigating 
spirit,  he  was  held  in  lii^'h  esteem  by  his  contempo- 
raries, as  may  be  seen  from  David  Abi  Zimra's  men- 
tion of  him  as  "  Aaron  our  Kablii  "  in  No.  10  of  his 
responsa,  where  he  commends  him  for  his  liberty 
of  tliouirht.  He  was  a  devoted  Jew,  who  deeply 
deplored  the  political  and  social  condition  of  the 
Jews  of  his  lime,  and  all  the  more  fervently  gave 
expres.sion  to  his  hope  for  Ihe  speedy  advent  of  the 
Messiah.  For  his  cabalistic  views  he  quotes  Reca- 
nate  and  Joseph  Sar  Shalom,  bul  iiol  the  Zohar. 

Aaron  states  that  he  wrote  a  Hebrew  grammar 
entitled  "  Ha-Meyasher  "  (The  Levelerof  the  Road); 
"  JIafteh  Aharon,"  refeiTcd  to  above,  a  cabalistic  or 
metaphysical  work  ;  "  Nizer  lia-Kodesh"  (The  Crown 
of  Holiness);  "  Perah  ha-Klohut"  (The  Blo.ssoming 
of  ili<>  Godhead).  |iroliably  of  a  simi- 

Aaron's     lar  character,  and  "Sefer  ha-Nefe.sh  " 

Works.  (The  Book  of  the  Soul).  Allofthe.se 
works  are  known  only  through  his 
own  quotations  in  his  supercommentary  on  Kashi. 
This  work,  published  from  an  incomplete  manu- 
script, together  wilh  another  supercommentary  on 
Rashi  by  Samuel  Almosnino,  by  jloses  Albelda,  and 
by  Jacoi)  Canizal,  is  one  of  the  earliest  books  printed 
at  Constantino]de,  and  is  therefore  very  rare.  Ac- 
cording to  his  own  leslimony,  it  was  written  in  the 
year  14''0  (as  Perles  has  shown);  but  he  intended  to 
compose,  or,  as  I'erles  thinks,  aclually  did  compose, 
a  larger  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch.  Perles  has 
furnished  ample  proof  that  Aaron  Aldabi — or,  as  he 
called  himself,  Aaron  Alrabi — was  a  man  of  great 
originality  and  merit,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  his 
lost  works  will  be  discovered,  and  that  editions  of 
l;is  commentary,  b:ised  on  clear  manuscripts  exist- 
ing ill  Oxford  aiiil  elsewhere,  will  fully  vindicate 
his  character,  though  Graetz  and  Karpeles,  in  their 
histories,  have  attacked  him. 

J.  H.  Schorr,  in  "Zion,"  1840,  first  called  attention 
to  .\bulrabi,  erroneously  calling  him  .Varon  ben  Mose 
AInilii ;  but,  owing  to  a  misunderstanding  of  his  re- 
marks, he  a.scribes  lo  him  Ihe  strange  assertion  that 
Moses  translated  Ihe  Peiilateuchfrom  the  Arabicinto 
Ilelirew — a  misunderslanding  repcaleil  by  Griltz. 
"Geseh.  d.  Juden"  (Ihird  edition),  viii.  i.-iO,  and 
by  Karpeles.  "Ge.sch.  der  Judischen  Literatur,"  p. 
771 — wliereas  Ihe  author,  in  his  commentary  upon 
Gen.  xviii.  '>,  referring  to  the  rabbinical  Hnggadah 
that  the  angels  who  came  to  Abraham  appeared  as 
Arabs,  sjiys  that  they  spoke  in  Arabic,  and  that 
Jloses  rendered  their  words  in  Hebrew — a  remark 
which  lie  repeats  in  his  comments  upon  Gen.  xxiv. 
■i:\  and  Ex.  ii.  10.  Zunz,  "Z.  G.."  pp.  .")  1  .'<-.')20,  and 
Sleiiisehiuider,  "Cat.  Bodl,"  call  him  Alrabi. 
Aaron's  true  name,  however,  is  given  in  the  acrostic 
written  by  him  al  I  he  end  of  his  published  comraen- 
lary. 

Bini.IOCiRAPHY:  Mli'hnel,  Or /in-7fii;/)/i»i.  No^2Sl ;  J.  Perles' 
iirtli'le,  vliirmi  (/rm/ioii  .l/>ii(nilii  In  li'V.KI.Jiiivm.xxU 
■Mii-'M»:  Xeulmuer.  <'<i(.  lliull.Uehr.  MSS.  Sx.'iM:  Vosel- 
sleln  ami  KleKiT. 'f*.ir/i. 't../ii'/i"a  ill  /fii»i,  II.  iVs.  For  ctinvi-t 
rt'iiiiini?  ef  inline,  see  ,/» ir.  (.iiiiirf.  /iVr.  .xl.  WW. 

J.  L.  S.— K. 

AARON  HAMON.     See  H.\mon-,  A.\ron, 

AARON  (BEN  ABRAHAM  BEN  SAM- 
UEL) IBN  HAYYIM:  M..n.eeaii  l!il>liial  and 
Taliuudic  coninieiilalor;  flourished  al  the  beginning 
of  the  sevenleeiith  cenlury  al  Fez;  died  at  Jerusa- 
leiu  in  l(i8"i.  He  was  a  member  of  the  bet  din, 
or  court  of  justice,  of  Fez.  and  removed  to  Venice 
about  IfiOS.  to  print  his  voluminous  manuscripts. 
From  Venice  he  went  to  Jerusidem,  where  he  spent 
the  last  years  iif  his  life,     .\aioli  published:  ( 1 1  "  Leb 


Aaron  ben  Hayylm 
Aaron  ben  Joseph  ha-Levi 


THE  JEWiail   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


12 


Almrou"  (Aaron's  Ili'uil).  I'oiiimeiituries  ou  .losliua 
ami  Judst'S  in  a  double  form,  out,'  (•(iiitjuniiijr  simple 
cxphimitions  of  words  (iHnlidt),  llie  other  being  of  a 
honiiletic  character  ((Unm/i):  (2)"K()rban  Aharon" 
(Aaron's  OtTerinir).  a  connnenlary  on  the  Sifra;  (H) 
"iMidilot  Aharoii"  (Aaron's  Rules),  an  important 
treatise  on  the  thirteen  hermeiiewlic  rules,  jierhaps 
the  only  adequate  treatment  of  this  diltieull  sulijeet 
in  exislenee.  All  three  were  i)ul>lished  at  Veniee  in 
Itidll,  and  went  thron(;h  a  seeond  edition  at  Dessau 
in  lli'i.  Aaron's  lesponsa  were  published  in  jNIor- 
decai  ha  Levi's  "  Darke  Noam."  Veniee.  ItiitT.  While 
at  Venice.  Aaron  lectured  in  several  of  the  confrrepi- 
tions;  and  when  the  news  of  his  death  reached  that 
citv  the  famous  ineachers  A/.ariah  Kigo  ("Binah 
la'Ittiin,"  l.xxii.)  and  .ludali  Aryeh  of  Modeua  de- 
livered eulogistic  addresses  concerning  him. 
BiBi.ioGRAPnY  :  MIcliael,  Or  /i<(-J./(ij/(;i»i,  Nu.^-;  Fiirst,  BiliL 

^a„...m  j^j   j^ 

AARON  BEN  HATYIM :  An  cxegete  who 
lived  ill  the  lirst  half  of  ihe  nineteenth  century  at 
Grodno,  Russia.  lie  wrote  "  Moreli  Derek  "  (lie  VVlio 
Shows  the  Way),  tracing  the  e.xodusof  the  Israeliles 
from  E.gypt.  their  wanderings  in  (he  desert,  and  the 
partitionof  Canaan  antong  tiie  Twelve  Tribes.  Ap- 
pended to  this  work  is  a  colored  map  of  Palestine. 
The  book  was  pulilished  at  Grodno  iu  1836. 
BniLUKiK.vriiv:  lieuiarnl),  (Iznr  tui-f!i:(arim,  p.  '.W. 

M.  B. 

AARON    IBN  HAYYIM  ((he  Yoiin,ger).    See 

H  WVIM.    .\  \l:oN     IIl.N. 

AARON  BEN  HATYIM  ABRAHAM  HA- 
KOHEN  PERAHYAH.  See  Peu.\i.iy.\ii,  A.Mtux 
ISI.N   II WVIM  Am;\ii\\i  ii.\-Ivoiii;n. 

AARON      BEN     HAYYIM      HA-KOHEN 

(ralleil  The  Saint):  .Xi  phew  of  ."-^imcon  of  ( 'oiii'V  Ic- 
C'lia(eau  and  of  .lacoli  of  C'orbeil;  nourished  about 
1200.  In  1227.  af(er  having  compared  all  the  cojv 
ies  of  the  French  Mal.izor  he  could  obtain,  he 
wrote  the  Mahzor.  Code  I'ri,  No.  22").  to  which  he 
added  a  commentary  consisting  chiefly  of  compila- 
tions of  written  and  liaditional  explanations  from 
his  uncle  Ephraim  ben  Menahem.  and  from  Shema- 
iah  bar  Isaac,  Closes  ben  Kalonvnuis  lia-Zaken,  and 
JlesliullambarSimson("Cat.  Bcidl.  Ilebr.  MSS."No. 
1200).  Xeubatier  thinks  that  .MS.  Xo.  120!)  in  the 
same  collection  is  a  shorter  form  of  the  .same  com- 
pilation. Aaron  seems  to  have  known  some  Arabic, 
and  quotes  French  and  German  words. 

BlBI.I(>CrR.\pnv:    Ziinz.  Hide.  p.  191:  Neubauer,  Cat.  B(i(U. 
Hebr.  MSS.  Nos.  law  and  law. 

K. 

AARON  BEN  ISAAC  DE  LA  PAPA.     See 

L.\  Rai'a.  .Vakon  i-.in   NA\r  in 

AARON  BEN  ISAAC  OF  RECHNITZ  (mod- 
ern Rohoncz,  Hungary):  Autlior  of  a  midrasliie 
Commen(ar}  on  tlii'  Hilile,  the  tirst  portionof  which 
(Genesis)  was  published  in  17SG  at  Sulzbaeh  under 
the  title  "Bet  Aharon"  (House  of  Aaron). 

BiBI.IocBArny:  Benjarnb.  Osnc  ha-f:rfarim,  p.  70;  Wiener, 
liihlitttUeca  Frudlaiidhiud,  No,  V£^. 

L.  G. 

AARON  BEN  ISAAC  SASON:  Author  and 
Talmiidisl ;  born  ill  Conslantiiiople  in  1629.  He  was 
a  grandson  of  Aaron  ben  .losejih  Sason,  an  eminent 
Talmudist,  and  cousin  of  H",vyim  Benveniste,  the 
famous  scholar.  Aaron  ('u|iino,  rabtii  of  Constanti- 
nople, was  his  teacher  in  Talmudic  lore,  and  was  so 
successful  that  at  the  age  of  twenty  his  pu])il  en- 
gaged in  Talmudic  controversies  with  Moses  Ben- 
veniste, who  thought  them  worthy  of  publication. 
The  great  Palestinian  Pilpulist,  Judali  Rozancs.  re- 


ferred with  respect  to  an  unpublished  work,  "Hen 
Veshallah,"  by  R.  Aaron.  'Whether  the  work  "Sefat 
Einet  "  siiould  be  credited  to  R.  Aaron  or  to  his 
grandfather,  Aaron  ben  Joseph,  is  uncertain.  The 
latter  is  more  probably  its  author.  Shabbethai 
Bass,  the  only  writer  who  mendons  that  iiarticular 
book,  in  his  "Sifte  Vesheiiim,"  throws  no  light  on 
this  qtiestiou,  merely  mentioning  that  it  is  by  Aaron 
Sa.s(m.     See  Aaron" hen  .Ioski-ii  S.\s()n. 

BniLiooRAPny:  MIcliael.  Or  )m-/.f(i)/)/i'm,No.  29S:  Ha-EKlihnl 
(ciirveliiiiedla),  <ol.  4.i7;  Benja'cob.  (>j<ir  Ua-Scfiiriiii.  Nci. 
4l.'i.  ji.  141;  ihid.  No.  VJKi.  |).  BOS;  Azulal,  .S/itm  ;ia-«t</'i(i»i. 
e<l.  lienjacob,  p.  19. 

L.  G. 

AARON,  ISRAEL:  American  rabbi:  born  at 
Lancaster.  I'a..  Nov.  20.  18.")i>.  His  father  was  a  na- 
tive of  I lesse- Darmstadt,  when'  he  served  many  years 
in  the  army,  holding  several  minor  military  oflici's. 
After  leaving  (he  High  School  Israel.  Aaron  entered 
the  Hebrew  Union  College  at  Cincinnati.  From 
1883  to  1887  he  was  rabbi  at  Fort  AVayne,  Ind.,  and 
since  1887  has  been  at  BulTalo.  N.  Y.  He  has  writ- 
ten on  "The  Kelation  of  (he  .lews  and  Arabs  to  the 
Uenaissance."  and  "The  Megillali  of  Saragossa."  in 
(he  ".Menorah":  also  (ranslations  of  Franz  De- 
litzsch's  "Colors  in  the  Talmud"  and  J.  Stern's 
"Woman's  Place  in  the  Talmud  " 

Bibliography:  0«rCoi<»()/  (Erte)  nml  ita  Pcnptc,  BulTalo, 
N.  Y.,  1880. 

F.  S.  -W. 

AARON     BEN     ISRAEL     BRODA.      Sec 

BnoDA.  .\ai!on  i;kn  Im:  m:i,. 

AARON  BEN  JACOB  BEN  DAVID  HA- 
KOHEN :  French  lilualisi;  one  of  a  family  of 
.scholars  living  at  Narbonue,  France  (not  Liinel,  as 
Coiifor(e  and  odiers  say),  who  was  a  sulTerer  by 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  in  130{i.  He  emigrated 
to  Majorca,  and  there,  some  time  before  1327,  com- 
posed a  ritual  work  of  great  merit  bearing  the  title 
"Orl.iot  Ilayyim"  (The  Padis  of  Life).  "The  lirs( 
I)ar(  deals  chiefly  wi(h  (he  laws  concerning  (he  daily 
prayers,  the  Salibath.  anil  the  festivals,  and  was 
published  in  Florence  in  1752;  the  si'coiid.  and  larger, 
part  is  now  being  editeil  by  M.  Schle.singer.  The 
work  is  rather  a  comiiilation  of  Talmudic  laws  and 
discussions  than  an  original  system,  and  was  con- 
ceived on  a  plan  similar  to  Jacob  ben  Asher's  great 
code,  the  "  Arba'ah  Tiirini."  which  aiipeared  soon  af- 
terward and  supersedei  I  it  as  a  ritual  guide  on  aecoiiii( 
of  its  more  iiractieal  character.  The  "Orhol  Hay- 
yini."  however,  contains  some  ethical  and  doctrinal 
chapters  which  are  not  found  in  Jacob  lien  Asher's 
code.  Aaron  ha-Kohen  was  especially  fond  of  mys- 
tic lore  and  of  rabbinical  discussion.  A  less  strict 
legalist  than  his  more  famous  contemporary,  his 
"Orhot  Ilayyim"  is  of  greater  value  to  the  stu- 
dent of  literature  than  to  one  who  seeks  practical 
decisions. 

An  abridgment  of  the  work,  under  the  name  of 
"Kill  Bo"  I  All  Isin  1( ).  a  thesaurus,  compiled  most 
probably  by  Shemariah  ben  Sinihali,  a  German 
scholar  (according  to  others  by  Joseph  ben  Tobiali 
of  Provence),  came  into  common  use,  replacing  the 
original  work, 

BiBLio(iRAPHY :  Gross. /Inrnn  ha-Kohcn  tmd  «f in  Rihtahvcrli 
<trhi<t  Iftumm.  in  ilonatsvclirifl .  1S(19,  pp,  iSS^.W,  .>il-.'>41 ; 
Idein.  Oaliia  Judaica.  pp. -"911.  4211;  Michael.  Or  )ia-li(tyili>ii. 
No.  3110 ;  Iien.1aeoli,  (_>zar  lia-Scfarim,  pp.  51, 2:39. 

K 

AARON   BEN   JACOB   HA-LEVI   HORO- 

'WITZ.     See  Ilonowirz,    A.vuon   hen   J.vcou   ii.v 
Levi. 
AARON  BEN  JACOB  OF  KARLIN:  Known 

among  the  Hasiui.m  as  Rabbi  Aaron  the  Great,  or 


13 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aaron  ben  BCayyim 
Aaron  hen  Joseph  ha-Levl 


simply  as  the  "  Preacher  "  or  "  Censor  ";  born  in  1738; 
(lied  1771.  He  was  one  of  tlie  early  j;reat  nilibis  of 
the  sect  wlio  lielped  the  rapid  spread  of  llasidism  in 
eastern  Europe,  and  was  distinguislied  fur  llie  tierj' 
(■lo(iuenee  of  his  exhortations.  He  died  one  year 
Ix'fnre  his  master,  tlie  frreal  Kablii  Baer  of  >Iez- 
hiricli,  and  was  succeeded  by  liis  son.  Aslier  of 
Karlin  (I.).  Aaron  is  the  author  of  the  Salihath 
iiymn  wliicli  Ijcfrins  T\2'C'  DVJ  ^IIDDX  iT  and  is 
stillapart  of  the  liturgy  of  llir  Iliisidini.  His  ethi- 
cal will  (zeicaah)  and  some  collectanea  are  printed 
in  the  work  of  bis  grandson,  Aaron  hen  Asher  of 
Karlin. 

liuiMOfiRAPHY:  {Ti'imC  So/erim,  note  1291, Lemberg,  1892 :  Bel 
Altai'iii,  Brody,  1875. 

P.  Wl. 

AARON  J AROSLAW.  See  Jaroslaw,  Aaros. 

AARON  JEITELES.     Sie  .Teitei.es,  Aaron. 

AARON  OF  JERUSALEM  (called  also 
Abul-Faraj  Harun  ben  Alfarez,  the  Gramma- 
rian of  Jerusalem):  K.ir:iili'  nf  the  clivinth 
ii'liliU'V.  He  was  acUnow  ledi.'ed  liy  the  Kiihliiiii 
iles  as  one  of  the  principal  icpicsiiitatives  of  Ka 
raitic  learning  and  as  a  great  authority  on  grain 
mar  and  e.vegesis.  He  is  i|Uoteil  by  Abndiam  ibn 
Ezra  in  the  preface  to  his  "  Mo/.nayim  "  as  "  the  sage 
of  Jerusalem,  not  known  to  me  by  name,  who  wrote 
eight  books  on  grammar,  as  precious  as  sapiihire." 
Jloses  ilin  Ezra  refers  to  liiin  as  "Ihe  Silg<'  of  Jeru- 
sidem  who  wrote  the  '  Mushtamil.'  "  and  als(>(|Uotes 
him  as  "Sheik  Aliulfaraj  of  Jerusalem,  who  is  no 
ailherent  of  our  religious  commimily."  Judah  ibn 
ISalaam  likewise  mentions  "  the  granunariaii  of  the 
Hr)ly  City";  and  Abulwaliil  in  liis  "Kikiiiah"  re 
lates  that  Jacob  de  Leon  brought  him  from  Jeru 
salem  "the  co|)y  of  a  book  by  an  author  who  lived 
there,  but  whose  name  he  refrains  from  mention- 
ing." because,  as  Bacher  surmises,  he  was  a  Karaite. 
Little  was  known  of  Aaron  until  N'eubauer  ilis 
covered,  among  the  manuscript  ccillcctinii  of  Kir 
kovilch  in  St.  Pelersl)Uig.  important  fraginiwits 
in  Arabic  of  the  ".Mushtamil"  ('i"he  Coniprehen 
sive).  a  Hebrew  grammar  consisting  of  eight  books. 
Haclier,  while  studying  these  fragments,  succeeded 
in  rediscovering  the  unknown  grammarian.  S.  Poz- 
nanski  published  som<>  valuable  specimens  of  Aaron's 
work;  and,  following  a  suggestion  of  llarkavy.  he 
threw  new  light  on  llieauthiirand  some  other  works 
of  hi.s — namely,  the  "Kitab  al  ICaphi."  a  commen 
larv  on  tlie  I'entateui  li.  nften  (pioted  by  Karaite 
writei-s.  and  a  lexicographical  work  bearing  the  title 
"Sliarh  Alalfaz,"  a  part  of  which  is  extant  in  the 
British  Museum. 

BinLIooRArilv  :  Fllrnt.  nfuch.  <l.  KitrikrI.  1.  (Ifl.  100 ;  Haclicr.  In 
1{(V.  KI.JuirrK.  xxx-Za-'ilM;  Poznmiskl.  i7)i<(.,  Isnti,  xxxlll. 
;.4-39.  197-218;  Pliuker.  Llhhu(e  lyadmiininl.  |i|>.  11)0  ,■(  wi;. 

K. 

AARON  OF  JITOMIR  <  r  ZHITOMIR :  A  dis 

eipleiif  l!:ii  r  111'  .Me/hiiii  h  iiml  :i  ri  piiserilalive  of 
the  sect  of  I  hi'  llasidiin:  born  alioiit  1751);  died  about 
isao.  He  wrote  ciibalistic  homilies  on  tlii'  Penta- 
teuch under  the  title  "Tuleilot  Aharon"  (The  Gcu- 
emtions  of  Aaron).  Herditchev.  1S17. 

Hini.ioimAPiiv  :  WiildiMi.  Shem  ha-QcdoUm  hc-IImlaiil),  p.  Ifl. 
No.  Ill,  Wursiiw.  1H7U. 

A.  B.  D. 

AARON,  JONAS  :  First  known  Jewi.sli  resident 
"f  I'liilailelpiiia;  mentioned  in  an  article  entitled  "  \ 
Philailelphiii  Business  Directorv  of  17lK!."  by  Charles 
H.  Bidwiiiiig,  ]>iiblisbed  ill  "'Ihe  .Vmericiin  Histor- 


ical Register,"  April,  1895.  There  the  name  of  Jonas- 
Aaron  is  referred  to  as  being  upon  the  account- 
books  of  Judge  Trent. 

BIIII.IOORAPIIY  :  A.  S.  W.  Rosenhaoh,  NnlfK  tm  the  First  Set- 
tlewettt  nf  Jeirn  in  I*ntnt<iilvnuia,  I(t."v>-17o:i,  In  Pw/j/ico- 
tinns  i,f  tin:  Am.  Ji  u:  lliM.  Snv..  No.  .'>,  p.  11)1,  WK. 

A    S    W    U. 

AARON  BEN  JOSEPH  OF  BEAUGENCT: 

French  Bilile  commentator  and  ralibinieal  scholar, 
who  Hourislu'd  in  the  twiH'th  century  at  Beaugency, 
near  Orleans.  He  was  the  contemporary  of  Hab- 
benu  Tani  (about  1110-75),  with  whom  he  main- 
tained a  scholarly  correspondence. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY :  Zunz,  Z.  O.  p.  80 ;  Gross,  Gallia  Judaica,  p.  116. 

L.  G. 
AARON  BEN  JOSEPH  OF  BUD  A  (Ofen) :  A 
.ludaci  (ieiiiKUi  piKl  (if  the  se\  eiileenth  eeiitiiry.  who 
was  captured  in  the  city  of  Ofen.  the  capital  of 
Hungary,  on  September  2,  KiSti,  when  the  imperial 
troops,  under  llie  command  of  Duke  Charles  of 
Lorraine,  linally  wrested  it  from  the  power  of  the 
Turks.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Kin  Schoen  Neu  Lied 
von  Ofen"  (Bak.  Prague,  1(586),  a  Juiheo-Oerman 
|ioem  describing  the  fate  of  the  Jews  of  Buda,  and 
esjiecially  lauilatory  of  one  Sender  ben  Joseph  Tausk, 
to  whom  Ihc  poem  is  dedicated. 

Bini.ioiiRAriiY :  stelnwlinpldpr,  Sftaiirmn.  184.S,  p.  :i.i2.  No. 
IIiia;    Weill.   i\il.  Umll.   Nos.  :VfA.   «V< ;    Kaufmunn,  Die 


Krstlinnuini  O/titV,  ISUi. 


G. 


AARON    BEN    JOSEPH  HA-LEVI   (abbre 

vialiil  RAH  =  Ralilii  AiiiiM  Hi  l.evii:  Talmiidist 
and  erilie;  a  direct  descendant  iifZKUAlli.Mi  IIA-Li;vr. 
and  proliably,  like  him.  a  native  of  (Jerona.  Spain; 
timirislied  al  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century;  died 
before  l;ili;3.  About  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  he  studied  under  Nahmanidcs.  at  Geiona. 
where  he  also  met.  as  a  fellow  ]iupil.  Solomon 
nK.N  Adukt.  who  later  came  to  be  his  opponent. 
.\aron  especially  mentions  among  his  teachers  his 
biotlier  I'hiiielms  (who  migrated  later  to  C'anel  near 
I'erpignan.  after  w  liieli  place  he  is  surnamed),  and 
bis  nephew  Isaac,  the  son  of  his  brother  Benveniste. 
His  life  appears  to  have  been  spent  in  Spain.  In  I'JH,") 
he  was  rabbi  in  Saragossa,  where  he  was  so  highly 
respected  that  Xissim  nv.y  Rkibkn,  in  i:!.">0.  did  not 
dare  to  annul  a  decision  given  by  Aaron  to  a  eonimu- 
nily  in  that  city,  even  though  he  considered  it  illeiral 
(Isaac  ben  Sheshet.  resiionsa.  No.  ;t!H)).  About  V^l'Jl 
.\aron  lived  for  a  sliort  time  in  Toledo.  The  a.sser- 
lion  of  some  modern  historians  that,  when  advanced 
in  age.  he  emigrated  to  Provence,  is  Im.sed  on  a  mis- 
underslaiidiiiL''  of  Meiri  (see  below),  where  the  cor- 
rect reading  is  p)  instead  of  Nirtl.  and  min  "S'^ID  in- 
stead of  mm  1"'3"H3  (see  Neuliailer's  edition,  p.  TM)). 
Aecoicling  to  Isjiac  de  Ijattes,  Aaron  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  most  of  the  treatises  in  the  Talmud,  of 
which  but  few  exist  today;  namely,  tho.se  on  the 
treatises  Bezali  and  Ketubot.  also  commenlaries  on 
the  Halakot  of  .VH'asi.  of  which  the  portions  on  Bem- 
kot  and  Ta'anit  have  been  jiublished  by  S.  and  N. 
Bamberger  (]Mentz.  1S74)  under  the  title  "  Pekudat 
Im-Lewiyim."  He  wrote  also  se vend  com pendinms  of 
law  s  eoneeriiing  the  precepts  of  various  rituals.  The 
"  Precepts  ('oncerning  Wine."  which  is  added  to  Ihe 
wiirk  "■.Vboilat  ha  Kodesh  "  by  his  opponent.  Solo 
mon  ben  Adnt  (Venice.  HiOiJ).  is  the  only  one  |)iib- 
lished;  anollier  part  is  in  inanuscript  in  the  Bodleian 
Library.  Ilis  pupil  Yom-Tob  Ashbili  (that  is.  of 
Seville)  has  preserved,  in  his  noVellaM"  Hiddushim") 
to  the  Talmud,  many  of  the  explanations  of  Aaron. 
The  repulation  of  Aaron  as  a  high  Talmudic  author 
ity  dill  not  arise  from  any  of  the  above  works. which 
were  not  widely  published,  but  from  his  "  Bedi'k  ha 


Aaron  ben  Joseph 
Aaron  ha-Levi 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


14 


Bayit"  (Breaches  of  the  House),  u  critieisin  of  the 

freiit  work.  "Torat  Im  Bsiyit  "  (The  Precept  of  the 
louse),  written  by  .Soloiiioii  lien  Adret. 
Several  times  during  his  nilihinical  career  Aaron 
came  into  eontiict  on  imiKirtanl  jioints  with  Solo- 
mon ben  Adret,  the  liadini;  spiril  of  the  Spanish 
Jews.  (.)n  one  occasion  tin  y  failed  to  agree  in  the 
decision  of  a  subject  submitted  to  them,  and  neither 
being  willing  to  acknowledge  the  superiority  of  the 
other,  they  were  obliged  to  refer  the  case  to  the 
French  authorities. 

No  sooner  had  Adret  i)ulilished  Ids  important 
work,  "Torat  ha-Bayit,"  than  Aaron  subnntled  il 
to  a  severe  but  just  criticism.  It  retlects  great 
credit  upon  Aaron  that  he  treated  his  opponent  with 
the  greatest  deference,  never  allowing  himself  to 
descend  to  personalities.  The  same  thing  can  not 
be  said  of  Adret 's  counter-criticisni,  "Mishnierel 
ha-Bayit"  (Defense  of  the  House),  which  is  written 
in  an  acrimonious,  not  to  say  nialici<ius,  tune:  that 
may  jierhaps  be  the  rea.son  that  Adret  pulilished  it 
anonymously,  for  it  was  only  in  later  years  that  he 
acknowledged  his  authorship.  Thesi'  two  distin- 
guished pupils  of  NahmaniilesdilTered  also  in  many 
other  points.  While  Adret  inclined  to  mysticism. 
Aaron  treated  important  dogmatical  ((uestions  in  a 
fashion  which  was  distasteful  to  the  orlhodD.x.  as. 
for  instance,  his  opinion  im  resurrection.  Without 
denying  resinreetion,  he  maintained  that  the  body 
would  have  to  undergo  certain  changes  until  it  ac- 
quired an  ethereal  nature  which  would  pennit  it  to 
appear  before  God  and  to  look  upon  the  glory  of 
heaven.  Aaron  was  at  lirst  credited  with  the  au- 
thorship of  the  "Sefer  ha-Hinnuk" — an  error  cor- 
reeted  by  Kosin  ("  Eiu  t'limpendium  der  Jlidischen 
Gesetzeskunde,"  ISTl,  pp.  131-134).  See  A.MtoN 
h.v-Lkvi  of  B.vrcelona. 

BiBi.iouRAPiiv:  MenahPni  Melrl,  Bet  ha-Bchiroli.  in  Ni'ti- 
hailtT.  Mriliiintt  Jtnr.  Chroii.  ii.23<J;  ihid.  David  nf  Kstt-lla.  p. 
-.W;  I.saai'iit'  Latlt-.s.  SJia'air  Zinn.ed.  Buber.  p.  4t>  iiit-illHT  of 
tliein  know.s  utiytliiiiji  of  Aaron's  sojourn  In  Provem-i-i;  Neu- 
Iwuer.  \n  Miimitx'chrift,  ISTl.  p.  513;  (ieiger,  JHil.  Z('i7.  .t. 
1;^;  Neubauer.  ^rt^  OxfunU  index  :  Gnitz,  Gci^vh.  <i.  Jiulni. 
vii.  Itil.  Iti2;  Ilenan.  L€j<  lialilnns  Frani^aiK  <//i.vfo(rc  Lit- 
terairi:  tic  la  Frnnre^  vol.  xxvii.).  pp.  .52:j-.'»2S:  Gross.  GalUa 
Juitaita,  pp.  3S7-3;£i.  4t)(),  4til ;  Miihael,  Or /ia-//(i.wi''i.  No. 
SiH;  J.  Perles,  i?.  Saloino  ben  Abraham  ben  Ailcreth,  pp. 
4,  G2. 

L.   G. 

AARON   BEN   JOSEPH,  THE  KARAITE 

(called  the  Elder  t(i  distinguish  him  from  A.xuox 
BEN  Elijah  of  Nicomedia.  the  Yorx(^Eu):  Emi- 
nent teacher,  i)hilosopher.  physician,  and  liturgical 
poet  in  Constantinople;  bom  in  Sulchat,  ('rinx'a, 
about  12fiO;  died  about  1330.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  regeneration  of  Karaism  by  the  help  of 
philosophical  elements  borrowed  from  liabbanite 
literature.  When  only  nineteen  years  of  age  he 
had  mastered  the  theological  knowledge  of  his 
time  to  such  a  degree  that  lie  was  elected  the  spiri- 
tual head  of  llu^  Karaite  community  of  his  native 
town,  and  in  that  capacity  he  engaged  the  Hab- 
banite  teachers  in  a  public  dispute  to  determine  the 
correct  time  for  the  new  moon.  He  then  journeyed 
through  many  lands  and  diligently  studied  the 
works  of  Ibn  Ezra,  Jfaimonides,  Nahmanides.  and 
Rashi.  Being,  as  he  said,  eager  to  arrive  at  "the 
truth  without  bias  and  prejudice,  and  free  from 
partizan  spirit,"  he  determined  to  accept  the  re- 
sults of  his  investigation,  even  if  they  conflicted 
with  Karaite  teachings  and  traditions.  In  this 
spirit  of  fairness  he  wrote,  in  1294.  while  following 
the  profession  of  a  iiliysician  in  Constantinople,  the 
work  which  established  his  fame  and  influence  de- 
spite his  Habbanite  proclivities.  This  work  was 
the  "  Mibhar  "  (The  Choice),  a  commentarv  on  the 


Pentateuch,  written  in  the  terse,  concise,  and  often 
obscure  style  and  after  the  critical  method  of  Ibu 
Ezra,  and  this  became  to  the  later  generation  of  Kara- 
ite teachers  a  .source  of  instruction  in  religious  i)hilos- 
ophy,  in  exegesis,  and  in  practical  theology,  that 
is.  file  observance  of  the  Law. 

Like  Ibn  Ezra,  he  presents  his  theology  not  in 
systematic  and  coherent  form,  but  in  observations 
made  throughout  the  book,  in  con- 
His  nection   with  the  various  jiorlions  of 

Theology,  the  Torah.  Unlike  Ibn  Ezra,  how- 
ever, he  avoids  references  lo  hid<leu 
mysteinesof  the  Biblical  te.xt,  insisting  always  on  its 
plain  meaning  or  its  possible  liguralive  signiticunce. 
For  the  latter  he  especially  uses  the  conunenlary  of 
Nahmanides.  whose  pupil  he  is  errone<iusly  sjiid  to 
have  been.  Like  Judah  Iladassi  anil  .Maimoni<les. 
he  accentuates  the  spirituality  of  God;  but.  unlike 
these,  lie  assumes  certain  attributes  of  Gc«l  lo  be  in- 
separable from  His  essence,  but  to  be  taken  rather 
as  human  forms  of  speech.  In  connection  with 
this  he  dwells  especially  on  the  will  of  God,  by 
which  the  world  was  created,  anil  by  which  the 
celestial  bodies  are  moved  and  governed.  Angels 
are  to  him  intelligences  emanating  from  the  divine 
intellect,  not  created  beings;  and  the  existence  of 
demons  he  rejects  as  an  absurdity.  God's  saying, 
"  Let  us  make  man  I  "  he  explains  as  signifying  the 
cooperation  of  the  spiritual  with  the  sensuous  in 
the  creation  and  evolution  of  man;  and  when  God 
is  described  as  giving  names  to  things,  the  meaning 
is  that  He  prompts  man  to  do  so.  Still,  he  o])])o-es 
that  rationalism  which  dis.solvcs  miracles  into  nat- 
ural occurrences.  Prophecy  he  explains  as  a  jisy- 
chologieal.  not  a  physical,  process,  manifested  in 
ditlVrent  forms;  either  the  inner  eye  or  ear  perceiv- 
ing  the  object  in  a  vision  or  dream,  or.  the  Irulh 
being  on  a  Ingher  plane,  communicated  intuitively. 
Only  Moses  received  the  divine  revelation  directly 
and  clearly  without  any  mind-obscuring  vision. 
Abraham's  call  to  sjicritice  his  son  he  takes  to  be  a 
mere  vision.  Aaron  is  very  outspoken  on  the  subject 
of  man's  free  will,  opposing  emphatically  the  notion 
held  by  Ibn  Ezra  and  othei's.  that  human  destiny  or 
dispiLsition  is  influenced  by  the  idanels.  The  ex- 
pression, that  God  hardened  the  lieart  of  Pharaoh, 
he  so  interprets  as  not  to  contravene  the  principle 
of  free  will. 

The  most  important  of  the  Commandments  Aaron 
declares,  against  older  Karaite  teachers  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Babbanites.  to  be  the  first  of 
the  Ten  Words,  which  makes  of  the  knowledge  of 
God  a  positive  command,  as  this  alone  gives  to  the 
observance  of  all  the  other  laws  its  inner  value  and 
its  life  consecrating  character.  Often,  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Law  or  in  regard  to  its  spirit,  as 
in  regard  to  the  law  of  retaliation,  "eye  for  eye 
and  tooth  for  tooth,"  he  sides  with  the  lijibbain'tes. 
Everywhere  he  shows  himself  to  be  of  sound,  inde- 
]ienilcnt  judgment.  He  virtually  accepts  the  prin- 
ciple of  tradition,  rejecting  it  only  when  it  conflicts 
with  the  letterof  Scripture.  His  conceiitioii  of  the 
human  soul  is  peculiar  and  probably  influenced  by 
his  medical  studies:  it  seems  to  him  in  its  various 
functions  dependent  upon  the  brain,  the  blood,  and 
the  spinal  cord  or  marrow;  whereas  otherwise  he 
claims  full  independence  for  the  immortal  spirit. 
Here  his  jdiysiology  and  theology  do  not  harmonize. 

Aaron  ben  .Joseph  achieved  more  permanent  re- 
sults for  the  Karaites  by  his  liturgical  work  than  by 
his  commentary.  It  was  his  "  Seder  Tefillot  "  (Book 
of  Prayers  and  Hymns)  that  was  adopted  by  most  of 
the  Karaite  congregations  as  the  standard  prayer- 
book,  and  that  probably  earned  for  him  the  epithet 


15 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aaron  ben  Joseph 
Aaron  ha-Levi 


'•  lm-5a*losh  "  (the  Saint).  He  not  only  enlarged  the 
older  Karaite  ritual  by  hisowncompDsitiDns.mauy  of 
wliitli  arc  nithcr  mystical  in  diameter 
His  ami  imt  of  f;rcat  literary  merit,  tint  he 
Xiiturg'ical  also  embodied  in  this  ritual  tlic  hynuis 
and  Other   of   Ibn   (iabirol,   Judah    ha-Levi,    Ibn 

Works.  Ezni,  and  other  jrreat  litursieal  poets 
of  the  Ualibanites,  thus  showinjr  his 
broadness  of  mind  as  well  as  his  tine  judjrmeut  and 
taste.  lie  also  composed  a  didactic  ])oem.  presenting 
in  brief  rimes  for  popular  instruction  and  education 
tlie  contentsand  spiiitual  lessonsof  each  weekly  por- 
tion of  the  I'entateueh.  He  wrote,  besich's,  brief 
commentaries  on  the  earlier  Prophets;  on  the  later 
Prophets,  of  which  oidy  that  on  Isaiah  has  lieen 
preserved:  and  on  the  llai:io;;rapha,  of  wliieh  the 
one  on  .lob  is  mcntioiud  in  Ids  Peutateueh  commen- 
tary, and  the  one  on  the  Psalms  has  been  preserved 
only  in  part.  He  wrote,  also,  a  _i;nimniar  under  the 
title  of  ••  Kelil  Yoti  "  (Diadem  of  Beauty),  a  com- 
pilation from  older  works,  with  his  own  additions, 
amontr  which  was  a  chapter  on  Bible  exegesis;  but 
he  left  it  untiiiishcd.  It  was  coiupleleil  by  Isaac 
Tishbi  and  published  at  Constantinople,  in  1581,  and 
at  Koslov.  in  1H47. 

Aaron  ben  .Joseph's  "Jlibhar"  (existing  in  Lej-- 
den,  London.  Paris,  and  elsewhere  in  manuscript) 
was  published  with  a  commentary  by  Joseph  Solo- 
mon ben  Moses  Yerushalmi.  at  Koslov.  in  18;).").  For 
other  commentaries  see  Tismbi.  Ei.i.i.Mi  I{.\ni!.\.M 
iii;n  JiDAii.  K.\l,.M.  S.vMtF.i,  !!i;x  JosEi'ii,  and 
Li/Ki.  .MiiitDKc.M  liK.N  Nissan.  His  commentary 
on  the  earlier  propliets  and  Isjuah.  chaps,  i.-lix., 
was  edited  under  the  title  "  .Vrilihar  Yeshariin,"  by 
Abraham  Firkovilch.  who  completed  the  commen- 
tary on  Isaiah,  at  Koslov,  IH'io;  better  manuscripts 
are  in  Leyden.  Aaron  ben  Joseph's  commentary  on 
the  Psalms  exists  in  Leyden  in  manuscript  only  and 
is  incomplete.  His  liturgy.  "SeehT  Tetillot,"  ap- 
peared first  in  Veniee(I).  Bomberg).  l.W.'i-iO;  then  in 
Kale,  1734  ami  IHO.T;  and  in  Koslov,  1836. 

BiBLiooRAPiiV:  UriUz.ftfKth.il.Jmhn.vM.Xiirt  «(•<;.;  Ki'irst, 
liiM-li.  fl.  Kiirflirl.  li.  SIS  Sill:  Jiist.  fif.vh.  il.  Juihiilhuins 
II.  :t.Vl-;iill :  Ni-iil)auiT.  A iw  ./.  I'tlmliuruir  llililhilhik.  p. .'ill : 
Haiiilmn.'iT,  III  WInliT  unit  Wilnmlie's  JUili«chc  Lileritlur.  II. 
ICJ-HH.  whfn*  a  few  simtImiciis  (»f  hLs  style  arej^ven  In  (ier- 
iimii  Ininslutldn  :  Si-hn-lntT,  Ihr  KiUhin  iii  d.  JUdiiicltcn 
Liltriilur.  1H«),  I).  .'iT. 

K. 

AARON  BEN  JOSEPH  SASON  :  Talmiidic 
aiillior;  born  toward  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  probably  at  Salonica.  where  he  received 
his  rabbinical  eduealion  under  the  supervision  of 
Mordeeai  Matalon.  an  eminent  scholar.  During  the 
last  decades  of  the  sixteenth  century  Aaron  ben 
Joseph  engaged  in  teaching,  and  .some  of  his  pupils 
ranked  among  the  emini'iit  rabbis  of  Turkey.  With 
these,  as  well  as  with  his  colleagiU'S.  he  imiintained 
a  lively  correspondence  on  Talniiidic  (|Ueslions,  the 
summary  of  which  |'3:!'2  responsat  was  ]uiblislied  at 
Venice  in  Ki'i'i  umler  the  title  "  Torat  Kmet  "  (Law 
of  Truth).  In  the  introduction  to  this  work  he  men 
tions  his  commetitariis  on  "  Yad  ha  Hazakah  "  of 
Maimonides  anil  on  the  "Tiir  "  of  .laeob  ben  Asher, 
as  well  as  his  treatises  on  various  lialakic  subjects, 
which  do  not  appear  to  have  been  published,  and 
which  are  perhaps  allogi'lher  lost.  It  seems  |>rob- 
abli-  that  the  work  "Sifat  Kmit  "  (Lip  of  Trillin, 
which.  aecordiiiL'  to  the  lestinioiiy  of  Sliablielhai 
Bass,  contains  scholia  to  the  Talmud  aii<l  to  the 
Tosafot,  was  written  by  .Varoii  bin  Joseph  and  not 
by  his  grandson,  Aaron  bi'ii  Isaac  Sasoii.  This  jirob 
aiiility  is  supported  to  some  extent  by  the  title.  ".Se  fat 
Kinel."  w  liich  corresponds  with  llie  title  of  his  col 
lection  of  lesponsa.  as  well  as  by  the  above  cited 


statement  in  his  introduction  to  "Torat  Emet,"  that 
he  had  written  scholia  to  the  Talmud. 

BiBi.iooRAPHv:  ronforte,  I^ori:  ha-lMirnt,  see  Index  of  Cas- 
sel's  edition  :  Azulal.  Shtm  iui-fifdnUm,  eU.  Benjacob,  letter 
,l(i)</i.  No,  139 :  MIohael,  Or ha-Hautlim. No.  SIM :  Furei,  iii(ji. 
Jud.  iii.  i-'iil :  Ila-EMiiA  (encycIupeUlal,  pp.  457,  4js. 

L.  G. 
AARON  KT7PIN0.  Si-e  Aaron  Cupino. 
AARON  LEVI.  .->.  r  Montizino.  Antonio. 
AARON  HA-LEVI  OF  BARCELONA:  Span- 
ish Talmiidist  of  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century; 
author  of  the  first  book  of  religious  instruction 
among  the  Jews  of  the  .Middle  Ages.  Though  his 
work  the  ".Sefer  liaHiiinuk  "  (Book  of  Education) 
was  well  known,  having  been  repeatedly  commented 
on  and  republished  in  more  than  a  dozen  editions,  it 
was  reserved  for  Hosin  to  discover  anything  accu- 
rate concerning  the  personality  of  the  author.  The 
book  itself  is  anonymous;  and  the  statement  by 
Gedaliah  ibn  Yahyah  (dating  from  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century),  that  its  author  was  the  cele- 
brated Talmudist  Aaron  ben  Joseph  ha-Levi.  has 
been  genenilly  accepted.  It  is  now.  however,  certain 
that  the  author  was  a  Spanish  instructor  of  youth, 
of  modest  position,  one  who  had  contented  himself 
with  but  the  faintest  allusion  to  his  own  identity 
in  symbolically  applying  to  himself  the  verse  JIal. 
ii.  5.  at  the  end  of  tin'  luefatory  letter  to  the  book; 
in  an  old  Midrash  (Sifra.  Shemini.  ed.  Weiss,  i.  45(/) 
this  verse  is  referred  to  Aaron.    He  lays  no  claim  to 

original  research.     The  I k  was  simply  intended  to 

imparl  to  Jewish  youth  a  knowledge  of  the  Law,  and 
to  present  in  simple  form  the  principles  of  Judaism  to 
the  unlearned  layman.  Tl.;'  writer  seemstolmve  had 
this  lay-iuiblic  always  before  him;  and  his  work  is 
in  this  respect  difTerent  from  that  of  his  predeces-sors, 
-Maimonides.  Xahinanidis.  and  Moses  of  Coiicy.  from 
whose  works  he  liberally  draws.  The  ''Hiniiuk" 
is  an  enumeration  of  the  six  hundred  and  thirteen 
affirmative  and  nc^gative  precepts  of  the  Mosaic  Law, 
arranged  in  the  order  of  the  weekly 
The  lessons  (  piintxlmt),  with  their  ethical 

"Hinnuk."  and  lialakic  aspects,  based  upon  rab- 
binical tradition  of  the  Talmudic  and 
post-Talmudic  periods,  for  which  latter  fi'ature  he 
relies  upon  .\lfasi.  Maimonides.  and  Xahinanides  as 
main  authorities.  His  ihief  and  original  merit  is  ilis- 
playiil  in  the  ingenuity  and  religions  fervor  with 
which  he  dwells  upon  the  ethical  siile  of  the  Law, 
avoiding  most  admirably  all  abstruse  philosophical 
and  mystical  theories,  such  as  are  only  too  abundant 
in  his  guides,  Maimonides  and  Xahinanides.  The 
following  are  some  specimens  of  his  method.  I'pou 
the  prece|it  concerning  the  treading  OX  (Deut.  x.w. 
4)  the  "Hinnuk"  remarks: 

"  II  \»  the  duly  of  iiian  to  ai-<'Usloin  himself  to  sliow  kindness, 
eoiiipa.Msl<)n.  and  eoiisideniilon  to  his  fi*Ilo«'  en-alnn's.  When 
we  Iherefore  treat  coiislderaiely  e^eii  the  aniinab  driven  for  our 
use,  and  wllhdniw  not  from  Ihem  some  of  the  fruits  of  what 
Ihelr  lalH)r  ohuiliis  for  us,  we  tMlucale  i>ur  soul  Ihen'by  to  lie  all 
the  kinder  to  our  fellow  men.  ami  ueeiistoin  oursi'lve.s  not  to 
withhold  from  them  what  Is  their  due,  hut  to  allow  them  to  en- 
Jov  with  us  the  result  of  that  to  whieli  Ihev  have  eontribuled *' 
I  par.  mill. 

Someof  his  explanations  of  purely  ritual  ordinances 
betray  likewise  a  deep  religious  sentiment.  Thus,  he 
says,  the  counting  (see  'OMKlDof  the  seven  weeks 
between  Pas.sovcT  and  PenlecosI  (Lev.  xxiii.  15)  is 
intended  to  cause  us  to  iiiedilate  upon  the  real  and 
deeper  meaning  of  lioth  those  festivals.  Isnu'l's 
redemption  from  KgypI  was  only  the  beginning 
of  true  freedom  for  the  nation:  its  full  measure  was 
not  attained  until  tin-  Bevelalion  was  given,  which 
event  is  commemoniled  liy  the  lalliT  festival.  On 
thai  day  Isniel  may  be  truly  said  to  have  iH'Come  a 
free  people;   theri'fore  let  the  true  Israelite  reveri'U- 


Aaron  ha-Levi  ben  Moses 
Aaron  Markovich  of  Wilna 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


16 


lially  aiul  loviiij;ly  c(miit  tlic  very  days  intervening 
tietween  the  date  tliat  brouplit  liini  boiiily  liberty 
and  tliat  wliieli  perfected  it  by  adding  spiritual  eii- 
franehiseinent.  Even  in  the  eitation  of  rabbinical 
traditions  and  amplifications  of  the  Law,  the  author 
displays  rare  jiidfrment  and  proper  feeling,  tlms 
completely  justify  ing  tlie  popularity  which  this  book 
lias  for  centuries  enioyed. 

The  aulhor'senumerationof  the  fundamental  doc 
trines('('/!*nv'/H)  of  .Judaism  is  note  wort  hy  ;  namely, 
"the  eternity,  onmipolcnce,  unity,  and  omniseienic 
of  God  ;  creation  of  the  world  by  God  ;  rewards  and 
punishments  for  human  actions;  and  the  truth  of 
Jewish  tradition"'  (intrixluction  to  the  "Hinnuk  "). 
CVmiparcd  with  the  familiar  principles  of  faith  as 
ermmerated  by  Mainionides,  one  is  struck  by  the  fact 
that  the  "Ilinnuk,"  representing  the  ofbcial  ortho- 
doxy of  the  time,  mentions  neither  the  unchange 
al)lenessof  tlie  Law  nor  resurrection.  This  is  owinu- 
undoubtedly  to  the  aversion  of  rabbinical  Jiulaism 
to  the  Maimoiudean  attempt  to  set  up  dogmas. 

The  "Hinnidv"  has  been  translated  into  Spanish 
and  Latin;  the  former  version  seems  to  have  been 
in  existence  about  a  hundred  years  ago,  but  has  en- 
tirely disappeared.  An  abbreviation  of  the  Latin 
tianslation  was  ]iublished  by  .1.  \\.  Hottinger  under 
the  title  "Juris  lb-br,-eoruui  Leges  2G1  .  '.'  .  Duclu 
U.  Levi  Barcelonitu'."  Zurich,  HmR,  and  a  French 
extract  under  the  title,  "Instruction  Heligieuse  et 
:\roiale,"  by  E.  Halevy. 

Itnii.iocRAPHr:  Daviii  Itosin,  Ein  rompeufUuiii  il.  Jlkl. 
(;c«,lzi.'<l;iiiiili;  etc.,  Brcslau,  1871 ;  .Joseph  l)en  Mtwe.s  of  Tar- 
iii>|Kil,  Miiiliat  ll'nimili  (a  vcrv  leanieil  commentary  on  tlie 
Ilinnuk.  in  :i  vols.i,  I.cmluTt'.  Wilt.  t'     p 

AARON  HA-LEVI  BEN  MOSES  OF 
STAROSELYE:  A  Talmudicscholiir  and  (-.ibalisl 
of  note,  who  flourished  in  I'oland  during  the  latter 
|iarl  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth.  He  was  oneof  the  most  eiithusi- 
astic  and  steadfast  di.sciples  of  the  cabalist  Senior 
Salman,  rabbi  of  Lozhne  and  Lody,  and  studied 
under  him  until  he  had  acquired  a  full  knowledge  of 
his  mystic  lore.  Hi;  urged  Salman  to  publi.sji  his 
work.  "  Tanya  "(Sla  vita,  ITflO);  and  when  the  latter 
was  imprisoned  l)y  a  royal  decree  in  1T9S,  Aaron 
ti-aveh'd  from  town  to  town  to  collect  money  from 
liis  master's  followers,  to  ransom  him,  oral  feast  to 
bribe  the  jailer  and  the  prison  warders  to  allow 
them  to  .see  Salman.  After  the  hitter's  death  in  1S13, 
Aaron  took  U]i  liis  residence  as  rabbi  at  Staroselye! 
and  many  flocked  to  him  to  have  the  Law  explaiiied 
in  accordance  with  the  teachings  of  his  master. 
These  formed  a  school  known  as  the  Hasidim  of 
Staroselye.  Aaron  was  the  author  of  "Sha'are 
■Aboilah"(The  Gates  of  Worship).  Shklov.  lS2()-2t. 
a  work  which  is  also  known  by  the  name  "  'Abodat 
ha  Benonim  "  {The  AVorship  of  the  Humble).  It  is 
ilivided  into  live  sections;  the  first  on  the  imity  of 
God:  the  second  on  the  union  of  souls;  the  third  on 
divine  service;  the  fourth  on  the  Law  and  the  Com- 
mandments; and  the  fifth  on  repentance.  He  also 
wrote  "'Abodat  ha-Lewi."  Lembersr,  1861,  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch.  All  of  "Aaron's  teach- 
ings are  based  on  the  oral  traditions  of  Salman  and 
on  his  work,  "Tanya." 

Bibliography:  Benjacob.  0?nr  )io-ScMrim,  p.  603;  Walden, 

iihrm  hn-GeiMim  hc-Hadasli.  Sn.  W".;  Rodkinson    .-in''i.i 

""'"^  "'^'-  J.  L.  S. 

AARON  HA-LEVI  OETTINGEN  (xjj'B'n): 

Galician  rabbi;  born  about  the  beirinniuir  of   the 

seventeenth  century ;  died  in  Lembcrir  about  1670. 

He  w^as  one  of  a  prominent  fainilv  of  rabbis,  and 

officiated   for  the   ccmgregations  o"f    Javorov'  and 


Rzeszow.     His   father,  Hayyiin  Jiulah  Loeb   ben 

Elie/.er,  was  rabbi  of  Lemberg.  as  was  also  his 
father-in-law,  Hayyim  Cohen  Rapoport.  author  of 
resiion.sa.  ultimately  published  at  Lemberg,  1S(I1. 
Aaron  strongly  opposed  the  Ilasidism  wliicli  arose 
in  Galieia,  and  esixrially  attacked  Klimelech  of  Le- 
/.aysk,  the  author  of  "No'am  Elimelech  "  (compare 
"Torat  ha-Kenaot,"  p.  26).  His  approbati(ms  are 
found  in  various  works  of  that  period. 

Huii.rocKAPMv:  BuIht.  .tiwfii  Slicm.  p.  2.'i,  Craeow.  lS!k"i. 

A.  15.  I). 

AARON  OF  LINCOLN:  English  financier; 
born  at  Lincoln.  England,  about  112.5;  died  llSti.  He 
is  first  mentione<l  in  the  English  pipe-roll  of  1 166  as 
creditor  of  King  Henry  II.  for  sums  amountiiii:  to 
.t'61612.v.  W.  (about  $:!.(),s;i.  the  e(|uivalent  of. 'iiKIII,  000 
of  the  jiresent  day)  in  nine  of  the  Knglish  coimties 
(.Jacobs,  "Jews  of  Angevin  longland,"  p.  4:i).  He 
conducted  his  business  through  agents  (M.  D. 
Uavis,  "Shetaioth,"  pp.  2.H7,  2.SS,  Xo.  148;  Jacobs, 
I.e.,  p.  277),  and  sometimes  in  conjunction  with 
Isaac,  fil  Joce;  bj'  these  methods  building  uji  what 
was  practically  a  great  baidving  association  that 
spread  throughout  England.  He  made  a  specialty 
of  leniling  money  fortlw  purpose  of  building  abbeys 
and  monasteries.  Among  Ihoselniill  were  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Albans ("Gesta  St'.  Albani."e(l.  Hiley,  p.  193), 
Lincoln  Alinster  (Ginddusl'ambrensis,  "Opera."  eti. 
Dymock.  vii.  30),  Peterborouirh  Cathedral  ("Bene- 
dict Abbas,"  ed.  Stubbs.  i.  liiti).  and  no  less  than 
nine  Cistercian  abbevs  ("  Jlemorials  of  Fotintains  Ab- 
bey," ii.  18).  They  "were  all  founded  bctwi^cn  1140 
and  11.52.  and  at  Aaron's  de:i1h  remained  imlebted 
to  him  in  no  less  a  sum  than  6,400  marks  (t'4.S(ii)  or 
•S24.0()0.  probably  cipial  to  .S7.")0.000  at  the  present 
day).  Some  of  these  debtsmay.  however,  have  been 
incurred  by  the  abbeys  in  order  to  acquire  lands 
pledged  to'Aaron.  Tims  the  abbot  of  Meaux  took 
over  from  Aaron  lands  pledged  to  the  latter  in  the 
sum  of  1,800  marks  (f  1.200  (U-  8<).000,  equal  to  .§180,- 
OOOat  the  present  day);  Aaron  at  thesainetime  prom- 
ising to  couunute  the  debt  for  a  new 
His  one  of  only  1.260  marks,  which  was 

Transac-  paid  olT  l)y"the  abbey.  After  Aaron's 
tions.  death  the  original  deed  for  1. sou  m:irks 
was  brought  to  light,  and  the  king's 
treasury  detuanded  from  the  abbey  the  missing  .540 
marks  ("Chron.  de  Melsa,"  i.  173  it  set}.).  This  in- 
cident indicates  how.  on  the  one  hand.  Aaron'sactiv- 
ity  enabled  the  abbeys  to  get  jiossessiou  of  the  lands 
belonging  to  the  smaller  barons,  and,  on  the  other, 
how  his  death  brought  the  abbeys  into  the  king's 
power. 

Aaron  not  only  advanced  money  on  land,  but 
also  on  corn  (.Tacobs,  I.e.,  p.  66),  armor  (Giraldus 
Cambrensis,  "  De  Instructione  Principum."  ed. 
Brewer,  p.  4.5),  and  liouses  ("Hotulus  Cartartiin." 
i.  5.56 ;  .Jacobs,  I.e.,  p.  60),  and  in  this  way  acquired 
an  interest  in  properties  scattered  through  the  east- 
em  and  .southern  counties  of  I^ngland.  AVhen  he 
die(L  in  1186.  Ileni-y  II.  seized  his  property  as  the 
esch<'at  of  a  Jewish  u.surer  (see  rsfnv),  and  tli(! 
Engli.sh  crown  thus  became  universal  heir  to  his 
estate.  The  actual  cash  treasure  accumulated  by 
Aarim  was  sent  over  to  France  to  assist  Henry  iii 
his  war  with  Philip  Augustus,  but  the  vessel  con- 
taining it  went  down  on  the  voyage  between  Shore- 
ham  and  Dieppe  ("Benedict  Abbas,"  cd.  Stubbs,  ii, 
.5).  However,  the  indebtedness  of  the  smaller  barons 
and  knights  still  remained,  aud  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  king  to  the  amount  of  .fl.5,000  (§73,(l00, 
probably  equal  to  .?2.  .500, 000  at  the  present  day), 
owed  by  some  four  hundred  and  thirty  persons  dis- 


17 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aaron  ha-Levi  ben  Moses 
Aaron  Uarkovich  of  WUna 


tribiiti'il  over  the  English  counties  in  tlie  following 
proportions  (Jacobs,  I.e.,  pp.  143,  14;^): 


l!.Mkslilrc 1 

ltu<'kini.''lia>ii. ...  4 

Ciiinliridge 1 

<'iimberIunU  —  li 

(ilidicester « 

lliiiiiiwlilre T 


Hfreford 

I.lllir.ln 

Lonilon  and 
Mid4llese.\  . . 

Ncirfiplk 

N'orthiunpton  . 
Oxford 


18U 
41) 

2S 


Shropsblre 3 

Sussex 1 

Warwick  and 

Worcester  ...  21 

Wiltshire 3 

Yorkshire 80 


So  larjre  was  tlie  amount  that  a  separate  division 
of  the  e.xcheiiuer was  cdnstitvited.  entitled  "Aaron's 
E.vehe(|uer"  (Mado.x.  "  History  of  the  E.\ehe(iuer," 
folio  ed.,  ]i.  74')),  and  was  continued  till  at  least 
lidl,  that  is,  fifteen  years  later,  for  on  the  pipe- 
roll  of  that  year  most  of  the  debts  to  Aaron  (about 


Aaron's  sifiniticante  is  due  to  the  fact  that  his 
career  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  the  medieval 
Jewish  communities  could  be  orjjanized  into  a  bank- 
ing association  reaching  throughout  an  entire  coun- 
try; while  the  ultimate  fate  of  the  wealth  thus  ac- 
quired shows  that,  in  the  last  resort,  the  stale  was 
the  arch-usurer  and  obtained  the  chief  benetit  from 
Jewish  usury. 

Binr.IOGRAPiiY:  Jacobs  in  TV.  Jrw.  HM.  Sue.  Kmj.  ill.  1'>T- 
179;  idem,  Jciex  o/ ^layeri/i  A'iii/^dk/,  passim. 


AARON  MARKOVICH  OF  'WILNA  :  Agent 
(court  Jew)   of  King  Ladislaus  IV.  of    Poland   in 


"Aaro.n's  llm.-K'  ,u  i.iM 

(From  •  pbotogrsph.) 


^i.-lOO)  are  recorded  as  still  outstanding  tothekinir, 
showing  that  only  half  the  debis  had  bein  paid 
over  liy  thai  linn\  though,  on  llic  death  of  Aaron, 
the  payment  of  inleicst  c  lasid  aiilomalieally,  since 
the  king,  as  a  Chrislian,  coidd  not  accept  iisuiy. 

The  liouse  of  Aaron  of  Lincoln  still  slainls,  and  is 
probably  the  oldest  private  stone  dwi-lling  in  Eng- 
land till' dale  of  which  can  be  lixcd  with  precision 
(before  llHCi).  It  is  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the 
Slop  Hill  of  Lincoln,  on  the  way  up  toward  the 
ealhi'dral,  and  is  liirured  in  Jacobs.  /.<•..  opposite 
p.  !M.  and  in  "Tr.  Jew.  Hisl.  Soe.  Eng.,"  iii.,  op- 
posite p.  1S1  (where  accurate  details  are  given). 
Oi-iginally  the  liouse  had  no  windows  on  the  ground 
floor — an  omission  probably  inteniled  to  iucreus>e  the 
facilities  for  prole<tion  or  ilefense. 
I. -3 


the  scvi'nli'eiith  century.  The  only  known  docu- 
ment in  which  his  name  occui-s  is  a  letter,  datid 
.lanuary  11.  WAX.  in  tli<' ollieial  correspondence  be- 
Iweeii  the  Russian  and  I'olish  courts  in  the  reign 
of  .Mikhail  Feodorovieh.  the  lii'st  Russian  riili-r  of 
the  Ronmnof  ilynasty.  In  it  Ladislaus  asks  of  the 
czar  permission  for  Aaron  .Markovich.  "the  kind's 
agent,"  lo  visit  .Moscow  for  I  he  purpose  of  purchasing 
( wilh  the  privilege  of  exemption  from  custom  duties) 
certain  utensils  for  the  royal  household;  also  that 
he  be  allowed  lo  bike  with  him.  for  sab',  some 
"precious  goods."  This  rei|Uest,  together  wilh  the 
fact  thai  Ladislaus  was  not  very  favonibly  dis- 
liosed  toward  the  Jews  (see  L.vi>isi,.\rs),  is  evidence 
of  the  iiitlueiilial  standing  of  Aaron  wilh  the  Polish 
king.     The  c/.ar  did  not   gnmt  the  re(iuest,  a  fact 


Aaron  ben  Ueir  of  Brest 
Aaron  of  Fesaro 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


18 


priibiilily  <luf  to  tbe  strained  relations  of  tlie  two 

courts  at  the  time. 

Bibliography:  IteurMu  i  Xa<li>iKi.  189ft,  Nn.  SIT;  Bantysh- 
Kanienskl.  I'ereiiifkii  Mizliihi  Jlnivici  i  I'ulilui.  eu-.,  1S(E2, 
vol.lv.;  Gradovskl.  0(ii'«'itiiij/(i  h  Virnui'iii  r  Dnriui  i 
Sm-remciinul  Ruiigi,  1891, 1.  3(6.  ^ 

II.  R. 

AARON  BEN  MEIR  OF  BREST  :     Lilliua- 

uiiiii  rublii :  Imhii  almut  ilir  In  ;;iiniiiii;  of  tin- (.-i.irlit- 
eciitli  century  at  Urcst  I.ilnvsk  (pD'ia).  Kussia:  died 
there  Nov.  '.i.  1777.  He  was  a  deseenchinl  of  the 
family  of  Kat/.cnellenhoireii  I'adua,  and  reeeivcMl 
his  Tahnuilieal  inslruelinii  friiMi  ICliizer  ben  Eliezer 
Kolir,  a  wi'll  known  Pil|nilist  and  llie  autlior  of  a 
nuniher  of  rabbinical  works.  Aaron  carried  tlie  Pil- 
pui  nietliod  to  its  e.xtri'ine  limits,  and  was  the  autlior 
of  ■■  .Minl.ial  .\liaron  "  (Aaron's  OlTering,  Novydvor, 
1792),  a  work  containing  glosses  on  the  Talmudic 
treatise  Sanhedrin,  and  a  masterpiece  of  rabbini- 
cal dialectics  (Pii.rii.).  At  the  en<l  of  the  work  is 
an  appendi.x.  called  "  Jlinliah  Belidah."  which  con- 
tains res]ionsa  and  commentaries  on  Talmudic  topics. 
Some  of  his  responsa  may  be  found  in  the  "  Mekor 
Mayim  Hayyim"  (Sudilkov,  18;!()).  a  work  by  his 
grandson,  .lacob  Jleir  of  Padua.  Aaron's  fatlier 
was  one  of  the  leaders  {albifim)  of  the  .Jewish  com- 
munity of  Brest-Litovsk;  an<l  his  signature  is  at- 
tacheci  to  a  letter  sent  in  17.i'3  by  that  ((mimunity 
to  .Jonathan  Eybeschi'itz  assuring  him  of  tlieir  sup- 
port in  his  dispute  with  Emden. 

Bnn.ioGRAPnv:  Eiseastadt  "Wiener,  Da'at  f^t'dnshim,  pp.  134- 
12.'>,  St.  Petersburg,  1.S97-9S:  Feinsteiii,  'Ir  Tiliillah,  p.  33, 
Warsaw,  1886;  Benjacob,  Ozar  ha-Scfarim,  p.  34<i. 

L.  G.-D. 

AARON  BEN  MENAHEM  MENDEL  :  Rus- 
sian ralibi.  who  tlouri^hed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenlh  century.  lie  wrote  "Seyag  laTorali" 
(Fence  to  the  Law),  which  was  printed  at  Leml)erg 
in  1810.  This  work  cimtains  references  to  all  the 
passages  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  quoted  in  the 
Tosafot,  but  is  a  plagiarism  from  a  similar  work 
by  JIoudkc.vi  .J.vffe. 

BiBLIOfiRAPHV :  Furst,  BiM.  Jurl.  i.  25;  Benjacoh,  Ozar  ha- 
Sefarim.  p.  419. 

L.  G. 

AARON  BEN  MESHTTLLAM  BEN  JACOB 

OFLUNEL:  liitualist;  riourished  ab<nit  the  end 
ot  the  twelfth  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth:  died  about  121(1  (according  to  "  Shebet 
Yehudah  ").  He  was  one  of  tlie  live  sous  of  Me- 
slinllam  ben  .Tacob  and  seems  to  have  written  a 
book  on  Dinim.  from  which  the  author  of  the  "Sefer 
Asnfot "  (JIS.  in  the  Jlontefiore  College  Library;  see 
Gaster,  'Mudith  ;\Iouteliore  College  Rejiort,  1893," 
pp. 3;i  I't  wf/. )  (piotes  several  passages.  His  decisions 
and  interpretations  are  also  referred  to  in  the  "  Sefer 
ha-Hashlamah  "  of  his  nephew.  Rabbi  Jleshullam 
(for  e.\ain])le.  in  his  notes  on  Baba  Kaiiuna.  end  of 
chap.  X.  ;  Haba  Mezi'a,  beginning  of  chap,  vii.),  who 
calls  him  "  l.iakara  "  for  his  general  knowledge. 

Judah  ibn  Tibbon,  in  his  ethical  will  (ed.  H.  Edel- 
man,  in  "The  Path  of  Good  Men"),  recommends 
his  son  Samuel  to  seek  in  all  things  the  advice  of 
Rabbis  Aaron  and  Asher.  these  being  trusted  friends: 
and  ho  refers  to  Aaron's  skill  in  computation  of  the 
calendar  and  in  other  branches  of  rabbinic  knowl- 
edge. In  the  literary  controversy  about  certain 
theories  an<l  decisions  of  JIaimonides,  carried  on  at 
the  time  by  the  Maimonists  and  Antimaimonists, 
Rabbi  Aaron  sided  with  the  former. 

Rabbi  ]\Ieir  ha-Levi  Almlatia  (nm).  the  leader  of 
the  -Vntimaimonists.  informed  Ralibi  Aaron  of  the 
criticisms  of  Abba  >Iaii  on  the  works  of  Jlaimon- 
ides.     The  reply  of  R.  Aaron  ("Responsa  of  Mai- 


monidcs."  ed.  A.  Lichtenbcrg.  part  iii.  11  <7  si'i.). 
in  defense  of  Maimonides.  is  di.stinguished  by  its 
elegance  of  style,  its  appropriate  use  of  Biblical 
aiul  Talmudic  phrases,  and  its  skill  in  literary  criti- 
cism. After  a  long  panegyric  on  the  greatness  of 
Maimonides.  R.  Aaron  places  him  above  ordinary 
criticism.  He  says  that  if  Abba  JIari  discovered  in 
the  works  of  JIaimonides  passages  that  appeared 
strange  and  unintelligible,  he  should  have  expres.sed 
his  doubts  in  moderate  terms,  like  a  disciple  who 
seeks  information,  and  not  like  a  master  who  cor- 
rects his  pujiil.  Ii)il)bi  Aaron  only  discusses  one 
topic  of  the  controversy,  namely.  Maimonides'  in- 
terpretation of  the  principle  of  resurrection. 

BiHLiixiRAPny :  Gross,  GalUa  Jnilaiea.  pp.  280,  2iKl;  Renan, 
ii»if<i/i/>iii.<Frniif(ii)i,pp.44»,511,  018,  733;  Luljetzkl,  pri'f- 
nre  to  Sc/er  ha-Hashlamah,  Paris,  1885;  Mlcbael,  Or  ha- 
Hnwi/im,  No.  306. 

M.   F. 

AARON  BEN  MORDECAI  OF  RODEL- 
HEIiyi  (near  Frankfort nn  the-Main):  Translator, 
who  nourished  early  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He 
translated  the  two  Targums  on  Esther  into  .Iiahvo- 
German  in  the  early  years  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury: and  the  first  eilition.  bearing  the  title  "  Mezah 
Aharon. "appeared  at  Fraitkforton-t he-Main  in  1718. 
It  has  since  been  reprinted  (Steinschneider.  "Cat. 
Bodl."  col.  724).  I..*;. 

AARON  BEN  MOSES  BEN  ASHER  uom 

monly  called  Ben  Asher;  Arabic,  Abu  Saidi:  A 
distinguisheii  Masorile  who  nourished  in  Tiberias  in 
the  first  half  of  the  tenth  century.  He  was  descended 
from  a  family  of  Masoritcs  which  can  be  traced 
back  through  six  generations  to  Aslicr  the  Elder, 
who  liourisiied  in  tlie  last  half  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. While  merely  the  names  of  elder  critics  have 
been  preserved,  that  of  Aaron  ben  Moses  is  the  first 
that  appears  in  the  full  light  of  history,  ami  with 
him  the  5Iasoh.\  may,  in  a  certain  sense,  be  con- 
sidered as  closed.  He  wrote  a  manuscript  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  marked  it  with  vowel-signs  and 
accents.  He  spent  many  j-ears  of  study  in  ]ireiiar- 
ing  this  codex,  and  revised  it  several  times.  It  be- 
came the  standard  for  all  later  generations;  and 
with  a  few  exceptions  (where  it  follows  his  contem- 
porary lival.  Ben  Naphtali)  the  jiresent  .Masoretic 
text  is  based  on  his  work.  The  belief  that  this 
codex  has  been  preserved  in  a  synagogue  at  Alelipo 
is  unfounded,  and  the  opinion  that  Aaron  ben  Asher 
was  a  Karaite  is  untenable.  He  wrote  short  trea- 
tises on  Masoretic  and  grammatical  subjects,  which 
occur  in  sevei-al  manuscripts  under  various  titles. 
The  title  "Dikduke  ha-Te'amim"  (Grammatical 
Rules  of  the  Accents),  under  which  S.  Bacr  and  H. 
L.  Strack  pulilished  them  (Leiiisic.  1870).  was  prob- 
ably that  selected  by  the  author  himself.  He  also 
compiled  a  list  of  eighty  homonyms,  "Shemoiiiin 
Zugim."  which  was  afterward  incorporated  in  the 
"JIasora  Finalis."  .•<.)■.  K.  and  in  the  "Oklah  we-Ok- 
lah  "  (n^SXI  n^3X).  Aaron  ben  Moses  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  connecting  link  between  the  Masorites 
and  the  grammarians. 

BIRLIOCRAPHT :  S,  Baeranfi H. L. Strack,  Dihduhe  ha-T,'amim, 
Lei|)sic',  1S79;  Harris.  The  Rise  and  DcveliiiJtiieiit  nf  the  Maf- 
srtra.  in  Jev.  (^>uart.  Her.  vol,  1.;  Bacher,  Die  .1/a.tiora.  in 
Winter  and  Wunsche'sJH'lwcJ/'-  Literatur,  ii.;  idem,  Ilahlii- 
nifclies  Siirae)iiiut  hei  lien  Axcher,  in  Stade's  Zeilnehrift, 
XV,;  idem.  Die  Aufilune  lUr  Hehrififehen  (irammntik 
in  Z.  D.  M.  G.  vol.  xlix.,  reprinted  I,eipsle,  lSH.i:  and  A. 
Harljavv's  A'nff.s  to  Ral)l>inon:itE"s  Hebrew  translation  of 
(initz,  Gefeh.  0.  Jwleii.  vol.  iii. 

(■     L 

AARON    MOSES    BEN   JACOB  TAUBES. 

See  T.M'BEs,  Aaron  Mosi-;s  i!i;n  .Iacou. 


19 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aaron  ben  Meir  of  Brest 
Aaron  of  Fesaro 


AARON    BEN    MOSES     MEIR     PERLS. 

Sec  I'Kiii.s,  Aaiihn  i;i:n  Mum-  Mi.ii:, 

AARON  MOSES  BEN  MORDECAI :  Oiicnf 
tlir  liu-  <alKilisl  ir  writns  nl  ri'inil  limes  in  Kast 
Prussia:  aiillKir  nl'a  work,  "  Nishinat  Sliclnmiili  Jlor- 
dc'cai"(T)i<'  Sdiil  (jl'Sdlumon  Monlrcai:  .lohaiiiiislicr!.', 
ISo^),  socallrd  ill  R'liiciiiliraiicc  cil'  liis  son.  who  diuil 
in  early  cliiklliiiiiil.  On  the  titli'iiage  tlio  statement 
is  made  that  the  work  is  a  commentary  on  M.  II. 
Liizzatto's  •■  Hoki'r  u-Mekublial  " ;  indeed  tlic  text  of 
this  treatise  is  printed  in  thi;  vohirae.  Aaron  used 
tlie  name  of  Luzzatto  merely  to  jrive  greater  vojiue 
to  liis  own  liook.  lieeauso  of  the  waning  influenee 
of  tlio  ('al>ala  in  Poland  at  the  time.  In  reality. 
Aaron's  work  is  a  eoninieiilary  on  Ihe  "  'Ez  I.Iay- 
yini  "  of  Hayyim  Vital,  the  arch  apostle  of  tlie  ealia- 
listic  school  of  Liiria.  Aaron  Moses  states  {I.e.  p. 
4G((I  thai  he  was  the  author  also  of  a  commentary 
on  the  Midrash  Taiihuina.  entitled  "Zebed  Tob  "  (A 
Goodly  Gift).     This  has  U(M  been  printed. 

Bini.iOf;RAPnY:   Benjacnh,  (>znr  hn-Stfarim,]^yi.  40.">  ami  1.">1, 
wliere tlie  ia.st  work  Is  wronp'lv a.s('i!l)eil  to  Dob  Baer  of  Sloiiiui. 

L.  G. 

AARON  BEN  MOSES  MOSESSOHN.     Sec 

Mosi.--iiiiN ,  Am:o\  r.i.N  MiisKs. 
AARON  MOSES  PADUA.  SceP.vnuA,  Aabon 

MosK- 

AARON  ben  MOSES  TEOMIM  :    Kabbini- 

cal  scholar;  linni  almut  Ui:in.  pmliably  in  Prague, 
where  the  Teoiiiiiii  Knliikcl  faniilv.  from  Vienna. 
Imd  setth-d;  died  in  Chnielnik.  Poland,  .Iiily  8.  l(ii)l). 
In  UiTi)  he  was  called  as  ralibi  to  Worms,  where  he 
succeeded  Samson  liailiarach.  Prior  lo  this  he  had 
been  a  preacher  at  Prague.  In  a  serious  illness 
which  overcame  him  on  Passover  evening.  lOT.'i.  lie 
V(jwe<l  he  would  write  a  commentary  on  the  Hag 
gndali  if  lie  should  be  restored  to  luallli.  On  his 
recovery  he  published  this  coinmenlaiy  under  the 
tilli-  '■  .>lat!eh  Aharon  "  (Aaron's  Uodi,  Frank  fori  on 
thcMain,  HiTS.  .Vnother  work.  "liigde  Aharon" 
(Aaron's  Vestments),  homilies  on  the  Peiitalcuch, 
was  published  after  Ihe  aullior's  death  al  Frank- 
fort-on-llie-JIain.  171II.  His  "Glosses  on  Shullian 
'Aruk,  Hoslien  Mishpat"  remained  in  manuscript. 
Kesponsji  of  his  aii'  found  in  Ihe  collections  of  .lair 
Havvim  Uacliaiaeh,  "llawwot  Vair,"  and  in  those 
of  kliakim  Goclz  b.  Meir  of  llildeslieim.  "  Kbeii  ha- 
Slioham."  In  11177  .\aron  received  a  call  lo  Lissa  in 
Poland,  which  he  ileilined;  but  in  Ki'.lll  he  accepted 
a  call  lo  the  rabbinical  seal  of  Cracow.  He  was 
there  but  lliree  nioiilbs  whin  a  Polish  nobleniaii. 
probably  in  order  lo  blackmail  the  congn'galion. 
ordered  his  arrest  in  Chiiielnik,  wliitlier  he  had 
gone  to  alleiid  the  congregational  Meeting  of  the 
Four  Lands  (.Vitn.V  Ait.\Z"T).  On  Sabbath,  July 
8,  Piilll,  he  was  arresled,  phu-ed  on  horseback,  and 
hurrii'd  to  prison.  Hi'  fell  olT  the  hor.se  several 
limes  and  was  as  nfleii  remounlcil.  Before  the  jail 
was  reached  lie  had  died  of  fright  and  ill-treatment. 
He  was  buried  at  Pinleliov. 

As  a  eharacler  and  as  a  rabbinical  scholar.  Aaron 
Teomiin  did  not  rise  above  the  level  of  his  conleni- 
poraries.  In  his  mbbinical  works,  Tiomini  is  a  typ- 
ical Pilptdist.  His  sclmlaslic  discourses  are  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  vogue  of  that  age.  That  his 
theories,  as  exhibited  in  his  Irealment  of  Ihe  Hag- 
gailali.  were  appreciatid  by  his  conlempoiaries,  is 
proved  by  the  fact  Ihal  his  llaLTgadah  was  reprinled 
three  liiiics:  at  .Vnislerdain.  in  l(i!).");  al  Frankfort 
on  Ihi-Main,  in  1710:  at  Amslerdam,  in  17r2. 

A  severe  crilicism  which  Jair  Hayyim  Hacharach 
wrole  under  Ihe  title  ■•^Ia!(eh  .Vharon."  and  which 
lie  did  not  dare  to  publish,  was  certainly  mil  free 


from  personal  motives.  Bacharach,  the  son  and 
grandson  of  former  rabbis  of  Worms,  living  in  that 
city  after  he  had  lost  his  i>ositiou  in  Coblenz,  had 
hoped  lo  succeed  his  father;  and  he  wished  to  show 
that  the  congregation  liad  not  cho.sen  a  better 
man.  Bachaiacli's  interesting  criticism  was  pub- 
lished by  Jellinek  in  the  first  volume  of  "Bik- 
kurim,"  a  periodical  edited  by  Naphtali  Keller. 

BlBI.ior.RAPHT :  J.   M.  Zunz.  '/r  hn-?ei1eh:  p.  132.   Lemhere, 

1871 ;  Fuemi.  Kniivit  Yixrnii,  p.  ,H.s,Wai>i:ivv.  Is,s0;  Demliiizer, 
Kcliliil  Vnti.  it.  7\l>.  CTaeow.  LsiB:  Kaufmann,  JairChidm 
Biic)iiirnrli.  pp.  'A  it  Hfq.,  Treves,  ISW. 

D. 

AARON  BEN  MOSES  BEN  ZEBI  HIRSCH 
TEOMIM.     See  Tko.mim,   .V.vuo.n 

AARON  BEN  NATHAN  NATA'  OF  TRE- 
BOWLA  ;  .\ullHir:  llourisljed  .ibou'l  ibe  iniddle  nf 
the  eigllleelitli  celltMry.  He  pillilished  at  Zolkiev.  in 
17o.j,  "Sliem  Aharon  "  (Aaron's  Name),  a  work  con- 
taining halakic  novell.-e  to  the  whole  Talmud,  and 
midrasliic  interpretations  of  the  Pentateuch  under 
the  sub-title,  "Xetibot  la-Slieliet.'"  He  also  pub- 
lished a  commentary  on  Talniudic  discussions  on 
the  Pentateuch,  which  bears  the  title  "Maklo  shel 
Aharon  "  (Aaron's  Stalf)an<l  was  published  in  1708. 

BiBi.mfiR,\rnv:  Filrst.  Bihl.  Jtid.  1.  2o;  Beiijacob.  Ozar  lia- 
giftiriiii.  pp.  3«»,  ■)»!. 

L.  G. 

AARON  OF  NEUSTADT  (surnamed  BLUM- 
LEINi:  ■raliiiudiM  who  with  Slialluni  and  .laekc  I  of 
Vienna  formed  a  Iriumvirate  of  Talmudic  scholars 
in  Austria  at  Ihe  end  of  Ihe  fourteenth  and  beginning 
of  the  tifteenth  century;  uncle  and  chii'f  instruclor 
of  Isserleiii,  who  frecpient  ly  alluiles  in  his  works  lo 
the  decisions  and  opinions  of  his  teacher.  Jacob 
Mijllii  ( .Maluirillalso  refers  lo  him  and  his  colleagues. 
Aaron  sulfered  thedealh  of  a  martyr,  at  Vienna,  on 
Jlarch  i;i.  U'^l.  He  wrote  a  digest,  "Hilkot  Xid- 
dali,"  which  is  mentioned  by  Isserleiu.  A  collection 
of  sermons  by  Aaron  is  now  known  only  llirough 
three  citations  in  the  works  of  Jacob  JIdilu  and  of 
Isserlein. 

Biiu.iOfiR.\piiY:    A.Berliner,  In  Mimatsschrtft,  1809,  p.  134; 
Mkliael.  Or  Iia-Hauillm,  No.  277. 

L.  G. 

AARON    BEN    PEREZ    OF    AVIGNON: 

Ficneh  r.ililii  .iiiil  seholar:  lioiii  about  I  lie  middle  of 
the  Ihirteenlh  ceiilury;  died  in  llie  llist  quarter  of 
Ihe  fourleeiilh  cenlury.  He  was  one  of  the  leading 
scholars  of  Argeiiliere,  Languedoc,  France.  Willi 
olhcr  inllueiitial  niembers  of  the  congregation  of 
Argeiitieie,  he  signed  an  address  to  Solomon  ben 
Adiet  during  Ihe  great  anti-Maimonist  controversy 
of  lliO:}-!!.").  The  address,  with  Ihe  signatures,  can  be 
found  in  .Vbba  Mari  Don  Aslruc's  "Miuliat  lyenaol," 
p.  -17.  This  appeal  was  inlended  to  eiiiourage  Abba 
.Mari  in  his  efl'orls  to  stem  the  tide  of  false  doctrines 
rapidly  spreading  among  the  younger  scholars. 

BiBI.IOfjRAPIIY  :  Ri-nnn,  Lcs  Rahbtiis Fiau<;aiii,  p.  O'o ;  Gross, 
GtUtia  Juilaica^  p.  (>7. 

M.  F.— L.  G. 

AARON  OF  PESARO  :    Flourished  in  the  six- 

lei  mil  leiii  uiy  al  Pesaio,  Italy,  and  wrole  "Toledot 
.Miaroii  "  (The  (teneralions  of  .\aron).  an  index  lo 
Scriptural  quotalionsin  the  Talmud, arranged  in  Ihe 
order  of  the  Bible.  This  was  lirsl  printed  at  Frei 
burg  in  l.'iSH.  and,  in  an  abbreviated  form,  is  found 
in  rabbinic  Bibles. 

UUU.IOOR.VPIIV  :  Mli'linol.Or  )iii-/ri»Mi"i.  No.  31(1;  Slolnsolinel- 
der.  (•<!(.  Uwll.  No.  41177. 

M    T.    M. 


Aaron  ben  Fhinebas 
Aaron  Worms 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLUl'EDIA 


20 


AARON  BEN  PHINEHAS  :  Mnnliir  of  ihr 
nihliiiiiinl  CMllci.''-  "!'  I.i ml"  r;;.  mmcI  iip|iciirs  in  llml 
ciipiicity  iinmiij;  llic  raliliis  wlio  liml  to  (Ucidi'  a  nisc 
ill  iimlrimonial  law  with  npinl  tii  llii'  innriiaKcof  llic 
widow  of  a  man  who  had  lucii  killed  by  the  bands 
of  CiiMlKi.NiiKi.  Aaron  dli-d  at  LinilxTg,  June  2(1, 
Ui.">l. 
Hiiii.iof;RAPnv;  Almiimm  Itapciport,  Wn ii  /in-Ezni/ii.  rfsiMin- 

siim  No.  Sl.Oslnv.  IT'.W:  liiilwT.  AiikIic  Slifin,  p.  i!.  CnKow, 

•'*»•'■'•  A.  H.  1). 

AARON  OF  PINSK:  liabbi  in  Kntiiiirin.  in 
till'  ■.'civiiiimiui  nl  Knviin,  aiiil  afUTwanl  in  I'insk, 
wlicic  he  died  in  isll.  lliwrolc  "Tosal'ol  Ahai'on." 
in  which  he  altcinptcd  In  solve  Ihe  ((iiestioiis  of  the 
Tosjdists  in  various  Talinndic  treatises,  notably  in 
Zira'im.  Jlo'ed.  and  Xiddah.  The  book. wliirli  con- 
tains also  scholastic  and  cabalistic  di.scourses,  was 
ininted  in  18.18. 

Biiil.l(>f:R.\PllY  :  WaldPn,  Slum  ha-OalnUm  he-Hadanh.p.  19, 
No.  12i.  Warsaw.  ISTii:  Benjaoot).  <mtr  ha-Scfarim,  p.  isai. 

I). 

AARON  SABAONI  ('Jiynon):  Editor  of  IMoscs 
AUmi/.'s  eMliali-~lie  lilnal,  "llekal  ha-Kodesh."  to 
which  he  ailded  miles. and  which  was  piinled  in  .Vni- 
sterdam.  \>>~>'.i.  Il  is  conjeclnn-d  that  he  was  named 
after  the  city  of  Salihionetta;  hut  in  the  seventeenth 
century  he  "resided  in  Sale.  and.  with  Jacob  Sas- 
poitas,  participated  in  the  condemnation  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  Shal)i)elliai  Zebi  for  refnsins  to  keep  the 
four  chief  fast-(hiys,  on  the  ground  that  the  Jlessiah 
had  already  arrived. 
Dim.iocRAPiiv  :  Benjacob.  (ttfir  ha-Srfnriin,  p.  1.3(i. 

A.  B.  1). 

AARON  BEN  SAMUEL:  Hebrew  autlior; 
bnrn  about  KVii).  nourished  in  (.iennaiiy  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  luib- 
lished  his  "  Bet  Aharon  "  (.Varon's  House)  at  Frank- 
fort on-tlie-Oder  in  Hi!t(l,  beiiij;  at  that  time  of  ad 
vancedage.  This  work,  which  received  tlieaii])roval 
of  the  greatest  rabbinic  authorities  of  Ihe  time,  gives 
the  places  in  the  Talmud,  the  Mi<lrashim.  the  Zohar, 
and  many  other  rabliinic  and  cabalistic  works  where 
each  verse  of  the  Bibl(!  is  eitlu'r  cited  or  explained. 

Although  Aaron  owes  much  to  his  predicessors 
(Aaron  of  Pesiiro.  Jacob  Sasporliis.  Manasseh  ben  Is 
niel.  and  others),  his  work,  because  of  its  comjilete- 
ness.  is  a  monument  of  remarkable  industry  and  wide 
reading.  In  the  introduction  he  states  that  he  spent 
ten  long  years  at  the  work,  although  assisted  by  sev- 
eral .scholars  who  lived  with  him  for  this  purpose. 
In  this  introduction  Aaron  mentions  three  of  his 
other  works,  which,  however,  seem  to  have  been 
lost:  (1)  "8issera  Torah."  a  midrashic  commentary 
on  Judges,  iv.  V. ;  (2)  "  Ilibliur  Masora."  a  midra.sliic 
commentary  on  the  Masora,  of  which  he  gives  sev- 
eral specimens;  and  (3)  "Shaloah  Manot,"  a  short 
commentary  on  the  treatise  Megillah. 

At  the  request  of  his  wife.  Aaron  translated  into 
Judico-Gerraan  the  Midrash  on  the  death  of  Moses, 
"Petirat  Mosheh  Shein  'Olam."  Frankfort-on-thc 
Oder,  1G93.  This  book  was  very  popular  with  the 
Jewish  women  of  Poland  and  Russia,  and  has  gone 
thixmgh  many  editions.  Aaron  must  have  reached 
a  very  great  age;  for  in  1701  he  iniblished  a  com- 
mentary on  "Perek  Sliirah,"  which  is  appended  to  a 
l)rayer-book  printed  that  year  in  Berlin  (see  Stciu- 
schneider,  "Cat.  Bodl,"  Nos.  4000  and  4380), 

L.  G. 

AARON  BEN  SAMUEL  :  A  simple  farmer  of 
Hergershausen  lllesseii).  wlin  was  the  first  person  in 
(Jerinany  to  attempt,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  to  bring  about  the  use  of  the  ver- 


nacular in  lieu  of  thi'  Hebrew  in  the  daily  prayers. 
His"  IJebliche  Tetilah.od<r  (ircflige  Artznei  vorGuf 
uii  Xeshamah  ''  (A  Lovely  Pniyer.or  a  Tonic  f(n- Body 
and  Soul).  Pnuikforl  on" the  .Slain.  170!).  though  not 
the  first  .luda'o-CJerinan  adaptation  of  the  prayer- 
book,  was  original  in  thai  il  sought  to  give  a  literary 
form  to  the  vernacular  version,  by  amplifying  <-on- 
sidcrably  lhc>  original  te.xt  of  the  prayers.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  writer  is  clearly  expressed  in  the  intm- 
duclion  to  the  book,  namely,  to  bring  about  the 
substitution  of  this  Jiida'o  (Jerman  version  for  Ihe 
Hebrew  te.xt  in  those  spheres  in  which  the  "Holy 
Language"  was  no  longer  nnderslood.  Aaron's  al- 
tein|il  failed:  for  the  orthodox  .lews  iirotesteil  so 
vigorously  against  the  innovation  that  Ihe  rabbis 
throughoiit  tiie  Palatinate  placed  the  book  under  the 
ban.  And  so  ((uickly  and  .so  well  was  the  order  of 
the  rabbis  obeved,  that  not  a  copy  of  the  "Liebliehe 
Tefilah"  could  be  found  till  aboii"t  18.30,  when  large 
numbers  of  the  work  were  discovered  in  the  syna- 
gogue lofts  of  Hesseu. 

Bilil.incRAPiiv:   Karpcles,  Gf«fli.  il.  Jllit.  Lit.  11.1014;  Zunz, 
'/..  II.  pp.  111(1.  ITIl,  44(1. 

W.  M. 

AARON  SAMUEL.  See  KAVDANOWKU.A.UtoN- 
SAMl  l  I 

AARON  SAMUEL  BEN  MOSES  SHALOM 
OFKREMNITZ:  .\ulh.>ror  ".Nislmiat  .\ilam," 
Hanau.  Hill,  wliicli  conlaiiis dissertations  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  soul.  ])urpose  of  man's  existence,  the  fu- 
ture world,  and  rewards  and  punishments. 
Bini.iORRAPnY:  Mlohapl,  Or  ho-tfiii/j/im.  No.  318;  Benjacnh, 

(tznr  tut-Sffitrim,  p.  4(W. 

AARON  BEN  SAMUEL  HA-NASI  h-.IIoI 
alsii  Abu  Aaron  ben  Samuel  ha-Nasi  of  Baby- 
lonia) :  .V  ]iersonage  who  was  considered  uniil  ic- 
ceiitly  a  lieliliouscrealion  of  the Tradilionists (Zuiiz) 
— those  who,  in  their  desire  to  liml  ic'aeliers  and 
originators  for  everything,  invented  him  in  order  to 
announce  him  as  the  father  of  prayer-interpretation 
and  mysticism.  Bui  the  publication  of  the  "Chron- 
icle of  Ahimaaz  "  (written  in  1054),  by  Neubau<-r, 
has  demonstrateil  that  Aaron  is  not  altogether  a 
creature  of  the  imagination.  It  is  true  that  legend 
has  far  more  thanhistory  to  .sjiy  about  him.  and 
that  only  the  barest  outlines  of  his  real  career  arc 
accessilile.  Aaron  was  the  son  of  a  high  dignitary 
in  Bal)ylonia,  a  certain  Samuel,  who,  according  to 
R,  Eliezer  of  Worms,  was  a  nasi  (prince).  In  Ihe 
"Chronicle  of  Ahimaaz"  Aaron  is  said  to  have 
been  a  member  of  the  house  of  Joab.  which  means 
that  he  was  the  son  of  an  ab  bet  din,  or  chief  of 
the  cotirt  of  justice;  since  in  Jewish  legend  C^'er. 
Mak.  ii.  ;^1";  tan.,  .Mas'ey,  1'-')  Joabis  referred  lo  as 
the  chief  justice  in  the  reign  of  David.  Disagree- 
ments between  father  and  son.  about  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century,  caused  Aaron  to  leave  home. 
He  traveled  through  Palestine  to  Italy,  and  land- 
ing at  Gaeta  went  to  Benevento.  He  did  not  stay 
there  long,  but  went  to  Oria.  in  southern  Italy,  the 
center  of  "Jewish  life  in  Italy  at  that  time.  In  that 
place  he  associateil  with  the  learned  l)rothers.  She- 
phatiah  and  Hananeel.  sonsof  .Vmittai.  under  whose 
fostering  influence  he  taught  successfully— a  voca- 
tion for  w  Inch  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  Law, 
acquired  in  Babylonia,  seemed  especially  to  fit  him. 
Aaron's  activity  bore  fruit  not  only  in  Italy,  but 
also  beyond  the  borders  of  that  country.  Among 
his  pupils  were  numbered  Mosi'S  ben  Kalonymus  of 
Lucca,  who,  under  one  of  Charlemagne's  successors, 
went  to  the  land  of  the  Franks  (Mentz),  and  there 
became  the  spiritual  head  of  the  Jews  in  that  coun- 


21 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aaron  ben  Phinehas 
Aaron  Worms 


trj-.  In  spite  of  his  success  as  a  teacher  iu  Italy, 
Auri)ii  was  Sflzed  by  a  secret  longing  for  home;  and 
seeing  that  the  seed  which  he  hail  carefully  sown 
was  bearing  fruit,  he  considered  himself  entitled  to 
return  (juietiy  to  the  land  of  his  fatliirs.  He  em 
barked  at  Bari,  to  the  great  sorrow  of  liis  pupils  and 
friends,  among  the  latter  being  ther\derof  the  town, 
who  tried  to  detain  liim  by  force.  Nothing  further 
is  known  of  him.  The  cabalists  considered  him  as 
one  of  the  chief  pillars  of  their  mysticism,  ascribing 
to  him  the  cabalistic  works.  "Nikkud"  and  "  I'ardes"; 
but  see  Botarel's  coinnieutary  on  Sefer  Vezirah.  1.  1. 
Ti:  ii.  4,  and  Moses  C'ordovero  in  his  "  Pardes  liimo 
nim."  That  he  is  considered  to  be  identical  witli 
"Aaron  the  Babylonian  "  appears  from  tlie  fa<l  that 
Botarid  (I.e.  iv.  '2)  describes  the  latter  as  niaUiiig 
use  of  the  inelTable  name  of  God  in  working  the 
most  wonderful  miracles  in  exactly  the  same  way  as 
Aaron  ben  .Simml  is  said,  in  the  "Chronicle  of 
Ahimaiiz."  to  liave  done.  Graet/.'s  identification  of 
this  Aaron  with  the  Aaron  who  was  a  candidate  for 
the  gaonate  in  S14 — according  to  Isjiac  Halevi  even 
earlier — is  impossible  upon  chronological  .grounds. 
Aaron's  activity  in  Italy  is  ])laced  bj-  the  "Chron- 
icle" half  a  century  later  than  this  dale;  in  STU  he 
was  still  in  Italy. 
BiBLiO(iK.vpnv:  Uapopnrt.  in  BikUurr  ha-'ItUm.  1829.  x.  112: 

Zunz.  .s'.  /'.  |>.  lu'i:  Ni-uluiuiT.  liiv.  Kl..luivi.i.  xxill.  ■£il)--£il ; 

lOi-iii.  Miiliiniil  ./lie.  rhrnii.  II.  112-115.  1111;  Kaiifiimnn.  in 

Mimiitssihriil.  l.s<»l.  .xl.  4112-471,  .'iill:  ,;»»■.  Vi/</r(.  Ui  r.  iv.til.i; 

tinllz,  fif!*rh.  (t.  .hi'li  II.  v.  421. 422;  Miduu'l.  Or  hn-lhiiif/im. 

Nn.2iiT :  Isiiai*  Halevi.  Ihtnit  /iM-ZfiV/ioijiiii,  pp. 235-2:iS:  Steln- 

Mliiielder.  In  Jew.  Quart.  Hiv.  Ix.  itSl. 

L.  G. 

AARON  IBN  SARGADO :  Gaon  iu  Pumbedita 
and  a  sun  nl  .Ihm  pli  Iki  Knlicii.  According  to  the 
chronicle  of  Slierira.  ISaigado  olticialed  from  i)43  to 
JKiO;  others ileclare  he  ilied  in  iM'J.  llr  was  successor 
to  the  gaon  H.\N.\xi.\ii.  Ilie  father  of  Slierira.  Not 
of  a  family  of  .scliolars.  but  an  extremely  wealthy 
meichaiit.  he  was  elevale<l  to  the  gaonate  (presi 
dency  of  a  rabbinical  aca<leniy)  through  the  intlu- 
enci' of  his  family.  Cali-b  ilin  Sargado.  the  deter- 
mined opponc'iit  of  Saadia.  wlio  spent  (io.dilll  /iizirn 
(Sil.lKlOi  in  order  to  bring  about  tlie  diposition  of  the 
gaon  of  Sura,  was  probably  identical  with  Aaron, 
as  Ilarkavy  has  shown  (see"Seder  'Olam  Zutia  "  in 
"Anecdota  O.xonieiisia."  ii.  H'd).  Four  of  Saigado's 
legal  decisions  on  religious  ])rol)leins  are  preserved, 
and  are  printed  in  the  collection,  "  Ilemdah  Genuza," 
Nos.  '.i'—ii).  One  of  these,  it  appears,  was  the  an- 
swer to  an  in(piiry  from  Kairoiian.  Like  bis  op- 
ponent Saadia.  Aaron  wasa  Bible  commentator,  and 
parts  of  his  commentary  are  extant  iu  St.  Peters- 
iiurg.  Abraham  ibu  Ezra  quotes  some  of  his  phil- 
osophical sayings. 

Bllu.lo<;iiAPiiv:  .Im'l  in\Ui'r.  Mnftrnli.  isni,  p.  177;  Neiiliauer, 
.Mfiliiinil  ./>"'.  ihrnii.  1.  lai.  112.  IIHI;  Zunz,  III  liflifiT's  Jll<(. 
Z.if.  Iv.  ;i«):  WInttT  Bill!  Wiinsiln'.  JHdi«/i(  Lilnnliir,  II. 
247 :  GelKer.  Jll</.  Zell.  1. 397. 

A.  K" 

AARON  SELIG  BEN  MOSES  OF  ZOL- 
KIEV  :  Aullior,  llouii-hicl  in  lh<- Mvcntcriilli  ciii 
tiiiy.  He  wrote  "'Amude  Sheba'  "  (Seven  Pillars) 
containing;  (1)  Commentaries  and  glossi-son  the  old 
and  tile  new  Zohar.  explaining  the  foreign  words 
therein;  (2)  treatises  not  iiicliidiil  in  the  old  Zohar; 
(Hi  referenei's  wlieic'comnieiitarirson  Ihetrealises  ivf 
the  old  and  the  new  Zolmr  can  be  found  ;  (4)  similar 
indications  of  the  book  "Tikkuiiim";  (,"))  remarks 
on  till-  style  of  the  Zohar.  The  work  was  published 
at  Cracow  in  ItiiiT. 

Hllii.liiiinArnv:  Ife'iijiuuli,  Ojnr  /ni-.^Jr^iriiii.  p.  44:t;  FQrsI, 
mill.  Juil.  I.  ai;  SU'lnwIineliliT,  Ciif.  IIihII.  No.  4;i71. 

.1.  L    S 


AARON  SOLOMON :  Merchant  of  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  who.  aliout  1777,  signed  an  agreement 
to  take  the  colonial  pa]Hr  currency  siinctioned  bj' 
King  George  III.  in  place  of  gold  and  silver.  He 
left  Philadelphia  for  Europe  in  l'>i'). 

BiHLiDiiRAPHv:  H.  I>.  Riisenbaih,  The  Jexm  in  Philadelphia 
Priiir  to  laoo.  p.  12,  Philadelphia,  1SS3. 

A    S.  W  -R. 

AARON    BEN     SOLOMON     AMARILLO. 

Ser  .\\i  AUii.I.o.   .\  \i;ii.\  i;i:n  SoMimon. 

AARON  BEN  SOLOMON  BEN  HASUN : 
Taliiiuilisi  wild  llourishrd  in  'I'lnkiy  al  tin-  lieirin- 
ning  of  the  si.xtienth  century.  He  ranked  high 
among  the  prominent  Oriental  Talniudie  scholars 
of  his  time.  Except  some  responsji,  which  may  be 
found  in  the  works  of  his  pupils  and  colleagues, 
he  left  nothing  in  writing.  Among  his  pupils 
were  many  imiiortant  Talmudists  of  the  East. 
Biiii.ioiiRAiMiv  :  Michael,  Or  ha-Hn\niim,  No.  313. 

L.  G 

AARON  BEN  SOLOMON  BEN  SIMON 
BEN  ZEMAH  DURAN.      See    l)i  li.vx,    Aaros 

m.N    SOInMoN    1.1  N    MMiiN    m.;N-    Zi-;.M.Mt. 

AARON  OF  TRANI.     Sntuwi.  Aahoxok. 

AARON  (HAYYIM)  VOLTERRA,  MASSA 
DI  CARRARA.      See  Voi.tkkka,   A.vkox  (II.vv- 

VIM  I     M  \>-A    HI    (    AlUtAl! A. 

AARON  BEN  WOLF.  See  Woi.fssoii.n. 
Aai;..n 

AARON  WORMS  :  Chief  rabbi  of  Metz  and  Tal- 
miidisi;  si.iM.r  .\hialiani  Abi-rle;  born  .Tidy  7.  17.54,  at 
Geislaiilcin.  a  small  village  near  Saarbri'ick  (not  at 

Kaiseislautern,    as    some    writers  as- 
Rabbinical  .serf);    died  at  .Metz,  .May  2,  ly:i6.  He 
Career.       came  of  a  family  of  niiibis,  and  was 

destined  for  a  rabbinical  career.  He 
received  his  early  education  from  his  father.  Abra- 
ham Aberle.  and  afterward  was  sent  to  Jletz.  the 
nearest  city  having  a  rabbinical  college.  This  in- 
stitution was  directed  by  Chief  Rabbi  Loeb  GUnz- 
liurg.  with  whom -Varoii  gained  such  high  favor  that 
at  the  early  age  of  lifteen  he  was  allowed  to  deliver 
a  lecture  on  a  halakic  subject  in  the  synagogue  of 
Metz.  Through  Giinzburg's  instrumentality  he  was 
appointed  in  1777  to  the  rabbinate  of  Kriechingen  in 
German  Lonaine.  Having  lived  in  that  town  for 
seven  years,  he  returned  to  Metz.  where,  after  the 
death  of  Loeb  Gi'iiizburg  (.luiie  03,  17.'<.-)),  .\aion  was 
chosen  principal  of  the  rabliinical  college.  Formally 
years  he  oMiiiated  as  a.ssociate  rablii  and  deputy 
chief  rabbi,  and  on  .luiie  I'i.  IX'.i'i.  was  uiianiniously 
elected  chief  rabbi.  The  governmenl  conlirnied  his 
election,  although  he  had  not  mastered  the  French 
language,  as  required  by  the  law  regulating  the 
apiiointmeni  of  mbbis.  Four  years  later  he  died, 
revered  and  beloved  by  both  the  orthodox  and  the 
progressive  .lews,  .\aron  was  so  conservative  in  his 
views  that  even  in  his  |)ractical  life  he  did  not  ai 
quire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  language  of  his 
eoiinlrv,  and  still  regarded  the  Zohar  as  a  sacred 
book  and  as  the  composition  of  Simeon  ben  Yohai. 
Nevertheless,  he  gave  exi>ression  to  opinions  that  iu 
some  measure  prepared  the  way  for  .Jewish  reforms. 
So  greatly  was  he  inllueiiced  by  the  French  Hcvo- 
lution  that   he  even  dressid  himself  in  the  uniform 

of  the  National  (Juard  and.  to  accord 

Attitude      with  military  regulation,  removed  his 

Toward  the  braid.     .Varoii   fully  realized  that  the 

French       .lews,    iu    receiving    rights,  had   also 

Revolution,  duties    to    fiillil;   and    in    a    seniion 

preached  diirini:  llie  Itevolulionary  pe- 
riod, he  strongly  rebuked  the  .lews  for  their  aver- 
sion to  handicrafts,  and.  as  an  example  for  them.  n|> 


Aaron  Worma 
Ab,  Ninth  Day  of 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


23 


prenticcd  his  son  Elijuli  to  an  nrtisau.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  tlie  Great  Saiilicdrin  coMVi'iicd  by  Napoleon, 
he  delivered  an  impressive  address  on  the  "  Kelations 
of  the  Jews  to  Non-Jews  aecordinj;  lo  I{ubl>inic 
Law."  in  which  he  demonstrated  thai  llie  Tahniidic 
opinions  conceniinfr  the  heathen  should  not  be  tised 
as  guides  in  the  rcfiulatlon  of  practieal  life  under 
the  conditions  that  existed  then.  A.irain,  in  inirely 
Jewish  affairs,  in  questions  concerning  rites  and 
ceremonies,  he  showed  himself  remarkably  broad- 
minded.  Upon  the  occasion  of  his  tflkins  the  oath 
as  chief  rabbi,  administered  by  the  government 
officials,  his  hat  was  handed  him  to  cover  himself. 
He  refused  it  with  a  smile,  saying:  "God  does  not 
wish  to  imjiose  upon  us  the  duty  of  aiipmachiiig 
Him  liarelieaded  ;  but  if  we  do  so  voluntarily,  so 
much  the  belter!  "  (compare  Lev.  K.  x.wii.  (i).  This 
can  not  be  regarded  simply  as  a  hmi  iiiot ;  for  he  did 
not  hesitate  publielv  to  declare  himself  in  accord 
with  the  reform  tendencies  which  were  then  begin- 
ning lo  force  their  way  into  the  Synagogue. 

Aaron  was  perhaps  the  only  conservative  rabbi  of 

that  iieriod  who  expressed  the  opinion  Ihal  il  was 

better  to  pray  in  the  vernacidar  than 

Reform  to  muller  Hebrew  jirayers  without  un- 
Tendencies.  dcrstandiug  their  meaning.  On  this 
ground  he  refused  to  join  the  agitation 
against  the  reforms  of  tlie  Hamburg  Temple.  His 
insight  into  the  necessity  of  a  reform  in  divine  serv- 
ice is  further  shown  by  his  protest  a.gainst  the  cus- 
tom of  interrupting  the  ritual  pra.vers  by  the  inser- 
tion of  pii/iitiiii,  of  whose  authors  he  often  sjioke 
derisively.  Such  a  man  could  not  be  a  friend  of 
superstitious  customs,  and  he  made  a  vigorous  stand 
against  them.  He  looked  also  with  a  critical  eye 
upon  other  customs  which  he  would  not  regard  as 
obligatory  on  the  mere  .ground  of  iisa.ge,  and  mon^ 
than  once  he  remarked,  with  an  undertone  of  bitter- 
ne.ss.  that  Jloses  Isserles  (RMA.  NO";)  desired  to 
force  all  Jewry  under  the  yoke  of  Polish  customs; 
but  he  s)iw  no  reason  why  German  and  French  Jews 
should  jield. 

Aaron  was  the  author  of  "Meore  Or"  (Flashes 
of  Lights.  Metz,  1789-1830.  This  work,  published 
anonymously  (the  author  modestly  limiting  himself 
to  a  mere  suggestion  of  his  name),  is  unique  of  its 
kind.  It  coutains  critical  remarks  as  well  as  com- 
ments on  most  of  the  treatises  of  the  Talmud  and  on 
a  considerable  part  of  the  "Shulhan  'Aruk,  Oral.i 
Hayyim."  which  exhil)it  a  thoroughly  scientific  spirit 
as  well  as  an  extraordinary  acumen.  A  Christian 
admirer  of  Aaron  justly  said  that  half  of  that  work 
would  be  suflicient  to  open  the  gates  of  any  European 
academy  to  its  author.  In  addition  to  this,  Aaron 
published  short  notes  on  the  Mahzor  and  the  Pass- 
over Haggadah  (Metz  editions).  With  the  exception 
of  a  Bible  commentary  which  has  not  been  pulilished, 
Aaron's  other  ninnerous  manuscripts  were  destroyed 
in  compliance  with  iiis  wishes  as  expressed  in  his 
will. 

BIBLIOC.RAPUT :  Azulai,  Shcm  ha-Gcdnlim,  ii.  letter  ^Fnn,  14  ; 
La  Kegenfratiim.  ed.  S.  Bloch.  lR3fi,  pp.  2av2:!l ;  B.  Cohen, 
Rev.  Et.Juivcs,  ISSfi,  xiii.  lU.  llS-124;  x.  Briill,  In  Oznr  lin- 
Sifnit.  edited  by  Graber,  18S7,  pp.  20-31. 

L.  G. 

AARON  OF  YORK  (Fil  Josce):  Jewish  finan- 
cier and  eliief  lablii  of  England;  born  in  York  be- 
fore ll'JO;  died  after  1253.  He  was  probably  the 
son  of  Josce  of  York,  the  leading  figure  in  the  York 
massacre  of  1190.  Aaron  appears  to  have  obtained 
some  of  his  father's  money  and  commercial  connec- 
tion, for  he  was  appointed  presbyter,  or  chief  rabbi, 
of  the  Jews  of  England  in  1237,  in  succession  to 
Josce  of  London.     This  would  imply  that  he  was 


very  wealthy,  as  only  the  wealthiest  of  the  Jews 
obtained  this  position.  He  did  not  hold  the  o(llc(! 
more  than  a  year,  as  he  was  succeeded  in  1237  by 
Ei.YAS  OP  London  (Prynne,  "Short  Demurrer."  ii. 
38).  In  1236  Aaron  agreed  to  pay  to  King  Henrv 
HI.  of  England  100  nuirks  a  year  to  be  free  of  all 
taxes  (Tovey,  "Anglia  Judaica."  O.xford.  173s.  p 
108).  Notwithstanding  this,  in  1273  he  was  nudcted 
in  4.000  marks  of  silver  and  four  of  gold  (Matthew 
Paris,  "Chronica  Majora,"  iv.  200).  This  was  not 
an  unusual  occurrence;  for  in  1250  he  was  fined 
14.000  marks  of  silver  and  ten  of  gold,  for  the  use 
of  the  queen,  on  the  charge  of  having  falsified  a 


'Pr  \)  ?• 


nv,*^   p-.w 


Aulognipli  of  Anroii  of  York. 

(Frwm  "  Yorkshire  ArchMilyi^iLal  J.»urri«l.'") 

deed.  On  this  occasion  he  told  Matthew  Paris  him- 
self that  he  had  paid  the  king  altogether  no  less  a 
sum  than  30,000  marks  in  silver  and  200  in  gold 
{ibid  v.  130).  There  are  still  in  existence  a  num- 
ber of  Hebrew  nhetarolh  dealing  with  Aaron's  trans- 
actions, one  of  them  eutirel}'  in  his  own  handwriting. 

BiBLiotiRAPHT:  Matthpw  Paris,  niroii iVd  Milium.  \v.  2iV\,  y. 
1.31) :  M.  D.  Davis,  ."^licturflh.  Nos.  !B,  KG,  lOH,  Kit)  (autoKniph), 
I'Jti-liW;  Faficrs  nf  Aniilii-.IiwMi  KrhihUinn.  issr,  p.  4] ; 
Tove.v,  -liH/'to  Jmluicu,  17:jK,  p.  lOS;  n.  Davics.  im  (lit: 
Medieval  Jewa  of  Yeirk,  In  Ynrh.'<hirc  Arehei'l'njirnt  itnti 
Tiiiiiitiraphieal  Jnumal,  111.  UT-lflT;  Moses  Maivoliuulh, 
Ilieturii  uf  the  Jews  in  Great  Britain,  IMl,  1. 1114. 

AARON  ZALAHA.     S<c  Zalaha,  Aahon. 

AARON    BEN    ZERAH :     French  Jew,  who 

sutTered  martyrdom  at  Estella  in  Navarre.  2March  5. 
1328.  Banished  from  his  original  home  in  13110  by 
order  of  King  Philip  the  Fair,  of  Fiance,  who  con- 
fiscated his  property,  he  sought  refu.ire  at  Estella, 
where,  after  a  residence  of  twenty  years,  he,  his 
wife,  and  several  of  his  sons  were  slaughtered  by 
the  Christians.  The  horrors  of  thai  event  are  de- 
scribed in  "Zedah  la-Derek."  a  work  written  by 
Aaron's  sou  Jlenahem,  who  escaped  death. 

Bibliography:  Gratz,  Gesch.  d.  Judcn,  2d  ed.,  vU.  312. 

L.  G. 

AARON     BEN-ZION     IBN     ALAMANI : 

Da.v.van,  or  judge,  and  prominent  Jew  of  Alexandria 
in  the  twelfth  century.  His  family  name  probably 
means  til-  Umtini,  or  "  the  man  of  Oman  "  (Judah  ha- 
Levi,  "Diwan."  ed.  Harkavy,  p.  180;  Steinschneider, 
"Jew. Quart.  Rev."  xi.  486).  His  father,  whose  name 
was  Joshua,  was,  it  seems,  a  physician  of  some  re- 
jjute.  It  was  at  Aaron's  house  that  Judah  ha-Levi 
lived  while  in  Alexandria;  and  the  poet  is  extrava- 
gant in  the  praise  of  his  friend,  who,  to  judge  from 
the  titles  given  liim,  must  have  been  a  man  of  im- 
jKjrtance.  Two  of  Ha-Levi 's  poems  are  addressed  to 
Aaron:  one  of  them  he  sent  with  a  letter  in  rimed 
jirose.  which  letter  is  included  in  the  "  Diwan.  "  Ha- 
I.evi  also  mentions  Aaron  in  a  letter  which  he  .sent 
from  Damietta  to  Samuel  Nagid. 

Bibliography:  firatz.  Gesch.  d.  .Tudeti.  2d  ed..  vi.  l.'jO; 
Kaempf,  NiclitainliiUi.^i.^iiu  I'lusii  An<Uiht.-<i!<riier  IHehter, 
1.  284 ;  Luzzatto,  Biluhil  h.il  y.hiichili.  ji.  Ill:  Judah  ha- 
l*vl,  Diwan,  ed.  BroUy,  pp.  2i)7-21U,  212;  idem,  cd.  Harkavy, 
pp.  37, 146.  101. 

G. 

AARON  ZOROGON :  Tiirko-Jewish  scholar, 
who  nourished  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Bet  Aharon"  (House 
of  Aaron),  which  contains  sixty  homilies,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  the  sections  of  the  Pentateuch,  as  well 


23 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aaron  Worms 
Ab,  Ninth  Day  of 


as  some  coiniiKnts  (in  tin-  "En  Yaakob."  tlie  hajr 
jjadif  collection  ot  Jacob  Habib.  The  book  was  pub- 
lislitd  after  his  death  by  his  son  Elihu  in  Constanti- 
nople, 107»-T«. 

ItiBLiotiRAPiiY  :  Mlrtiael,  (>r  hn-Hamiim,  No.  3U  ;  Stelnschncl- 
ili-r,  ('(((.  limn.  Nil.  4*5;  Wiener,  BilAiolhcca  1-riciHaii- 
iliaiKi,  No.  li£M.  _ 

L.  G. 

AARONITES  (AARONIDES).     See  Cohen. 

I'liii.-i 

AARONSBTJRG :  A  post  villaire  situated  in 
Iliiirii^  lowiiNliip.  Center  county,  Pennsylvania, 
founded  liy  A.vKox  Levy  in  ITSlJ,  and  named  for 
liini.  In.Iune,  177!),  Aaron  Levy  Imufrlit  of  a  Mr. 
Wetzel  a  tract  in  Center  county  known  as  the  Ale.\- 
aniler  Grant  warranty.  Upon  this  he  laid  out  and 
planned  the  town  of  Aaronsburfr.  the  town  plan 
being  recorded  at  Sunbury  on  October  4,  1786.  A 
plot  of  ground  known  as  Aaron's  Siiuare  was  re- 
served by  the  founder  for  jiublie  uses,  and  one  of 
the  streets  was  named  Uiiehel's  Way  in  honor  of  his 
wife.  On  November  Hi,  H.'^O.  Levy  gave  to  the 
tntstees  of  the  Salem  Evaiiirelieal  Church  a  lot  u|)oii 
which  to  erect  a  church  and  sehoolhouse.  Aarons- 
burg  is  the  first  town  in  Pennsylvania  (and  proba- 
bly in  the  United  StAtes)  that  was  laid  out  by  and 
named  after  a  Jew. 

KlHLioriR.ki'iiv:  Aarnn  iii'i/,  l)y  Isatiella  H.  Rosen Imoh  and 
Alirulmin  S.  Wolf  llostmbaili.  In  I'ttlil.  Am.  Jiic.  Hint.  Soc. 
No.  -',  IKH,  pi>,  l.'iT-lii;i. 

A.  S,  W.  R. 

ATI :  The  Babylonian  name  adopted  by  the  Jews 
for  the  fifth  month  of  the  year,  corresponding  to 
part  of  the  modern  July  and  jiart  of  August.  It 
always  consists  of  thirty  days.  The  first  day  of  Ab 
is,  according  to  rabbinical  tradition  (■' Seder  'Olam 
R."  i.\. ;  R.  II.  2*.  'i'D  and  Josephus  ("  Ant. "  iv.  4,  §  7), 
the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Aaron.  Concerning 
the  fast  on  the  Ninth  and  the  feast  on  the  Fifteenth, 
see  All,  FiKTEKNTii  OK,  and  An,  Ninth  of.  Tin 
Eighteenth  of  Ab  was  once  a  fast -day  because  in 
that  day  the  western  light  {iier  )iiii'iiriihi\  compHir 
Tosef.,  Sojah,  .\iii.  7)  of  the  Temple  candelabrum 
went  out  in  the  days  of  King  Ahaz  (po.s-sibly  a  refer 
ence  to  one  of  the  Maccabean  dynasty).  See  ('al- 
endak.  K. 

AB,  NINTH  DAY  OF  :     Day  set  aside  by  tra 

dition  for  tasting  and  mourning,  to  commemorale 
the  (hsiruelion  of  Jerusalem  and  the  T<iiiple  by 
the  Chaldeans  (."iHli  n.c.)  and  by  the  Romans  (7(1);  a 
movable  fast  fallingapproxinmtely  in  the  licgiiming 
of  August  of  the  Gregorian  calendar.    In  II  Kings, 

XXV.  S.  i»  it  is  stated  that  the  Temple 
The  Fall  of  was  burned  on  the  seventh  day  of  the 
Jerusalem,  liflli  month:  in  Jer.  xxxix.  H  no  exact 

dali'  is  given;  while  in  Jer.  lii.  12  the 
tenth  day  of  the  liflli  month  is  assigned  as  the  date. 
In  conneclion  with  the  fill  of  Jerusidem  three  other 
fast  (lavs  were  established  at  the  same  time  as  the 
Ninth  hay  of  Ab:  these  were  the  Tenth  of  Tcbet, 
when  the  siege  began;  the  Seventeenth  of  Tammuz, 
wlien  the  first  breach  was  made  in  the  wall;  and  the 
Tlilril  of  Tishri.  the  day  when  Gkdai.iaii  was  as- 
siissinaled  (II  Kings,  xxv.  2.");  Jer.  xli.  2).  From 
Zecli.  vii.  .'5,  viii.  li)  it  appears  that  after  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Second  Temple  the  custom  of  keeping 
these  fast  (lays  was  discontinued.  Since  the  de- 
struction of  Jenisfdem  ami  of  the  Second  Temple 
by  the  Romans,  the  four  fast days  have  again  been 
observed.  It  has  'udeed  been  suggested  thai  llie 
siicredness  of  the  day  is  due  to  its  being  the  anni- 
versary of  the  fall  of  liethar  at  the  end  of  the  Bar 


Kokba  war,  thus  making  it  a  national  rather  than 
a  religious  ceremony. 

In  the  long  period  which  is  reflected  in  Talinudic 
literature  the  observance  of  the  Ninth  Day  of  Ab 
assumed  a  character  of  constantly  growing  sadne.s.s 
and  asceticism.  Still  it  seems  that,  about  the  end 
of  the  second  century  or  at  the  beginning  of  the 
third,  the  celebration  of  the  day  had  lost  much  of  its 

gloom.    Judah  ha  Nasi  was  in  favor 
Waning      of  abolishing  it  altogether  or,  accord- 
Significance,  ing  lo  another  version,  of  lessening 

its  severity  when  the  feast  has  been 
postponed  from  Saturday  to  Sunday  (Mcl'  Ttli).  A 
tendency  to  a  IcNS  a-i  - 'i    >■:■-'  .■,,■- 


NliiUi  |M\  "i  Xi'. 

(Fti'IU  Kirchii,.T,  "  J3dlsclit«CcreiD0ni&l.") 

able  in  the  Tarmudie  explanation  of  Zech.  viii.  19 — 
namely,  that  the  four  fast  days  would  become  feast- 
days  during  times  of  peace;  on  which  Rashi  remarks: 
"Peace  means  when  the  oppression  of  the  Jews  on 
accoiuit  of  their  religion  shall  have  ceased"  (R.  II. 
!></').  The  growing  strictness  in  the  observance  of 
mourning  customsin  connection  with  the  Nii)th  Day 
of  Ab  is  especially  marked  in  post-Talmudic  times, 
and  particularly  in  the  darkest  period  of  Jewish  life, 
from  the  fifteenth  century  to  the  eighteenth. 

Maimonides  (twelfth  century),   in  his  code,  says 
that  the  restrictions  as  to  the  eating  of  meat  and 
the  drinking  of  wine  refer  only  to  the  last  meal  be- 
fore fasting  on  the  Eighth  Day  of  Ab.  if  taken  af 
ter  noon,  but  before  noon  anything  may  be  eaten 
(Ta'anit,  v.  8).     1{.  Moses  of  Coney  (thirleenlh  cen- 
tury) claims  that  it  is  the  universtil  custom  to  re- 
frain from  meat  and  wine  during  the 
In  the        whole  dav  preceding  the  Ninth  of  Ab 
Middle       ("Semag,"  Hilkot   Tishah   be  Ab."   p 
Ages.         24il/»,  ed.    Venice).      R.  Joseph    Cnro 
(sixteenth  century)  says  some  are  ae- 
euslomed  to  alistain  from  meat  and  wine  from  the 
beginning  of  the  week  in  which  the  Ninth  Day  of  .VI) 
falls;  and  still  olhei-s  abstain  Ihniughout  the  three 
weeks  from  the  Sevenleenlh  of  Tammuz  ("Shulhan 
'.\ruk,  Ond.i   navyitii."ei  .Vil).     The  sjime  gnidnal 


Ab,  Ninth  Day  of 
Ab,  Fifteenth  Day  of 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


24 


I'Xlciisioucanbi'  tnued  in  tlxabstcntinn  from  iimrry- 
iugut  til  is  season  ((■/'.  ^5.-)l,  Sdauucitatioii  by  K.  .Moses 
Isserli-s)  and  in  otlier  signs  of  mourning.  So  H. 
MosL'S  of  Coney  says  that  some  do  not  use  thf  pliy- 
lac  I  erics  on  the  Ninth  Day  of  Ab  ("  Seinag."  p.  24!tr>, 
a  custom  which  later  was  universally  observed.  In 
this  manner  all  customs  originally  designated  as 
marks  of  unusual  ]iiity  finally  became  the  rule  for 
all.  Shabbethai  Zcbi  abolished  the  Ninth  of  Ab  in 
view  of  the  same  rabbinical  legend  [and  the  women 
in  the  East  anoint  themselves  in  the  afternoon,  be- 
cause the  Messiah  is  to  be  born  on  this  day — L.  G.]. 


1).   129;  also  by  Edward  G.  King  in  ''Jew.  Quart. 
Hev."  vii.  464. 

As  long  as  the  Jews  were  everywhere  regarded  as 
stnuigers  and  treated  as  such,  the  rights  of  citizen- 
ship being  denied  them,  it  was  but  natural  that 
the  Ninth  Day  of  Ab  should  be  observed  as  a  day 
fif  deep  mourning,  and  that  the  season  leading  up 
to  it  should  be  full  of  gloom.  Hut  even  then  con- 
lidence  in  the  help  of  God  and  in  the  liiial  victory  of 
justice  and  truth  was  never  lost;  and  the  Sabbath 
immediately  following  this  daj-  was  called  "  Sabbat  h 
of  Comfort"  (Shabbat  Nahmu),  because  the  comfort- 


SV.NAUOUl'E  SKRVICK  ON  THE  NINTH   DAY  OK  Ali. 
(From  Bodeoachatt,  *'  Kircbliche  Verfaasung.") 


In  the  liturgy  the  Book  of  Lamentations  was, 
through  many  centuries,  recited  at  the  initiatory 
evening  service.  "The  sorrow  for  departed  glory 
would  probably  have  been  satisfied  with  these  Bib- 
lical chapters  if  new  sufterings  had  not  constantly 
caused  the  production  of  fresh  plaints"  (Zunz,  "Ri- 
tus,"p.  8b).  Finally,  the  collection  of  plaintive  songs 
(KixoT)  for  the  day  was  expanded  into 
an  entire  volume.  Some  of  these  songs 
are  of  superior  poetic  beauty  and  full 
of  the  finest  religious  sentiment ;  es- 
pecially the  ode  to  Zion  by  Judah 
ha-Levi.  The  best  of  the  kiinit  were 
translated  by  Jlrs.  H.  Lucas  in  "Jew.  Quart.  Rev." 
v.  652,  and  were  reprinted  in  '"TheJcwi.sh  Year," 


Growth  of 
Commem- 
orative 
Hymns. 


ing  message  from  Isa.  xl.,  beginning  with  the  words 
"Nahmu,  nahmu."  etc.  (Comfort  j"c.  comfort  ye, 
etc.),  was  then  read  in  the  synagogues. 

The  attitude  of  modern  reformed  Ju<laism  toward 
the  Ninth  Day  of  Ab  and  the  event 
it  conmiemorates  is  thus  expressed  l)y 
one  of  its  leaders,  David  Einhorn : 


Reform 
View. 


*■  Reformed  Judaism  t>eholds  in  the  cessation  of  tlie  saeriflcial 
ser\*i('e  Ihe  termination  of  a  special  nationality  and  the  soat^ 
tering  of  tin*  Jews  among  all  nations  the  fundamental  condi- 
tions for  the  fulfilment  of  their  mission  among  mankind,  (inly 
after  the  destruction  of  .Jerusalem  was  it  ]>ossit)le  for  Israel  (a 
l)ecome  a  Icingdom  of  priests  and  a  holy  nation  :  a  conception 
which  even  in  the  Talmud  is  intimated  in  the  saying.  "On  the 
day  of  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  the  Messiah  was  bom  "  " 
("  Ner  Tamid,"  p.  lOOt. 

M.  L. 


25 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ab,  Ninth  Day  of 
Ab,  Fifteenth  Day  of 


[According  to  rabbinical  tradition  (Ta'anit,  29rt), 
tlic  real  destruction  vnidcr  both  Xcbucliadne/zar  and 
Tit\is  took  place  on  the  Tenth  of  Ab,  the  lire-brands 
haviiii;  been  thrown  in  the  evening  before.  Jose- 
pliiis  ("B.  J."  vi.  4,  §.■))  says:  "God  had  doomed  the 
Temiile  to  the  tire,  according  to  the  desliny  of  the 
agi'S,  on  that  same  fatal  day.  the  tenlli  day  of  the 
m'onlli  Lous  (.\li).  on  whichit  was  formerly  burned 
by  the  l<iiig  of  Haliylon."  R.  Johanan,  \\w  amora 
of  tlic  third  century^  says  (l.r.).  "If  I  had  been  liv- 
ing at  tlie  time.  I  would  have  instituted  the  fast  on 
the  Tenth  rather  than  on  the  Ninth  of  Ab."  In- 
deed, the  Karaites  celebrate  the  Tenth  of  Ab  as  a 
fa.st-day.  Fron\  the  remark  of  I{.  Elie/.er  ben  Zadok 
(Meg.  Ta'anit,  v.  and  Bab.  Ta'anit,  I'iM  it  appears, 
moreover,  tliat  the  Ninth  of  Ab  was  celebrated  as  a 
fast-day  before  the  destruction  of  the  S'cond  Tem- 
ple. At  any  rate,  the  day  was  marked  still  more  as 
the  day  of  iiatiiaial  gloom  in  the  war  of  Bar  Kokba. 
when  the  fall  of  the  fortressof  Bethar,  in  \'^'>.  sealed 
the  fate  of  the  Jewish  nation  forever.  The  Jlishnah 
(Ta'anit,  iv.  4)  sjieaks  of  five  national  misfortunes 
that  occilire<l  on  the  Ninth  of  Ab,  the  first  one  being 
that  night  "when  the  Isnielites  were  doomed  to  stay 
in  the  wilderness"  for  folly  years  (Num.  xiv.  1  it 
Kf'/.).  the  secdiiil  and  third  tlie  destruction  of  Jerussi- 


a  Roman  colony  (compare  Jerome,  Zech.  viii.  11). 
Henceforth  the  Ninth  of  Ab  was  like  the  Day  of 


3^<3   r\vvn 


"I«B)prptj>j»irp- 
!     OP  0»ck 


-BT»pp)>a 


!'  "ocheyddh  deTl.SMABtAB 
uohgjdoiid4u;tir;-  l.ibido  t^-.a  . 


■:3 


Tlic  Nliilh  Imv  ■>f  All. 

(Wi-«li-iit  rrnni  Aiiiiur.Ulii  "  &1lnlt»i;lin."  r.t-^.) 

lem  under  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Titus,  the  fourlli 
llie  fall  (if  Belhar,  and  the  titlh  misfcirlune  was  the 
drawing  i>f  the  plow  over  the  Holy  City  and  the 
Temple  a  year  later,  in  order  to  turn  the  place  into 


w 

-'    '     "     1 

1    ii  ■  i 

■ 

^^p 

^f^WfW 

■ 

m 

^:^» 

1 

teS±>^^'<IM] 

M^ 

EVfdf  tlie  Niiitli  Hay  ut  .vli. 

(From  lk"lrii*liali.) 

Atonement,  the  national  fast -day  "beginning  with 
the  iveuing  before,  no  enjoyment  whatever,  whether 
in  the  way  of  eating  and  diinkin.g  or  of  bathing  and 
anointing!  being  permitted  from  evening  to  evening. 
Even  the  study  of  the  I>iiw  was  to  be  confined  to 
matters  of  a  si'd  character  (Ta'anit,  ;!(l('),  nor  should 
any  work  be  done  on  that  day."  "lie  who  does 
W('irk  on  the  Ninth  of  Ab."  saysAkiba,  "will  see  no 
blessing  in  it"  (Ta'anit,  ;»/<)."  As  an  especially  no- 
ticeable sign  of  iiKiurning,  pcojile  were  to  go  about 
without  sandals  or  shoes.  In  the  course  of  time  the 
pious  Jews  would  not  wear  the  phylacteries,  at  least 
iiiit  the  one  on  the  head,  or  the  in/lit — some  only  not 
during  the  morning  servi<e  (see  "Yad  ha-Ha/akah 
ililkiit  Taaiiiot."' V.  11:  "llagahot  Maimuni"  of 
Miir  of  Kotlienburg:  "iSemag,"  "Kokeal.i,"  and 
othii-s  iiuoted  in  "Bet  Yosef  Tur  Orah  l.Iayyim." 
:,."),")) — these  being  regarded  as  ornaments.  In  Jerii- 
sahiu  the  ]ieople  recite  in  liie  syna.irogue  morning 
and  evening  //<«'j('»'/  (Dent.  .\.\.\ii.)  to  the  Kkah  mel 
•  idy.  and.  after  the  evening  service,  the  lights  are  e.\ 
linguished  and  the  ohlest  man  addresses  the  asseni 
Illy  in  the  Spanish  language,  (losing  with  words  of 
1  omi'ort,  after  whicdi  tile  lights  are  rekindled.  Tlir 
Miollof  the  Law  as  well  as  tin-  holy  shrine  is  draped 
in  black,  and  the  jieople  have  their  heads  strewn  with 
iivlies.  In  the  afternoon  the  people  visit  the  Wall  of 
Wailing.  K.] 

AB,  FIFTEENTH  DAY  OF  :  Popular  festival 
ill  Judea  during  tin-  liiiirof  llir  Second 'I'emple,  cor- 
iisponding  approximately  to  the  fifteenth  day  of 
.\iiirusl.  According  to  a  tradition  preserved  in  the 
Mishnah  (Ta'anit,  iv.  !),  Id:  Gem,  pp.  L'd,  31),  on 
that  day,  as  well  as  on  till'  Day  of  Atonement,  the 
iiiaideiis  of  Jerusalem,  rich  and  i>oor,  without  ex- 
icption,  dres,sed  in  white,  w«'nt  out  to  dance  in  the 
vinevards  with  the  young  men,  asking  I  hem  lo  make 
tiieir  choice  of  a  partner  for  life.  Tln'  fair  ones 
sang:  "  Young  men.  turn  your  eyes  to  beauty;  for 
woman  stands  forbeauly.""  The  i>alricians' daugh- 
lets  sang;  "Young  men.  turn  your  evi's  to  noble 
pari'niage;  for  woman  is  the  preserver  of  family 
pride."  Those  possessing  neither  beauty  nor  noble 
birth  sang;  "Grace  is  beautiful  and  beauty  is  vain; 
bill  a  wiiman  that  fearelh  the  I.ord,  she  shall  be 
pniisi'd."  Of  the  many  reasons  given  in  the  Tal 
11111(1  for  the  celebration  of  this  day,  thai  attested 
by  llie  oldest  aillhorilv.  H.  Klie/.cr  ben  llyreanus 
of  the   first    century  (Megillnl   Ta'anit,   v.)  is   that 


Ab,  Fifteenth  Day  of 
Abaye 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


26 


it  was  the  great  day  of  wood-offering,  when  both 
priests  and  pioplc  firoughl  kindling-wood  in  large 
iimintitics  to  the  allar.  for  use  in  llu-  liiiruing  of  sac- 
ritiies  during  the  whole  year.  This  day  being  Mid- 
summer Day,  when  the  solar  heat  reached  itsclimax. 
the  people  stopped  hewing  wood  in  the  forest,  prob- 
ably until  the  t^fteenth  Day  of  Shebat  (February), 


to  bring  wooti  for  the  altar  on  that  day  so  that  there 
should  never  beany  lack  of  fuel  for  the  eternal  tire." 
Zi|)M'r  suggested  tlnit  the  day.  ealled  also  the  Day 
i>f  the  Breaking  of  the  Ax.  was  celebraled  by  bou- 
tires  in  the  same  fa.shion  that  the  Syrians,  according 
to  Lucian,  celebrated  Midsummer  Day  ("De  Syria 
Dea").     The  festival  had  a  purely  secular  character, 


ABANA   IlULh  Al    DAM.\^>_LS. 
(From  a  photograph  by  BonfiU.) 


the  so-called  New-year's  Day  of  the  trees  (see  R.  II. 
i.  1),  because  the  new  sap  of  spring  entered  vegeta- 
tion on  that  day. 

Various  reasons  are  given  in  the  Talmud  for  this 
celebration.  One  is  that  the  tribes  were  allowed  to 
intennany  (Num.  xxxvi.)  on  that  day ;  another,  that 
the  interdict  on  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  was  removed 
on  that  day  (.Judges,  xxi.  la  et  !<(i/.);  again  another, 
that  the  death  penalty  following  the  bad  report  of  the 
spies  (Num.  xv.  32)  had  ceased;  or  that  the  interfer- 
ence with  the  jjilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  at  the  festal 
season  by  Jeroboam  I.  (I  Kings,  xii.  33)  was  removed 
by  Rosea  on  that  day.  Others,  by  a  strange  anach- 
ronism, maintain  that  those  slain  on  the  battle-tield 
in  the  war  of  Bar  Kokba  received  the  customary 
burial  rites  on  this  day.  The  actual  explanation  is 
given  in  Meg.  Tuanit.v.  and  ^Mishnah,  iv.  5.  accord- 
ing to  which  nini>  families  of  Judah  brought  at  cer- 
tain times  during  the  year  the  wood  for  the  binning 
of  the  sacrifices  on  the  altar,  in  accordance  with  Neh. 
X.  34:  on  the  Fifteenth  Day  of  Ab,  however,  all  the 
people,  the  priests  as  well  as  the  Levites,  took  part  in 
the  wood-ofTcring. 

JosephusC'B.  J."ii.  IT,  §  6)  also  mentions  this  fes- 
tival, and  calls  it  the  Feast  of  Xylophory  ("  Wood- 
Ijearing  ").  but  jilaccs  it  on  the  Fourteenth  of  Ab 
(Lous),  saying  that  "  it  was  the  custom  for  every  one 


like  the  Fifteenth  Day  of  Shebat  (Februaryl.  the  one 
being  an  ancient  midwinter,  the  other  a  midsummer, 
festival  of  pagan  origin;  while  the  various  explana- 
tions and  stories  given  in  Megillat  Ta'anit  and  the 
Talmud  show  that  in  the  course  of  time  the  main 
reason  was  forgotten.  Compare  the  St.  Valentine's 
Day  celebrations  and  thebonlires  on  the  hills  among 
the  various  nations  in  connection  with  marriage, 
and  the  St.  John's  Day  festivities,  in  Manuhardt's 
"Baumkultus,"  pp.  449-553. 

BiBLior.RAPHY:  linh.  Taltmid  Ta'anit.  pp.  STth.  3n;.,  :tl(i ; 
Herzfeld.  Gcgc/i.  d.  Volhex  Israel,  f.  07,  Ks.  144;  li.  V.V<.  IW; 
Griitz,  GiKi-h.  d.Juilen.  *l  ed..  p.  012:  Zliwr,  Dix  Hariiis 
J<«cp/ii«  Wcrli,  Ufhrr  da."  H<ihcAlh:ri1ivJlUli.irlii)iV<ill:i-s 
Uiarh  Hebr.  OrifiinalfiueUcn.  etc.),  ed.  Dr.  A.  .Ti-lllnek,  1S71. 
p.  137;  Ha-Tchiiimh,  1.  Nos.  43,  45,  49,  Chicaso,  Ifldd. 

K. 

ABADDON  ("Realm  of  Destruction"):  In  rab- 
binic and  New  Testament  literature,  the  second  de- 
partment of  Gehenna,  the  nether  world;  almost  syn- 
onvmous  with  Sheol(Midr.  Konen;  compare  Joshua 
ben  Levi  in  'Er,  19(7).  In  Rev.  ix.  11  Abaddon  is 
personified  as  the  Angel  of  Hell :  "  .\nd  they  had  a 
king  over  them, which  is  the  angel  of  the  bottimiless 
pit,"whose  name  in  the  Helirew  tongue  is  Abaddon, 
but  in  the  Greek  tongue  hath  his  name  ApoUynn." 
In  the  Old  Testament, however,the  word  is  pecidiar  to 


27 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Ab,  Fifteenth  Day  of 
Abaye 


the  "  AVisdom  '"  literatiirp,  beiiii;  found  in  Job,  xxviii. 
22,  xxvi.  G,  xxxi.  12  ;  I'mv.  xv.  11 ;  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  12. 
In  Prov.  xxvii.  20  tin-  Hibrew  text  has  Abuddoh, 
liut  the  marginal  reading  has  Abaddon. 

G.  B.  L.-K. 

ABADIA,  JTJAN  DE  LA:  A  Msirano  of  tlie 
liftiunth  ciutiiry.  He  cn^agrd  in  a  project  to  sub- 
vert the  Inquisition  in  Ani.tron;  failing  in  tliis,  he 
joined  in  a  i)l<it  to  assassinate  tlie  inijuisitor  Pedro 
Arbues.  wlio  was  killed  on  Seiilember  15,  1485.  Juan 
was  apprehended,  and.  according  to  Graetz.  com- 
mitted suicide-  in  prison.  Kayserling  states  that  liis 
attempt  at  suieiile  was  unsuccessful,  and  that  lie  was 
drawn,  quartered,  and  consigned  to  the  flames. 
BniLKKiit.vPHY  :    KavsiTlinc,  I'lirinliiiilur  CiiliimhunniKl  llir 

I'drlkiuatiim  nf  Ihr  Jews,  etc.,  pp.  tlU,  37  ;  Graetz,  HMiiru 

I,!  tin  fews,  Iv.  329-331. 

A. 

ABADIAS  :  Son  of  Jkzelus,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Joalp.  louiid  in  the  list  of  those  who  returned  with 
Ezra  (1  Esd.  viii.  ;i5).  In  the  corresponiling  list  of 
Ezra.  viii.  U,  he  is  called  Obadiah.  the  son  of  Jchiel. 

G.  B.  L. 

ABAGTHA  :  A  chamberlain  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth. 
i.  10).     The  name  is  probably  of  Persian  origin. 

G.  B.  L. 

ABANA  :  A  river  rising  in  the  Anti-Libanus. 
Ilowin^-  through  Damascus,  and  disappi'aring  in  the 
Meailow  lakes.  Hcference  to  it  is  found  only  once 
in  the  I$ible  (II  Kings,  v.  12).  in  the  exclamation  of 
Naanmn.  "Are  not  Abana  and  Pharpar.  rivers  of 
Damascus,  better  llianall  tlic  waterscpf  Israel?  "  At 
the  present  time  it  is  known  as  Nahr  Banida  (see 
Am.\na).  The  proper  reading  of  the  name  is  jtrob- 
ably  "  Amana."  as  given  in  tlie  AcW  of  II  Kings,  v. 
12."   Si  ■■  illiivir.'ilinn  on  opposite  |iage.      G.  B.  L. 

ABABBANEL.     Sic  Anit.UA.NKi.. 

ABAKBANEL  library  in  JERUSALEM 

(^J3-I3}{  ;;'-nDi :    .\  conection  of  1 ks  inlen<leil  for 

a  national  .lewish  library;  foundecl  l)y  Dr.  Joski'h 
('ll.\z.\.so\vKZ,  one  of  the  Ziojiist  leaders  in  Kussia, 
who  devoted  almost  the  whole  of  his  income  to  the 
collection  of  Hebrew  book.s.  In  1!W0  the  library  con- 
tained more  than  15.(MM)  voUimes,  nearly  all  of  which 
had  been  sent  from  Hyeloslok.  where  Dr.  Chazano- 


Eli'vatlnn  ef  Aluirluiiirl  I.lhrnry. 

wicz  was  a  ]>nietising  physician.  A  movement  was 
on  foot  in  lUOO  to  build  a  modern  tire-proof  libniry 
building  in  which  to  house  the  collection,  wliicli  has 


become  a  center  for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  in 
tlic  lloiv  City.  Ephraim  Cohen  was  director  of  the 
library  in  1899. 

Bibliogbapht:  S.  Al)el,  The  Xatiimal  Jcvish  Library  in 
Jiriimlem.  In  Jewish  Comment,  June  1,  1900,  p.  2. 

G. 

ABARIM("The  Parts  Beyond";  that  is,  beyond 
the  Jordan). — Biblical  Data:  A  term  applied  to 
the  edge  of  the  .\Ioal)ile  plateau.  From  its  most 
prominent  headland.  Mount  Xebo,  the  western  part 
of  Ju<lea  was  plainly  visible  (Jer.  xxii.  20;  Num. 
xxvii.  12,  xxiii.  47;  be\it.  xxxii.  49,  and  see  Ezek. 
xlix.  11,  revised  text,  "  8.  B.  O.  T.") .         G.  B.  L. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  The  Jlidrash  re- 

mai'kstbat  tliis  iiHiuiilaiii  lias  linir  names;  Abarim, 
llor,  Nel.o,  and  the  Heights  of  Pisgah.  This  is 
accomited  for  liy  tlie  tact  tliat  the  mountain  was  sit- 
uated on  the  frontiers  of  four  adjoining  kingdoms. 
Since  all  were  proud  to  have  a  share  in  Palestine, 
each  regarded  the  mountain  as  belonging  to  itself 
and  gave  it  a  suitable  name  (Sifre,  Deut.  xxxvii; 
lij/j,  ed.  Friedmann).  L.  G. 

ABAYE  (called  also  Abayi,  Abaya,  Abbaye): 
Baliylonian  amora ;  born  about  tlie  elnse  of  the  third 
century;  died  8:i9  (see  AcADlsMiKs  in  Uaisvi.oma). 
His  father.  Kaylil.  was  the  brother  of  Habbah  bar 
Nahmaiu.  a  teacher  at  tlie  Academy  of  Pumbedita. 
Abaye's  real  name  was  Xahmani.  after  his  grand- 
fat  lier;  but  being  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  he 
wasadojited  liy  his  uncle.  Habbah  bar  Nahmani.who 
nicknamed  liim  Abaye  ("Little  Father"),  to  avoid 
confusion  with  his  grandfather  of  the  same  name,  and 
thenceforth  he  was  known  as  Abaye.  without  any 
<ither  title.  It  is  a  curious  fact  tliat  he  perpetuated 
tlie  mcniiiry  of  his  f<ister-mothi'r.  |irobably  a  slave 
in  Kabbah's  househ<ild.  by  mentioning  her  name  in 
many  popular  recipes  and  dietetic  |irecepts.  some  of 
which  seem  to  be  based  on  superstitious  notions.  He 
introduced  each  reciiie  with  the  phrase.  "My  mother 
told  me."  Abaye's  teachers  were  his  uncle  Halibah 
an<l  Joseph  bar  Hama,  both  of  whom  successively 
became  presidents  of  the  Pumliedita  Academy. 
When  Josi'ph  died  (3;i:!).  this  dignity  was  conferred 
upon  Abaye.  who  retained  it  until  liisdeath  some  live 
years  later.  Kabbah  trained  him  in  the  application 
of  the  dialectic  method  to  halakic  problems,  and 
Jose])h,  with  his  stores  of  traditional  lore,  taught 
him  to  appreciate  the  value  of  iiositive  knowledge. 

Suiierior  as  Abaye  no  doubt  was  in  his  dialectic 
analysis  of  halakic  sentences,  he  was.  nevertheless, 
surpassed  in  this  regard  by  Kaba.  with  whom  he  had 
been  closely  associated  from  early  youth.  To  the 
disputati<ins  between  these  amoiaim  we  owe  the  de- 
veloimicnt  of  the  ilialectic  method  in  the  treatment 
of  halakic  t  raditions.  Their  debates  are  known  as  the 
"Hawayot  de-Abaye  we-Kjiba"  (Debates  of  Abaye 
and  Kiiba).  the  subjects  of  which  were  then  con- 
sidered such  essential  elements  of  Talmudie  knowl- 
edge that  by  an  anachronism  they  were  thought  to 
be  known  to  Joharian  ben  Zakkai.  who  lived  some 
centuries  before  (Suk.  2.S().  Their  halakic  contro- 
versies are  scattered  throughout  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud. With  the  exception  of  six  of  his  decisions, 
the  opinions  of  Kaba  were  always  accepted  as  linal. 
Abiiye  was  never  so  happy  as  when  one  of  his  dis- 
ciples had  completed  thesludy  of  a  Mishnah  Ireati.s*'. 
On  such  occasions  he  always  gave  a  feast  to  his 
pupils  (Shall.  IIH/;),  though  "his  circumstances  were 
needy,  and  wine  never  appeared  upon  his  talile.  Mis 
peace  loving  disposition  and  his  sinci-re  piety  are 
well  exhibited  in  his  maxims  (Her.  17<0 .  among  which 
occur  the  following  :  "  He  mild  in  speech ;  su|>pres.s 
vour  wrath;  and  maintain  gotHlwill  in  intercourse 


Abba 
Abba  Arika 


Tin;   .IKWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


28 


with  your  relatives  as  well  as  with  others,  even  with 
striiiigers  in  the  iimikct|)liict'." 

Abiiyi'  urgril  his  disciples  to  conduct  themselves 
in  such  !i  way  as  to  li-ad  ntliers  to  the  love  of  God 
(Vonia.  t*()")-  In  Bililical  cxcircsis  he  wasoncof  tlu' 
tirst  to  dniw  a  disliiu-I  linr  lu'twcon  tin-  evident 
nieaninji  of  the  text  {luslmt)  and  tlie  sense  aseiihed 
to  it  by  niidrashio  inteiprelalion.  lie  foinudated 
the  followiiii;  rule,  of  great  inipoitanee  in  Talniudic 
exegesis  (Sanli.  ;i4<()  :  "One  Bible  velse  can  be  re- 
ferred to  dilVerenl  sulijeets.  but  several  dilTerent 
IJible  verses  can  iii>t  refer  to  one  and  the  sjinie  sub- 
jeel."  He  defended  the  Apocryphal  l)o<ik  Eccle- 
siasticus  against  liis  teacher  .luseph.  15y  i|noling 
from  it  a  nuuil)er  of  edifying  passages  lie  sliowed 
that  it  did  not  belong  to  tlie  hereti<'al  books  which 
are  forbidden,  and  even  coni|)elled  his  teacher  to  ad- 
mit that  quotations  might  willi  advantage  be  taken 
from  it  for  liomilelical  purposes  (Sanh.  lOItt).  Pos- 
sessing an  extensive  knowledge  of  tradition.  Aliaye 
iHcame  a  most  eager  disciple  of  Diini.  the  Palest  in 
ian  amora.  who  had  brought  to  Babylonia  a  perfect 
treasury  of  interiirelatioiis  by  Palestinian  amoraim. 
Abaye  considereil  Dimi.  as  a  rei)resentative  of  the 
Palestinian  scliool.  a  (lualitied  Bible  cxegcte,  aial 
used  to  ask  him  liow  this  or  that  Bible  verse  was  cx- 
]ilained  in  "the  West."  or  Palestine.  Of  his  own  in- 
terpretations of  Biblical  passages  only  a  few.  of  a 
haggadic  nature,  are  preserved;  but  he  often  sup- 
plements, elucidates,  or  corrects  the  opinions  of 
older  authorities. 

BiBLiocRAPHV :  Lainprcmti,  Paliail  YiilKil;.  s.v. ;  Hellprin. 
Sider  ha-D<trol.  pp.  iJ-Si:  Iluiiiliiirjrer,'  H.  II.  T..  I8K).  pari 
ii..  s.v. ;  Kolait,  Anir]i.  s.w  lin  wliicti  i.s  found  an  enuinera- 
tliin  of  all  tlie  iiiissaft's  cif  llie  Taliiiiul  (•(intaliiiiig  Almve's 
nanifl;  liaclier.  An.  linli.  Aiiinr.s.w,  Weiss.  Dnr;  M.  s.  An- 
tolcolskl  ia  IfOrAsif,  1885,  ii.  .5(j;iH')lll>,  with  Strasc-liim's  notes. 

^v.  B. 

ABBA    (X3X  ;    'A/9,3<i).— In    Theolog-y :     The 

Aramaic  word  lor"  Father."  "  my  Fatlier,"  which,  to- 
gether with  the  Greek  equivalent,  occvirs  three  times 
in  the  New  Testament.  It  is  an  invocation  to  God. 
expressive  of  a  clo.se  personal  or  filial  relation  of 
the  speaker  to  God.  It  is  found  in  3Iark,  xi  v.  liO,  the 
jjarallel  passage.  ^Malt.  xxvi.  litl.  having  only  the 
Greek  words  "my  Father."  Paul,  in  Horn.  viii.  l.j 
and  Gal.  iv.  (!.  sliows  that,  in  admitting  proselytes 
to  niembershi])  in  the  new  faith,  llii'V  were  declared 
to  be  the  children  of  God  while  addressing  Him  as 
"Aliba,  Father."  But  there  is  nothing  specially 
Christian  ab<iut  this.  It  was  the  formula  for  ad- 
dressing God  most  familiar  to  Jewish  saints  of  the 
New  Testament  times: 

"  To  Itanan.  the  grancison  of  Ontas.  Ibe  children  camp  diirlnp 
a  ureal  droiitflil,  crying.  '  AWia  [Fattier],  kIvi-  us  rain  1 '  wliere- 
iilion  the  salnl  prayed :  '  ()  Ruler  ef  the  world,  for  ttie  sake 
of  these  little  ones  who  can  nol  discriminate  lieiweeii  tlie  .\ttlia 
[the  Falher]  who  Rlveth  rainand  the  AliUa  [tln'  father]  who  can 
only  pray  for,  but  can  not  give,  rain,  hear  my  prayer !  '—and  Ije- 
hold  rain  came  "  (Ta'anlt,  iSi'i). 

Of  Onias,  the  grandfather  of  Hanan.  we  road 
(Ta'anit.  2*/)  that  he  prayed  to  God,  saying:  "  Lord. 
I  am  as  a  son  in  Thy  house,  and  by  Thy  great  name 
I  beseech  Thee,  nor  will  I  leave  this  spot  until  Thou 
hast  shown  mercy  to  Thy  children  and  grantcfl  my 
request."  Then  Simon  ben  Shetal.i,  the  leader  o"f 
the  Pharisees,  said  to  Onias; 

"  I  would  excommunicate  thee  for  thine  Irreverent  mode  of 
prayer,  were  tl  not  that  before  God  thou  art  a  privlleKed  son, 
who  sayelh  to  his  falher, '  Abba,  do  this  and  do  thai  for  me,'  and 
the  falher  grantelh  him  whatever  he  wisheth." 

Thus,in  Tanna  debe  Eliyahu  R.ix. Elijah  addresses 
the  Lord  as  "My  Father  in  heaven."  Compare  the 
expression  "My  Father  in  heaven  "  in  a  Midrash  of 


the  Hadrianic  time,  Mek..  Yithro,  6,  and  elsewhere. 
Likewi.se  in  Jlislinah.  v.  1.  Bab.  Gem.  'Mli.  Ber.  v.  1: 
"Tile  ancient  Hasidim  sjient  an  hour 
Father  in    in  silent  meditation  before  the  prayer 
Prayer,      so  as  to  put  their  hearts  in  tlie  right 
relation    to  their   Father  in   heaven." 
Almost  the  same  expression  is  found  in  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions,  vii.  24: 

"  Pray  thrice  a  day,  preiiarlnir  yourselves  lieforehaiid,  so  n.s  to 
lie  worthy  of  lieInK  calleil  ilie  cliililn'ii  of  tln'  Father,  li-sl  when 
.von  call  lllm  '  Falher"  unworthily,  you  \v  reproached  liv  IIIiii, 
lus  Israel,  His  tlrsl-liorn  son,  was  told,  "If  then  1  be  a  father, 
where  is  mine  honor'/  and  if  I  Ih'  a  master,  where  is  inv  fear'/ ' 
(Mai.  I. «.)" 

For  the  appellation  "Fiither"  as  it  occurs  in  the 
Bible  with  special  reference  to  Israel  (I)eiit.  xxxii.  C; 
Is)i.  Ixiii.  C.  Ixiv.  7;  Jcr.  iii.  4;  Mai.  i.  (i.  ii.  10),  see 
F.\Tiii;itnooi)  OK  Goi).  For  the  universal  Fatherhood 
of  God,  compare  Wisdom,  ii.  l;i ;  Ecclesiasticus.  iv. 
10  :  1  .John,  iii.  2;  Abot,  iii.  2W  [1(S|  ;  Abot.  v.  liO  ; 
Sifre.  Deut.  96,  1  ;  Yoma,  viii.  i) ;  To.sef.,  Peali,  iv. 
21;  see  also  AniNU  Malkknu,  and  Dalman,  "Die 
AVortc  .Jesu,"  i.  l.")(i. 

God  is  called  "Father"  bj' Josephus  ("  Ant."  ii. 
6.  §  8;  iv.  8,  §  24);  "the  Father  of  the  whole  hu- 
man race"  by  Pliih)  (".Sacritice  of 
Father  Abel."  IH,  and  elsewhere  ;  see  Drum- 
in  the  niond.  "  Philo,"  ii.  (i:i;  Test.  Patriarchs, 
Apocrypha. . I \idali.  24;  Wisdom.  ,xii.  :!;  Sirach, 
xxvi.  1  and  Ii.  10;  and  Toliit.  xiii.  4). 
Still,  as  is  shown  by  Dalman  ("Die  Worte  .lesu,"  i. 
1.50-1.J.5),  the  fatherly  relation  of  God  to  man  was 
only  gradually  recognized  and  expressed  by  the 
worshijier.  In  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  ii.  IG  (compare 
ii.  18.  18).  it  is  the  righteous  man  only  who  claims 
that  God  is  his  Father  and  he  His  child;  or  it  is 
the  ])riest,  who.seholy  ministration  entitles  him  to 
the  privile.ge  of  addressing  (fod  as  "Father"  (Test. 
Patriarchs.  Levi.  xvii.  1S|.  Therefore  it  liecanie 
ciistomaiy  to  sjieak  of  God  in  connection  with  \v<ir- 
ship  as  the  Fatlier  of  the  worshiper  (see  Tosef.,  Sanh. 
vii.  9).  "Israelites  lift  up  their  eyes  to  their  Father 
in  heaven  "  (Midr.  Teh.  cxxi.  1).  "  I.smel  was  shielded 
under  the  wings  of  his  Father  in  heaven"  (Mek., 
Aiualek,  i. :  H.  H.  iii.  8).  In  the  first  century  .Jo- 
lianan  ben  Zakkai  referred  to  "the  altar  sis  estab- 
lishing peace  between  Israel  and  liis  F'ather  in 
heaven"  (To.scf..  B.  \\.  vii.  (!.  T);  idso.  when  re- 
ferring to  the  mysteries  of  God,  he  said:  "Blessed 
be  the  God  of  Israel  for  this  son  of  Almdiam,  who 
has  penetrated  into  the  glories  of  our  Father"  (To- 
sef., Hag.  ii.  2). 

Subse(|uently  Akilia.  comforting  his  people  in  the 
luisery  after  the  destruction  of  the  Tem|)le,  .says: 
"Happy  arc  ye,  O  Israel,  your  Fountain  of  Pui'ifi- 
cation  is  your  Fatherin  heaven  "(Yoma,  I.e.).  Like- 
wise Simon  ben  Yol.iai  calls  God  "the  Father  in 
heaven  "  (.Sjfre,  Deut.  xlviii.). 

The  iiaternal  relation  of  (tod.  while  chiefly  ajiidied 
to  Israel  as  the  correct  worshipers  of  God.  was  also 
apjilied  to  individuals  who  maintained  this  sjiiri- 
tual  relationship  (Sotali.  ix.  l.j;  Ab.  v.  20;  Jlek., 
Yithro,  (J. ;  Midr.  Teh.  ix.  4;  Ps.  xii.  ,">,  xciv.  2, 
cxxiii.  1).  AVhercforr' the  very  invocation.  "Abinu 
Malkenu!"  (Our  Father,  our  King!),  uttered  by  a 
devout  worsliiper.  was  regarded  by  the  people  as 
endowed  with  special  eflicacy.  The  opinion  ex- 
pressed by  Weljcr  ("see  Alts_ynagogale  Theologie." 
ji.  1.50)  and  others,  that  .Jesus  was  the  first  to  invoke 
God  by  the  name  of  Father,  does  not  rest  on  a  solid 
foundation,  and  has  already  been  refuted  b}'  Daliuan. 

Bibliography:   Zimz,  GotteMienstliche   VortrOye,  pp.  330, 
.333,  SK. 

K. 


29 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Abba 
Abba  Arika 


ABBA. — As  a  Praenomen  :  A  word  siffiiifyiiijr 
■•  fiitliiM-,"  uscil  as  u  iimsculiiic  name  as  early  as  the 
time  of  tlie 'I'aiiuaites  (see  I'eali,  ii.  6;  Yel>.  13«;  see 
followiiifr  artiele).  The  name  was  partieuhirly  com- 
mon among  the  Amoraim  of  Palestine  and  Bal)ylonia. 
In  the  latter  country  Ahha.  liy  fusion  with  the  iintial 
R  of  the  title  l{;ih,"l]eeaine  R-iblia  or  Haha.  In  Pal- 
estine this  was  shortened  to  liaand  Va.  For  the  jirob- 
able  nuaninir  of  the  name  see  "  Kevue  dcs  f'.ludes 
Juives,"  xxxvi.  104.  As  an  inseparable  element  in 
names  we  lind  AlAa.  especially  in  the  time  of  the 
Tannaites.  This  word,  oriirinally  an  address  of  es- 
teem or  affection,  was  closely  ])relixed  to  tlie  name 
proper;  for  insUince,  Abba  .Iosc\  .\bl>a  Saul.  The 
more  prominent  of  those  bearinj;  the  name  of  Abba 
are  treated  below,  W,   B. 

ABBA:  1.  Abrotherof  Habban  Gamaliel,  i)rob- 
ably  (iamaliel  II.  :  i)erlia])s  iilenlical  with  Abba,  a 
contemporary  of  .lohanan  ben  Zakkai,  mentioned  in 
Peali,  ii.  0.  Besides  Gamaliel's  (hiughter,  Abba  had 
at  the  same  time  another  wife:  and  when  .Vbbadied 
chilrlless,  Gamaliel  married  his  widow,  in  accord- 
ance with  till'  law  (jf  Uvirate  marriage  (Veb.  \~><i). 
Abba's  polyiramy  is  the  only  instance  known  among 
the  authorities  of  the  Tahnudic  period.  The  asser- 
tion that  he  was  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrinat  .labneh 
(C'hajes,  "Hev.  fet.  Juives,"  xxxi.x,  40  r(  Wf/.)  is 
based  on  an  impossible  conjecture  in  Toscfta,  Sanh, 
viii.  1,  L.  G. 

2.  A  Palestinian  amora  of  Babylonian  birlh  who 
nourished  in  the  third  and  fourth  cenluries.  lie  was 
a  pupil  of  Huna  andJudah.  the  Babylonian  masters, 
and  setllcMl  in  Palestine,  where  he  achieved  a  high 
riputatioii.  In  lhi>  Babylonian  schools  Aliba  is  al- 
ways meant  when  reference  is  ma<le  to  "our  leacher 
in  llic  lanil  of  Israel  "  (.Siidi.  17/<),  He  was  wealthy 
and  had  a  pecidiar  metho<l  of  dispensing  charity  in 
si'crel  (Kel.  (ul>).  He  is  important  as  a  halakist. 
As  a  liaggadist  he  selected  chietly  ]).S)iIm  verses  fo'- 
his  texts, 

BlBI.IO(!R.\piiv  :  Bai-lipr,  All.  PnL  Amur.  III.  olT-K"). 

W,  B. 

ABBA  BAR  ABBA:  .V  Babylonian  amora  of 
the  second  and  third  <cnturies,  distinguished  for 
piety,  benevolence,  and  learning.  He  is  known 
chielly  through  his  son  Mar  Samuel,  principal  of 
the  .\cademv  of  Xehardea,  and  is  nearly  always 
referr.'d  to  as  "Samuel's  father."  .Vbba  traveled  to 
Palestini'.  where  he  entered  into  relations  with  I{. 
Judali  I.,  the  patriarch,  with  whose  ]iupil  Levi  bar 
Sisi  he  was  on  terms  of  inljjnale  friendship.  When 
Levi  died  Abba  delivered  the  funeral  oration  and 
gloritied  the  meniorj'of  his  friend. 

nim.ioini.vrnv:  ^^lllr.  ffiiiinul,  cil.  liulnT,  IXiO,  x.  .'i;  Yer. 
I'Dili.  vlil.  SVi;  Krl.-,\l,:  Fninhi'l,  .Uf/,«.  pp,  rtOa  ct  mi.; 
Ili-llprlii,  s,,l,rlin-l)''r"i.  Iksx',  11. :i. 

W.  R, 

ABBA  B.  ABINA:  .\n  amora  who  tlourishe<l 
in  Ihe  third  eenlury.  Hi'  was  a  native  of  Babylonia 
anil  a  pupil  of  liab.  He  emigililed  lo  Palesllne, 
wlierc  he  became  well  known  in  Inidilion,  parlicu 
larly  through  his  various  haggadic  sayings.  The 
confession  which  he  composed  for  I  he  Day  of  Alone 
mint  deserves  special  mention.      It  reads: 

"  Mvitoil.  I  have  sinniil  ami  ilnne  wlrkril  Oiln^,  I  have  piT- 
uMiil  In  my  liail  illspnsliliiii  anil  fellnwiil  11.4  ilinMilen.  WInil  I 
have  iliini"  I  will  iln  im  morf.  he  It  Thy  will,  o  Kverla.stli)(f 
(iiKt,  that  Thiiu  iiiayi'Ml  hint  nut  my  Inlipillles,  tnrirlvi-  all  my 
tnins»:n'.s.slniw.  ami  pardon  all  niv  Kins"  (.Yer.  Yuma,  eiul  t.'Wr'. 

niiu.iiiisKAi-iiv  :  lliii'hcr,  Au.  I'd.  Aiimr.  III.  ,iai,  .tT;  Hellprin, 
Srittr  lin-Diirnt,  II.  IS. 

W    B. 


ABBA  OF  ACRE  (Acco)  :  A  Palestinian  amora 
who  nourished  at  Ihe  end  of  the  third  century.  He 
was  greatly  respected  l)y  Abbahu  and  praised  as  an 
example  of  modesty  (Sotah,  40(0, 

BiBUOORAPBY  :   Bacber.  Au.  P(il.  Amor.  ill.  320. 

W,   B, 

ABBA  ABIKA  (usually  called  RAB) :  Cele- 
brated lialiyliiiiian  amora  and  founder  of  the  .\cade- 
my  of  Sura  :  nourished  in  lliird  century  ;  died  a!  Sura 
in  "247,  llissurname,"  Arika  "  (.Vramaic,  X3'1X;  He 
brew,  -]-iX  :  Knglish,  "  Long" — that  is,  "Tall  "  ;  it  oc- 
curs only  onct — Hul.  VS7h).  he  owed  to  his  height, 
which,  according  to  a  reliable  record,  exceeded  that 
of  his  contemporaries.  Others,  reading  "Areka," 
consider  it  au  honorary  title,  "Lecturer"  (Weiss, 
"Dor,"  iii,  147:  Jastrow,  "  Diet."  «.(•,),  In  the  tradi- 
tional literature  he  is  referred  loalmost  exclusively  as 
Kid)  the  .Master  (both  his  contemporaries  and  pos- 
terity recogni/.ing  in  him  a  master).  Just  as  his  leach- 
er, Jud;di  I.,  was  known  simply  as  Bjibbi,  He  is 
called  Biibbi  .Vbbaonly  in  the  tannaitic  liteniture  (for 
instance,  Tosefta,  Be/ah,  i.  7),  where  a  nundjerof  his 
.siiyingsare  ])reserved.  Heoccupiesa  middle  position 
between  the  Tannaiin  and  the  Amoraim,  and  is  ac- 
eordeil  the  right,  nirely  conceded  lo  one  who  is  only 
an  amora,  of  disputing  Ihe  opinion  of  a  tauua  (B,  B. 
■i'iii  and  elsewhere), 

Hab  was  a  ileseeiidant  of  a  distinguished  Baby- 
lonian family  which  claimed  lo  trace  its  origin  to 
Shimei,  brother  of  King  David  (Sanh.  5ii ;  Ket.  6'i/j). 
His  father,  Aibo,  was  a  brother  of  Hiyya,  who  lived 
in  Palest ine,  and  was  a  highly  esteemed  scholar  in 
the  eollegiale  circle  of  the  patriarch  Judaii  I,  From 
his  associations  in  the  house  of  his  uncle,  and  later 
as  his  uneli's  disciple  and  as  a  member  of  the  acad 
emy  at  Sepplioris,  K.ib  aei|uiieil  such  an  extraordi 
nary  knowledge  of  traditional  lore  as  to  make  him 
its  foremost  exponent  in  his  native  land.  While 
Judah  I,  was  still  living,  Hab,  having  been  duly  or- 
dained as  teacher — though  not  without  certain  re- 
strictions (Sanh.  I.e.) — returned  to  Babylonia,  where 
he  at  once  began  a  career  that  was  destined  to  mark 
au  e]io(h  in  t  he  develo]iment  of  Babylonian  Judaism, 

In  the  annals  of  Ihe  Babylonian  schools  the  year 
of  his  arrival  is  recorded  as  the  starting-point  in  the 
chronology  of  ihe  Talmudic  age.     It 
Beginning    was  the  ."hiOth  year  of  the  Seleueidan 
of  the        and  the  illlth  year  of  the  common  era, 
Talmudic     .\s  the  scene  of  his  activity,  Bab  Ii  ret 
Age.  chose   Nehardca.  where   Ihe  exilarch 

appointed  him  rtV'"'""'"""'''.  or  market- 
master,  and  I{,ibbi  Shela  made  him  lecturer  (amora) 
of  hiscolhge  (  Ver.  B.  B.v.  l.">./:  Voina,  20/i).  Thence 
he  removed  to  Sura,  on  Ihe  Kuphmles,  where  he  es- 
tablished a  school  of  his  own,  w  hich  soon  became 
the  intellectual  center  of  the  Babylonian  Jews.  As 
a  rcnowiud  teacher  of  the  Law  and  with  hosts  of 
disciples,  who  came  from  all  sections  of  the  Jewish 
world,  Bab  lived  and  worked  in  Sura  until  liisdealh. 
Samuel,  another  disciple  of  .luilah  1,  at  the  same 
lime  brought  lo  the  academy  al  Nebardea  a  high  de- 
gree of  prosperity:  in  fact,  it  was  at  the  school  of 
Bid)  that  Jewish  learning  in  Babylonia  found  its  per- 
manent home  and  center.  Hab's  activity  made  Baby- 
lonia indepenilent  of  Palestine,  and  gave  it  that  pre 
dominatil  posilion  which  it  was  destined  to  occupy 
for  several  centuries. 

The  method  of  treatment  of  the  traditional  mate- 
rial lo  which  the  Talmuil  owes  its  origin  was  estab- 
lished in  Babylonia  by  Hab.  That  inetliod  takes 
the  .Mislinah  of  Judah  ha-Nasi  as  a  text  or  founda- 
tion, adding  to  it  the  other  taiuniitic  traditions,  and 
deriving  from  all  of  them  the  theoretical  explana- 


Abba  Arika 
Abba  Hoshaya 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


30 


lions  nnd  practical  applicatious  of  the  religious  T^w. 
The  lejrul  and  ritual  opinions  recorded  in  lijib's 
name  and  his  disputes  willi  .Samuel  constitute  the 
ntain  hody  of  the  Haliylonian  Talmud.  His  numer- 
ous ilisciples — some  of  wliom  were  very  inHuential 
and  wlio.  for  the  most  part,  were  also  disciples  of 
Sainuil — amplitied  and.  in  their  capacity  as  instruct- 
ors and  by  their  discussions,  continued  the  work  of 
I{)il).  In  the  Babylonian  schools  Hub  was  rightly  re 
ferred  to  as  "our  great  master."  liuh 
Rab  as      also  e.xercised  a  great  intluence   for 

Teaclier.  good  uiion  the  moral  and  religious 
conditions  of  his  native  land,  not  only 
indirectly  through  his  disciples,  hut  directly  by  rea- 
son of  the  strictness  with  whidi  he  reprc.ssed  abuses 
in  matters  of  marriage  and  ilivorce,  and  denounced 
ignorance  and  negligence  iu  matters  of  ritual  ob- 
servance. 

Rab,  says  tradition,  foiuid  an  open,  neglected  field 
and  I'eiiced  it  in  (Hul.  1 10(0.  Especial  attention  was 
given  by  him  to  the  liturgy  of  the  Synagogue.  He 
is  reputed  to  be  the  author  of  one  of  the  linest  com- 
positions in  the  Hebrew  prayer-book,  the  JIusaf  .serv- 
iceof  the  Mew  Year.  In  tliisnoble  prayer  are  evinced 
profound  religious  feeling  and  e.\alt"ed  thought,  as 
wi'll  as  ability  to  use  the  Hebrew  language  in  a 
natural,  expressive,  and  classical  manner  (Yer.  R. 
H.  i.  ')'(!) .  The  many  honiiletic  and  ethical  (hagga- 
distic)  sayings  recorded  of  him  show  similar  ability. 
As  a  liaggadist  ]{ab  is  surpassed  by  none  of  the 
Babylonian  Amoraim.  He  is  the  only  one  of  the 
Babylonian  teachers  whose  haggadistic  utterances 
ajii'roach  in  number  and  contents  tho.se  of  the  Pal- 
esliinau  haggadists.  The  Palestinian  Talmud  has 
preserved  a  large  number  of  his  halakic  and  hag- 
gadistic utterances;  and  the  Palestinian  ilidrashim 
also  contain  many  of  his  Ha,a:gadot.  Rab  delivered 
honiiletic  discourses,  both  in  the  college  (,/ii't  /m- 
iiiiilriixh)  and  in  the  synagogues.  Heesjiecially 
loved  to  treat  in  his  homilies  oif  the  events  and  per- 
.sonages  of  Biblical  history:  and  many  beautiful  and 
genuinely  poetic  embellishments  of  the  Biblical  rec- 
ord, wliich  have  become  comtuon  pos- 

Ethical      session  of  llie  Ilaggadah.  are  his  crea- 

Teaching.    tions.     His  Haggadah  is  particularly 

rich  in  thoughts  concerning  the  moral 

life  and  the  relations  of  human  beings  to  one  another. 

A  few  of  these  utterances  may  be  quoted  here: 

"  The  commandments  of  tbe  Torati  were  only  given  to  purify 
men's  morals  "  (Gen.  K.  xliv.).  •'  Wlintever  ma'v  not  propiTly  lip 
done  In  public  la  forlildden  even  in  tin-  most  snrrt  cljiiiiiluT" 
(Slial).  l>4/<).  "It  Iswell  tliat  peopli'  Imsv  tlicniM-hes  with  the 
study  of  Uie  Law  and  tlie  in-i-fornianie  cf  cliiiriliilile  ilrcds.  even 
when  not  cntlrvlvdisiiuerrstid;  fnitlic  huliit  of  riL'lit-d.dnc  will 
llnally  niakeilicinr.Mition  puiv"  i  I'l-s.  Tiii/.  i.    "Man  will  h..  called 

to  acr nt  f'lr  liavinn  deprived  himself  of  ihc  u I  tliint's  which 

the  world  olTcn-il  "  ( Ver.  Kid.  end).  "  Wh.isoevcr  hath  not  pitv 
upon  his  fellow  man  Is  no  child  of  .Abraham"  (l!eadi.:Mii.  '•  It 
ishi-ItiTto  lasl  oneself  Into  allery  furnace  than  puhlli-lv  to  put  to 
shame  one's  fellow  creature"  (B.  M.  .'ilVi).  "Oneshould  never 
belp.ih  hiiiisilf  to  a  woman  without  haying  seen  her;  one  might 

suhsi'ii ily  disioviT  in  her  a  blemish  because  of  which  one 

miL'lii  loiiihc  her  and  thus  iranss-'ress  the  coininandnient:  "Thou 
shall  loVE.tliyn.-iL'liiiurastiiyself'MKld.  41a).  "  A  father  should 
never  |irefer  one  child  above  another;  the  example  of  Joseph 
shows  what  evil  results  may  follow  therefrom  "  (Shah.  li)li). 

liab  loved  the  Book  of  Eccle.siasticus(Sirach).  and 
warned  his  disciple  Hamnnna  against  unjustifiable 
asceticism    l)y    quoting   advice    con- 
Reproves     tained  therein"  —  that,  considering  the 
Extreme      transitorinessof  liuniiin  life  ('Er. >)4(/), 
Asceticism,  one  should  not  despise  the  good  things 
of  this  world.    To  the  celestial  jovs  of 
the  future  he  was  accustomed  to  refer  in  the  follow- 
ing poetic  words : 

"  There  Is  naught  on  earth  to  compare  with  the  future  life.  In 
the  world  to  come  there  shall  be  neither  eating  nor  drinking. 


neither  trading  nor  toll,  neillier  hatreil  nor  envv ;  hut  the  right- 
eous shall  sit  Willi  crowns  uinm  Ihidr  heads,  and  ivjolce  In  the 
i-adlance  of  the  Divine  I'n-,sc-iice "  (Her,  ITiii, 

Rid)  also  devoted  much  attention  to  mystical  ami 
tnuiscendenlal  speculations  wliich  the  rabbis  con- 
nect with  the  Biblical  account  of  creation  (Gen.  i., 
Ma'aseh  Bereshil),  the  vision  of  the  mysterious 
chariot  of  God  (Ezek.  i.,  Ula'aseh  Merkabah).  and 
the  Divine  Name.  Many  of  his  im])orlant  utter- 
ances testify  to  his  teudeiicy  iu  this  direction  (Hair. 
12.',  Kid.  71rt). 

Concerning  the  social  position  and  the  personal 
history  of  Rab  we  are  not  informed.  That  he  was 
rich  seems  probable:  for  lie  appears  to  have  occii- 
jiied  himself  for  a  time  with  commerce  and  after- 
ward with  agriculture  (Hul.  lO.'xO.  That  he  was 
highly  respected  by  the  Gentiles  as  wM  as  by  the 
.Jews  of  Babylonia  is  lunved  by  the  friendship  which 
existed  between  him  and  the  last  Parthian  king,  Ar- 
taban  ('Ab.  Zarali.  10//).  He  was  deeply  alTeeted  by 
the  death  of  Artaban  (22(i)  and  the  downfall  of  the 
Arsacidan  dynasty,  and  does  not  appear  to  have 
sought   the    fiiendship   of   Ardeshir, 

Status  founder  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty,  al- 
in  Life.  tlmugh  Samuel  of  Neliardeii  probably 
did  so.  Rab  became  closely  relateti, 
through  the  marriage  of  one  af  his  daughters,  to 
the  family  of  the  e.xilarch.  Her  .sons.  Mar  Ikba 
and  Nchemiah,  were  considered  types  of  the  highest 
aristocracy,  Rab  had  many  sons,  several  of  whom 
arc  mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  the  mo.st  distinguished 
being  the  eldest,  I.Iiyya.  The  latter  did  not,  how- 
ever, succeed  his  failier  as  head  of  the  academy: 
this  post  fell  to  Rab's  disciple  Huna.  Two  of  liis 
grandsons  occupied  in  succession  the  ofiice  of  exil- 
arcli  (irs/i  r/altitu,  Hul.  'J'ia). 

Rab  died  at  an  advanced  age.  deeply  mourned  by 
numerous  disciplesand  the  entire  Babylonian  .Jewry, 
which  he  had  raised  from  comi)arative  insignificance 
to  the  leading  position  in  Judaism  (Shab.  110a,  M. 
K.  24«) . 

Bini.inr.R.iPHT:  I.  H.  WeLss,  In  KdMw  Yizhah.  No.  S.  pp.22- 
:!»;  No.  9,  pp,  49-5i);  No,  10,  pp,  111-^1;  'the'same.  Dm:  ill. 
147-liil;  Abr.  Levvy.sohn,  In  Kobak's  Jeschurun  (Hebrew 
nartl.vl.  114-120 and  vll.li-IO:  .los.  ('manskMn  (iriiber's  i iziti- 
ha-Sifrut,  v.  l.VJ-212;  M,  I.  Miihlfehler,  lidhh.  Kin  Liln'nx- 
hilil,  ISTl ;  Bacher.  An.  linli.  Amur.  pp.  !-:«;  Rcitmann,  In 
Ha-Mamii<l.  1S71,  No.  Vi;  D.  Kahana,  in  Hn-fSliilniiii,  l.sjls, 
pp.  4.'i3-t4(l :  M.  S.  Antokolskl,  In  Ild-Antf,  U„  with  notes  by 
SIraschun. 

w.  r, 

ABBA    BAR   BENJAMIN   BAR   HIYYA, 

(called  also  Abba  b.  Minyomi  or  Miny'omin  b. 
Hiyya):  A  Palestinian  seljolar  of  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries,  contemporary  of  R.  Abbahu. 
While  the  country  of  his  birth" can  not  be  named 
with  certainty,  he  was  probably  born  in  Baby- 
lonia:  for  he  is  found  there  (ijul,  SOri)  seeking 
halakic  information  from  Rab  Huna  b.  Hiyya,  the 
son-in-law  of  R.  .Jeremiah  b.  Abba,  who  "lived  in 
Babylonia  (Bek.  'iln)  and  who  was  proliably  the 
brother  of  Benjamin  b.  Hiyya,  the  father  of 'Abba 
and  disciple  of  Rab  Ilisda,  "who  also  lived  in  ISaby- 
lonia.  Hence,  it  may  be  assumed  that  Abba  b.  Ben- 
jamin was  a  native  of  the  same  country  and  that  he 
removed  to  Palestine,  where  he  established  himself 
at  .\rbela.  Here  R.  .\bbaliu  once  visited  him  (Yer. 
Shebi'it,  vi.  ;j(irf).  In  the  Palestinian  Talmud  he  is 
always  referred  to  as  Abba  b.  Benjamin.  Twice 
(Yer.  Ber.  v.  9d,  and  Yer.  Git.  v.  47A)  he  is  quoted 
by  the  name  of  Aliaye  b.  B. :  this,  however,  is  the 
result  of  a  clerical  error,  as  clearly  appears  from  the 
rea<ling  of  the  manuscript  Syrileio(Yer.  Ber.  fi(?  hir.) 
and  of  the  parallel  passages" iu  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud (R.  H.  ;«</;  Sotah,  384).  In  the  latter  Tal- 
mud he  is  sometimes  quoted  by  the  appellation  of 


31 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abba  Arika 
Abba  Hoshaya 


li.  licnjamiii.  ami  soinctiiiics  us  b.  Minyomi  or  Miii- 
yoiniii  (a  dialectic  t'onii  of  Benjamin).  Hence  lie 
should  not  be  confounded  with  the  Abba  bar  Min- 
yomi who  is  identical  with  Abba  b.  Martlia.  The 
Babyhiuian  Tabnud,  in  (|Uolin.i;-  liin\.  generally  adds 
to  his  name  that  of  his  j^randsire  I.Iiyya  (Hul.  HOn; 
Yeb.  1-,>',V/),  and  lie  may  also  lie  recojrnized  by  the 
character  of  the  traditions  cited  in  Ids  behalf,  which 
usually  refer  to  Barailot. 

BiBi. K.M'iiv:  \wnprtn.  Seder  Ita-rMiriil.  li.  17;  Baelier,  ^ly. 

I'lll.Aniur.  1.  117. 

S.  M. 

ABBA  B.  BIZNA  :  A  Palestinian  amora  of  the 
foiiiili  cenltiiy,  whn  is  oeeasionally  nieiitioiied  as  a 
baii^adist.  and  as  liavini;  banded  down  certain  ha- 
lakic  opinions  (Yer.  B.  K.  v.  5<0. 

liMiuoGKAPnY:  Hellprin,  Serfci'/ia-Donif,  II.  17  ;  liaclitr,  .Itf. 
I'al.  Anwr.  UI.  B47. 

W.  B. 
ABBA    BUMSLA    (BEN    SOLOMON).     See 

I5r\l>l,\.     .\l:l-..\     (I'llN/.l.Al.     liollKMIA)  . 

ABBA  OF  CARTHAGE:  A  I'alestinian amora, 
who  lloinisliril  at  the  end  nl  the  third  centUry.  His 
birthplace  was  Carlhajre,  and  it  is  incorrect  to  refer 
his  surname  to  Cartasena  in  Sjiain  or  to  a  town  of 
Armenia.  He  is  freciuently  mentioned  in  the  Jeru- 
salem Talmud  and  in  the  haii^adic  traditions. 
I!Mii.ii>r,K.4rnv  :  Fmnki-I,  Milm.  p.  lavi ;  liacluM-.  .ly.  I'al.  Amnr. 

11.  -MS. 

W.  B. 

ABBA  COHEN  OF  BARDELA  :  A  scholar  of 
the  la-t  laniiaitic  iiciicniliun  lulmut  the  bei;inninj; 
of  the  third  century).  The  few  llalakot  emanating 
from  him  refer  to  the  rabbinical  civil  law.  In  Bib- 
lical homiletics  several  of  his  expositions  have  been 
preserved  (Sifre,  Dent.  3;  Gen.  H.  2:i.  7(i,  93).  The 
lust  .mentioned  passage  runs  as  follows:  "Wo  to 
mankind,  becaus<!  of  the  day  of  judgment;  wo,  bc- 
ciiusc  of  the  day  of  trial!  Balaam,  the  wisest  among 
the  Gentiles,  was  confounded  at  the  reiuoof  of  his 
a.ss  (Num.  x.\ii.  HO).  Jose|ili,  one  of  Ihe  youngest  of 
Jacob's  sons,  silenced  his  elder  brethren  (Gen.  xlv. 
8).  How  will  man  be  able  to  endure  the  jiidgnu'iit 
of  the  omniscient  LordV"  (B.  JI.  10'/;  Yer.  Git.  viii. 
49c;  Yer.  B.  M.  i.  lil:  Y<r.  B.  B.  viii.  16/)). 

S.  M. 

ABBA  DORESH  oi  HA-DORESH  ;  that  is. 
"The  Inlcrpreter  of  Scripture"):  A  tanna.  whose 
period  can  not  be  determined.  Two  of  his  interpre- 
tjilions  have  been  ])reserved  in  Sifre,  Dent.  :i08  and 
8.V,J,  and  refer  to  Deut.  xxxii.  ."i  and  xxxiii.  11,  re- 
spectively (see  also  Kx.  H.  -i'i). 
BlBl.incK.ipnv:  Bnclicr,  .li;.  Tuii.  II.  547. 

W.   B. 

ABBA  (RABBA)  BAR  DUDAI :  1 1,  ad  of  the 
Academy  of  Pnndu'dita  from  7Tv  till  about  780. 
Sherira  ijaon  ailds  to  Ablia's  name  Ihe  words  "our 
gnindfalher."  which,  however,  are  not  meant  to  in- 
dicate that  Dndai  was  an  immediate  ancestor  of 
Sherira.  A  copyist's  atlemi>t  to  change  the  rare 
n;inie  "  Duilai  "  into  "  Jndai  "  adds  to  the  confusion ; 
fi.r.lu<hii  (hion,  Ihe  aclual  grandfather  of  Sherira, 
lived  a  full  cenlnry  later  than  Dudai. 

lliiu.icii.KAI'llv  :  Firitl  hitlirnf  Shiiirii  ilwni.  In  NoubauiT'» 
.Uii/iinvif  Jen:  CItrim.  I.  .1tl. 

L.   G. 

ABBA  GLUSK  LECZEKA:  A  poem  by  Adal 
licrl   von  (  hami^so.   piddisjicd  in  ls:t2.     It   relates 
the  story  of  one  Abba.  who.   at   Ihe  age  of  sixty, 
atlraeled  by  Ihe  fame  of  Moses  Meiidelssohu.weut  to 


Berlin  to  acquire  secular  knowledge.  In  his  native 
town,  Glusk,  Abba  was  ])ersecuted  by  the  fanatical 
reiiresentatives  of  the  orthodox  Jewish  community 
for  his  liberal  views.  He  had  to  leave  the  town, 
and  traveled  from  place  to  place  as  a  wandering 
preacher  (inaggid).  When  he  came  to  Wilna,  he 
iiad  thirteen  w<)rks  ready  for  luiblication,  but  on 
accouni  of  their  radical  tendencies  they  were  burned 
in  the  courtyard  of  the  synagogue.  Probably  he 
himself  would  have  fared  badl_v  had  not  a  rabbi 
come  to  his  assistance.  In  au  article  published  in 
"Ha-Karmel,"  1873,  No.  5,  where  a  Hebrew  trans- 
lation of  C'hamisso's  ])oeni  is  given,  it  is  stated  that 
.losliua  SeligSaikind  in  his  childhood  witnesseil  the 
liurning  of  the  "Glusker  niaggid's  "  books,  and  that 
Klijah,  the  gaon  of  Wilna.  saved  bini  from  the 
mob.  Kayserling  lliiidis  iluil  Abba  (;iu>k  Leczeka 
is  a  poetical  presentation  of  Solomon  Maimon's  real 
adventures,  but  S.  Stanislavski  (in  "  Voskhod,"  1887, 
No.  12)  contends  that  he  is  the  Gi.l'sivEK  Maggid. 

BiBLiocu.vi'HV  :  Cliaiiilssfi'9  WcrHe,  ed.  Max  Kocli,  pp.  271-i7S ; 
Hn-KtnmeU  1S72,  No.  ."),  pp.  SW  el  »«/. ;  Kayserling,  .U".<m 
Meiiilctiotohii.  p.  431,  Lelpslc,  imi. 

II.  R. 

ABBA  GORION  OF  SIDON  :  A  tanna,  who 
llouiisluil  ill  tlie  sii-iind  (  rntiiry.  He  banded  down 
to  posterity  a  .saying  of  Abba  Saul  (Mishnah,  Kid. 
iv.  14.  Yerushalmi  version)  and  one  of  Habban 
Gamaliel  II.  That  of  Gamaliel,  quoted  in  the  in- 
trcpiliiclion  to  Esther  H..  Ini-ms  the  bi'ginning  to  a 
.Miilrash  on  the  Bookof  Kslber,  for  which  reason  the 
latter  is  called  Miilrash  -Vbba  Gorion  (.see  MlDRASn). 

B1UL10GHAPUV  :  BaclHT,  Ail.  Tiui.  I.  Ifci,  11.  .3«.s. 

AV.  B. 

ABBA  HANIN  and  his  son,  ABBA  JOSE. 

See  Uam.n.'Aiui.v,  and  .losi:,   .Vhua. 

ABBA  BAR  HIYYA  B.  ABBA:  A  Pales- 
tinian anioia.  who'  llninislinl  al  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century.  He  was  the  .son  of  Hiyya  bar 
Abba,  the  well-known  juipil  of  Johanan.  and  trans- 
mitted to  his  generation  the  sayings  of  Johanan, 
whi<'h  in  their  turn  had  bivn  delivered  to  him  liy 
his  father  (Yer.  Sotah.  ix.  24<).  He  was  on  terms 
of  intimate  friendship  with  Zeira  (Hul.  864). 

BinLionRAPnv:  Fraukel,  Melio,  p.  n'a;  Baelier,  Ag.  Pal. 
Amtn:  lll.(H8. 

W.  B. 

ABBA  HOSHAYA  (called  also  Oshaya, 
Yeshaya)  OF  TURYA,  or  TRAYA :  A  Pales- 
tinian wnol  washer  of  Ibe  third  century,  of  whose 
scholarly  attainments,  if  be  bad  iiny,  nothing  is  re- 
corded, but  whose  piety  and  honesty  alTorded  the 
haggadists  op]iortnnities  for  legends  and  religious 
speculations.  He  is  said  to  have  been  born  on  the 
dav  of  a  certain  Kabbi  .Vliun's  dialh;  and.  with 
reference  to  this  circumslance,  B.  Abba  I).  ICahana 
observes:  "What  particular  wisdom  is  slnnvn  in 
Solomon's  sjiying  (Keel.  i.  h).  "The  sun  rises,  aiul 
the  sun  sets.'  Do  we  not  see  the  alternation  of 
light  and  darkness  daily ';  The  sjiying  refers  to  a 
peculiarity  in  the  history  of  Israel;  uamely,  that 
there  is  liever  a  vacancy  "in  the  lino  of  pious  men: 
the  sun  of  one  saini  rises  before  the  sun  of  another 
sets.  Thus  .  .  .  before  Habbi  Abun  died.  Abba 
Hoshava  had  been  born"  (Gen.  H.  Iviii.  2;  Keel. 
I{.  i.  .V  Coiupaiv  Zunz.  "G.  V.,"  2d  ed.,  18.'i;  "  Bet 
Talmud."  iv,  12-11).  Il  is  related  that  Abba  Ho- 
shaya once  fomnl  some  jewels  which  a  lioman  prin- 
cess had  lost.  He  brought  them  to  lu>r.  but  she 
would  not  a«'Ce]>l  them,  remarking  that  she  did  not 
value  them  much,  and  that  they  lielonged  to  him  by 


Abba  Huna  ha-Kohen 
Abba  Mai-i  of  Lunel 


THE  J  £  WISH  KNCVtLul'EDIA 


32 


riirht  (((iiiiiiurc  li.  .M.  28A).  Aliliii  replied  that  the 
Jewish  Law  onlers  the  restoration  1"  its  owner  of 
anvtliiiii;  found;  whereupon  the  prineessexelaimed. 
"I'mised  lie  the  (!od  of  the  Jews'"  (Ver.  15.  iM.  ii. 
Sc;  eoMipare  "  I'<  lu-  Jloslieli.")  Tlierefore.  at  his 
funeral,  tlie  Scriptural  verse  (Cant.  viii.  7).  "If  a 
man  would  ^ive  all  the  substance  of  his  house  for 
love,  it  would  utterly  be  conteiiuied."  was  applied 
to  Abtja  Hosliaya's  love  of  God  (Lev.  K.  Jill.  Cant. 
H.  to  l.f..  where  "Iljibbi"  is  to  be  corrected  into 
Abba;  Tosef.,  B.  K.  xi.  U;  Yer.  B.  K.  x.  7<-). 

8.  M. 

ABBA     HUNA    HA-KOHEN.     Sec    IIuna, 

Ai'.ha.  II  \  K<hii;n. 

ABBA  or  BABA  (BABBAH)  BAB  J£B£- 
MIAH  :  A  Babylonian  aniora  <if  tlie  third  century, 
I  he  son  of  Jeremiah  b.  Abba  and  a  pupil  of  Kab.  He 
lived  at  Sura  and  transmitted  to  his  j;eneration  the 
sayin.srsof  Kab  and  Samuel.  One  of  his  sayings,  sev- 
eral of  which  are  preserved  in  Palestinian  sources, 
may  be  here  (pioled.  Prov.  ix.  1-3;  "Wisilom  hath 
liuilded  her  house,"  etc.,  refers  to  the  Messianic  age. 
The  ■'  house  "  is  the  newly  erected  Teniph'  at  Jerusa- 
lem ;  the  "  seven  pillars  "  are  the  seven  years  follow- 
ing the  defeat  of  Gog  and  JIagog,  which  are  indicated 
in  Ezek.  xxxix.  9;  the  "feast"  is  that  described  in 
Ezek.  xxxix.  17;  and  the  ver.se.  "She  hath  sent  forth 
her  maidens,"  etc.,  means:  "The  Lord  sent  forth 
the  prophet  Ezekiel  with  the  message  to  the  birds 
and  beasts"  (Lev.  R.  xi.). 

BiBi.ioiiRAPiiv:  Bacher,  Ag.  Pal.  Atnor.  iii.  529,  SSO;  Heil- 
prln,  Seder  ha-Dorut,  ed.  1883,  ii.  33C. 

AV.  B. 

ABBA  JOSE  BEN  DOSITAI.  See  Jose,  Abiu, 
1!i;n  |)ii-iiai. 

ABBA  JOSE  BEN  HANIN.  See  JosE,  Abba, 
I!i:n  IIamn 

ABBA  JOSE  OF  MAHUZA.  See  Jose,  Abba, 
OK  M  \iir/.A. 

ABBA  JUDAH.     See  Ai;I!a  JrD.v.\. 

ABBA  JUDAN  (or  JTJDAH) :  A  philanthro- 
pist who  livi'd  in  Antioch  in  the  earl.y  part  of  the 
second  ciutury.  As  an  example  of  his  generosity, 
it  is  recorded  that  once  he  sold  half  of  his  iiroperty. 
already  considerably  reduced  by  the  demands  of 
charity,  to  avoid  turning  away  empty-handed  Rab- 
bis Eliezer.  Joshua,  and  Akiba,  who  were  collecting 
donations  for  educational  purposes.  The  record 
adds  that  the  blessings  conferred  upon  him  by  these 
rabbis  bore  fruit,  for  shortly  afterward,  by  a  hajipy 
accident,  he  discovered  a  treasure  (Yer.  Hor.  iii.  4sr/. 
Lev.  K.  V.  4).  Ilis  name  was  not  permitted  to  fall 
into  oblivion,  and  for  centuries  later  the  name  "Abba 
Judan"  seems  to  have  been  applied  in  Palestine  to 
every  unusually  benevolent  man  (Lev.  R.  I.e. ,  Dent. 
R.  iv.  8).  It  is  thus  the  Jewish  parallel  to  the  name 
Ma-cenas  which  is  still  applied,  two  thousand  years 
after  the  life  of  its  original  bearer,  to  every  great 
patron  of  art.  L.  G. 

ABBA  KOLON  :  A  mj-thical  Roman  mentioned 
in  a  Tahuudic  legend  concerning  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  which,  according  to  the  Haggadah,  was  a  re- 
sult of  the  impious  conduct  of  the  .Jewish  kings. 
According  to  the  legend,  the  first  settlers  of  Rome 
found  that  their  huts  collapsed  as  soon  as  built, 
whereupon  Abba  Kolon  said  to  them,  "L'nlessyou 
mix  water  from  tlie  Euphrates  with  your  mortar, 
nothing  that  you  build  will  stand."  Tlien  he  offered 
to  supply  such  water,  and  for  this  purpose  jovir- 
neyed  through  the  East  as  a  cooper,  and  returned  with 
water  from  the  Euphrates  in  wine-casks.  The  build- 
ers mi.xed  this  water  with  the  mortar  and  built  new 


huts  that  did  not  collapse.  Hence  the  proverb,  "A 
city  without  Abba  Kolon  is  not  worthy  of  the  name." 
The  newly  built  city  was  therefore  called  "Babylo- 
nian Home"  (Can!.  H.  i.  (i). 

Probably  this  legend  was  intended  to  show  the 
dependence  of  the  Roman  empire  u|ion  the  natural 
resources  of  the  East;  but  it  contains  a  number  of 
points  that  still  remain  unexplained.  The  above- 
mentione<l  Roman,  or,  more  projierly,  Greco-Ro- 
man, proverl)  is  .just  as  obscure  as  the  name  "  .Vbba 
Kolon,"  which,  originating  in  some  classic  word,  was 
(listorted  by  the  Jews  into  "a  father  of  a  colony," 
not  without  the  mental  reservation  that  "Kolon"  is 
the  Aramaic  e(|uivalent  of  "shame."  .Vn  attempt 
has  been  nuidi'  to  identify  the  name  with  that  of 
r)eucali(m  (Kraiiss,  "  Lehnwiirter,"  ii.  s.r.).  to  which 
it  bears  no  philological  or  historical  relation.  The 
most  probable  ideiititi<ation  is  that  by  iJrUll.  who 
refers  to  a  legend  in  John  Malalas'  "Chronicles."  |). 
301,  of  a  magician  nanie<l  Ablaccon,  under  the  em- 
peror Tilierius.  This  Ablaccon  protected  the  city 
of  Antioch.  by  the  aid  of  a  rampart  of  stone,  against 
the  ovcrllow  of  the  mountain  streams, 

BlBLiociRAPHT  :  Brull,  lu  Kobak's  Jiw/mniH.  ri.  3;  Krauss, 
(irUchiscly  uuil  I/ateooVr/ic  Lf'hnu'Ctrtfr  im  IVi/HUd/, ete., 
li.  s.v.  Berlin,  1S9S);  VogelstciD  and  Kleger,  Gc«c)i.  d.  Jiuten 
in  i?o;ii,i.  88. 

L.  G. 
ABBA  BEN  MABI.     See  Rabba  ben  Mari. 

ABBA  MABI  BEN  ELIGDOB  (called  also 
Senior  Astruc  de  Noves  or  de  Neg^re,  'IJJ.  Iii.s 
family  name)  :  A  dislinguished  Talmiidist.  an  emi- 
nent philosopher,  and  an  able  physicist  and  astron- 
omer ;  nourished  in  the  fourteenth  century  in  Salon- 
ica.  In  lH'A'y  he  was  already  very  old  (Samuel  of 
JIarseilles.  in  "  ficrivains^Juifs."  p.  .562,  according  to 
which  the  note  in  "Rev.  Et.  Juives,"  ix. .")!),  must  be 
corrected).  Of  the  many  writings  of  Ablia  .Alari, 
who,  according  lo  his  conlemporary,  Isaac  de  Latlcs, 
wrote  commentaries  fin  the  Pentateuch,  Job,  jjiirts 
of  the  Talmud,  and  Pirkc  de-Rabbi  Eliezer,  as 
well  as  works  on  physics,  logic,  and  metajihysics, 
merelj'  fragments  are  extant,  and  these  in  manuscript 
only.  His  commentary  on  Job  is  found  in  sev- 
eral European  libraries;  it  is  not  a  commentary  in 
an  exegetical  or  historical  .sense,  but  is  full  of 
philosophical  disquisitions  upon  the  Bililical  theod- 
icy. The  existence  of  Job  is  doubled  by  Abba 
Mari.  as  by  some  of  the  Talmudic  rabbis  (H.  B. 
ITirt).  He  says  that,  at  any  mte.  the  book  bearing 
his  name  was  not  written  by  .Tob,  as  soiue  authori- 
ties in  the  Talmud  admit,  but  by  Closes,  Job's  four 
friends  represent  in  their  personalities  four  difTerent 
views  of  evil  in  the  world.  Eli|)liaz,  representative 
of  tradition,  denies  altogether  the  nality  of  evil,  in 
agreement  with  Dout.  xxxii.  4.  Bildad.  on  the  other 
hand,  does  not  deny  its  reality,  but  holds,  as  if  he 
had  been  the  loyal  disciple  of  the  old  rabbis  and  Mo- 
tazilites,  that  God  allows  the  just  to  suffer  here  in 
order  to  reward  them  the  more  in  the  f  ut  ure  life.  Zo- 
phar,  too,  considers  evil  a  reality  ;  with  the  Aschar- 
ites,  with  whom  many  rabbis  agree,  he  insists  on 
man's  ignorance  of  the  divine  will,  which  finite  man 
ought  not  to  investigate.  Elihu  is  of  the  same  opin- 
ion as  Eliphaz,  but  with  the  difference  that  what 
Eliphaz  accepts  as  a  matter  of  faith.  Elihu  demon- 
strates philosophically.  It  can  thus  be  seen  that 
Abba  Mari  was  a  loyal  student  of  Maimonides.  and 
that,  like  him.  he  considered  revelation  and  true  phi- 
losophy as  identical.  Whether  a  philo.soidiical  and 
allegorical  commentary  on  the  Song  of  Songs,  in 
manuscript  in  the  Cambridge  and  Oxford  libraries 
and  ascribed   to  him,   is  really   hi.s.  or  should  be 


33 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abba  Huna  ha-Kohen 
Abba  Mali  of  Luuel 


credited  to  Moses  of  Xarbonne.  with  wliom  Abba 
yUivi  is  elsewluTc  tdiifmiiKlcd,  is  iinccrtiiiii.  Tlie 
Siiiiic  <liiiil)l.  Iiolils  ((iiu-ciiiiiii:  llir  llrlircw  tnuishitiiiii 
of  Gazziili's  '■  Ti/udt'ucius  of  I'lnlnsuiilic-r.s,  "  winch  is 
ascrilK'd  to  Ablja  Mali,  but  possibly  also  belongs  to 
the  aforesaid  Moses.  But  there  is  no  reason  for 
Steinschneider's  doubt  coneerninjr  a  Munich  iiiaiiu- 
seripl.  containing  the  introduction  to  tlie  lirst  book 
of  Euclid,  with  the  suiierscriplion.  "Written  by 
Abba  Mari.  philosopher  and  Icaclicr  of  truth":  it 
certainly  belongs  to  otu- Abba  Mari.  and  the  words 
A/i/ui  .lA'c/ are  not  to  be  translated  ".My  Lord  and 
Father."  for  these  two  words  would  othcrwi.se  liave 
their  proper  place  at  the  begiiudiig  and  not  at  tlie 
end  of  the  sentence.  Abba  .Mari  also  wrote  "Hefu- 
tations,"  in  winch  he  assailed  .losi'.i'il  C.\spi's  "  Booli 
of  Secrets."  This  book,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  quotations  fruiu  it  in  other  writers,  has  disap- 
peared. 

Bnu.l00R.»PnY:  Stelnsohnplder,  lUhr.  I'flierx.  p.  iijiH;  ]Iis- 
fo/rt-  hitti-rnirc  dc  Itt  Fnn.ci',  vol.  .xxxi.  lLc»  Eeriraius 
Jiiiftt  fVflMrrti.s),  pp.  .'>4H-;V):i;  (Jrdss,  f»ai/i<I  JwMtcd.  p. 'tS9; 
Idem,  111  lifv.  (:t.  Juircx,  Ix.  5!)  (date  ol  dauRbter's  marriage 
wrongly  given). 

L.  G. 

ABBA  MARI   BEN   ISAAC   OF   ST.   GIL- 

LES  :  Flourished  ab.ml  the  miildle  of  the  twelfth 
century,  and  lived  at  St.  Gilles.  near  Lunel.  in  Lau 
guedoc.  According  to  Henjan-.in  of  Tudela,  who 
visited  the  Jewish  conniiunily  of  that  jilace,  Abba 
^lari  held  the  ollice  of  /miUi  (magistrate)  about  11G5, 
having  been  aiijiointed  by  Kayniond  V.,  who  was 
frienilly  to  the  Jews.  The  inoiiarcli  made  St.  Gilles 
I  he  second  capital  of  his  country.  That  a  Jew  was 
in  those  times  chosen  to  so  high  an  ollice  is  a  fact  of 
some  importance,  as  it  goes  far  to  show  the  jiosilion 
which  the  Jews  occupied  in  southern  France  pre- 
vious to  the  war  with  the  Albigeiises.  The  war 
l«st<'d  until  r229.  Some  scholars  pretend  to  see  in 
this  .Miba  .Mari  the  father  of  I.saac  ben  Abba  JIari, 
the  author  of  the"I(tur."  In  this  work  Isinic  re- 
fers to  his  father  as  a  iirominciit  Talniudist.  from 
which  circumstance  it  is  inferred  thai  Ihe  subject 
id'  Ihis  sketch  was  not  only  a  high  ollieial  but  also  a 
Talmudic  scholar — a  deduction  which  has  been  colli- 
pU'tely  set  aside  by  Gross. 

Biiii.i()(iii.vriiv :  tiraiv!.  Gcwb.  d.  Jtiilcn,  2d  ed.  vl.230:  Renan, 
i,»<  Hahhins  Francain.p.  5S0;  OToas,  Gatlia  Judaica,  pi>. 
372.  t»l. 

L.  O. 

ABBA  MARI  BEN  JOSEPH  IBN  CASPI. 

.^^ee  ( '  \^ri,   .\  e.K\  .M  SKI  r.i  n  .biM  en  ir.N 

ABBA  MARI  BEN  MOSES  BEN  JOSEPH 
DON  ASTRUC  ( En  Astruc )  OF  LUNEL  (( ; met  / 
and  nihir-i  have,  inc  orreelly.  En  Duran):  Leader  of 
Ihe  opposition  to  Ihe  raliniialism  ol  Ihe  .Mainionists  in 

the  Montpellier  <-ontroversy  of  i;i(i;i- 

Defender  of  UiOfi;  born  at  Lunel — hence  his  name. 

Law  and      Yarl.ii  (from   Yeial.i  =  Moon  =  Lune). 

Tradition.    Hi'  was  a  descendant  of  Meshullam 

ben  Jacob  of  Lunel,  one  of  whose  live 
sons  was  Jo.seph,  the  gmndfalherof  .\bba  .Mari,  who, 
like  his  .son  Moses,  I  be  falliir  of  .\bba  Mari,  was 
highly  respected  for  IkiIIi  his  rabbinical  learning  and 
hisgenenderiidilion.  .\bba  .Mali  moved  to  Mont  pel 
lier.  where,  to  his  cliagiin,  he  found  the  sludy  of 
ralibinical  lore  greatly  ncglecled  by  the  young,  who 
devoted  all  of  their  time  and  zeal  to  science  and  phi- 
losophy. The  ralionalislic  method  pursued  by  the 
new  .school  of  Maimonlsls  (including  Levi  ben  .Mini 
ham  ben  Ilayyim  of  Villefriniche,  near  the  town  of 
I'erpignan,  and  Jacob  .\nalolil  especially  provoked 
his  iiidignalioii;  for  the  sermons  preached  and  Ihe 
woiks  publisheil  bv  them  seemed  to  resolve  Ihe  en 
I.-:i 


tire  Scriptures  into  allegory  and  threatened  to  under- 
mine the  Jewish  faith  and  the  observance  of  the  Law 
and  Iradilioii.  He  was  not  without  some  philosoidi- 
ical  Iraiiung.  He  nientioiiseven  with  reverence  the 
name  n(  Maimoni<les,  whose  work  he  jiosscssed  and 
studied:  but  he  was  more  inclined  toward  the  mys- 
ticism of  N'iihmanidcs.  Above  all.  he  wasa  thorough 
believer  in  revelation  and  in  a  divine  providence,  and 
was  a  sincere,  law-observing  follower  of  rabbinical 
Judaism.  He  would  not  allow  Aristotle,"  the  searcher 
after  God  among  the  heathen,"  to  be  ranked  with 
Moses. 

Abiia!Mari  possessed  considerable  Talmudic  knowl- 
edge and  some  poetical  talent :  but  his  zeal  for  the 
Law  made  him  an  agitator  and  a  per.secutor  of  all 
the  advocates  of  liberal  thought.  lieing  himself  with- 
out suliicient  authority,  he  appealed  in  a  number  of 
letters,  afterward  iiublished  under  the  title  of  "Min- 
hal  Kenaol  "  (Jealousy  Olferiiig).  to  Soi.oMox  hex 
Adkkt  of  Barcelona,  the  nmsl  intluential  rabbi  of 
the  lime,  to  use  his  powerful  authority  to  check  the 
source  of  evil  by  hurling  his  analheiiia  against  both 
the  study  of  jihilosophy  and  the  alle- 
Opponent  gorical  i'nterprelations'of  the  Bible, 
of  Ration-  which  did  away  with  all  belief  in  mir- 
alisni.  acles.  Ben  .\dret,  while  reluctant  to 
interfere  in  the  alTairsof  other  congre- 
gations, was  in  perfect  accord  with  .\bba  ]Mari  as  to 
the  danger  of  the  new  rationalistic  systems,  and  ad- 
vised him  to  organize  the  coiiserv:itive  forces  in  de- 
fense of  the  Law.  Abba  Mari,  through  Ben  .Vdrct's 
aid,  obtained  allies  eager  to  take  up  his  caii.se.  among 
whom  were  Don  Bonafoux  Vidal  of  Barcelona  and 
his  brother,  Don  Crescas  Vidal,  then  in  I'erpignan. 
The  proposition  of  the  latter  to  prohibit,  under  pen- 
alty of  excommunication,  the  study  of  philosophy 
and  any  of  the  sciences  exce|it  medicine,  by  one  un- 
der thirty  years  of  age,  met  with  thea|ii)rovalof  Ben 
.Vdret.  Accordingly.  Ben  Adrct  adilressed  to  the 
congregation  of  .Moiitpelli<T  a  letter,  signed  by  fif- 
teen other  rabbis,  iirojiosing  to  issue  a  decree  pro- 
nouncing the  anathema  against  all  those  who  should 
pursue  the  study  of  pliijosophy  and  science  before 
due  niatnrily  in  agi'  and  in  rabliinical  knowledge. 
On  a  Sabbath  in  September,  i:i(l4.  the  letter  was  to 
be  read  before  the  congregation,  when  Jacob  ilal.iir 
Don  I'rotiat  Tibbon,  the  I'eiiowned  astronomical  and 
rnathem.ilieal  writer,  entered  his  protest  against  such 
unlawful  interference  by  the  Barcelona  rabbis,  and  a 
schism  ensued.  Tweiity-eiglil  members  signed  Abba 
Mari's  letter  of  approval :  the  others,  under  Tibbon's 
leadersliiii,  addressed  another  letlir  to  Ben  Adret, 
rebuking  him  and  his  colleagues  for  condemning  a 
whole  community  without  knowledge  of  the  local 
conditions.  Finally,  Ihe  agitation  for  and  against 
the  liberal  ideas  broughl  about  a  schism  in  the  entire 
Jewish  jiopulation  in  southern  France  and  Sjiaiu. 

Encouraged,  however,  by  letters  signed  by  the 
rabbis  of  .Vrgentiere  and  I-iinel.  and  particularly  by 
the  sup])ort  of  Kalonymus  ben  Todros,  the  nasi 
of  Narbonne,  and  of  the  eminent  Talniudist  .Vsheri 
of  Toledo,  Ben  .Vdret  issued  a  decree,  signed  by 
lliirty  three  rabbis  of  Barcelona,  excommnnicaling 
those  who  should,  within  Ihe  next  lifly  yiars.  study 
physics  or  metaphysics  before  their  thirtieth  year 
of  age  (basing  his  action  on  Ihe  jirinciple  laid  down 
by  iSlaimonidis.  "^loreh,"  i.  34),  and  had  Ihi-  order 
promulgated  in  Ihe  synagogue  on  Sabbath,  July  20, 
I'.W't.  When  this  heresy  decree,  to  be  made  elTeel- 
ive,  was  forwarded  to  other  congregations  for  ap- 
proval, Ihe  friiiids  of  libenil  Ihonghl.  under  the 
ieadirship  of  the  Tibbonites.  issued  a  counter  ban, 
and  the  conlliel  llirealeiied  to  assume  a  serious  char- 
acter, as  blind  party  zeal  (this  lime  on  the  libeml 


^bba  Mai'i  of  Lunel 
Abba  bar  Zebina 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


34 


sitU')  (lid  not  shrink  from  asking  the  civil  powt-rs  to 
inliTVcni'.  HmI  an  iinlookcill'or  calaMiily  brouglil 
till-  warfari-  to  an  end.  Tlic  expulsion  of  tlio  Jews 
from  Fnuue  by  Philip  IV.  ("the  Fair"),  in  lIUMi. 
caused  the  Jews  of  Monlpellier  to  take  refuu't'.  partly 
in  Provenee.  partly  in  INrpijrnan  and  jiartly  in  Ma- 
jorca. Consei|nently.  .Vliha  Mari  removed  lirst  to 
Aries,  and. within  the  sameyear.  to  Perpiirnan.  where 
he  finally  settled  and  disjippeared  from  pid)lie  view. 
There  he  piihlished  his  correspoudeucc  with  Uen  Ad- 
ret  and  his  colleajrues.  K. 

Abba  Mari  collected  the  correspondence  and  ad- 
ded to  each  letter  a  few  explanatory  notes.  Of  this 
collection,  calli'il  "Minl.iat  Keiiaot," 
His  Works,  there  are  sevi-ral  mannseiipt  copies 
extant ;  nanielv.  at  Oxford  (Neiibaucr. 
"Cat.  Bodl.  Ilclir.  MSS.",  >'(k'21s->an(U'221);  Paris, 
Bibl.  Nat.  No.  !l7(i;  (iiinzburs  l.ibr..  St.  Petersburfr; 
Parma:  Hanispite  Monteliore  Collesre  Library  (for- 
merly Halberstam,  No.  192);  and  Turin.  Some  of 
these  (Oxford,  No.  •■ii'i\.  and  Paris,  IJibl.  Nut.)  are 
mere  fragments.  The  |)rinled  edition  (Presburj;. 
18:3S).  prepared  by  M.  L.  Hislichis,  contains:  (1) 
Preface:  (~)a  treatise  of  eiirhti'cn  chajiters  on  the  in- 
oorporeality  of  God  :  (J^)  correspondence ;  (4)  a  treatise, 
called  "Sefer  ha-Yarhi."  included  also  in  letter  58; 
(."))  a  defense  of  "The  Guide  "  and  its  author  by  Sliem- 
Tob  Pal<iuera  (Gratz,  "Gesch.  d.  Judeu."  v"ii.  173). 
As  the  three  cardinal  doctrines  of  Judaism.  Al)ba 
JIari  accent  nates:  ( 1 )  That  of  the  recofrnition  of  God's 
existence  and  of  llis  absolute  sovereiiinly,  eternity, 
unity,  and  incorporeality,  as  taujrht  in  revelaticm,  os- 
])ei-i;illy  in  the  Decalotruc;  (0)  that  of  the  world's  crea- 
tion by  Ilimout  of  nothing,  as  evidenced  particularly 
by  the  Sabbath ;  (:i)  that  of  the  special  jirovidence  of 
God,  as  manifested  in  the  Biblical  miracles.  In  the 
preface.  Abba  Mari  explains  his  object  in  collectinj; 
the  correspondence;  and  in  the  treatise  which  follows 
he  shows  that  the  study  of  philosojihy.  useful  in 
itself  as  a  help  toward  the  acquisition  of  the  knowl- 
cdire  of  God.  r<'i|ujrcs  sireat  caution,  lest  we  be  mis- 
led by  the  Aristotelian  i)hilosoph_v  or  its  false  inter- 
]iretation,  as  rejfanls  the  ])rinciplesof  nrntio  cr  iiihilo 
and  divine  individual  providence,  Jl'D'lS  iinJCn. 
The  maiHiscripIs  include  twelve  letters  which  are  not 
includeil  in  the  jirinted  edition  of  "Minhat  Keiiaot." 
The  corres])onilence  refers  mainly  to  the  iiroposed 
restriction  of  the  sttnly  of  the  Aristotelian  jihilosn- 
]ihy.  Casually,  other  theoloiiical  tiueslions  are  <lis- 
cussed.  Kor  example,  letters  Nos.  1.  Ti.  S  contain  a 
discussion  on  the  question,  whether  the  use  of  a 
piece  of  metal  with  the  figure  of  a  lion,  as  a  talis- 
man, is  permitted  by  Jewish  law  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses, or  is  prohibited  as  idolatrous. 
Contents  of  In  letter  No.  131.  Abba  Mari  mourns 
the  Minhat  the  death  of  Ben  Adret.  and  in  letter 
Kenaot.  No.  132  he  sends  words  of  sympathy 
to  the  congregation  of  Perpignan.  on 
the  death  of  Don  Solomon  Vidal  and  Hal)bi  Me- 
shullam.  Letter  33  contains  the  statement  of  Abba 
Mari  that  two  letters  which  he  desired  to  insert 
could  not  be  discovered  by  him.  MS.  Ramsgate.  No. 
5','.  has  the  s;ime  statement,  but  also  the  two  letters 
missing  in  the  jn-inted  copies.  In  the  "Sefer  ha- 
Yarhi  ''  Abba  Mari  refers  to  the  great  caution  shown 
by  tiie  rabbis  of  old  as  regards  the  teaching  of  the 
mysteries  of  philosophy,  and  reconunended  by  men 
like  the  Hai  (Jaoii.  ^laiinnnides.  and  Kiml.u.  A  re- 
sponsuni  of  .\bba  Mari  on  a  ritual  question  is  con- 
tained in  MS.  Kamsgate.  No.  136 ;  and  Zunz  ("  Litera- 
tnrgesfh.  der  Synag.  Poesie  der  Juden,"  p.  498) 
mentions  a  kimih  composed  by  Abba  JIari. 

The  "jMinhat  Kenaot"  is  instructive  reading  for 
the  historian  because  it  throws  much  light  upon  the 


deeper  |)roblems  which  agitated  Judaism,  the  ques- 
tion of  the  relation  of  religion  to  the  philosophy  of 
the  age.  which  neither  the  zeal  of  the  fanatic  nor 
the  bold  attitude  of  the  libenil-minded  couUI  solve 
in  any  fixed  dogmatic  form  or  by  any  anathema,  as 
the  indei>endent  spirit  of  the  congregations  refusi-d 
to  accord  to  the  nibbis  the  power  jiossessed  by  the 
Church  of  dictating  to  the  jieoplc  what  they  shoidd 
believe  or  respect.  At  the  close  of  the  work  are  ad- 
ded several  eidogies  written  by  Abba  Mari  on  Ben 
Adret  (who  died  13101.  an<l  on  Don  Vidal.  Solomon 
of  Perpignan.  and  Don  Bonet  Crescus  of  Lunel. 

BiKLiouiiArnv:  (ieiger.  Zii(.  f))r  JIUUmIii-  TlirnUnjir,  v.  R2; 
Zmiz,  Z.  ff.  p.  4ii  ;  Ilenau. /jO  litthlnns  Franritin,  pp.  <U7- 
illl.'i;  (iroas,  (iitUin  Jiulairii,  pp.  2s<i,  :!:il.  4ilii;  lilein.  In  liny 
lit.  Juivi.1,  1SS2,  pp.  lft3-207:  I'erles.  Sahniui  hrli  .ilimlidin 
tint  Adereih  uiul  Kfiue  Schriftiii^  pp.  J')-;)-l;  (inlt/,  (U'ltt'li. 
(Icr  Juden,  111.  27-50,  Brcslau.  isiSJ. 

M,  F.— K. 

ABBA  B.  MARTHA  (identical  wilh  ABBA  B. 
MINYOMI,  an. I  Generally  (pioled  wilh  1m, III  .-ipp.'l- 
laiions;  \irv  ranlv  as  Abba  b.  Martha  alone,  or 
Abba  b.  Minyonii  alone:  Bizah,  2->.' ;  (lit.  v!!»/.)  :  A 
Babyloidan  scholar  of  the  end  of  the  third  century 
ami  beginning  of  the  fourth.  He  seems  to  have  Ixcn 
in  i)oor  circumstances.  Once  he  inciuTed  a  debt  to 
the  n«/i  (/nliit,!  (exilarchl.  which  he  could  not  rejiay. 
and  only  by  disguising  himself  did  he  at  the  time 
escape  arrest  for  it  (Yeb.  12(J(().  Later  he  was 
apprehended  and  sorely  pressed  for  ])ayment;  Imt 
when  the  exilarch  discovered  that  his  debtor  was 
a  rabbinical  scholar,  he  released  him  (Shab.  121/<). 
Ilis  mother.  Jlartha.  seems  to  have  been  in  easy  cir- 
cumstances: for.  ■when  Aliba  was  bitten  by  a  rabid 
dog  and,  in  accordance  wilh  conleniiiorary  thera- 
peutics, was  obliged  to  drink  through  a  tube  of 
copper  (compare  Brecher,  "  Das  Traiiseendentale  iin 
Talmud."  p.  219.  note).  .Martha  substituted  one  of 
gold  (Yoma.  84").  Notwithstanding  his  peciuiiary 
straits.  Abba  did  not  take  adv.-mtage  of  the  Biblical 
and  Talinudic  law  (^lishnah.  .Sheb.  x.  1).  according 
to  which  the  Sabbatical  year  cancels  all  debts.  He 
once  owed  some  money  to  rjabbah.  and  paid  it  in 
the  vear  of  release,  usinsr  the  form  of  a  donation 
(Git."  37//).  '  S.  M. 

ABBA  BAR  MEMEL :  A  Palestinian  amora, 
who  lived  toward  the  end  of  the  third  century. 
He  belonged  to  the  circle  of  .Vmmi  at  Tiberias, 
and  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  a  great  halakist. 
In  three  proiiositions  he  limited  and  reiiden'd  |)rac- 
tically  harmless  the  application  of  the  Gezemh 
Shawah.  the  second  of  the  thirteen  hermeneutic  rules 
<if  R.  Ismael.  which  otherwise  might  easily  have 
led  to  arbitrary  ritual  decisions  (Yer.  Pes.  vi.  33rt). 
llis  proposed  reforms  were  never  carried  into  prac- 
tise, no  other  amora  having  joined  him  to  form 
a  valid  legislative  body  (Yer.  M.  K.  ii.  81i).  Among 
his  haggadic  pa.ssages  the  most  significant  is  one  on 
the  names  of  God  (Ex.  R.  iii.); 

"God  spake  to  Moses :  *Ttioudeslrest  tokni)\v  Mv  name.  I  AM 
TH.^T  I  .\M  iKx.  Mi.  141.  Tliat  is,  I  am  calleil  aci-orrtInK  to  my 
revealed  activities.  When  I  am  jud^injr  iminkiiiil.  I  am  calUnl 
Ehthiiii;  when  I  am  going  out  tii  war  airainst  the  wi.-ked.  1 
am  called  Zthaiit :  when  I  am  holding  Judgment  in  suspense 
over  the  sins  of  men,  I  am  called  El  Shntlihii;  when  showing 
mercy  to  the  world.  I  am  called  VHWH.  because  this  name  de- 
notes the  qualitv  of  mercv  in  God'  (Ex.  xxxiv.  G)" 

■\V.  B. 

ABBA  NASIA  (K-e'J).  JOSEPH  :  Chief  justice 
in  Majorca.  14115;  died.  1439. 

UiRLiot;R.\PHV  :  Zunz.  Zur  Gesch.  utiil  Literaliir.  p.  .517. 

G. 

ABBA  BAR  PAPPAI  (or  PAPA):  A  Pales 
tinian  amora.  of  the  fourth  century  wdio  died  37.5. 
As  the  second  link  in  the  transmission  bv  tradition  of 


35 


THE  JKWISII    EXCVCI.OPEDIA 


Abba  Mali  of  Lunel 
Abba  bar  Zebiua 


Levi's  Imggadic  sayings,  he  is  generally  mentioned 
toircthcr  with  Josliim  nf  i^ikiiin.  who  was  the  lirst 
liiilv  (Yer.  U<t.  iv.  7//;  Vcr.  Hik.  ii.  (i4r;  Yit.  Yonui, 
iv.  41i).  He  adilicsscd  halakic  (lucstioiis  to  Jose 
and  JIani  the  son  of  Jonah,  who  in  turn  jdaced 
halakic  problems  hefore  him  (Yer.  Shub.  iii.  5(/). 
BiHiriKiitAiMiv  :  Iiuchfi-.  -ly.  I'cil.  Amor.UU  (150,651 :  Frankel. 

■"""■•  ■••■^'-  w.  n. 

ABBA  SAKKARA  (m  SI?:RA *) :  liisurnc- 
tionarv  Icudii-;  liMil  in  I  he  lir^t  cciilury  in  Palestine. 
Aei-orilins  to  Tahiuidic  aeeouiils  ((iil.  Ma),  lie  took 
a  very  prominent  part  in  the  u|)risiiig  against  Koine 
in  71),'  being  then  at  tlie  head  of  the  Zealots  at  Jem- 
.sidem.  He  was  the  nephew  of  Joliainm  ben  Zakkai, 
sit  that  lime  leader  of  the  Peaee  iiarty.  After  the 
Zealots  had  destroyed  ali  storehouses,  thus  causing  a 
famine  in  the  besieged  city,  Johanan  ln'ii  Zakkai  in- 
vited Abba  loan  interview  and  askeilhim:  "Why 
do  yon  act  in  such  a  manner?  Will  von  kill  lis  by 
fainine?"  Abl)a  replied:  "  What  sliall  I  doV  If  I 
tell  them  anvthiiig  of  the  kind,  they  will  slay  me." 
Thei-enpon  Jcjhanan  said  to  him;  "Try  and  invent 
for  me  some  possibility  of  escapi'  so  that  I  may 
be  able  to  save somethiiig out  of  th<> general  wreck." 
Abba  complied  with  the  re(|nest;  ami  the  Talmud 
gives  a  full  aicount  of  the  device  by  which  he  en- 
abled his  uncle  to  lice  to  the  Romans. 

The  historical  character  of  this  account  is  not 
beyond  doubt,  ami  it  is  especially  surprising  that 
Josephus  knows  nothing  of  Abba  as  leader  of  the 
Zealots.  The  fact  that  Josephus  does  not  mention 
him.  can  not.  howevir.  be  aicepted  as  a  suUicient 
proof  against  the  Talmudic  account,  for  he  ignores 
also  .loliiinan  ben  Zakkai.  one  of  the  most  imjiortant 
and  iiillueiitial  men  at  the  time  of  the  dest ruction  of 
the  Si-eoud  Temple.  Purely  personal  motives  may 
have  actuated  the  vainglorious  historian  to  ignore 
both  unile  and  nephew.  There  exists,  however,  a 
iMidrash  which  tends  lo  show  that  there  is  at  least 
a  gniin  of  truth  in  his  account.  In  Keel.  I{.  vii. 
11  it  is  ri'lated:  "Tliere  was  at  Jerusalem  a  certain 
Hen  Batiah.  a  nephew  of  Johanan  ben  Zakkai.  who 
was  in  charge  of  the  storehouses,  which  he  destroyed 
by  tire  "  (see  also  Kelini.  wii.  12;  To.si'f.,  Kelim,  vii. 
2,"  and  the  article  IJi;n  Hatim.i). 

This  account  is  i|uite  in<lependenf  of  that  in  the 
Talmud,  since  they  differ  not  only  with  regard  to 
the  names,  but  also  materially ;  for,  whereas  the  Tal- 
mudic account  slates  that  Johanan  escaped  from 
Jerusalem  by  the  aid  of  his  nephew,  it  is  related  in 
the  .Midrash  llmt  he  barely  escaped  death  at  the 
hands  of  his  nephew.  It  iniL'hl.  therefore,  be  as- 
sunierl  that  there  existed  a  third  and  older  source 
from  which  both  the  Talmudic  and  inidrashic  ac- 
counts were  derivid.  and  also  that  the  tnidili(ais 
thus  handed  down  undirwent  some  change  in  the 
course  of  transmission. 

Bini.I0C.R.»rilY  :  Hntmixirt, 'A'.'niL   ^rilUn.  pp.  l-L",  i'lT;  Deren- 

iHMirK,  A;.i.h<i(,  p.  'Xi;   Liim.lt I.   IIiiIkt.  \>.m.     .Ml  three 

hold  tlint  ".\liliii  Siiklsiini"  et  the  Itnh.  'J'nliinnl  l.i  a  imI»- 
lnt<Ti>rcIntliin  ot  llie' I'lilestliiliin  ■"Hiwh  KIsrIn  "  er  "llesli 
SIkrIn  "  (Hi'iid  <•(  the  Sliarlli.  Iliil  .\hhu  <«n  net  lie  nat-il  In 
thl»  sense  In  .Vninmh-.  lleslcle!i,  the  ;i<il<.  7>ilmti'ni.self  ren- 
ders "Idwii  slkrln"  with  "  lte>li  Ilaryone." 

L.  O. 


ABBA  SAUL  BEN  BOTNIT. 

u    Itorsri. 


SeeSAL'i.,  Aitin 


•  with  n-imrd  ti>  the  npiM'lliilten  Siiklfiini.  wlileli  ineiins  "the 
dvcr,"  II  iMiiv  he  riMiiiirked  that  IhhIi  the  llptt  ninimi  and  Ilu' 
IlenvenlsteiHlltleiiciflhi'l'idiniidlmveiliewonlwIilieui  '  o/.«li, 
wideh  MeeiiiK  In  fiirhid  the  n^adliiif  "sikni  "  anil  the  <'<>niii'<'llni; 
<if  tlds  name  with  the  n'Vehilliinary  jiart.v  name  of  the  Slearll 

(MVSKAlllll, 


ABBA  SAUL.     See  S.\rL,  Abi!.\. 

ABBA  OF  SIDON  :  A  Palestinian  amora  of  the 
latter  inirt  of  the  ihiid  century  or  the  early  part  of 
the  fourth.  He  is  mentioned  only  once,  as  a  trans- 
mitter of  a  haggadic  saying  of  Samuel  b.  Nahman 
(Midr.  Sam,  xxiii. ;  Eecl.  K.  vii.  1). 

^v.  B. 

ABBA  THE  SURGEON  (UMANA) :  Men- 
tioned in  th('  Talmud  as  an  e.\am|)le  of  genuine 
Jewish  piety  and  benevolence  (Ta'anit.  214  et  seq.). 
Altliough  di'pendeni  upon  his  earnings,  he  was  so 
unselfish  and  considc'rate  lliat.  in  order  to  avoid  eni- 
l)arrassing  the  pocn-  among  his  patients,  he  would 
never  accept  jiay  directly  from  any  one,  but  instead 
attached  to  a  certain  part  of  his  house  a  box  in  which 
each  might  ]dace  what  he  ])leased.  Abba's  confi- 
dence in  humanity  was  once  tested  by  two  young 
disciples  in  a  remarkable  manner.  Having  lodged 
with  him  one  night,  in  the  morning  they  took  the 
mattres.ses  upon  whiili  tiiey  had  slept  and  ottered 
tliein  to  him  for  sale  at  his  own  ]n-ice.  He  recog- 
nized his  own  ]n'operty.  but.  rather  than  abash  the 
young  men  by  reclaiming  it.  he  excused  their  pe- 
culiar conduct  in  his  mind  on  the  i)lea  that  thej' 
certainly  must  need  the  money  f'U'  a  benevolent 
object.  "  ^Vhen  the  joke  was  explained  to  him,  he 
refused  to  taki>  back  the  amount  paid,  on  the  ground 
that,  in  his  heart,  he  had  iledicated  it  lo  a  charita- 
ble purpose.  Of  Abba  the  legend  is  told  (Talmud, 
I.I-.)  that  he  daily  received  greetings  from  heaven, 
whereas  Abaye,  '28()-:j;J9,  the  greatest  Talmudic  au- 
thority of  that  age,  was  deemed  worthy  of  divine 
notice  once  a  week  (Uilv. 

L.  G. 

ABBA  (BA)  BAR   ZABDAI :     A    Palestinian 

aninra.  who  llmni^hed  in  llie  third  century.  He 
studied  in  IJalivloiiia.  attending  the  lectures  of  Hab 
and  Iluna.  ami  subsec|Uenlly  settled  at  Tiberias, 
where  he  occupied  a  res]iected  position  by  the  side 
of  Ainmi  and  Assi.  Jlention  is  made  of  his  custom 
of  saying  his  prayers  in  a  loud  voice  (Y'er.  Ber. 
iv,  lii).  Of  his  haggadic  productions  there  exist-S. 
among  others,  a  sermon  for  a  public  fast-day,  on 
T,ani.  iii.  41  (Yer.  Ta'anit.  ii.  li'ui),  from  whii  h  the 
following  may  be  iincded:  "  Is  it.  then,  possilile  to 
'lift  u]!  (Uir  heart  with  our  hands'"^  This  verse  is 
intended  to  advise  us  'to  put  our  heart  —  our  bad 
inclinations  —  in  our  hands.'  jn  order  to  remove 
them,  and  then  to  turn  to  God  in  heaven.  As  long 
as  a  man  holds  an  unclean  reiitile  in  his  hand,  he 
may  bathe  in  all  the  waters  of  creation,  but  he  can 
not  become  clean;  let  him  throw  it  away  and  he  is 
purified." 

BIin.iooRAPnY  :  Baoher,  .ly.  Piil.  .liiior.  ill.  HXi,  lii'i :  Frankel, 
Miliii.  pp.  (Vlii.liT. 

w.n. 

ABBA  BAR  ZEBINA  (or  ZEMINA):  A  Pales- 
tinian .■inn  ira  i  it  i  lie  Inuri  h  i  in  iur>  .  Ilr  was  a  pupil 
of  K.  Zeiia,  in  whose  name  he  transmilled  many  say- 
ings. He  was  employed  in  Hmue  as  a  tailor  in  thi- 
house  of  a  Genfih'  who.  under  the  thnal  of  death, 
tried  to  force  him  to  bnak  \hr  dietary  laws.  Abba, 
however,  steadfastly  refused  to  yield  lo  this,  and 
showed  so  much  cminige  that  tiie  Hoinan  admir- 
inirl.v  exclaimeil:  "If  you  had  eaten,  I  slnuild  have 
killed  you.  If  vou  beii  Jew,  be  a  Jew;  if  a  heathen, 
a  heatheni  "  (Ver.  Sheb.  iv.  '.iTui  ,1  nrq.). 

Tanhunia  b.  .\bba  relates  another  anecdote  con- 
cerning a  pious  tidlor  at  Honu'  (Gen.  I{.  xi.).  who 
bought  the  most  expensive  lish;  this  anecdide  may 


Abbahu 
Abbas,  Judah 


THE  JKWISII  ENCYCLUPEDIA 


36 


refer  to  our  Ablm  bar  Zebinii  (Imt  see  Slial).  Il9ii, 
where  the  same  story  is  tokl  of  Joseph,  "the  reverer 
of  the  Siibbiith"). 

BinLiixiRAPiiY:  lliii'ber,  Ag.  Pal.  Ami)r.iU.6'>l,(S2 ;  Frankel, 
AIcImi,  pp.  3tki,  57.  ^y     jj 

ABBAHTJ :  A  celebraleil  Paleslinian  aiiiora  of 
the  Iliinl  ariKiraic  neiieratioii  (about  2T!l-;)2(l).  some- 
tiiiiis  (iteil  as  K.  .Vbtiahu  of  Ca'siirea  (Kisriii).  His 
rabbiiiie  ediieatioii  was  aeijuiied  mainly  at  Tilierias, 
in  tlie  aeaileniy  luesiiled  over  by  K.  .bihanan,  uitli 
whom  his  relations  were  almost  those  of  a  .son  (Yer. 
lier.  ii.  Alt;  (iit.  4V>:  15.  H.  ;ji)<0 .  He  fre(iuently 
made  pilj^rimaf^es  to  Tiberias,  even  after  he  hail  be- 
come well  known  asrectorof  the  t'iesiirean  Academy 
(Yer.  Shab.  viii.  11'/;  Yer.  Pes.  .\.  3Tc).  He  wa"s 
an  authority  on  weiffhts  and  measures  (Yer.  Ter.  v. 
4'.)r) .     He  iearneil  Cireek  in  order  to  lieeome  useful 

to   his   jieoide.  then  under  the  Homan 

Knowledge   proconsuls,  that  lanjiuage  having  be- 

of  Greek      come,   to  a   considerable  extent,   the 

Literature,   lival   of  the  Hebrew  even  in  (irayer 

(Yer.  Sotali.  vii.  il/i);  and.  in  spite  of 
the  bitter  protest  of  Simon  b.  Abba.  ln^  also  tau.irht 
his  daughters  Greek  (Yer.  Sliat).  vi,  7'';  Yer.  Sotali. 
i.\.  24c;  Sanh.  \4ii).  Indeed,  it  was  saiil  of  Abbahu 
that  he  was  a  living  illustration  of  the  maxim  (Ecel. 
vii.  18;  comiiare  Targum),  "It  is  good  that  thou 
shouldest  take  liold  of  this  [the  study  of  the  Law]  ; 
yea.  also  from  that  [other  branches  of  knowledge] 
withdraw  not  thine  hand  :  for  he  that  feareth  God 
shall  come  forth  of  them  all"  (Eccl.  K.  to  vii.  IS), 
lieing  wise,  handsome,  and  wealth}'  (B.  M.  84r( ; 
Y'er.  15.  'SI.  iv.  Ud).  Abbahu  became  not  only  pop- 
idarwitli  his  coreligionists,  but  also  inlluential  with 
the  jiroeonsular  government  (Hag.  14";  Ket.  IT"). 
On  one  occasion,  when  his  senior  colleag\ies.  Hiyya 
b.  Abba,  Anuui,  and  Assi,  liad  jiunished  a  certain 
woman,  and  feared  the  wrath  of  the  proconsul,  Ab- 
bahu was  deputed  to  intercede  for  them.  He  liad. 
however,  anticipated  the  rabbis'  rec{uest,  and  wrote 
them  tliat  he  had  appeased  the  informers  but  not 
the  accuser.  The  witty  enigmatic  letter  describing 
this  incident,  preserved  in  the  Talnuid  (Yer.  Meg. 
iii.  74").  is  in  the  main  inire  Hebrew,  and  even  in- 
cludes Hebrew  translations  of  Greek  iirojier  names, 
to  avoid  the  danger  of  possible  exposure  should  the 
letter  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  enemies  and 
informers  (compare  'Er.  .534).     After  his  ordination 

he  declined  a  teacher's  ])osition,  ree- 
Rector  in  onimemling  in  his  stead  a  more  needy 
Ceesarea.      friend.  H.   Abba  of   Acre  (Acco).   as 

worthier  than  liimself  (Sotah,  40"). 
He  thereby  illustrated  his  own  doctrine  tiiat  it  is  a 
divine  virtue  to  sympathize  with  a  friend  in  his 
troubles  as  well  as  to  jiartake  of  his  joys  (Tan., 
Wa-yesheb,  cd.  Buber,  10).  Later  he  a.ssumed  the 
office  of  rector  in  C'a'sarca,  the  former  seat  of  R. 
Hoshnya  I.,  and  established  himself  at  the  so-called 
Kenishia  3Iaradtn  (Insurrectionary  Synagogue ;  Y'cr. 
Xaz.  vii.  .")(!";  Y'cr.  Sauh.  i.  18";  compare  Jose- 
phus.  "15.  J."  ii.  14,  §  .-);  Jaslrow,  "Diet."  p.  838), 
whence  some  of  the  most  jirominent  teachers  of  the 
ne.xt  generation  issued.  He  did  not,  however,  con- 
fine his  activity  to  Ca-Siuea,  where  he  originated 
several  ritualistic  rules  (Yer.  Dcni.  ii.  23".  K.  H.  34"). 
one  of  which — that  regulating  the  soiuiding  of  the 
s/infnr — has  since  been  luiiversjilly  adojiti'd,  and  is 
referred  to  by  medieval. lewish  casuistsas  "Takkanal 
K.  Abbahu"  (the  Enactment  of  I{.  Abtiahu;  com- 
pare "JIahazor  Vitry."  Berlin.  1893.  p.  3.').")).  He 
also  visited  and  taught  in  many  other  Jewish  towns 
(Yer.  Ber.  viii.  12"rY'er.  Shab.  iii.  .V). 
^Vhile  on   these  journeys,    Abbahu   gathered   so 


many  Halakot  that  scholars  turned  to  him  for  in- 
fonualion  oji  mooted  ipiestions  (Yer.  Shab.  viii.  11</; 
Y'er.  Y'eb.  i.  2</).  In  the  course  of  these  tnivels 
lie  made  a  point  of  complying  with  all  local  eiiaet- 
inenls,  even  where  such  com|>liance  laid  him  open  to 
the  charge  of  iuconsisleiicy  (Yer.  Ber.  viii.  12";  Yer. 
i5eznli,  i.  (iUi/).  On  the  other  hand,  where  (irciim- 
stanees  ret|uired  it.  he  did  not  spareeven  tiie  jirinces 
of  his  people  (Yer.  "Ab.  Zarali,  i.  3!(//).  Where,  how- 
ever, tile  rigorous  exposition  of  laws  worked  hard- 
ship on  the  masses,  he  did  not  scruple  to  luodily  the 
decisions  of  his  colleagues  for  the  benefit  of  the 
comniunity  (Shab.  134A;  Y'er.  Shab.  xvii.  1(W;  Yer.  .M. 
K.  i.  804).  As  for  himself,  he  was  very  strict  in  the 
observance  of  the  laws.  On  one  occasion  he  ordered 
some  Samaritan  wine,  but  subsequent  ly  learning  that 
there  were  no  longer  any  strict  observers  of  tlieiliet- 
ary  hiws  among  th<'  Samaritans,  with  the  assistance 
of  his  colleagues.  Hiyya  b.  Abba,  Aninii,  and  Assi, 
he  investigated  the  report,  and,  ascertaining  it  to  be 
well  founded,  did  not  hesitate  to  declare  the  Samar- 
itans, for  all  ritualistic  ]nirposes.  Gentiles  (Yer.  Ab. 
Zarah,  v.  44-/;  I.Iul.  G"). 

R.  Abbahu's  chief  characteristic  seems  to  have 
been  modesty.  While  lecturing  in  different  towns, 
he  met  R.  Hiyya  b.  Ablja.  who  was  lecturing  on  in- 
tricate halakie  themes.  As  Abbahu  delivered  i)opu- 
lar  sermons,  the  masses  naturally  crowded  to  hear 
him.  and  deserted  the  halakist.  At  this  ajijiarent 
slight,  R.  Hiyya  manifested  chagrin,  and  R,  Abbahu 
hastened  to  comfort  him  by  comparing 

Abbahu  liimself  to  the  pedlerof  glilleringtiner- 
and  Hiyya   ieslhat  always  attracted  the  eyes  of  the 

b.  Abba,  masses,  while  his  rival  was  a  trailer  in 
precious  stones,  the  virtues  and  values 
of  which  were  appreciated  only  by  the  connoisseur. 
This  speech  not  having  the  desired  elTcct,  R.  Abbahu 
showed  special  respect  for  his  slighted  colleague 
by  following  him  for  the  remainder  of  that  day. 
"  What."  said  Abbahu.  "is  my  modesty  as  compared 
with  that  of  R.  Abba  of  .\cre  (.\cco).  who  does  not 
even  remonstrate  with  his  interpreter  for  interpolat- 
ing his  own  comments  in  the  lecturer's  ex  posit  ions." 
When  his  wife  reported  to  him  that  his  interiireler's 
wife  had  boasted  of  her  own  husband's  greatness. 
R.  .Vbbahu  simply  said,  "AVIiat  difference  does  it 
make  which  of  us  is  really  the  greater,  so  long  as 
through  both  of  us  heaven  is  glorilled  ■:■  "  (Sotah,  41)"). 
His  principle  of  life  he  expressed  in  the  maxim,  "  Let 
man  ever  be  of  the  persecuted,  and  not  of  the  perse- 
cutors; forlhere  are  none  among  the  birds  more  jier- 
secuted  than  turtle-dovesand  pigeons.and  the  Script- 
uresdeclarc  them  worthy  of  the  altar"  (B.  K.  il3"). 

R.  Alibahu.  though  eminent  as  a  halakist.  was  more 
distinguished  as  a  haggadist  and  controversialist.  He 
had  manv  interesting  disputes  with  the  Christians 
of  his  day  (Shab.  l.")24;  Sanli.  39";  •All.  Zarah,  4"). 
Sometimes  these  disputes  were  of  a  jocular  nature. 
Thus,  a  heretic  bearing  the  name  of  Sasoii  (  =  Joy) 
once  remarked  to  him.  "  In  the  next  world  your  jieople 
will  have  to  draw  water  for  me;  for  thus  il  is  wril- 
ten  in  the  Bible  (Isa.  xii.  3),  'With  jov  .shall  ve  draw 
water.'"  To  this  R.  Abbahu  replied.""  Had  the  liible 
said  '  for  joy  '  [h-.id/xin].  it  would  mean  as  thou  say- 
est;  but  since  it  says  '  with  joy  '  [he-miKDn].  it  means 
that  we  shall  make  bottles  of  thy  hide  and  fill 
them  with  wster"  (Suk.  48^y).  These  controver- 
sies, though  forced  on  him.  provoked  resentment; 
and  it  is  even  related  that  his  jiliysician.  Jacob  the 
Scliisniatie(.l/'/«""/(),  was  slowly  poisoning  him.  but 
R.  Aninii  and  R.  Assi  discovered  the  crime  in  time 
(•Ab  Zarah.  28<0. 

Abbahu  liad  two  sons,  Zeira  and  Hanina.  Some 
writers  ascribe  to  him  a  third  son,  Abimi  (Bacher, 


37 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Abbahu 
Abbas,  Judah 


"Ag.  Pal.  Amor.").  Abbiihu  .sfiit  Haiiinu  to  the 
academy  at  Tiberias,  wliere  lie  liiiiiself  had  stuilied; 
but  the  lad  oeeupicd  himself  with  the  burial  nf  the 
dead,  and  on  hearing  ot  this,  the  father  sent  him  a 
reproaehful  message  in  this  laeonie  style:  "Is  it  be- 
cause there  are  no  graves  in  (';esirea  (cnmiiare  E.\. 
xiv.  11)  that  I  have  svu\  tlieenlV  In  Tiberias'.'  Study 
must  preeeile  practise  "  (Ver.  I'es.  iii.  ;ii)/<).  Abbahu 
left  behind  him  a  miml)er  of  diseijiles,  the  mo.st 
prominent  among  whonx  were  the  leaders  of  the 
fourth  amoraie  generation.  H.  Jonah  and  H.  Jose. 
At  Aliliahu's  death  the  mourning  was  so  great  that 
it  was  said.  "Even  the  statues  of  Casarea  shed 
tears  "  (.\I.  K.  'ir,h;  Ver.  'Ab.  Zarah,  iii.  4-iO  ■ 

There  are  several  oilier  Alibahus  mentioned  in  the 
Tabnudim  and  Midrashini.  iimminenl  anmng  whom 
is  Abbahu  (Abulia.  Aibiil)  b.  llii  (lltaii.  a  lialiyloiiian 
balakist.  contemporary  of  Samuel  and  Anau  ('Er. 
74«).  and  brother  of  Minyamin  (lien  jamin)  b.  Ihi. 
■While  this  Abbahu  repeatedly  applied  to  Samuel 
for  information,  Samuel  in  return  learned  nianj- 
Halakot  from  him  (Naz.  240;  li.  .M.  14'(,  '■)((  ;  sec 
Bex.j.\mis  b.  Ihi). 

BlBI.KJcinpiiv:  Griitz,  f;..<r)i.(/../m/(ii.2(lcil..lv..aM,3(i7-3ir: 
J(>sl.  fttMi-li.  '/« X  JuilfiilhuiiiH  utnl  urittir  .S'(7i/(  n,  ii.  llSl-ItU : 
Knuikvl.  .U.7..I,  pp.  .Vvi-i«i;  Weiss,  ;>>r.  111.  lIKi-KiJ:  Iluilier, 
Au-  I't'l.  Amur.  II.  Hs-n;;. 

S.    M. 

["When  does  your  Messiah  come?  "  a  Christian 
(Minaah)  once  asked  Abbahu  in  a  lone  of  mockery; 
whereupon  he  reiilied  :  "  W'lien  you  will  be  wrapped 
in  darkness,  for  it  says,  '  neholil.  darkness  shall  cover 
the  earth,  and  gross  darkness  the  nations;  llii'U  .shall 
the  Lord  lise  upon  thee  and  His  glory  shall  be  seen 
on  thee  '  [Isa.  I.\.  2]."  (Sanli.  Whi).  A'C'hrislian  came 
to  Abbahu  with  llu'  i|uibbling  ([Uestion  :  "  How  <onld 
your  God  in  His  priestly  holiness  bury  Moses  with- 
out providing  for  purilicalory  riles,  yet  oceans  are 
declared  insiilticienl  ?  "  (Isa.  .\l.  Vi).  "Why,"  .said 
Abbahu,  "does  it  not  say.  The  Lord  <Mimetli  with 
lire'  V"  (Is!i.  I.wi.  1.")),  "Fire  is  the  true  element  of 
purilication,  according  to  Num.  .\.\i.  M."  was  his 
answer  (Sanli.  !!!)'().  Another  (|uesti(in  of  the  same 
character;  "Why  the  boaslful  claim :  'What  nation 
on  earth  is  like  Thy  people  Israel '  (II  Sam.  vii.  23), 
since  we  read.  'All  the  nations  are  as  nolhiiig  before 
Him  "/"  (Isji.  .\l.  IT),  to  which  .Vbliahu  nplieil:  "  Ho 
we  not  read  of  Israel,  he  '  shall  not  be  reckoned  among 
the  nations  "!"  (N'lim.  xxiii.  !l,  Sanli.  as  above).  Ab- 
bahu made  a  nolable  exception  willi  reference  to  the 
Toscfta's  stalemeiit  that  llie  (iilionini  (  Lvangels)  and 
other  books  of  the  Minaans  are  not  to  he  saved  from 
a  conllagnition  on  Sabbalb  (Sliab.  IKix);  "the  books 
of  those  at  Ahid.^n  may  be  saved."  Of  special  his- 
toiical  interest  isthe observation  of  Abbiihu  in  n-gard 
to  the  benediclioii  "  IJiirnk  Sliem  Kebod  .Mulkulo  " 
(Blessed  lie  the  Name  of  His  gliiriniis  Kingdom)  after 
llie"Sliema'  Yismel,"  tlial  in  I'alesI inc.  where  the 
Chrislians  look  for  points  of  conlioversy.  the  words 
.should  be  recited  aloud  (lest  the  Jews  be  accused  of 
tampering  willi  the  unity  of  (tod  proclaimed  in  the 
Shema').  whereas  in  the  Haliy Ionian  cily  of  Nehardea, 
where  there  are  no  Christians,  the  words  are  recited 
with  a  low  voice  (Pes.  !ii\ii).  Preaching  direclly 
against  the  Chrislian  dogma,  Ablialiu  says:  "  .\  king 

of  tiesh  and  bl I  may  have  a  father,  a  brollier.  or 

n  son  to  simrc  in  or  dispiile  his  sovereignly,  bill  tlu' 
Lord  sailli.  '  I  am  the  Lord  thy  (ioil !  I  am  the  lirsl ; 
that  is,  I  have  no  falher,  and  I  am  the  last  ;  thai  is, 
I  have  no  brollu-r,  and  besides  me  there  is  no  (iod; 
that  is,  I  have  no  son'"  (Isa,  xliv.  0;  Ex.  U.  2!t|, 
His  eonimeiil  on  Num.  xxiii.  lit  has  a  still  mori> 
polemical  lone:  "(Sod  is  not  a  man  llial  he  should 
lie;    neilhcr  the   Son  nf  man,  thai   he  should  repent. 


If  a  man  say.  '  I  am  God.'  he  lieth.  and  -if  he  sa.v, 
'  I  am  the  son  of  man,'  he  will  have  to  repent,  aiid 
if  he  say.  '  I  shall  go  up  to  heaven.'  he  will  not  do 
it.  nor  achieve  what  he  promises"  (Yer.  Ta'anit, 
ii.  (J.Vj). 

Some  of  his  controversies  on  Christian  theolog- 
ical subjects,  as  on  .\dam  ( Valk.,  Gen.  47),  on  Enoch 
(Gen.  I{.  '2.5),  and  on  the  resurrection  (Shab.  15'2A),  arc 
less  clear  and  direct  (see  Baclier,  "Ag.  Pal.  Amor." 
ii.  97,  ll.'>-118).  K.] 

ABBAS  :  This  name  does  not  appear  in  the  long 
lists  of  Jewish  names  in  pre-Islamic  Arabia,  nor  does 
it  occur  among  the  Jews  in  general  until  the  twelfth 
century.  This  shows  that  there  is  not  much  evi- 
dence to  support  the  theory  that  the  name  was  used 
as  an  Arabic  eciuivalent  of  Judah  ("Lion").  The 
correct  meaning  of  Abbas  is  "man  of  stern  counte- 
nance," the  term  "lion"  being  merely  secondary. 
BiBLio(iR.\PHV :  Steinsclineidcr,  Jcif.  Quart.  licr.  xl.  :C!2. 

II.  HiR. 

ABBAS  (ABAS),  AARON:  Editorand  printer 
at  Amstenlaiii.  al  llic  ln^iniiiiig  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  was  the  piililislier  of  two  works:  (1) 
Aaron  Peral.iyah's  respoiisa,  known  unilcr  the  name 
of"Per!d.i  Matteli  Aharon  "  (Amsterdam,  17113),  the 
title-page  of  which  is  adorned  with  artistic  wooil- 
cuts  rcpiesenting  .scenes  from  the  life  of  the  high 
priest  Aaron.  The  book  contains,  in  the  nature  of 
a  preface,  a  dedicatory  e|)istle,  by  Azriel  ha-Kohen 
Peiahyah,  addres.seil  to  Isaac  Emanuel  Helmontcand 
Solomon  Curiel.  (2)  The  Talmudic  treatise  Hagi- 
gall  (Amsterdam,  170(1).  which  seems  to  have  formed 
part  of  an  attempted  com|)lele  edition  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud  by  various  editors.  See  Ami.\s,  IJAl'ii- 
AF.I,  IIF.N  Josiiu.x. 

Biiii.iodRAPHV:  StPlnselinelder,  Cat.  Diiill.  col.  "2.5;  Wolf, 
mill.  Hihr.  ill.  70  (s.v.ylDtd),  80;  Ersch  and  Gruber,  £ncM- 
hlnuiidie.  xxvlU.  tiO,  note  98. 

W.  31. 

ABBAS,    JOSEPH:   Copyist  of  "MS.  Kauff- 

maiiii."  No.  4.")  ;  livcdat  the  end  of  the  sevcnteentli 
cenlury.  H.   HiR. 

ABBAS,  JTTDAH  IBN,  OF  FEZ  :  A  poet,  and 
aullKH'  nf  the  /iii/"(  "'Kl  Sli;i'are  Ha/on."  lie  was 
the  lir--l  Jew  kiiou  11  by  the  name  (pf  Abbas;  died  at 
.Mosul  in  1  Ui:!.  His  .Viabic  name  was  .\bii  .al  Baga  ibn 
Abbas al-Maghribi.  All.iari/.i  (Tal.ikcnioni.  .Mak.  iii.) 
states  that  .ludali  left  the  Maghreb  and  went  to  the 
East,  where  he  lived  now  in  Bagdad,  and  now  in 
Aleppo,  and  that  he  had  a  son  who  was  refractory. 
Jiidali  is  evidently  identical  with  the  father  of  Sam- 
uel, who  became  a  convert  lo  Islam,  and  who  speaks 
of  his  father  as  Judah  b.  Abun.  The  latter  is  men- 
tinned  in  the  "Poetics"  of  Moses  ibn  E/ra.  He  is 
said  lo  have  been  a  friend  of  Judah  ha  Levi.  The 
<iillcctor  of  Ha-Lcvi's  "  Diwan  "  has  preserved  one 
of  the  poems  of  Judab  which  called  forth  au  answer 
from  Ha  Levi. 

Iluu.IoiuiAPiiv  :  Luzzntto,  fiftitltit  Imt  l'(7iiet*i/i.  p.  1.1;  Lnnds- 
liulli. '.liiiMii"''  liii-'Aliiiiliili,\<-  •l"'l;  Hvi\l■/..<ll^<l•ll.ll.Ju•lnl, 
vl.  i;« ;  SU'lnscliiK'Icler,  lot.  1I<hII.  {■••\.'M:l:  IIiihIv's  Z.  (r. 
/.  Ihhr.  mill.  UI.  ITS;   J/oiia(«i(-/iri/(,xlll.  1^1.411. 

H.  IIlU. 

ABBAS,    JUDAH    B.    SAMUEL,    BEN:    A 

Spaiiiiinl  lit  the  lliiilcciilli  cenlury.  This  fnrm  of 
his  name  is  aiilheiiticated  in  the  headings  of  his 
two  works  in  "  MS.  Loewe,"  viii. ;  namely,  (ir)  "  Min- 
hat  Vehudali,"  a  fragment  of  two  leav<'s  only,  also 
styled  "  Mckor  Hayyim  "  (Source  of  Life).  I'nder 
Ihe  laller  title  the  wurk  is  ipioteil  in  {/•)  "  Yair 
Nelib."  also  styled  "Shebet  Yehudah."  Judah 
alllrms  that   he  composed   this  work  at    Ihe  age  of 


Abbas.  Moses 
Abbreviations 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


88 


twt'iity.  It  is  of  a  moral  and  religious  character. 
The  tiftccntli  clisiplcr  contains  a  conipU'tf  system 
of  siuilies  arniii.i.'((l  iiccdnlinjr  I"  lUMlajrogical  prin- 
ciples, it  has  been  translated  from  the  liodleian 
manuscript  by  M.  GUdeniaun.  ".IlUl.  Liiteniehts- 
wesen,"  i.  147.  Commencing  with  the  readiiift  and 
interpretation  of  the  Bible,  he  would  have  tlie  child 
study,  in  rejiular order,  morals,  medicine,  arithmetic, 
logic,  physics,  and,  as  the  very  last  subject,  meta- 
physics. 

Bini.iofiR.^PHY:  -VimnlsKo/irf/f,  x.\xvlll.,  reprinted  liy  Jnmes 
II.  IjM'we  in  A  Ifmcriptivc  Vttt<UttiiiH'  *'/  o  I'urtUm  iif  tin: 
Liln-firii  of  />'*.  Lintis  Li>iiri\  p.  .'tS;  SteinsrlineUkT.  llchr, 
VilniH.  p.  ;!.">. 

II.  IIiu. 
ABBAS,  MOSES :  .V  ii;iine  borne  by  several 
|M'isi>iis  111'  wlidiii  tbi'  follduinjr  three  are  mentioned 
in  Zuiiz  (■' l.ileinliirgcseh,"  |>.  ;>4".2)  ;  1.  .Moses  Abbas 
flourished  about  1400  and  carried  on  a  correspond- 
ence with  the  I'rovenc/al  pf>et  Solomon  Honied,  who 
dedicated  several  poems  to  him.  Isaac  ben  Sheshet 
mentions  him  as  the  ])U]>il  of  Hisdai  ben  Solomon. 
2.  Moses  ben  .lacob  .\libas  of  Tyre,  physician  and 
poet ;  fioiwislied  in  the  second  half  of  the  si\teiiitb 
century.  .Vbout  l.'iTH  he  addressed  a  i)oem  to  the 
l)oet  Saadia  l.ongo  in  Salonieu.  3.  Moses  Judah 
Abbas,  of  Hebron;  lived  about  KKiO. 

BuiLiO(;R.Krnv:  Montcnore  (.lews' Cdllcccl  MS..  No.S42.  fol.  12  : 
No.  24:),  fol.  UK;  Conforte.  I^nrr  lui-Diinit.\tp.W.  4'.);  Cunnoly, 
Hift.dc.'i  3/'''/('ri/(.'<./»(/.'*, pp. (1.5, 211.5;  i<iem,  (lirnttivh:iiff  tin: 
Yaluja  FainUii  (Ui'hr.^ ;  St**ins('l)neiiifr,  Jletir.  UihL  xiv.~i}; 
l)e  itossi,  iJizianarin  SUtriat  vGermiHi  ed.'.  p.  1. 

II.  II. 

ABBAS,  MOSES  JUDAH:  A  Hebrew  poet; 
lived  alMiut  tbi'  middle  of  the  seveMteenth  century 
at  Hosetla.  in  Egypt.  He  was  a  descendant  of  tlic 
Abtias  family,  whose  poetic  bent  continued  to  mani- 
fest itself  even  when  the  neo-Helirew  poetry  was  on 
the  decline,  Jloses  Judah  Abbas  hen  Jleir  (this  is 
his  full  name  according  to  Pollak)  was  also  eminent 
as  a  Tidmiulist.  He  left  a  commentary  on  the  Tal- 
mudic  treatises  Kallah,  Soferim,  and  Seniahot,  which 
were  in  the  possession  of  A/.ulai.  and  several  re- 
spraisa.  which  still  exist  iu  manuscript  in  the  Bodleian 
collection. 

BiBLiocHAPnv :  Conforte.  Kore  ha-Dnrut,  p.  .">2<(,  od.  C.issel ; 

Azului,.sVif  III  lui-<.ltiliiUm'.  No.  Xi.  p. 07 ;  Steinsclinelder.  Hihr. 

Bihl.  .\iv.  Til;   (i.   I'ollak.  llii-Karmd.  U.  2'.)4 ;    Lnnilsliutli, 

*Aintnmlf  hn-'Altiuhih,  p.  IV^K 

I.  G. 
ABBAS  (ABAS),  RAPHAEL  BEN  JOSH- 
UA:  Printer  and  editor  at  Am.sterdaiu ;  contempo- 
rary, and  undoulitedly  a  relative,  of  A.vitoN  Ann.\s. 
He  supplemented  the  work  of  Aaron  Abbas  by  pnb- 
lisliing  the  other  book  of  Aaron  Perahyah.  "  Pirke 
Keh\inah  "  (.Vnisterdam.  1709).  Ho  is  probably  iden- 
tical with  the  Ra|iliael  li.  Joshua  de  Palaeios (whose 
name  Steinsehneider  transcribes  "di  Palasios  "),  co- 
editor  with  Samuel  ben  Solomon  Marques  (Stein- 
schneider.  "JIaTches,"  "JIarkis")  of  the  treatise 
'Krubin  (.Vmsterdam,  printing-office  of  Iiumanuel 
Benveniste,  171()),  This  edition  bears  the  stamp  of 
apjiroval  of  tlie  censor  JIarcus  Mariiuis, 

Bini,ioGR.vrHv:    Steinsr-tuiekler,    Cat.    Bi nil.  cols.   725,3023; 

Wolf,  7!iW. //<•)»•.  Hi. 99S;  Krscli  and  Gnitjer,  fijicwWouadic, 

x.vviii.  72. 

W.  M. 
ABBAS  (ABAS,  ABATZ),  SAMUEL  B. 
ISAAC  :  lialibi  iiiilie  hiilcr  half  of  ili.- -.rMiiteenth 
ceiituiy  at  Amstei'dam.  wlieie  his  <le;ith  occurred 
about  l(i'.l3.  He  translated  into  Portuguese,  fi-om 
the  Hebiew  version  of  Ibn  Tibl)on.  Hahya's  "  Hobot 
ba-Lebul)ot  "  ( Anisti-nlani.  1(>7(I|.  which  gave  to  this 
widely  circulated  work  a  decided  accession  of  )iopu- 
larity  among  tlir'  Se]>liardie  eonmiunities  of  western 
Europe.     This  translation.  iii)ai  t  fiom  the  language, 


does  not  dilTcr  greatly  from  the  Judivo-Spauish  and 
Spanish  versions  existing  at  the  time  of  its  appear- 
ance. 

Abbas  was  the  possessor  of  a  valuable  collection  of 
hooks  in  Hebrew.  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Latin. 
A  thirty-page  catalogue  of  the  collection,  printed  iu 
Amsterdam,  appeared  in  the  year  of  his  death. 

Buihlooini'iiY  :  KavsorllnR,  Bili.E^iiii.-l'nii.Juil.,  p.  1 ;  Steln- 
srlineldiT,  Cat.  Hiidl.  col,  7S.' ;  Zunz,  Z.  G.  p,  2:i"> ;  Wolf,  Uilil. 
Ihtir.  pp.  177,  413,  1088.  -^y     -^r 

ABBAS,  SAMUEL  ABU  NASR  IBN  :  .V  snn 

of  .Ii  iiAH  ii;.N  .\ni;\s  oi  Ki./,;  Ii\fil  in  tlic  IwoH'iJi 
ceiituiy.  .losrph  Sambaii  and  Uic  "  Viihasin"  call 
him  Samml  Ixii  Azai-iah  ("  Hev.  El.  Juives,"  iv.  IHH, 
v.  't'i),  which  Sleinschneitler  believes  to  be  a  mistake 
originating  in  his  Arabic  name.  "  Abu  Nasr. "  Abbas 
studied  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  medicine;  and 
for  purposes  of  study  he  traveled  in  Irak,  Syria, 
Azerbaijan,  and  Kohistan.  In  the  city  of  Maragha 
he  claimed  to  have  hail  two  visions  (on  the  !Mh  of 
Zul-Hijjah.  .j.)8  =  November  8,  lUW.  though  this 
date  seems  to  be  too  lali').  in  which  .Mohammed  ap- 
peared to  him.  He  thereupon  emliiaecd  Islam,  ta- 
king the  name  of  Samaual  Yal.iya  al  .Maghrabi.  He 
composed  a  poleiuical  treatise,  "Ifliam  id-Y;ihu<l" 
(Confutation  of  the  Jews),  called  also  "  Kitati-al  nakd 
wal-ibram"  (Hiischfeld,  "Das  Bueh  al-Cliazaii."  p. 
v.).  In  this  work  he  points  out  that  from  time  to 
time  the  abiogation  of  the  Law  is  neces.sary  and  that, 
ill  fact,  it  has  often  occurred  in  Judaism.  He  tries  to 
prove  the  prophetic  character  of  Jesus  and  of  .Mo- 
haiumed ;  claiming  that  the  first  of  these  is  refi'inl 
to  in  f!en.  xlix.  Ill,  and  the  latter  in  Gen.  xvii.  3 
(INO  TND3  has  nunierically  the  .same  value  as  lono 
Molianuiu(l).  lie  allinns  iliat  the  Jews  of  his  lime 
possess  the  Torah  of  Ezra  and  not  tli;it  of  Closes,  and 
that  too  many  laws  have  been  added  by  the  sages  of 
the  Mishnali  and  the  (Jemara. 

Kaiifmann  has  shown  that  Abraham  ibn  Daud,  in 
1161,  knew  of  this  treatise  ("Hev.  fit.  Juives."  x. 
2.51),  and  Maimonides  ,seems  to  refer  to  it  in  his 
"  Iggeret  Teman ';  but  otherwise  it  exerciseil  no  in- 
fluence on  Jewish  literature  ("Z.D.JI.G."  xlii.  ."i:!!!). 
For  reference  to  less  known  philosophical  works 
of  Abbas,  see  Steinschneider.  "  Ilebr.  Bibl."  xix. 
3.'),  "Cat.  Bodl."  col.  2442.  Upon  the  basis  of 
his  "Ifham  al-Yahud"  there  was  compiled  in  tlie 
hfteentli  century  the  celebrated  antijewish  willing 
called  "Epistola  Samuelis  Maroceaiii.''  which  is  said 
to  have  been  translated  from  the  Arabic  by  Ai.kon- 
sis  BoxiuoMixis.  Including  the  first,  C'dition  of 
147.5,  this  trad  went  through  at  least  nine  editions 
in  Latin,  five  in  German,  and  one  in  It.alian.  In  the 
Eseurial  there  exists  a  Spanish  translation  in  manu- 
script (see  Jacobs,  "Sources,"  Xo.  1207;  compare 
Kayserling.  in  "Jew.  Quart.  Rev."  viii.  497;  Stein- 
schneider has  called  attention  to  this  in  his  "Cat. 
Bodl."  col.  24::!8).  A  Kussian  version  was  issned 
in  185.5  by  the  Kiev  Pecherskaya  Lavra  (Monas- 
tery). An  English  version  appeared  at  York  in  ll>49 
under  the  title  of  "  The  Blessed  Jew  of  Jlorocco ;  or. 
the  black  Moor  JIade  white."  There  exists  also,  in 
manuscript,  a  "  Disputatio  Abulalib  Saraceni  et  S.ini- 
uelis  Jiahei."  consisting  of  seven  epistles,  translated 
from  Arabic  into  Latin  by  Alfonsus  Bonihominis, 
Its  connection  with  the  subject  of  this  article  has 
not  yet  been  ascertained. 

BinLiOf;RAI'HV:  Steinsetineider,  Pntcm.  und  Apnhm.  Lit.  pp. 
211,  i;i7:  Sohreiner,  in  Mi matsschrif I.  xlii.  V£i-\V>.  xliii.  .521. 
M.  Wiener,  in  'Emch  ha-Saka.  p.  xxv..  has  pubii.slied  a  por- 
tion of  the  Jf /mm,  which, deals  with  David  Alrov;  compare 
also  |7)P(I.,  p.  IBS;  Rrr.  £(.  jHirc.*,  xvl.  215;  Zri't.  f.  Ilil,r. 
7?i?<(..  1897.  ii.l89:  Jcic.  Quart.  Rci'.xi.  332;  (iiidHmann.  fws 
JM.  L'ntcrrichtewesen  uiihrend  d.  Spanm'h-Ariilii.-thin 
Pcriodc.p.JS.  H.  HlK.-G. 


39 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abbas,  Moses 
Abbreviations 


ABBAS,    YOM-TOB    BEN    JONAH:     Men 

tioiuil  ill  the  rcspunsa  of  .Iiuhili  licii  Asia  r  (fols.  30 
and  nr,).  II.   II. 

ABBASI  (.1  (IBN  ABBASI),  JACOB  BEN 
MOSES  IBN  (iTiniicuusly,  'Aksa)  :  ■rniiishitor 
mill  siImpI;ii.  wild  lliHiiislii-il  in  llio  .stcuinl  half  nf  the 
lliiitcfiitli  ciiiliiry  at.  Ihusia,  Spain.  His  father. 
.Moses  ilju  Aiiliasi  the  ilartvr  (the  son  sii;ns  himself 
pnn3.  whieh  ean  only  mean  f^npTI  3"in  \2),  wns  sur- 
nameil  Heilersi,  wliieh  niiijht  imlieate  thai  the  Ab- 
liasi  family  eanie  from  Be/.iers,  in  southern  France, 
.laeoh  traiislated  (about  l^DH)  Maimonicles'  com- 
mentary on  Seder  Nasliim,  from  the  Aiabie  into  He- 
blew.  He  preli.Ked  to  the  translation  a  jihilosophical 
disciuisilioii  on  Eeel.  vii.  '^'2.  in  which  he  makes  a 
clear  distinction  lii't  ween  worldly  kiiowlcd;;e,  whieh 
is  bounded  by  the  liniilatioii  of  human  understand- 
in;;,  and  the  knowledge  of  thinL''s  Jewish  ;  meaning 
by  this  the  study  of  tiie  Law.  w  hicli  isopen  toevery- 
body.  The  Law,  it  is  true,  has  its  own  mysteries. 
which  can  be  understood  by  a  few  only  of  the  elect, 
who  are  versed  in  the  Cabala.  Hut  tlie  real  Torali 
consists  only  of  the  Law  together  with  its  elucida- 
tion ill  Talmudic  literature;  and  this  every  mortal 
Clin  comprehend.  A  translator  of  Mainionidcs.  a 
stinhnt  of  thi'  "  .Moreh  Nebiikim."  a  scholar  familiar 
Willi  the  works  of  I'hito  and  Aristotle,  and,  tinally, 
an  admirc'r  of  the  mystics  as  well  as  a  strict  Tal- 
mudist.  Abbasi  is  a  fair  illustration  of  the  spirit 
w  hich  pervaded  the  Spanish  Jews  at  the  end  of  the 
thirteeiitlicentury.  Asa  rabbinical  authority,  Jlai- 
inoiiides  was  unreservedly  acknow  lidgeil  by  the 
Spanish  Jews,  but  as  a  iihilosopher  he  was  iiushcd 
into  the  backjiroiiiid  by  the  iriuniphant  march  of 
mysticism.  The  Arabic  oriifinal  not  being  acces- 
sible, it  is  iiiipo.ssible  to  judge  of  Abbasi's  jiowers 
as  II  translator.  His  Hebrew  seems  to  be  weak,  but 
it  is  clear;  and.  unlike  the  tninslators  of  the  other 
parts  of  the  Mislmah  commentary  of  Maimonides, 
Abbasi  left  no  .\rabie  word  untranslated.  From  his 
scholarly  correspondence  with  .Solomon  bell  Adrel, 
the  greatest  Talmudic  authority  of  the  time,  it  ap- 
pears that  Abbasi  po.sses.sed  a  fair  Talmudic  knowl- 
edge. One  of  Adret's  letti'rs.  a  conimendation  of 
his  literary  activity,  was  reproduced  by  Abbasi  in 
the  preface  to  liis  translation. 

Iliiii.inoR.vrilv:  .1.  t'erii's.  Hiilihi  .s'n/oiiin  lirn  Ahraliam  hni 
Ailnelh.  pp.  I(i,(iil;  Sl.liisiliiii'liler,  }Iehr.  I'cherg.  p.  1)24 ; 
Jiw.  (JiKiii.  Iti:i\  .\l.  :KI. 

L.  G. 

ABBASI,  JOSEPH  :  A  wealthy  Jew  of  Oporto, 
where,  ill  \'-'>',ii.  he  was  farmer  of  taxes  for  the  city 
and  its  terriioiy. 

Hiiii.iniiKAi'iiv  :  >tt'n(I('.i  i\o  Ut'imMlio-i,  ./i(f((*w  rm  Pttrtuu^^l, 
p.  till;  .1.  .\.  lie  1..-M  lt|..s.  llM'iii.i  ilr  (-.»  Jmliim.  II.  :.T11. 

M.   K. 

ABBASI  (ABBAS),  MOSES:  Disciple  of  Rabbi 
1  l;i-dai  ben  Solomon  of  N'aleiieia  and  Tudela  (  UiTsi. 
I  le  corresponded  w  ith  Isaac  ben  .'^heshet  and  the  poet 
Solomon  da  I'ieni(.scc  Steinscbnciiler,  "Hebr.  Uibl." 
xiv.  Til).  M.  K. 

ABBASSID  CALIFS:  The  posiiion  of  the  Jews 
iluiiiiL'  the  liM'  eeiiliiries  of  the  domination  of  the 
.\bba.ssiil  Califs  (7oO-l'J.'>S)  dilTcred  from  that  under 
their  preileces.sors,  the  Oliiiniads,  as  the  Aba.s.sids 
were  troubled  by  no  fears  that  Jewish  inlliience 
Would  check  the  spread  of  Islam.  The  foun<lation 
of  Magilad  by  Al'>laiisiir (the  second  .Vbluissid  Calif) 
brought  the  seat  of  ^loslem  governinenl  in  close 
proximity  to  the  two  eeiilers  of  .lewish  spiritual  life. 
Sura  and  I'imibedita.  Contniry  to  the  policy  of 
the  larlier  califs,   who  removed  the  Jews  to  the  ex- 


treme borders  of  the  empire,  Bagdad  was  allowed 
to  retain  a  Jewish  community. 

It  is  nol  to  be  inferred  that  under  the  Abbassids 
the  Jews  enjoyed  continual  peace.  They  suffered 
not  only  from  the  incessant  civil  wars  and  revolu- 
tions, but  ancient  and  forgotten  restrictions  and 
liiiniiliatious  were  occasionally  renewed.  Hanin  al- 
Uaschid  (Ts(i-S()i))  revived  Omar's  regulation  order- 
ing non-Moslems  to  wear  distinguishing  marks  ou 
their  clothing  (see  H.MWK),  and  forbidding  lliein  to 
ride  horses.  Although  these  regulations  fell  into 
disuse  under  the  next  califs,  they  were  renewed  with 
great  vigor  under  the  reactionary  Al-Miitawakkil 
(8.50),  who  caused  many  synagogues  to  be  converted 
into  mosques,  and  levied  tithes  on  the  houses  of  non- 
.Moslems.  Yet  uiuler  Al-.Mutadhid  (892-902)  many- 
Jews  were  employed  in  the  service  of  the  state. 

The  decline  of  the  feni|ioral  power  of  the  califs, 
which  occurred  before  the  end  of  the  tenth  century, 
could  not  fail  to  alTect  the  fate  of  the  Jews  in  the 
eastern  portions  of  the  empire,  becau.se  the  viziers, 
and  afterward  the  sultans,  were  too  much  occupied 
with  other  cares  to  trouble  themselves  about  the 
Jews  (see  CmsAWEs).  Hagchid,  especially,  sullered 
heavily;  yet  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  its 
Jewish  community  numbered  one  thousand  families, 
while  that  of  Mosul  was  even  larger.  The  calif 
Mohaninied  alMuklali  (lliilMid)  miide  Bagdad  the 
seat  of  the  exilarch.  who  became  the  recognized 
head  of  nearly  all  the  Jew  s  of  the  Abbassid  empire. 
This  favorable  state  of  things  was  due  mainly  to 
the  toh'rant  reign  of  the  Seljuk  sultans,  es])ecially 
Zengi,  Xur-ed-Din,  ami  Saladiu  (see  also  Ai.itov). 

H.   Hii; 

ABBAYE:  .Vii  aiiiora.     See  Ainvt;. 

ABBAYE    OF    CONSTANTINOPLE:     Tal 

muclie  scholar  of  the  sixleeiith  eeiituiy.  lie  carried 
on  a  learned  concspondence  with  Samuel  di  .Medina 
lDTL""inD).  ralibi  of  Salonica.  who  refers  to  him 
as  the  "greatest  of  our  teachers."  He  wrote  also  a 
preface  to  Moses  Xagara's  "  Lekah  Tob,"  Coustauti- 
nople,  1.574. 
Uiiu,ii)i:r.vI"I|V:  Mielmel,  <ir  lnt-Iliiuiiim,  No.  20. 

M.  B. 

AB  BET  DIN  ("Father  of  the  court  of  jus- 
tice"): 1.  Title,  according  to  some  seholai-s.  of  the 
judge  next  in  authority  to  the  ixin  (prince  or 
president),  and  who  would,  accordingly,  be  vice- 
president  of  the  Sanhedrin.  On  the  disputi'd  ques- 
tion of  the  rel;ition  of  I  he  .Vb  bet  din  to  the  nasi, 
see  X.\si.  2.  In  recent  times,  the  title  of  the  chief 
assessor  at  the  labbinical  court.  K. 

ABBREVIATIONS  :  'I'lie  oldest  term  for  ab- 
breviation, r("'""',-'J  =  i(.7«/i(Mir,  is  found  in    lannailic 
literature  as  early  as  150  n.c.  (Krauss.  "  Lelinwiirter," 
ii.  .«.!•. ;  Bacher.  "Die  .\lteste   Termi- 
Termi-       nologie").     .Vutlmrities  of   the  third 
nology.      century  iisi'alsolheterm  "r"'' (later '"'') 
=  aijfiiiov  (aceoriling  to  Krauss,  "  Lelin- 
wiirter." and  "■?  I"??,  Yoma,  3TA;  Git.  *'"")•  ""iL  f'"" 
a  certain  kinil  of  abbreviation,   !'.""'?  (Yoniii,  3Si; 
Git.  ill.).     In  the  foiirlli  ceiilurv  is  met  the  expri's- 
sioii  ^"-'f  ■¥'•■<?  (Tan.  Ex.,  ed.'Buber,   fol.  Wri),  a 
term  wliicli  must  have  been  in  conimoii  iis<>.  since 
the  Maghrebi  .\rabic  ru'in  hiinif  is  borniweil  fiiun 
it.       Ill    later    literature    llie    common    cxiiressi.ni 
is  ''^Z  ■■-■'•'■■";  (heads  of  words>,    lii-st    found    in    the 
.Masoni,  and,   for  anoiher   kind.   "^^-^  -rp   (ends  of 
words)  ( FrensdorIT,  "Die  Masora  Magna."  glo.s.saryi. 
Elias  I.,evita.  the  first  writer  on  the  subject,  refers 
to  Abbreviations  as   rr-'r^?    "'""^1  s-'J-fn  l-T"^ 


Abbreviations 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDLV 


40 


nxns  nan  i'5f  ^r"''?''  cmilractions  and  frajimonts. 
till'  words  being  in  Ablircviatiims  ami  initials,  in 
tin-  niannir  of  suggestions  and  contractions  (as  a 
broken  word).  Joseph  Kalnian  (n-ii:-i  Nia:,  iii.) 
calls  them  '='  •'^'"'M  '"'^■'M^  ■'''''?.  Compare  the  Arabic 
h'irf  iiiiiktiiih.  Amone:  the  calialists  a  certain  kind  of 
abbreviation  or  combination  of  letters  is  called  I"!* 
or  •"'••"■'x  1'"'?..  The  verb  *T^>'  is  already  found  in 
tlie  Talmud  iBer.  5.j<()  and  in  the  n-cx'  isD  (ii.  3  ei 
jHissim).  Later  writers  use  for  T'T*  the  term  '^"'T? 
(S.  Donnolo)  or  ^'^.i  (A.  Abulatia).  For  the  verbs 
1""?  or  ^''^^  one  finds  also  ^V.  (Nahmanides'  com- 
mentary to  n-\<s'  D,  ill.)  and  ""JH  (J.  S.  del  Medigo. 
nns  2r^-:).  and  the  nouns  ■>".'  and  "'''^n  also  occur. 
The  terms  mrc/iiKdv  =  notnricuiit,  and  tn/uim'  origi- 
nally denoted  sliortband  signs,  but  among  the  Jews 
they  received  the  meaning  "Abbreviations."  For 
the  doubtful  expressions  ^\^:i'3  or  p-ui-J  and  -iiaVj, 
see  Krauss,  "  Lehnwi'irter,"  and  Jastrow.  "nict." 

Alibreviatinns  really  begin  with  the  development 
of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  nut  of  ideographic  pictures. 

Hence,  they  must  <late  from  the  earli- 
Origin.      est  limes.     The  modern   letters  were 

originally  signs  or  symbols.  After  the 
symbols  had  become  ietlere.  representing  not  only 
concepts,  but  sounds,  the  names  were,  nevcrlheless, 
retaine<l  and  transfcrre<l  to  the  corresponding  sounds. 
The  time  when  that  transfer  took  place  is  unknown; 
but  it  may  be  assumed  that  even  for  .some  time  later 
ideograms  for  well-known  words  were  still  used. 
By  analogy  with  those  ideograms  the  use  of  conven- 
tional signs  for  frequently-  recurring  words  probably 
came  into  vogue,  and  this  was  the  beginning  of  Ab- 
breviations (compare  Perles.  '"  Analekten.''  p.  10). 
Abbreviations  are  found  in  Punic,  Assyrian,  and 
Jlinean  inscriptions,  and  also  in  an  Aramaic  inscrip- 
tion of  the  year  'y-iif  u.c.  (compare  Perles,  op.  a't.). 
At  lirst  but  few  in  number,  lack  of  space,  economy 
of  writing  material,  a  desire  for  secrecy,  religious 
scruiiles,  and  the  convenience  of  the  writer  multi- 
plie(l  their  number  to  the  e.\tent  found  to-day. 

Thus,  on  th<>  Maccabean  coins  are  found  the  Ab- 
breviations n  for  "  first  year  " :  a:-,  jr,  n::- for  3  rjr, 
J  r:-:\  i  :^y2'  "second,  third,  fourth  year";  vi  for 
C'-on<n  "  the  Jews  "  ;  u"  or  -\-i"  for  ''N-\:"  "  Israel  " ;  in*^ 
for  rnn''  "of  freedom,"  produced  for  lack  of  sjiacc 
(Theodore  Ueinaeh,  "Monnaies  Juives."  p.  -111.  The 
abbreviation  i'  for  '3i  or  p-i,  conunon  in  the  Mish- 
nah.  is  due  to  the  convenience  of  the  writer.  The 
abbreviation  "  or  'n  for  nin'  is  due  to  religious 
scruples.  The  numerous  Abbreviations  found  in  the 
Masora  are  due  to  lack  of  siiace,  scarcity  of  writing 
material,  and  the  convenience  of  the  scribe.  Some 
scholars,  being  unused  to  writing,  signed  sigla  for 
their  names  (Git.  Slvi).  In  times  of  religious  perse- 
cution certain  sacred  objects  were  marked  with  sigla 
(Ma'as.  .Sh.  iv.  11). 

On  the  Maccabean  coins  there  is  no  sign  to  denote 
abbreviation.     This  may  be  due  to  lack  of  space. 

However,  such  a  practise  is  met  with 

Graphic      much  later  ;  compare  the  Bilile  frag- 

Represen-    ments  jiublislied  by  Xeubauer  ("Jew. 

tation.       Quart.  Kev,"  vii.  ;?()3)  and  -"D  i.-y-i  sp'^D 

(Lowe,  "A  Fragment  of  the  Talmud 
Bab.  Pesahim."  fol.  Sa.  col.  l.^'l.  5).  The  Punic  in- 
scription ("Corpus  Inscrip.  Semit."i.  No.  170)  omits 
after  the  abbreviated  word  the  dot  otherwise  found 
at  the  end  of  every  word  written  out  in  full.  A 
similar  mode  of  marking  Abbreviations  might  have 
existed  al.so  among  the  .Jews.  In  medieval  writings 
Abbreviations  marked  by  various  signs  are  found. 
Thus,  in  the  "Talmudical  Fragments."  published  by 


Schechter  and  Singer  (Cand)ridge.  1896),  one  and 
three  dots  are  f(mud:  ni>,i  =  nv-i  inj  cn^.n  (P-  2S,  1. 
IT),  ""  =  nin-  (p.  27,  11.  23,  24),  ^ns  "  ij'nSn  "  = 
•\ntt  nin-  ij\n''N  nn-  (P-  28,  1.  17),  a'<iyS  ibp'p  ^  n  = 
4S83  .\.M.  (p.  26,  1.  24).  In  the  Talmudical  frag- 
ment published  by  Lowe  (Cambridge,  187!()  are  seen 
the  single  dot,  the  double  dot,  and  the  single  line 
slanting  in  two  directions,  while  the  double  slant 
ing  line  is  used  for  a  f idl  stop ;  <n>  b"pi  -nn;-  = 
Mi-'jni  US-pi  iJ"nn;'  (fol.  In,  col.  2.  1.  8) ;  jiipN  ' -ix  - 
vrisca  i]U"i|-> -i-j'N -\:iN  (1.  It):  '■'i-;n  = 'o '-; '\tt  (M-  !''■ 
col.  1,  1.  19);  A  =  .3-,  (fol.  81).  col.  2,  11.  19,  21,  29); 
inS  DS  =  in8 -I2N  (fol.  2«,  col.  2,  1.  19);  '.jpo  'nr^'-ij 
•i-iN  ribi  =  am>N''-<n  r-31 :  N--:rT:  :np<-\3  (fol.  2h.  col.  2, 
1.  6).  In  the  manuscnpt  fragment  pul)lished  by  C. 
Levias  in  the  "Am.  Jour.  Semit.  Lang."  xv.  there 
are,  besides  the  dot.  the  horizontal  line  and  the  semi- 
circle: >n.s-,  :>,s  =  •n'-N.  s-n'-N  ( P-  162).  In  the  Anibic 
period  is  found  the  Arabic  sign  ~  (Steinselmeider, 
"  Gab  es  Line  I  lebrilisehe  Kurzsehrift '!  "  p.  0).  With 
the  abbreviated  name  of  God  sometimes  there  occurs 
a  broken  line  z  or  "  (Perles,  "Analekten,"  p,  26,  note 
I:  Greenburg,  "The  Haggadah  According  to  the 
Rite  of  Yemen,"  p,  1;  Kohut,  "  Aboo  Manzfir  al 
Dhamari,"  p.  15).  In  addition  to  the  sign  above 
the  abbreviated  word,  the  last  remaining  letter  is  at 
times  not  written  out  in  full;  for  example,  vijps 
=  xi2PN(Lowe,  "A  Frairment  of  the  Talmud,"  fol. 
U.  col.  1.  1.  21),  N.,  =  N-,  (fol.  7A,  col.  1,  1.  1).  In 
modern  times  two  signs  oidy  arc  used — the  single 
and  the  double  slanting  lines.  The  single  line  is 
used  at  the  end  of  an  abbreviated  single  word;  for 
example,  '"'  =  '?■?  or  '2"i  =  i?iJi.  The  dmilde  line 
is  used  between  the  letters  of  an  abbreviation  of  two 
or  more  words:  for  example,    i'P  =  "^5fV  S"!  or  •I'^r''' 

Words  are  abbreviated  in  various  ways.     Distinc- 
tion must  be  made  chiefly  between  the  abbreviation 
of  a  single  word  and  that  of  more  than 
IVEethods.    one.    Single  words  may  be  abbreviated 
in  the  following  ways; 

(1)  '^''■\'?'?  f^''^'"! :  When  a  single  word  consists  of 
only  two  letters  it  is  very  rarely  abbreviated ;  for  ex- 
ample, '**  =  ''?,  '3  =  13.  When  it  consists  of  more 
than  two  letters,  one  or  more  of  the  final  letters 
arc  dropped;  for  example,  '"'or  -"1=  "'"iJi;  ra  = 
Tspp;  '3  „r  '';."•:  =  .sr':-p.  's  =  rv";?  or  P??:  'i- = 
•".Th"  or  '''P'i.  Words  beginning  with  a  preposition 
or  conjunction  or  verbs  in  the  imperfect  can  not  be 
abbreviated  to  one  letter:  for  example,  '33  =  3i'"ir- 
'731  =  3'rD"> ;  ':^  =  i?!<:r ;  'rf  =  l!>3n';  'yn<  =  nSj;.n<^ 
Compound  names  are  treated  sometimes  as  two 
words,  and    .so    abbreviated:     for    example,  ^'^ — 

(2)  '■'i-iarj  ri3.-!:  The  middle  of  a  word  is  omitted, 
both  ends  remaining;  for  example,  "■""<  =  "!?-!<  ("Am, 
Jour.  Semit.  Lang."  xv.  162);  ="*  5  a-H'^,  (in  the 
same  place) :  'J'><  =  'J'!?^?,  (".Jew.  Quart.  Rev."  xi.  646) ; 
NN  =  Ni!<  (in  the  .same  place).  This  mode  of  abbre- 
viation is  verv  rare. 

(3)  "'^v  ■>?>?••:  A  middle  letter  stands  for  the 
whole  word.  Of  this  kind  only  one  example  is 
known,  namely,  '•"'  =  ■■"^'  (compare  Perles,  op.  cit. 
p.  16). 

(4)  "'^^^  'S'^:    The    beginning    of    the    word    is 

omitted;  for  example.  O'  =  o"r^!?("Am.  .Jour.  Siniit. 
Lang."  XV.  162),'!  =  I^'"*  or  P  before  familj- names ; 
especially  common  in  the  Arabic  periofl,  but  affected 
also  Ijy  some  modern  writers. 

(•5)  The  name  of  God  is  now  usually  written  '": 
but  in  anti<piity  it  was  written  in  a  great  many  ways, 
too  many  to  record  here  (see  Tetk.\gk.\m.maton). 


41 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abbreviations 


When  there  are  two  or  more  words,  the  I'Dlluwing 
modes  of  abtireviatioii  prevail: 

(0)  n'3.-"  •U'N7;  („)  The  initial  letter  of  every  word, 
whether  it  tie  a  radical  or  a  formative  element  or  an 
insepai-alile  particle,  is  retained— the  rest  is  omitted; 
for  example,  n"n  =  n-^j-ps 'N.  ij-^s  cn^as;  n-y  =  v^;; 
ci'-B-n  .  v'|i  =  -i^ni  S|-> .  It  is  to  lie  noticed,  however, 
that,  if  the  first  word  of  the  eomliination  hefiins  with 
an  inseparable  particle,  sik  h  particle  is  not  counted; 
for  example,  n"as  =  <i-p\-i  ^3N;  d-nh  =  t,-D  j^nh.  s'-;2\ 
=  np  ''yai;  ^"'N2'  =  S'NS-':  jn"  ij'N.i;:  .  An  exception  to 
tills  rule  is  the  article  in  combination  beginninj;  with 
31  3in.  f^„.  example,  t"i'-i  =  =-bj  ■'J??  :=>■)  ;  N'TJinn  = 
DH^3N  13  2-j  s-d-  2-y  3in_  j,nd  '^"'■■1  =  1!"?^?  =?!',  but 
more  usiiallv  written  p"'tt'.T. 

(i)  Two  letters  are  retained  of  one  or  several 
words;  for  example,  3-i>t  =  r^y2  rii>s  .  3"NN  =  -n''N 
«'.73N  ;  T'.mN  =  r'>:'X?,''  ="','; ;  D''''J3!<  =  ^7;P:'  •"'^"VJ?  I'DN; 
3'K73  =  B's-if'j  "ary.  «T3 . 

(<•)  When  tlie  first  or  last  word  of  the  combination 
is  short,  it  is  sometimes  retained  in  the  abbreviation 
entire;  for  example,  '''>>>'  =  "s  ''X  l^"  ;  n"^-'  =  ",'  ^}^': 
p'jr  =  yi  mr;  n'<3N  =  'ii;;n  ^^^( 

(</)  When  an  abbreviation  is  formed  of  a  larjrer 
complex  of  words  the  rcsultini;  IcMfithy  abbrevia- 
tion is  rarely  written  in  one  group  (for  example, 
o'aypvrnHi  =  3';:  .-:i3  V^-  tf^ry  s-;y_  •;t-'^^,^).  but  is 
fretpiently  broken  up  into  two  or  more  groups;  for 
example,  «'«»<  x'x  =  ='?><  11'!'.  ^^  r?"'"  I'«;  'I'xxi  *<-.sn 
=  HNj.-i  nicN  inNi  T\^'Dt<  -licVt  inN  ;  n"33  o"C  n"n  = 
i3''n  •^■;3  'jp3  v)s  ty.5  bin  fx.  This  splitting  \ip  into 
groups  is  at  limes  guided  by  no  principle  (for  ex- 
ample, r'^BT  T3(<in  =  nsn;i-i  hot  f!  P'?  3N  l'Njn)_  j„„ 
more  frei|Uently  the  tenilency  is  apparent  to  form 
such  groups  as  would  make  sense  when  read  as 
entire  words,  or  would  represent  a  .series  of  n\im- 
bers.  or  would  give  a  certain  a.ssonance:  for  in- 
stance. ''^''  =■'"'3  =  3'??i;  3ian  n:.-i3  jrivcs  the  words 
on,  a.n?;  3"3  i-33  =  n;  I'3i  1-,  T?  gives  tile  wordsl?  «; 
H"3''i  3"Kt  =  a-ri'-N  r<<y2  nr';'  yifij  ^si'3  pk  113; 
gives  the  words  •<"3^,'  3W;  3-ji  z''^'y?i'r-;  =  ipj?  t>: 
i-ik:  113J1  <3s:  V."'  ■'?;?  Si?  yields  an  assonance  when 
pronounced  -.'.'  '"!  ^il?  3?  (compare  Pronunciation, 
below) :  J's  3"r  k-3  =  D'ii3j  dV:  o'-jna  dS:  B-airiN  oSr 
gives  the  serial  numbers  91.  2'2.  23. 

(( )  In  longer  groups,  particles  and  sometimes  one 
or  more  whole  words  may  be  left  unrepresented  ;  for 
example,  t^"  =  N37  Bv-irc]  NspijS;  ycm  =  ■?«•:■; 
n'-Myni ''KC'C  ",'13^^;  3'nN3  c'ly  tjci  =  jn7?!t  bt 
r'"i33rp:.':''|  ^^n  ri'3-<K  113  fntf  i3t  3^;;  D"j?;    p'cb'  =' 

rl'i^P  [o'l'B'i]  "<">;■  '^i;'?  ^.'j;?',':   "'"^  ■'''^"  =  ^"V-ti  'V'? 

■  [IJ'?tJ]  K*: ;  '''pO'i  =  '^n';  !rir[r3,]'''-!331 ;  It''"  =  [3'i:]  B" 
pij  iNCD''';  n'BJ  =  [B'iif"?i'l  PTD'n  t'na  «;>");  V'3r'«  N3 

(Lowe,  "A  Fragment  of  the  Taimud,"  fol.  l,/.'col.  1, 
1.  21). 

(/')  A  species  of  Abbreviations  consists  in  the  use 
of  the  lell(  rs  with  tiuiiiirical  valui'.  Such  use  goes 
back  to  anli(|uily,  and  was  already  known  to  the  au- 
thors of  the  Biblical  books  (compare  Ilol/.liiger  to 
Gen.  xiv.  11.  and  llerlholet  to  Kzek.  iv.  ,"1,  in  Marli's 
"Kur/.er  Hand  Kommcnlar/um  Allen  T<siament  "). 
On  this  use  is  also  bused  the  licrmcneutii-  rule  of 
Gkm.vthia.  Thise  Idlers  with  numerical  value  may 
be  wrillin  by  Ihcmsclvcs,  as.  ''-'  =  :i|ll;  ■'''"'P  =  (IIH; 
or  together,  with  the  .\bbrevialions  of  words,  as, 
p.._  pii-ep  ic-y;  '•■ys  =  fu"7  B'y2';'3  ;  I'cs  =  it  b'.-u;' 
y?-;?!.     It  is  furtherto  be  noticed  that  in  modern  limes 


the  use  of  r\'\  ,"•  for  1.5,  16  is  avoided  (such  groups 
being  part  of  the  divine  name)  and  i"a  ''a  substi- 
tuted in  their  stead.  In  some  eases  the  numeral  n'' 
is  written  '  "  and  pronounced  "n  with  allusion  to  the 
meaning  "alive,"  "living,"  which  the  word  basin 
Hebrew. 

(_(/)  P''3P  'S'D:  Sometimes  the  final  letters  of  sev- 
eral words  are  combined  into  a  group.  This,  where 
the  initials  make  no  sense,  is  done  for  mnemotechnic 
purposes;  for  example,    =''-'-^3.s  -  3N3['L-]N3-;[Nj;;u:in] 

(/()  r>}'^P:  AVhen  quoting  Scriiitural  passages,  on 
account  of  religious  scruples,  only  the  tirst  word  is 
written  out  in  full,  the  rest  being  given  in  Abbre- 
viations. This  mode  is  especially  common  among 
Kamitic  authors  (compare  "Jew.  Quart.  Rev."  vii. 
303). 

(/)  1"?:  The  mystic  combination  of  letters,  to 
which  dynamic  powers  were  attributed,  dates  from 
the  early  G.ndsis,  and  was  very  eoinmon  in  the 
Jlidille  Ages.  This  kind  of  abbreviation  does  not 
pro|)erly  belong  lo  our  subject.  On  the  origin  of 
such  a"?!''?, .  compare  Griitz,  "  Gnosticismus  im  juden- 
thum."  p.  100.  and  •'r.n  cd.  viii.  90;  see  also  the  ar- 
ticles C.\ii.M..v  and  Not.xhikon. 

(1)  Owing  to  the  fact  that  Ablireviations  were  fre- 
quenily  formed  into  groups  wliich.  when  read  as  a 
word,  gave  a  meaning  and  were  used 
Pronuncia-  as  a  help  lo  ilic  memory  in  oral  study, 
tion.         all  kiixls  of  Abbreviations,  even  such 
as  have  no  meaning  when   taken   as 
words,  came  in  later  times  to  be  pronounced  with 
supplied   vowels;    for  example,   ?""'.-",  (B.  B.  464), 
D-iry  (nD.x'n,s  ni'',  vii.  96),  k^'V  ((7).  98).     This  is  espe- 
cially common  with  names  of  authors  and  books:  for 
exaniple,   i<--;71.-:,  n-^y;.  ="3?1,   r'3,-,1,    '•^"T''..   "-O  ; 
Equally  frequent  is  such  pronunciation  of  numbers, 
especially  of  more  than  two  places;   for  example, 
J"?-"!,   """1,    ""P'^'. 

(3)  Such  pronounced  Abbreviations  are  accepted 
in  modern  literature  as  r<'al  words,  and  eviii  form  de- 
rivatives. They  are  useil  both  in  judse  and  in  jioetry. 
and  the  abbreviation  signs  are  not  always  written 
—  a  source  of  perjilcxily  lo  the  uninitiated.  Compare 
rvs'ri,  "the  heresy  of  Shabbetliai  Zebi.''  fnmi  ^"■^', 
the  initials  of  that"  name  (Gottlober.  "Toledot  ha- 
Kabbalah."  p.  11);  "'?.'^'-,^"~  .  "a  poem  the  nu- 
merical value  of  whose  letters  in  every  line  is  equiv- 
alent to  the  date  of  the  year  in  which  it  was  com- 
posed "  (a'33i3n,  p.  30,  note) : 

,^3'7i<  ns  B'i7p>n  ay 
n3'rN  an''  D-"  Swj3  .i.Vn^I 


618  = 
618  = 


Cjy  _  1  ''sn  j^r  pjn  'py.  M?';'  E.:';'  '13 

(Gotthiber,  "Toledo!  ha  Kabbalah."  p.  31).  This 
poem  yields  the  P'"^  =  V^^.  '=:P'',  "the  date  of  the 
year  with  the  omission  of  the  lliiaisands"  Hence, 
(U8  =  .">61«  .\.M.  =  1H.")K  11. r.  (see  also  "  l.uah  Al.ii- 
asaf."  ii.  31:  Uolitzky.  "Sliin-  Miiiahem."  ji.  105). 

Abbreviations  may  be  divided  inlo  general   and 
special.     To  the  lallerclass  belong  disirelicaiary  Ab- 
breviations formed  for  spi-eial  cases  or 
Uses.         by  certain  authors;  while  the  general 
,\bbrevialions.  through  their  eonnec- 
lion   with  the   history  of  eullure  and  of  lileniture. 
have  become  mouuini'nls  of  idiiis  ami  of  .seiilimenls. 
and  havi'  eonu'  to  possess  hislorii'  sigiiilieanee  (com- 
Zuiiz.   "'/..  (i."   p.   4.VI).      Till'  oldest    ri'gular 


pare 
uses  of 


.Vbbreviations  as  found  in  the  Talmud  are: 


Abbreviations 
Abdallah  ibn  Salam 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


42 


(1)  The  abbrcviiitiou  of  tin-  iiiiiin.-  of  God  (soe 
I  (3),  above). 

(2)  As  niiifmoiiio  sifrns.  forii  help  to  tlio  memory  in 
oral  stvidy.  This  liittcr  liin<l  of  abhrevialioii  was  es- 
pecially called  I?'P  (see  7<;v/( ///(//"//.'/.  above).  Instead 
of  these  B'JC-d  represent iiij;  words,  they  soiiietiines 
represent  numbers  (.Mishnah,  Men.  xi.  4:  see  also 
H.  Ju.lah  in  Pesid.i  Ilairpidah  and  Sifre.  nj.-  t,  301). 
For  the  ninetnonie  sii;ns  t)f  the  Talmud,  compare  I). 
Pardo.  ••  La-Mena/.eah  leOavid,"  Salouica,  170.")  or 
17!).");  Pinner's  introduction  to  his  German  translation 
of  Hcrakot.  p.  23;  J.  IJriill.  "Doresh  le-Zion  "  (Mue- 
nioleehiiikof  the  Talmud). Vienna.  1^04;  F.  Lebreeht 
in  "llebr.Bibl."  vii. 99-102;  also  Hapoport  in  "  Kerem 
Hemed,"  vi.  2r,2. 

i;si.iTially  numerous  is  this  kind  of  .\bbrcviations 
in  the  .Ma.>;oras  and  in  j;r;iminatieal  literature.  On 
the  mnemonic  sijins  in  the  Masoras,  compare  Frens- 
dorff's  glossiiry  in  liis  "Die  Jlasora  Magna";  on 
some  of  the  mnemonic  signs  in  grammar  compare 
D.  Rosin  in  "Jew.  Quart.  Rev."  vi.  47.->-r>01.  A 
complete  list,  both  of  .Masoretical  and  grammatical 
mnemonic  signs,  will  be  founil  in  the  appendix  to  the 
writer's  "  Dictionary  of  Philological  Terminology  in 
Hebrew  and  Aramaic."  now  in  [jreparation.  .Mne- 
monic signs  are  also  commonly  used  in  calendars. 

(3)  In  vituperative  language  Abbreviations  are 
tised  for  the  pur|iose  of  euphemy  (compare  ^leg. 
2'i/>:  s-'j  =r  Nj"K'  NDi"j  or  N^a;;'  "the  lewd  woman"  ). 

In  Inter  literature  we  liud  the  freciuent  and  habit- 
ual use  of  Abbreviations  in  the  following  eases; 

(4)  In  thestanding  formuliis  for  blessing,  wishing, 
praying,  and  imprecation,  and  in  standing  phrases 
concluding  a  com  posit  ion,  which  formulas  frei|uently 
consist  of  Biblical  verses  or  phrases.  This  kind  of 
sigla,  having  developed  different  characteristics  ac- 
cording to  various  times  and  countries,  since  it  was 
employed  in  epigraphs,  documents,  on  tombstones, 
etc.,  has  become  an  important  part  of  Hebrew  pale- 
ography. On  this  see  Zunz,  I.e.;  Steinschnrider  in 
the  "  Jahresbcrichte  der  Geschichtswissenschaft."  i. 
4;S.  ii.  .")9,  V.  3fi;  and  thesjimc,  "Zur  Mleratur  lUr  Ile- 
brilischcn  Palaographie  "  in  "  Ceutralblatt  filr  Biblio- 
thekswissenschaft,"  1887,  pp.  \'>>i  it  neg. 

(5)  In  the  quotation  of  names  and  titles  of  authors 
and  especially  in  the  books  or  treatises  and  chapters 
of  the  Talmud  titles.  The  titles  of  Hebrew  books 
arc.  in  a  sense,  proper  names,  usually  consisting  of  a 
Biblical  phrase  of  two  words,  whose  initial  letters 
arc  used  in  quoting  them,  even  without  mention  of 
the  autlwr  (see  Titi.ks). 

The  names  of  aiithors  consist  mainly  of  their  first 
names  with  the  addition  of  I.?  "son  of,"  followed  by 
the  name  of  their  father.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  be- 
came the  custom  to  add  to  the  name  of  every  author 
the  title  '?!',  abbreviated  to  "',  an<l  from  this  have 
arisen  Abbreviations  of  the  names  of  famous  and 
popular  authors;  as  s'?""^  Moses  .Maimonides.  ".""i 
Solomon  ben  IsiUic.  etc.  In  .some  eases  real  family 
names  have  grown  out  of  such  or  sinular  Abbrevia- 
tions, especially  in  more  modern  times  when  the  Jews 
■were  required  by  the  various  states  to  adopt  them. 
Thus,  the  name  "Brill"  or  "BrilU"  is  ^'-la  Ben 
Rabbi  Judah  Locb  ha-Levi ;  "  Katz  "  is  Y  '^=  n>-  !^?- ; 
"Sack"  is  ?~-  =  ■■^IP  >y:  "Segal"  is  S'jD^n-iS  jid. 

In  Germany  and  in  Franco  it  was  customary  in 
the  Jliddle  Ages  to  abbreviate  names  so  as  to  form 
a  word  denoting  some  personal  i|uality;  as,  t-'N-i 
"  head  "  for  ""r.'?  '^P!*.  Lack  of  knowledge  in  such 
matters  has  produced  some  very  ridiculous  mis- 
understandings. A  list  of  such  names  is  given  by 
Steinschneider  in  the  introduction  to  his  "(i'atalogus 
Librorum  Ilebra^orum  in  Bibliotheca  Bodleiana"  and 


in  his  "  llibriiisclie  Bildiogmphie,"  .\vi,  6,  .\.\i.  103. 
On  the  titles  of  Hebrew  IxHiks  compare  Schechtcr, 
"Studies  in  Judaism,"  pp.  328-;J42. 

((>)  In  the  technical  expressions  of  various  disci- 
plines Abbreviations  are  freciucntly  used  according 
to  the  needs  cd'  the  particular  subject.  They  are, 
however,  invariably  made  on  one  or  other  of  the 
principles  indicated  above. 

nmi.Ior,R.\PHV:  Tlip  older  lllpraliirp  on  Atibrevlatlons  will  lie 
foiniil  iniiiiienited  in  Wolf.  /{(/.(.  Urln:  II.  :->T4-.V.«i,  Iv.  Sit*- 
a;?;  H.  J.  KmlKT.  Xnrti  llil'l.  IIilii:  II.  i:iii  ct  .sf./.,  ,lin», 
ir.sj;  Zunz.  Z.  (i.  p.  44S  ;  sleiiL^icliiU'liliT,  r>'(rf>  fx  Kiiif  lUlir. 
KurZKchriit  !  p.  s  itlil.<  Is  a  n-prlnt  fmin  Archie  fnr  SIriin- 
i;i(l(>/ii<'.  IS»<7.  .\«i.  4li<)  ulliHliTi:  I'.  PiTn'au.  t:iii)  Ahhnria- 
txtvcc  Sifflc  Ehrairhi\  rhithhiwhi\  litihtiinichf,  Tillntwiiche 
.  ,  .  Anlttorftiiit  E'lizinnr  di  f^>  Kt»'ni)>Utri,  l*anna.  IH82, 
aiiirnit'nlid  miiliT  tin-  lllli-  (iccaw  <Ulle  Aliltrcrialiiri  c 
Sitilr  K/innV/ic,  IKS),  .lii/oyr.  2<i  Ktlizi'iite  <U  00  Kfciiii'ldri 
yiiU'vtilmtntt'  Aceri'.'ti-iulfi :  and  an  appendi.v  to  Ibis.  A  vihh- 
tliff  itW  lli-eaiii)  little  Ahhreelnhni.  1.SH4,  Antiiiir.  K>i-  iK 
0(1  E^iiiiiilari  (an  exhaustive  ri'vlewof  the  lu.<l  two  works  was 
pulilWnit  liv  I).  Kaufinunn  In  Ihi'  Hullitifier  (ichlirte  .liizei- 
y.H.  1S.S4,  pp'.  74!>-r.Vii:  ,Ioscph  K.zekli'l.  1°''  ^^'^  A  Hiiii't'wx* 
iif  Ihlin  le  Ahhrrridlimi.''  nith  llteir  ErplnnatlnnK  in  lie- 
lireie  ami  KiiylLsh.  vU'..  ItomlMiy.  1SS7:  Philip  I,ederpr.  Ile- 
liriti:<elie  ttnd  Clntbtili.-*ehe  Al>li'ret*iitlureu  .  .  .  in^Dttilsi'ltc 
tlieinetzt  unil  Erhlut,rl.  Frankfort-on-tlie-Maln,  1894:  (i.  H. 
Hiiudler.  pr^iaui  Ti;'  Eixikim  iter  Alilircviaturtii.  Aii- 
haii{i  zum  Aramtli.srh-S'fnliel>riti.sehen  V6rterbiieh  rort 
(Iwtaf  H.  Dalnidii.  Frankfort-on-the-Maln.  1S97  (of  whiih 
lilt'  author  is  now  prcparin^r  a  revised,  sepanite  edilionj;  .\. 
Bemslelu.  Sefir  liimlie  Telii't.  Ivoudon.  ISlKi. 

C.  L. 

In    Biblical    Manuscripts :    The  fragments 

of  two  Bible  manuscripts  of  Egyptian  origin,  which 
were  discovered  by  Xeubauer  an<l  deciphered  by 
Friedlander,  show  a  manner  of  writing  in  an  abbre- 
viateil  form  hitherto  unknown;  another  example 
was  exhibited  at  the  Oriental  Congress  at  Rome, 
October.  1809,  by  Dr.  C^.  D.  Ginsburg.  Only  the 
first  word  of  each  verse  is  written  out  in  full :  of 
the  remaining  words  only  one  letter  (not  necessjirily 
the  initial  letter)  is  given.  This  method  of  abbrevi- 
ation seems  to  be  what  the  Talmud  designates  by  the 
term  W°  (Voiua.  38(/ ;  Git.  (iOx  ;  according  to  the 
interpretation  of  Rashi).  .\bbreviations  of  the  ordi- 
nary character  arc  rarely  foun<l  in  Bible  manuscripts. 
There  are  none,  of  course,  in  the  Scrolls.  In  view 
of  the  Abbreviations  to  be  found  on  Jewish  coins  ('.n 
for  a^'-on^.n,  etc.),  the  question  arises  whether  words 
were  abbreviatcfl  in  pre-Masoretie  Bilile  manuscripts. 
As  positive  information  is  obviously  wanting,  re- 
course must  be  had  to  conjecture,  on  the  basis  of  vari- 
ants gleaned  from  the  ancient  versions  (particularly 
from  the  Septuagint)  or  of  evident  errors  in  the  Jlas- 
orelic  text,  which  arc  satisfactorily  explained  if  it  is 
assumed  that  .Vbbieviations  were  customary  in  the 
manuscriptsantedatingthe  Septuagint,  Thus,  when 
the  Septuagint  has  in  Jonah,  i,  0.  in  the  place  of  '"'^J' 
"  the  servant  of  the  Lord  "  (that  is,  ^r;  "■■??),  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  '  was  taken  by  the  translator  as  an 
abbreviation  of  the  divine  name.  In  Isa.  xlii.  2  Ni" 
may  originally  have  been  an  abbreviated  '^.'■^''. .  In 
his  brilliani  dis.sertation  ("  Analikten  zur  Tcxtloitik 
des  .Vlten  Tcstaiuents";  see  chap.  i.  Munich,  189.")) 
F.  Perles  makes  an  exten.sive  use  of  the  assumed  pre- 
Masoretic  habit  of  abbreviating  words.  He  even  in- 
terprets the  accentual  .signs  i'?;-  and  IP."  (see  Accents 
IN  Hebukw)  in  I  Sam.  ix.  13  (where  he  reads  with 
Lagarde  ^T'l  ^^'J?*" ,  in  the  place  of  our  i:?=  TJ?!"), 
and  in  Ps.  Ixxxix.  'A  (where  ■"?''■  should  replace  the 
meainngless  '".")  as  remnants  of  the  signs  of  abbrevia- 
tion customary  in  rabbinical  writings.  While  some 
of  the  emendations  proposed  by  Perles  and  his  prede- 
cessors are  ingenious  and  plausible,  the  thesis  that 
words  were  abbreviated  in  pre-Masoretic  Bible  man- 
uscripts may  perhaps  still  be  said  to  be  unproved. 
The  omission  of  parts  of  words  may  not  be  tlue  to  a 


43 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abbreviations 
Abdallab  ibn  Salam 


fixed  Iiabit  of  abbreviating,  but  may  have  been  re- 
sorted to  only  sporadiciilly;  for  example,  at  the  end 
of  a  line;  and,  in  some  eases,  laeuna',  wliieh  were  not 
treated  as  siicli  by  eopyisls.  slioidd  ])erlmps  appear. 
It  is  eerlainly  hazardous  to  ascribe  so  early  a  date 
to  tlie  rabbinic  signs  of  abbreviation. 
BiBLioiiKAPMY :  Jtic.  Quart.  Rev.  ill.  363,  ii01-."itS6. 

M.  L.  M. 

ABD=(" Servant"):  An  Arabic  word  tliat  forms 
the  lirsl  part  of  many  compound  proper  names  of 
Jews  fif  Amble  spe.-diinir  countries.  'I'lic  name  fol- 
lowini:  it  is  invariably  that  of  a  deity,  and  is  either 

(1)  tlie  proiier  name  of  a  god.  as  in  early  limes,  or 

(2)  an  adji(tive  expressing  some  attribute  of  God 
which  is  thus  used  asa  synonym  of  the  Deity.  The 
former  usage  was  current  among  the  early  Semites, 
as  is  shown  by  the  existence  of  such  names  among 
llie  preislainitic  Arabs  as  Abd-l'tzu  or  A/nl-S/im/is 
("  of  the  Sun  god  ");  among  the  I'hcnicians.  as  .IIkI- 
Eiihiiiiiii;  among  the  Aranicans,  as  .VitlJImlml,  and 
even  among  the  Hebrews,  in  the  form  Ali<ht  (Oba- 
diah).  With  the  growth  of  monotheism  among  the 
Jews  and  later  among  the  Mohammedans,  it  became 
customary  to  substitute  for  the  name  of  the  idol  that 
of  God  or  an  adjective  signifying  one  of  His  attrib- 
utes, as  Ah<i-iil-.\ziz  ("Sliive  of  tiie  Mighty  ").  This 
dilference  in  formation  enables  Ibesludi'iit  of  history 
and  literature  todistiuguish  the  dates  of  persons  bear- 
ing the  names. 

Buil.lonRAIMiv:  (lennn.  I,i»  XomnTliioyihitre*  A)Vtenf,i»t\an» 
}fs  Ancinnni*  Laintitf.'*  SiiiiitUiufr',  \tt  /?<T.  Kt..jHir''A,  1M82. 
pp.  UK-UlT;  Wi'lllinliwn.  Itmlf  i/<«  ArtihiKiln  ii  llfiilrii- 
tlmiHK.  ISirr,  pp.  l-»:  steliiwlmeider.  Ill  iUmalioehrifl.  lt*«.'. 
pp.  3S5-33U;  Idem,  In  Jf  U'.  yiKirt.Kci'.  xl.  333,  338. 

L.  G. 

ABDA  ("Servant  of  the  Lord"):  1.  The  father 
of  .\dni]lrain,  the  superintendent  of  the  tax  levied 
by  Soi.oMox  (I  Kings,  iv.  (!).  2.  .\  Levile  residing 
in  Jeru.saleni  iNih.  xi.  17).  called  ()u.\L)1aii  in  the 
corresponding  list  of  I  Chron.  ix.  16. 
UliiLiuGii.ii-av  :  Itcimii.  In  Iter.  El.  Jiiirtx,  li$fi,  v.  lil'i. 

G.  B.  L. 

ABD-AL-DAIM:   Son  of  Abd-al-Aziz,  son   of 

.Miilia^aii  lia  Uracli.  physician  and  descendant  of  a 
line  of  Jewish  physicians.  Abd  al  Daini  llouri-^hed 
about  i;iiHl,  and  on  .\ugusl  :i(l.  l:il(i.  Iw  compl<ti<l  an 
Arabic  work  enlitled  "The  Two  Sciences."  in  two 
parts,  one  on  physics,  the  other  on  metaphysics.  It  is 
nrrangi-d  as  a  series  of  (|uestions  and  answers.  The 
manuscript  of  the  work  is  in  the  Bodleian  Librarv 
in  Oxford. 

Ilnii.iooiuriiv:  Ni'iihaiier,  Cal.  Bmll.  /ff/ir.  .V.'^S.  Nos.  8U. 
sl.'i ;  SIi'liiMliiii'lilir,  In  .li-ir.  linmi.  Hrr.  xi.  XC. 

K. 

ABD-AL-MALIK :  Onimiad  calif  who  ruled 
at  Damascus  lis.'i  to  7ii."i.  and  who.  luilike  his  pred- 
ecessors, was  not  very  religious,  bul  showed  a  cer- 
tain toleraiK'c  toward  the  Jiws,  who  hitherto  hail 
been  roughly  liaiidlcd.  .Vbil  alMalik.  indeed,  em- 
ployed as  minister  a  Jew  nainid  Someir. 

On  the  accession  of  the  Ominiad  dynasty,  in  60L  a 
marked  ehani:c  look  place  in  the  policy  of  the  califs, 
religious  intiresls  being  siipei-si'did  by  a  policy  i  al- 
culaled  to  pcrpeluale  Ihcdyiiasiy.  In  .Mid-al-.Malik's 
time  Damascus  displaced  Medina  as  the  seal  of  the 
califate,  and  this  eveiil  was  regarded  as  evidence 
that  the  spread  of  the  Moslem  faith  was  no  longer 
to  be  the  sole  care  of  the  princes  of  the  ruling  house. 
Close  upon  Ibis  and  oilier  iniiovalions  fnllnwed  the 
splitting  up  of  Islam  into  various  seels,  which  brniiil 
ciied  the  religious  hori/on  and  brouglit  to  ihe  .lews 
in  Mohaniinedan  countries  a  period  of  comparative 
peace.  H.  Hiii. 


ABDALLAH :  As  a  Jewisii  name  the  Arabic 
eiiuivaleni  of  the  Hebrew  Obadiah  and  similar  names. 
Its  lirst  appearance  among  the  Jews  was  not  due 
to  religious  motives.  The  name  Abdallab  was  com- 
mon in  .\rabic  liefore  the  rise  of  Islam,  and  if  it  be 
found — though  not  very  frequently — among  Jews, 
il  has  licen,  like  many  other  pure  Arabic  names,  only 
adopted  by  them.  The  lirst  Jew  of  this  name  is 
not  Abdallab  ibn  Salam,  as  Steinschneider  assumes 
("Jew.  (Ju.'irt.  Hev."  xi.  'iiS')),  for  he  was  called  Abd- 
allab only  on  being  converted  to  Islam.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  lind  Abdailali  Inn  Dlieif.  of  the  Haiiu 
Kainiika'a.  and  Abdallab  ibn  S:iiini.  the  rabbi  of  the 
Banu  Thalaba  ibn  Fityaun.  For  the  other  and  very 
rare  instances  see  Steinschneider's  article  referred  to 
above.  H.  Hiit. 

ABDALLAH  IBN  SABA  :  A  .lew  of  Yemen, 
.Viabi.i.  cpf  ilir  srvciith  (  riiiury.  who  settled  in  Me- 
dina and  cmlinicccl  Islam.  Having  adversely  criti- 
ci/cd  ( 'all  ft  Ithman'sadminislralion.  be  waslianishcd 
from  the  town.  Thence  be  went  to  Egypt,  where  he 
founded  an  aniiothmaniaii  sect,  to  promote  the  in- 
terests of  Ali.  On  account  of  his  learning  he  obtained 
great  intluence  tliere,  and  formulated  the  doctrine 
that,  just  as  every  prophet  had  an  assistant  who  after- 
ward succeeded  him.  Mohammed's  vizier  was  Ali, 
who  had  therefore  been  kept  out  of  the  califate  by 
deceit.  Ollunan  had  no  leu'al  claim  whatever  to  the 
ealirat<>;and  the  general  dissjitlsfaction  with  his  irov- 
ernment  greatly  contriliulcd  to  the  spread  of  .Vbdal- 
lah's  teachings.  Tradition  relates  that  when  Ali  had 
assunicd  power.  .-Vbdallah  ascribed  divine  honors  to 
him  by  addressing  him  with  the  words,  "Thou  art 
Tlioui"  Thereupon  Ali  banished  him  to  Jladaiu. 
After  All's  assassination  Abdallab  is  said  to  have 
taught  that  Ali  was  not  dead  liut  alive,  and  liad  never 
been  killed:  that  a  jiart  of  the  Deity  was  hidden  in 
him:  and  thai  after  a  certain  time  he  would  reliiru 
to  lill  the  earth  willi  justice.  Till  then  the  divine 
character  of  Ali  was  to  remain  hidden  in  the  imams, 
who  temporarily  tilled  his  place.  It  is  easy  lo  see 
that  the  whole  idea  rests  on  that  of  the  Messiah  in 
combination  with  the  legend  of  Elijah  the  prophet. 
The  attribution  of  divine  honors  to  Ali  was  prob- 
ably but  a  later  development,  and  was  fostered  by 
the  circumstance  that  in  the  Koran  Allah  is  olteu 
styled  "  Al-Ali  "  (The  Most  High). 

Biiii.ioonAPnv:  SlialrastanI  al-Mllal.  pp.  1.32  et  scq.  (In  Haar- 
lirfiikiMr.s  Iniiislatiun,  i.  a)0--1lll ;  WbII,  OckcIi.  dcr  Cholifcii, 
I.  lT:t-ir4.  -Mil.  •J.-iii. 

II.   Hiu. 

ABDALLAH  IBN  SALAM:  .Jewish  convert 
hi  1-lam  in  lln-  time  of  Mnliammed:  died  lilil!.  .\c- 
cordiiig  to  the  .Moslems,  he  w;is  one  of  the  most 
important  Jewish  personages  in  the  history  of  JIo- 
hamined's  career  at  .Medina,  owing  to  the  fad  that 
lie  was  converted  to  Islam.  His  reputation  among 
believers  is  so  great  that  Ihe  standard  works  on 
Moslem  tnidition  have  special  chapters  devoled  lo 
the  "High  (^iialilies  of  .Vbdallah  ibn  Salam."  In- 
deed, he  is  Ihe  prolotyiic  of  Jewish  converts  to 
Islam,  of  whom  there  i  xisled  a  small  number  during 
Mohammed's  lifetime.  He  belonged  to  the  tribe  of 
the  Banu  Kainu^a'a.  His  name  was  Al-Husjiiii.  and 
he  claimed  lo  be  a  descendant  of  Josi'ph.  .\fler  his 
conversion  he  a.s,siimed  Ihe  name  of  Abdallab  ibn 
.Sdain.  There  are  several  more  or  less  fanciful  .sto- 
ries about  bis  conversion,  all  of  which  are  unreliable, 
bccaus<'  they  describe  him  as  a  Moslem  soon  after 
Mohammed  ciilered  Medina,  whereas  he  was  not  eoii- 
vcrii  d  lill  ciglil  yeai-s  later,  or  two  years  bi'fore  Mo- 
hammid's  dcaili. 


Abdallah  ibn  Saura 
Abdon 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEniA 


44 


Tlu>  simiv  wliich  evi-n  modern  scholars  bi-lii-ve 
Abdalliili  to  have  Imil  in  the  iiroiliu'liiin  of  the  Mo- 
dinian  jiart  of  the  Korjin  is.  Iherefori',  illiisory.  be- 
cause at  this  peiiod  llie  work  was,  in  the  main,  com- 
pleted. Abdallah  was.  however,  able  to  provide 
^Mohammed  during  this  period  with  information  from 
Jewisli  sources,  which  subsec|Uently  reappeared 
in  the  form  of  sayings  attributed  to  Molianinied. 
Therefore  he  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  fathers 
of  the  lladith,  and  especially  of  several  important 
legends  whiili  tend  to  glorify  Mohammed's  youth. 

To  Abdallah  is  ascribed  a  small  pseiidonyTnons 
catechism  (printed  in  Cairo)  styled  "  Queries  by  Abd- 
allah ibn  Salam."  containing  questions  he  is  sjtid 
to  have  addressed  to  JFoliammed.  Abdallah  left  two 
sons,  Mohammed  and  Vusnf. 

BiBi,]n(:ii.M'iiv:  Sprenper.  Lihni  <1.  Mohammad,  t.  40.  M  : 
Ulrsclitelil.  IliiliiliiezurKrlil(lniii{i  <l.  ivnniii.  p.  .'V2;  Stelii- 
srlnifider.  l^tthinisvlic  uwl  AiMthmttischf  LH.  j).  112;  Wolf, 
MulKlnnnoluniftfhe  Kschtttittimit-.  p.  tiS ;  El-Nawawi.  Tlif 
Hi"!//-.  Diet.  Ill'  Illnytriiiii.i  Mni.  n\.  WustenfeM.  p.  :M7. 

H.   HlU. 

ABDALLAH  IBN  SAURA:  One  of  those 
whom  Moslem  traditionisis  number  among  Jloham- 
med's  opiKinents  in  .Medina.  He  was  the  rabbi  of 
the  Banu  Tlia'laba  ibn  Fityaun,  and,  according  to 
several  tradilions,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  Me- 
dinian  rabbis.  Whenever  Mohammed  entered  into 
tbeological  discussions,  Abdallah  ibn  Saura  was  put 
forward  by  his  coreligionists,  and  is  .said  to  have 
caused  the  revelation  of  sura  ii.  1-9  by  summoning 
MoliammiMl  to  embrace  Judaism.  Abdallah's  re- 
fusal to  adopt  Islam  is  alleged  to  liave  led  to  the 
revelation  of  sura  iv.  50.  On  one  occasion  Moham- 
med iiKiuired  of  him  whether  there  was  not  a  law 
in  the  Torah  with  respect  to  adnllery.  Thereupon 
Abdullah  acknowledged  Mohammed  to  be  a  prophet, 
but  afterward  withdrew  his  ennfession.  Later  tradi- 
tions give  several  other  details,  wliich  are,  however, 
unreliable. 

BrnuocRAPHV:  Dan  Lehni  ^[llllnmmrl^s  iiui-h  Miilinmmiil 
iliii  Inhnh.  ed.  Wu.<tenfi'lil.  pp.  :t>l,  Jsn.  3flii:  Hii-schfelil, 
Biilriliie  zur  Erhliirtiini ili ■■<  Kimiii.  p.  M. 

II.  Hnj. 

ABDALLAH  IBN  UBAIY :  A  chief  of  the 
Aral)  tribe  Banu  al-Khazraj  at  Jledina  and  a  power- 
ful opponent  of  ilohaiumed.  who  had  undermined 
Abdallah's  influence  in  that  city.  lie  was  the  head 
of  the  party  that  Mohammed  called  "  Hanifa."  Be- 
ing an  ally  of  the  Banu  Kaiuuka'a  and  jealous  of 
Mohamme<rs  growing  power,  he  succeeded  in  pre- 
venting their  slaughter  after  they  had  surrendered. 
He  also  encouraged  the  Banu  al-Nadhir  to  resist 
Mohammed,  btit  failed  to  come  to  their  aid  when 
they  were  attacked.  When  Mohammed  mobilized 
the  Sloslem  forces  for  the  exi>edition  against  Syria 
in  G30.  Abdallah.  with  his  Jewisli  allies  who  had  re- 
mained in  Jb'dina,  formed  a  separate  camp,  which, 
however,  did  not  join  the  main  army.  His  disaji- 
pcarance  was  a  death-blow  to  the  party  which  still 
showed  op(iosition  to  Mohammed,  and  also  caused 
the  linal  e.xjiulsion  of  the  Jews  who  had  been  allowed 
to  stay  in  Medina. 

BlBLiocR.vPHV:  Wcllhausen.  Miihammed  in  Mcdina.p.  ^S; 
S|>ivuger,  Lcbcn  d.  Muhnmmad.  ill.  572. 

H.  Hin. 
ABDAN  .1  ABIDAN  (contraction  of  ABBA 
YTJDAN):  A  Palestinian  seholarof  the  first  amoraic 
generation,  who  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century.  As  a  disciple  and  clerk  (aiiiora)  of 
Rabbi  (Judali  I.)  he  seems  at  times  to  have  been  too 
officious  in  his  bearing  toward  the  members  of  the 
rabbinical  college.  Thus,  when  R.  Ishmael  ben  Yose. 
who  was  very  corpulent,  seemed  to  be  forcing  his 


way  into  the  college  in  a  manner  contrary  to  the 
college  rules.  Abdan  exclaimed.  "Who  is  he  that 
strides  over  ihr  heads  of  the  holy  jieople?"  When 
the  innocent  man  replied.  "It  is  I.  Ishmael  ben  Yose. 
who  am  come  to  learn  the  Law  from  Ralibi."  Abdan 
retorted,  "Art  thou  worthy  to  learn  from  Rabbi  '!" 
Piqued  by  this  insolence,  Ishmael  asked,  "Was 
Moses  worthy  to  learn  from  the  Almighty '/ "  There- 
upon Abdan  inquired,  "And  art  thou  JlosesV"  To 
which  Ishni;i<l  made  the  reply,  "And  is  thy  master 
the  Almighty '/ " 

On  that  very  occasion,  liowever,  after  Rabbi  hail 
entered  the  college  hall,  an  opi>orluiiity  presented  it- 
self for  Ishmael  to  |)rove  himself  an  expert  in  ha- 
lakic  knowledire.  while  Abdan.  who,  coming  back 
from  an  errand,  attempted  to  force  his  way  tlirough 
the  assembled  crowd,  was  ordered  by  Rablii  to  re- 
main at  the  door.  Legend  adds  that  Abdan  was 
severely  imnisheil  for  his  arrogance.  He  himself 
was  visited  with  an  attack  of  eczema,  and  two  of 
his  sons  were  drowned.  His  memory,  however,  was 
revered  as  that  of  a  good  man.  for  R.  Xahinan  b. 
Isaac,  in  referring  to  this  legend,  thanked  iSod  for 
abasing  Abdan  in  this  worhl  and  not  reserving  his 
punishment  for  the  world  to  cnmie. 

BIBLIOCRAI'IIV:  Tc?).  KW) ;  Yir.I]cr.t\\7,v.fd;  Bat),  ibid. 
-T/i ;  yiihliili.  Old  ;  f^rii.  R.  x.  S. 

S.  M. 

ABDEEL  or  ABBIEL  ("Servant  of  God"): 
Father  of  Sliclemiali.  who  was  one  of  the  men  or- 
dered by  King  Jclioiakim  to  capture  Jeremiah  and 
his  scribe  BariicU  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26).  The  Se])tua.gint 
omits  the  name.  G.  B.  L. 

ABDI :  1 .  Son  of  Malluch,  a  Levite  descended 
from  .Merari  (I  Chron.  vi.  4-t).  2.  Father  of  Kish. 
a  Levite.  also  of  the  family  of  Merari.  but  living 
in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (H  Chron.  xxix.  Vi).  3. 
One  of  the  sons  of  Bene  i;iam  who  had  "takea 
stransrc  wives"  (Ezra.  x.  26;  I  Esd.  ix.  27). 

G.  B.  L. 

ABDI  HEBA  :  A  king  of  Jerusalem  about  1400 
B.C.,  whose  name  (read  by  some,  Ebed  Tob)  is  re- 
corded in  the  El-Ainarna  Tablets,  t^mm  the  letters 
sent  by  Abdi  Heba  to  the  Pharaoh  of  E.irypt  it  ap- 
pears that  the  former  owed  his  kingship  not  to  royal 
parentage,  but  to  the  direct  favor  and  appointment 
of  Pharanli.  Abdi  lleba  had  tlie  misfortune  to  be  king 
when  the  whole  country  was  in  fear  of  conipiest 
by  the  Ilabiri  (Letter  179).  and  he  asks  repeatedly 
for  an  army  (Letters  179-183)  or,  at  least,  an  otliccr 
to  command  (Letter  182).  As  the  result  of  a  con- 
spiracy false  charges  are  made  against  Abdi  Heba, 
who  defends  himself  (Letter  179).  The  outcome  is 
not  known. 

BiBLi00R.\pnv :  Sep tlie  text  in  Abol  and  Winekler's  Thnnlaftl- 
finul  vnti  TcU  cl-Amarua,  translated  bv  WMnekler  In  Sclira- 
der's  A'.  Ii.  v.  :)IH  ct  sir/.  (Entr.  inins.  of  this  vol.,  Lonrlnn. 
1S90):  W.  M.  Fllndi-i-s  Petrie.  Siirin  ninl  Kauiil,  pp.  I-.I .  ( 
ffq..  New  York.  Isiis;  Zimmeni.  Dii  Ki  iliii.''ilirifllirii  u  ini< 
Jaiixalcm  in Ztitmhrift  fUr .{".iwinUniii .  vi.2).V;.">El;  .Mmris 
Jastrow,  ThcLctten  <if  AhdiHcl>a,iK.  H-ii;. 

G.    B.    L. 

ABDIAS  :  Obadiah,  the  prophet  (IV  Esd.  i.  39). 

G.  B.  L. 

ABDIEL  ("  Servant  of  God  "):   Son  of  Grsi,  of 

the  trilii'  of  Gad  (I  Chron.  v.  15).  G.  B.  L. 

ABDIMA  (called  also  Abdimi,  Abudma, 
Abudmi,  all  e(|uivalent  to  Ebdimus  =  Eudemus 

— comiiare  Jastrow.  "Diet."  p.  'd:  and  in  the  Biiby- 
Ionian  Talmud  frequently  contracted  to  Dimi): 
Xante  of  several  Palestinian  amoraiin.  known  also 
in  Babvlonia.     One  of  them  is  mentioned  in   the 


45 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abdallah  ibn  Saura 
Abdon 


Pak'stinian  Talmud  simply  as  R.  AlKlimi  or  R. 
Abiuliiii.  witlidiit  any  ((lu'iinnieii.  He  tlmirislicd  in 
tli(_-  fourth  ciiilury.  C(>nlcmi)oraii('(iusly  willi  1{,  Jose 
II.,  who  survived  him.  and  with  H.  Elii'/.cr  II.  See 
Yir.  Er.  x.  2(mi  ;  Yer.  B.  B.  i.\.  Hid;  doulitfiil.  YcT. 
Kct,  .\i.  -Mil. 

The  Pulcslinian  Talmud  and  the  iiiidiii.shic  litera- 
ture mention  several  more  amoraim  by  the  name  of 
Alulima  or  one  of  its  variants,  some  of  whom  will 
be  found  under  Di.Mi.  S.  M. 

Abdirna  (Dimi)  of  Haifa :  A  Palestinian  amora 
of  tlie  tliiril  j;eneration  (third  and  fourth  centu- 
ries). He  was  a  reeoiriii/.ed  authority  in  lialakic 
matters,  prominent  contemporaries  as  well  as  suc- 
cessors citin.i;  his  views  in  support  of  their  own; 
nor  was  he  less  distiii,i;\iished  in  the  field  of  the  Ilajr- 
gadah.  According  to  liim.  this  rule  of  eliqiuMte 
should  be  observed:  When  a  scholar  (hnknin) 
passes  to  take  his  seat  at  college,  one  should  rise  in 
his  honor  within  a  distance  of  four  cubits.  an<l  re- 
main standing  till  he  has  passed  to  a  like  distance. 
In  honor  of  a  vice-president  of  the  Sanhedrin  (aft 
hit  iliii),  one  .shouhl  rise  as  soon  as  one  perceives 
him  coming,  and  remain  standing  luitil  he  has 
|iassed  to  a  distance  of  four  ciibits;  but  when  the 
l)resident  of  the  Sanhedrin  (naxi)  jiasses,  one  should 
rise  as  soon  as  one  observes  him  approaching,  an<l 
remain  standin.i;  long  enough  for  him  to  reach  his 
place  and  be  seated  ;  for  thus  the  I5ible  (E.\.  x.wiii.  8) 
says,  "All  the  ))eoi)le  stood  up  .  .  .  and  looked 
after  Moses,  until  he  was  gone  into  the  l<iit  "  (IJid. 
33A).  Commenting  on  Eccl.  .\ii.  7.  "And  the  spirit 
shall  return  to  (Jod  who  gave  it."  the  famous  liag- 
gadist,  H.  Samuel  b.  Nal.iman,  remarks  that  R.  Ab- 
dima  of  Haifa  thus  illustrates  this  jiassa.ire:  "A 
juiest  who  belonged  to  the  order  known  as  Haberim 
[see  H.viu:it].  the  members  of  which  were  very 
Strict  in  all  observances  of  Levitical  cleanliness,  en- 
trusted a  sacred  loaf  of  tinniuilt  to  one  less  strict 
(Am  ha-Arez) ,  .saying,  'Behold,  I  am  clean,  and  my 
liouse  is  clean,  and  my  utensils  are  clean,  and  this 
loaf  is  clean:  if  thou  wilt  return  it  to  me  in  the  con- 
dition in  which  I  hand  it  to  tliee.  well  and  good; 
if  not.  I  sli.'dl  burn  it  in  thy  presence.'  Thus  .says 
the  Holy  Oni — bUssed  liellel — to  man.  "Behord. 
I  am  pure,  and  Jly  mansion  is  pure,  an<l  ^ly  min- 
isters are  ]iure,  and  the  soul  which  I  give  into  thy 
keeping  is  |iure:  if  thou  wilt  return  it  to  .Me  as  I 
give  it  to  tliee,  it  shall  be  well;  otherwise,  I  shall 
burn  it  in  thy  ])resence  ' "  (Eccl.  R.  nd  loc).  One 
of  Abdima's  aphorisms  is:  "With  the  destruction 
of  the  First  Temple  l\w  gift  of  prophecy  was  taken 
from  the  i)rophets  and  bestowed  upon  the  learned  " 
1 1!.  B.  \'iii) .  .\nother:  "  Before  man  eats  and  ilrinks 
he  has  two  hearts;  after  he  eats  and  drinks  he  has 
but  one"  (B.B.  Vi/j;  Yallj.,  Job.  S  UOfi). 

Iluu.iofifiAiMIV:  Yrr.Miu.  111.71?);  Kd/i.  .V<(;.  ill'<:  Trr.  M. 
K.  lll.ttV;  JVi.  .Vii/i/ii/i.  Il.:iil<i:  l.itiii.  It. U't.  l-.Miili:  Tilt. 
ii.  /'.v.  xxxl.  li,  and  Ixvlll.  ID;  Ytilh.  Tdi.  717:  Ituclicr,  -li;. 
I'lil.  Amur.  ui.rM  r<:t<. 

S.  M. 

Abdimn  (Dimi)  bar  Hamar  (sometimes  with 
the  addition  b.  Qasa)  :  .\  Palestinian  who  immi- 
grated into  Babylonia;  senior  contemporary  of  Kaba 
and  .loseph.  of  the  fourth  ciiitury.  His  name  is 
coimeeted  with  but  a  small  number  of  Halakot,  and 
only  few  of  his  Haggadot  are  preserved.  Conunent- 
ing'on  the  words  of  .Mosis(  Deut.  XXX,  II-IH).  "This 
commandment  is  not  in  the  heaven.  .  .  Neither  is 
it  beyond  the  sea."  he  observes:  "And  were  it  even 
so:  were  the  Law  in  heaven,  il  would  be  man's 
duly  to  ascend  to  obtain  il  ;  were  il  beyond  the  seas, 
he  would  be  obliged  to  cross  them  in  ipiest  of  il  " 


('Er.  55n) .  lu  using  Biblical  texts  for  honiilelic  pur- 
poses he  follows  the  usual  method  of  straining  the 
text,  or  playing  upon  similarities  of  expression  or 
even  of  sound:  for  example,  the  Biblical  statement 
(Ex.  xix.  17),  "They  stood  at  the  ba.se  {IhIhIiIH)  of 
the  mount,"  he  construes  as  implying  lliat  "the 
Holy  One — bles.sed  be  He  I — hail  bent  the  mountain 
over  the  Israelites,  saying  to  them.  '  If  you  accept 
the  Law  it  will  be  well;  otherwise  here  will  1k! 
your  grave'"  (Sliab.  88,/;  'Ab.  Zarah,  '.'A).  Else- 
where Ik;  is  reported  as  interpreting  the  term  "Ta- 
anatli"  in  the  pas.sjige  (Josh.  xvi.  (i),  "And  the  Inir- 
der  went  about  eastward  unto  Taiuiath-shiloh,"  as 
if  it  were  related  to  Imiiiii/iili  (sorrow)  or  to  itiinh 
(to  sigh)  ;  and,  therefore,  he  underslanils  by  Ta- 
anath  shiloh  the  s)iot  at  the  sight  of  which  man  is 
reminded  of  the  .sjicrilicial  rites  once  pnictis<'d  in 
Shiloh,  anil  .sighs  at  their  discontinuance  (Zeb.  118« 
ct  wi/. ;  comi)are  "  Dikduke  Soferiin,"  l.r..  and  Yalk., 
Deut.  i;  881).  In  Yer.  ileg.  i.  12d  a  dilTerent  inter- 
pretation of  tli(-  sjune  text,  l)ut  also  taking  Taanalh 
in  the  sense  of  sorrow,  is  reported  in  the  name  of  R. 
Abdima  of  Sepphoris.  S.  M. 

Abdima  b.  Hamdure  or  Hamdude  :  An  amoni 
of  the  third  century.  He  is  probably  iileiilical  with 
(Mar)  Bar  Ihimdure,  the  disciple  of  Sanniel  (Shab. 
107'/;  compare  "Dikduke  Soferim,"  ml  Iim:  M'ut; 
Y'onia.  87/-;  Suk.  -iUn;  Men.  384).  S.  M. 

Abdima  Xal;iota :  A  Palestinian  amora  of  the 
fourth  century;  contemporary  of  the  Babylonian 
amoraim  I{jib  Hi.sda  and  Rab  Joseiih.  He  was  senior 
to  R.  Assi  II..  who  delivered  lialakic  decisions  in  his 
name.  IJke  Abin  III.,  he-  was  wont  to  tnivel  and  to 
ilisseminate  traditions  among  the  academies  of  his 
native  country  and  of  liabylonia  ;  lience  liis  surnanie 
Nal.iola.  which  means  <aie  who  is  wont  to  go  down 
to  Babylonia.  See  Dimi. 
Bini.ioc.R.»pilv:   Ycr.  iihnh.  vlll.  lid;  IVr.  '».  I.  IWi;  Yrr. 

Kill.  i.  an ;  l'<  r.  II.  II.  111.  i:i<(. 

S.  M. 

Abdima  (Abdimi)  of  Sepphoris :  A  Palestin- 
ian ainora  of  llie  tilth  ((  illury;  disciple  of  R.  >hilia 
III.  and  of  R.  Huiia  H.  He  was  a  distinguislieil 
.scholar  in  his  a.ire,  as  is  evident  from  his  father  !«• 
iiig  quoted  as  Immi,  the  father  of  Abdima  of  Sep- 
phoris (Yer.  Be/ah,  i.  (iOi?) . 

BiHLioGB.iPHV:  IVr.  Bi  r.  Iv.  s<i ;  Ycr.  r<roii«,  U.  ftSf ;  Yrr. 
Kit.  1.  23ij ;  Yer.  XiiUlalu  II.  31*. 

S.  M. 

Abdimi  Iilallaija  ("The  Sailmaker"):  A  con- 
temporary nf  K.  lliyya  b.  Abba  and  Jacob  b.  Al.ia, 
who  was  one  of  the  numerous  cla.ss  of  scholars  eii- 
gaired  in  handicraft  (Yer.  B.  M.  iv.  H,/;  Yer.  Suk.  ii. 

Abdimus  ben  R.  Jose:  One  of  llie  variaiils  of 
the  popular  name  of  R.  Meiialiem  ben  R.  Jos<'. 
The  other  forms  are  Abirodimus.  .Vvnulimus.  Vra- 
dimas.  and  Vradimiis.  For  llie  etymology  of  Ihe 
name  si-e  Jastrow.  "Diet."  i.  8T5. 

Ilini.ioiiiiArnv:  Yrr.  Yili.  I.  ai;  Yrr.  Slitli.  vUl.  SWi;  Slfra, 
I-:iiinr.lo.l-i:  Sluih.im>:  Xal.»\a. 

ABDON:  1.  One  of  the  last  of  the  Ephmimilo 
jiidgis;  a  son  of  Hillel  of  Pinilhon.  He  aided  in  n-- 
storing  order  in  central  Israel  after  the  ilisaslroiis 
feud  wiih  Jiplillm  anil  the  (iihadiles  (Judgi'S, 
.\ii.  13-1">).  2.  A  family  of  the  IriU-  of  B<iijainin 
(I  Chron.  viil.','3).  3.  .VliitM'onite  fiiniilvd  Chron 
viii.  IMt.  ix  :lll).  4.  A  court  ollleial  in  the  days  of 
JosiahtH  Chron.  xxxiv.  •.•01.  In  II  Kings,  xxill'.'. 
his  name  is  given  as   V.blw.i  J    F    MiC 


Abdon 
Abd-ul-Mejid 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


46 


ABDON  :  A  city  in  the  doniiiiii  of  Aslicr.  given 
to  the  licvitcs.  Bene  Gershnn  (Josh.  xxi.  :i().  iind  in 
the  concsponiliii!^  list  df  I  (  liron.  vi.  74).  Identi- 
fied bv  Guerin  with  Alxlch,  tn  the  nrntli  of  Acre. 

G.   15.   L. 

ABDON,  MOSES  BEN  REUBEN:  ]{alibi  iit 
Rcinic  in  loi:!.  uiul  a  niriiilicidr  the  rnniiiiuiial  lioard 
of  a(hiiiiilstiiiliirs  (steuanls  nf  Ihi-  trlietlu)  uji  li>  the 
year  l.")(>4.  In  l^.^s  In-,  with  other  iiroinineiil  Jews 
of  Koine,  irnaranteed  to  n-finid  to  Elijah  t'oreos  the 
snm  of  I.IMKI  scn(li(abon1  S!(7(l).  whieli  the  hitter  Imd 
]>aid  to  the  jiapal  authorities  of  Koine  as  a  fine  in- 
tlieled  upon  tlie  Jewisli  eoniinunity  for  tlieir  failure 
to  Imrn  certain  Hebrew  l)ooks. 

Reuben  Abdon,  his  sou.  was  steward  after  him, 
from  l."):(i  to  l."iS4, 

A  Samuel  b.  Moses  Abdon  is  also  mentioned 
in  150T. 

liiRi.ioonAPiiv  :   Vogelstelii  iinil  lUi'ia-r.  Gcgcli.  (hr  Jmleii  ill 
U'mi.  ii.«i.  IW. ;)!:;,«);  Jc u:  Qnail.  licv.  xi.SiSii:  Berliner's 

Miiiimiu,  I.  S(i. 

W.  M. 

ABDUCTION  (••  Genebat  Ish.  Genebat  Xefesh"  = 
Theft  of  Man,  Theft  of  !Sonl) :  Talintulie  jurispru- 
dence bases  the  decree  prohibitinj;  this  olTeiise  iijion 
the  eighth  of  the  Ten  ('oininainlinents,  which  it  in- 
terprets as  meaning  "Thou  slialt  not  steal  [a  human 
being]."  The  ral)bis  argue  that  the  unlawful  ab- 
straction of  chattels  is  forliidden  by  the  injunction, 
"Ye  shall  not   steal"  (Lev.' .xi.x.  1  U. 

Rabbin-  which  stands  in  juxtaposition  to  the 
ioal  Pres-  prohibitions  of  embezzling,  lying,  and 
entation.  defrauding — all  oll'enses  against  proj)- 
crty;  while  the  context  in  the  Deca- 
logue, standing  in  juxtaposition  to  the  crime  of 
homicide,  refers  to  heinous  crimes  against  persons: 
therefore  the  prohibition  "  Thou  shall  not  steal  "  aii- 
plies  exclusively  to  the  unlawful  sciziu'e  or  steal- 
ing of  a  person  (Sanh.  Sti//).  This  ]irohibition,  how- 
ever, sets  forth  neither  the  jiarticulars  that  constitute 
the  crime  nor  the  penalty  incurred  by  its  commission ; 
the  rabbis,  therefore,  adduce  the  following  Scri])- 
tnral  jiassages:  '"And  he  that  stealeth  a  man,  and 
selleth  him,  or  if  he  be  found  in  his  hand,  he  shall 
surely  be  jnit  to  death"  (Ex.  xxi.  1(>).  and,  "If  a 
man  be  found  stealing  any  of  his  brethren  of  the 
children  of  Israel,  and  maketh  mi-rihaiidise  of  him, 
orselleth  him:  then  that  thief  sliall  die  "  (I)eut.  xxiv. 
7).  From  these  decrees  the  Talmud  deduces  the  fol- 
lowing rules  regarding  (1)  the  malefactor,  (2)  the 
victim.  (3)  the  crime,  and  (4)  the  penalty: 

(1)  Tobe  amenable  to  the  law  for  the  crime  of  Ab- 

ducticm  the  malefactor,  like  the  jierpetrator  of  any 

other  crime,  must  be  a  person — man 

Malefactor  or  woman — of  the  legal  age  of  respon- 

and  sibility.and  of  sound  mental  condition; 

Victim.  and  since  the  Hebrew  commonwealth 
was  based  on  the  principles  of  national 
unity  and  equality,  the  Israelite,  the  Lcvite  and  the 
priest,  the  free-born  and  the  slave,  were  alike  an- 
swerable for  the  crime.  Even  the  high  priest  could 
be  called  >i))on  by  a  competent  tribunal  of  seventy- 
five  judges  to  defend  himself  in  case  of  his  infraction 
of  the  laws;  and,  down  to  the  change  of  dynasties  in 
the  MaccabcMn  epoch,  royalty'  itself  was  subject 
to  the  jiuliciarv  (see  S.  Mendelsohn,  ''Criminal  Ju- 
risprudence," ^S  38,  4.5-.">0). 

('2)  Th(^  victim  of  the  crime  must  be  a  ]ierson. 
male  or  female,  child  or  ailnlt,  who  is  free-born  or 
made  free.  If  the  victim  be  a  .slave,  or  even  "half 
a  slave" — which  iniglit  hajipen  in  the  case  of  a  per- 
son formerly  owned  liy  two  partners,  l)ut  eman 
cipated  by  one  of  them  (Git.  4"2<() — no  conviction 


for  Abduction  can  follow,  since,  in  the  e3'es  of  rab- 
binic law,"  the  slave  has  no  brotherhood  "  dp  |"Sn3y 
niriN — ^^aIdl.  HIiiO.  a'ld.  conse(iuently,  there  is  no 
"stealing  any  of  his  lintlinn  of  tlu'  children  of  Is- 
rael." Nor  is  the  oll'ender.  if  found  guilty  of  stealing 
such  a  being,  obliged  to  jiay  the  double  line  which 
the  Bible  (Ex.  xxii.  3)  imposes  upon  convicted 
thieves;  the  slave,  in  Talmudic  law.  being  placed  in 
the  siiine  category  with  immovalile  property  which 
can  not  be  taken  away  by  theft  (.Mishnah,  B.  .M.  iv.S), 
Gem.  il>.  TAV,). 

(3)  To  constitute  the  crime  itself  there  must  be 
(a)  actual  Abduction  of  the  victim.  (Ii)  detention  by 
the  criininal.  (<•)  enslav<Mnent.  and  (</) 
Crime  selling,  (id  The  Abduction  nuist  be 
and  Pun-  complete ;  the  victim  nnist  be  removed 
ishment.  from  his  home  and  from  his  family. 
If  the  victim  be  sulijeeted  to  all  the 
indignities  forming  constituent  parts  of  the  crime, 
while  he  still  remains  on  his  own  premises  the  Jier- 
petrator  of  the  indignities  can  not  be  convicted  of 
AlHluction.  Also,  where  the  victim  is  naturally  or 
habitually  under  the  olfender's  can — as  when  the 
victim  is  the  olfender's  child,  or  ward,  or  ]uipil — 
the  law  will  not  convict  of  Abduction;  for  the  law 
(Ex.  xxi.  10)  .says,  "If  he  be  found  in  his  hand," 
and  thereon  Talmmlic  law  bases  the  conclusion  that 
the  words  "If  he  be  found"  exclude  him  who  is  ha- 
bitually found  there,  that  is.  in  the  offender's  ))ower 
(Sanh.  Sli(/).  (/<)  Detention  as  a  constituent  of 
Abduction  iinist  actually  take  jilace  on  the  ab- 
ductor's premises,  if  the  victim  be  detained  any- 
where else,  though  by  and  under  the  abductor's 
authority,  the  condition  is  not  fullilled  :  "And  he 
[the  abducU'd]  had  been  foiiiul  in  his  [the  abduct- 
or's] hand,"  which  means  within  the  abductor's 
own  domains.  (<•)  Enslavem<iit  nuist  be  accom- 
lianicd  by  consciousness  on  the  |iart  of  the  victim, 
jlence,  if  the  victim  be  in  a  stat<'  of  uneonsiious- 
ness — as  in  a  profound  sleep — at  the  inception  of 
the  crime.  an<l  remain  in  such  state  thnnighout  the 
process  of  the  crime  and  until  its  accomplishment, 
the  crime  is  inecnnpletc  ;  there  being  in  the  eyes  of 
the  law  no  actual  enslavement,  .since  there  could  be 
no  coercion  at  any  stage  of  the  whole  i)rocedure. 
If,  however,  the  victim  awake  before  he  is  sold,  even 
though  be  has  failed  to  realize  his  degradation  up  to 
the  last  act,  the  condition  will  be  considered  as  fully 
complied  with  and  the  crime  as  complete  (Jlaimoni- 
des,  "Genebah."  ix.  2  et  acq.).  To  constitute  en- 
slavement the  service  imposed  may 
Conditions  be  trivial.  Thus,  when  the  offender 
of  Crime,  merely  leans  on  the  victim,  or  uses  him 
as  a  screen  against  a  draft,  and  that 
even  while  the  sidiject  is  asleep,  it  will  be  sullicient 
evidence  of  enslavement.  {(I)  By  selling  him  the 
Talmiul  imjilies  the  sale  of  the  victim  as  boinlnn'n 
are  sold  (Lev.  xxv.  i'i)  ;  that  is,  the  whole  person  is 
conveye<l.  Therefore,  if  the  victim  be  a  pregnant 
woman,  and  be  s<dd  with  the  stijuilation  that  only 
her  prospective  olfspring  shall  liecome  the  iiropi'rty 
of  her  iiurcluLser — although  rabbinic  law  considers 
the  embryo  as  jiart  of  its  mother  (Xin  IDX  "jT  lyiV 
— Sanh.  SUA) — this  will  not  constitute  .selling  in  the 
meaning  of  the  law.  Nor  does  the  sale  of  part  of 
the  victim's  juTson  complete  the  crime.  Thus,  if 
he  be  sold  with  the  proviso  that  he  be  half  a  slave 
only  (that  half  of  his  time  shall  belong  to  his  pur- 
chaser, and  he  shall  be  free  to  disiiose  of  the  other 
half  at  his  own  jileastire).  even  this  will  not  consti- 
tute the  selling  required  in  Abduction  ;  for.  from  the 
Biblical  expression,  "or  selleth  him."  the  rabbis  de- 
duce the  legal  maxim.  "If  he si'll  him.  but  not  h:ilf  of 
liiin"(Mek.,  MishpatimXezikin.  ^  ■>).    Thesalemust 


47 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abdon 
Abd-ul-Mejid 


also  constitute  a  tmnsft-r  of  the  victim  to  strangers. 
If  lie  be  sold  to  his  own  kin.  tlioufrh  all  otiii-r  condi- 
tions exist,  till'  crime  is  incomplete,  there  being  no 
sepanition  from  "his  brethren  "  (Siinh.  H.ji;). 

These  four  conditions  must  follow  one  another  in 
the  order  lieredesiL'nated.  Where  a  sinale  condition 
is  lackinjr,  or  where  the  seiiuence  is  changed,  there 
can  be  no  conviction. 

Each  step  in  tlii' crime  must  be  attested  by  at  least 
two  qualilicd  i)(isons  ;  the  lubbinic  legal  ma.xim  in 
this  respect  being.  "Wherever  the  Bible  sjiys,  "One 
is  found.'  it  means  by  witnesses."  And  it  matters 
not  whether  one  set  of  witnesses  is  able  to  testify 
to  tlie  whole  aggregation  of  circumstances,  or  each 
circunistauce  be  witnessed  by  a  dilTerent  set.  so  long 
as  the  details  in  the  case  are  corroborated  by  the  tes- 
timony of  (|Ualili(d  eye-witnesses. 

(4)  When  a  legal  number  of  qualified  eye-wit- 
nesses testify  to  all  tlie  various  steps  in  the  case, 
and  the  culprit  and  the  victim  are,  of  legal  capacity, 
and  no  mitigating  circumstances  are  iiresented  by 
the  defense,  then  the  co\irt — which,  as  iji  all  capital 
cas<'S.  must  consist  of  twenty- three  qualified  mem- 
bii-s— sliall  adjudg<'  th<>  culi)rit  guilty  of  Abduction, 
the  penalty  for  which  is  death  by  strangulation, 
t^ee  Misluiah  .Sudi.  \.  (.\i./;  tieni.  //'.  fi.V/  and  Hfi; 
Mek.,  Jlislipalim  Neziivin,  ^  ">■  Sifre,  Deiit.  2T3; 
JIaimouides,  "(lenebah,"  i.\.  1-6;  "Senutg,''  Prohi- 
bition, 134.  S.  JI. 

ABD-TTL-HAMID  II.:  Tliirly-fourth  Ottoman 
sulliui:  iMirnSipi  ','•,'.  1S4'.!;  s\iccee(h-d  his  brother. 
.MuradV..  Aug.  ;tl.  ls7(i.  The  Turkish  .lews  rightly 
i-egard  his  riMgnas  the  inauguration  and  guaranty  of 
Ihcir  prosperous  condition  in  the  Turkish  empire. 
Abd  ul-I.Iamid  always  showed  the  greatest  solicilude 
for  their  welfare;  and  he  was  the  first  Turkish  sov- 
ereign to  grant  them  (Miuality  before  the  law  with 
their  Mohaiiunedan  fellow  citizens.  (In  ascending 
the  tlirone  he  ordered  the  payment  of  ri'gularsidaries 
to  the  chief  rabl)is  of  Turkey — giving  them  by  that 
means  the  position  of  ollicials  of  state — and  initi- 
ated llie  practise  of  sending  to  the  chiif  rabbi  of 
Constanliiiople  every  Passover  the  sum  of  H.tMIO 
francs  for  disttnbntion  among  the  poor  Jewish  fami- 
lies of  the  Ttirkish capital.  When,  in  IHHl,  the  Cre- 
tan goveriunent  refused  to  allow  Jews  to  lake  pari 
ill  till'  municipal  eli'Ctions,  Abd  uMlamid  annulled 
the  elections  and  sharply  admonished  the  authorities 
for  their  infringeniiiit  of  the  rights  of  the  Jews. 
When,  by  the  terrible  conllagralion  that  occurred 
in  till-  Jewish  quarter,  Ilaskini,  in  lHs->.  si.x  thou 
sand  .levvish  families  of  Coiistanliiiople  were  lift 
without  shelter,  Abd  id  Ilaiuid  did  everything  in  his 
power  to  relieve  their  distress.  In  IXH:!,  when  tlie 
sultan  conferred  the  order  of  the  Osinanie  on  the 
chief  rabbi  of  Constantinople,  Moses  Levy,  lie  ex- 
pressed his  sympathy  for  the  Jews  ami  his  reprolia- 
titiii  of  the  persecutions  endurid  by  them  in  many 
European  countries.  "As  fur  nie."  he  sjiid.  "I  am 
very  much  satistied  with  the  Jewish  ofiicials  for 
llieir  activity  and  /.eal;  and  I  will  in  the  future  in- 
crease Ihcir  number,"  As  a  result  of  this  promise 
theentrv  of  Jews  to  ofHciiil  life  in  Turkey  is  now  less 
dilliciilt'  than  formerly.  The  Council  of  Stale  in- 
<luilis  one  Jewish  niember,  Rehar  EtTemli  .\slike- 
na/i;  in  the  diplomatic  service  there  are  about  lif- 
lein  Jewish  eliancillors,  consuls,  ami  vice  (onsiils. 
represinling  Turkey  abroad;  at  home  a  few  Jews 
are  at  the  head  of  provincial  governinenis;  while 
seviral  have  been  honored  with  the  title  of  pasha — 
a  title  thai  until  lately  was  never  bestowed  upon 
Jews.  IJiiite  recently  ihe  sultan  showed  his  kindly 
feelings  lowjird  his  Hebrew  subjects  by  permitting 


persecuted  Rumanian  Jews  to  settle  in  Asia  Minor, 
granting  them  land  and  jiecuuiary  aid. 

Bini.iOGRAPllv:  BuUelin  ile  ('Alliance  IitraflUr  UnirmtUr. 
isst,  [>art  -i ;  Archive*  InraHiten.  Sept.  'M,  ISUO,  pp.  aw-Klu. 

I.  Bii. 

ABD-TTL-MALIK.     See  Abd  ai.-5I.\lik. 

ABD-UL-MEJID:  Sultan  of  Turkey.  1n;)9-61, 
If  the  Jews  of  Turki'V  owe  their  deliverance  from 
the  unremitting  outrages  and  exces.ses  of  the  jani- 
zaries to  Sultan  .Mahmoud  II.,  they  are  equally  in- 
debted to  Abdul  Mejid  for  their  recent  political 
.standing.  In  fact,  as  nii/d-s,  or  subjects,  the  Israelites 
now  enjoy  all  the  privileges  and  lilierties  conceded 
to  the  Christians  by  the  "Ottoman  Charters."  known 
under  Ihe  names  of  "  IlatliSherif  of  (Jul  llane" 
(Xov.  3,  isyj)  and  "  Ilatti-IIumavoun "  (reaii  at 
the  Sublime  Porte  on  Feb.  18.  l-Slli),  the  former 
of  which  was  confirmed  by  the  gnuul  viziers  Kiza 
Pasha  (1843)  and  Rescind  "Paslia  (1840),  Since  tlie 
promulgation  of  the  first  of  these  cliartci-s  the  testi- 
mony of  Jews  has  been  accepted  in  the  courts  of 
law;  torture  has  been  abolished;  the  Jews  are  no 
longer  subjected  to  wilful  confiscations,  and  those 
persons  against  whom  they  have  cause  for  complaint 
are  punished,  if  convicted,  without  re,irard  to  their 
rank  or  their  dignity.  The  .second  charter,  which 
in  a  measure  was  promis<>d  to  Albert  Cohn  at  the 
audience  accoriled  him  by  the  sultan  on  Aug.  20, 
18r)4,  liesides  reassuring  Ihe  Jews  of  their  right  to 
personal  liberty  and  the  security  of  their  pcissessions, 
contains  the  following  new  dispositiiais  in  their  favor; 
In  common  with  all  other  subjects,  they  receive 
equality  liefore  tin-  law  as  well  as  in  taxation;  admis- 
sion to  public  ollices  and  to  military  sirvice;  relig- 
ious liberty  and  unrestricted  public  instruction;  re- 
vision of  privileges  and  immunities  of  iionMussul- 
nian  communities;  a  guaranty  of  their  iiiiniiinities 
and  of  purely  spiritual  privileges;  jusi  represi'nta- 
tion  of  their  communities  in  provincial  and  common 
councils  and  in  the  supreme  courts  of  justici-;  and, 
lastly,  the  confirmation  of  the  civil  jurisiiiclion  ex- 
ercised in  certain  cases  by  the  Council  of  Patriarchs 
in  non-Mussulman  communilies. 

It  should  be  adiled  that,  owing  to  the  dilllcnllies 
in  the  applicatiim  of  a  reform  in  llie  military  service, 
the  clause  referring  lo  this  .service  was  revokeil. 

Provisionally  the  system  of  lepliu-emeiit  or  subsli- 
tution,  which  still  exists,  was  admittid.  Instead  of 
the  old  kliiirnitj  (poll-tax) .  which  look  tin'  place  of 
mililary  service,  the  tudil  y  nfkniith  (ixemption 
lax)  was  siibstiluli'd.  from  whi<-h  only  the  non- 
Mohammedan  inhabitanls  of  Constantinople  were 
exempt.  Acceding  lo  the  request  presented  by  the 
ambassadors  of  the  European  powers  and  by  Nu- 
Ihaiiielde  Pnthschild.  concernini;  the  charire  of  ritual 
murder  |iindiii::  against  the  Jews  of  I>aniascus  and 
Ihe  island  nf  UlioiUs.  the  sultan  exhibited  his  re 
gard  for  justice  by  issuing  a  firman,  .Inly  "JT,  1N4(I, 
wherebv  lie  ordired  a  revision  of  the  latter  of  llies*- 
trials,  'riiis  revision  established  Ihe  iniiiM'eiicf  of  the 
accused.  Moreover,  al  Ihe  instance  of  Mos«'S  Monlell- 
ore,  who  was  received  in  audience  Oil.  '.'8,  \x\i\, 
another  lirinan  was  promulgated  wherein  the  sultan, 
besides  reliesving  to  the  .lews  equality  of  rights  and 
privileges,  declared  "thai  a  lh"riiui;'h  examinaliMii 
of   the  religious    books   of   the  Hebrews    his   .1.  111. .11 

slraled  the  absolute  prohibition  of  the  i:  r 

human  or  aniinal  IiIiumI  in  any  of  their  n  li 

ll  follows  from  Ihisdefeiisi-  lliat  the  cliarg.  s  iii.'.iinst 

them  and    their   nligion   an-  nilumnles  '  (Nov.    (1. 

1K40). 

Justice  was  also  nocorrleil  (May  11.  18fl(b  to  thorn 
Jews  accused  of  having  pillageil  tin-  Christian  qiiar- 


Abd-ul-Mesih 
Abel-Cheiamim 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


48 


ters  in  naniascus  during  the  Miironito  massacre 
perpetratcil  l)y  the  Druses  and  Mussidmans.  Puad 
Pasha  dismissed  th<se  ehnr^'is,  and  eonipletely  reha- 
bilitated the  Jews  in  pul]lie  opinion. 

Besides  the  improvement  in  tlie  jreneral  condition 
of  the  Jews,  this  monareli's  appreciation  of  Ins  Jew- 
ish subjects  is  signalized  l)y  tlie  appointment  of  Dr. 
Spitzer.  a  Jew.  as  liis  private  iihvsieian.  and  tlie 
allowance,  in  IS.IG.  of  a  monthly  pension  to  the  fam- 
ily of  Carmona  Tins  family,  descended  from  the 
celebrated  Chelibi  Heliar,  who  had  been  assassina- 
ted and  whose  fortune  had  been  eonliseated  under 
the  preceding  government,  had.  through  the  inter- 
vention of  the  JJoard  of  Deputies  of  British  Jews  of 
London,  obtained  a  lirman  to  that  elTect.  Several 
Jews  were  decorated  during  Abd-ul-Mejid's  reign. 

Bini.ioi;R.\piiv  :  Fninrn,  Ilixtoire  (!c.t  /.-TniViks  i(f  l'Emi)i7-c 
OltnitHin.  pp.  U;!-liil. 

A.   D. 

ABD-UL-MESIH.     See  AsiiKU  I5i.;x  Lkvi. 

ABEDNEGO  (Aramaic.  Abod  Nego ;  133  nay. 
Dan.  i.  T.  ii.  4'.l,  iii.  V2)t.ti(j.:  once  NIJJ  j;,  iii.  2!)):  The 
name  given  to  Azariah,  one  of  Danii'l's  three  com- 
jianions  at  the  court  of  Xebuchaduezzar.  The 
name  is  evidently  a  corruption  of  Abed  Nebo 
(133  nay).  "  Scrvan'tof  [the  Babylonian  god]  Nebo,"  a 
name  found  (written  in  both  the  cuneiform  and  the 
Aramaic  characters)  in  an  inscription  of  the  seventh 
century  I!. c.  (Kawlinson.  "Inscriptions  of  Western 
Asia."  iii.  4(i.  col.  i.  81  ct  scq.).  and  in  certain  early 
Syriac  documents  (see  Payne-Smith,  '•  Thesaurus  ") . 
It  is  probable  that  the  substitution  of  Nego  (so  also 
all  the  old  versions)  for  Nebo  was  intentional,  the 
purpose  being  to  disfigure,  or  to  get  rid  of,  the  name 
of  the  heathen  deity  (.see  Kohler  in  "Zeitschrift  fi'ir 
Ass_yriologie,"  iv.  40).  Similarly,  the  name  Barnabas 
appears  to  be  a  slisrhtlv  disiruised  form  of  Barnebo 
(inj  13) .  '■  Son  of  Nebo  "  (see  B.\RN.\BAS).  T. 

ABEL  (^3n) .—Biblical  Data:  The  younger 
brother  of  Cain  and  the  second  son  of  Adam  and  Eve. 
He  was  the  first  sheiJierd,  while  Cain  was  a  tiller  of 
the  soil.  The  writer  of  Gen.  iv.  tells  us  that  when 
the  l)rothers  came  as  a  matter  of  course  to  present 
their  offerings  to  God,  the  sacrifice  of  Abel — the  first- 
lings of  his  flock — was  jireferrcd  to  that  of  Cain,  who 
gave  of  the  fruits  fif  the  earth.  The  acceptance  of 
Abel's  offering  aroused  tlie  jealousy  of  Cain,  who, 
in  spite  of  tlu^  warnings  of  God.  wreaketl  his  ven- 
geance upon  the  favorite  bv  murdering  him. 

\T.  F.  JIcC. 

In  Hellenistic  and  Rabbinical  Literature  : 

Abel  was  regarilcd  as  the  lirst  iinioeent  victim  of  the 
power  of  evil,  rejiresented  liy  Cain;  the  first  martyr- 
saint,  with  the  title  the  Just"  In  Enoch,  x.xii.  7  the 
soul  of  Abel  is  the  chief  of  the  martyr-souls  in  Sheol. 
crying  to  God  for  vengeance  until  the  seed  of  Cain 
shall  be  destroyed  from  the  earth.  In  the  vision 
of  tlie  bulls  aiid  lamlis  (Enoch,  l.xx.w.  3-0)  Abel, 
wliose  death  is  dcejily  mourned  by  Eve.  is  the  red 
bull  pursued  by  Cain,"tlie  black  liul'l.  In  the  Testa 
nient  of  Al>raliam  (recension  .1.  chap.  xiii..  and  re- 
cension 7).  chap,  xi.)  Abel  is  described  as  the  judge 
of  the  souls: 

"an  awful  niaii  sittine  upon  tlic  throne  to  lurtec  all  creatures. 
.111(1  e.xainininir  the  riehteiius  and  Ihe  .'sinners,  lie  hein).'  ihe 
llrst  to  die  as  niarlvr.  (Jod  lirouffht  him  hither  [to  the  place 
of  judFiiient  in  the  nether  world]  to  frivc  judtrnient.  while 
Enoch,  the  heavenl.v  scribe,  stands  at  his  side  writinfr  down  Ihe 
sin  and  the  ritrliteousness  of  each.  Forliod  said:  I  shall  not 
judpe  .vou.  hut  eacli  niaii  shall  he  ludped  bv  man.  Beinp  de- 
scendants of  Ihe  llrst  man.  thev  sliall  be  judsred  by  his  .son  until 
the  irreat  and  srlorious  appcanince  of  tlie  Lord,  when  they  will 
he  judged  by  the  twelve  tribes  [judues]  of  Israel  [compare 
Slatt.  xi.x.  as  J,  and  Ihi'n  the  last  .iudgment  by  the  Lord  Himself 
shall  be  perfect  and  imchanfjeable." 


Josephus  ("Ant."  i.  2,  §  1)  calls  Abel  "  a  lover  of 
righteousness,  excellent  in  virtue,  and  a  believer  in 
God's  omnipresence;  Cain  altogether  wicked,  greedy, 
and  wholly  intent  ujion  'getting'  |"i3p]." 

According  to  the  Ethiopic  Book  of  Adiun  and 
Eve  (ii.  1-1."))  and  the  Syrian  Ciive  of  Treasures, 
l)ofh  works  of  lialf-Jewisli.  half-pagan  (Egyptian) 
character  (see  Gclzer.  "Julius  Africanus."  ii.  'i~i  et 
scf/.).  the  body  of  Abel  the  Just,  after  nniny  days 
of  mourning,  was  i)laeed  in  the  Cave  of  Treasures, 
Before  this  cave,  Adam  and  Eve  and  their  de.scentl- 
ants  fitTered  their  i)rayeis;  and  "  by  the  blood  of 
.\bel  the  Just  "  Seth  and  his  descendants  adjured 
their  children  not  to  mingle  with  the  seed  of  the 
unrighteous. 

It  is.  therefore,  an  awful  curse  hurled  against 
tlie  Pharisees  when  Jesus  is  re|)re.seiited  as  saying: 
"Upon  you  may  all  the  righteous  blood  .shed  upon 
the  earth  come,  from  the  blood  of  the  righteous 
.\bel  [eomjiare  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  xi.  4,  and 
I  John.  iii.  f,']  unto  the  lilood  of  Zechariah,  son  of 
Bereehiah.  whom  ye  slew  between  the  sanctuary 
and  the  altar"  (Matt,  xxiii.  3.')).  From  Josephus 
("B.  J."  iv.  .5,  §  4)  it  appears  llmt  this  murder  took 
place  thirty-four  years  after  the  death  of  Jesus, 

Abel,  according  to  Midnish.  protested  against 
Cain's  denial  of  a  divine  judgment  and  of  a  future 
retribution,  and  declared  for  the  existence  of  a  divine 
judgment  and  a  judge,  a  future  world  w  ilh  reward 
for  the  righteous  and  l>unisliiiient  for  the  wicked. 
"With  the  first  produce  of  the  field  the  Lord  bles.sed 
all  the  saints  from  Abel  until  now,"  says  Issachar 
(Test,  Patriarchs,  p.  ,■)),  According  to  Pirke  de-R. 
Eliezer  (chap,  xxi,),  Abel's  dog  watcheil  by  his 
corpse  to  keep  ofl  the  beasts  of  prey ;  and  while  Adam 
and  Eve  were  sitting  there,  weeping  and  mourning,  a 
raven  came  and  liuried  a  bird  in  the  sand.  There- 
ujion  Adam  said.  "  Let  us  do  the  same  "  ;  and  he  dug 
up  the  earth  and  buried  liis  son. 

Begarding  the  mourning  over  Abel,  compare  the 
Book  of  Jubilees,  iv,  7,  with  the  strange  interpre- 
tation of  Abel  as  "Jlourning  "  (as  if  the  name  were 
written  "las).  Compare  Philo,  "  Dc  Jligrationc  Ab- 
raham," xiii.,  and  .losephus.  "  .Vnt."  i.  2,  §  1.       K. 

God's  favorable  attitude  toward  Abel's  sacrifice 
(Gen.  iv.  4)  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  it  was  con- 
.>umed  by  fire  from  lieaven.  Thisisa  haggadic  i<lea 
known  to  Tlieodotion.  accepted  by  the  Christians, 
and  found  in  the  works  of  many  Cliuich  Fathers, 
such  as  Cyril  of  Alexandria.  Jerome.  Ephraem  Syrus. 
and  Apliraates.  In  midrashic  literature,  however, 
it  is  found  onlv  in  later  works  (Midrash  Zutta.  ji.  lio, 
ed,  Buber,  Berlin,  1899). 

Woman  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  strife  between 
the  first  brothers.  Each  of  the  sons  of  .Vdam  had 
a  twin-sister  whom  lie  was  to  marry.  As  Abel's 
twin-sister  was  the  more  beautiful.  Cain  wished  to 
have  lier  for  his  wife,  am]  sought  to  .sret  rid  of  Abel 
(Pirke  K.  Eliezer.  xxi. ;  Gen.  R.  xxii.  7.  according  to 
Ginzbergs  emendation ;  Epiphanius.  "De  ILeresi." 
xl.  ~),  ",Sehatzhohlc."cd,  Bczold  p.  34;  compare,  too, 
"The  Book  of  the  Bee."  e<l.  Budge,  pp,  2r>,  27), 

Abel,  stronger  than  Cain,  overcame  him  in  a 
struggle  between  them,  but  mercifully  sjiared  his 
life,  Cain,  however,  tf)ok  Abel  unawares  and,  over- 
powering him,  killed  him  with  a  slonefGen.  1{.  xxii. 
18) — some  .say  with  a  cane,  or  even  that  he  choked 
liim  with  his  fingers  (compare  Ginzberg,  cited  be- 
low, pp.  239,  230.  298,  299), 

The  ]ilace  where  Abel  was  killed  remained  deso- 
late forever,  never  producing  vegetation  (.Midrash 
Canticles,  ed.  Shechter;  "  Jew.Quait.  Rev.."  lsn4-9.'). 
vii.  160.    Jerome,  "Commentary  on  Ezckiel,"  xxvii. 


49 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYC'LUI'EDIA 


Abd-uUMesih 
Abel-Cberamim 


V<.  supported  by  .Iiwisli  tiailitioii.  Iii-lil  it  lo  be  Da- 
mascus (Hcb.  PL'TJT:  DT  blooii;  pt'  'Irink).  Ac- 
cording to  anothir  viisicm.  the  earth  refused  to  take 
up  Abel's  blond  lApoealypsis  Mosis.  xl.). 

SSince  man  had  no  knowledge  of  burial.  Abel's 
corpse  remained  unburied  for  some  time.  Al  God's 
command,  two  turtle-doves  flew  down;  one  died: 
the  other  dug  a  hollow  place  and  moved  the  dead 
one  into  it.  Thereupon  Adam  and  Kvedid  likewise 
"  (shit.  S  10;  Pirke  H.  Kliezer. 
.  ;  compare  "  Denkschril't  d. 
'ri,  and  Giu/.berg,  I.e.  'i'J')). 

(ilnzbenr.   In  Munatsiichrtft,  1899,  226-230, 


to.M)ersbody(Tan..  I!< 
.\.\i..  see  also  Gen. JR.  /. 
Wiener  Akademie,"  .\.\ 


BlRI.IOCR.VI'IlV 

L.  G. 

• In  Mohammedan  Legend  :  The  story  of  Cain 

and  Alul  is  thus  told  in  the  Koran  (sum  v.  30  tt 
«v/. ):  "Hecite  to  them  the  .story  of  the  two  sons  of 
A<lam:  Truly,  when  they  offered  an  offering  and  it 
was  accepted  from  one  of  them,  and  was  not  ae 
cepted  from  the  other,  that  one  [Cain]  sjiid.  'I  will 
surely  kill  thee.'  lie  [.Vbel]  said.  "God  only  accepts 
from  those  who  fear.  If  thou  dost  .stretch  forth  to 
me  thine  hand  to  kill  me,  I  will  not  stretch  forth 
mine  hand  to  kill  thee;  verily.  I  fear  God,  the  Lord 
of  the  worlds;  verily,  I  wish  that  Ihou  mayest  draw 
upon  thee  my  sin  and  thy  sin,  and  be  of  the  fellows 
nf  the  fire;  for  that  is  the  reward  of  theiuijust.' 
lint  his  soul  allowed  him  to  slay  his  brother,  and  he 
slew  him.  and  in  the  morning  he  was  of  those  who 
perisli.  .\nd  (Jod  .sent  a  crow  lo  scnileh  in  the 
1  iirth  and  show  him  how  he  might  hide  his  brother's 
shame;  he  said,  'Alas  for  mel  Am  I  loo  helpless 
lo  become   like   this  crow  and   hide   mv  brotlier's 


sh; 


And  in  the  morning  he  was  of  those  that 


(lid  r<pent"  (compare  I'irl^e  1{.  El.  .\.\i). 

No  further  menlion  is  made  of  Abel;  and  the 
.ibsence  of  his  name  here  causes  the  commentator 
liaidawi  and  llie  historian  Tabari  to  sjiy  that  the 
two  mentioned  here  were  not  sons  of  Adam,  but 
■■  children  of  Adam  "or  merely  deseendanis.  The 
Anibic  historians  ('^'aljulti.  Tabari,  Ibn  alAthir, 
tie. )  call  Abel  "  Ilabil  ";  and,  following  Jewish  tra- 
ilition,  they  sjiy  that  to  each  one  of  the  brothers  a 
sister  or  sisters  were  Ixirn.  Adam  wished  that  each 
sho\dd  marry  the  sister  of  the  other;  but  Cain's  .sis- 
ter was  the  handsomer  of  the  two  and  lia<l  been 
born  in  paradise;  while  Abel  and  hissisler  had  been 
bigolleii  oulsiile  of  the  garden.  Adam  suggested 
that  Ihe  <(Ueslion  .should  be  .settled  by  each  one 
bringing  an  offering.  Abel  brought  of  the  best  of 
his  ilock.  but  Cain  of  the  worst  of  the  products  of 
the  ground.  Fire  f<'ll  from  heaven,  and  consumed 
cinly  the  offering  of  Abel.  The  sister  of  Abel  is 
(ailed  Kelimia;  that  of  Cain.  Lnbda  (compare  Le- 
buda  and  Kelimat  in  the  Syriac  "Sehat/lu'ihle."  ed. 
I'c/dld,  tnins..  ]•.  S;  and  in  Ihe  "Book  of  Ihe  I?ee." 
cd.  ISudge,  trans.,  p.  '2^)-.  in  the  Elliiopie  Miilrash  the 
names  are  Akieniiaand  I-ubuwa;  see  .Malan,  "Hook 
of  Adam  and  Eve,"  p|>.  Wi.  10-1).  According  lo  an- 
another  tradition.  Adam's  height  slu-ank  consiiler- 
ably  Ihrough  grief  at  the  death  of  Abel. 

lluiI.liKiinpiiv  :  Well,  iiililhrhi  /,i  i/i  iidrii  .1.  r  .Vii«i/iii<7nii<T. 
I).  ;iii:  iirflnlHiiiin,  Aiiit  Hiilr/tw  2iir  Simllii»licn  Soyr ii- 
l.roi(/*\  pp.  tl7  tl  «■'/. 

G. 

Critical  'View  :  The  IJiblicnl  account  of  AIm'1 

cdini  s  from  one  writer  (J)  only,  and  is  so  brief  and 
fragmentary  that  nuich  is  left"  to  speculation  when 
we  try  to  get  Ihe  original  form  of  Ihe  story.  The 
name  "itself  can  not  be  sjitisfaclorily  explained,  as 
il  is  only  clear  that  the  narnilive  comes  fioin  a 
very  old  tradition.  The  .Assyrian  word  for  S(pn  Is 
IkiI'Iii.  and  the  derivation  from  a  Babylonian  source 
I.— 1 


seems  to  be  quite  probable  (Stade's  "Zeilschrift." 
1MH4,  p.  '2.-|0).  The  story  is  intended  to  si-t  forth; 
First,  the  superiority  of  the  pastoral  over  the  agri- 
cultural occupation.  This  prejudice  naturally  in- 
lieri'd  in  the  nomadic  life.  The  fact  conlirms  the 
anli(|uily  of  the  original  story.  Secondly,  it  em- 
l)hasizes  the  peculiar  value  of  the  choicest  animal 
saeritices  as  developed  later  in  the  ritual  system. 
1  Thirdly,  it  shows  how  deep-seated  wils  the  jealou.sy 
!  and  rivalry  between  jieople  of  different  occupations, 
who  in  iuicient  times  formed  sejiarate  communities 
and  were  continually  at  war.  Fourthly,  there  also 
lurks  in  the  story  a  consciousness  that  certain  people 
are  more  pleasing  to  God  than  others,  ami  that  the 
difference  is,  in  part  at  least,  connected  with  iiiiHles 
of  worship  and  sjicrilice.  Xeither  Abel  nor  Cain  is 
referred  to  in  later  Old  Testament  books.  The  New 
Testament  has  sevend  references.         J.  F.  JIcC. 

ABEL  ("  Jleadow");  Prefixed  to  six  names  of 
places.  c()gnate  with  the  As.syrian  /(/miIu  (to  Ik-  full, 
fruitful),  and  its  probable  derivatives  nbliiliini  (ful- 
ness) and  vl'lii  (vermin*:  Delitzsch.  "Assvrisches 
llandw   "  ].  r.  J."r)   P. 

ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH  (li  V..  Maacah): 
A  place-name  occurring  si.\  times  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. The  <|Uestion  whether  Abel  was  one  i)lace 
and  Beth-maachah  another,  or  whether  Abel-belh- 
maaehah  must  be  regarded  a.*?  a  single  locality,  is 
f>pen  to  doubt.  The  name  occurs  in  various  forms: 
(II  .Sam.  XX.  1.5,  A.  V.)  "in  Abel  of  Beth  niaaeliali  "; 
(I  Kings,  XV.  2().  A.  V.)  " Abel-beth maachah."  In 
II  Sam.  XX,  14,  however,  we  find  (A.  V.)  "to  Abel 
and  to  Beth-maachah."  with  which  should  Ik- com - 
l)ared  the  Greek  versions  in  II  Sam.  xx.  14  and  II 
Kings,  XV.  '2i).  Owing  to  this  apparent  separation 
of  the  two  names,  it  is  possible  that  Aliel  and  B<'th- 
maachah  may  have  been  dilTereiit  ]daies,  especially 
as  the  name  Abel  occurs  alone,  undoubteilly  used  for 
the  same  town,  in  II  Sam.  xx.  LS  (A.  Y.  and  I{.  Y., 
"AIkI").  These  slight  discrepancies  are  l>erhaps 
to  be  explained  by  the  supposition  that  \\k-\  was 
the  chief,  possibly  the  only,  town  of  Maachah  or 
Beth-maachah,  a  "small  Syrian  state.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  note  that  the  parallel  passage  to  I  Kings,  xv. 
•20 — that  is.  llChron.  xvi.  4 — irives  the  placenameiis 
AuKi.  MAIM.  "AIhI  of  the  watei-s"  (so  also  Ixilli  ver- 
sions), which  would  agree  well  with  the  iiKKleni 
Christian  village  Abil,  or  Abil-cl  Kaml.i  ("of  the 
wheat" — owing  to  the  fertile  soill.  This  si'ttle- 
ment  is  situated  in  a  well-watered  district  on  the 
chief  highway  between  Baxi.\s  and  the  coast,  on  it 
lofty  hill  near  the  X.Min  liMiKKimr.  This  place  i.s 
probably  identical  with  i.Vibiil,  mentioned  in  n 
mutilated  passjige  in  the  inscriptions  of  Tiglatli- 
pileser  III.,  ainonir  other  cities  comiiieixsl  I)V  that 
king  (11  Kings,  xv.  Oil).  .1.   1>.   P. 

Till'  confusion  of  the  ancient  name  A1h4.  inetuiing 
"Meadow,"  with  Ihe  Alnd  of  later  date,  meaning 
"  Mourning."  gave  ris*-  to  the  legend  reeonle<l  in 
the  Book  (if  Enoch,  xiii.  Eihm-1i  sat  down  at  the 
water  of  I>an  to  the  .south  of  Mount  llermon.  and 
then-  read  the  petition  of  the  fallin  aiiu'els  until  he 
fell  asleep,  ".\ndwhen  I  awoke  1  came  to  them 
and  siiw  them  sillinir  loirether  wo'iiing  at  AU'l- 
maim  |  Elliiopie.  "  I'blesjaer).  which  is  U'twwi 
I^lianoii  and  .Srioii  |Ethiopic.  "S-liejttT  "]."     K. 

ABEL-CHEIlAMnf  |s"in  U  Y. ;  but  "  plain  of 
the  vinevard-  "  ill  A    V  1     .Mciili.ined  only  In  .ludi;e«. 

\i.     ;t;l    (ll     P'  ■" "-■'•      .l-   liln.  Ill  '    :(-     ill'      fl-.ltV 

w  here  Jeplli  ''' 

of  Ihe  An '  '"'• 

roino  ("OuoMiu-slu-u   Siara."   t-<l.   Uifiunh ,  v;d   itl  , 


Abel -Maim 
Abeles,  Simon 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


50 


96.  10;  225.  5)  it  was  sitimtpd  six  or  seven  Roman 
iiiilcs  from  Pliilnflclpliiii  (Hiililiatli-Aininoii)  but  it  is 
iKit  possibli'  to  dt'tiiic  llic  exact  iiiodcin  site.  In  tlie 
tiini'  of  Eusi'bius.  the  iiliici'  was  still  noted  for  its 
viiieynrds.  J.  D.  P. 

ABEL-MAIM  ("Meadow  of  the  Waters"):  A 
traci  ill  l|i|ier  (ialilee.  now  known  as  AliilelKaiiih. 
taken  by  the  Syrians  under  Hen  hada<l  (II  C'hron, 
xvi.  4).  In  the  correspondin!:  list  of  I  Kiu<;s.  .\v.  20 
it  tisrures  as  Ai!Kl.-BETil-MAAtii.\ii.  whieli  town  was 
taken  by  the  Assyrians  732  B.C.  (II  Kirnrs.  xv.  29). 

G.  15.  L. 

ABEL-MEHOLAH  ("  Danee-Meadow"):  The 
name  oeeurs  three  times  in  the  Old  Testament:  (1) 
In  .ludjres.  vii.  22  it  is  stated  that  (Jideon  fnllowed 
the  Midianites  as  far  as  the  "lip"  of  Abel-meholah 
imder  {i.e..  near)  Tabbath.  It  has  been  conjectured 
that  this  "lip"  is  the  bank  marking  the  edjre  of  the 
Jordan  valley.  (2)  In  I  Kings,  xix.  IG  it  is  men- 
tioned as  the  home  of  f^lisha.  (H)  In  I  Kings,  iv.  12 
it  appears  as  one  of  the  limits  of  the  province  assigned 
toHaana.  thes(mof  Ahihid,  oneof  Scdomon'sofliccrs. 
It  is  highly  probable  also  thiit  Harzillai  tlie  Mehola- 
thite  (I  Sam.  xviii.  11).  II  S;im.  xxi.  S)  was  a  native 
of  Abel-nieholab  (see  Hauzii,i,.\i).  Eusebius  and  Je- 
rome ("Onomastiea  Sacra,"  cd.  La,garde,  97,  11:  227, 
3."))  strtte  that  Abelnuud  (or  'A/Jf^/ini/.ai)  wassituatc(l 
ten  Roman  ndles  south  of  Betb-sliean  (Scythniinlis). 
in  the  territory  of  Issachar.  and  that  it  was  inhaliiled 
in  their  time.  Tins  Maelai  was  situated  where  the 
AVadi  al-.Malih  enters  the  Jordan  valley  (see  also  Tes- 
taments of  Patriarchs,  Levi,  chap.  ii.). 

J.  I).  P. 

ABEL-MIZKAIM :  Oeeurs  oidy  in  Genesi;.  (1. 
11).  It  is  interpreted  liy  Septuagint,  Vulgate,  and 
the  Pcshito  (loUnwed  by  A.  V.)as  "Mourning  of 
the  Egy]itians."  or  "of  Egypt  ":  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  was  intended  to  sviggest  a  connection 
with  Abel.  The  narrative  states  that  Josejih,  at- 
tended by  a  great  company  (ver.  91  took  Ins  father's 
body  out  of  Egypt,  and  at  the  first  village  across 
the  Canaanitish  border  hehl  the  customary  funeral 
rites,  peculiar  to  Syria  even  at  the  present  time.  In 
Genesis  (1.  10)  the  locality  is  calU'd  "the  threshing- 
tloor  of  A  tad  "  (=  "buckthorn  "  or  "bramble  ":  com- 
liare  Assyrian  ctiiln  =  buckthorn.  rhninniiD.  Linn.), 
and  its  situation  is  given  as  being  "  beyond  Jordan." 
This  expression,  "beyond  Jordan."  repeated  in  verse 
1 1,  seems  very  strange,  as  it  implies  that  the  mourn- 
ing party  went  around  the  north  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  On  tliis  aecoimt.  Cheyne  (in  "Ency.  IJibl."  i. 
7,  8)  suggests,  with  some  reason,  that  the  oiiginal 
reading  was  Sil.ior,  a  branch  of  the  Nile,  which  is 
mentioned  (Josh.  xiii.  :!)  as  marking  the  E.gyptian- 
Canaanitish  frontier.  This  would  jdacc  Abel-ndz- 
raim  in  Canaan  just  over  the  Egyptian  border,  where 
one  would  naturally  expect  to  find  it. 

From  theanalogy  of  such  namesas  Abel-meholah. 
Abel-shittim,  etc.,  it  seems  clear  that  Abel  here  has 

no  connection  witli  73S,  "to  mourn,"  hut  simply 
means  "meadow  of  Egypt"  (compare  WincUlcr  in 
"  Altorientalische  Forsehungen  "  p.  34.  who  thinks 
that  Miznum  here  is  a  later  change  from  an  original 
"Musri,"  in  northern  Arabia).  J,  D.  P. 

■ In  B.abbinical  Literature :    The  rabbis  say 

that  liolh  names,  signifying  respectively  "The 
Jlourning  of  Egypt "  and  "Tlie  Thorn  Threshing- 
floor."  are  derived  from  the  mourning  over  Jacoli. 
According  to  the  rabbinical  account  1  he  sons  of  Jacob 
had  scarcely  crossed  the  frontier  at  Abel-mizraim 
with  the  body  of  their  father,  when  their  cousins. 


the  sons  of  Ishmnel,  Esau,  and  Ketiirah,  appeared 
in  large  numbers  against  them,  believing  that  the 
Egyi>tians,  of  whom  there  were  many  in  the  jiro- 
eession,  intended  to  invade  Palestine.  IJul  when  they 
)ierceived  .laeob's  bier,  and  Joseph's  crown  carried 
l)ehiud  it  in  state,  the  thirty  six  princes  among  them 
.sent  their  crowns  also,  to  be  carried  in  Ihi'  funeral 
j)rocession.  Hence  the  name  "Thorn  Threshing- 
tloor";  for  Abel-mizraim  was  so  encircled  by  a  row 
of  crowns  as  to  rendnd  oneof  a  threshing  floor,  which 
is  usuallv  surrounded  bv  a  hedge  of  thorns  (Sotah, 
13.(:  Tail.,  Wa  yehi.  18,"  ed.  Bu'ber,  i.  222,  anil'the 
liarallels  there  ciled),  L.   G. 

ABEL-SHITTIM  ("  Acacia  Meadow  ") :  Found 
only  in  Num.  \x\iii  49:  but  IIa-Shittim("The  Aca- 
cias"), evidinllv  the  same  iilacc.  is  mentioned  in 
Num.  XXV.  1,  Josh.  iii.  1,  and  Micali,  vi.  0.  It  is  dear 
from  these  passages  that  this  locality  was  a  town, 
or  perhaps  a  district,  of  Moab,  which  was  the  final 
headi|uarters  of  Joshua  before  he  crossed  the  Jordan, 
Josephus  ("Ant."  iv.  8,  §  1 ;  v.  1,  §  1)  states  that 
there  was  in  his  time  a  town,  Abila.  full  of  palm- 
trees,  at  a  distance  of  sixty  stadia  (seven  and  one- 
half  Roman  miles)  from  the  Jordan,  and  describes 
it  as  the  spot  where  Closes  delivered  Ihi'  exhorta- 
tions of  Deuteronomy.  Roliertson  Smith  may  l)e 
right  in  identifying  it  with  the  moilern  Khirbet  el- 
Kef  rein  (Cheyne.  "  Ency.  Pibl.").  where  ruins  still  ex- 
ist. There  is  to  this  day  an  acacia  grove  not  far  from 
the  place,  although  the  jialms  mentioned  by  Jose- 
phus are  no  longer  there.  In  I  Sam  vi.  18,  tlie  words 
"even  unto  the  great  stone  of  Abel"  can  contain  no 
allusion  to  our  Abel  shittim.  The  acacia  {shittnh), 
an  Egy|itian  loan-word  (Tristram,  "  Natural  History 
of  the  Bible,"  p,  390),  is  the  iS/niiii  Kyt/ptiiicii  of  the 
ancients  and  tlie  Mimom  Niloticu  of  Linna>us.  See 
Ar.uT.^.  J.  D.  P. 

ABEL,  SOLOMON  BEN  KALMAN  HA- 
LE'VI :  Russian  educator  and  elliieal  writer:  born 
March  11,  1837,  at  Novoniyesto-Sugiut  (Ncustadt), 
district  of  Rossieny,  government  of  Kovno,  Russia; 
died  at  Telsli,  governnicnt  of  Kovno,  Oct.  12,  1886. 
I  lis  success  as  a  teacher  at  the  Yeshibaliof  Telsh  led  to 
its  being  |ilaced  in  the  highesf  rank  of  the  educational 
iiistitiilions  (jf  Lithuania.  -Vbel  is  generally  known 
by  bis  |icisthunioiis  wcirk  "Bet  Slielcjinnh"  (The 
liduse  of  Soliinion).  pul)lished  at  Wilna.  1893,  a  most 
characteristic  product  of  modern  Hebrew  literature, 
showing  excejitional  nobility  of  tone  in  its  applica- 
tion of  rabbinic  ideas  to  the  current  affairs  of  every- 
day life  and  business.  It  givesa  full  cnmpendium  of 
the  ralibiiiical  jurisprudence  dealing  with  business 
and  inheritance,  though  incidentally  it  contains  the 
rules  concerning  the  Sabbatical  and  Jubilee  years,  as 
also  of  almsgiving  (zidnknli) ,  and  it  is  distinguished 
from  other  works  dealing  with  the  same  or  similar 
tollies  by  the  excellence  of  its  style,  which  is  in  a 
pure  Xeo  Hebraic,  recalling  in  many  respects  that 
of  .Maimonides'  "  \>u\  ha-Hazakah,"and  by  no  means 
in  the  usual  crabbed  style  of  later  Talmudic  authors. 
It  was  especially  designed  by  its  autlinr  Inr  jKipular 
use.  though  it  has  every  mark  of  having  been  written 
by  a  thorough  student  and  scholar  of  Talnindic  law. 
The  writer  especially  emphasizes  the  ethical  side  of 
his  subject,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  remark 
about  taking  interest  from  non-Jews: 

"Tlie  Torali  (ii<]  not  forliid  taking:  interest  frcnn  non-Jews, 
for  commerce  entails  siicti ;  lint  that  the  passaiire  can  not  lie  con- 
strncd  as  favorintr  iisur.v  may  lie  seen  from  tlie  fact  that,  ac- 
conlini:  to  the  Talnuid.  v(anri.s  otherwise  jierniitted  Ui  Jews  may 
not  be  eaten  if  they  e-xcite  dispiist.  Thus,  continued  Aliel.  Iio\y 
iniidi  less  is  it  pe'miissihle  t^i  do  things  which  excite  moral  dis- 
pnst.  .'*uch  as  usury  and  the  like,  when  the  welfare  of  tmr  soul 
must  lie  of  at  least  as  much  importance  to  us  as  the  health  of  our 
Iwdy?" 


51 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abel-Malm 
Abeles,  Simon 


Personally  Al)(l  was  disliiiiruished  by  liis  jtowcT  of 
attnutin^  yoiiiij:  iic<)]>lc  by  liis  moilesty.  kiiiillincss. 
anil  ciitluisiasin  for  kiiowlwljrc  wliicli  caused  him 
never  to  ]>assaday  witlioiit  study,  lie  was  a  student 
of  piilitieal  economy  and  wrote  polemics  against 
auarcliism  and  socialism. 
BlUl.lOGn.M'IIV  :  Ild-Ai'if,  ISSIi.  pp.  04,  (li. 

Jj.  O. 

ABELAKD,  PETER:  French  scliolastic,  phi- 
losoplier.  Mn<l  llici)lnL'iiin — the  boldest  thinker  of  the 
twellth  century;  Ixirn  107'J  in  a  small  village  near 
is'antes,  I'"ranc(";  (lied  114'2  at  the  priory  of  St.  Mar- 
cel near  Chrdonssvir  ISaone.  Abelard  was  one  of  the 
most  acute,  most  rationalistic,  and  most  contentious 
of  the  Christian  theoloijians  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Just  as  lie  was  reaching  the  height  of  his  fame  as 
a  theoliiLncal  teacher,  he  became  involveil  in  a  love 
affair  with  Ileloisa.  the  niece  of  Canon  Fulliert.  whom 
he  secretly  married;  she.  however,  steadfastly  re- 
fused to  allow  him  to  wreck  his  career  by  owning 
her  as  his  wife.  Iler  relatives  wreaked  iheir  ven- 
geance on  him  by  emasculating  him.  The  rest  of 
his  life  was  spent  in  monasteries,  where,  with  broken 
spirit,  he  labored  diligently  to  the  end,  being  greatly 
hampered  by  the  necessity  of  maintiiiuiug  an  ortho- 
dox positi(jn. 

Alnlard  lacked  the  courage  of  a  martyr,  and. 
tlmuv'h  radically  opposed  to  the  dominant  Catholi- 
cism of  the  age.  weakly  yielded  to  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority. There  is  no  evidence  of  his  acipiaintance 
w  itii  medieval  Jewish  ]>hilosophy,  which  had  then 
bei;un  to  inlluence  Christian  thought.  lie  ])ictures 
Ibloisjj.  his  pupil  and  wife,  as  learned  in  Hebrew; 
and  he  must  have  had  some  aciiuaintance  with  the 
language,  for  he  complains  of  its  negh'ct  by  his  con- 
temporaries, though  there  is  little  evidence  in  his 
writings  of  its  elTective  use.  His  "Colloquy  be- 
tween a  Pliiloso|)her.  a  Jew,  and  a  Christian"  is  in 
tended  as  an  apology  for  Christianity.  The  i)liilos- 
opher.  a  deist  wIk)  finds  "natural  law"  a  sullicient 
explanation  of  the  universe  and  a  sullicient  basis 
for  correct  living,  argues  with  the  Jew.  seeking  to 
jirove  to  him  that  his  religiini  is  a  failure,  inasmuch 
as  the  ])romised  rewards  of  the  Old  Testament  are 
all  temporal  and  carinil  anil,  with  the  fall  of  the 
Jewish  tuition,  have  become  impossible  of  attain- 
ment. The  Jews,  trusting  in  fallacious  promises,  de- 
spised and  pei-scculed.  are  the  most  miserable  of  men. 

The  defense  of  Judaism  by  its  niircsentjitive  is 
a  vindication  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  charge 
of  materialism  and  carnality,  and  an  ell'ort  to  show 
th.it,  even  in  those  troublous  times,  it  was  worth 
while  to  be  a  Jew.  .\'ielaril  shows  plainly  that  he 
stronirly  disapproved  the  opjiressive  mcasiu'cs  that 
liail  liniiled  the  activity  of  the  Jews  to  mercantile 
pursuits  and  money  lending;  and  he  considered  that 
these  restrictions  either  superinduced  or  exaggerated 
till'  characterislics  which  made  the  Jews  odious. 
Abelard  earnestly  desired  toleration  for  himsidf.  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  he  would  have  rejoiced 
ill  imiversid  tnleration  lie  went  even  so  far  as  to 
say  that  the  Jews  had  done  less  wrong  by  killing 
Jesus  than  if  they  had  shown  him  mercy  against 
their  convictions  ("Opera."  ed,  Mign<'.  p.  Cm!!). 

Hiiii.iooKAriiv :  (iilili'iiiiinn.  fWnr/i.  ilm  HnlfliuiniMimtnin 
iiititiUr  f'ultur  tliT  Jmltn  in  lYituKtrirh  iinti  Ih-ntHrhhtiift, 
pp.  IT.  IS.  nole ;  .\tM-IiinrH  hinhn/ux  iiilrr  l'hil"/^<ii,huin, 
Jtntirum,  il  I'hriMhtuiiin  Is  k'iM'ii  In  lil<*  0/mt<i.  I'li.  Mtirne, 
I'oN.  Hill  liM.  lsv>:  a  lli'linu  tninxliillnii  nf  ji  llii<<.-<liiii  l>li>- 
irniplilral  skit.li  i.f  .M»>liinl  l»  fi.iiiiil  In  S.  slin'liliT'n  Toliilnt 
.ln!*hf  Im-Slit  in,  IsT;I.  pp.  .*.  !.*». 

.\    II   X 

ABELE,  ABKAHAM  COHEN,  OF  KALISZ. 
See  AnitAii.VM  AuKi.K  (it  muinku 


ABELE  ZION  ("  Mourners  for  Zion  ")  :  Accord- 
ing to  Jost  and  others,  those  Karaites  who.  after 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Crusaders,  left  the 
Holy  City,  and  settling  in  Constantinople  adopted 
this  name  in  memory  of  their  beloved  former  home. 
This  is  denied  by  Frankl  (in  "  Monat.s.schrift,"  1SK2, 
p.  74),  who  refers  to  Benjamii!  of  Tudela's  description 
(cd.  Aslier,  p.  TO)  of  the  Abele  Zion  and  Abele  Ve- 
rushalayim  ("  Mourners  for  Zion  and  Jenisjilem  ")  in 
southern  Arabia,  who  dress  in  black,  live  in  caves, 
kei'ii  fasts  during  the  wiek-days.  and  abstain  from 
meat  and  wine,  continually  ]>raying  for  the  return 
of  Israel,  and  bearing  the  name  of  Hechabites.  Zunz, 
in  his  notes  to  Benjamin  of  Tudela.  sides  with  Jost. 
although  the  .Vbele  Zion  mentioned  by  Benjamin  on 
p.  Ill  arc  German  Jews  wearing  black  clothes  in 
inemorv  of  Jerusjilem.  Hadas-si.  quoted  bv  Frankl 
{i/ii(l.)'  called  himself  "Ha-Abel"  (the  Mournei). 
not.  as  Jost  and  Filrst  assert,  hceau.se  his  father 
was  a  Jerusideni  refugee,  lint  frrim  profound  grief 
over  Israel's  e.xile.  to  which  he  often  gives  expres- 
sion in  the  "Eshkol."  The  name  "Abele  Bet  ha- 
'Olamim  "  (Mourners  for  the  Eternal  House)  in  the 
"Chronicle  of  Ahimaaz."  ed.  Neubauer.  is  rather  an 
argument  against  the  Crusjuler  theory. 
BiBi.KioR.vpiiv:    .lost. -IniinkH,  ls:t9.  p.  l.V?;  FQrst, '^I'lsrh.  rf. 

Kiiiilni.  ii.  212:    liaclier.  in  liev.  Kt.Jiiiit«.  Isflii.  n.  149, 

nuic:  ilimiilssiUnft,  lt$j2,  p.  74;  Neubauer,  Mcdiaval  Jiu: 

Chron.  U.  3.5.  12«. 

K. 

ABELES,  MARCUS  :  Physician  and  instructor 
(prival  iloccnl  I  ai  ilir  I'nivcrsity  of  Vienna;  born  at 
Xedraschitz.  Bohemia,  in  1H37;  died  at  Vienna.  Pec. 
31.  1894.  Having  completed  a  classical  course  at 
Prague  he  was  matriculateil  at  the  Vienna  I'nivcrsity 
in  1S")H.  and  was  graduated  from  there  in  1803  with 
the  degree  of  M.D.  Abeles  did  not  at  once  become  a 
practitioner,  but  continued  his  technical  trainini;  at 
the  Allgemeines  Krankenhaiis  ("General  IIos|)ital  ") 
of  Vienna.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  studies  he  left 
Europe  and  settled  in  Cairo,  E.srypt.  where  he  soon 
gained  a  high  reputation  and  commanded  a  large 
practise,  besides  occ\ipying  the  position  of  director 
of  the  European  Hospital  there.  His  professional 
career  in  Egyi>t  terminated  in  Alexandria,  to  which 
city  he  removed  on  being  delegated  by  the  Austrian 
government  to  the  International  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion. 

In  1S70  Abeles  returned  to  Europe  and  settled  in 
Carlsbad,  jiractising  with  great  success  there  during 
the  sunnner  months,  and  devoting  the  rest  of  his  time 
to  seiinlitic  research  in  Vienna.  The  results  of  his 
careful  investigations  became  the  propirty  of  the 
))ublic  when  in  1HK4,  upon  the  recoininendation  of 
the  medical  faculty  of  the  I'nivcrsity  of  Vienna, 
Abeles  was  invited"  to  deliver  to  the  students  of  his 
alma  matera  courscof  lectures  on  internal  patholoi:y. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  ajipointed  iirival  ilocent  at 
the  universitv.  which  posiliivn  he  held  till  hi-*  death. 

Alleles  was'akniu'ht  of  the  Imperial  Austrian  Order 
of  Fnuiiis  .liKcph,  and  of  the  Order  of  tin-  Italian 
Crown.  His  numerous  essays  tri'at  chietly  of  dia- 
betes, and  have  been  published  in  the  "  Jalirbhcher 
ilcr  Kaiserliih  Kdnigliehen  Gesellschaft  diT Aerzle." 
"Sit/.ungsberichic  der  Kaiserlichen  .\kiidemie  der 
WisMiischaften."  "Wiener  Mrdieini-ichc  WiM-hen- 
schrift."  "ZiifM-hrift  fhr  Physiohigis<he  Chemie." 
"CentnillilatI  fllr  die  Mediciiii>tlie  Wis.s<'nsclmft." 
etc. 
Iliiii.ionBArMv:  Jnhr/.iicJi  iter  Il"(f  iirr  Vntrrnilttt.  1«0-W; 

KIwiiIhtu.  7'<i« '•'■'"(lU'  "''f".  tl- 7SI. 

A.   ?*.  '  • 

ABELES,  SIMON  :  A  stippowil  martyr  of  llic 
Hoinan  Catholic  Church  in  Pmgue.     According  to 


Abelites 
Abensur,  Daniel 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


62 


the  report  of  tlie  Jesuit  John  Eder.  lie  wns  killed  by 
his  father.  Tjizanis  AImU-s,  Miinh  21.  IIHM.  lieeause 
he  persisted  in  his  desire  to  einlirace  the  Christian 
reliirion.  The  father,  wlio  was  thrown  into  prison, 
straniiled  himself  with  his  lijillin.  Si>l)l.  or  Levy 
Kurtzlmndl.  was  imprisoned  as  an  alle.ired  aeeoin- 
pliee,  and  put  to  death  with  horrible  tortures.  The 
body  of  Simon  was  buried  in  the  Teyn  Chureh  of 
Pralrue  with  iireat  pomp  an<l  w  ilh  the  honors  due 
a  niartyr.  The  report  of  the  Jesuit  is  naturally 
one-sided,  full  of  rniraeles  and  many  improbabili- 
ties. An  impartial  inve.stigation  of  the  sourees  is 
still  laekinj;. 

BiBMonR.vrnv  :  Eder,  Mannhaftr  BrKtilinliiiheit  iha  Ziri'lf- 
Jilliiiinii  Kiialifii  Simiiii.1  Aliiliv.  I'mt'iic.  IliiM  — exirarts 
from  tills  work  iirc  fcninil  In  (instav  Frc.vtaif'.i  Bitikr  mix 
<kr  Tieulsrlicn  ViiV'iiHI'  hIk  il :  Allu  Ziil.  </.  Jitil.  IWl. 
nn.  514  ct  sni.^  evidcntlv  fnmi  llu-  saim-  suurce. 

I). 

ABELITES  (called  also  Abelonii  or  Abeloni- 
tee):  A  Xorlh-Afriean  Cliri.slian  sect,  probably  of 
gnostic  anteeedents,  limited  to  a  few  small  eommu- 
nilies  in  the  neiirhborhood  of  Hippo  in  the  time  of 
Au.sustine.  lute  in  the  fourth  or  early  in  the  fifth 
century.  Doubtless  the  name  refers  to  the  son  of 
Adam.Who  wa.s  supposed  to  have  died  childless. 
The  recorded  tenets  of  the  sect  were  the  following: 
(1)  They  contracted  matrimony,  yet  abstained  from 
connubial  intercourse.  (2)  They  regarded  the  pro- 
creation of  children  as  unlawful,  but  so\ight  to  per- 
petuate their  society  by  adopting  for  each  Inisband 
and  wife  a  male  anil  a  "female  child,  who  should  in- 
herit their  property  and  adopt  their  continent  form 
of  married  life.  In  case  one  of  the  ehildicn  died,  an- 
other was  adopted  in  its  stead.  As  they  jiossessed 
considerable  means,  they  foniul  little  dilliculty  in  se- 
curing the  needful  children.  The  remnant  of  the 
party  was  destroyed  tnider  the  emperor  Arca<lius 
in  407.  In  addition  to  the  notice  by  Aiigustiue 
("De  Hivresibus  Liber,"  p.  87),  they  are  mentioned  in 
the  anonymous  work,  "Pra'destinatus,"  i.  >>7.  Some 
have  supposed  that  their  founder  was  a  certain  Abel 
of  the  immediately  preceding  lime ;  but  there  are  no 
facts  to  support  this  theory.  Others  have  connected 
the  Abelites  with  the  Esseiies  or  Thcrapeuta-. 

A.   II.  N. 

ABELMAN,    ILIA    SOLOMONOVICH :     A 

Kussiaii astronomer;  bornat  Diniaburtr.  now  Dvinsk, 
in  18GG ;  died  at  Wilua,  December  2(1,  isiis.  J  lis  eariy 
education  was  received  at  Ihe  gymnasium  of  Riga, 
whence  he  graduated  in  1887.  gaining  the  gold  medal. 
He  proceeded  to  the  University  of  Moscow,  and,  after 
srraduatinir  in  astronomy  and  geodesy,  took  a  year's 
course  (lAi)2-ii:!)  at  the  University  "of  Bciliir.  He 
afterward  worked  in  the  observatories  of  Pulkox-o 
and  St.  Petersburg.  In  1887.  while  at  tlie  Kiga 
gvmnasium.  he  published  "Sboruik  Algebraielu- 
sliikh  Zadach."  His  treatise  "O  Padayuslichikh 
Zvyezdakh  "  was  adopted  by  the  University  of  JIos- 
cow  as  a  text-book  for  young  astronomers.  An- 
other of  his  works,  "O  Dvizhenii  Xyekotorykh  Me- 
teornykh  Potokov,"  was  published"  in  1S98  by  the 
Imperial  Russian  Astronomical  Society  of  St.  I'eters- 
burg.  of  which  he  was  a  member.  Abelman  also 
published  a  series  of  articles  on  astronomy  in  the 
"Kusskiya  Vyedomosti."  in  "Xovosti."  in  "Astro- 
nomische  Xachrichten,"  and  in  some  other  German 
periodicals. 
BiBLioGR.vpnY:  Achiassaf,  1899;  rnskliod.  Jnn.  10, 1899. 

II.   R. 

ABELSON,  JTJDAH  BEN  ISAAC  :  A  mer- 
chant, uliii  di-viitcil  the  greater  jiart  of  his  time  to 
Stud)-;  lived  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 


tury at  Shcrwcnty.  in  Lithuania.  His  devotion  to 
the"  study  of  the  Talminl  was  so  intense  that,  ac- 
cording lo  his  grandsmi.  the  rablii  of  Kaniienetz,  for 
twenty  years  he  did  not  remove  hiscliithes  forsleep. 
Abelscin  wrote  a  methodology  of  the  Mishnali  and 
inlroduclions  to  the  Orderof  Koda.shim  .'ind  Teharot 
under  the  title,  "Zikron  Yehudah"  (Judah's  Me- 
morial). Only  certain  parts  of  Ihe  latter  work  have 
been  published,  the  introduction  to  Teharot.  under 
Ihe  sub-litle  "Pithe  Teharot  "  (Gates  of  Purity), 
AVilna,  1851.  and  some  Cdntributions  lo  a  system 
of  Ihe  Mishnah  and  Halakah  under  the  title, '"Hu- 
hak  le-Zeker  "  (Eiiirravcd  for  Riinendjiance),  Wilna, 
istio.  P.  B. 

ABEN  IN  JEWISH  NAMES.    See  lux. 
ABENABAZ.     Sec  .Vnit.vs,  Mosks  ihn. 
ABENABEZ,  MOYSES.  See  Moses  ben  Moses 

OF  Cai.ai  \V1  1). 

ABENATAR    MELO,   DAVID.      See  Mei.o, 

Da\  111   .\r.i.N  A  r\it. 

ABENDANA  (nJT  pN) :  The  name  of  a  num- 
ber of  Spanish-  and  Portuguese-Jewish  (Sephardic) 
families  in  Amsterdam  and  London.  The  tii-st  per- 
son to  assume  it  was  the  Marano  Francisco  Nufiez 
Pereyra,  who  fled  from  Spain  thnniL'h  ilicad  of  the 
Inquisition  at  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century 
and  settled  in  Amsterdam, 
where  he  married  his  cousin 
Justa  Pereyra.  The  chil 
dren  born  of  this  marriage 
died,  and,  their  death  being 
attributed  by  liis  wife  to  the 
fact  that  he  had  not  been 
received  into  the  Covenant 
of  Abraham,  they  separated 
until  that  rite  was  per- 
formed. He  took  the  name 
David  Abendana.  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the 
first  svnairosrue  in  Amster- 
dam. "HediedFeb.  14. UK."). 
He  left  two  sons.  Manuel 
and    Abraham.       Manuel 

washakam  of  the  Amsterdam  congregation  and  died 
June  b").  l(i()7,  having  contributed  much  to  the  spirit- 
Uid  edification  of  his  brethren.  Resides  those  men- 
tioned below,  the  names  of  other  members  of  the 
Abendana  faniilv  will  be  found  in  Ihe  lists  at  the 
end  of  D.  II.  de  Castro,  "De  Synagogue  de  Portu- 
geesch-Israelietisch  Gemeente  t"c  Amsterdam,  1875," 
There  is  a  modern  Spanish  name  "  Abendanu  "  ("Jew. 
(Junrt.  Kev.".\.  n-2()). 

Aaron  ben  Samuel  Costa  Abendana  :  A  proof- 
reader in  .Viiisterdam  abnut  172li-;!(l. 

Abraham  di  Costa  Abendana :  A  memljer  of  the 
Tabnudie  acadeniv  'E/.  I.Iayyim  in  Amsterdam  iu 
17r,l. 

Daniel  Abendana :  A  brother  of  Jacob  and 
Isaac  Abendana.  and  author  of  an  apologetic  work 
dedicated  to  Isaac  Levi  Xinu'nes.  bearing  the  title, 
"  Respuesta  a  las  Proposiciones  de  uno  (pie  Sieiido 
de  la  Xaeion  Judaica  por  se  :Mostrar  tan  Catc'ilico 
Ciistiano"  (JIanuscript  in  the  Stadtbibliothek  at 
HambiirL'*. 

Isaac  Hayyim  de  Brito  Abendana:  Hakam 
of  the  Portuguese  community  in  Amsterdam,  where 
he  died  at  the  great  age  of  one  hundred  years.  April 
5.  1760.  He  published  "  Sermao  E.xhoitatoria.''  .\m- 
sterdam.  17o3.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  Talnunl- 
ical  academv  'Ez  Hayyim,  known  in  Spanish  as 
Arbol  de  las'Vidas.  Assis"tcd  by  his  colleagues,  Solo- 
mon Ayllox  and  D.\kiel  Israel  Atuias,  and  by 


Seal  of  the  .Abendana 
Fiinilly. 

(From  the  Ari-hivMof  th*  Amrttr- 
ilam  Portu)pji»c  Con^cgatioD.) 


53 


Tin:  .1  i:\VlSH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abelites 
Abensur,  Daniel 


}iis  successors,  Solomon  SALP;.\t  and  Da\td  Cohen 
d'Azkvedo.  he  took  part  in  the  preparation  of  a 
<'i)llection  of  rabbinical  decisions,  whicli  appeared 
in  nine  vobinies  pidilislii'd  in  Amsterdam  in  1732 
and  1781!.  under  Ibc  title  "Peri  'Ez  Ilavvim  "  (Fruits 
of  the  Tree  of  Life). 

linii.ioiiRArMY:  MmintKirhrift,  Ix.  34;  Kayscrllng,  In  Rev. 
/5(,  Juircd.  xlli.272;  Idem,  in  Steinnchncidcr-Fcstuchrtft,  pp. 
89,90. 

M.  K. 

ABENDANA,  ISAAC  :  Tcaclier  of  Ilibrew  at 
Oxfiird  riiivirsiiy.  linrn  al)out  the  nuddle  of  the 
seventeentli  century;  died  about  1710.  lie  was  a 
brotlier  of  tlie  celebrated  Jacob  Abendana.  the  dis- 
tini;nislicd  Siianisli  physician  and  liakani.  Having 
lived  at  IlamburiT  and  Leyilin,  where  he  studied 
inedicini',  he  settled  in  Entrland,  and  tliere  became 
lirot'essor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxiord  I'niversity.  Pre- 
viously to  this  he  liad  been  at  Cambridnc  wlierc  it 
appears  from  tlie  books  of  the  senior  bursarof  Trin- 
ity C'ollefie  tliat  one  "Abendana  tlie  .Jew  "  (presum- 
ably Isjiac)  received  from  the  college  £(>  (about  §30) 
per  annum  durin.s  the  years  ICIi-KUi.  He  taught  He- 
l)rew  and  Habbinie  to  any  one  who  miyht  enjrage  to 
jiay  for  his  services,  but  he  was  not  in  any  sense  the 
incunilient  of  a  chair  at  the  vuiiviisity.  The  retain- 
ini;  fees  paid  by  Trinity  Collei;e  and  the  ])aynienls 
from  priv:ile  jnipils  do  not  appear  to  have  provide<l 
sulhcient  funds  for  Inm,  as  in  1(!71  lie  mad<'  a  Latin 
tj-jiuslation  of  the  wliole  Slishnah.  which  he  sold  to 
the  university;  and  a))pareiitly  when  this  work  was 
linished  he  left  Cambridge  for  <).\ford.  There  he 
stooil  in  lii.irli  favor  wilii  thi'  ]U'esident  of  Hertford 
('olle.ge.  to  whom  he  iledicateil  the  .Jewish  calen<hirs 
IMiblished  in  l(>!t">.  HilMl.  and  later.  Besides  these 
calendars  and  the  I;alin  translation  of  the  Mishnah 
(which  manuscrijit  is  in  the  Cambridge  Libniry  and 
consists  of  si.\  large  quarto  volumes),  Abendana 
wrote  a  comprehensive  work  entitled  "l^iscourses 
on  tlie  Ecclesiastical  and  Civil  Polity  of  the  Jews" 
(1700).  This  work  is  an  elaboration  of  tlie  essays  al- 
ready commenced  in  the  calendars.  Like  liis  brother, 
he  entered  into  eoiTes])o!iilence  with  several  of  the 
Christian  savants  <if  his  time;  and  there  are  e.\tant 
two  letters  addressed  to  IBu.\torf  the  younger,  in  He- 
brew and  I^atin  respectively. 

Iliiii.KKiR.iPiiY:  r'armnlv,  Mi'ilichw  Juih.p.l'^:  Jeir.Wmlil, 
Pee. 'i,  12,  anil  M.  ISTll;  SIniiiT.  la  Tr.'Jeu:  HM.  Soc.  Ent). 
111.42:  Uev.  t'(.  Jiili'oi,  xlll.272ct«t<M  StciuxchncUhr-Fcst- 
echrijt,  p.  I<». 

G.  L. 
ABENDANA,  JACOB:  Hakam  of  London; 
born  l(i:!n;  diedScpl.  1'.'.  If,'.).",.  He  was  the  oldest 
son  of  JosKiMi  AniCND.w.v,  and  attended  the  rab- 
binical academy  I)e  los  Pintos  in  Hotterdam.  In 
1I1.">  he  accepted  a  call  as  hakam  to  Amsterdam. 
In  tlie  same  year,  on  May  3.  he  delivered  a  memorial 
address  in  honorof  the  JIaranos  Nufa'Z  and  Almeyda 
Menial,  who  had  sulTcred  marlyrdom  at  the  slake  in 
Cordova.  \  few  years  later  lie  ]niblislied,  in  con- 
iieclion  with  his  brother  Isaac,  the  liible  commen- 
tary "  .Miklal  Yoti  "  of  Holomon  ben  Mehk.  together 
with  his  own  additions  known  as  "Lekel  .Shikl.iah  " 
((ileanings).  The  work  was  published  by  subscrip- 
tion at  Amslerdam  in  KiUO,  and  a  second  edition  in 

1  r,m. 

The  Abeiidanas  were  the  fii-st  Jewish  authors  to 
com|)el  apiirobatioii  from  eonteniporary  Christian 
scholars,  such  as  Johaiin  HiiMorf  in  HilscI.  .lohanii 
(  occejus  and  Jacob  (iolius  in  Leydeii.  and  others. 
In  Leydeli,  whither  Jacob  Abendana  had  gone  to 
obtain  subscribers,  he  met  Professor  .Vnloii  llulsiiis. 
whom  he  assisted  very  inalerlally  in  his  driinlal 
studies,  and  who  endeavored   to  coiiverl   Jacob  lo 


Christianity.  They  maintained  an  epistolary  dis- 
pute concerning  the  meaning  of  Haggai.  ii.  9.  "which 
correspondence  lasted  from  Sept.  24,  lO-VJ,  to  June 
Hi.  16«0,  and  was  published  by  Hulsius  in  10(59.  The 
attempt  to  convert  him  induced  Abendana  to  trans- 
late tile  "Ciizari"  of  Jid.mi  ii.v-Levi  into  Span- 
ish. This  translation  is  highly  prized  for  the  care 
with  which  it  was  made.  In "107.")  Jacob  delivered 
an  address  at  the  dedication  of  the  great  new  syna- 
gogue at  Amsterdam.  He  was  called  lo  London 
to  succeed  Hakam  Josiit  A  DA  Sii.vA  in  lOSO.  anil 
there  he  is  sjiid  to  have  completed  the  translation  of 
the  Mishnah  into  Spanish.  He  died  without  issue 
in  London.  Sept.  12,  109.").  and  was  interred  in  the 
Portuguese  buiial-gnaind  at  Mile  End.  His  pub- 
lished Works  are:  "Cuzari,  Libro  de  Grande  Sciencia 
y  Mucha  Doclrina.  .  .  .  Traduzido,  .  .  .  del  Eb- 
rayco  en  Esjianol,  Comentado  porel  H.  H.  R.  Yaha- 
cob  Abendana  "  (Cuzari.  a  Book  of  Great  Wisdom 
and  Plentiful  Doctrine, Translated  from  the  Hebrew 
into  Spanish,  and  Explained  by  the  Hakam  Jacob 
Abendana),  Amsterdam.  1003;  ".Sermon  en  Jlenioria 
di  Aliraham  Nun.  Benial  in  Elogiosque  Zelosos  De- 
dicarou  en  d  .  .   .  la  Memoria.  ..." 

BiBi.io(;R.\niY:  R<jse,  niiitnnphicat  Diet.  I.  49;  rhalmers,  Bi- 
iilivoiitikiil  Did.  s.v. :  DiiUit'.t  BiiiirauMe  Ghu'rale.  s.v. ; 
Jewish  M'wltl.  Dee. .".,  12,  and  2«.  IKTil;  ilimalxichilfl,  ix.  SlI 
1 1  srq.:  R.r.  f:f.  Jiiinx,  xlll.  272  ctw/. ;  Ka>sorllng,  Bibt. 
Kn}f.-I*itvt.  Jutl.  pp.  1,  2  it  }<(■';. 

M.  K. 

ABENDANA,  JOSEPH:  A  refugee  from  tlie 
rage  of  the  Spanish  liii|uisilion  who  settled  in  Ham- 
burg: he  was  lelateil  to  the  hakam  of  thai  name. 
A  relative,  Mordecai  Abendana,  was  jironiinent 
among  the  founders  of  the  Hamburg  Bank,  in  1G20. 
Jacob  and  Isaac,  the  sons  of  .loseph  Abendana. who 
were  born  in  Spain  (not  in  Hamburg,  assume  as.sert), 
devoted  theiiisi  Ives  to  learned  pursuits.        M.  K. 

ABEN-EZRA.  See  Ji  paii  and  Mosks  mix  Ezra. 

ABENGDOR  (Abigdor,  Abengedor) 
KANAH.     See  K\nv    .Vi-.tooou. 

ABENHEIM,  JOSEPH  :  Violinist  and  orches- 
tra leader:  born  al  Worms  in  1804;  died  Jan.  18. 
1S91,  at  Sluttgarl.  He  received  his  lirst  musical 
instruction  from  Sehldsser,  and  in  his  early  youth 
joined  an  orchestra  at  JIannheim.  In  1S2.")  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  royal  orchestras  al  Stuttgart, 
jilaying  bollial  the  palaccandal  thetheater.  After 
a  sojourn  in  Paris  ami  some  further  stmly  under 
Ueieha,  Abenheim  returned  to  Stuttgart,  where  he 
often  replaced  the  ollicial  leader  Lindpaintner,  In 
l.s,")4  he  was  put  at  the  head  of  I ln>  orchestra.  It  was 
he  whodirecled  the  so-called  vaudi'ville  performance 
given  bv  members  of  the  royal  family  aud  the  uo- 
bilhy. 

Aiienheim  composed  many  songs  and  pieces, 
among  which  were  two  "Nix'turnes."  "Polonaise." 
".Songs  without  AVords."  a  hymn,  "Der  Deutsche 
Pliein";  also  several  oveiliiies  and  ballets,  as  well 
as  llie  music  for  the  dnima  "  Hariadan."  whiili  was 
jiroduced  at  Stuttgart  in  1M42.  Verv  few  of  his  com- 
positions have,  however,  been  published. 

lliiii.in(iii.\I'llv:JII''. . It'll' iii''iiiN,«.v„(irlmnmnn<II>'liwl<'.lS,1I; 
cluiiiiiillii-ApUi'ini. O'"!"""""'  .>/'"■('•  i>"''  .Vii»(.  I'lim. ».v.. 
New  V..rk.  ls".<l;  miiniiim.  .Vii/ii(.-7.<J-i/."ii.s.v..  U'lpMe.  IM\ 

W.  M. 
ABENHUACAR.     See  Wakkau.  Sami  ki.  min. 

ABENSUR,  DANIEL  :  .V  Portti.cuose  Jew.  wlio 
died  ill  llaniliurg  in  1711.  At  one  lime  headvanciHl 
a  considerable  sum  of  money  lo  the  Polish  t'p'wn. 
and  later  became  minister  ri'sideiii  "<   'l.    Kin-  i.f 


Abensur,  Jacob 

Abi  and  Ab  in  Proper  Names 


THE  JEWISH   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


54 


Polanil.  at  Hamburg.     He  was  buripd  in  the  ceme- 
tery <if  the  PortUiiueso  conu'ri-iraliim  at  Altoua. 
Bini.Ior,RAPHV  :  Tic  Biirrli>s.  KiiiflnUi  Unrminiica  <ii  Seilnr  D. 
.l/.iiixiir;  liriilz,  *i'i«/i.  ilcr  Jmlai.M  v<i.  a.  Mi. 

A.  Fe. 

ABENStTR,  JACOB  :  Prnbahly  a  son  of  Daniel 
Alxiisur;  WHS  also  I'olish  miiiislcr  resilient  at  Ham- 
burjr,  after  Hi!!.").  Hv  instiliitiii.sr  private  reliirious 
services  in  his  own  liouse.  in  1701.  lie  eauseil  a  divi- 
sion in  tlie  Portuguese  conirrepition.  in  respect  to 
whieli  llie  elders  of  the  conjrregatiou  vainly  be- 
souirlit  the  authorities  to  interfere  (from  archives 
of  the  SlMulsarchiv  ill  Iliiiiiburj;).  A.  Fli. 

ABENTREVI,  JOSEPH:  Physician  in  ordi- 
nary to  King. Janus  1.  of  Aragoii.  by  whom,  in  .lanu- 
aryl  1271  or  1272,  Abentrcvi  was  allotted  an  aiiiuial 
allowance  of  TiOO  sueldos  (about  S12.oO.  or  fJ  Wx.). 
The  name  is  probably  derived  from  the  Arabic  Jbn 
Taif. 

Bibliography:  Jcu:  Quart.  Rev.  \i.6H. 

M.  K. 

ABENYULY,   ELIAU,    OF   GIBRALTAR. 

See  Ir.N  Yi  i.i  i:.  Ki  IM 

ABERDEEN  (Scotland):  Tlie  chief  city  of 
northern  Scotland,  capilal  of  Aberdeenshire.  .lews 
have  but  recently  settled  in  this  city,  the  only  syna- 
gogue of  which  (at  .34  Marischal  street)  was  founded 
in  189;?.  Si.\  years  later  the  whole  Jewish  popula- 
tion numbereii  seventeen  families,  of  whom  no  less 
than  twenly-tliree  persons  weie  seat-holders. 
Bibliography:  Jacobs,  Jctcish  Ycar-lmuh,  1899,  p.  78. 

ABERLE  (RABEL),  ABRAHAM :  Moravian 
Hebraist;  livi'd  at  Aiislerlil/  in  llic  lliird  decade  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  All  his  literary  iiroduc- 
tions — |>oems,  nietrica!  tnmslations.  e.xegetical  notes, 
and  riddles — were  ])ublislied  in  vols.  ix.  and  x.  of 
"Bikkure  ha-'Ittim,"  a  periodical. 
Bibliography;  Stelnschnelder,  Cat.  Bodl.  No.  6,788. 

M.  B. 

ABERLE,  ABRAHAM  BEN  ABRAHAM 
SOLOMON:  (iilled  also  Abele  Posveller.  See 
AisiiAiiwi  .Vi'.ii.i;  c.KN  Al■.l!Ml^^^  Soiomon 

ABERLE,  JACOB  BENEDICT  (BENNET). 
See  IJiNi-.iiUT  (  Bknnkii,  Jaidi;  i  .\i;i.i:i.i;i. 

ABERLE  (ABRIL),  SOLOMON  B.  ABRA- 
HAM :  Autlioriif  "  Biiiyau  Shelomoli  "  (The  Struc- 
ture of  Solomon),  homilies  on  the  Pentateuch,  pub- 
lished at  Shklov  in  I'oseu,  17S9  (see  Ben  Jacob,  "Ozar 
ba-Sefarim."'  p.  81).  K. 

ABERLE,  RAB.     See  Arkati.vm  of  IlAMnriir.. 

ABERLES,  ISAAC  B.  ABRAHAM  COHEN 
ZEDEK  OF  CRACOW:  Author  of  "SelVr  Tole- 
dot  Yizbak"  (The  Generation  of  Isaac),  homilies  on 
the  Pentateuch,  only  the  lirst  part  of  which  was  pub- 
lished liy  his  son  Solomon,  at  Frankfort-oii-the-Oder, 
in  1691  (see  Benjacob,  "O/.ar  ha  Scfarim,"  p.  620). 

K. 

ABETMENT  :  The  legal  term  for  encouraging, 
aiding,  or  instigating  an  illegal  act.  The  abettor 
may  take  no  part  in  the  actual  commission  of  the 
offense  and  yet  be  liable  for  the  tliought  or  intention 
involved  in  Ids  relations  to  the  actual  offender.  In 
capital,  or  even  corporal,  iMiiiisliment  Talmiidic  jur- 
ispru<lence  takes  no  cognizance  of  thoughts  or  words 
(Sanh.  ()3rt).  To  be  liable  to  capital  punishment  liy 
Talmudic  law,  one  must  be  the  principal  actor  in  the 
crime.  Hence,  when  one  counsels,  commands,  or  jiro- 
cures another  to  perpetrate  a  capital  crime,  that  other, 
and  not  the  instigator,  incurs  the  death  penalty  for  the 


commission  of  the  crime  (Kitl.  43<0 ,     For,  although 
the  abettor  is  morally  as  guilty  as  the  iiriiicipal.  the 
law  will  take  cognizance  of  the  pinncipal  only,  it  l>e- 
iug  an  axiom  in  Talmudic  jnris])ru- 
In  deuce  that  "  One  can  not  be  an  agent  in 

Homicide,  an  illegal  act  "  (id.  42/».  ami  elsewhere). 
Again:  -1  is  provided  with  a  shield 
against  deadly  arrows  when  />  shoots  at  him  ;  but.  as 
the  arrow  ilarts  from  the  bow,  r' deprives  him  of  the 
shield,  and  .1  is  killed.  Though  ('  personally  aids 
in  the  killing,  neither  7?  nor  ('can  be  caiiitally  pun- 
ished, the  latter  not  having  lircd  the  missile  which 
was  the  direct  cause  of  .I's  death  (Saiili.  77i'/;  Mai- 
monides,  "Hilkot  Rozeal.i,"  iii,  11),  Buteveu  where 
one  is  a  principal  in  the  crime,  but  does  not  accom- 
plish it  by  himself — as,  for  instance.  Ix-ing  one  of 
several  persons  who  simultaneously  lire  deadly  mis- 
siles at  a  man  and  kill  him — no  capital  punishment 
can  legally  be  visited  on  the  participant.  From  the 
Biblical  pass;ige  (Lev.  xxiv.  17,  /fih.),  literally  trans 
lated."  If  a  iikiii  slay  eth  the  w/oi/e  life  of  a  man  he  shall 
surely  be  |iut  to  death."  the  rabbis  deduce  the  .iudi- 
cial  maxim.  "  One  person  must  slay  the  whole  being  " 
(Sifra.  Eiiior.  chap.  xx. ;  Sanli.  78<();  "nd  since  in  the 
case  before  us  no  one  has  fultilled  this  condition,  no 
capital  punishment  can  be  intlicted  on  any  single 
one  of  the  parties  to  the  crime  (Sanli.  I.e.). 

As  in  homieidc,  so  in  all  capital  crimes  Talmudic 
jurisprudence  iloes  not  convict  more  than  one  iicreoii 
of  a  crime  which  can  be  accomplished 
Capital  by  a  single  person.  There  is.  however. 
Crimes.  this  difference:  In  all  other  ca.ses  of 
capital  crime,  when  the  slightest  re- 
quirement for  conviction  has  not  been  fully  com- 
jilied  with,  the  accused  is  declared  "  not  guilty  before 
the  human  tribunal,"  and  is  liberated.  But  in  cases 
of  bloodshed  the  law  is  more  rigorous:  whoever  wil- 
fully occasions  tiiilawfid  loss  of  life  is  prevented 
from  repeating  the  crime  by  being  deprived  of  liis 
liberty:  the  abettor  in  murder  is  imprisoned  (Sanli, 
816;  Maimonides,  "Hilkot  Rozeah,"  ii,  r>,  iv,  8).  A 
notable  exception  to  these  rules  is  the  case  of  the  in- 
stigator to  idolatry.  The  .lewish  commonwealth 
was  a  theocracy,  a  politico-religious  state  ruled  by 
God ;  hence,  idolatry  among  the  .Jews  was  an  offense 
against  the  state,  and  any  attemiit  to  incite  people 
to  apostasy  was,  in  the  eyes  of  the  .lewish  law,  an 
attempt  to  overthrow  the  state;  it  was  high  treason 
against  the  Divine  King,  Therefore,  even  though 
there  was  no  bodily  action  on  the  part  of  the  insti- 
gator, and  even  when  his  efforts  did  not  succeed  in 
leading  any  one  astray,  he  was  capitally  punished 
(,Sauli,  fibf;  Maimonides,  "Hilkot  '\h.  Z;irah,"  v, 
2).  And  his  ]iiinisliment  was  the  sjime — tleath  by 
stoning — whether  he  was  simply  a  matt,  trying  to  se- 
duce an  individual,  or  a  ninddiah,  endeavoring  to 
mislead  a  community  (Mislinah,  Sanh,  vii.  4), 

The  juridical  ma.\im.  "One  can  not  be  an  agent 
in  an  illegal  act,"  for  "where  the  orders  of  the  mas- 
ter conflict  with  those  of  the  servant, 
Penal         Avhose  orders  must   be  olieyedV"    (H. 
Offenses.      K.  .")(ii'.  Sanh.  29(i)  is  applied  by  the 
rabliis  to  penal  offenses  as  well  as  to 
capital  crimes.     Hence,  when  one  suborns  witnes,ses 
to  defeat  justice  in  a  civil  cause,  and  the  witnesses 
are  found   guilty  of  testifying   falsely,   they,  and 
not  the  suborner,  are   liable  for  the  los,ses  of  the 
injured  party.     The  suborner  in  such  cases  is  de- 
clared "exempt  from  punishment  at  the  instance  of 
the  human  tribunal,  but  guilty  liefore  the  court  of 
heaven."     In  a  case  of  mayhem  involving  damages 
and  amercements,  where,  for  instance,  -1  procures  B 
to  commit  an  assault  on  C.  not  only  will  the  court 
condemn  B  to  pay  all  amercements  accruing  from  the 


55 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abensur,  Jacob 

Abi  and  Ab  in  Proper  Names 


assault,  but  even  if  A  liad.  prior  to  llie  assiitilt.  made 
himself  responsible  If)  his  Heeomi)lice  for  all  dtini- 
ages  resultini;  Iherefioni.  lie  is  imt  Ijoimd  to  keep 
his  promise.  .Mciicover,  where  at  Insown  sollcilalion 
.1  bus  a  inutilatinii  inllieted  on  himself  by  /■',  assur- 
ing: />' beforehand  that  no  daniaires  will  be  claimed. 
.1  has  the  legal  rifrht  toclaim,  and  />' will  be  required 
bv  law  to  pay  (15.  K.  !):!":  see  Hashi,  /id  hic,  and 
>iainioni(les.  ""lli'.kot'  Hobel  u-.Ma/./iU,"  v.  11).  In 
all  thrse  eases,  the  instrument  of  Ihe  offense  has 
his  option  to  do  or  not  to  do  the  biddiiiir  of  the 
abcllor:  "  If  hesoehooses.  heobeys.  ami  if  he  ehooses 
olhiTwise,  he  obeys  not"  (li.  .M.  Ill/'):  and  where 
there  is  option  there  can  not  be  said  to  exist  any 
a^reney,  since  the  orderof  the  master  must  supersede 
that  of  the  si'rvant.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the 
abettor  has  a  lejral  rifjlit  to  commaml  and  to  exact 
obedienee,  he  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  mis- 
deeds of  his  iiislriiment.  Thus,  aecordinir  to  the 
Bible  (K.\.  xxii.  7),  as  interpreted  bv  rabbinic  law 
(Mishnah.  B.  M.  vii.  8;  Gem.  Ih.  il*(,  ill//),  the  gratui- 
tous bailee,  if  he  has  taken  only  ordinary  care  of 
the  deposit,  is  not  responsible  for  it  even  when  lost 
by  theft.  Now  ,1,  beinj;  such  a  ffratuitous  bailee, 
orders  his  slave  to  abstract  the  deposit;  when  the  plot 
is  discovered,  -1  is  held  responsible  for  the  slave's 
deed,  ami  is  subjected  to  the  laws  conecrninj;  con 
victed  thieves.  In  this  case  the  slave  was  oblifred  to 
comply  with  the  command  of  his  master:  therefore 
his  act  is  eonsidired  to  be  the  act  of  his  aliettor,  or 
as  the  Talmud  (Hi.  !Mi./)  expresses  it,  "The  hand  of 
the  slavi' is  like  the  hand  of  his  master"  {ih.  Wh.iin; 
"  i^hulhan  'Aruk,  Hosheu  :Mislipat,"  ^  292,  5,  §  34S, 
8,  Hairahot). 

It  is  a  principle  in  Talmudi<-  juris|inidince,  "One 

must  not  siive  himself  at  the  expense  of  another" 

(H.  K.  604  fl  al. ) .     Aeeordin.i.dy.  when 

Civil         one's  iiremises  are  invaded  by  unlaw- 

Causes.  ful  taxpilherers,  and  he  informs  them 
of  the  whereabouts  of  another's  prop- 
erty which  he  holds  in  bailment,  his  responsibility 
wiil  dipend  on  his  circumstances.  If  he  be  known  to 
be  wealthy,  the  court  will  a.ssunie  that  the  alien  tax- 
gatherers  were  attraited  by  his  ijoods:  therefore,  his 
pointinj;  out  the  fjoods  of  another  will  be  considered 
as  an  elTort  to  save  his  own  at  the  expense  of  an- 
otluTs.  and  hi' will  bereipiired  to  pay  to  Ihe  injured 
])arty  compensalory  damanes.  ^Vh(■n,  on  thi>  con- 
iniiy,  there  is  no  reason  for  such  an  assumiition.  he 
beini:  know  n  to  be  a  poor  man.  then  the  court  will 
assume  that  the  deposit  was  Ihe  attraction,  and  he 
will  not  be  recpiired  lo  make  good  its  lo.ss.  Again, 
when  a  place  is  invaded  by  pillagers,  and  one  citi- 
zen iioiiits  out  to  llieni  Ihe  properly  of  anolher.  the 
informer's  responsibility  for  the  properly  carried  olV 
will  depend  on  Ihe  pnseneeor  abseiieeof  duress.  If 
force  be  used  lo  compel  him  lo  reveal  I  he  hiding-place 
of  Ihe  property,  he  will  not  be  held  responsible: 
but  where  no  for<-e  is  us<'d  on  him,  and  he  volun- 
tarily exposes  to  Ihe  pillagers  another's  iiroperty,  Ihe 
court  will  adjudge  him  responsible  for  its  loss.  .\iid 
even  where  force  is  usicl.  the  court  will  clear  him 
only  when  his  Abelnient  is  eonlined  lo  the  bare 
pointing  out;  but  where  he  personally  hands  over 
the  property  to  the  pillagers.  h<'  will  be  held  re 
sponsible  lo  its  right  ful  owner.  In  ease  a  man  be 
expressly  reipiired  to  surrender  his  own  properly, 
and  he  reveals  Ihe  wheivabouls  of  his  neighb(.r's,  in 
aildilion  to  his  own,  after  physical  force  had  been 
exercised  on  him  lo  wrest  from  iiini  the  disclosure 
regaiiling  his  own,  even  though  be  personally  lays 
no  hands  on  his  neighbor's  properly  be-  will  still  be 
rei|uirc  il  bv  law  lo  make  iroml  Ins  neiirhbor's  losses 
(Mi-shnah,  "U.  I.v.  x.  •-);  Gem.  /'>    I  HI'-  U7/.;  Maimoni 


des.  "Hilkot  Hobel,"  viii.  1-8;  "  Shullmn  •Anik, 
Hoshen  Mishpat,"  S  :W«.  2-ft.  "Semag."  S  70). 

The  Bible  sjiys,  "And  if  any  one  of  the  common 
people  sin  through  ignorance,  when  lie  doeth  any  one 
I'f  Ihe  |)rohihitions,"  etc.  (I,ev.  iv.  27. 
Ritual  llili.).  From  thisthenibbisdedueethe 
Matters,  following  two  legal  maxims  with  re- 
gard lo  ceremonial  sins;  "When  one 
person  conunits  a  ceremonial  sin.  he  is  ginlty  ;  when 
two  persons  conunit  it.  they  are  not  guilly":  ami 
the  one  is  guilty  "when  he  d<Hs  the  whole,  but  not 
when  he  does  a  part  only  "  (Shah.  '.\ii.  Ver.  ih.  i.  2'"). 
A  third  legal  maxim  reads;  "Abetment  has  no  real- 
ity": that  is,  is  not  considered  (Shah.  ii;i</).  Now,  if 
on  a  Sabbath  day  one  transfers  an  inanimate  object 
from  private  premises  to  the  public  thoroughfare, 
or  rice  nrsii,  he  is  guilty  of  a  violation  of  the  Sab- 
bath, and  if  the  deed  was  the  result  of  ignorance  of 
the  sanctity  of  the  day,  he  is  obliged  to  make  a  sin- 
offering  (.Mislmah,  Shab.  i.  1)  ;  but  if  two  able-bodied 
men  transfer  an  object  which  each  of  them  could 
manage  by  himself,  neither  incurs  guilt:  each  of 
them  having  perpetiat<(l  but  half  of  the  transgres- 
sion. Only  when  the  performance  of  the  task  rc- 
tpiires  the  services  of  both  does  the  Law  declare 
both  guilty.  And  when  one  of  the  two  persons  is 
able  to  accomplish  the  task  by  himself,  while  the 
other  is  not,  the  weaker  aecomi>lice  goes  free:  his 
Abetment  does  not  constitute  a  ])unishable  net.  inas- 
much as  the  other  could  accomplish  the  task  with- 
out his  assistance,  while  he  could  not  do  so  without 
theassistanceof  theother(Mishnali.  Shab.  x.  5:  Gem. 
Q'iii).  The  following  is  an  exception  to  these  rules: 
In  case  an  Israelite  lias  the  corners  of  bis  hail  cut 
away  (compare  Lev.  xix.  27),  both  Ihe  barber,  if 
he  also  is  an  Israelite,  and  Ihe  one  whos*'  hair  is  cut 
are  punishable.  In  this  ease,  while  the  subject  i>f 
the  transgression  does  virtually  nolhing.  as  heinenly 
offers  himself  lo  Ihe  barber's  shears,  he  is  mverlhe- 
less  amenable  f<ir  Abetment  (Sifra.  Kedoshim,  chap, 
vi.  ;  Naz.  57//;  Tos.  ih.  n.r.  "  K.  Adda"). 

Finally,  it  should  be  stated  that  in  rabbinic  law, 
in  all  the  cases  cited  and  in  all  similar  ones,  the 
abettor  is  held  not  guilty  before  the 
Physical  human  tribunal,  but  guilly  before 
or  Moral  Ihe  Iiibunal  of  heaven  (Kid.  42/>;  H. 
Guilt.  K.  •")()<(  ,1  (il.):  in  other  words,  the 
perpetrator  is  not  guilly  legally,  but  is 
guilly  morally.  The  s;ime  is  Ihe  case  with  any  one 
in  whose  power  it  is  to  prevent  the  violation  of  anv 
law,  but  who  fails  to  exert  bis  inlluence  in  that  di- 
rection. On  this  bead  Ihe  Talmud  says;  "Whoso- 
ever has  it  in  his  power  to  prevent  a  tninsgressicMi 
by  his  liousehohl,  and  does  not  prevent  it.  is  answer- 
able for  his  housi'liold :  if  he  has  like  power  over  a 
comniiinily,  he  is  answ<rable  for  Ihe  community ; 
ami  w  here  his  power  extends  over  the  whole  worhl, 
he  is  answerable  for  Ihe  w  hole  world  "  (Sbab.  54A). 
Elsewhere  the  Talmud  (•onslrues  Ihe  Biblical  saying 
(Lev.  xxvi.  ;i7)  literally,  "  .\nd  they  shall  stumble, 
a  man  over  bis  brother,"  as  "They  shall  stumble,  a 
man  on  account  of  the  sins  of  his  brolher";  ami  the 
rabbis  adil ;  "This  proves  that  all  men  are  morally 
responsible  for  one  luiolbir"  (Saiih.  27/').  On  the 
oilier  hand,  where  nuTit  iseoneerned,  rabbinic  ethics 
teaches;  "  H<'  who  induces  others  to  do  a  giXMl  diiil 
slanils  in  the  sight  of  heaven  higher  than  the  one 
that  iloes  the  deed  "  (B.  U.  9.1 ;  Num.  R  chap,  xiii, ; 
s«'e  also  AccKssoniKst.  S.  M. 

ABI  AND  AB  IN  PROPER  NAMES  ('2S 

3X) :  -I'"  »"d  .1''  are  used  liolli  as  the  lirsl  i  lemeiil, 
as  in  .\bijali.  .Miishur.  .\bimniiii,  .\bner,  and  as  the 
sieuml  element,  as  in  Kliab.  .loab,  and  Abub,     Tluir 


Abi  Ayub 
Abigail 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


66 


exact  meaning  is  still  iukUt  dispute.  EncU  of  the 
forejioing  proper  names  may  be  a  sentence;  for  ex- 
ample, Aliin(>ain  =  "FtttlKr  is  pleasantness";  or  it 
may  be  only  a  phrase,  as  "Father  of  pleasiiutness. " 
Further,  the/in.lW  may  be  either  the  eonnecting 
vowel  or  the  jironnminal  sullix  (tirst  person).  The 
weight  of  authority  favors  the  si'ntenee  form. 
Opinions  dilTcr  us  to  ihe  phrase  form:  but  it  is  safe 
to  siiy  that  the  forms  with  the  eonueetiiig  vowel  and 
with  till'  sultix  have  been  eonfused.  so  that  the  trans- 
lation will  depend  largely  on  the  other  element  in  the 
name  (Gray,  "Hebrew  Proper  Names,"  pp.  22-34, 
'1.5-80;  seealso  N.\MES).  G.  B.  L. 

ABI  AYTJB.     See  Solomon  bex  Almuallem. 

ABI  SAHULA.  See  Isaac  bex  Solomox  rax 
Aiu  Smhi.a 

ABI  ZIMRA  (XIDT,  met  :  or  perhaps  Za- 
miro — ITOT)  :  A  family  which  can  be  traced  from 
the  Ihirtccntli  to  the  si.xtcciith  (-cntury,  of  which  Ihe 
fnlldwiiig  were  the  more  important  :  Judah  ben 
Ephraim,  12-1.5-1330  :  Moses  ben  Judah;  his 
son,  Ephraim  ben  Moses,  1470;  Ai!i:.\iia.m  rkn 
Mkii!.  ll'.iJ;  David  ben  Solomon,  lirsi  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century ;  Isaac  Mandil,  second  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

BiBLiOKRAPHV  :   Zuiiz,  Z.  (i.  p.  424 :  Stelnsohneliler,  In  Jcic. 
Quart.  Rev.  x.  o2»;  Idem,  Cat.  Dwll.  No.  -ISJU. 

G. 

ABI    ZIMRA,    ABRAHAM    BEN    MEIR : 

Flourished  in  .Malaga,  and  sciin>  to  liavr  Irfl  his 
home  in  1492.  going  to  Oran,  and  dwelling  later  in 
Tleragen.  He  enjoyed  quite  a  reputation  as  a  iwet, 
but  very  few  of  liis  writings  have  been  preserved. 
His  composition  -yn  '^3Dn  TID^  'C'BJ  ("My  .soul, 
how  long  wilt  thou  err  in  tliy  wayV"),  an  address  to 
Ids  soul  to  appease  its  longing  fortruth  and  eternity, 
^vritten  in  1493,  in  Oran,  deserves  special  mention" 
Bibliography:  Zunz,Z.G.p.424;  idem, I,i(c)-(i/i(ri;<.?c;i.ii.32s. 

H    P,. 

ABI  ZIMRA,  DAVID  BEN  SOLOMON, 
known  as  RADBAZ  (T  3Ti).  See  Daviu  bex  Solo- 
mon Abi  Zi.mka. 

ABIAH.     See  AiiLiAn. 

ABIASAPH.     See  EniASAPn. 

ABIATHAR  ("Father  of  Plenty  ").— Biblical 
Data:  A  son  of  Ahinielech  or  Ahijah  {nnlir/i  and 
t/itli  apparently  interchanging ;  compare  I  Sam. 
xiv.  3,  xxii.  9) ;  the  chief  priest  of  the  sanctuary  at 
Nob.  He  alone  escajied  from  the  massacre  of  his 
family  by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxii.  20)  and  found  a  ref 
uge  with  David.  By  means  of  the  priestly  ephod 
which  he  brought  with  him,  he  was  able  officially 
to  ascertain  the  will  of  YHWH  (I  Sam.  xxiii.  !), 
XXX.  7).  Having  .shared  David's  hardships,  he 
also  profited  by  the  exaltation  of  David  to  the  king- 
ship. At  the  time  of  Absjilom's  rebellion  Abiatliar 
remained  loyal  to  his  old  patron  (II  Sam.  x  v.  24^36); 
but  later,  like  .Joab.  he  espoused  the  cause  of  Ado- 
nijah  rather  than  that  of  Solomon.  On  this  account 
he  and  his  family  were  banished  totheireslateat  Ana- 
thoth.  and  their  priestly  rights  and  duties  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Temjile  were  transferred  to  the  rival 
house  of  Za<lnk  (I  Kings,  ii.  26-33).         C.  F.  K. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  The  rescue  of  the 

chief  priest  Abiatliar.  in  the  niass;icrc  of  the  priests 
of  Nob  ordered  by  Saul,  was  fortunate  for  the  house 
of  David :  for  if  he  had  lost  his  life.  David's  descend- 
ants would  through  divine  retaliation  have  been  en- 
tirely wiped  out  of  existence  at  the  hands  of  Athaliah 
(Sanh.  9.5i).  It  was  David's  acts  that  had  really 
brought  about  the  death  of  the  priests,  and  to  make 


amends  he  appointe<l  Abiatliar  high  priest.  Abia- 
thar  retained  tlie  ollice  until  he  was  deserted  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  without  which  the  high  jiricst  could 
not  successfully  consult  the  I' rim  and  Tliummim. 
When  David,  on  his  flight  from  Absid(mi,  recog- 
nized this  loss  in  Abiatliar.  he  felt  compelled  to  put 
Zadok  in  his  place.  See  Seder  'Olam  H.  xiv. ;  "i'oma, 
73/y;  Sotah.  iH/i;  Ber.  4n  (Hashi):  Saiili.  21.(.  Com- 
pare also  Ginzberg,  "Haggada  bei  den  Kirclienvil- 
tern."  i..  on  II  .Sam.  xv.  24.  25.  L.  G. 

ABIATHAR  :  A  Palestinian  amora.  the  contem- 
poniiy  of  K.  .Iiid.ili  (217-299)  and  of  his  successor.  I{. 
Hisda.  the  head  of  the  Sura  Academy,  with  both  of 
whom  Abiatliar  maintained  a  correspondence.  The 
great  number  of  Babylonian  students  who  thronged 
to  the  Palestinian  schools  aroused  his  displeasure  and 
induced  him  to  remonstrate  in  a  letter  to  .Judah.  the 
head  of  the  Babylonian  .lews  (Git.  U//).  The  reason  of 
his  dis]ihasure  was  that  the  Babylonian  students 
generally  married  licfore  graduating  (Kill.  29/'.  where 
Rashi's  o|iiiii(in  is  prefeiable  in  thai  id'  the  Tosafot). 
and  when  they  left  for  Palestine  their  wives  and 
children  lieeame  a  burden  on  the  communitj-.  He 
quoted  in  this  connection  .loel.  iv.  3  (iii.  3,  A.  V.),  and 
harsh  as  the  parallel  may  st'cm.  it  is  not  unjustified 
(Git.  tMi).  Thereupon  H.  .ludali  declared  the  emigra- 
tion from  Biibylonia  to  Palestine  to  be  a  religious 
offense,  Ijiit  his  denunciations  were  of  no  avail  Uvei. 
lll'O-  Abialhar's  Idler  to  1{.  Hisda.  the  suc- 
cessor of  R.  ,Tudah  (Git.  Lr.).  shows  that  the  close 
connection  between  the  Babylonian  students  and 
Palestinian  teachers  did  not  end  with  the  declaration 
of  H.  .Tudali.  Abiatliar  was  revered  as  a  model  of 
piety  and  holiness,  and  the  Babylonians  believed 
that  he  was  in  spiritual  communication  with  the 
prophet  Elijah  (see  Git.  /.r.  In  the  Midrash  he  is 
mentioned  iu  Gen.  U.  Ixxxviii.  2.  Concerning  his 
Hasiradah,  see  Bacher,  "Asr.  Pal.  Amor."  iii.  .503, 
.504 1.  L.  G. 

ABIATHAR  IBN  CRESCAS  HA-KOHEN. 
Sit  (■ni;>rA>.  AiUAiiiAi;  ii;n. 

ABIATHAR,   JOSEPH   BEN   ISAAC.     See 

Ar.ni  I!.  .IiisKi'ii  lU-.N  l>\\i 
ABIATHAR     HA-KOHEN     OF     CAIRO: 

X<('//(/ (chief)  of  the  Egyptian  Jews,  which  office  he 
inherited  from  his  ancestors.  He  flourished  at  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century  and  is  known  to  have 
died  before  1112.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Messianic  movement  of  the  year  lOitO,  which  as- 
sumed significant  ]u-oporlions.  The  tirst  Crusade  for 
the  possession  of  the  Holy  Land  was  then  in  prog- 
ress, and  was  considered  liv  the  Jews  of  that  day 
as  the  harbinger  of  a  new  era.  The  Jewish  commu- 
nity of  Nablus.  in  Palestine,  indeed,  addressed  a  for- 
mal letter  to  Rabbi  Abiatliar.  asking  for  positive 
information  concerning  the  matter.  The  answer, 
together  with  the  inquiry,  was  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople, the  center  of  the  Messianic  agitation  of  the 
time.  Abiathar's  reply  favored  the  movement,  and, 
therefore  contributed  still  more  to  the  excitement 
among  the  .lews  in  the  Jloluimmedan  countries 
which  was  further  increased  by  the  fact  that  his 
missive,  through  the  intlilference  of  the  messenger, 
was  not  delivered  into  the  hands  of  those  to  whom 
it  was  directed. 

Abiatliar  had  a  son.  Elijah,  for  whom  the  "Mush- 
taniil"  of  .\bu  al-Faraj  Ilanin  was  copied  in  1112. 
His  grandfather.  Abiathar  Cohen  Zedek.  met  Hai 
Gaon  iu  Jerusjilem.  according  to  the  author  of  the 
"Sefer  Hasidim,"  ed.  Wistinetzki.  p.  109. 

BiBLioiiRAPHT:  NeiiliauiT,  In  Jev:  Quart.  licv.  ix.  27-29; 
Kaufiiiann.  in  Jcic.  Quart.  Rci:  x.  139-151;  Bacber,  in  Jew. 
Quart.  liiv.  ix.XS.  j^    Q 


57 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Abi  Ayub 
Abigail 


ABIATHAR  HA-KOHEN  OF  SARA- 
60SSA :  Fnuiidcr  it(  a  widespread  inilile  Siiaiiisli 
family  liiul  llniiiislied  in  the  tifleeiuli  ceiilurv.  He 
Lad  two  dauff liters,  Kstherand  Leali.  Dmi  Alplionso 
of  Araj;()!i,  an  illejritimate  son  of  Kini;  John  of  Ara- 
gon.  fellin  love  with  Esther,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
very  lieaiilifiil.  After  she  had  been  luiptizcd  lie 
married  lier.  and  of  this  inarriaire  there  were  three 
sons  anil  one  daiiixhter.  The  eldest  son.  Jolin  of 
Aragon,  beeanie  eount  of  Uiba.irorza  and  married  a 
dau^'hter  of  Lopez  de  Guerrea,  llie  sole  heiress  to  the 
large  estates  of  lier  father.  Alplionso.  the  seeond 
son,  entered  the  C'liiireh.  and  in  a  short  time  beeanie 
bishop  of  Tortosa  and. under  Ferdinand  the  Catholic, 
archbishop  of  Tarniirona.  The  third  son.  Fernando, 
became  commander  of  the  Order  of  San  Juan.  Es- 
ther's granddaiii;hter.  Juana  of  AraLTon.  married 
Don  Francisco  de  la  C'avallesia.  irrandson  of  the  Jew 
Bonafos.  Leah  married  the  Alarano  3Iartiu  Saneliez 
(see  "Revista  du  Espana,"  xviii.  o4H).  M.  K. 

ABIB  ("Ears  of  Grain"):  Name  of  the  first 
nioiiih  of  the  Helirewvear  (Ex.  xii.  2;com]iare  xiii. 
4),  correspondinj;  to  tlie  Babylonian  and  postexilian 
Hebrew  Nisan.  Aeeordinj:  to  the  lialiylonian  sys- 
tem, which  iMdliably  prevailed  in  Palestine,  it  beiran 
)u  ordinary  years  in  the  last  third  of  March,  but  in 
every  third  or  intercalary  year  a  month  later  (see 
Calesdau).  J.  F.  McC. 

ABIBAS  (literally.  "Beloved, "!'.c.."nabib") :  A 
mythical  son  of  I{.  Gamaliel,  the  teacher  of  Paul, 
conccrninir  whom  a  Christian  lefrend  existed  that  lie 
and  his  father  were  baptized  by  John  and  Peter. 
Lucianus.  bishoji  of  Jerusalem  in  the  year  415. 
wrote  that  (ianialiel  aii])cared  to  him  in  a  vision 
and  revealed  the  fact  that  the  body  of  Abibas  lay 
exposed  to  the  sun  and  rain,  awaitinjr  decent  bur- 
ial ;  that  the  liody  was  recovered  and  properly  buried. 
Thereafter  the  ashes  of  Abibas  were  used  as  remedial 
njieneies  in  disease,  and  they  are  said  to  have  eU'eeted 
miraculous  cures. 

BiBUOORApnT:  Photlus,  nthliotheea.  p.  383.ed.  Ifil2:  Luclan, 
Dc  Stephana,  Id  Aueustlne,  Opera,  vil.  appenitlx. 

K. 

ABICHT,  JOHANN  GEORG :  Christian  He 
bniisi  ;  born  HIT','  al  KiiniL''sei-.  in  ihe  principality  of 
SchttarzlmiK-Kudolsladt;  died  174b.  He  studied 
first  at  Jena  and  afterward  at  Leipsic.  On  the 
completion  of  his  university  course  he  became  in- 
structor in  Oriental  laniruajies  at  the  University  of 
Jena  (ITOO).  In  17li7  lie  weni  to  Danziir.  where  he 
became  rector  of  the  jiymnasium.  lioldiiiL:  simulta- 
neously the  pastorate  at  Ihe  Church  of  the  Holy 
Trinity.  In  172i(  he  was  called  to  WilteiibeiLr  to 
till  the  ollices  of  general  superinlendenl  and  chief 
(irofessor  of  theolog:y  at  the  university,  as  well  as 
that  of  pastor  at  the  city  church. 

Abicht  excelled  in  Oriental  laniruases  and  He- 
brew iircheolo!;y.  His  scholarly  interests  embraced 
both  the  history  anil  llie  literatiireof  the  .lews.  The 
rabbinic  cominenlaries.  in  jiarlicular.  claimed  his 
attention;  and  he  showed  his  partiality  for  them 
by  Ininslatinjr  .selections  into  Latin.  Tliese  Inuislii- 
tions,  amonn  which  may  be  mentioned  si'leetions 
from  the  commentaries  of  Hashi.  Abnivanel.  and 
Ibn  Ezra,  which  appeared  iinder  the  title  "Selecla 
Habbinica"  (Leipsic.  I7IK!).  and  a  renderinir  of  Isaiah 
di  Trani's  conimenliiry  upon  the  l!ook  of  Joshua, 
form  but  \n\ii  of  his  pulilicalions.  In  the  "Selecla 
]{abbinica"  are  conlaiiied.  also.  fiiii.Mni'nls  from 
the  tlieoloiry  of  IMiiimoiiides;  while  under  the  title 
"  Porta  Accentiium  "   lie  produced  in  a   Latin  giirb 


Moses  Naljdan's  book  on  Hebrew  accentuation. 
'•  Shaar  ha  Neirinot  "  (Leiiisic,  1715).  He  also  wrote 
in  Latin  a  dissertation  on  "Sefer  lia-Yasliar"  (Leip- 
.sic,  1732),  an  anonymous  work  on  Jewish  history. 
Among  liis  numerous  productions  his  "Metliodus 
Lingiue  Sanctie "  (Leipsic,  1718)  is  the  oue  most 
generally  kiiowu. 

nini.ionR.vPiiV:  Jiiclier,  GcUhrten-Lcxicnn,  eels.  Zif  ft  rrq. 
iillii  su|i|ili'lllcnt.  cil.  AdeluDK.  1.  col.  XI.  I/eipsle,  ITST ;  All- 
til  inline  IJiiilwlii-  Iliiiiiriiiiliii:  I.  31:  SIi-lii»<liiieldiT,  Ciif. 
Iliiill.  (■.)!.  tSlK;  iilein,  llirinllichc  Ilehmifli  ii.  In  Ziil.f. 
Jlihr.  mill.  I.  112;  Wiilf.  mill.  Hthr.  II.  IWS;  Kuiitt.  Lrhat 
.SiV(/i.viK(/iiiW<i((i>(/i'/i)ir((ii.  I.  1:  Idem,  I'liiHtrldwhe  Kir- 
chciiliisluric.  ill.  4.7;  McCllntock  and  Stiung,  L'liclupcdla, 
xl.  13. 

H.   G.   E. 

ABIDA  or  ABIDAH  ("Father  Knoweth") : 
A  son  of  .Midian.  ami  grandson  of  Abraham  and 
Kcturah  (Gen.  xxv.  4,  and  in  the  genealogical  list 
in  I  Chron.  i.  33).  G.  B.  L. 

ABIDANC'  Father  is  Judge"):  A  son  of  Gideoni, 
chief  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  after  the  Exudus 
(Num.  i.  11,   ii.  23,  vii.  GO,  65,  x.  24).      G.  B.  L. 

ABIEL  ("Father  is  God"):  1.  Father  of  Kish 
and  Nil.  and  grandfather  of  Saul  (I  Sam.  ix.  1,  xiv. 
51).  Another  account  makes  him  the  great-grand- 
father of  Saul:  Xer.  by  that  accouni.  being  the 
father,  instead  of  thebroiher,  of  Kish.  The  mistake 
is  probably  (hie  to  an  error  of  the  scril)e  (I  Chron. 
viii.  33.  i.\.  3!»).  2.  One  of  the  "thirty  men"  of 
David  (I  Chron.  xi.  32).  In  the  list  given  in  II 
Sam.  xxiii.  31.  Abiel  is  called  Abi-Albon.  which 
Buddc,  "S.  B.  O.  T."  p.  80,  reads  Abi-Baal. 

G.  B.  L. 

ABIEZER  ("Father  is  Help"):  1.  A  clan  of 
Manassih.  the  most  important  member  of  which 
was  (iideon.  in  whose  time  the  seal  of  the  chm  was 
at  Oiihrah  on  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan  (Josh, 
xvii.  2:  Judges,  vi.  11.  24.  34.  viii.  2  :  1  Chron.  vii. 
IS;  Num.  x.wi.  3(1  has  Jeezer).  Abiezrite  is  the 
Gentile  name,  and  is  found  in  Judges,  vi.  11.  24, 
viii.  32;  Num.  xxvi.  30  has  Jeezerite.  2.  AbieZer 
the  A  net  hot  hi  te.  one  of  the  "thirty  men  "  of  David, 
and  commanding  oltieer  of  24,000  men  in  Ihe  ninth 
month  (11  Sam.  xxiii.  27;  I  Chron.  xi.  28.  xxvii.  12). 

G.  H.  L 

ABIEZER,  JUDAH  BEN   ISAAC,  of  Tik- 

tin  :  .V  .lewisli  author  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
He  resided  in  Jerusalem  and  wrote  ".Mislimeret  ha- 
Berit"  (The  Charge  of  the  Covenant),  a  defense  of 
Judaism  against  tlie  irreligious,  published  in  Jerusa- 
lem. 1«4():  "Sha'are  Zedek  "  (The  Gates  of  .Iiistice). 
upon  the  prerogatives  of  the  Holy  Land  and  upon 
the  sulTerings  of  Jerusalem  and  of  Saled  in  this  cen- 
tury (Jernsaleni.  184S):  "  Mekor  ha  Berakah  "  (The 
Source  of  Blessing),  being  the  lirst  part  of  a  work 
in  three  volumes,  calleil  "Bemkali  Mesliuleshel  " 
(The  Threefold  Beiiedielioii).  upon  Ihe  Talliiiidieal 
treatise  Benikoi  (Lemberg.  1S5I).  He  is  coiisiderrd 
a  great  authority  among  mbbinical  writers,  and  his 
work.  "Sliaare  Zedelj."  is  full  of  interesting  ilelails 
concerning  Palesliiie.  [.V  copy  with  his  aulognipli 
in  the  New  York  Public  Liiiniry  shows  thai  his 
second  name  was  Judali,  though  this  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  lille-pages  of  his  works  or  in  hibliog- 
raphies.     H.  H.  ] 

lliiii  iiKiii.tniv  :  Fni'iiii.  Krnfutl  Ylfrnrl,  p.  It,  Wiirsmv,  1888; 
IhiHihhnt  (emvcloinNllii),  p.  Ill,  Wursnw,  lf««;. 

D.  O. 

ABIGAIL  ("Father  Is  Joy"):  1.  A  iliniirhlerof 
Jesse  anil  sister  of  David,  who  married  Jetliir  the 
Ishmaelile.  and  beciinii'  the  iiioilur  of  .\mii«:t  (I 
Chron.  ii.  10,  17).     In  II  Sam.  xvii.  25  sUv  is  iigaiii 


Abi^doi- 
Abigdor  Zuvidal 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDIA 


58 


mentionwl  as  the  mother  of  Ainnsn.  but  is  called 
Ahi^ail  the  ilaU{:literof  Nahasli.  and  lur  livisbaiul  is 
calliil  lllini  llic  Isnielite.  This  versimi  of  her  hiis- 
baiuls  luiinc  is  ptolialilv  miner  the  Irulh.  For  the 
rabbinical  viiwseel!.  li.  IT.  and  Targ.  H  C'hron.  ii. 
17,  after  Vibaimil,  ll'i. 

2.  Biblical  Data:  The  prudent  and  beautiful 
wife  of  Nal)al,  a  i)rosiieroiis  but  avaricious  Calebile 
noble  of  the  town  of  t'arniel  in  southern  Judah  (1 
Sam.  .\.\v.  :!).  \Vhen  Nabal  refused  to  pay  David 
compensiitioii  for  his  proteetion.  Abiirail  on  her  own 
initiative  mi-t  llie  outlaw  ]irinie  willi  irifls  and  a 
conciliatory  address,  thcnliy  winninj;  his  favor  and 
delivering  her  husliaud  from  the  threatened  attaik 
on  his  life.  Xabal  died  soon  after,  and  Abigail  be- 
came the  wife  of  David,  bringing  to  him  her  wealth 
and  sharing  with  him  his  trying  experiences  as  a 
vassiil  of  the  king  of  Gath  (1  Sam.  .\.\vii.  3,  .\.\x.  5). 
While  he  was  king  at  Ilebion.  she  bore  him  a  son. 
Chileab.  or  Daniel,  who  appears,  however,  to  have 
died  before  reaching  manhood  (I  Sam.  .\.\v.  4'2:  II 
Sam.  iii.  3).  C.  F    K. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  The  Ilaggadah  re- 
gards Aliigail  as  one  of  llic  must  reniarkal>le  women 
in  Jewish  history.  She  was  one  of  the  four  great 
beauties,  the  otiier  three  being  Sarah.  Kahab.  and 
Estlier(.Meg.  \'>ii)-  Her  charm  was  irresistible  toall 
who  gazed  on  her.  David,  who  tirst  beheld  her  while 
she  was  still  the  wife  of  Xabal.  almost  fell  a  victim 
to  her  charms  and  was  only  restifiined  by  Abigail's 
moral  strength  and  dignity  (Meg.  I.e.).  She  was 
also  a  proi)lutess:  in  sjiying  to  David,  "  This  shall  be 
no  grief  unto  thee  "  (f  Sam.  xxv.  31),  Abigail  fore- 
shadowed that  another  woman  (Bathshcba)  would 
one  day  play  a  disiistrons  role  in  his  life.  With  all 
her  superior  i|ualities  Abigail  was  not  free  from  fem- 
inine coquetry;  for  when  she  begged  David  for 
mercj'  toward  her  husband,  she  added  the  seemingly 
insignificant  words:  "then  remendjer  thine  hand- 
maid "  (/''.)-  It  is  for  this  conduct,  unbecoming  in 
amarried  woman,  as  the  Ilaggadah  observes,  that,  in 
the  following  verse,  Abigail  is  written  without  the 
letter  "yodh''  (thus,  " Abagal"),  to  intimate;  that 
Abigail  had  shown  herself  unworthy  of  the  letter 
with  which  the  name  of  God  begins  (Midr.  Siim. 
xxiii. ;  see  >Ieg.  14((.  15i;  Jlidr.  Teh.  to  Ps.  liii. ; 
compare  also  Sanh.  ii.  4).  L.  G. 

ABIGDOR :  A  prtcnomen,  as  well  as  a  family 
name,  which  lirst  appeared  in  the  Middle  Ages  and 
which  is  still  in  use.  In  Russia  it  is  pronounced 
"  Vigder."  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  Biblical  mj  '3X 
("Father  of  Gedor":  I  Chron.  iv.  18)  ;  though  some 
scholars  have  connected  it  with  the  Latin  "Victor." 
The  reason  for  the  frequent  use  of  the  name  is  that, 
according  to  the  pas.sage  in  Chronicles.  "Abigdor" 
was  one  of  the  appellations  of  Jloses  (see  Lev.  R.  in 
the  begimnng  of  the  tir.st  chapter).  Compare  Avio- 
DOR:  sec  Xami-:s.  G. 

ABIGDOR,  ABRAHAM  (called  also  Bonet 
ben  MeshuUam  ben  Solomon)  :  A  physician, 
philosopher,  and  translatnr:  burn  in  Provence,  prob- 
ably at  Aries,  in  lliod.  He  should  not  be  confounded 
with  Maestro  Abraham  .\bigdor.  who  in  13K(!  was 
the  proprietor  of  a  house  at  .Vrles  ("  Monatsschrift.  " 
1880.  pp.  410.  411).  Abraham  Abigdor  devoteil  his 
early  life  to  the  study  of  medicine  and  philosoiihy. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  (13fiT)  he  wrote  "Sefer  Se- 
gnllat  Melakim  "  (Royal  Treasure),  a  work  on  logic  in 
rimed  prose — in  the  main  a  Hebrew  imitation  of  the 
"Tendencies  of  the  Philosophers,"  by  Ghazali,  but 
of  independent  value  in  the  more  purely  logical  por- 


tions of  the  book.  Afterward  he  went  to  Montpellier 
to  study  meilicine  and  to  be  instructed,  as  he  himself 
writes,  by  Christian  scholars.  He  tninslaled  the  fol- 
h)W  iiig  Latin  works  into  Hebrew  :  (1)  I'mler  tin-  title. 
"  .Mebo  bi-.Melakah  "  (Introduction  to  the  I'mctiseof 
Medicine),  the  treatise  on  iimli  rid  iiudicauf  the  chan- 
cellor or  (lean  of  the  faculty.  Hernard  Alherti.  which 
treatise  is  ba.sed  on  book  iv.  of  the  "Canon  of  Avieen- 
na."  According  to  Steinschneider  ("  Hebr.  I'ebers." 
p.  777) .  the  original  Latin  has  been  printed  imder  the 
title  "Gentilisde  Fulgineo."  (i)  The  "  .Medieationis 
Pand)ol:e  "  of  Arnauld  de  Villelieuve  (137H).  (3)  Cn- 
der  the  title.  "Sefer  Mebo  ha  Xe'arim"(Introiliielion 
for  the  Young),  the  elementary  treatise  on  fi-vers,  by 
Gerard  de  Solo  (1379).  (4)  ""Megillah,"  the  tri'atise 
of  Arnaidd  de  Villeneuve  on  "  Digestive  and  Purga- 
tive Medicines"  (13S1).  (."))"  Almanzuri."  the  abridged 
commentary  of  Gerard  de  Solo  on  the  idnth  book  of 
Razi's  "  Ad  Almansorem."  The  translation  is  greatly 
abbreviated.  Iiiit  remarks  of  his  own,  derived  from 
personal  experience,  are  added,  (fi)  "Tratato"  or 
"Iliggayon,"  from  the  "Tra<tatus  Summularum."  a 
treatise  on  logic,  by  Picrii- d'EspagiK'.  (7)  E.\pla- 
nations  of  the  miildle  commentary  of  Averroes  (Ibn 
Roslnl)  on  the  lirst  three  parts  of  the  "Organon": 
the  "Isiigoge."  the  "Categories."  and  the  "Inter- 
pretation." This  is  derived  not  only  from  Arabic 
but  also  from  Latin  sources. 

In  1391)  Abigdor  a.ssisted  his  son  Solomon,  then 
only  fifteen  years  of  age.  in  the  translation  of  the 
Latin  treatise.  "De  Judieiis  Astronomia-."  or  "Ca- 
pittda  Astrologia\"  of  Arnauld  de  Villeneuve  into 
Ilebrew,  under  the  title  "  Paniin  ba-Mishpat."  See 
AmoDou,  Solomon. 

BiiiLKiriRArnv:  Lf-i  Ecrivains  Juifn  Frani^aiii,  pp.  T1T-T21; 
Gross,  (JallUt  Judaka.  pp.  SS3,  XS4. 

S.  IC. 

ABIGDOR  COHEN:  Italian  rabbi,  distin- 
giiisheil  for  learning  and  wealth,  who  lived  in  Fer- 
rara  about  the  mitldle  of  the  fifteenth  eenlnry. 
Joseph  Kolon.  the  most  imiiorlanl  Talmudist  of 
Italy  at  that  time,  spojiks  of  him  in  terms  of  the 
highest  respect.  It  can  not  be  saiil  with  certainty 
that  he  is  the  author  of  the  Vatican  manuscript 
"Sha'are  ha-Musar"  (Gates  of  Moral  Law),  as  ]VIi- 
chael  asserts.  The  name  of  the  |>erson  to  whom  this 
manuscript  is  asciibed  was  borne  by  a  number  of 
medieval  ralibis.  and  it  is  more  probable  that  Abig- 
dor Cohen  of  Vienna  is  the  author:  for  he  was  held 
in  especial  honor  in  Rome,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
almost  every  page  of  the  "Shibbole  ha-Leket." 
BiBI.lo(;ii.vi'nv:  Michael,  Or  ha-Hamiiin.  No.  12. 

L.  G. 

ABIGDOR     BEN      ELIJAH     HA-KOHEN 

(called  :d>o  Abigdor  Cohen  Zedek) :  The  earliest 
of  the  great  Talmudists  of  .\ustria;  flourished  about 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  He  was  the 
pupil  of  R.  Simlia  of  Speyer  (who  nourished  about 
1220),  but  be  knew  also  R.  Joel  ha  Levi  of  IJonii  (who 
flourished  about  1175).  Abigdor  lived  in  Vienna,  and 
from  there  administered  the  religious  affairs  of  the 
Jewish  po|)ulation  of  Austria.  Of  his  writings  we 
possess  only  a  comirientary  on  the  Pentateuch  and 
the  five  Mcgillot.  which  still  exist  in  manuseri]U. 
From  various  sources  we  know  that  he  also  wrote 
Tosjifot  to  the  treatise  Ketubot.  The  luost  pronii 
nent  scholars  of  Germany  often  applied  to  him  for 
advice  on  dillicnlt  ritualistic  problems,  theoretical  or 
practical,  and  attached  great  importance  to  his  de- 
cisions. He  had  also  distinguished  pupils,  among 
whom  was  the  eminent  Rabbi  Meir  of  Rothenburg. 

BiiiLiocRArHT:  MIcbael,  Or  ha-Hauuiiiu  No.  10;  Zunz,  Z.  O. 
pp. :»!,  42, 1S8. 

L.  G. 


59 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abigdor 
Abigdor  Zuvidal 


ABIGDOR  DE  FANO.  See  Fano,  Abiodou  dp;. 
ABIGDOR  HAYYIM.  See  Havyim,  AmiiDoK. 
ABIGDOR  BEN  ISAAC  :    A  French  rabl.iiiie 

scbdiar  .  livnl  iluriiii.'-  llji-  mcoikI  liiill'  of  llie  tliir- 
teeiitli  ceiiniiy.  lie  is  iinibuhly  iileiitiial  with  Ihe 
"Ahi},'(li)r  Ihe  FreiiehiiiaM  "  iiieiiti<iii(il  in  did  niann- 
stripis,  whi)  wrote  ii  eoinmentary  on  tlie  .^hlh/.o^. 
From  anole  in  niannseript  (Munich, >i'o.il'^),"  Abif^iior 
the  Frcnclnnan  "  ap]icars  to  have  been  an  adherent  of 
tlie  Cabala.  It  is  possible  that  the  rabbis  Isaac  and 
Abigdor  of  Heziers,  whom  Nahnianides  mentions  in 
his  letter  to  the  Jewish  community  of  that  town, 
lire  '■  Ahijrdor  the  Frenchman"  and  his  father  Isjiac. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  inijirobable  that  Abi.L'dor 
hen  Isaac  is  identical  with  Aliiirdor  mentioned  in"  The 
ilordecai."  The  latter  is  :io  donbt  the  Austrian  Tal- 
mudist  Abigdor  liaKolien,  who  lived  not  long  before 
and  in  the  same  region  as  Mordecai. 

BlBLIOfiRAPHY:  Hip.  K(.  JuivcK,  ill.  3;  Zuuz,  iii(u.v,  i>.  194; 
Lfi*  ^friraiiisjuifa  Frauraia^  p.  758. 

L.  G. 

ABIGDOR  BEN  HA-KANAH.     Sec  K.^.nah. 

ABIGDOR  KARA.    Sii'  Kara,  Abigdoi{. 

ABIGDOR  BEN  MENAHEM :    German  Tal 
mudist;  lived  at  the  be^'inninLT  ot  the  lifteenth  cen- 
tury.    The  IJodleian  collection  of  manuscripts  con 
tains  respoiis;i  tiy  him.      Abigdor  ben  Jlenaliem,  to 
judge  from  the  place  assigned  to  him  in  the  collec- 
tion, seems  to  liave  been  a  contemporary  of  R.  Jacob 
Slolln  (died  U-'T)  and  of  H.  Jacob  Weil  (1410).    It  is 
certain,  liowever,  that  he  was  not  living  at  the  time 
when  the  responsa  were  collected,  seeing  that  the 
collector  |iuts  after  Abigdor's  name  the  memorial 
formtila '"Dt,"  I"Pt  ("lat  is,  Xikron  hduKliittn   niznh, 
Hhiiliiii  iiiiKhkitlui  nilijiili  =  The  ni<-mory  of  the  lioly 
be  everlasting;  may  he  rest  in  peace). 
Illiu.ii)iMt.irMV  :  .Seiilimiir.  ('<i(.  /{.»».  Hcbr.  ilSS.  No.  83). 

L.  G. 

ABIGDOR  BEN  MOSES  (called  also  Abigdor 
SoferofEisenstadtoi  Abigdor  Izmunsh):  Lived 
in  the  si.Meenlh  century  in  Cracow,  lie  translated 
certain  portions  of  the  prayer-book  into  German. 

nniun(iR,\rilv  :  .SU'lnschneliler,  C'<i(.  Bmlh  No.  4171;  Michael, 
Or  lui-llaiiilli".  No-  !•'• 

G. 

ABIGDOR  BEN  NATHAN  OF  AVIGNON  : 

Frelicli  'riilmuili'-l  :  lloNil^Ind  in  the  lliirlcentli  ,'iiid 
at  the  biginningof  the  fourleenth  cenluries.  He  was 
the  leaclier  of  .Abraham  ben  Nathan,  Ihe  author  of 
"  Ila-Manhig,"  in  w  hich  wDrk  .Vbigdor  is  twice  men 
tion<'(l.  In  13(11,  when  "  Ila.Manhig  "  was  written, 
Abigdor  was  still  living. 

Itiiti.ioMt.MMiv :  (Jnis."*.  tfiitliit  JwUitcn,  p.  2;  Mlcliiiel,  Or  hn- 
lliiilllii".  N".  14  :  Zuiiz,  X.  II.  p.  KM  ;  MHllMTNtiiinni,  In  Ki<lmk's 
aiiizc  Xinlintil.iv.  17:  SteliisclinelikT,  Hcljr.  HiW.  xl.;;4. 

L.  G. 

ABIGDOR  BEN  SAMUEL:  Arabia  in  Pru 
7.han>  .  Kn^Iioih,  \\  ilk.)\v  \  v/ky.  and  Selva  ( I.ilhu- 
ania  and  I'olanil).  from  17111  (o  ITIiH.  Toward  Ihe 
rinse  of  his  life  he  removed  to  Wllna.  where  his  son 
Samuel  was  rabbi.  He  died  there  .March  1.  1771. 
Hesponsa  of  his  are  found  in  the  collection  of  Saul 
ben  .Moses  of  Loin/.ha. 

nnM.io(ili.«l'llv:  (iil'ii'l  ,s")i<ii(/,  Zdlklev.  1771 ;  KinMui,  RViifuct 

Yi.'riiit.  p.  .'i,  Wupuiw,  l.s>«i. 

A    Ii    I) 

ABIGDOR  BEN  SIM^A  (.alld  also  Abigdor 

Levi  ;  mwi  <h  i.ltiiiu,  XJI^JO  'ii?  in^'aX-  D  bti):  A 
(iernmn  author,  who  was  born  in  Glogau  in  Ihe  sec- 
ond (|imrteror  the  eighti-entb  century.    After  having 


been  a  tutor  for  some  time  in  Berlin,  he  removed  to 
Prague  in  17(i8,  and  tliere  followed  the  same  voca- 
tion. Early  in  177;J.  while  traveling  through  Sa.\- 
ony.  he  was  arrested  on  a  false  charge,  and  lingered 
in  the  prison  of  I'iriia  without  an  examination  for 
ten  months.  Dining  his  conlinement  he  pursued  his 
studies  in  the  Hible,  the  Talmuil.  and  medieval  He- 
brew philosophy  without  interruption.  At  la.st  he 
found  an  opportunity  to  send  a  letter  in  Hebrew 
describing  his  predicament  to  Mo.ses  Mindelssohn. 
.Mendelssohn's  reply,  dated  January  liJ,  1774.  was 
written  in  (ierman,  ami,  as  anticipated,  was  openid 
and  lead  by  the  authorities.  When  they  saw  that 
the  Hebrew  sclKjlar  whom  they  held  in  cust<Kly  was 
a  friend  of  .Mendelssohn,  they  cleared  him  of  all  su.s- 
picion  and  set  him  at  liberty.  Through  the  aid  of 
Isiuic  Dessiiu  and  his  relative.  H.  Hirsehel  Levin  (Zebi 
Hirseh)of  Herlin,  he  w  as  enabled  to  return  to  Pnigue. 
The  tirst  wiirk  Abigdor  ])ublished  was  an  elemen- 
tary Hebrew  grammareutitle<l  "  DabarTob'i.V  Good 
Thing),  with  a  table  of  c<injugations,  to  which  he 
added  .Moses  ibn  Habib's  "  Marpe  Lashon,"  Prague, 
17H8.  In  17il:2  he  edited  the  tirst  series  of  letters 
which  Mendelssohn  had  addressed  lo  liim  (Dll-X 
T  01).  and  in  1797  su]ipleraented  it  with  a  .sec(aid 
series.  This  supplement  forms  the  ap|iendi.\  to  his 
I)oein,  "Holem  Toknit  "  (The  Perfect  Seal),  on 
wdiich  he  prided  himself  very  much.  It  is  a  didactic 
l)oem.  and  aims  at  proving  that  the  teachings  of  the 
Bible  smpass  all  the  systems  of  philosophy  ever  in- 
vented, from  Socrates  to  Kant.  It  does  not.  however, 
deserve  the  name  of  poetry :  it  is  nothing  but  a  string 
of  feeble  arguments  c<iuched  in  obscure  language. 
The  conimenlary  which  the  author  found  neces.sary 
to  supjily  docs  not  make  Ihe  poem  more  intelligible; 
nor  does  the  acrostic,  which  gives  th<'  name  and  place 
of  birth  of  Ihe  author,  anil  the  date  of  composiii.m, 
relieve  Ihe  poem  of  its  glaring  faults — laik  of  im- 
agination and  appropriate  diction.  In  li^lfi  Abigdor 
edited  the  Pentateuch  with  the  commentary  of  Men- 
delssohn iind  an  introduction  of  his  own.  The  last 
of  his  literarv  elTorts  was  a  poem  embodied  in  S.  W. 
Bliclmer's  "Zahot  ha  Melizah."  Berlin.  ISUl. 

I    D. 

ABIGDOR     B.    SIMON     COSTELLEZ     or 
KOSTELIZ.      .See   KosrtLiz  (Co.stki.lez),   Amu- 

abigdor!    SOLOMON  BEN  ABRAHAM: 

.\  llilinw  iraiislalor;  born  in  I'iom  nn'  in  |:;s|.     .\~ 

sislcil  by   his  lallar,   Abialiam   B I    bi-n    .Mohul 

lam,  he,  at  the  <arly  age  of  lifleen  years.  Iranslaled 
.Vrnauld  dc  Villeiieuve's  work."  De.Iudiciis  .\slroiio 
mia'."  from  Latin  into  Hebrew  under  the  title  "  Panini 
baMishpat"  (Methods  of  Ju<lgmenl).  This  Inuis- 
lalion  slill  exists  in  manuseript.  In  i:l!Ht  he  also 
translated  Sacrobosco's  "Spluera  Mundi"  (On  tlii' 
.\slronomy  of  the  .^^plieres).  under  Ihe  title  "March 
ha-Ofanini"  (The  Indicilor  of  the  Spheres).  The 
last-mcnlioinil  work  was  printed  in  Abniham  bar 
Mivya's  "Znral  ha  An>/. "  (OlTeiibacb.  l7-.'oi.  with 
lioies  by  Mallalhiah  Delaeret,  Mani>ah  Heiiilil.  aiul 
others. 

iniu.ioiiK.triiV:   .sii'lnm-hni'lUiT,  I'nI.  /*«».  i-»l.  — '>4:    l<l<"ni, 
//./ii.  (V/i.iK.  pp. ih;i,  7»«. 

ABIGDOR  ZUVIDAL:  Italian  nibbl  of  (Jer- 
nian  ili-eent.  wli..  Ili.Mrisb.-d  in  Ihe  sivleinlh  ron- 
lury;  diid  .Nov.  i:l.  Hiol.  I>iivid  de  I'oinis.  in  tile 
jireface  to  his  iliclionary.  "ifemah  David,"  slates 
Ihal  .\bigdor  was  of  (ierman  descent.  It  was  at  Ihe 
reipiesl  of  .Vbiiidor  ami  some  of  his  friends  that  Ju 
dali  .\Ios<-iila  was  prompted  to  write  liiseoniiiieiilary 
on  the  "I'u/.ari."    Abigdor  xvits  u  disciple  of  Suniuel 


Abil)ail 
Abilene 


Tin:   .IKWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


60 


Jtuliili  Katzi'iu'llt'iihogpii,  and  subsequently  became 
his  assistant  in  the  nibbinical  collejic  of  Venice.  lie 
participated  in  tlie  controversy  on  the  inikireh  (ritual 
bath)  of  RoviiTo.  on  wliieli  sevend  books  were  pub- 
lislied  ("Millianiot  Adonai."  Venice,  Kitll).  ancl  his 
name  is  nientioncd  with  resiiect  even  by  his  op])o- 
uenls.  His  ilisciple.  .lacol)  ben  Kllianan  lliilprin. 
author  of  the  resjionsu  "  Naldat  Va'al^ob,"  I'adna. 
1()23,  testilies  to  the  Id.irh  standinj:  of  Abiirdor  in 
tlie  rabbinical  world  of  his  afre.  His  eulojry  was 
pronounced  by  Leon  Modena  in  "  Midliar  Yehudah." 
No.  71,  where  a  copy  of  the  inscription  on  his  tondi- 
si  one  is  also  to  be  found. 
UiiiLiOGRAPIiv:  Michael,  Or  ha-Hitin/im,  No.  l.>. 

P. 

ABIHAIIi  ("Father  is  Mijrht  ") :  1.  Tlie  father 
of  Zuriil,  11  Levite  of  the  faniilvof  Meiari  (Xuni.  iii. 
3.1).  2.  Wife  of  Abisluir  (I  (iiroM.  ii,  •->!)).  3.  Son 
of  Huri.  a  Oadlle  resilient  in  Gileadd  Chiiin.  v.  14). 
4.  Wife  of  Heholioam  and  daughter  of  Eliab.  the 
brotherof  r)avid(II  Chron.  .\i.  IS).  5.  The  fatherof 
Esther  (Estli.  ii.  15,  i.\.  2!)).  In  the  two  last-named 
passages  the  Septuagint  reading  gives  Aminailab. 

G.  B.  L. 

ABIHU  (  •  I  le  is  Father  ").  —Biblical  Data  :  1  le 
is  mentioned  in  Ex.  xxiv.  1.  9.  where  he  and  his 
brother  are  clas.sed  with  Moses  and  Aaron  as  the 
leaders  or  chiefs  of  the  "elders"  of  Israel,  who  go 
up  into  the  mount  to  cat  the  covenant  meal  with 

Yinvii. 

In  other  passages  Abihu  is  designated  as  the  second 
son  of  Aaron  and  Elisheba  (Ex.  vi.  23).  and  with  his 
father  and  brothers  is  consecrated  to  the  priest liood 
(Ex.  xxviii.  1).  With  Xadab  he  is  put  to  death  for 
olTering  strange  fire  to  YIIWII  (Lev.  x.  1 :  Niun.  iii. 
2.  4,  xxvi.  60, "(il).  Elsewhere  iu  the  Old  Testament 
he  is  only  mentioned  in  I  C'liron.  vi.  8  and  II  Chron. 
xxiv.  1,2.  G.  A.  B. 
In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  Tlie  haggadic  rep- 
resentation of  the  death  of  N:idali  and  .\liiliii  (Lev. 
X.  1-U)  is  wholly  an  idealizatiun  of  the  Biblical  nar- 
rative. Despite  the  fact  that  the  latter  ascribes  the 
deatli  of  the  sons  of  Aaron  to  an  ollcnse  committed 
by  them,  an  old  ^lidrash  apjilies  the  verse  in  Eccle- 
siastes  (vii.  l.'i),  "There  is  a  righteous  man  that  per- 
ishetli  in  his  righteousness."  to  Nadab  and  .\bihu, 
wlio.  it  is  .said,  lirought  an  incense-olTering  into  the 
sjuictnary  in  order  to  honor  God.  anil  while  doing  so 
were  consumed  liy  tire  (Valk.  on  Eecl. /.c.  ^OTU;  so 
al.so  Jerome,  in  his  commentary  nrl  hie.).  In  accord- 
ance witli  this,  the  Midrash  ])laces  the  limeof  the  of- 
fering of  Nadab  and  Abihu  Vwfore  tlie  fall  of  the 
heavenly  lire,  and  indeed  to  bring  down  the  tire 
was  the  very  purpose  that  Nadab  and  Aliihu  had  in 
mind  (Sifra.  Shemini  Milluim,  ed.  Weiss.  p.44/<;  some- 
what different  I V  Ephraem  Svrus;  compare  Gerson,  in 
".Monatssehrift,"  1S6.S,  xvii',  1U2). 

The  words  in  Lev.  x.  2,  "they  died  before  God," 
are  used  because  the  death  of  the  children  of  pious 
parents  during  their  lifetime  affects  God  clo.sely 
(Lev.  R.  XX.  111).  Moreover,  since  the  death  of  the 
pious  has  an  exjiiatory  effect  (/.'•.),  the  Hiblieal  ac- 
count of  tlieirileath  is  read  on  the  Day  of  Atoni'inent. 

In  order  that  the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu  may 
not  appear  entirely  unjustifiable,  tlie  Haggadah 
seeks  lo  reconcile  God's  justice  with  Die  blameless- 
ness  of  pious  men  (Tan..  Ahre,  6.  ed.  Buber,  7):  they 
died  in  an  attempt  to  i>ut  off  cori«)reality. 

Philo  testifies  to  the  great  age  of  this  Haggadah 
when,  in  his  customary  allegorization  of  Biblical  ma- 
terial, he  says:  "Nadab and  Abihu.  who  approached 
God  and  gave  up  mortal  life  in  order  to  receive 
inunortality.  were  naked;  that  is,  they  broke  every 


bond  connecting  them  with  mortal  needs  and  pas- 
sions" ("De  Allegoriis  Legnm,"ii.  1."),  ed.  Cohn  and 
Wendland.  p.  KM).  The  reference  lo  nakedness  is 
made  clear  by  a  Midmsh,  which  remarks  that  the 
Iran.sgression  of  the  sons  fif  Aaron  lay  in  the  fact 
that  they  iierforined  their  duties  D'nj3  'IDinO  with- 
out the  prescribrd  apparel  of  the  jiriests,  wliieh  lliey 
forgot  in  their  ecstasy.  They  were  not  necessarily 
naked,  however,  as  Philo  has  it.  Aceording  to  au- 
othi'r  view,  the  sons  of  Aaron  were  killed  by  lire 
from  God:  their  bodies  and  clothes  were  not  con- 
sumed, the  marvelous  fire  taking  only  their  breath 
fniin  them  (Sifra,  /,'•.,  ed.  Weiss,  p.  4.Vi;  Sanh.  .")2(/). 

Eliezer  b.  Ilyreanus  an<l  Akiba  find  them  blame- 
worthy only  in  so  far  that  thi'V  ventuieil  u]>on  so 
impi>rtaut  an  act  without  consulting  Moses.  1{. 
Ishmael  holds  Ihe  view  that  they  diil  not  bring 
Iheir  sacrifice  at  the  right  time  (Sifra.  I.r..  ed.  Weiss, 
ial),  and  Ahre,  beginning:  Yoma,  ">;!(/;  'Er.  Cti:). 
The  latter  ex)danalion  made  its  way  into  the  Pc- 
shito,  which  adds  to  "strange  fire"  (mt  L"XI  the 
words  "not  at  the  right  time."  Originally,  ilie  ad- 
dition was,  of  course,  an  explanatory  gloss,  which 
in  course  of  lime  came  to  be  embodied  in  the  text. 
Following  the  I  rend  of  1{.  Elie/.er's  ideas,  the  later 
Haggadah  allaehes  blame  lo  Ihe  sons  of  Aaron  be- 
cause of  their  too  great  self-esteem.  They  remained 
unmarried,  because  they  did  not  regard  any  woman 
as  good  enough  for  tliem.  They  even  considered 
themselves  more  important  than  ]\Ioses  and  Aaron, 
and  secretly  longed  for  the  time  when  they  should 
stand  at  the  head  of  the  iieo|ilc' (Pesik.,  ed.  liiiber. 
pp.  172/;  <7,v<7. :  Tan.,  ed.  Buber,  I.e.,  where  Ihe  jiar- 
allels  are  given  in  notes). 

The  enileaxor  of  Ihe  old  Haggadah  lo  interpret 
the  fault  of  the  sons  of  Aaron  as  a  trivial  offense 
had.  however,  an  effect  conti-ary  to  that  antici])ated. 
When,  at  a  subseiiuent  iieriod,  the  varying  opinions 
were  all  accepted  as  coriecl.  the  sons  of  Aaron,  in- 
stead of  being  rejiresented  as  models  of  virtue,  came 
to  be  invested  with  many  miseliievous  traits  (see 
Pesik.  and  Tan.  I.e. ;  especially  Ihe  opinions  of  Levi 
and  Bar  Kappara.  whicii  are  shared  by  the  Cliureh 
father  Ejihraem  Svrus.  as  shown  in  "  Monatssehrift," 
I.e.).  '  I,.  G. 

Critical  View  :  Tlir  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu 

lirobably  re]iresents  the  memory  of  some  calamity  to 
a  porlion  of  the  priesthood,  which,  in  the  contest  for 
the  establishment  of  the  Levitical  law,  was  a  warn- 
ing to  all  who  might  violate  that  law. 

G.  A.  B. 

ABIHUD  i"  Father  is  :Majesty  "):  A  grandson  of 
Benjamin,  mentioned  in  the  genealogical  list  of  I 
Chron.  viii.  3.  G.  B.   L. 

ABIJAHorABIAH(uiicontracted,  ABIYAHTJ 

=  ".My  f.illur  is  VllWlt"):  Name  of  several  Old 
Testament  personages,  of  whom  the  following  are 
the  most  notable: 

1. — Biblical  Data:  Son  of  Samuel,  who,withhis 
ehh'r  brother. loci,  judged  Israel  in  Beersheba.  Their 
inellleienev  and  venality  wi're  Ihe  ostensible  reasons 
that  induced  the  elders  of  Israel  to  jietition  Samuel  to 
ai)point  a  king  over  them  (I  Sam.  iii.  1-")). 

J.  F.  McC. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature :  Some  rabbis  en- 
deavor to  exculpate  Abiali  and  his  brother  in  (lart 
from  the  charges  against  them  referred  to  in  I  Sam. 
viii.  2.  3.  By  Akit)a  and  his  discijdes  it  is  main- 
tained that  the  offense  of  the  .sons  of  Samuel  con- 
sisted in  the  inconsiderate  and  proud  manner  with 
which  they  appropriated  what  was  theirs  by  right, 
or  in  exacting  more  than  was  their  due.     Others  go 


61 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abihall 
Abilene 


SO  far  as  to  declare  that  tlieir  sole  offense  consisted 
in  the  fact  tliat,  unlike  their  fatlier,  they  did  not 
travel  about  the  cnuntry  in  order  to  ascertain  its 
condition,  but  estublislied  tlieinselves  in  one  place, 
surrounded  tlienisi'lves  liy  a  royal  court,  and  left 
the  peolile  to  be  exploited  by  ollieials  (Sliab.  oGc). 
(Jtliers.  a^ain,  assert  that  Joel  and  Abiali  were  orig- 
inally wicked,  but  tiait  they  improved  to  such  a 
degree  that  they  were  fouiul  worthy  of  prophecy 
(Kulh  K.  on  ii.  1).  On  the  other  hand.  I'seudo- 
Jeroine,  in  his  "Commentary  on  Chronicles"  (vi. 
14).  undoubtedly  following  Jewisli  tradit inn.  declares 
that  Abiah.  llie  judge,  was  the  only  sinner,  but  that 
his  brother  was  blaineworlhy  because  he  had  not 
endeavored  to  turn  Abiah  to  better  ways.  See  Joel, 
Son  of  S.v.MiKi.. 

BiDLlofiR.vPMV:  Ralimer.  Ein  Latcinlfehcr  Kommentar  zu 
tdn  UUclicni  tier  CImmik,  pp.  2i>-31,  TlKirn,  ISW. 

L.  G. 

2. — Biblical  Data  :  Son  of  Jeroboam  I.,  king  of 
northeni  Israel,  whose  story  is  told  in  I  Kings. 
.\iv.  1-18.  He  having  fallen  sick,  his  mother  went 
in  disguise  to  the  jirophet  Ahijah  In  ini|uireasto 
the  i)rnspects  of  her  son's  recovery.  Ahijuh.  recog- 
nizing hi'r.  informed  her  that  the  child  wnuld  die. 
and  at  the  sami'  time.  ])redicted  the  calamities  that 
were  to  befall  the  kingdom.  The  narrative  in  the 
accepted  te.xl  associates  all  national  disasters  with 
the  religious  a|io.stasy  of  Jeroboam.  The  Se])tua- 
gint  (Vatican  and  Lucian)  has  a  briefer  narrative; 
and  critics  have  jiointed  out  that  this  simpler,  and 
presiiinal)ly  earlier,  form  of  the  story  d<'als  with  a 
stage  in  Jerolxiam's  life  antecedent  to  his  |uiblic  ca- 
reer, to  which  it  makes  no  reference  whatever  (.see 
H.  Winekler.  "  Alltestameutliche  Uutersuchungcu," 
pp.  netm/.).  J.  P.  McU. 

In  Kabbinical  Literature  :    The  passage,  I 

Kings,  xiv.  i:i.  in  which  ihere  is  a  reference  to 
"some  gorid  thing  (I'cuuid  in  him]  towaril  the  Lord 
God  of  Israi'l."  is  interpreted  (.M.  K.  '2^/,)  as  an  allu- 
sion to  Abijah's  eiiiirageous  and  pious  act  in  renifiv- 
ing  the  sentinels  placed  by  his  father  on  the  frontier 
between  Israel  and  Judah  to  prevent  pilgrimages  to 
Jerusjilem.  Some  assert  that  he  himself  undertook 
a  pilgrimage.  L.  G. 

3.— Biblical  Data:  The  second  king  of  Judah. 
scm  cil  Kehoboam.  His  reign  lasted  three  years(i!.c. 
i)lH-!)l.5).  Erom  the  account  in  1  Kings,  .\v.  1-S 
(where  lie  is  called  Abijamt,  it  wmdd  appear  that 
he  was  a  wicked  ruler,  "who  walked  in  ail  the  sins 
of  his  father."  and  that  it  was  only  for  the  sake 
of  David,  his  ancestor,  that  the  royal  line  was  con- 
tinued in  him.  "God  gave  him  a  lamp  in  Jerusa- 
lem to  set  up  his  son  after  him.  and  to  establish 
Jertisalem:  lircausc  |)avid  did  that  which  was  right 
in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  anil  turned  not  aside  from 
anything  that  he  connnanded  him  all  the  <lays  of 
his  life,  save  oi;ly  in  the  nuitter  of  I'riah  the  Hit- 
tite."  The  only  other  matter  Ihiic  tonched  up<in 
is  his  ri'lalions  with  the  norlhirn  kingdom,  as  to 
w'hich  it  is  nuiely  said  that  theri'  was  constant  war 
between  him  and  .lerolioain  I.  In  H  Cliron.  x'm. 
niucli  is  said  of  .\bijah.  ami  all  of  it  with  diicct  or 
implied  approbation.  Iiideed,  no  two  aceounls  of 
till'  same  piiM)n  could  be  more  contradictory.     In 

I  Kings.  .\v.  'i,  his  mother  is  siud  to  have  been  Maa 
chidi,  daughter  of  .Xbishaloin ;   this  is  conlirmed  by 

II  Chron.  .\i.  "JD  in  its  account  of  the  resign  of  Heho 
bi>am.     I5ut  in   II  Chron.  xiii.  >  she  is  calleil  ".Mi 
chaiah.  the  dauirliter  of  I'riel  of  Gibeah  "  (see  Targ. 
Chron.    for    tli  ■    rabbinical    view).      The  clironicler 
leiords  an  address  by  Ahijah  to  Jeroboam  before  a 


battle  with  that  monarch,  congratulating  the  people 
of  Judah  upon  their  devotion  to  YHWH,  and  deal- 
ing minutely  with  the  matters  of  worship  and  ritual 
in  which  they  were  superior  to  the  people  of  the 
Ten  Tril)es,  against  whom  the  judgment  of  YIIWH 
is  invoked  (II  Chron.  .xiii.  -4-12).  The  chnjidcler 
also  gives  a  detailed  account  of  tliis  battle,  in  which 
Jiulah  was  victorious.  We  are  warned  by  the  case 
of  Uzziali  (Azariah)  not  to  hastily  infer  from  the 
silence  of  the  IJook  of  Kings  with  regard  to  events 
narrated  in  ChroidcUs  that  such  events  are  unhis- 
torical.  There  was  doid)tless  a  continuation  under 
.Vbijah  of  the  state  «{  feud  that  had  prevailed  from 
the  begimnng  of  the  schism:  and  the  tradition  of 
a  signal  victory  gained  by  Abijah  over  Jerolioam 
must  have  had  a  well-groiuided  basis.  But  theile- 
tails  given  in  Chronicles  are  impossible.  The  num- 
ber of  men  enga.ixed  in  battle  is  greater  than  the 
whole  adult  male  po|ndation  of  the  kingdoms  at  any 
epoch,  and  nnicli  greater  than  that  of  any  arndes 
that  ever  faced  one  another  during  the  world's  his- 
tory. As  a  result  of  his  defeat,  .leroboam  is  said 
to  have  lost  Bethel  and  two  other  districts  with 
their  towns.  This  was  at  best  but  a  temporary 
gain  for  Judah.  The  chronicler  adds  that  Abijah 
waxed  ndghty  and  married  fourteen  wives,  and  i)e- 
gat  twenty  and  two  sons  and  sixteen  daughters  (II 
Chron.  .xiii.  21).  The  context  implies  that  thisoc- 
ciui'cd  after  Abijah's  accession  and  during  his  reign 
of  tlu'ce  years.  Theaccount  is  closed  with  the  state- 
ment that  these  and  other  facts  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Midrash  of  the  prophet  Iddo. 

J.  F.  JIcC. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  Although  Abijah 

took  up  (Jiid's  cause  against  Jeroboam,  the  idola- 
trous king  of  Israel,  he  was  not  piUMiutted  to  enjoy 
the  fruits  of  his  victory  over  the  latter  for  any  con- 
siilerable  time,  dying  as  he  did  shortly  after  his  cam- 
paign (Josephus,  "Ant."  viii.  11,  s;  3).  The  rabbis 
recount  many  tiiinsgressions  committed  by  .Vbijah 
n.i;ainsl  bis  fellow  men.  which  resulted  in  <lrawing 
God's  vengeance  u])on  him  more  speedily  than  upon 
Jeroboam's  idolatries.  Thus  it  is  stated  that  he 
nuitilated  the  corpses  of  Jeroboam's  .soldiers,  and 
even  would  not  permit  them  to  be  interred  until 
they  had  arrived  at  a  .state  of  putrefaction.  Xor  did 
Abijah  show  himself  zealous  in  God's  cause  after 
all;  for  when,  by  the  ccmijuest  of  Bethel  (II  Chron, 
xiii,  ID),  the  golden  calves  came  into  his  possession, 
he  dill  not  destroy  them  as  the  law  (Deut,  vii.  25) 
enjoined.  The  rabbis  also  point  out  that  it  was 
improper  for  Abijah  to  accuse  the  whole  of  Israel  of 
idolatry  and  to  judclaim  the  appointment  of  Jero- 
boam lis  king  to  have  been  the  work  of  "vain  men, 
the  children  of  Belial"  (II  Chron.  xiii.  7).  since  in 
point  of  fact  it  was  the  projdiet  Ahijah,  the  Shilo- 
nite,  who  maiK'  him  king(  I  Kings,  xi,  liT).  For  these 
reasons  Abijah's  reign  was  a  short  one. 

Buu.ici(;u,vi'iiv  :  SciUr  •nUim  H.  xvt.:  Ver.  Yeb.  xvl.  1.V ;  Gtii. 
/.'.  Ixv.  ^.li;  L,v.  Ii.  xx.xlil.  ■>;  Yalh.  II.  SO. 

L.  G. 

4,— Biblical  Data:  Mother  i>f  Hezekiah,  king 
<d'  Judah,      1 1  Cliron.  xxix,   1, 

• In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  .\bi  sjived  the  life 

of  her  son  llezekiah.  whom  her  godless  husband. 
Ahaz.  had  designed  as  an  olTering  to  .Moloch.  Hy 
anointing  him  with  tlie  blood  of  llie  salamander,  she 
iiiabled  him  to  pass  through  the  lire  of  Moloch  un- 
M-atlied  (Siinh,  fi:!/').  L.    G. 

ABILA.     See  Alui.ENE. 

ABILENE  :  .V  small  district  of  Syria  on  the  east- 
ern ^lopl■  of  ,\nti  Libaniis.  It  was  so  called  from 
the  town  of  Abila,  on  the  nortlnrii  diilivii\  of  Ml, 


Abilene 

Abin  ben  Adda 


Tin:  JEWISH  encyclopedia 


62 


Ilfmion,  about  ciglitecn  miles  norlliwost  of  Damas- 
cus. Till'  district  was  pivcii  as  a  tctnifcliv  to  Ly- 
Siinias  by  tlic  cnipcrDr  Tibcriiis  alioiit  'Hi  B.r.  (si-c 
I. like.  iii.  1).  mill  was  bestowed  upon  llerod  Airrippa 
by  Claudius  about  41  (.losephus.  "Ant."  xix.  51). 
Aliila.  called  "Abila  of  I,ys;iiiias."  to  distiniruisli  it 
from  other  places  of  the  same  name,  was  thoUL'ht  to 
be  the  burial-place  of  Abel,  owinj,'  to  the  similarity 
of  the  names.  .1.  F.  McC. 

ABILENE  :  A  villafre  situat<Ml  northwest  of  Seji- 
]>horis  (Neuliauer.  "  Geoi;ra])hiedu  Talmud."  p.  25!)). 
Aci-ordiuf;  to  Griltz  ("Gesch.  d.  Jud."  'M  ed.,  ii.  257). 
a  district  of  Perea  (Lev.  K.  xvii. ;  Pcsilj.  'Wa-vehi. 
GO'O.  G.  B.  "L. 

ASIIKCAEL :  Son  of  .loktan  (Gen.  x.  28) :  found 
also  in  the  correspondinj;  jrcncalogical  list  of  Sbem's 
descenilants  in  I  C'hrou.  i.  22.  G.  B.  L. 

ABIMELECH  ("My  Father  is  Kins."  or  "Jly 
Falliir  i<  Mclech."  probably  the  naiue  of  a  deity): 
1.  Son  of  Gideon  (surnamed  JeruVibaal),  the  great 
"judge"  of  Isrjiel.  By  virtue  of  his  father's  die- 
tat<irsliip  or  semiroyalty.  he  claimeil  to  rule  over 
Ephraim.  He  was.  however,  merely  the  sou  of 
Gideon's  concubine:  and  to  make  good  his  claim  he 
resorted  to  force.  Aided  by  his  mother's  relatives, 
he  put  to  death  all  of  his  half  brothers  except  the 
youngest.  Jotham,  and  ruled  1  hree  years  in  Shechem. 
His  adherents  were  mostly  of  the  old  Canaanilish 
race,  to  which  his  mother  probably  belonged.  The 
Israelitish  ijarty  rebelled  and  gained  control  in  She- 
chem. After  prolonged  strite.  Abiimdech  took  the 
city  by  assault.  While  besieging  the  neighboring 
stronghold.  Tliebe/.  lie  was  struck  on  the  head  with 
a  millstone  thrown  by  a  woman.  Conscious  that 
he  was  mortally  wounded,  he  commanded  his  armor- 
bearer  to  kill  him  at  once  with  his  sword.  As  a  re- 
stilt  of  his  death.  Shechem  and  its  environs  were 
ma<le  permanently  Israelitish.  J.  F.  JIcC. 

2.  King  of  Gath,  menlione(l  in  the  superscription 
to  Ps.  xxxiv.     In  I  Sam.  xxi.  21)  he  is  called  Achish. 

3. — Biblical  Data:  King  of  Gerar.  with  whom 
both  Abraham  and  Isaac  came  into  dose  connection. 
The  stories  that  are  told  in  both  cases  are  very  much 
alike  in  all  details,  which  induces  the  Bible  critics  to 
believe  that  there  is  reallv  oiilv  one  (Gen.  xx.,  xxi., 
xxvi.  1-lTl.  "         ■  G.  B.  L. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature :  One  of  the  few- 
pious  ]>irsons  among  tin-  heathens  whose  name  be- 
came the  typical  appellation  for  the  rare  class  of 
pagans  designated  as  pious  by  the  rabbis  ( Midr.  Teh. 
xxxiv.).  He  was  endowed  with  the  gift  of  prophecy 
(Gen.  R.  Iii. ).  His  attempted  .seizure  of  Sarah  (Geii. 
XX.)  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  he  was  childless,  and 
that  he  hoped,  through  his  marriagi'  with  a  pious 
woman  like  Sarah,  to  be  blessed  with  offspring. 
AVhen.  therefore.  Michael,  Abraham's  guardian  angel, 
descended  from  heaven  anil  wanted  to  kill  Abimelech 
with  his  sword,  the  latter  could  plead  in  his  defense 
that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  criminal  character  of  his 
deed  and  had  acted  with  good  intentions  ( Pirke  R.  El. 
xxvi.).  But  as  Abraham  was  really  in  part  to  blame 
for  the  conduct  of  Abimelech  toward  him.  Abime- 
lech's  curse,  "Jlay  this  one  that  will  be  thine  have 
a  covering  on  his  eves"  (Imsgadic  translation  of 
0":"^  niD3  1?  Xin  nan.  Gen.  xx.  KD.  took  effect  and 
resulted  in  Isaac's  blindness  in  his  old  age  (Meg.  loo). 
Another  occasion  on  which  Abraham's  conduct 
toward  Abimelech  incurs  the  reproach  of  the  Hag- 
gadah  is  that  of  the  consummation  of  the  league  of 
fiiendship  between  them,  which  was  to  continue  in 
cffict  for  four  generations. 


(iiMl  said  to  Alinitiam:  "Tlioii  hivit  aivvn  seven  lamlH  lo 
Al)iineliH-li  In  eonrluilliiK  llie  Icuffiicor  frtfiiit^lifiMvlltititin  :  hy 
tli.v  life,  fur  si-viii  t'l'iiiTalluiis  sliull  I  nMiinl  llif  Jn.vof  thyolf. 
spring;  froiii  Alinihuin  untu  .Mosi's.  Thou  luLst  trlveii  liiiii seven 
luinlts;  by  thy  life,  si-ven  ri^liUtiiLs  uf  thy  race  slmll  the  rtillto* 
lines  [lii-si-i'iKlauLs  nf  Ahliiielii-hlMliiy  :  ilo|ilinl.  I'hini-liiLs,  Sum- 
^>n.  Saul,  and  his  three  suns.  Thnii  hiL<t  Klvrn  hliii  si'ven  lunditi; 
l>y  Ihy  life,  seven  siirnil  (lossesslons  of  thy  ihhii>U*  will  his  i-hildroti 
desti-iiy  :  III!'  laliernarli'.  Ihe.sarnil  ohjiiis  in  (illcal.  Null,  (iilieim, 
anil  Shilnh.  and  thr  (wu  tetnpU's.  Thou  hiLst  triven  him  si'ven 
lainlks;  seven  months  shall  the  tiolv  Ark'uf  the  eovenant  nhide 
In  the  land  of  thi-  I'hilistines"  (Gen.  K.  Uv.  4;  Mldr.  Sum.  xli.  1; 
Valk.  Slllton  I  Sam.  vl.  1). 

On  the  other  hand,  a  very  unfavorable  picture  is 
dniwn  by  the  Ila.ir.sriidah  of  the  treatment  of  Isaac  by 
Abimelech.  wherein  the  latter  allowed  himself  to  be 
misguided  by  his  envy.  Among  the  inhabitants  of 
Gentr  the  s;iying  went,  "1  would  rather  pos.se.ss  the 
dung  of  Isjiac's  stables  than  the  gold  and  silver  of 
Abimelech."  This  exasperated  Abimelech  tosiuli  an 
extent  that  he  sought  to  engage  Isjiac  in  a  quarrel  by 
declaring  that  the  latter  owed  his  wealth  to  the  Phil- 
i.stines,  to  whom  it  rightfully  belonged.  In  punish- 
ment for  this,  Abimelech,  like  Job,  was  visited  by 
disease,  and  his  house  was  robbed  bv  thieves  (Geii. 
U.  Ixiv.  7).  "  L.  G. 

4.  A  priest  mentioned  in  I  Chron.  xviii.  16. where 
he  is  erroneously  described  as  the  son  of  Abialhar, 
wlio.se  father  he  was.  Elsewhere  he  is  called  Alltxi- 
ELi;i  II  (J.   H.   I, 

ABIMI  (a  contraction  of  ABBA-IMMI  or  AB- 
BA-AMMI):  The  name  of  several  Amoraim,  dis- 
tinguisiiiil  lor  proficiency  in  the  Hiilakah.  The  most 
prominent  of  these  are  the  following:  1.  A  BaViy- 
lonian  halakisi  of  the  third  century,  always  quoted 
without  cognomen.  ^lost  of  his  doctrines  have  been 
transmitted  through  Rab  Hisdii,  to  w  hom.  however, 
in  later  years  he  tinned  for  information  on  some 
Baniitot  which  he  hiid  forgotten  (.Men.  In;  'Ar.  22</). 
Rab  .ludali  h.  Ezekiel,  the  founder  of  the  Pumbe- 
dita  Academy,  also  reported  Ilalakot  in  his  name 
CEr.  24<(;  Hill.  48rt)-  Abimi  has  the  tradition  that, 
after  the  completion  of  the  First  Temple,  the  Mositic 
Tiibei'iiacle,  together  with  all  its  boards,  hooks,  bolts, 
pillars,  and  thresholds,  was  secreted  in  the  subter- 
raiieiin  cliambeis  beneath  the  Teiuiile  (Sotah,  flu; 
Suk.  ll>/>;Git  7!)i/;  I!.  Iv.  i;»;  Sanh.  15./  and  816;  Zeb. 
2(>'(:  Men.  77/-:  'Ar.  5i). 

2.  A  Babylonian  amora  of  the  fourth  century, 
disii])le  of  Rabbah  b.  Xahmani.  He  and  his  brother 
'Efa  (Hefa)  are  cited  as  "the  ingenious  .scholars  of 
Pumbe'dita"  (Sanh.  17^).  In  the  Palestinian  Talmud 
he  is  designated  as  Abimi.  the  biother  of  Ilefa  (Yer. 
Ned.  ii.  :!7'':  Yer.  Sliebu.  iii.  ;^4</i;  but  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  (Sanh.  ic)  gives  Rahba  as  the  name  of  his 
father  (see.  however.  Bunk  in  "Rev.  £'.  .Iiiives," 
1898,  pp.  191-197).  According  to  Kid.  39./.  Abimi 
and  his  brother  attempted  to  abrogate  the  Biblical 
law  concerning  uncircumcised  fruit  (Lev.  xix.  23) 
for  Babylon.  S.   M. 

ABIMI  B.  ABBAHTJ :  A  scholar  of  the  third 
cenliiiy.  Aliiiiiis  native  country  and  parentage  are 
doubtful.  He  is  always  cited  as  Abimi.  the  son  of 
R.  Abbahu:  he  was  as  fond  of  quoting  Baraitot  as 
was  R.  Abbahu  of  Ca?sarea  of  collecting  them  ;  and 
once  he  applied  to  a  R.  Abbahu  for  legal  advice 
(Ket.  H.5.().  These  circumstances  point  to  Palestine 
as  his  native  country  and  to  R.  Abbahu  of  C'jBsarea 
as  his  father;  hence  Baclier  ("  Ag.  Pal.  Amor."  ii. 
101)  so  describes  him.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  re- 
markable fact  that  his  name  does  not  appear  in  the 
Palestinian  Talmud,  and  that  even  where  the  latter 
quotes  Abbahu  as  illustrating  filial  piety,  the  filial 
piety  of  Abimi.  praised  by  his  father  in  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud,  is  not  luentiomd.  Moreover.  Abimi 
never  refers  to  Abbiihu,  and  settles  debts  in  Baby- 


63 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDI.V 


Abilene 

Abiu  ben  Adda 


Ionia  through  Hama  b.  Uuhbali  b.  Abuha  (Ket.  I.e.). 
who  DfviT  was  in  I^U^slint-.  Kraiikcl  (McIm).  p.  (iUa), 
hohling  the  two  names  Abbahii  and  Abulia  to  be 
ilii'iitical,  iH'licvcs  Abinii  In  have  liccn  a  Babylonian, 
antl  a  brother  of  Kabbah  b.  Abuha.  Aliiiiij  Is  filtcu 
mentioned  as  icportinir  IJaraitot.  Oneol  tliese,  treat- 
ing of  the  iioniir  due  to  parents,  sjiys:  "One  man 
feeds  his  father  on  jilieasiuits  and  yet  tires  iiim  of 
tliis  worlil;  wliik-  anotlier  yokes  liis  father  to  tlie 
treadmill  and  yet  pn  pares  him  for  the  enjoyments  of 
the  world  to  come"  (Kid.  :!!«).  I^lsewhere  this  para- 
dox is  thus  explained:  The  first  case  is  that  of  one 
who  was  in  the  habit  of  furnishing  his  father  with 
stulfeil  birds,  and  who.  when  the  father  once  iu- 
i|uircd,  "Son.  whence  dost  thou  get  all  this?"  re 
jilii'd,  "Old  man.  eat  and  be  silent  as  dogs  do." 
The  second  is  the  case  of  one  who  was  engaged  in 
turning  a  millstone  when  his  father  was  drafted  to 
do  pulilic  service.  The  son  exchanged  places  with 
his  father,  remarking  that  he  was  more  able  to  bear 
the  abuses  incident  to  such  service  than  was  his  aged 
father (Yer.  Peali.  i.  I'lr-  ;  Yer.  Kid.  i.  tib'.  :  compare 
]{jislii  toBi'hli  Kid.  I.r.).  Abimi  himself  was  cited  by 
liis  own  father  as  an  cxamiile  of  filial  piety.  Though 
blessed  with  live  learned  sons,  all  of  whom  had  been 
found  worthy  of  ordination,  he  would  not  jiermit 
them  to  take  his  place  in  waiting  on  their  grand- 
father. Once  his  father  called  for  water  to  drink. 
Abimi  hastened  to  bring  it,  aiul,  tinding  his  father 
asleep,  remained  reverently  standing  over  him  imtil 
licawoke.  It  is  said  that  Abind  then  an<l  there  con- 
ceived an  ingenious  explanation  of  I  he  Seventy -ninth 
Ps;dm  (see  Lam.  U.  i>n  iv.  11  ;  Miilr.  Tell.  /.<•.).  xVc- 
conling  to  another  liaraita  eiti'd  by  Abimi.  the  Mes- 
sianic epoch  of  Israel  will  extend  over  a  period  of 
si'ven  tliousand  years:  for  the  Scripture  says  (Isa. 
Ixii.  .I),  "  As  the  bridegroom  rejoiceth  over  the  bride, 
so  shall  thy  God  rejoice  over  thee  " :  and  as  the  bridal 
feast  lasts  seven  days,  and  the  Lord  s  day  is  eijual 
to  a  thousand  of  man's  years,  it  follows  that  the 
bridal  feast  between  the  Lord  anil  Israel  is  to  con- 
tinue for  seven  thiui.sand  years  (Sanh.  ildii.  Rjishi 
<j(/ A/c. ;  .seeShab,  lli)/<;  Ket!  85./;  Shebu,  42<(:  'Ab. 
Zarah,  IW:  I.Iul.  (V.V,) .  S.  M. 

ABIMI  OF  HAGRONIA  (possibly  Agranum  ; 
see  .Nc  iil];iurr,  "  ( i<'ii:;i:iphie  du  Taliiiud,"  11.  ;{l7i:  A 
liabylouian  amoni  of  the  fourth  century,  disciiile  of 
I{aba  b.  Joseph  and  teacher  of  Hab  Mordecai.  the 
colleague  of  Hab  Aslii.  One  of  his  aphorisms  reads: 
"For  the  man  whom  women  have  slain  there  is  no 
law  and  no  judge  "(B.  M.  07<0  ;  Had  'S-  where  a 
man  sulTers  injury  tlirouirli  his  own  weakness,  lie 
can  not  invoke  the  protection  of  the  law  (sec  Yeb. 
64/.;  B.  M,  77*;  B.  B.  174/-;  Mak.  VM).  S.  M. 

ABIN    R.  (called   also   Abun,  Abuna,  Bun, 

Rabin, variant  formsof  the  sjunename  of  Talmudic 
auilinrilies  and  useil  promiscuously);  Kabin  isa  con- 
traction of  U.  .\bin,  and  appears  mori>  frei|Ucntly 
ill  llie  Babylonian  than  in  the  Palestinian  Talmud, 
li  .\l)in  and  H.  Abun.  on  the  contrary,  occur  in 
till'  latter  more  fiei|uenlly  than  in  the  former;  while 
the'  abbreviated  form.  Bun.  is  peculiar  to  the  Pales 
tinian  Talmud.  Among  the  twoseore  or  more  of 
anioniim  cited  in  rabbinic  literature  by  one  or  the 
other  form  of  the  name,  the  most  prominent  are  the 
following: 

1.  .\  teacher  of  the  second  anioraic  geiiemlion. 
Some  of  whose  hidakic  delivi'iances  are  pre.si'rved 
in  the  Palestinian  Talmud  through  H.  Elea/.ar  ben 
Pedal  (Yer.  Ta'aiiil.  i.  iiii-it  iHinniiii).  Heis  probably 
ideiilical  with  Habin  Saba  (H  Abin  the  Elder)  lif 
the  Babylonian  Talmud,  who  sat  al  the  feet  of  Hub. 
and  wilh   the  one  who  is  s;iiil  to  have  died  about 


the  time  his  sou  of  like  name  was  born  (compare  3 
below). 

2.  A  Palestinian  amora.  junior  contemporary  of 
the  preceding  (Yer.  Sliek.  iv  48'').  He  is  mentioned, 
together  Willi  H.  .Measha  and  R.Jeremiah. as  carrying 
on  a  halakic  controversy  wilh  H.  Abbaliu  II.,  R. 
Ilaniiia  ben  Papa,  and  U.  Isaac  Xappal.ia  (the  Smith). 
K.  Abbaliu  calls  all  of  the  opposition  "youngsters"; 
he  nevertheless  manifests  special  regard  for  the  in- 
telligence of  R.  Abin.  to  whose  ajiproval  he  rcfei's 
with  Siitisfaction  (B.  B.  142i).  The  same  compli- 
ment is  paid  to  R  Abin  by  R.  Zeira  (Niddali.  4".?(/). 

3.  An  amora  of  the  fourth  and  tiflli  generations, 
very  fieiiuintly  nnntioned  in  both  Talmuds  and 
in  contempoiaiy  rabbinic  literature.  Born  in  Pales- 
tine, where  he  was  educated  under  R.  Jeremiah 
(Shall,  (hi'j  et  j)ii>a<iiji),  Babylonian  academies  could 
nevertheless  claim  him  as  their  disciple;  for  he  fre- 
quently tniveli'd  between  the  two  countries,  from 
each  of  which  he  conveyed  halakic  decisions  and 
exegetical  remarksof  his  predecessors  and  contempo- 
raries. Occasionally  he  transmitted  to  Babylon  by 
letter  Palestinian  decisions  (Ket.  4!W»;  Nidilah,  <iS//); 
but  generally  he  delivered  them  orally,  for  he  consid- 
ered it  one  of  the  great  distinctions  of  the  Jewish 
nation  that  most  of  its  laws  were  unwritten  (Yer. 
Peali,  ii.  17(0.  But,  whether  written  or  oral,  his 
communications  were  treated  with  great  respect, 
the  most  prominent  Babylonian  teachers  of  the 
fourth  generation.  Abaye  and  Raba.  placing  more 
reliance  upon  them  than  upon  those  of  other  learned 
rivals.  R.  Abin  knew  neither  of  his  parents:  his 
father  having  died  shortly  before,  and  his  mother 
soon  after  his  birth  (Yer.  Peali.  i.  15r;  compare  Oen. 
H.  Iviii.).  As  his  children  died  at  an  early  age  (Pes. 
70/(;  Hul.  Ill)'/),  there  were  no  natural  ties  to  bind 
him  to  his  native  cfnintrv;  and  when,  in  the  reign 
of  Constant ius.  persecutions  of  the  Jews  occurred 
in  Palestine.  R.  Abin.  with  a  considerable  number 
of  scholars,  deserted  liis  native  land  and  settled  in 
Babylonia  (I.Iul.  \0V/:  compare  Oraetz.  "History  of 
the  Jews,"  ii.  ")(i7).  In  his  old  a,^•e.  however,  he  re- 
turned to  Palestine,  when-  he  died,  and  where  R. 
Maiia  ordered  general  mourning  for  his  death  (Yer. 
:M.  K.  iii.  mh.  top). 

The  following  may  serve  as  specimens  of  Abin's 
homiletic  observations: 

Rfferrlnst  to  I^s.  xv.  4."  He  thnt  swearctli  to  lits  own  Inirt.  and 
cliiiiiKi'tli  lint."  It.  Aliinsays:  "  That  is,  tic  wlio  reduces  his  purse 
to  tlie  extent  "f  si'lf-deprivatlon.  In  order  to  do  a  (rood  deed" 
(MIdr.  Teli.(i(/(oc.). 

"(iii*at  Is  the  iHiwor  of  the  Itenevolent :  lliey  net-it  not  .seeic 
priiteiUon  iimlei-  the  shadow  of  the  wInKs  ot  the  earth  or  of  any 
heavenlv  helot's.  Init  can  take  ivfupe  under  the  .shadow  of  the 
lliilv  oiie.  hlcssed  Im-  He  I  Thus  It  Is  wrllteii  it's.  x.wl.  71, 
'How  excellent  Is  Thv  lovlnir  klndiifs.<.  u  <ok1:  llicn-for>'  the 
chllilivn  of  men  limictlslni:  It]  take  ivfiun- under  the  shadow 
of  Thy  ivliit's'  "  (I'lSlk.  xvl.  13J<1 :  coin|>are  UiilU  R.  to  II.  12). 

Hini.ior.R.vPiiv:  Bacher.  -li;.  Pdi.  .liiior.  III.  397-ltB.  where 
fullei-  iletalls  an-  (.'Iveii. 

S.  M. 

ABIN  "V  ABUN:  An  eminent  cabalist  of  r,e 
Mans  i:iliiiiii  l()|oi.  a  descendant  of  R  .'sinion  of  Le 
.Mans,  and  gnindbither  of  R.  Simon  the  (Jreat.  the 
contenipomry  of  R.  Gershoni  ben  Jmlah  of  Metz. 

IllliliniaiAfiiv  :  MIcliael.  iir  ha-Hiimiiii>.  No.  ii  and  note  ; 
Ziiii/.  Z  tl.  p.  ."kWi,  ivads -it'ioi.  as  does  als»i  t»n».ss,  tiitllUt 
./i/./.iiio.  |i.  :v;i. 

K. 

ABIN  BEN  ADDA :  .\  Babylonian  amora  of 
tlie  fourth  century,  di.sciple  of  Rab  Judah  ben 
Ezekiel  and  senior  contemiiorary  of  Raba  ben  Jo- 
seph. Although  no  original  thinker,  he  served  the 
cause  of  both  the  llalakah  and  the  llaggadah,  by 
storing  up  in  his  niiinl  and   transmitting  decisions 


Abin,  Benedict 
Abiram 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


64 


anil  oliservntions  of  his  oniincnt  predecessors,  par- 
ticulariy  those  of  R.  Isaac.  Among  these  is  the 
followiug: 

"  Whence  ilo  we  learn  Iliat  ihe  Huly  One— blessed  be  Hel- 
ls with  thi«e  nssenibleil  In  synnp)(riies  ■■  It  Issiild  (I>s.  Ixxxll.  U, 
'GihI  standelhlntlieiDnttnirntlunuf  lii'il'  (A.V.  "IhenilBhty"]. 
And  whemv  do  we  leuni  tlml.  whin  ten  |>crsiina  are  enpageil 
In  prayer,  the  I>lvlne  I'lt'senee  [^h<■kiIlah]  Is  with  them  V  It 
Is  said.  '(iiHl  standeth  In  the  onmrre^'allnn  of  CikI'  Utlah 
slj^nlfyln?  In  rabbinic  lore  an  a.'iseiiil>iy  of  ti'ii  iHTsons].  And 
whence  do  we  learn  that  the  Divine  Presence  is  with  three  i>er- 
sons  sitting  in  judgiiieni  z  It  Is  siild  (I's. /.r.l,  "He  JudBctli 
anioni.'  the  judi.'es'  [A.V.  "gods"].  And  whence  do  we  know 
that,  when  only  two  pers4ins  are  enpatrwl  in  the  study  of  the 
Torah.  the  Divine  Presence  l.s  with  them?  It  is  said  (Mai.  Hi. 
IB).  "Then  they  that  feared  the  Lord  spaiie  often  one  to  an- 
other; and  tile  I/ird  hearkened  and  heard  it.'  And  whence 
do  we  learn  that,  even  when  a  single  individual  iktuimcs  Idni- 
self  with  the  study  of  the  Tondi.  the  Divine  Presence  is  with 
hlmV  It  Is  said  (Ex.  xx.  24),  "Wherever  I  cause  my  name  to 
be  remembered,  there  will  I  come  to  Ibee  and  bless  thee'" 
(Ber.  0«). 

S.  M. 

ABIN,  BENEDICT.     See  Aiiix.  Bendicu. 

ABIN  B.  BAB  HISDA  (Hasdi) :  A  Pales- 
tiiiiuii  iiiiicini.  n  ilisciplt-  nl'  R.  .Jcilninau  (Git.  51/). 
In  aclditiiin  to  soine  luilaliic  o|iiuiiiiis.  a  few  ex- 
egetieal  remarks  by  him  are  preserved  in  the  mid- 
rasliic  literature,  from  wliicli  it  appears  that  he  was 
a  liiiixiiist  and  tried  to  define  the  meaning  of  IIet)rew 
I5il]lifal  words  by  reference  to  cognate  langnages 
(Tan.  Ki  Tis.sa,  ed.  Biiber;  Pcsik.  K.  .\.;  Cant.  R.  to 
\ii.  3  and  »).  S.  M. 

ABIN  B.  HIYYA:  A  Palestinian  amora  of 
till-  fmirili  gcnei'atioii,  ami  a  colleague  of  H,  .leri^- 
miali.  Ilis  teachers.  H.  Zeiia  I.  and  R.  Ilila.  were 
among  the  greatest  authorities  of  Ihe  thiid  genera- 
tion, and  his  younger  colli emporaries  recognized  him 
as  an  authority  in  lialakie  matters.  .\fter  a  short 
life  of  diligent  study  and  earnest  teaching  he  died, 
mourned  liy  his  contemporaries;  and  R.  Zeira  II. 
thus  applietl  to  him  and  illustrateil  the  Scriptural 
passjige  (Eccl.  v.  1'2): 

"The  slecpof  a  lalmrlnirman  Is  sweet,  whether  he  oat  little  or 
much."  "A  kitiL'had  hired  many  latK>rers.  among  wliom  there 
was  (»ne  who  arcomplislied  more  than  was  expirt+'d  ot  him. 
The  king,  noticing  this,  often  invited  the  man  to  accompany 
him  on  his  leisurely  w;ilks.  When  the  time  came  to  pay  the 
lalKirers,  this  one  recei\ed  its  much  as  any  of  the  rest ;  and  when 
the  laborers  complained  of  partiality,  the  king  replie<l,  'This 
man  has  accom[illshed  in  a  couple  of  houi-s  more  than  you  have 
in  a  whole  day.'  So,  It.  Bun  aecomplislied  in  tlie  eight  ami 
twenty  years  which  lie  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  Law  what 
no  otlier  dlstingnlshed  scholar  could  accomplish  In  a  century  " 
(Ecel.  n.  to  v.  11). 

S.    JI. 

ABIN  B.  KAHANA  :  A  Palestinian  amora,  one 
of  the  teaelurs  of  K.  Abuii  bcu  Hiyya  (Tem.  20h), 
and  junior  colleague  of  R.  Ho.shaya  II.  (Ycr.  Ter. 
viii.  4.V).  R.  .Jonah,  of  the  fourth  araoraic  genera- 
tion, transmits  a  halakic  discus.sion  iu  liis  name 
(Yer.  Hor.  ii.  4Gd).  S.  W. 

ABIN  HA-LEVI:  A  Palestinian  amora  of  the 
secoMil  half  of  the  fourth  century,  distinguished 
as  an  original  haggadist.  In  the  midrashic  litera- 
ttire  the  title  Berabhi  is  often  appended  to  his  name 
(Tan.,  cd.  Buber,  Waycra,  40;  Hayye,  '2;  Wa-yish- 
lah.  '21  H  j^ism'm).  The  following  maxim,  which  tra- 
dition ascribes  to  him.  may  here  be  quoted: 

"  Him  who  forces  the  hour,  the  hour  will  force  aside. 
Make  way  for  the  hour,  and  the  hour  will  make  way  for  thee." 

(Ber.  tHa.) 
Bibliography  :  Baclier,  Au-  Pal-  Ami>r.  ill.  457-432. 

S.  M. 

ABIN  NAGGARA:  ("The  Carpenter"):  A 
Babylonian  amora  of  the  second  and  third  genera- 
tions. A  carpenter  liy  trade,  he  devoted  his  nights 
to  study;  anil  Riib  Iluna  I.  noticing  the  constant 


light  in  Abin's  home,  foretold  that  learned  sons 
would  issue  from  that  house.  His  piedictiou  was 
vciitied.  Hiyya  bar  Abin  and  R.  Iddi  bar  Ahiu  were 
sons  of  Abin"  j^aggara  (Shah.  234). 

S.  M. 

ABIN  B.  NA^MAN  :  A  beloved  disciple  of  R. 
Judah  bell  Ezekiel  iB.  -M.  lUTn).  He  is  mentioned 
as  a  transmitter  of  Baraitot  (Yeb.  84«;  B.  B.  94A). 

S.  M. 

ABIN  BEN  TAN^UM  BAR  TERIFON  :  A 

Palesliiiiaii  scholar  who,  liy  a  iiirious  ealiiilation, 
tries  to  prove  that  the  Biblical  saying,  "That  .soul 
shall  be  cut  oil  from  his  people"  (Gen.  xvii.  14), 
signilies  a  premature  death  before  the  expiration 
of  the  fiftieth  year  of  age  (Yer.  Bik.  ii.  C4<'). 

S.  M. 

ABINA  (called  also  Abuna  or  Buna):  An 
nmora  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  always 
cited  without  any  cognomen.  He  was  a  iSabyloninn 
by  birth,  n  discijile  of  Itib  Huna  I.,  and  befriended 
by  (ieniba  (Gil.  (i.'i//;  Yer.  Git.  vi.  48i(),  in  whose 
name  he  reports  a  Ilalakah  (Hid.  HUli).  Most  of  his 
knowledge,  however,  he  seems  to  have  aci|uiied 
from  R.  .lereiniah  b.  Abba,  who  is  likewise  often 
cited  in  the  Palestinian  Talmud  without  patronymic 
(compare  Sliab.  1'2'<:  Yer.  Shab.  i.  3//)  ;  for  it  is  in  R. 
Jeremiah's  name  tliat  he  most  fre(|uently  transmits 
decisions  (Shab.  HIT/;;  Yer.  Shab.  xix.  l~/i).  In  I5al)y- 
lonia  he  had  halakic  controversies  with  I{ab  Ilisda 
and  Hah  Slieshet  ( Ket.  24'-,  4*0:  but  in  his  later  years 
he  migrated  to  Palestine,  where  R.  Zeini  I.  (Zera) 
and  R.  Jacob  b.  Aha  became  his  friends.  They  and 
other  amoraim  of  the  thiid  generation  fre(|UiMlly 
reported  Ilalakot  they  had  learned  from  him  (Yer. 
Pes.  v.  ;«'•;  Yer.  Er.  iv.  21(1  ;  Yer.  Yeb.  iii.  4c;  Yer. 
Ket.  xiii.  *i6((;  Yer.  Shebu.  vi.  3T(/).  The  rabbinic 
rule  on  the  pronunciation  of  the  Tetnigmmma- 
ton  (written  YIIWII  and  pronounced  Adonai;  see 
Adoxai  and  Ti;TiiAGi!AMMATON)  he  bases  on  the 
passage  in  Ex.  iii.  I.'i,  "This  is  my  name  forever,  and 
this  is  my  memorial  unto  all  generations,"  ajiplying 
the  first  to  the  written  form  (Ay  li'fj).  and  Ihe  second  to 
the  reading  (hri)  (Pes.  .50-',  Kid.  71-0-  A  heretic 
once  remarked  to  R.  Abina  (a  variant  reading  attrib- 
utes it  to  Abbahu):  "It  is  written  (II  Sam.  vii.  '23), 
'  What  one  nation  is  like  thy  jieople,  even  like 
Israel.'  an  only  nation  on  earth?  Wherein  consists 
your  distinction';'  Ye  also  arc  included  among  us; 
for  the  Bible  says  (Isti.  xl.  17),  'All  nations  before 
him  are  as  nothing.'  "  Tot  his  R.  Abina  replied:  "  I5y 
one  of  your  own  jicople  it  has  been  eslablished  con- 
cerning us.  as  it  is  written  (Xiim.  xxiii.  9).  'He 
[Israel]  shall  not  be  reckoned  among  the  nations'" 
(Sanh.  3!)<().  The  assumption  tliiit  there  were  two 
scholars  of  the  name  of  Abina  unaccompanied  by  a 
cognomen  has  resulted  from  confounding  R.  Jere- 
miah b.  Abba,  when  cited  without  his  patronymic, 
with  a  later  amora. 

A  R.  .\luiiia  Zeira  (the  younger)  is  mentioned  in 
connection  with  his  enforced  violation  of  the  Sab- 
bath as  a  conseiiuence  of  religious  persecutions  (Ycr. 
Sheb.  iv.  'i'xi),  but  nothing  more  is  known  of  him. 

Bibliography  :  Bacher,  Ag.  Pal.  Amor.  lU.  539,  .>40. 

s.  >r. 

ABINADAB  ("Father  is  Generous"):  1.  A  resi- 
dent of  Kirjalli  jiarini.  who  kept  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant  in  his  house  during  the  twenty  years  im- 
mediately following  its  restoration  by  the  Philistines 
(I  Sam.  vii.  1 ;  I  Cliron.  xiii.  7).  In  II  Sam.  vi.  3,  4, 
Gibeah  is  given  as  his  home.  2.  The  second  .son 
of  Jesse  (I  Sam.  xvi.  8;  I  Cliron.  ii.  13).     He  was 


65 


Tin:   JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abin,  Benedict 
Abiram 


one  of  the  three  sons  of  Jesse  who  followed  Saul 
to  light  the  Philistines  in  the  valley  of  Elali  (I  Sam. 
xvii.  i;i).  3.  A  son  (jf  Saul  (I  Chron.  viii.  Xi),  who 
was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Gillioa  while  lijrhtiujr 
against  the  I'hilistines  (I  Sam.  .\\.\i.  '.';  1  Chron.  .\. 
2).  He  is  also  mentioned  in  the  genealogical  list  of 
licMJamites  living  in  Gibeon  (1  Chron.  ix.  39).  See 
also  Hkn  Ai;i.n.\1)ab.  G.  B.  L. 

ABINOAM  ('Father  is  Delight"  or  "Father  of 
I)i  li^lil  ■■ ;  All  may  be  the  nameoi'  the  Deity):  Father 
of  liarak;  is  mentioned  in  .Judges,  iv.  (i.  I'i.  v.  1,  12. 
In  all  the  Greek  versions  the  name  is  transliterated 
Abineem,  e.xeept  in  the  Akwandrine  eo(le.\  (.ludges, 
iv.  12).  where  it  is  given  as  labia.  'I'liis  is  a  name 
similar  in  eonslruilion  to  Ahinoam  and  Klnaani,  and 
may  be  reiideri-d  "  .My  father  isdelight."  The  sulli.x  ( 
with  '■  Ab  ■'  is  not  the  sign  of  theaneient  eonstru<t  or 
gerutive.  but  is  the  possessive  ending  of  the  tirst  |)er- 
son.  Clieyne  ("  Ency.  Bibl."  ]).  1!»)  understands  ,l/<(' 
in  Ahinoam  as  referring  to  the  Divine  Father,  and 
renders  the  name  "The  (Divine)  Father  is  pleasant- 
ness"; but  this  is  doubtful. 

BlIiLIociRAPHV:  Cray,  Hebrew  Proper  Xamen,  pp.  SCI  f(  sen., 
wliert*  un  exrelleot  discussion  of  compounds  wltli  ah  and  ahi 
iiiiiv  t>e  found. 

.1.  D.  P. 

ABINU  MALKENU  (IJD^D  irSN  OurFatherl 
Our  King!):  'I'lic  iiiilial  worils  and  name  of  a  jmr- 
lion  nf  the  liturgy  recited  with  special  solemnity  on 
the  I'cnitential  Days  from  New  Year  to  the  Day 
of  Atonement  inclusive.  In  the  ancient  litmgy  the 
two  invocations,  "Our  Father"  and  "Our  King." 
found  separately  in  the  Bible  (Isa.  l.xiii.  Hi,  l.xiv.  8: 
"Our  Father!"  also  in  the  Itala  version  of  Tobit. 
xiii.  4.  anil  Isa.  xxxiii.  22:  "Our  King"),  are  either 
jilaccd  together  in  rorresponding sentences,  as  in  the 
Kight<'en  Benedictions,  tlie  ti fill  and  I  he  ninth,  "  For- 
givi'  us,  ( lur  Father,  for  we  have  sinned  !  I'anlon  us. 
Our  King,  for  we  have  transgresscil  I  "  orsimply  com- 
bined as  in  the  jirayer  known  as  "Ahabah  Habbah  " 
and  in  the  Musif  of  the  Festivals:  "Our  Father! 
()ur  King!  Heveal  the  glory  of  Thy  kingdom  to  us 
speedily  !  "  This  ciimbination  became  a  standing  for- 
mula, like  "  <  lur  Fallar  in  Heaven  !  '  or  "  Our  God  in 
Heaven!"  parlicularly  in  penitential  prayers.  Dur- 
ing a  great  drought  the  usual  fast  day  was  held,  and 
the  Twenty  four  lienediclions  prescribed  for  such 
occasions  were  recited  by  Klic/.er  ben  Hyrcanus,  yet 
without  avail:  but  no  sooner  did  .\kiba  step  forth 
and  recite  the  prayer,  "Our  Falherl  Our  King! 
Thou  art  our  Father!  Our  Father!  Our  King!  We 
have  no  King  besides  Tiled  Our  Father!  Our  King! 
We  have  sinned  before  Thee!  Our  Father!  OurKing! 
Have  niercv  upon  us!  Our  Falhcr!  OurKing!  Act 
unio  us  for  Thy  name's  saki'!"  than  rain  came 
(Ta'anil,  2.V<,  according  to  the  belter  version  in  .Jacob 
ilin  Habib's  "V.n  Vaakob").  This  story  by  no 
means  implies,  as  has  be<'n  assumed  by  many  writers, 
llial  Akiba  was  Ihc  lirst  to  recite'  the  ".\binu  Malk- 
enii,"  as  i|uile  the  contrary  is  the  case.  That  word  of 
ileliance  lo  the  worldly  rulirs,  "  We  have  no  King  but 
Thee!  "  originated  in  cirelescif  w  liich  .\kiba  was  only 
a  late  Ihough  a  faithful  follower.  Of  how  many 
verses  the  orii;inal  ".\biiui  Malkinu  "  prayer  con- 
sist<'d  it  is  dillicult  to  tell  In  our  printed  Talmud 
two  versisonly  are  mintioni'd  in  the  story  of  .\kiba: 
.\lfa-i  has  lhre<'.  In  all  probability  there  was  at  lirst 
no  IImiI  nuinbirore  rdiT.  the  arnmireinent  being  left 
entirely  In  the  one  who  olTered  the  prayer  on  the 
occasion. 

The  inlroduclion  of  llii'  ".Miinii  Malkenu  "  in  the 
liturgy  of  the  j'lnilenlial  Davs  laitunilly  led  lo  cer- 
tain clianges  and  toil  more  or  less  llxed  system.  Tiie 
I  — .T 


confession  of  sin  received  the  tirst  place,  and  ])rayers 
for  the  New  Year,  for  an  inscription  m  the  Book 
of  Life,  and  (with  a  view  lo  the  Day  of  Atonement) 
for  an  ius(ri|)tion  in  the  Book  of  I'ardon  and  For- 
giveness suggested  themselves.  Still,  there  remained 
a  wide  divergence  in  the  various  liturgies.  Accord- 
ing lo  one  tradition  ("Tanya,"  p.  74)  the  "Abinii 
Malkenu  "  consisted  originally  of  nineteen  verses, 
corresjioniling  w  ilh  the  Nineteen  Benedictions  of  the 
augmented  ".Shemoneh  'Esreh,"  There  is,  indeed,  a 
relation  between  some  of  the  verses  of  the  "  Abinu" 
and  some  of  the  Benedictions,  "Our  Father!  Our 
King!  bring  us  back  to  Thee  in  repentance!  "  cca-re- 
sponds  Willi  the  liflli  .section  of  the  "Shemoneh  'Es- 
reh"; "Pardon  our  sins!"  "For.irive  our  Transgres- 
sions!" with  the  sixth;  "Send  Healing!"  with  the 
eightli;  "In,scribe  us  in  the  Book  of  Sustenance!" 
with  the  ninth:  "  Destroy  the  devices  of  our  ene- 
mies! "  "  Let  sid  vat  ion  sprout  forth!  "  "Lift  the  horn 
of  Israel!  "  and  "  IJft  the  horn  of  Tliine  anointed!  " 
correspond  with  Ihe  leiilli,  Iwelfth,  fourteenth,  and 
tifteenth  Benedictions  resiu-ctivelv  ;  "'  Hc-ar  our 
voice!"  "Receive  our  prayer!"  with  the  .sixteenth; 
but  tlie  rest  show  no  comiectiou  witli  the  other  ten 
Benedictions.  Nor,  in  fact,  are  the  nineteen  verses 
singled  out  in  "Tanya"  found  in  Amram  Gaon's 
text  of  the  "  .Vbinii  .Malkenu." 

From  Amram  Gaon  we  learn  that  tlie  "Abinu 
JIalkcnu."  in  the  time  of  the  Gennini,  was  regarded 
as  an  inslilulioii  of  the  ancients,  lo  be  recited  on  the 
Ten  PeniU-ntial  Days,  .Jacob  Asheri  ("Tur,"  i,  002) 
writes  that  Amram  Gaon's  "Abinu  Malkenu  "  con- 
tained twenty-two  verses  (this  isi)robably  the  mean- 
ing of  the  words,  "after  the  order  of  Ihe  Alphabet," 
which  Zunz  look  too  literally),  and  that  it  became  a 
German  custom  lo  recite  them  both  morning  and 
evening  after  Ihc  " Shemoneh 'Esreh  "  during  the 
Ten  Penitenlial  Days  (whereas  in  Spain  they  were 
for  som<'  time  recited  only  on  New-year's  Day  and 
the  Day  of  Atonement),  In  the  "Seder  Rab  Am- 
ram" the  number  of  verses  has  increased  lo  Iwcnty- 
tive,  in  the  Sephardic  lilurgv  to  twenty-nine,  in  Ihe 
German  to  Ihirly-cight,  in  the  Polish  to  forty-four, 
and  in  the  Salonican  to  fifty-three.  In  the  course  of 
time  Ihe  more  rigidly  pious  also  recited  the  "Abinu 
Malkenu''  throughout  Ihe  year,  omitting  it  on  Sab- 
baths and  holy  days,  when  penitential  imiyers  were 
not  in  order.  In  Ihe  l{eform  Kilual  the  "  .\binu  Jlal- 
kenu  "  is  employed  only  on  the  solemn  New-year's 
Day  and  Ihe  Day  of  Atonement.  The  traditional 
melody  renders  ihe  recilation  of  the  "Abinu  3Ial- 
kenu  "  by  the  reader  (cantor)  and  the  response  by 
the  coiiirregation  es|>eciallv  impressive  (Ziin/.. 
"Rilus,"'iip',  llK-l'iO).  "  K. 

Itiiii.ioiai.M'iiv  :  Iicinlillz,  Jewish  Servtc(»  in  Slinagoaue  ami 

/;..!«.,  isiis,  pp.  li;:i,  liu, 

ABIOB,  AARON  (probably  Abi  Ajryub, 
SleiiiM  hneidei  ill  '.liw.  f^uait.  Ri'V,"  X,  Kill):  .\n- 
thorof  "Shemen  liaMor"  (Oil  of  Myrrh),  a  connnen- 
lary  on  the  Book  of  Esther,  Hellourishccl  in  Salonica 
about  I'rlo,  and  his  work  was  first  prinled  there  in 
IfiOl.  .M.   L.   .M, 

ABIOB,  SIMON  B.  DAVID:  Cabalist  of  Ihe 
scvenleenlli  (  eiiiury  lie  removicl  lo  Hi-bron.  one 
of  Ihe  eliiif  .irathering  places  of  the. Jewish  mystics 
of  his  day.  His  work,  "Bat  Midek  "  (The  King's 
Daiigliler),  dealing  with  cabalistic  questions,  was 
edited  by  Solomon  Altarasat  Venice  in  1712. 

Iliiii.nMMni-iiv:    Wiilf,  llihl.  //,lir.  III.  L'llBtfi;  Slelnwhni-ldvr. 
I  (It.  /finll.  cii.  :r^K. 

H.  G.  E. 

ABIRAM  ("My  Father  is  the  High  One"):  1  — 
Bibliciil  Data:  Son  of  Elinb.  one  of  the  couspira- 


Abisha^ 

Abitur,  Joseph  ben  Isaac 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


66 


tors  apraiust  Moses  (Num.  xvi.  1 ;  Pa.  cvi.  17).  Dout. 
xi.  C>  placfs  liiiii  ill  tin-  Irilic  of  Ri'iibon.  G.  B.  L. 
In  Rabbinical  Literature :  AMraiii — wlio  ob- 
tained his  imnie  from  llic  fad  tliat  lie  Him!  from  Goil 
— Ix'lonjred.  together  with  his  friend  Dathan.  to  the 
quarrelsome  and  seditious  personages  in  Egypt  and 
in  tile  wiliU'rness  wlio  sought,  on  every  occasion,  to 
place  dillieulties  in  the  way  of  Mo.ses.  Being  identi- 
fied with  the  two  Israeliles  at  strife  who  were  the 
cause  of  Moses'  (light  from  Egypt  (Ex.  ii.  18-15), 
the  two  were  thus  regarded  as  liaving  interfered  with 
liini  at  tlie  l)eginniiig  of  his  career.  Later,  as  pun- 
ishment for  their  wickedness,  they  became  |)oor  and 
■were  degraded  in  niiik;  yet  they  did  not  cease  their 
liostility  to  Moses,  and  opiio.scd  his  lirst  endeavor  to 
deliver  Israel.  It  was  Abiiam  an<l  Dathan  who  were 
the  immediate  cause  of  the  hitler  reproaches  made  to 
Moses  and  Aaron  recounted  in  Ex.  v.  20,  21.  When, 
despite  this,  the  exodus  from  Egyi)t  took  place,  Da- 
than and  Abiram  tried  to  induce  the  people  at  the  l{ed 
Sea  to  return  (Ex.  xiv.  11,  12);  and  in  the  failure  of 
this  attempt,  they  made  an  cITort,  through  disregard 
of  .Moses' commaiKls,  to  incite  the  iie<ipleagainst  their 
leader — Ex.  xvi.  20  being  applied  to  them — until 
they  thought  they  had  a  following  sufficiently  nu- 
merous to  risk  the  great  reliellion  under  Koiah.  On 
this  occa.sion,  akso,  Dathan  and  Abiram  were  con- 
spicuous for  their  wickedness.  Not  only  were  tliey 
among  Korah's  chief  suiijiorlers,  but  they  were  im- 
pertinent and  insulting  in  their  si)eecli  to  Jloses.who, 
in  his  modesty  and  love  of  jx'ace,  went  to  them  him- 
self in  order  to  dissuade  them  from  their  ])ernicious 
designs  (Sanh.  1096;  'Ab.  Zarali,  Sk  ;  Ex.  I{.  i. ;  Num. 
R.  wiii.  4).  L.  G. 

2.  The  first-born  son  of  Iliel.  wlin  died  at  the  re- 
founding  of  .Jericho  liy  his  father  (I  Kings,  xvi.  34; 
compare  Josh.  vi.  2t)).  Perhaj)s  he  was  immured, 
according  to  the  well-known  superstitious  ]U'actise. 

Bibliography:   Tninibiill,  Thrcxhnhl  On-rnant,  ISiKi,  pp.  18, 
50;  Baring-Gould,  Stnume  Survivals,  1894,  p.  47. 

G.  B.  L. 

ABISHAG.— Biblical  Data :  A  lieautiful  Shu- 
nanimite,  brouglit  by  the  servants  of  David  to  his 
liarem  to  minister  to  the  aged  king  in  the  hope  of 
reviving  his  failing  jiowers  (I  Kings,  i.  1-5).  After 
the  accession  of  Solomon.  Adonijah.  his  elder  brother, 
sought  through  liuthsheba  to  secure  Abishag  as  his 
wife.  Solomon,  inter])reting  this  request  for  the  wife 
of  the  late  king  as  evidence  of  a  plot  on  the  pari  of 
Adonijah  to  strengthen  his  <-laini  to  the  throne  (since 
according  to  ardiaie  law,  a  man's  concubines  became 
tlie  inheritance  of  his  heir),  put  his  rival  to  death  (I 
Kings,  ii.  12-24).  C.  F.  K. 

In     Rabbinical    Literature :    Abishag.    the 

Shunammite.  though  only  half  as  beautiful  as  Sarah, 
merited  the  rank  of  (lueen  on  account  of  her  beauty 
(Sanh.  39/').  David  did  not  marry  her.  since  he  liad 
already  the  allotted  number  of  eighteen  wives  (see 
Sanh.  ii.  3.  21(0,  and  he  i)referre(i  to  renounce  the 
lovely  virgin  rather  than  send  away  one  of  his  wed- 
ded wives  (ih.  22ii).  Although  Aliishag  never  be- 
came David's  wife,  yet,  since  by  virtue  of  her  jier- 
sonal  service  she  belonged  to  the  royal  household,  it 
was  treasonable  on  the  part  of  Adonijah  to  jietition 
Solomon  to  grant  him  the  Shunammite  as  his  wife. 
It  was  not  fitting  for  a  subject  toappropriate  things 
or  jiersons  that  belonged  to  royalty  {ibid.).    L.  G. 

ABISHAI  or  ABSHAI.— Biblical  Data :    A 

son  of  David's  sister  Zeruiah.  Abishai  ranked  as  a 
general  in  command  second  only  to  his  brother  Joat) 
III  Sam.  X.  10.  14.  xviii.  2.  5.  12).  By  saving  David's 
life  (II  Sam.  xxi.  17)  and  by  the  slaughter  of  three 


hundred  warriors  (II  Sam.  xxiii.  18),  lie  secured  a 
|)roniiiient  ]dace  among  the  king's  bodyguard.  He 
was  as  relentless  and  cruel  toward  his  foes  as  he  was 
loyal  to  his  family  and  king.  David's  moderation 
alone  resliiiiiied  liiin  from  slaying  Saul  as  he  lay 
asliH'p  in  his  camp  (I  .Sam.  xxvi.  7-9).  WilhJoab, 
Abishai  treacherously  murdered  Abner  in  revenge 
for  the  ileathof  their  brother  Asidiel  (II  Sam.  iii.  27, 
30).  lie  was  a  good  example  of  those  soldiers  of 
fortune  wliosc  courage  and  blind  devotion  made 
David  master  of  the  Canaanitish  kingdom.  In  the 
martrin  of  I  C'liron.  ii.  16  he  is  called  "Alishai." 

C.  F.  K. 

In  Rabbinical   Literature :   The    rescue   of 

David  by  Abi.shai.  as  narrated  in  II  Sam.  xxi.  10. 
17,  is  elaborated  by  the  Haggadah  in  the  following 
manner: 

David,  on  a  hunting  expedition,  is  enticed  over 
the  Philistinefrontier  by  Satan  inlhe  forinof  a  stag; 
he  is  then  seized  by  Ishbi.  the  brother  of  Goliath, 
who  intends  to  |)ut  him  to  death.  David's  distress, 
liowever,  is  revealed  in  a  miraculous  manner  to 
Abishai — according  to  some,  by  the  sudih'ii  turning 
of  the  water  in  which  he  is  bathing  to  a  blood-red 
color;  according  to  others,  through  a  sign  given 
by  a  dove,  tlie  symbol  of  Israel  (Ps.  Ixviii.  14). 
Abishai  immediately  sets  ofT  toward  David,  when, 
by  another  miracle,  he  is  brought  thither  in  the  space 
of  a  moment  (the  Haggadah  uses  the  phrase  "  iefi- 
Z(it  /lire/,-" — jumping  of  the  road — in  this  instance 
as  well  as  in  the  wondrous  journeys  of  several  other 
])ious  men).  On  bis  arrival  .Vbishai  lirst  encounters 
Orpali,  the  giant's  mother,  and,  when  he  becomes 
aware  of  her  evil  intent  toward  liim,  slays  her. 
Ishbi,  on  catching  sight  of  .\bishai,  forces  his  sjiear 
into  the  ground,  jioint  upward,  and  .seizing  David 
in  his  hands,  raises  him  on  high  in  onler  to  dash  him 
upon  the  point,  'riiercuiioii  Abishai  utters  the  in- 
elfable  name  of  God.  and  therewith  arrests  David's 
descent  midway.  Both  David  and  .\bishai  then  pray 
to  God  for  help;  and  as  the  latter  again  pronounces 
God's  name,  David  falls  lotlie  ground  unhurt.  Both 
are  immediately  attacked  by  the  enraged  giant,  who 
would  soon  have  overcome  them,  but  for  the  shock 
he  experiences  when  Al)ishai  informs  him  of  his 
mother's  death.  This  iiaralyzes  him  to  such  an 
extent  that  David  and  Abisliai  find  no  dilficulty 
in  slavinir  him  (Sanh.  9.5((;  compare  also  Jellinek. 
"B.  Ii."  iv.  140-141). 

As  with  all  other  Biblical  heroes,  the  Haggadah 
is  inclined  to  see  in  Abishai  al.so  a  man  of  spiritual 
lirominence.  The  phrase  used  in  II  Sam.  xxiv.  10. 
nnv  31  ("it  is  enough  now"),  is  translated  by-  the 
llaggadists,  "  take  the  greatest  (ruli)  among  them 
now,"  a  command  to  the  destroying  angel ;  the  refer- 
ence being  to  Abishai,  whose  demise  was  regarded 
as  more  important  than  that  of  the  seventy  thousand 
of  the  people,  or  even  than  that  of  the  majority  of 
the  Sanhedrin  (Ber.  626 ;  Midr.  Sam.  xxxi.  end ;  Midr. 
Teh.  xvii.  12;  Pirke  R.  El.  xliii.).  L.  G. 

ABISHALOM.    See  Absalom. 

ABISHUA    (•  Father  is   Riches"):      1.  Son  of 

Phiiiclias  anil  great-grandson  of  Aaron,  the  high 
jiriest,  ancestor  of  Ezra  (Ezra  vii.  5).  Found  also  in 
the  genealogy  of  Aaron  and  the  high  priests  suc- 
ceeding him  (I  Chron.  vi.  4,  5,  J50).  2.  A  grandson 
of  Beiijamiii  (I  t'hron.  viii.  4).  G.  B.  L. 

ABISHTJR  ("Father  is  a  Wall");  A  .lerahmce- 
lite,  .son  of  Shammai  (I  Chron.  ii.  28,  29). 

ABITAL :  A  wife  of  David,  who  bore  to  him. 
during  his  residence  at  Hebron,  his  fifth  son,  Sheph- 
atiah  \II  Sam.  iii.  4,  I  Chron.  iii.  3).        C.  F.  K. 


67 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abisha? 

Abitur,  Joseph  ben  Isaao 


ABITTJB    (■'  Father   is   Good  ") : 

(I  f'linui.  viii.  11) . 


A   Benjamite 


ABITUB,  JOSEPH  BEN  ISAAC  BEN 
STANS  IBN  :  Talimulist  anil  litiir.i.'ical  poet,  who, 
ac cmdii];.'  In  slalciiRnts  niaile  by  Moses  ben  Ezra, 
and  atcordinjr  to  one  of  Abitur's  own  acrostic  poems, 
was  boru  in  Merida  about  the  befrinninj;  of  the  tenth 
century.  lie  died  in  Damascus  about  tlie  year  970. 
The  weird  Aliilur  is  most  pnibalily  derivable  from 
tlie  Arabic  Ahi  'I'/iur:  yet  it  also  ajipears  in  a  variety 

of  shapes,  such  as  mn'n  and  DIJTPX.  which  Mciri 
distorts  into  Din'3X  [  ■  The  name  Slans  also  occurs 
in  ditTerent  forms.  It  is  found  in  the  older  autliori- 
ties  and  in  Moses  ben  Ezra's  "  Kitab  alMul.iadarah  " 
as  DNLDJt;*.  and  is  also  written  DSJC'J*.  DJXCD. 
DJDND-  The  identiticatiou  of  Aliilur  with  .lose  ben 
.lose,  a  poet  earlier  than  Saadia,  has  long  been  recog- 
nized as  envmeous. 

From  Jlerida,  .\bitur  went  to  Cordova,  which  was 

destined  to  lieconic  his  dwellinLTplace.  where  he  sat 

at  the  feel  of  IJidibi  Mii.ses,  "  the  prisiiiieiiif  Ban."  and 

became  one  of  ids  most  distinu'uished 

Contest      pupils.     Upon  Kalilii  Moses'  death,  the 
with         congregation  elected  Ins  son,  Rabbi  Ila- 

Hanok.  nok,  as  his  successor;  but  Abitur.who 
had  a  following,  though  a  smaller  one. 
also  aspired  to  the  position.  In  the  struggle  which 
ensued  the  calif  Al-I.Iakim  favored  llaiiok,  who,  in 
order  to  silence  and  intirnidale  his  opponents,  e.xcom- 
inunicated  them.  A  further  attempt  to  secure  the 
califs  favor  resulted  in  an  intimalinn  to  Abitur  that 
it  was  advis)il)le  that  he  should  leave  the  country. 
Embittered  by  these  experiences  and  l)y  I  he  burden  of 
e.vcomnuinieation,  Abitur  went  abi-oail  to  seek  repose 
and,  if  possible,  con.solation  and  vindicjition;  but  no- 
where did  he  seem  to  lind  favor :  Itabbi  Samuel  Cohen 
<if  Fez  wmdd  not  even  .see  him.  In  a  letter  written  in 
Aramaic  tin'  homeless  wanderer  in  vain  set  f(irth  that 
the  sentence  of  excommunication  was  both  unjust 
and  illegal;  Samuel  was  not  to  be  moved.  Even  the 
gaon  then  in  otliee  at  Babylon — the  tradition  that 
it  was  Hat)  Ilai  is  chronologically  impossible — con- 
sidered that  Habbi  Ilanok's  sentence  must  be  re- 
spected, and  accordingly  denied  Abiluran  interview. 
Abitur's  last  effort  having  failed,  he  lost  all  hope 
of  obtaining  the  jiosition  at  Cordova;  but  this  harsli 
treatment  servid  imly  to  make  him  more  resigned 
In  his  fate.  At  this  time,  however,  a  change  took 
place  in  his  prospects;  for  a  certain  silk  manufac- 
turer of  Cordova.  Jacob  ibn  Gail,  a  friend  and  former 
patron  of  the  exile,  was  a|)poinled  sujueme  hc>ad  of 
llie  Jewish  emnmunities  from  "Segelmesa  unto  the 
Dduro."  He  hastened  to  ilepose  llanok  and  to  cause 
the  heads  of  the  ciingregation  to  invite  Abitur  to 
return  and  becume  the  nd)bi  of  Cordova.  But  Abi- 
lurdreliniMJ  Uic  liiviliitinn  and  vigorously  condemned 
I  111'  wrong  intended  to  Hanok.  "a  man  whose  ei|ual 
I'oiild  not  be  found  from  Scpharad  [Spain]  to  Baby- 
lonia." 

I'nfortunately.  very  few  of  the  literary  produc- 
tions of  Abitur  have  been  preserved,  owing  in  some 
degree,   no  doubt,   to  the  sentence  of 

Abitur's      excommunication  under  which  he  snf- 

Literary  fered.  'Pliere  is  a  I  radii  inn  reeorded 
'Work.  by  .\braliani  ibn  Daml  llial  he  Inins 
laleil  into  Amliie  part  of  llie  six  Orders 
of  the  Mishnah  for  the  libniry  of  the  calif  Al  Hakim, 
a  lover  of  i-ulture.  The  few  responsa  which  have 
been  preserved  show  us  that  Abitur  was  considered 
by  his  contemporaries  an  authority  in  Talmudii- 
law.  His  diction  is  tinired  with  .\ramaie.  of  which 
language  he  seems  to  have  been  viry  fond;  for  ex- 
am|>le,  his  conunentary  on  the  I'salms  is  full  of  Am 


maisins.  Of  thiscommentarj'onlya  few  f ragmen t3 
are  known,  and  these  resemble  the  ilidrash  in  style. 

But  it  was  in  the  field  of  poetry  that  Abitur  espe- 
cially distinguished  himself.  Alharizi  relates  that 
Abitur  was  the  tirst  in  Sjiain  to  ci>m])o.sc  a  Ma'amad. 
There  exist  a  few  fragments  of  it,  to  which  the 
printed  'Abodah  (poem  on  the  sacrificial  service  for 
the  Day  of  Atonement)  belongs.  In  contents,  the 
poem  resembles  other  piyutim  or  liturgical  poems. 
After  an  introduction  declaring  the  praise  of  God, 
the  poet  reheai-ses.  in  the  'Abodah  ]>roper,  the  Bib- 
lical history  from  the  Creation  down  to  Aaron,  and 
adds  a  deserijition  of  the  sjicriticial  services  in  the 
Temple  on  tlie  Day  of  Atonement,  according  to  the 
de.scriiitions  of  tlie'Bible  and  the  Talmud.  The  dis- 
tinguishing features  of  Abitur's  "Abodah — features 
in  which  lie  far  excels  other  poets — are  the  skil- 
fully involved  form  and  the  manifold  rimes  and 
acrostics  which  he  employs.  The  iioem  consists  of 
twenty-three  stroidies,  each  of  four  stanzas;  each 
stjinza  of  two  halves,  again  divided  into  halves;  the 
strojdie  thus  contains  ei.irht  verses,  and  each  stanza 
four  half  verses,  which  rime  on  the  [ilan  a — e,  b — d. 
The  strophes  may  jiroperly  be  sjiid  to  proceed  in  al- 
phabetical order,  since  each  strophe  with  its  eight 
verses  or  lines  begins  with  one  of  the  twenty-two 
letters  (see  the  strophe  printed  below,  which  begins 
with  Aleph).  while  the  last  strophe  (the  twenty -third) 
contains  the  author's  name,  given  acrostically.  This 
system  is  furlhereomplieated  by  the  internal  arrange- 
ment of  the  verses,  llieir  words,  and  the  .system  of 
rimes.  As  to  the  former,  the  first,  third,  and  fifth 
verses  contain  the  strophe-letter  twice;  that  is.  initi- 
ally in  its  tirst  two  words;  whereas  in  the  second, 
fourth,  sixth,  and  seventh,  the  strophe-letter  appears 
only  once,  initially.  The  lett«>r  of  the  next  strophe 
is  indicated  initially  in  the  second  word  of  the  .seventh 
verse  and  in  the  first  word  of  the  eighth.  The  rime 
is  set  by  the  second  word  of  the  first  half-verse  (a), 
for  the  ending  of  the  second  half- verse  (/<) .  and  the 
end  of  the  stanza  (rf) .  while  the  riming  of  the  third 
half-verse  (<•)  is  left  ojien.  Thus  the  second  word  of 
each  stanza  rimes  with  the  last  word  of  the  same  and 
with  the  first  word  of  the  next  st^mza. 

The  climax  of  the  whole  .system  is  reached  in 
the  manipulation  of  the  fourth  half- verse  of  every 
stanza,  which  not  only  rimes  but  consists  of  a  Bibli- 
cal quotation  of  file  re(|UireiI  number  of  feet.  The 
whole  Abodah  (omilting  the  introduction)  is  pre- 
ceded by  two  verses,  which  are  constructed  on  the 
.Slime  plan.  In  illuslnition  of  the  foregoing  descrip- 
tion the  opening  of  the  'Abodah  is  here  presented; 


r  II  finx  V"""'  73' 


rhn     t 


-^N -.•!.■'«  B''ij'  ^y>  a'^iyii  II  rim  jin  a->s3  i.s    '- 

ino  '-a  ijrsnn  II  aii  Snj ihn  -i    1 

.inN-irPi  inn  'n  II  anponi  mtcc  ik    '^ 

O'^oji  OVN  Kio  II  Sd  <Ba  inv2  —  a'n'-S  ins    ■"' 

.3'n*-N -)"\Kn  ''3    1^2  II '"13'   ^-3  IP^II  DON      ^ 

irs  'Va  yin'M  II  pnjn  n""  >b:  mn-  —  isii!  wr\^H    •> 
.icw-ya'  Dv''  ov  II  .i<ins'i  n-aip  i-iyi  x^U    " 

nyasa  'jih  icira  II  '•'•s  m  ."yia  iciJt    "' 
.npn3i-n;i3."a)  n3;n3  II  "''•jr  a''iy  .ir'<ra    8 

All  these  siOf  imposi-d  shackles  of  the  rime  arc 
borne  by  the  piH't  with  the  greatest  eas(>;  all  difli- 
culties  lire  admirably  .surniounted.  Novel  wonl-for- 
Illations  and  conipanilively  few  inslanees  of  harsh- 
ness of  expres.sion  are  peculiarities  inherent  in  the 


Abiud 
Ablution 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


68 


piyiHic  style,  and  an-  not  tlie  results  of  any  strain- 
in;;  after  artificial  form. 

Strantre.  often  interesting.  expres.«ionsare  found  in 
the  less  artilieitil  poems  of  Aliitur,  and  indeed  even 
in  his  prose  eomnieiiliiry  on  the  I'sidms.  Of  other 
pieees  liy  Abitiir,  Ihe  introduetion  to  the  priiyer 
IDNL"  1^13  ill  the  morniiiir  servie<'  for  Ihe  Alone- 
ment  Day  is  mo;t  notable;  it  lieiiins  C'C'N  "IL"S  "Ilia- 
This  poem,  which  is  also  a  fni^inent  of  the  "^laa- 
niad."  was  made  the  subject  of  a  coinmeiitary  by 
Simon  lien  Zeniali  Diiran.  written  for  a  pupil.  David 
ben  Samuel  l.Ialajo.  IJesides  the  ■Miiamad."  Abitur 
composed  a  Iiir:;e  number  of  piyutim  for  Sabbaths. 
New-year's  Day,  and  the  three  Festivals,  a  lenirlhy 
set  of  IIosiiANor  fur  I  he  Tabernacles  festival,  as  well 
as  propitiatory  prayers  {wUluit)  for  the  daysof  peni- 
tence. His  productions  are  emliodied  in  tlie  Proven- 
(,al,  Catalonian,  African,  and  many  otlier  liturgies. 

BinLiOGKAPnY:  Lpl)re<ht.  Litliriiliirhkitt  drx  OricntK.  1S44, 
ool.TiC.':  Kninkcrs  .l/mmrw/iriY/,  IWS.  p.  4:!0:  Just.  OVjio/i. 
ihr  luraililiii.  vi.  lis_i:tii;  suclis.  IliUiiii'isr  I'ncxii:.  pp.  StS- 
2i">5;  Slelnsclinelder.  (Vif.  Itudl.  icil.s.  IWT,  I4:iK;  Kanipf,  ^'irlit- 
Aii<lah(!<is(lii-  I'liisir  Aiiilaliisisrhir  Itichtn-.  11.  IS-i-lsii; 
Zunz.  IJUyiitiir{U!iih.\\\'.  ITS  1, si;. , ">::!;  LnnilsliviUi. '.t»ii/i»<li' 
lM-'Ahiiiliili,w.  'itt-'M:  (iriit/.  fVi-icfi.  lUr .luiUn.-M  eil..  v. 
;J4.'>.  :i>t-:jiil :  Mm-ller.  />i<  ;i'i../».m.m  //  ,lnSimiii>:i:)ii  n  Lclirir 
(liK  Zilinti  n  .I:i)irliuiiil,  rls,  !ii  .Si,  /,,  nli  r  ll<  rirlil  ikr  Lch- 
ritiintall  fDrilii-  Wiss, iiKtIiail  id.v  .IwU  iil]iiiiii^,  especially 
p.  %\:  Harknvv.  In  Minmt.-.-'fhiitl.  Iss.",.  pp.  u's"..  isii;  Bai-her, 
in  Winter  unit  Wunsclie,  />i.  Jiiil.  1,11  hint  in;  II.  ^"iS;  Aliitur's 
Sfikr'Ahtitttth^  Uitrellier with  ii  cMiiiinenlurv  hy  May.vim  dali- 
|)apa.  is  printfii  in  lioseiilierK's  E-ji';-!,-'  B';isj  --i-  ';';'C  ]'3V, 
11.  19-2."t,  1  IT-l^J.  The  piH'iri  w'l:'N  i'J'N,  wrongfully  ascribed 
Ui  Lsaac  l)en  (iiat,  is  printed  witlj  Duran's commentary  in  (iold- 
tjerg's  o'ji::dd  can,  pp.  K.5-tK;.  jj    jj 

ABlUJJ  :  Son  of  Zerubbabcl.  from  wlioni  was  de- 
scended .loseph,  tliehusliaiid  of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Jesus  (Matt.  i.  V^^) .  He  is  omitted  from  the  list  of 
Zerubbabel's  sons  given  in  1  C'hron.  iii.  19,  20. 

G.  B.  L. 

ABIiAT  :  A  Gentile  sa.i^e  andiistroloijer  in  Baby- 
lonia. The  close  friendship  winch  existed  between 
him  and  Mar  Samuel  (died  2~A}  shows  that  the  le- 
gal restrictions  of  their  reliiiion  did  not  prevent  the 
Babylonian  Jews  from  social  conunimication  with 
their  heathen  nci.irhbors.  An  anecdote  given  in  'Ab. 
Zarah  {'M)ii)  illustrates  the  kind  con.sidcration  and 
courtesy  which  |irevailed  on  both  sides.  Ablat  was 
a  guest  in  the  house  of  Alar  Samuel  on  an  occasion 
when  wine  was  usually  served.  The  rabbinic  law 
forbids  Jews  to  use  wine  that  has  come  in  contact 
with  idolaters.  Knowing  this.  Ablat  declined  to  take 
his  wiue  before  .Mar  Samuel,  wliom  he  called  "the 
wisest  of  the  Jews."  But  Alar  Samuel,  anticipating 
this  very  ditticully,  had  met  it  liy  oidcring  mulled 
wine,  which  was  not  umler  the  ban;  and  he  thus 
overcame  a  restriction  that  jiractically  prevent<'il  his 
friend  from  partaking  of  his  hospitality  (Sliab.  121VM. 

Ablat  enjoyed  great  popularity  among  the  Jews, 
as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Jerusidem  Talmud 
(Shab.  iii.  (Sn)  cites  a  question  respecting  a  rabbin- 
ical prece])t  put  by  him  to  a  Jewish  scholar  and  the 
lalter's  answer.  I>.  G. 

ABLITAS,  EZMEL  (SAHTUEL)  DE  :   Son  of 

Don  Jucepli ;  liorn  in  the  village  of  Alilitas.  near  Tu- 
dela.  from  which  place  he  derived  his  name;  died  in 
Vi-l'i.  lie  was  known  as  "  the  rich  Jew  of  Ablitas." 
He  had  business  relati(ms  with  the  King  of  Navarre 
and  Aragon.  The  Kingof  Aragon  and  the  nobles  of 
Navarre  borrowed  from  him  large  sums,  which  they 
failed  to  repaj-.  On  this  account  Ablitas  was  un- 
able to  fulfil  his  obligations  to  the  state.  After  his 
death  liis  grandson,  Don  E/.mel  de  Ablitas,  and  a 
Christian  citizen  of  Tudela  were  made  administra- 
tors of  his  est;ite  and  obliged  under  oath  to  deliver 
his  whole  property,  consisting  of  furniture,  money. 


gold  and  silver  vessels,  vases,  carvings,  and  the  like, 
his  whole  fortune,  both  personal  and  real,  being 
confi.scated  in  Kitli  by  the  (Jui'eii  of  Navarre.  How 
large  n  sum  must  have  come  to  the  treasury  by  this 
confiscation  can  be  seen  from  the  record  of  docu- 
ments published  by  Jacob.s — a  singh'  indebtedne.s.s 
from  the  king  of  .t.'iS.OdI)  is  cited  (see  "Jew.  Quart. 
Hev."  viii.  -ix').  Of  his  sons  two  are  mentioned, 
Funes  and  Judah.  The  latter  name  is  foun<l  in  a 
diieumint  al  Pamplona  (Jacobs,  "Sources  of  Ilis- 
loiy  of  .lews  ill  Spain,"  .x.xxviii.  H't).  Don  Solo- 
mon de  Ablitas,  under  Carlos  II.  of  Navarre,  was 
iiilininistriuhii'  tfi  Ins  hir/nx  fir  mt  rnjmeji'i'ii  (adminis- 
trator of  the  property  of  his  counselor),  ll!ti','-(i7. 
An  Esezkiel  de  Ablitas  (1422)  is  mentioned  iu 
Jacobs'  "Sources." 

miiLioGR.MMiv :  Kayserlinp,  JwUn  in  Xavarra,  pp.  .W  et  seq, ; 
Jacobs.  Sources^  Nos.  14^,  1437, 1439. 

M.   K. 

ABLUTION  :  Kor  the  purpose  of  actual  or  ritual 
puritie.ilioii,  ablutions  or  washings  form  an  im- 
]iorlaiit  feature  of  the  Jewish  religiims  ceremonial. 
.Iiidaism  is  in  thorough  acctu'd  with  the  proverb, 
"Cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness"  (see  Mi.shnah, 
Sotah.  i.x.  1."))  :  indeed,  if  goes  further;  for  it  holds 
practically  that  cleanliness  is  godliness  itself.  There 
are  three  kinds  of  Ablution  recognized  in  Biblical 
and  rabbinical  law:  (1)  Washing  of  the  hands.  (2) 
washing  of  the  hands  and  feet,  and  (3)  immersion 
of  the  whole  body  in  water. 

The  ritual  wasiiiiig  of  the  hands  is  not  ex])licitly 
prescribed  by  tlie  Bible,  but  is  inferred  by  the  rab- 
bis (l.Iul.  10(1.0   from  the  |)a.s.snge,   Kcv. 

Modern  xv.  11,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  if  a 
Practise,  person  alllicled  with  an  unclean  issue 
have  not  washed  (or  bathed)  his  hands 
his  touch  contaminates.  The  pa.ss!ige,  Ps.  xxvi. 
6,  "I  will  wash  mine  liands  in  innocency;  so  will  I 
compass  thine  altar,  O  Lord,''  also  warrants  the  in- 
ference that  Ablulioii  of  the  hands  is  rei|uisite  before 
perfoniiingany  holy  act.  This  particular  form  of  Ab- 
lution is  theoiu'  which  lias  survived  nuist  completely 
and  is  most  practised  by  Jews.  Bi'fore  any  meal  of 
which  bread  forms  a  part,  the  han<ls  must  be  solemnly 
washed  and  the  ajipropriate  benediction  recited.  Be- 
fore prayer,  too.  the  liands  must  be  washed ;  also  aft<^'r 
any  unclean  liodily  function  or  after  contiict  with 
an  unclean  object.  The  jirecepfs  concerning  the 
carrying  out  of  the  ritual  washing  of  the  hands  are 
contained  in  the  rabbinical  code  "Shulhan  'Aruk, 
Oral.i  Hayyiin,"  SS  IIT-IG.").  The  chief  rtiles  are 
Ihese:  The  watermust  bein  a  state  of  natural  jnirity, 
not  discolored  or  defiled  l>y  the  admixture  of  any 
foreign  substance;  it  must  not  have  been  previously 
used  for  any  purpose,  Jind  must  lie  poured  out 
by  human  act,  the  mere  natural  flow  of  water  not 
siilliciiig.  If  a  hydrant  or  stationary  receptacle  is 
used,  the  cock  must  be  ojiened  sejiarately  for  each 
hand.  This  precept,  that  the  water  must  be  poured 
out  by  human  act,  is  based  on  the  fact  that  Scripture 
describes  the  pouring  of  water  upon  the  hands  as 
performed  by  one  person  for  another,  and  considers 
it  an  appropriate  act  for  the  diseiph'  to  do  for  his 
master.  The  iiouiing  on  of  water  was  a  sign  of 
discipleshi]).  Thus,  Seriiilure  sjiys  of  Elislia  that 
he  iioured  water  (D'D  PV'I  u|ion  the  hands  of  Elijah, 
meaning  thai  he  was  Ids  disciple.  The  hands  iniay 
also  be  purified  by  immersion;  but  in  that  case  the 
s;ime  rules  must  be  ob.scrved  as  in  the  case  of  im- 
mersion of  the  entire  body  in  a  regular  ritual  bath, 
or  riiikiteh.  If  water  is  not  obfaunable,  the  hands 
should  lie  rubbed  with  some  dry,  clean  .substance, 
such  as  cloth.  The  hands  must  also  be  washed  after 
eating.    The  Ablution  before  grace  is  known  technic- 


69 


Tin;  JKWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abiud 
Ablution 


ally  as  vinyim  rislufiiim  (first  waters) ,  and  tlie  sub- 
sequent Alilutiou  as  iiuiyim  iihnronim  (lust  waters). 
The  Intlei-  Ablution  is  by  no  means  generally  ob- 
served. 

■\Viislijnir  of  the  hands  and  feet  is  only  prescribed 

by  tlie    .Mosaie   Law  for  those  desirinj;  to  perform 

]iri<stly  functions.      Scripture  states 

Ancient  and  that  whenever  Moses  or  Aaron  or  any 

Modern        of  the  sulxirdinale  priests  desired  to 

Temple        enter  the  sanctuary   ('rabernaele)   or 

Service.       approach  the  altar,  they  were  bound 

to  wash  their  hands  and  feet  from  the 

laver  which  stood  between  the  Tabernacle  and  the 

altar(K.\.  .xxx.  lit.  -\1.  :il).    This  rule  was,  of  course. 

also  (ihserved  in  the  Teuiide  at  .lerusiilem. 

The  washinji:  of  the  whole  body  is  the  form  of 
Ablution  most  frequently  ordained  in  Scripture,  and 
for  the  greatest  number  of  causes.  According  to 
r.ibl)inical  interpretation,  this  is  only  valid  when 
]ierformed  by  innnersion.  either  in  a  natural  foun- 
tain or  stream  or  in  a  ])roperly  constructed  niik- 
weh.  or  ritual  bath,  containing  at  least  forty  Hiili!< 
(about  one  luinilrcd  and  twi'niy  gallons)  of  water 
(see  15.\THs).  The  following  are  the  eases  in  which 
the  Mosaic  Law  requires  immersion  of  the  whole 
body,  the  object  being  either  puriti- 
Immersion  cation  or  consecration :  (n)  No  leper 
of  the  or  unclean  person  of  the  seed  of  Aaron 
Whole  could  eat  of  holy  tlesli  until  he  had 
Body.  washed  his  wholc>  body  in  water  (Ixv. 
x.\ii.  -t-li) .  ill)  When  a  leper  was 
healed  of  his  leprosy,  he  shaved  olf  his  hair.  olTered 
up  the  prescribed  sacrifices,  washed  his  clothing, 
bathed  his  person  in  water,  and  became  clean  (Lev. 
.xiv.  8.  !)) .  (c)  Any  person  who  came  into  contact 
with  the  body  of,  or  with  articles  of  furniture  used 
by,  a  person  having  an  unclean  issue  (3t).  or  with 
any  article  used  by  him.  w.is  obliged  to  wash  both 
his  body  and  his  garments,  and  was  unclean  for 
a  whole  day  (Lev.  xv.  .VIO).  (d)  On  the  Day  of 
Atonement  the  high  priest,  after  sending  off  the 
scapegoat  (see  A/,.\/.Ki.).  was  oliliged  to  wash  his 
whole  body  in  water  in  a  holy  place.  The  .same 
duty  devolved  upon  the  man  who  took  away  the 
goat  and  upon  him  who  burned  the  ox  and  the  goat 
of  the  sin-olfering;  and  they  were  also  required 
to  wash  their  garments  (Lev.  xvi,  24.  20,  2M).  Ac- 
cording to  the  Talmud,  on  the  Day  of  Atonement 
the  high  priest  inunersed  his  whole  person  tive  times 
and  washed  his  han<ls  an<l  feet  ten  times  (Mislmah, 
Yoma,  iii.  S).  (<)  A  sulTerer  from  an  unclean  issue 
to  be  clean  required  innnersion  of  the  whole  person 
(Lev.  XV.  10,  W) .  (/)  Whoever  touched  a  nien- 
struous  woman,  or  any  article  used  by  her,  required 
innnersion  of  the  whole  person  (F-ev.  xv.  lit-27) . 
(.'/)  ,\  native  Israelite  or  a  proselyte  eating  luiclean 
Ilesh  of  a  beast  which  had  diiil  of  itsi-lf,  or  had  bien 
torn,  became  thereby  unclean  for  a  day.  and  was 
obligeil  to  wash  his  whole  body  (Lev.  xvii.  1.")). 
ill)  The  priest  who  tended  \\»-  reil  heifer,  itself  in- 
teiidid  as  a  rite  of  pin'ilicalion.  bicame  unclean  for 
a  day  and  was  obligeil  to  wash  his  whole  body 
(Num.  xix.  7.  H).  (i)  Whoever  came  into  contact 
with  acorjise  or  a  grave  wasiniclean  for  seven  days. 
On  the  third  and  seventh  days  he  was  sprinkled  with 
wah'r  in  \vlii<li  ashes  fmni  the  Imrnl  carcass  of  the 
red  heifer  had  been  dissolved.  On  tl»'  seventh  day 
he  washed  his  wholi>  body  and  his  garments  in  water 
and  beciune  clean  (Num.  xix.  ID),  (j)  Among  the 
ceremonies  at  the  installation  of  priests  was  the 
washing  of  the  whole  body  (Kx.  xxix.  •!.  xl.  \'i) . 
(k)  The  Leviles  were  jiurilied  by  having  water  of 
the  sin  iilTerinir  sprinkled  upon  them  (Nuni  viii.  1.5). 
(I)    \  menstruous  woman  ricpiires  innnersion.  as  is 


shown  bj-  II  Sam.  xi.  2,  4,  and  the  rabbinical  in- 
terpretjition  of  Num.  xxxi.  23.  Most  of  the  above 
purifications,  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  are  in 
aheyance  at  the  |ucsent  time,  it  being  impossible, 
in  the  judgment  of  ralibiuical  authorities,  to  observe 
them  i)roperly  in  the  dispersion.  The  innnersions 
for  the  .sake  of  ritual  purity  at  the  festivals  are, 
however,  still  oliserved  by  the  pious.  The  Karaites 
follow  all  the  laws  of  purity.  The  numerous  sects 
of  the  Ilasidim  are  esiiecially  scrupulous  in  their 
ablutions.  A  Gentile  wishing  to  become  a  proselyte 
must  also  immerse  his  whole  body.  This  ceremony 
is,  no  doubt,  historically  allied  to  B.M'TIsm,  which 
is  thought  by  modern  authorities  to  have  originated 
among  the  Kssi;ni;s,  who  were  very  scrui)ulous  re- 
specting ablutions,  and  in  the  observance  of  the 
rules  of  purity  (see  Lvsth.^tiox;  SiMtiXKi.ixo). 

The  only  jiriestly  function  still  observed  among 
.Jews  as  a  part  of  the  puldic  wor.shi])  is  the  blessing 
of  the  people.  On  festivals  and  holy  days,  the  de- 
scendants of  Aaron  ])ronounee  ujion  the  con.irrega- 
tion  the  threefold  benediction  (Num.  vi.  24-20). 
On  this  occasion  the  Levitesjiour  out  the  water  for 
the  priests  at  the  washing  of  hands,  which  takes 
place  jircvious  to  the  benediction,  and  for  which  a 
spe<ial  pitcher  and  basin,  lioth  usually  of  silver,  are 
used.  Levites,  in  consequence,  often  have  on  their 
tombstones  la  vers  as  heraldic  symbols  of  their  Levitic 
descent. 

ItMiLiofiUAriiY:  For  older  authorities  see  MeCllnUwiJ  and 
Stniinr,  Cuib'Peilia;  Hamburger,  ncah)ic)ikli>i>ililic  fUr 
Itihtl  untl  7Vr//M»(/,  i.  14.\  872;  Nowaeli,  liUtUtti-he  ArrhaC' 
(iliillir,  II.  275-a'.l!l;  Samuel  Spitzer,  Vhcr  Baden  tiiiil  Bit- 
der  hei  den  AUeu  Hehrdern.  18S4. 

B.  D. 
Historical  Presentation  :  The  rite  of  Ab- 
lution forms  ])art  of  the  system  of  purification  prac- 
tised at  all  times  and  in  all  lands  by  such  as  strive 
for  holiness  or  for  a  eomnnunon  with  the  Deity.  It 
may  have  a  twofold  object:  (1)  the  cleansing  of  the 
body  from  inqiurity,  first  in  a  idiysical  .sense,  and 
then  on  a  higher  stage  in  a  symljnlieal  sense,  and  (2) 
the  jireparing  of  the  body  for  a  higher  degree  of 
holiness.  Persons  were  not  allowed  to  enter  a  holy 
place  or  to  ajiproach  the  Deity  with  sacrifice  or 
])rayer  without  having  first  performed  the  rite  of 
Ablution  or.  as  it  is  also  called,  sjuictitication  (Ex. 
.xix.  lU;  I  Sam.  xvi.  ."i;  II  Chron.  xxix.  ">;  and  Josc- 
phus.  "Am."  xiv.  II.  S  .">.  where  we  are  told  that  the 
whole  people  purified  themselves  for  the  approach- 
ing festival ;  compare  Taanit,  l!)/(-2(t").  The  priests 
were  especially  enjoined  to  wash  their  hands  and 
feet  before  entering  the  sanctuary  or  before  oflici- 
atingat  the  altar(Kx.  xxx.  l"j  (7  wi/.V  Similarly  the 
priests  in  Egypt  had  to  wash  themselves  twice  every 
(hiy  ami  twice  every  night  in  cold — probably  identi- 
cal with  livingfir  Mowing — water  (Herod,  ii.  ;!7):  and 
the  (ireeks.  we  learn  from  Ilesiod  ("Opera et  Dies." 
verse  722).  were  warned  "never  with  unwashed 
hands  to  ))our  out  the  black  wiru'  at  morn  to  ZeUS 
or  the  otiiir  immortals"  (compare  Homer.  "Iliad," 
vi.  200;  "Odyssey,"  iv.  7."il»).  It  is  partly  in  view 
of  this  almost  universal  pnu'li.se  that  the  Psjilmist 
savs:  "I  will  wash  mine  hands  in  iimoeeiicy:  so 
will  I  compass  thine  altar"  ( I's.  xxvi.  O"),  or 
"Verily  I  have  cleansed  my  heart  in  vain,  mid 
washed  my  hands  in  innocency  "  (I's.  Ixxiii.  l!t); 
partly  also  in  vii'W  of  an  especial  rite  prescribed 
(Deut.  xxi.  0)  in  the  ease  of  the  commission  of  a 
murder  by  an  \niknown  pcTson.  when  the  elders  of 
the  nearest  city  had  to  wa.sli  their  hands  ovi-r  the 
blood  of  an  expiatory  heifer  (parallels  to  which 
have  been  found  in  Vergil.  ".Kiicid,"  ii.  217.  and 
scholiast  on  Sopho<'les'  ".\jax."  0(i4.  in  i.  80  of  the 
London  edition.  t7.'>si.     "Clean  hands"  iK'came.syn- 


Ablution 
Abner 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


70 


onj'mous  with  Immis  free  from  guilt  ^see  Ps.  xviii. 
20,  xxiv.  4;  .lol),  i.\.  30). 

Followinj;  tlii'  custom  of  tlii'  priests,  the  pious 
Isnu'litc  l)uthc(l,  or  at  loast  washed  liis  hands,  every 
morning  before  prayer.  Thus  t  he  God-fearing  .Jews 
are  represented  in  Sihylline  Hooks,  iii.  .'>!tl-593  as 
"sueh  who,  rising  from  tlieir  bed  early  inthemorn- 
iupr,  wash  their  hands  in  water  to  lift  them  ever  pure 
to  heaven  in  prayer."  The  same  is  related  of  Judith 
(Judith,  xii.  7),  and  of  the  siventy-two  eldei-s  who 
are  said  to  have  translated  the  Scriptures  for  Ptol- 
emy we  are  told,  in  the  Letter  of  Aristeas,  30.'5,  that, 
in  accordance  with  Jewish  custom,  they  washed  their 
hands  in  the  sea  every  morning  before  olTeriiig  their 
prayers.  For  this  reason  it  became  "a  tradition  of 
the"  fathers  to  build  houses  of  worship  near  the 
water  "  (see  the  decree  of  Ilalicarnassus  in  Josi-phus, 
"Ant."  xiv.  10,  S?  23;  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
xvi.  13). 

So  fixed  becaine  this  custom  of  washing  the  hands 
before  divine  service  that  the  Christian  Churcli 
adopted  the  Jewish  custom  of  providing  the  worship- 
ers with  fountains  or  basins  of  water  (see  Eusebius, 
"Hist.  Eccl."  X.  4,  40),  exactly  astlic  Temple,  or  Tab- 
ernacle, had  the  laver,  or  the  molten  sea,  for  the  use 
of  the  priests  (Ex.  xxx.  IS;  II  Chron.  iv.  2,  6).  The 
rabbis  instituted  a  special  benediction  to  be  recited 
every  morning:  "Blessed  be  Thou  O  Lord.  King  of 
the  Universe,  who  hastsjinctitied  \isby  Thy  laws  and 
commanded  us  to  wash  the  hands  "  ( Her.  (il)/<).  Some 
erroneously  derive  the  term  used  for  washing,  "  n< - 
Ulat  yndtiyim"  (lifting  >ip  of  the  hands)  from  natia 
=  Greek  av-/.foi'  (B.  B.  .586;  seeS.  Frilnkel,  "Aramii- 
ische  Fremdworter  ini  Arabischen,"  p.  6.5),  the  name 
for  the  jar  of  water  used  (IIul.  107«);  others,  from  the 
prescribed  manner  of  po\iring  the  water  upon  the  up- 
lifted hands  until  it  reacliecl  uji  to  the  wrist  (perek) 
— Yad.  ii.  3;  Tosef.,  Yad.  ii.  2;  Sotah,  4i  — but  it 
seems  rather  to  be  taken  from  P.s.  cxxxiv.  2,  "Lift 
up  your  hands  in  the  sanctuary,  and  bless  the  Lord !  " 
referred  in  Targ.  Yer.  to  the  olliciating  iiriests.  The 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  viii.  32.  also  have  the  rule, 
"Let  all  the  faithful,  whether  men  or  women, 
when  they  rise  from  sleep,  before  they  go  to  work, 
pray,  after  having  washed  themselves"  (vitpa/ievoi  = 
"washed  their  hands"). 

Among  the  Jlohammedans  the  ablution  prepara- 
tory to  prayer,  called  inizt'i.  becomes  far  more  bur- 
densome because  it  is  required  five  times  a  day — 
l)cfore  each  of  the  stated  prayers,  be- 
Ablution      fore  touching  the  holy  Koran,  and  after 

among'       every  ritual  detilenient ;  and  the  wa.sli- 

Moham-      ing  of  each  band  and  pari  of  the  face 

medans.  is  accompanied  by  pniyer:  "O  believ- 
ers, when  3'e  prejiare  j'ourselvcs  for 
l)ra}'er  wash  your  faces  and  hands  up  to  the  elbows, 
and  wipe  your  heads  and  your  feet  to  the  ankles" 
(Koran,  sura  v.  8).  In  all  the  principal  mosques 
there  are  tanks  or  wells,  wliich  supply  water  for  tlu' 
rites  of  Ablution  (T.  P.  Hughes,  "Dictionary  of 
Islam  "  s.v.  "Ablution  "). 

With  the  Jews,  Ablution  was  also  required  before 
each  meal,  inasmuch  as  the  participation  in  the  meal 
by  the  members  of  the  Pliariscan  brotlierliood  was 
to  assume  the  sjime  character  as  the  siicriticial  or 
sacred  meal,  of  which  the  priest  could  partake  only 
after  having  undergone  the  rite  of  Ablution  ;  and  the 
name  of  God  had  to  be  pronounced  over  it,  as  was 
done  over  the  sacrifice  (I  Sam.  ix.  13,  xvi.  .5).  Ac- 
cording to  rabbinical  tradition.  King  Solomon,  the 
builder  of  the  Temple  with  its  molten  sea,  instituted 
the  practise  (Shab.  14A;  'Er.  216).  The  twofold  in- 
junction, "  Sanctify  yourselves  and  be  ye  holy  "  ( Lev. 
XX.  7),  was  interpreted  as  commanding  a  twofold  Ab- 


lution, the  second  being  in  preparation  for  the  grace 
after  meals  (Ber.  .5:V):  s<e  4:V',  W>).  Edersheira 
("  Life  of  Jesus,"  ii.  1 1 )  erroneously  identities  the  ma- 
!/im  n'K/iDiiiiii  and  iimi/iiii  iihiirniiha  with  the  lighnnut 
and  .ihuiiji'it  uf  Yadayim,  and  says:  "The  'tirst 
waters'  were  po\ired  upon  the  uplifted  hands  to  re- 
move thedetilement.  and  if  the  walerdid  not  reach  up 
to  the  wrist  the  hands  were  not  clean  ;  while  the  '  sec- 
ond waters  '  were  to  wash  away  the  water  t  hat  had  ah- 
sorljcd  the  detilenient.  These  pourings  preceded  the 
grace  before  meals  ;  ami  to  this  reference  is  made  in 
Mark,  vii.  3:  '  The  Phariseesaml  all  the  .lews  eat  not 
except  they  wash  their  hands  to  the  wrist  '  "  (ti)u;(; 
.v.  V.  '  often  '  reads  as  if  =  -mvii).  In  the  Mishnaic 
time  only  the  ablution  after  the  meal  is  spoken  of 
by  the  Ilillelites  and  Shanmiaites  (Ber.  iii.  1).  The 
wa.shing  of  tlw  hands  afier  the  meal— originally  a 
sjinctitication  before  saying  grace — soon  fell  into 
desuetude.  In  vain  the  Amoraim  contended  that 
this  duty  was  superior  to  the  ablution  jireceding  the 
meal  (Yoma.  XWi;  lIul.  WVm).  Liter  rationalists  ex- 
I)lained  the  custom  away,  as  having  ari.sen  from  the 
danger  of  wiping  the  eyes  with  fingers  on  which 
the  salt  of  Sodom,  used  in  the  food,  might  have  re- 
mained, and  therefore  declared  it  antiiiuated  (Tosef., 
Ber.  536;  Alfasi,  Ber.  48/<;  "Shulhan  '  Aruk,  Oral.i 
Hayyim."  ^  181.  10).  Akiba.  when  in 
In  the  prison,  deprived  himself  of  the  wat<T 
Mishnaic  given  him  to  quench  his  thirst  rather 
Time.  than  neglect  the  rite  of  Ablution  (Er. 
216);  and  according  to  the  Mishnah  the 
]ieople  at  large  might  only  in  extreme  cases,  as  on 
a  battle-field,  dispense  with  the  rite  (Er.  i.  10,  p.  17«). 
According  to  one  of  the  Amoraim.  the  eating  of  bread 
with  unwashed  and  undried  hands  is  eating  unclean 
bread,  or  is  tantamount  to  committing  an  act  of  im- 
chastity  ;  according  to  others  it  leads  to  sudden  <les- 
truction  or  poverty  (Sotah.  46;  Shab.  026).  Still  Hab 
sjiysdiul.  1006).  "  One  may  perform  the  rite  of  Ab- 
lution in  the  morning  and  take  care  that  it  should 
apply  to  the  meals  of  the  whole  day."  Anomalous 
as  this  teaching  of  an  amora  may  seem,  it  was  prob- 
ably the  sjime  for  which  Eleazar  b.  Hanok  was  long 
before  exconununicated,  as  undermining  the  au- 
thority of  the  elders  (see  'Eduy.  v.  (i).  A  similar  op- 
position was  shown  bv  Simeon  the  Essene  (ha-Zenu'a 
=  "the  Saint"),  Tosef.,  Kclim,  B.  K.  i.  O',  who 
entered  the  holy  place  without  having  washed  his 
hands  and  feet,  claiming  a  greater  degree  of  holiness 
for  himself  than  the  higli  priest  because  of  his  ascetic 
life. 

This  seems  to  ca.st  new  light  on  the  attitude  of 
.Jesus  toward  the  rabbinical  law  of  Ablution.  Accord- 
ing to  Matt.  XV.  1-20  and  Mark,  vii.  1-23,  Pharisees 
and  scribes  that  had  come  from  Jeru.saleni  had  seen 
.some  of  the  disciples  eat  their  bread  with  profane 
(luillin),  that  is.  unwashed,  hands:  for.  ssiysMark.  the 
Pharisees  and  all  the  .Jews,  unless  they  wash  their 
hands  up  to  the  wri.st  (see  Edersheim.  /.<•.).  eat  not, 
holding  fast  to  the  tradition  of  the  elders;  and  when 
they  come  fnmi  the  market-place,  except  they  have 
first  sprinkled  themselves,  they  eat  not.  The  Phari- 
sees and  the  scribes  ask  Jesus:  "Why  walk  not  thy 
disciples  according  to  the  traditions  of  the  elders,  but 
eat  their  bread  with  profane  hands?"  And  he  an- 
swers them :  "  Well  did  Isjiiah  prophesy  of  you  Phari- 
sees (hypocrites),  '  This  people  draw  nigh  with  their 
mouth,  and  with  their  li])s  they  honor  me;  but  their 
heart  is  far  from  me  and  their  fear  of  me  is  a  precept 
of  men  learned  by  rote  '  (Isa.  xxix.  13,  Masoretic 
textV  Ye  leave  the  conunandment  of  God  and  hold 
fast  to  the  tradition  of  men  "  (compare  the  rabbin- 
ical phrase  niin  I'T  b]l  DH'jn  ITDVn.  B.  M.  306). 
What  follows  in  ilark,  or  precedes  in  JIatthew,  has 


71 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ablution 
Abner 


no  Ix-arin;,'  on  tlii'  <iiicstioii  of  AI)lutioii  aii<l  is  the  out- 
conic  of  Pauline  iintinoniianisin.  Another  record  is 
tlmt  of  Luke.  xi.  ;iT-41 :  "Now  as  lie  s])ake,  a  Phar- 
isee asked  liiin  to  breakfast  with  him,  and  he  went 
in  and  sat  down  to  meat.  And  as  the  Pharisee  saw 
this  lie  marvele<l  that  he  had  not  bathi'd  [i 3u-TiaHi/] 
before  breakfastintr.  And  Jesus  said  unto  hiiii: 
'  Now  ye  Pharisees  cleanse  the  outside  (jf  the  cup 
and  of  the  platter,  but  your  inwanl  part  is  full  of 
extortion  and  wickedness.  Ye  foolish  ones,  did  not 
He  that  made  the  outside  make  the  inside  also? 
However,  give  the  thinj;s  that  are  within  over  to 
rifrhteousness  [DplV.  not  alms],  and  behold  all  things 
are  clean  unto  you.'  " 

In  the  course  of  time  it  became  customary  to  pour 
water  three  limes  upon  the  liands  to  ch'ansc  them 
fr<jm  impurity:  and  in  a  Baraita  (Sliab.  lll'J.o  the 
opinion  is  ex]ir<'.'ise(l  by  \i.  Nathan,  that  the  spirit  of 
impurity,  restiiiic  upon  man  durinir  the  night,  will 
ncpl  leave  him  until  lie  has  poured  water  three  times 
upon  his  hands.  The  eabalists  go  still  further,  and 
maintain  that  man  incurs  the  penalty  of  death  if  lie 
walks  a  distance  of  four  yards  from  his  bed  without 
Ablution  (.Meiribn  Galibai  in  liis"Tola'at  Ya'akoh"; 
see  ".Shulhan  'Aruk,  Onil.i  llayyim,"iv.  1,  2,  and  Ma- 
Lreii  Abraham),  ^^o  too  a  passage'  in  the  Zoliar  ("  W'a- 
yislilal.i,"  p.  3^7)  says:  "  Whosoever  sleepeth  at  night 
in  his  Vied  tastcth  o{  death,  for  his  soul  leavetli  him 
for  the  nonce.  Heing  thus  liereft  of  its  soul,  an  un- 
clean spirit  j)osses.scth  his  body  and  deti  let  h  it.  Wlien'- 
fore  I  say,  let  no  man  jiass  his  [unwashed |  hand 
over  his  eyes  in  the  morning,  by  reason  of  the  un- 
clean spirit  which  restelli  on  it."  The  hygienic  in- 
tent of  these  prescriptions  is  manifest.  K. 

ABNER:  Cabalist  and  teacher  of  I.sjiac  of  Acco 
(.\rre)  about  1  l."i(i.  mentioned  by  Isjiac  as  a  great 
authority  in  mystic  philo.sopliy. 

liini.iOGRAPIiv  :  MIrliael,  Or  )ki-/f(i|/j/iiii.  No.  28. 


ABNER  or  ABINER  ("  My  Father  is  Ncr").— 
Biblical  Data:  Ai<onling  to"  I  Cliroii.  viii.  SO-IW. 
and  Josephus  ("  Ant.  "  vi.  (i.  ^  ',]),  an  uncle  of  Saul: 
vliile  I  Sam.  xiv.  .51   anil  Josephus  ("Ant."  vi.  (i 


I.  .i-.io).  WHO  was  ouried.  amid  royal 
mourning,  in  Hebron  (11  Sam.  iii.  Ult-HH).  Accord- 
iiii;  to  u  .lewish  tradition,  Abner  was  the  son  of  (be 
Wilehof  Kn  ,lor.  I.   M.   P. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :   Smi  of  the  Witch 

of  Kn  (lor  (  Pirke  It.  i;i.  xwiii).  and  the  hero  par 
cxeelleiiee  in  I  he  liairgadah  (Yalk.,  Jer.  '2>*'>;  Keel. 
I{.  on  ix.  11;  Kid.  liti).  ('oiis<'ious  of  his  exlniordi- 
nary  strength,  lu'  exclaimed:  "If  I  could  only 
catch  hold  of  the  earth.  I  could  shake  it"  (Yalk. 
I.e.) — u  saying  which  pandlcls  the  famous  utteraine 


of  Archimede.s,  "Had  I  a  fulcrum.  I  could  move  the 
world."  According  to  the  Midrash  (Keel.  H.  I.e.)  it 
would  have  been  easier  to  move  a  wall  .six  yards 
thick  than  one  of  the  feet  of  Abner.  who  could  hold 
the  Israelitish  army  between  his  knee.s.  Yet  when 
his  time  came  iinjft,"  npSJ).  Joab  smote  him.  But 
even  in  his  dying  hour,  Abner  seized  his  foe  like  a 
ball  of  llire.-i(l.  threaleiiing  to  crush  him.  Then  the 
Israelites  came  and  pleaded  for  .bjab's  life,  sjiying: 
"If  thou  killest  him  we  shall  be  orphaned,  and  our 
women  and  all  our  belongings  will  become  a  prey  to 
the  Philistines."  Abner  answered:  "What  can  I 
do?  He  has  extinguished  my  light  "  (has  wfuinded 
me  fatally).  The  Israelites  replied:  "Entrust  thy 
cause  to  the  true  judge  [God|."  Then  Abner  re- 
leased his  hold  upou  Joab  and  fell  dead  to  the  ground 
(Yalk.  /.«•.). 

The  rabbis  agree  that  Abner  deserved  this  violent 
death,  though  opinions  dill'er  concerning  the  exact 
nature  of  the  sin  that  entailed  so  dire  a  punishment 
on  one  who  was,  on  the  whole,  considered  a  "right- 
eous man "  (Gen.  R.  Ixxxii.  4).  Some  reproach 
him  that  he  did  not  use  his  intlucnce  with  Saul  to 
prevent  him  from  murdering  the  piiests  of  Nob 
(Yer.  Peah.  i.  lOrc  Lev.  H.  xxvi.  2:  Sanli.  'Hhi) — con- 
vinced as  he  was  of  the  innocence  of  the  priests  and 
of  the  i)ro])riety  of  their  conduct  toward  David, 
Abner  holding  that  as  leader  of  the  army  I);ivid  was 
privileged  to  avail  himself  of  the  I'rim  and  Thum- 
mini  (I  Sam.  xxii.  9-19).  Instead  of  contenting 
himself  with  pas.sive  resistance  to  Saul's  command 
to  murderthe  priests(Y'alk..  Sam.  131).  Abner  ought 
to  have  tried  to  restrain  the  king.  Others  maintain 
that  .Vbtier  did  make  such  an  attempt, 

His  One  but  in  vain,  ami  tli;it  his  one  sin  con- 
Sin,  sisted  in  that  he  delayed  the  beginning 
of  David's  reign  over  Isnicl  by  light- 
ing him  after  Saul's  death  for  two  years  and  a  half 
(Sanli.  I.e.).  Others,  again,  while  excusing  him  for 
this — in  view  of  a  tradition  founded  on  Gen.  xlix.  27, 
according  to  which  there  were  to  be  two  kings  of  the 
house  of  15enjamin — blame  Abner  for  having  pre- 
vented a  reconciliation  between  Saul  and  David  on 
the  occasion  when  tln'  latter,  in  holding  up  the  skirt 
of  Saul's  robe  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  11).  showed  how  un- 
founded was  the  king's  mistrust  of  him.  Saul  was 
inclined  to  lie  pacified;  but  Abner,  representing  to 
him  that  David  might  have  found  the  piece  of  the 
garment  anywhere — possibly  caught  on  a  thorn — 
prevented  the  reconciliation  (Yer.  Peah,  I.e..  I^ev. 
H.  I.e.,  and  elsewhere).  Moreover,  it  was  wrong  in 
Abner  to  permit  Israelitish  youths  to  kill  one  another 
forsport  (II  Sam.  ii.  14-l(i).  No  reproach,  however, 
attaches  to  him  for  the  death  of  Asahel,  since  Abner 
killed  him  in  self-defense  (Sanli.  4!)((). 

It  is  characteristic-  of  the  rabbinical  view  of  the 
Bible  narratives  that  Abner.  the  warrior  pure  and 
simple,  is  styled  "  Lion  of  the  Law  "  (Y'cr.  Peah,  I.e.), 
and  that  even  a  speeiiinn  is  given  of  a  halakic  dis- 
cussion between  him  and  Doeg  as  to  whether  the 
law  in  Dent,  xxiii.  3  exeludeil  .Vmmonileand  .Moab- 
iti'  wonu'ii  from  the  .lewish  community  as  well  ns 
men.  Doeg  was  of  the  opinion  that  Daviil,  being 
descended  from  the  Moabite.ss  Hiilh.  was  not  lit  to 
wear  the  crown,  nor  even  to  be  considered  a  true 
Israelite:  while  .Miinr  maintained  that  the  law  nf- 
fecled  only  the  male  liiw  of  descent.  Whi'U  Docg'a 
diali'i  lies  proved  more  than  a  match  for  those  of 
.\biicr,  the  latter  went  to  the  prophet  Samuel,  who 
not  only  supported  .Miner  in  liis  view,  but  utterly 
rifiited  DiH'g's  as-sertions  (Midr.  Sam.  xxii. ;  Y'eb. 
7tV/.r  «</.). 

One  of  the  most  prominent  families  (^i/.it  ha- 
Kesat)  in  Jerusalem  in  the  middle  of  the  lirst  cen- 


Abner  of  Burgos 
Aboab 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


72 


tury  of  llio  common  era  claimed  lU'scciil  from  Abner 
(Gen.  U.  xcviii.l  L.  G. 

ABNEK  OF  BURGOS  (calle.l  also  Alfonso  of 
Valladolid  and  Alfonso  of  Burgos):  A  Jewish  con- 
vert to  t'liii-li:iiiity  ami  polemical  writer  against  his 
former  reliirion  ;  lilirn  I'JTd;  died  i:!4S.ora  little  later 
(Griitz).  As  a  student  In-  aei|nii-ed  a  certain  mastery 
in  Biblical  and  Tabnudieal  st  udies.  to  w  hieli  he  added 
nil  iiuiniateac(iuaiiitanee  with  I'eripatetic  philosophy 
and  even  with  astroloiry.  He  was  jrniduated  as  a 
physician  at  the  aire  of  i  wenty-fivc.  but  throughout 
a  long  life  he  seems  to  have  found  the  struggle  for 
cxistencea  hard  one.  Not  being  of  those  contented 
ones  who,  as  !Moses  Narhoni  Siiys  in  his  "  JIaamar  ha- 
Behindi  "  (Essay  on  the  Freedom  of  the  AVill :  quoted 
by  Griitz,  p.  4W),  are  satisfied  with  a  peek  of  loeust- 
beans  from  one  Friday  to  another,  he  resolved  to 
embrace  Christianity  though  at  the  advanced  age  of 
sixty,  according  to  Paulus  de  Santa  Maria  ("Scni- 
tiniiim  Scripturarum  ") :  according  to  other  writers  he 
took  this  step  soon  after  he  was  graduated  in  medi- 
cine. The  only  point  certain  from  the  statements  of 
his  contemporaries  is  that  he  was  converted,  not  from 
spiritual  conviction,  hut  for  the  Sidieof  tempoi-al  ad- 
vantage. Something  of  the  apostate's  piiekiiig  con- 
science seems  to  have  remained  with  him.  however, 
although  he  was  immediately  rewarded  with  a  lucra- 
tive sacristan's  ])ost  in  the  "prominent  Jletropolitan 
Church  in  Valladolid  (whence  he  took  the  name  of 
Alfonso  of  Valladolid),  In  an  essjiy  entitled  "  Ig- 
gerct  ha-Gozcrah  "  (Epistle  on  Fate),  he  sought  todis- 
claim  responsiljilitv  for  his  act  of  apostasy  by  setting 
up  the  remarkable  ph'a  that  man's  actions  are  ruled 
and  compelled  by  |ilaiietaiy  influence,  and  that  there- 
fore there  can  be  no  option  or  free  will  for  moi;tals. 
Both  his  conversion  and  this  defense  aroused  gen- 
eral and  fervent  protests  from  his  (piondam  Jewish 
friends,  protests  marked  by  great  bitterness.  Isaac 
Pii.GAR,  to  whom  Abner  had  dared  to  send  a  copy 
of  his  attempted  justiticatioii.  returned  it  with  a  bi- 
ting satire  referring  to  the  Biblical  test  of  the  adul- 
terous woman  (Num.  v.  ll-;ill).  Deeply  stirred  by 
the  wordy  war  ensuing,  Abner  was  not  slow  to 
make  his  vindictiveness  felt,  and  in  a  direction  where 
it  would  most  keenly  be  experiencefl.  lli'  presented 
charges  before  the  just  and  energetic  Alfonso  XI.. 
king  of  Castile,  accusing  his  fornK'r  brethren  of  using 
a  prayer-formula  in  their  ritual  which  blasphemed 
the  Christian  Goil  and  cursed  all  Christians.  The 
prayer  referred  to  was  a  forinida  tliat  had  lieen  tised 
only  in  olden  Koinan  times,  wluii  the  early  Jewish 
converts  to  Christianity  persistently  molested  the 
Jews.  The  king  ordered  a  i)iiblic  investigation  at 
Valladolid,  in  which  the  representatives  of  the  Jew- 
ish community  were  confronted  with  Abner.  The 
conclusion  was  annoiuiced  in  the  sliai)e  of  a  royal 
edict  forbidding  the  use  of  the  fornnUa  in  question 
(February.  133<>);  a  barren  victory  on  Ixith  sides, 
for  the  Jews  had  no  idia  of  ever  using  it.  and 
Abner  of  course  failed  to  jirove  that  they  had.  Un- 
daunted, he  then  prosecuted  his  literary  activity 
against  his  brethren  with  unabated  virulence  tintil 
his  death  lie  accuses  them,  for  instance,  of  con- 
stiintly  warring  among  themselves  and  splitting  into 
hostile  religious  schisms;  in  support  of  this  state- 
ment he  adduces  an  alleged  list  of  the  "sects"  pre- 
vailing among  them,  in  which  he  gravely  enumerates 
Sadducees.  Samaritans,  and  other  extinct  divisions 
as  if  they  were  still  extant.  He  makes  two  ".sects  " 
of  Pharisees  and  Kabbinites.  says  that  cabalists  be- 
lieve In  a  tenfold  God.  and  speaks  of  a  brand-new 
"  sect "  believing  in  a  dual  Deity.  God  and  Jletatron. 

The  following  is  a  list   of  Abner's  writings:  (1) 


A  supercommentary  on  Ibn  Ezra's  commentary  on 
the  I)ecaloi;ui'.  written  before  his  apostasv.  (2) 
"  Moreh  Ze'dek  "  (The  Teacher  of  Bighteousne.ss), 
also  in  a  Spanish  version.  "El  Alostmdor  de  Jus- 
tieia."  a  dialogue  containing  ten  chapters  of  discus- 
sions between  a  religious  teacher  (Abner?)  and  a 
Jewish  controversialist.  The  Spanish  manuscript  is 
ill  the  I5ibliothe(|Ui'  Nationale  at  Paris  (Kay.xerliiig). 
(3)  "  Teshiibot  al  Sefer  .Milhamot  Athmai  le  Kiiiilii" 
(Heply  to  Kiml.ii's  book  on  tlie  "Wars  of  the  I.ord"). 
This  too  was  trjinslated  into  Spanish,  by  re(|uesl  of 
the  Infanta  Doi'ia  Blanca.  |)rioress  of  a  convent  in 
Burgos,  under  the  similar  title  "Los  Batallos  de 
Dios."  (4)  "  La  Concordia  de  las  Leyes."  an  attempt 
to  provide  Old  Testament  founilations  for  Christian 
dogmas.  (.■))  "  Librode  lasTresGracias,"  mannseript 
in  the  .Madrid  National  Library  (Kayserling).  ((!) 
".Miiihat  Keiiaot  "  (The  OHViing  of  Jealousy),  with 
other  works,  in  defense  of  astrology  against  Pulgar's 
attacks:  not  extant.  (T)  Three  "Letters"  against  Ju- 
daism, and  "A  Beply  to  the  Replies."  (y)  "Iggeret 
ha-Gezerah  "  (E|>istli'  on  Fate).  It  is  also  practically 
certain  that  he  was  the  translator  into  Latin  of  the 
"Letter  of  Samuel  ilni  Ablias."  though  the  name  is 
generally  given  as  Ai.Koxsis  Bomiio.minis. 

BIBLIOCRAPHV  :  Griitz.  Gcxch.  d.  Jmkn,  M  eil.,  vll.  2S9-2JC: 
(.ieljrer.  Da.'<  Juili'Uthuni  untl  Si'ine  tieacfi.  ill.  KC;  l/«*b, 
jLn  Contriwtrsc  liflU/iein'c,  in  i?»r.  ih-  rHiMnirr  dfn  Ut'li- 
(/ioiu,  xrill.  14i.  mill  In  Pi>(<'mi.«/i«  C'ovdViic  <:(  Ji<(/«,  In 
liev.  Kt.Jnirof.  .xviii.."i:;;  Kayserling,  Jiihliiitcva  £»j).-Pi»r(. 
Jmlaica.  p.  114. 

F.  DE  S.  M. 

ABNIMTJS  HAGARDI.  See  (Exomaos  of 
Gai),M!a. 

ABO  :  Capital  of  the  government  of  Abo-Bjiirne- 
borg  in  Finland.  Hus.sia.  situated  near  the  entrance 
of  the  Auraioki  river  into  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia. 

Formerly  no  Jews  were  permitted  to  live  in  Abo, 
owing  to  the  Swedish  law  of  17S2,  which  excluded 
themfrom  all  Finland  (see  Fislaxd).  When  this 
region  was  annex<Ml  to  Russia,  a  ukase  was  issued 
(>iarch  2!t.  18.")8)  by  which  Jews  who  had  served  in 
the  army  there  received  the  right  to  settle  in  that 
]irovince.  Tlir  .same  privileges  were  gniiited  to  their 
widowsaiid  children.  Soon  after  the  imlilicntion  of 
this  ukase  the  Jews  began  to  settle  in  Abo.  In  1H83 
the  local  nu'rchantsandartisiinsajiplieil  to  the  .senate 
to  withdraw  all  privileges  from  the  Jews,  including 
even  the  right  of  settlement  in  Abo.  On  June  27, 
1883.  a  mob  invaded  the  synagogue  of  Abo  during 
the  service  and  tried  to  cause  a  disturbance.  The 
])olice  ipiickly  restored  order.  Thereupon  a  commis- 
sion was  appointed  to  regulate  the  Jewish  (|Uestion 
in  Finland.  Jews  were  subsequently  permitted  to 
settle  in  Abo.  but  their  ]iermits  had  to  be  renewed 
each  year.  Of  thei)o|iulationof  Abo,  which,  in  1898. 
aggregated  34,33!)  persons,  only  220  were  Jews, 
liic  remainder  comprising  19,000  Finns  and  13,000 
Swedes. 

Bini.iotiR.vPHV:  Vniin  Rmsijia  (Russian  Director}-).  1899; 
Ila-Kshhil  (Hebr.  encv.),  s.r. 

II.   R. 

ABOAB  (also  written  Abohab,  Abuab,  Aboaf, 
Abof,  and  Abohaf ;  2nnX.  also  3Sni3X.  "Jew. 
Quart.  Rev."  \.  i:!ii:  arxnx.  //"''  xi  .")2T)  :  The 
name  of  an  ancient  and  widely  distributed  Spanish 
family,  among  whose  memliers  were  many  most  able 
scholars.  The  family  can  be  authentically  traced  to 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  representatives  theri'of 
are  to  be  found  in  Holland.  Italy.  Turkey.  Africa, 
and  America.  Some  branches  of  this  family,  in  which 
the  names  Abraham.  Isjiac.  Jacob.  Joseph,  and  S:un- 
uel  fre(iuently  occur,  can  lie  followed  genealogically. 
Through  marriage,  and  by  following  the  Spanish  cus- 


73 


Tin;  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abner  of  Burgos 
Aboab 


torn  of  joining  together  the  paternal  and  maternal 
names,  tliere  arose  llie  fiimiliesof  Atioali  y  Cardoso. 
Aboab  y  Lopez.  Aboab  y  Hrandao,  Abciab  y  Coronel, 
Aboab  y  Osorio.  Abnab  de  Paz.  etc.  (Kay.serliii!;. 
"Hibl.  ICsp.  Pcirt.  .lud."  pp.  •iilxiq.:  "Jew.  (|uart. 
I?ev.".\.  liiO;  "Hev.  ftl.  Juiv<s,"  .\xv.  20:5,  where 
fiirtlier  data  will  be  found;  and  see  also  the  lists  at 
(he  end  of  1).  H.  de  Castro's  "De  Synagoirue  van  de 
I'ortiiireeseli  Israelietiseh  Genieenle  te  Anislerdani." 
w  liich  contain  a  innnber  of  a<ldilii>nal  nanirsi. 

1.  Abraham   Aboab  (probal)ly   idenlical    willi 

I  Aliiilial',1  llairi  jii  .hiculis.  "Sources."  p.  1!))  is  the 
oldest  Alioab  kmiwii  lu  us.  He  lived  at  I'elof.  Ara- 
gon.  lie  received  in  I'-'fi;!  fniiu  the  kinj;-  Dun  Jainu' 
a  tower  called  Altea,  with  the  surrounding  dairy 
farms  and  all  righls  and  privileges  of  ownership. 
2.  Another  Abraham,  a  learned  contemporary  of 
JiD.Ml  BKX  AsHKit,  lived  in  Ki40at  Toledo.  lie  was 
the  son  of  Is.x.vc  Ano.vn.  the  author  of  the  "  Menorat 
ha-^Iaor."  3.  Among  the  earlii'st  Spanish  eudgranis 
to  Amsterdam  were  Abraham,  and  his  son  Jacob, 
who  ilii'd  in  10(1-1.  4.  The  son  of  the  latter.  Ab- 
raham, was,  in  Hi:!!!,  ha/an  of  ihe  conL''re;;alii>u  l{<'t 
Jaiol)  in  Amsterdam.  5.  Anollar  Abraham,  who 
lived  in  lli."i.">,  was  a  ])roof-reader  and  pidilisher  at 
Venice.  6.  Philanthropist  of  Ihe  lirst  half  of  the 
seventeenlh  century.  A  profoundly  religious  man, 
devoted  to  tla^  study  of  Hebrew  literature.  About 
the  year  \iVi~  he  established  at  Hamburg  a  syna- 
gogue called  Keter  Torah.  as  widl  as  Jewish  schools 
in  Palestine,  .Mantua,  and  other  places.  He  was 
wi<lely  known  and  honored  on  account  of  hise.xtraor- 
dinary  benevolence.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were 
passed  at  Verona.  Italy,  where  his  favorite  son,  S.\>t- 
I  Ki,  Ano.vn,  was  rabbi,  and  tlaTe  he  died  at  a  very 
old  age,  in  >Iarch,  M'A'i.  The  preacher  Azariah  Figo 
delivered  his  funeral  discourse,  which  is  priiiteil  in 
Figo's  "Collection  of  Sermons"  (Xo.77).  7.  Sou  iii 
.s.\.Mt  i;i,  Ano.Mi ;  was  rabbi  in  Venice  and  died  there 
in  the  sam<>  year  as  his  fatlu'r.  Ui'.»4. 

1  Abraham  ben  Jacob  Aboab :   A  grandson  of 

Samuel:  a  learmil  .iiid  Ijenevolent  man.      He  dii'd  in 
Salonica  in  Ihe  miildle  ot  the  eiglile<'ntli  cenlury. 
Daniel  ^ema^  Aboab:   Was  a  physician  in  Am- 

.       sterdam.     In  KiliS  he  married  Rebecca,  the  daughter 

I  of  .lacob  Lopez. 

David  Aboab:  1.  In  Amsterdam,  was theauthor 
of  a  work  conipleted  in  HiN.">  (but  never  printeil).  en- 
titled "  Catalogo  de  Difercnies  Uemedios  para  Diver- 
>.is  Sorles  de  Acha(|Ues,  Achados  por  Experiencia 
llaverem  Sido  Honos"  {('atalogiu'  of  Diverse  Heme- 
dies  for  Various  Ailmcnls,  Found  by  E.\perieiice  lo 
Have  Been  Good).  2.  Gave  in  Venice  a  nibliin 
ical  decision  concerning  the  singing  of  Ihe  priestly 
lienediclion,  in  responsi'  lo  a  (juestion  of  Xehemiidi 
be  II  I'.anich,  nibbi  in  Fcrrara. 

Elijah  Aboab:  1.  F.stablished  Ihe  lirst  syna- 
gogue ill  ll.iiiiliurLr  in  l<>",'.'i.  2.  Another  Elijah  was 
a  pulilisher  of  Hebrew  hooks  in  Amsterdam  about 

Immanuel  Aboab  :  I'ortuguesi-  scholar;  a  great 
L'raiid-oii  ot  N:iiie  .Vhoiib  (died  14ii;t)  ;  was  born  in 
Oporto.  Portugal,  aliout  l.-iiri;  died  at  Venice  in 
Win.  Ill'  early  became  an  orphan  anil  was  reared 
by  his  gnindfalhir  Abndiam  .\boab.  Ileemigraled 
to  Italy,  and  after  living  some  timc>  at  Pisa  he  re 
moved  lo  Corfu,  where  he  became  acipiainled  with 
lloraziodel  Monle,  a  lU'piii'W  of  Ihe  duke  of  I'rbino. 
In  Hcggio  he  became accpiaiiited  with  Mcnahem  A/.a- 
rill  de  ['"iiiio;  Ihence  he  wi'iit  to  Spolcloand  elsi'wherc 
ill  Italy,  and  llnally  settlid  al  Venice.  Mere  he  had 
occiision.  in  l(!(i:i.  lo  defend  his  conligioinsis,  in  the 
presence  of  an  exalted  commission,  auainsl  nmliciciiis 
accusalions,  and  he  jiroved  with  ease  that  Ihe  Jews 


had  never  lacked  the  courage  and  devotion  to  make 
the  greatest  sacrifices  i^ai  liejialf  of  the  country  that 
protected  them  in  their  rights  and  which  they  could 
truly  call  "fatherland."  Abf)ab  had  the  intention  of 
going  to  Palestine  and  publishing  there  his  works, 
"The  Kingdom  of  the  Intellect  "  and  "Tlie  Founda- 
tions of  Truth,"  which  he  had  written  in  defense  of 
the  Talmud.  He  was  the  author  of  a  defense  of  the 
traditional  law  and  of  a  chronological  list  of  that  law's 
exponents.  He  worked  at  this  treatise,  which  was 
much  jirizcd  by  the  pious,  for  ten  years,  and  com- 
pleted il  in  liS'iT).  It  was  published  bv  his  heirs  at 
Amsterdam,  in  IGii)  C-id  ed..  ihi<l..  Ui') ,  under  the 
title,  "  Nomologia  o  Discursos  Legalcs,  Comjuicstos 
porel  Virtuoso  Hakam  Rabi  Imanuel  Aboabde  Bueiia 
Memoria."  A  manuscript  of  this  work  exists  in  Ihe 
library  of  the  Historical  Academy  in  Madrid. 

BlULiOfiR.ipiiY:  I)e  Rossi,  Dizinnurin  Stnrici).  Germ,  transl. 
liy  llaiiiljtTiier,  iip,  13-i:i:  Kayserlinp.  Immanunl  Ahiiah.  in 
JeKcliuniii,  Iv.  372  cl  »<;</.,  v.  (543  t(  i<«i.;  idem,  Oewh.  d. 
Juden  in  Port.  pp.  271  et  seq. 

M.  K. 

Isaac  Aboab  :  Author  of  "Meuorat  ha-Maor"; 
lived  in  Sjiain  about  lollll.  As  shown  by  Zunz("  Ki- 
tus,"  pp.  20-i-210),  he  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
Is.\AC  Ai!o.\n,  rabbi  of  Castile,  Ihe  supercommenta- 
tor  of  Xahmauides,  who  died  in  1493  (see  following 
article). 

He  was  a  man  of  affairs,  who.  toward  the  close  of 
his  life,  devoted  much  lime  to  literary  work  and  to 
preaching,  as  he  found,  he  comiilained,  that  great 
Talmudic  scholars  and  important  seats  of  learnin.g 
were  rare.  In  his  time  the  Jews  for  whom  he  wrote 
still  understood  and  spoke  Arabic.  He  belonged  to 
a  period  of  intellectual  decline  when  men  took  mdu- 
rally  (o  eclectici.sm.  He  combined  extensive  rabbin- 
ical knowledge  with  philosophical  eiudition.  and  was 
fond  of  mystic  intcrjiretalion  of  the  iMosidc  laws  and 
ceremonies.  He  (iiioted  .Vristotle  and  Plato,  though 
only  from  secondary  sources,  and  endeavored  to  illus- 
trate passages  from  the  Talmud  and  the  midrashic 
lileralure,  with  which  he  was  especially  familiar,  by 
ullerances  taken  from  the  philosojihical.  Ihe  elhicai, 
and  the  mystic  literjiture  of  his  time.  His  chief  aim 
was  the  pojiularizatiou  of  knowledge  aud  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  masses. 

Aboab  wrote  three  books.  The  first,  on  Jewish 
riles,  under  Ihe  title  of  "  Aron  ha-'Edut  "(The  Ark  of 
the  Testimony),  wasdiviiled,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Decalogue,  into  ten  sections,  each  again  subdivided 
into  chapters  and  paragraphs.  The  various  ritual 
laws  were  therein  traced  to  llieir  Talmudic  sources, 
and  Ihe  ilecisions  of  the  Geonim  and  later  inlerjjre- 
lations  added.  His  .second  book,  on  the  pra\ers 
and  beiiediction.s,  was  called  "Shulhaii  haPanim" 
(Table  of  the  Showbread),  and  was  dividid  into 
twelve  seclions,  symlioli/ing  the  twelve  loaves  of 
tlie  showbread  in  the  Tabernacle;  both  works  un- 
fortunalely  are  lost. 

His  third  book  has  survived,  aud  has  won  con- 
sideralile  fame  for  Ihe  aulhor.  though  in  his  humil- 
ity h<'  assures  his  readers  that  he  composed  il  chielly 
for  his  own  use  as  a  piiblii-  speaker.  Hut  besides 
this  it  has  conlribulcd  probaldy  more  than  any  other 
mcdii-val  book  lo  Ihe  popularization  of  ndibinicid 
lore  and  lo  Ihe  religious  edification  and  elevnlion  of 
the  mas.ses.  Il  belongs  lo  tlial  class  of  elhicai  work.s 
which  sprang  up  in  the  Ihirleenlh  cenlury  in  a  lime 
of  reaction  aginnst  the  one  sided  manner  in  which 
the  Talmudic  sludies  had  been  previously  punaud 

■■  Tliese  TiiliHiullslM."  hi-  siivs  In  tile  pn'fnii'.  "  iMiisliler  II  Itielr 
fliily  In  pn»)M»t'  <linii-iitl  iiueslUtiis  and  un.'^wer  tlu'iii  tiiHWHir 
mill  siiliile  iiiiiiiner,  I>ii1  leave  uniietleiil  Die  |ini-i«>iis  |M>iirlo  Unit 
he  ll|n>ll  111*'  lull  of  llie  'I'lllMilldle  iM-eilll,  ttle  tiuKKlldle  |ia.vgiKia 
Hn  hell  III  lieillltv  mid  •.Ueelllevs." 


Aboab 
'Abodah 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


74 


He  conceived,  therefore,  the  plan  of  grouping  to- 
gether the  ricli  material  stored  up  in  the  vast  t reasure- 
liousc  of  the  Hairjiiulah  from  the  rcliirious  and  eth- 
ical point  of  view,  and  of  prcscniinf:  it  iu  a  hook 
which  hecallcd  "  .Mcnorat  ha-.Maor  "  (ThcCandlcslick 
of  Lij;ht ;  (i>m|iare  Num.  iv.  ll| .  intcndini;  by  it  to 
ilUuninc  the  minds  and  tlic  hearts  of  his  coreligion- 
ists. With  reference  to  the  seveu-arraed  candlestick 
iu  the  Tabernacle  (E.\.  -x.w.  31;  Num.  viii.  2).  he 
divideil  the  book  into  seven  sections,  each  of  which 
bears  the  title  of  "Ner."  or  "'Liimp,"  subdivided 
into  separate  parts  and  chapters.  It  can  harilly  be 
said  that  the  division  of  the  matter  treated  is  very 
loirical  anil  syslcmalic.  nor  indeed  iloes  the  work 
lay  any  claim  to  originality;  but  in  presenting  the 
beautiful  moral  anil  religious  truths  of  Judaism  in 
homely  form,  Aboab  supplied  to  the  average  reader 
a  great  need  of  the  time.  Its  skilful  arnuigeineiit 
of  the  various  Biblical  anrl  rabbinical  topics  and  its 
warm  tone  of  deep  earnestness  and  sincerity  could 
not  fail  to  appeal  lo  the  popular  heart.  And  as  in 
the  course  of  lime  the  sermon,  then  still  in  u.se  among 
the  Spanish  Jews,  ceased  to  lie  a  part  of  the  divine 
service  because  the  preacher  had  to  give  way  to  the 
hazan,  or  precentor,  the  "  Mcnonit  ha  .Alaor  "  became 
a  substitute  for  the  living  voice  of  the  i)reacher.  It 
was  translated  into  Spanish  and  read  to  attentive 
asseiublies  of  the  peojjle,  ])articularly  to  those  not 
versed  in  the  Law.  It  thus  became  the  liouseliold 
book  of  the  medieval  Jews.  It  was  ]uiblished  with 
a  Spanish  translation  (Leghorn.  l(i.")7),  with  u  He- 
brew commentary  and  a  Juda'o-German  trauslalion 
by  Moses  Frankfurter  (Aiusterdam.  17fU),  with  a 
modern  German  translation  by  Fi'irstenthal  and  Beli- 
rend  (Krotoschin.  18-44-4()).  It  was  translated  also 
into  Yiddish.  Wilua.  IS80.  The  book  nuist  not  be 
confused  with  a  work  of  the  same  name  by  Israel 
Alna((ua. 

BiBLiniui.vrnv  :  Zimz,  liiltix.  pp.  201-210;  yicnnrat  ha-3Iaor. 

intruiliirti'in  liv  !it'tir»-inl.  Kiulnscllin,  l.stt;  see  also  Brtill's 
Jithrh.  ii.  llli).  wlitTf  allt'Titinn  is  rallt'il  l>>  a  pa.s.-^at.'e  in  .Mtoab 
on  Ilii'  hnlinfss  of  the  mai-ital  rrlations.  Mi  imnit  hii-Mmir. 
lis  Isl-tstj.  taken  almost  literally  fl-oln  .Nahliianides'  Unii'i'tt 
I>n-Kinh_i<h,  A^'atnst  the  cliar^re  of  pla^n'arisni.  see  Stein- 
schueider,  Hchr.  BiliL  LsTIi,  p.  »i). 

S.  B.— K. 

Isaac  Aboab:  Spanish  Bible  commentator;  jire- 
sumalily  ii  deseindaiit  of  |irc(eding;  born  at  Toledo 
in  14^8;  died  in  January,  14!)H.  lie  was  the  pupil  and 
successor  of  Isaac  Campanton.  and  was  called  "the 
hist  gaon  of  Castile."  After  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
issued  the  decree  of  e-Xjuilsion  in  1402.  he  with  thirty 
others  of  the  most  respected  Jews  of  the  land  went  to 
Lisbon  in  order  to  negotiate  with  King  John  II.  of 
Portugal  for  the  reception  of  his  banished  coreligion- 
ists. He  and  his  companions  were  allowed  to  si-ttle 
under  favondik-  conditions  in  Porto.  He  died  a  few 
months  after  the  ex]iulsion.  His  disciple,  the  clirnii- 
icler  and  matheniiitician  Abraham  Zacuto.  delivered 
his  funeral  address.  .Many  of  Aboab's  disciples  at- 
tained to  great  distinction.  Of  his  works  the  fol- 
lowing have  appeared  in  print;  "Xehar  Pishon,"  a 
collection  of  sermons,  Constantinople,  \XiH;  "A 
Superconuuentary  to  Xahmanides'  Pentateuch- 
Commentary,"  Constjintinople,  152.j:  Venice.  154s. 
etc.  A  supercoiunicntary  to  the  commeiitai'y  of 
Rashi  on  the  Pentateuch  and  a  number  of  rabbiniciil 
decisions  e.vist  in  manuscript. 

Isaac  Aboab:  Son  of  Mattathiah;  a  contemim- 
rary  of  Isaac  da  Fonseca  Aboab  and  often  confounded 
with  him.  He  was  born  iu  Amsterdam,  and  became 
hakatu  of  the  Portuguese  congregiition  there  ;  he 
was  a  friend  of  the  learned  Surenhuvsius  {Blo<h. 
"Oest.  Wochenschriff,"  1S99,  No.  48,  p.  902).  He  died 


about  1720  at  Amsterdam.  He  wrote  a  book  of  e.\- 
lioriation  tind  admonition  for  his  son,  which  ap- 
peared at  Amsterilam,  in  1087,  under  the  title  "E.xor- 
tacAo  Parai|Ue  os  Tementes  do  Senlior  na  Observaiieiv 
dos  Priceiiosde  sua  S.  Lev."  A  nundicr  of  his  works 
exist  in  miuiu.script,  among  them  a  genealogy  of  thu 
Aboab  family  and  a  "ComeUia  de  la  Vida  y  Succcssos 
de  Joss<-ph." 

IliBLioiiu.ii'iiv :  Kuyserllng,  Bibl.  E»p.-Poit.  Jud.  pp.  3,  i. 

M.  K. 

Isaac  da  Fonseca  Aboab :  Hakam  at  Amstor- 

(him ;  liorn  at  ( 'astiodairc.  Portugal,  in  10(1.5;  died 
on  .Vpril  4,  ll)!i:i.  iiged  eighty-eight;  wa.s  the  son  of 
David  Aboab  and  Isidicl  da  Fonseca.  who  was  in  her 
tifty-tirst  year  at  the  tiiue  of  his  birth.  In  order  to 
be  distinguished  from  Is.v.vc  ue  M.VTTA'nil.vii  Auo.xii, 
he  added  his  mother's  name  to  his  own. 

In  feiu- of  danger  from  the  Iiii|uisition,  David  lied 
with  his  lamily  to  St.  Jetui  de  Luz.  a  small  town  on 
the  Fnuico  Spanish  frontier.  Here  he  appears  to 
have  died,  and  his  widow.  Isabel,  not  yet  feeling 
hei-self  safe,  emigniteil  ill  1012  with  hiT  son  to  Am- 
sterdam, where  relatives  of  her  hiisbanil  had  already 
.settled.  Here  Isaai;  studied  under  the  direction  of 
the  hakam  Isstac  Uzziel  and  made  such  progress 
that  iu  1019  he  already  held  a  public  oflice.  Wheu 
twenty-one  years  of  age  he  became  hakam  of  the 
community.  When  the  three  congregations  of  Am- 
slerdiun  were  tuiiteil 
in  10:!9.  Aboiib  was 
continued  in  his  post ; 
but  his  position  can 
not  hiive  been  very  re- 
munerative, for  in  1042 
he  accepted  a  call  to 
Pernambuco.  Brazil,  at 
that  time  in  the  hands 
of  the  Dutch.  Hire, 
however,  he  could  not 
liermanently  remain. 
In  1049,  war  broke  out 
between  the  Dutch 
and  the  Portuguese 
regarding  the  posses- 
sion of  Brazil,  in  which 
the  former  were  vic- 
torious. All  the  Jews 
were  obliged  to  leave  the  country.  Aboab  returned 
to  Amsterdam.  Such  w-as  the  esteem  in  which  he 
was  held,  that  ho  was  reappointed  liaktun.  His 
duties  were  to  preach  three  times  monthly  and  to 
give  instruction  at  the  Talmud  Torah.  as  well  as  at 
the  Yesbibah.  or  Talmudic  Academy,  established  by 
the  rich  brothers  De  Pinto,  of  which  latter  institu- 
tion he  was  I  hi'  head.  Aboab  was  an  able  preacher, 
an  excellent  Hebrew  poet — as  can  be  seen  from  his 
occasional  poems — tmd  was  also  acquainted  with  the 
natural  sciences.  He  was  inclined  to  the  Cabala,  and 
translated  into  Hebrew  the  Spanish  works  of  Alonso 
de  HeiTcra  on  the  Cabala.  In  his  old  age  he  was  a 
secret  adherent  of  Shiibbethai  Zebi.  For  more  than 
half  a  century  Aboab  ]iresided  over  the  community 
and  did  much  to  promote  its  welfare.  He  gave  the 
lirst  imiiulse  to  the  building  of  the  great  synagogue. 
He  hiiilan  extensive  library,  a  catalogue  of  which  was 
]uinteil  in  109:$.  Aboab  was  the  first  Jewish  author 
in  America.  Of  his  works  the  following  have  ap- 
])eared :  "  Parafrasis  Comentada  sobre  el  Pentateuco, " 
Amslerd;uu,  lOHl ;  "  ScrmSo  en  Mcmoria  de  Abraham 
Nunez  Bernal";  "Sermilo  Funebre  en  Memoria  de 
Dr.  Josei)b  Bueno,"  Amsterdam,  1009;  "Sermilo  no 
Alegre  Estreamente  e  Publicti  Celebridade  da  Es- 
noga."  Atusterdam,  1075;  "Sermflo  ,  .  .  por  Hatan 


Isaac  da  Fonseca  Aboab. 

(From  the  |xirlritit  In  the  Archlvta  of  the 
Amsterdam  Portujpiese  Conifregatlon.) 


75 


THE  JEWISH  E^X•YCLOPEDIA 


Aboab 
'Abodah 


Torah  Sr.  Yalmcob  Israel  Ilenriques,"  Amsterdani, 
llJTx.     lie   wrote   in   Hebrew,   under  tlie^title  njt 

bti  nixi>SJ^  'JTtJ'y.  ii"  account  of  the  war  between 
the  Portuguese  and  the  Dutch  in  Hra/.il.  and  of  the 
sulTerings  of  the  Jews  tliere.  This  work  has  been 
partially  |>ul)lished  in  tlie  "Publications  Am.  Jew. 
Hist.  Soe."  No.  .5,  Vii)  et  seq. 

Buii.KKiRAIMlY:  Kavserllnsr,  liihl.  Enp.-Port.  Jwl.  pp.  -t,  .'>: 
I'iMmltii'itx  of  the  Am.  Jew.  Hint.  Soc.  111.  14-aJ.  103  ft 
gci/.,  V.  1S.'»- i:t6 :  (irat/.  Ocvo/m/.  Ji/'ii'/i. x.pnjwim;  IK-fastro, 
wlio  elves  the  epltaplis  nf  Aboab  aud  his  wives.  In  Keur  van 
Orafsteeneit,  pp.  ti7  et  tteit. 

M.  K. 

Isaac  Zemah  Aboab :  A  physician,  like  his 
brother  Daniel,  lit  Amsterdam.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Beiiediet  de  Castro,  pliy.sieian  in  ordinary  to  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden,  and  of  Beujamin  Musaphia  in 
Hamburic.  An  Isaac  Aboab  is  nuiilioneil  as  living 
in  Barbados  in  ItWO  ("  Publications  Am.  Jew.  Hist. 
tjoc."  i,  lii.')». 

Jacob  Aboab  :  1.  Rabbi  at  Venice  ;  was  the  son 
and  successor  of  Samuel  Aboab.  He  died  after  1727 
at  Venice.  He  edited  and  published,  at  the  expense 
of  his  wealthy  elder  brother.  D.wiu  Ano.\u.  the  rab- 
binical decisioiisof  his  father,  and  provided  the  book 
with  a  detailed  biogniphy  of  its  author.  He  paid 
especial  attention  to  Biblical  anti<iuities  and  natural 
s<ience.  He  conducted  an  active  literary  correspond- 
ence with  Theophil  L'nger.  a  pastor  at  Herreidaurn- 
schtitz.  who  was  an  entliusiastic  collector  of  Hebrew 
manuscripts.  These  leltersare  preserved  in  the  City 
Library  of  Haiuburg  (Xo.  3:55,  3).  Christian  Wolf 
mentions  this  Aboab  in  his  "Bib!.  Hel)r."  in  si.xty 
l)laces.  Aboab  also  maintained,  from  1(!S2  to  KiDl!, 
a  seientitic  corres]>ondenee  wilh  the  learned  im|ie- 
rial  councilor  Job  Ludolf,  at  Fninkforl  on  ibeMain. 
These  letters  are  preserved  in  the  Fraidvlort  City 
Library.  He  wrote  ii  number  of  rnlibinieal  decisions, 
which  are  preserved  in  the  works  of  others:  for  in- 
stance, in  the  "  Pal.iad  Yi/.hak"  of  Isaac  Lampronii. 
2.  A  physician  at  Meccaat  llj'.if>.  3.  Anoiher  Jacob 
Aboab  was  one  of  the  earliest  Jewish  immigrants  to 
.New  York,  where  he  arrived  in  l()."i4,  pri>liably  from 
Holland  ("Publications  Am.  Jew.  Hist.  Soc."  ii.  77. 
vi.  Ki).  4.  Son  of  a  Hebrew  proof  reader,  AiiU.vii.\M 
Alio.vu;  was  a  printer  at  Venice,  l(Mii)-82.  S.Sonof 
Bk.n.i.\min  AiioAii.  lived  about  H)7.">  in  Amst<'rdam 
and  was  renowned  for  his  keen  intellect.  6.  Son  of 
IsA-\c  Aiio.Mi.  "thela.st  gaon  of  Castile  ";  published 
till'  religious  discourses  of  liis  falhir  in  1.538. 

Joseph  Aboab:  Son  of  Samuel;  was  for  some 
timi'  rabbi  at  Viiiiee.  He  was  the  author  of  rabbin- 
ical ilii  i^ions.  as  yet  not  printed.  He  emigrated  to 
Pali-iiiic  and  died  at  llrbroii. 

Judah  Aboab  :  .\  grandson  of  Isa,\c  Ahoaij,  the 
"last  gaon":  wasa  dayyan  (j'/cilat  Alcazarquivirin 
Africa.  He  had  many  ilisciples.  among  them  David 
Fayon,  who  provided  Immanuel  .\boab  with  much 
iidormation  conec  rning  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews 
from  Spaiiiand  PurtUL'al  ("  Nomologii."  :!(l'2). 

Mattathiah  Aboab:  Kipicsented  the  congre- 
gation liet  Jacob  in  .Vmsterilam,  in  l(i3i).  His  son 
Moses  was  later  president  of  the  united  Portuguese 
community. 

Letters  of  denization  \\<rr  L'rantcd  in  New  York 
(.tune  •>."),  HiMI)  to  a  Moses  Aboab  ("Publications 
..t  111.-  .\m   .l.w    Hist.  Soc."  vi.  mi). 

Raphael  Aboab  :    Kmigniled  in  KlflO  to  Surinam. 

Samuel  Aboab:  Son  of  .\bndiam;  was  a  very 
prominent  ndibiof  llir  seventeenlhcenliirv.  He  was 
born  at  Venice  in  KUO;  died  there  .\ug'.  02.  IfiUl. 
lie  very  early  began  lliesludy  of  nddiinical  liteniture. 
Wliiii  lliirleen  yiars  of  age,  he  bicame  the  |>upil  of 
the  Uarniil  Dwiii  Fhanco.     Krom  him  Aboab  re- 


ceived the  intellectual  tendency  which  he  followed 
all  his  life.  When  eighteen  3'ears  of  age,  he  married 
the  portionless  daughter  of  Franco,  named  Jlazzal- 
Tob,  a  proceeding  unusual  at  that  time.  He  was 
first  appointed  rabbi  in  Verona,  whither  his  father 
and  brothers  soon  followed  him.  Here  he  gained 
such  a  reputation  for  learning  that  disciples  from 
far  and  near  .sought  him.  and  the  ral)bis  of  Italy 
turned  to  him  with  difficult  religious  questions.  He 
became  known  by  the  name  BaSHA  (X  BH),  a  word 
formed  from  the  initial  letters  of  his  Hebrew  name. 
Aboab  was  not  only  profoundly  learned  in  all  .lew- 
ish  science,  but  also  acquainted  with  secular  learning 
and  a  master  of  several  languages.  He  understood 
Latin  and  German,  spoke  Italian,  and  read  and  wrote 
Spanish.  He  was  rigid,  even  ascetic,  in  his  piety; 
fasted  much,  studied  the  Law  day  ami  night,  and 
ate  no  meat  on  week-ilays.  He  was  extremely  mod- 
est and  charitable,  supported  his  disciples,  and  vis- 
ited the  poor  in  their  dwellings.  In  1650  lie  was 
called  to  Venice  as  rabbi.  There  Iw  became  involved 
in  the  controversy  concerning  Shabbethai  Zebi  and 
his  representative  or  apostle,  Nathan  of  Gaza.  The 
latter  confessed  to  Aboab,  as  presiilent  of  the  rab- 
binical tribunal  (bet  din)  of  Venice,  that  his  (Nathan 
of  Gaza's)  prophecies  concerning  the  Messianic  char- 
acter of  Shabbethai  Zebi  were  mere  dece|)tions.  In 
advanc:e(I  age  Aboab  became  the  victim  of  many 
misfortunes.  Domestic  troubles  and  severe  illness 
aflticted  him,  and  in  his  eighlietli  year  he  was 
compelled  to  leave  Venice  and  his  familv.  and  to 
wander  frimi  place  to  place.  It  was  only  shortly 
before  his  death  that  he  received  permission  from 
the  doge  and  the  senate  of  Venice  to  return  to  the 
city  and  to  icassume  his  office,  which  in  his  absence 
had  been  conducted  by  his  s<m  Joseph,  who  resem- 
bled him  in  jiiety  and  modesty.  Before  his  death 
ho  called  together  his  four  sons,  Abraham,  David, 
Jacob,  and  Joseph,  and  besought  them  never  to 
pri>nounce  carelessly  the  name  of  God,  to  be  scrupu- 
lously honest  iu  all  their  dealings,  never  to  calum- 
niate, never  to  give  any  one  a  contemptuous  appel- 
lation or  nickname,  but  to  care  for  the  education 
of  the  young,  imd  to  attend  .synagogue  daily.  Of 
his  works  there  Inive  appeared:  "  I)ebar  Shemuel  " 
(Word  of  Samuel),  acolleetion  of  rabbinical  decisions 
(Venice,  1702);  and,  anonymously,  "Sefer  haZikro- 
not,"  a  treatise  on  ethical  conduct  (Venice,  UmO). 
Habbi  Joshia  Joseph  ben  Davio,  of  Venice,  com- 
l>osed  an  elegy  upon  his  death,  printed  in  the  collec- 
tion of  iioems  "Kos  Tanhumim"  (Venice,  1707). 

M.  K. 

'ABODAH  ("Divine  Service"):  Originally  the 
benediciinn  recited  during  the  morning  sjierilice 
while  the  Temple  still  existed,  and  afterward  the 
benediction  containing  the  prayer  for  Ihe  restonition 
of  till'  Tem|de  sacrilice,  recited  also  as  part  of  the 
morning  and  evening  prayer  (Mid.  v.  10).  'AbiMlah 
was  the  regular  name  fiir  Ihe  divini-  service  in  tlie 
Temple,  and  (leople  look  an  oath  by  IheWbodali  as 
Ihev  did  bv  the  TemI'I.k  itself,  or  as  is  done  today 
by  "(he  Bible  (Levy,  "Neuliebr.  WOrterb."  «.r.). 

K. 

'ABODAH  OF  THE  DAY  OF  ATONE- 
MENT :  .Vn  isMiitial  part  of  the  Musjif  srrvii-e  of 
thai  day.  based  upon  Ihe  detaili'd  account  given  in 
the  MishnahVomaof  thesiicrilicial  service  performed 
liy  the  high  priest  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusaliin.  The 
basis  for  this  (■Iabi>nile  function  is  found  in  Lev.  xvi. 
Originallv  this  part  of  the  service  s<"i>nis  to  have  con- 
sisted only  in  the  recital  of  Ihe  Mishnah  tn'alise, 
Vonui.    Graduallv  it  was  further  elaboniled.  and  lie- 


'Abodah 
'Abodah,  Music  of 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


caiiK-  the  most  solemn  aiui  impressive  portion  of  tlic 
Atciiiemenl  service. 

The  ritual  in  tlie  order  (Mahzor)  most  universally 
used  begins  with  a  beautiful  pniyer  for  the  syna- 
go.srue  reader,  followed  by  a  cursory  review  of  the 
Uiiilical  history  from  Adam  down  to  Aaron.  Then 
the  whole  Teinide  service  is  minutely  described:  thi 
preparation  of  the  high  priest  during  seven  days 
preceding  the  festival,  the  appointment  of  a  substi- 
tute to  meet  the  emergency  of  the  high  priest's 
becoming  distiualilied.  the  preparation  of  the  holy 
vessels,  the  olTering  of  the  regular  morning  .Siicri- 
tice.  the  baths  and  ablutions  of  the  high  priest,  and 
his  different  changes  of  garments. 

I^aying  his  hands  upon  the  head  of  a  yoimg  bul- 
lock, his  own  sill  offering,  the  high  priest  made  con- 
fession for  himself  in  these  words; 

"O  Lord,  I  have  sinned,  I  tiave  trespn.'ised.  I  liave  done 
WTODR  before  Thee.  I  and  my  house.  ()  I/>rd.  trraiit  atonement 
fur  tlie  sins,  tre-spas-ses,  and  wniiips  wliieli  I  have  cnnunitted 
l)eforeTlKV,  I  ami  my  house,  a.s  U  Js  written  in  tlie  Toniliof  Tliy 
servant  Moses,  '  For  on  this  day  lie  shall  atone  for  you  to  cleanse 
you  from  alt  your  sins  liefore  the  Lord'  [Lev.  x\i.  30]." 

He  then  proceeded  to  the  eastern  part  of  the  court, 
■where  he  found  two  goats  and  drew  lots  for  them, 
selecting  one  for  God  and  one  for  Azazel.  On  the 
head  of  the  latter  he  tied  a  red  woolen  thread,  and 
then,  returning  to  his  bullock,  laid  his  hands  upon 
its  head  and  made  the  .second  confession,  including 
therein  the  children  of  Aaron,  that  is,  the  whole 
priestly  tribe.  Then  lie  killed  the  bullock,  received 
the  blood  in  the  s]ninkling  liowl.  and  had  it  stirred 
lest  it  should  coagulate  wliile  he  iierformed  the  fumi- 
gation, lie  next  took  burning  coals 
Description  from  the  altar,  put  them  into  a  golden 
of  Temple    censer,  and  after  having  provided  him- 

Service.  self  with  two  handfuls  of  incense,  lie 
entered  through  the  veil  into  the  Holy 
of  Holies.  Between  the  two  staves  of  the  ark  (or 
on  the  stone  which  took  its  place)  he  deposited  the 
censer  and  cast  the  incense  upon  the  coals.  And 
when  the  whole  place  was  tilled  with  a  cloud  of 
smoke,  he  left  it  and,  walking  backward,  took  the 
blood  from  the  jierson  who  had  stirred  it.  entered 
with  it  into  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  sprinkled  with 
the  blood  once  upward  and  si'ven  limes  downward, 
counting  the  numbers  in  the  presciibed  manner. 
Then  he  returned,  slaughtered  the  goat,  and,  with 
its  blood,  received  in  another  bowl,  sprinkled  as  be- 
fore. After  having  once  more  sprinkled  with  the 
blood  of  the  bullock,  he  pcnired  the  two  bowls  of 
blood  together  and  jiuritied  the  golden  altar  by  put- 
ting the  mingled  blood  round  tlie  horns,  and  sprin- 
kling it  seven  times.  Thereupon  he  went  to  t  he  living 
goat  and  over  its  head  he  made  confession  of  the  peo- 
l>le's  sins,  inserting  in  the  formula  recited  before, 
"Thy  people,  the  house  of  Israel." 

In  all  the  three  confessions  he  pronounced  the  dis- 
tinctive name  of  God  (the  Shem  ha-ineforash) .  And 
the  priestsand  the  people  who  were  in  the  court,  when 
they  heard  the  holy  name  of  God  coming  from  the 
high  priest's  mouth,  bent  their  knees,  fell  down  and 
worshiped,  and  e.\claimed.  "Bles.sed  be  the  name  of 
His  glorious  kiugilom  forevermore."  Then  Ihcscape- 
go:it  was  led  away  into  the  wilderness  and  put  to 
death  l)y  being  thrown  down  a  rocky  precipice.  The 
high  priest  s:icriticed  the  i)iecesof  the  other  goat  and 
the  bullock,  read  the  lesson  of  the  day  from  the  Scrij)- 
tnres.  and  put  on  his  gold-enibroiilered  garments. 
Thereupon  he  offered  u[i  a  ram  for  himself  and  one 
for  the  people,  put  on  his  linen  garments,  and  brought 
the  censer  from  the  Holy  of  Holies.  Then  he  took  off 
his  linen  garments,  which  were  put  away  forever, 
and,  clothed  in  the  gold-embroidered  garments,  of- 


fered the  daily  evening  sacrilicc  and  the  incense  and 
lighted  the  candles. 

During  the  long  and  elaborate  service  he  bathed 
five  times  and  washed  his  hands  and  feet  ten  times. 
With  joy  and  e.\ultation  he  was  then  accompanied 
home  by  his  friends,  to  whom  he  gave  a  fea.st,  be- 
cause he  hail  left  the  siuictuary  unharmed. 

The  so-called  prayer  of  the  high  priest  after  the 
completion  of  the  service  is  then  recited.  Now  fol- 
lows a  glowing  description — after  Ecclesiastieus 
(Sirach).  Milt  sn/. — of  the  beauty  of  the  appearance 
of  the  high  priest,  and  those  arc  pronounced  happy 
who  had  .seen all  the  old  glory,  while  the  misfortune 
is  deploied  of  the  living  who  are  deprived  of  Temple, 
altar,  and  priest,  and  have  constantly  to  submit  to 
new  and  intoleralile  sutTcrings.  The  service  closes 
in  the  ancient  ritual  with  ardi'iit  prayers  for  the  rces- 
tablishment  of  the  i)ristine  conditionsaiid  the  magui- 
ticent  ritual.  In  the  reform  ritual  expression  is  given 
to  the  view  of  an  atonement  for  mankind  liy  the  sac- 
rifice which  Israel,  as  the  martyr  priest,  is  destined 
to  liring.  JI,  Lan. 

'ABODAH,  MUSIC  OF:  15y  its  liturgical  posi- 
tion, the  ■■  Abodah  "  stands  out  as  the  cential  point 
of  the  .services  on  the  Day  of  Atonement.  The  con- 
fessiim  of  sin  being  the  most  essential  and  character- 
istic element  in  those  services,  a  peculiar  importance 
and  solemnity  attach  to  that  form  of  the  confession 
introduced  in  the  "'Abodah"  which  is  couched  in 
the  very  words  uttered  by  the  high  priest — accord- 
ing to  the  record  of  the  .Mishnah  (Vonia,  iii.  s,  iv.  2. 
vi.  2.) — when  laying  his  hands  upon  the  head  of  the 
scapegoat.  In  sympathy  with  the  exhortation  of 
Hosea.  xiv.  2,  the  pious  .lew  would  at  any  time  de- 
voutly read  of  the  Atonement,  as  of  other  sacrifices, 
that  lie  might  menially,  at  least,  go  through  the 
"order  of  tlie  service,"  But  on  the  "great  fast  "  it- 
self his  devotions  would  arouse  poignant  grief  that, 
"because  of  abundant  iniquities,"  he  was  not  priv- 
iU'ged  to  be  picsent  in  the  great  Temple  at  .Iirnsiilem 
to  behold  those  solemn  rites  of  which  he  read.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  recital  of  the  "  'Aboilah  ''  is  followed 
by  a  long  series  of  i)iyutim  giving  utterance  to  this 
grief,  in  such  expressions  as;  "Happy  the  eye  which 
beheld  all  this;  only  to  hear  of  it  wringeth  our 
heart." 

Among  the  northern  Jews  it  was  the  function  of 
the  hazan  not  merely  to  lead  the  liturgical  son.c  of 
the  congregation,  but  rather,  by  his  singing,  to  inter- 
Iiret  and  elucidate  the  liturgy  to  the  congregation. 
Even  in  medieval  times  the  cantors  were  inspired 
by  a  subconscious  sentiment  of  this  kind,  to  voice 
in  the  "'Abodah"  all  of  Israel's  longing  for  rest 
and  liberty ;  and  at  times  they  would  apiiroach  to 

the  expression  of  sublunest  emotion. 

Expression    Whenever   the   contrast    between  the 

of  servitude   they  knew  and   the   .irlory 

Emotion,      they  read  of  was  more  than  usually 

keen,  a  particular  intensity  was  lent 
to  the  Atonement  liturgy ;  and  there  developed,  prob- 
ably before  the  modern  period,  a  rhapsody  reijlete 
with  inarticulate  vocalization;  although  its  lines 
Avere  distinct  enough  for  successive  generations  of 
hazanim  so  to  utilize  the  traditional  matter  that,  in 
the  lendering  of  the  "  '  Abciilaii,"  the  climax  of  the 
cantor's  art  was  reached.  These  main  lines,  through 
their  parallel  employment  in  the  "Kedushah."  have 
remained  distinct  under  the  growth  of  imjirovised 
cadences. 

Some  such  adornments  were,  no  doubt,  but  an 
echo  of  the  unending  scale-passages  and  sequences 
of  rapid  figures  so  common  in  both  vocal  and  in- 
strumental music  two  centuries  ago.     But  .so  far 


77 


TIIK  JEWISH    KNCYCLOPEDIA 


'Abodah 
'Abodab,  Uusic  of 


from  all  being  tlerivoil  thenci-.  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  many  of  the  oruameiital  phrases  in  general 

vogue  elosely  resemble  what   is  to  be 

Ornamental  notioerl  in  the  performanees  of  Arab 

Phrases,      musirians.  and  others  recall  the  melis- 

mutie  chant  so  frei|Ueiit  in  the  ixradwals 
of  the  medieval  church.  Had  not  the  oriiriiial  Orien- 
tal elements  iu  the  syuagogical  intonations  and  the 
contemporary  example  of  earlier  European  aeigh- 


bors  alike  fostered  such  vocal  embroidery,  the  orna- 
mentiition  of  the  seventeenth  century  would  have 
been  rigidly  excluded  as  htikkat  Imyoyim  ("Gentile 
usjige  "). 

The  experiment  has  been  tried  in  Berlin  and  else- 
where of  omitting  such  ornamental  jihrascs,  espe- 
cially those  termed  ■■  pneunia,"  to  which  no  words 
are  sung,  and  of  rendering  only  what  seemed  to  the 
musical  analyst  to  be  the  essential  sections  of  such 


'ABODAH 


mf  Quasi  Fantasia. 


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We  -    ha    -    ko     -    ha  -   nim  we   -    ha    -    'am... 

Now      the      priest   -    hj       ranks        and       the         peo    - 


pie 


ha    -     'o        -        me  - 

theii        stand 


dim...       ba-'a  -  za       -        -        rah.  Ah! 

mg. .. .        in.    the     Tern    -     pie       court.        Ah 


irhr^te 


keshe  -  ha    -    yu  she  -  me   -    'im.... 

at  the         mo    •     ment     they       heard. . 


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in        its        sj>len 


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dor        re    ■     t'pr 


me  -    fo  - 

ed,      pro  - 


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ced,         ah  ! . 


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from    out         the    mouth       of     the      High     Priest  in        ho  -   hf      aire        and      m 


'Abodah,  Music  of 
Abolition  of  Slavery 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


^    mfpiii  mosso. 


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pu    -    ri   -   <!/ 


ha  -  yn       ko  -  re  -  'im,       ah!. 
then  up  ■  on      their  knees,     ah!. 


ah!. 
ah:. 


mo    -    dim,       ah!. 
ship    •      ing,       ah!. 


do. 


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vkz 


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we  -  no    -     f e - 
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rim:       Ba    -    ruk         shem     ke  -  bod      mal  -  ku  -  to le  - 'o  -  lam       wa    -   'ed. 

cried:      Bis       Kame         be       blest.   Whose  glo  •  rious  King  -  dom    is  for      ev    -    er    -    more! 


rhapsodical  intonations.  But  tliis  rcsidmini.  besides 
appearing  cold  and  iinmoving,  in  its  brevitj"  and 
its  ovcrfrequent  repetition,  to  those  who  were  not 
familiar  with  the  traditional  rendering,  revealed 
plainly  to  tho.se  who  had  previously  listened  to  the 
fervor  and  rich  variation  of  the  melismatic  chant 
the  total  loss  of  intensity  in  its  lack  of  the  vocal 
passages  between  the  words.  Lewandowski's  artistic 
treatment  of  the  central  melody  of  the  '"Abodah." 
in  which  he  relegates  to  the  organ  accompaniment 
the  ornamental  passages  between  the  notes  on  which 
the  words  themselves  are  sung,  was  rightly  enough 
conceived.  But  the  experiment  was  not  a  success; 
and  no  transcription  that  fails  to  provide  such  a 
rhapsody  with  some  representation  of  this  custom- 
ary elaboration  can  hope  to  do  justice  to  the  effect 
of  the  traditional  rendering. 

In  the  German  and  Polish  rituals  the  verses  of 
Jleshullam  ben  Kalonymus  are  divided  off  into  sec- 
tions of  irregular  length  at  the  six  points  where  a 
quotation  from  the  Scripture  or  the  Talmud  occurs. 
The  quotations  "lOIN  n'n  131  ("Thus  did  he  say  ") 
—  containing  the  confession  of  sin,  tirst  of  the  high 
priest  personally,  then  of  the  Aaronites,  then  of  all 
Israel  — and  njio  n'D  pi  ("Thus  did  he  count")  — 


where  Aaron  counts  the  sprinklings  on  the  altar  — 
arc  chanted  responsivcly.  each  phrase  by  cantor  and 
congregation  in  rotation.  Compositions  of  the  mod- 
ern masters  have  largely  taken  the  place  of  the  old 
plain-song  chant,  itself  mainly  a  rising  modulation 
and  then  a  falling  tone. 

But  the  Talmudie  passage  commencing  D'jnani 
("Now  the  priests"),  which  occurs  after  each  con- 
fession, and  describes  the  scene  when  the  Tetra- 
grammaton  was  pronounced,  reverses  this  order. 
It  is  first  uttered  by  the  congregation  (usually  led 

by   some   individual),    who   prostrate 

Phases  of    themselves  when   reciting  the  words 

the  describing  that  action.     Then  comes 

Slusic.        the  turn  of  the  hazan,  wlio  intones  the 

passage  given  above.  In  this  tran- 
scription the  opportunity  is  afforded  by  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  melody  to  present  both  the  chief  forms 
of  ornamental  development,  the  first  being  rather 
German,  the  other  rather  Polish,  in  tradition.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  cantor  commences  calmly 
to  intone  the  words  of  the  Jlishnah  in  the  major' 
mode,  but  that  the  mystic  solemnity  of  the  scene  in 
the  Temple  court  soon  overcomes  his  imagination, 
and  he  breaks  awav  into  the  weird  strenuousness  of 


79 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


*Abodah,  Music  of 
Abolition  of  Slavery 


the  Oriental  rhromatic  scale  (Hazantt,  NioofN)  at 
the  tlimijrlit  i)f  the  Divine  Preseuce.  lie  attempts 
a  return  to  the  calmness  of  the  oriirinal  key,  but 
the  tlioiiirhts  conjured  uji  by  the  words  asrain  over- 
whelm his  intention,  and  drive  him  ou  to  an  ecstatic 
climax.  F.  L.  V. 

'ABODAH  ZARAH  tml  muy.  "Molatrous 
Wnrship  "i :  The  iianii'  of  one  of  tlie  treatises  of  the 
Mishnah,  of  the  Tosefta,  and  of  the  lialiylonian  and 
the  Palestinian  TalnuKl.  helonjring  to  the  (_)rder  Ne- 
■/ikin.  It  is  divicUd  into  tive  chapters.  As  indica- 
ted by  the  name,  it  treats  of  the  laws  rej;idalinjr 
the  conduct  of  the  Jews  toward  idolatry  and  idola- 
ters. These  laws  are  based  principally  on  the  leijis- 
lation  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  proscribed  idolatry 
ill  all  its  forms  and  manifestations,  and  even  inter- 
dicted such  close  as.sociatii>n  with  the  heathen  na- 
tions in  Palestine  as  miirlit  mislead  the  Israelites  to 
participate  in  thi'ir  idolatrous  worship. 

Altliou^rh,  after  their  return  from  the  Babylonian 
oxile,  the  Jews  appeared  to  have  been  radically  cured 
of  idolatry,  there  was  danjrer  of  a  relapse  in  the 
jieriod  preceding  the  Maccabees,  and  still  more  in 
tli(;  ])eriod  of  the  Human  ci>ni|uest.  The  relij^ious 
authorities,  therefore,  found  it  neces.sary  to  renew 
with  increased  rifror  the  Biblical  injunctions  against 
idolatry  and  against  .social  intercour.se  with  the  wor- 
shipers of  idols.  A  codification  of  the  rabbinical 
laws  on  this  subject  is  presented  in  the  treatise  of 
the  .Mishnah  and  the  Tosefta  bearing  the  name  of 
'.Miodah  Zarah,  while  the  Gemara  (or  Talmud)  re- 
ferring to  that  -Mishnah  contains  the  conunenls  and 
discussions  of  the  Paleslinian  and  the  Babylonian 
rabbis  (.Vmoniim)  on  these  laws. 

Tlie  numerous  provisions  of  the  rabbinical  laws 
<inlpodieil  in  tin-  Mishnah  of 'Abodah  Zarah  maybe 
ilivided  into  \hf  two  following  clas.ses:  (1)  Provi- 
sions for  guarding  against  the  lea.st  appeaniuce  of 
favoring  idolatry,  directly  or  indirectly,  and  for  pre- 
venting the  danger  of  ccmiing  in  contact  with  it, 
Ci)  I'rovisions  for  guarding  against  the  immoral 
practises  jirevailing  among  the  heathen. 

The  first  of  the  two  da.sses  may  be  illustrated  by 

the  following  examples:  It  is  forbidden  to  have  any 

busincssdealings  with  the  heathendur- 

Restric-      ing  three  days  before  tluir  principal 

tions  in  public  festivals,  such  as  the  calends 
Intercourse  of  January,  the  Saturnalia,  etc.     If, 

with  the  however,  a  heathen  celebrate  a  Jiri- 
Heathen.  vate  festival,  it  is  forbidden  to  (leal 
with  him  on  that  day  only  (Mishnah, 
'Ab,  Zarah.  i.  l-Ii).  In  cities  in  which  idolatrous  fairs 
are  held  stores  which  are  festooned  with  laurels  must 
not  be  visited,  as  the  sales  in  such  stores  are  gener- 
ally for  the  benefit  of  the  idolatrous  temples  (i.  4), 
It  is  not  allowed  to  .sell  to  a  heathen  any  object 
for  the  use  of  idolatry  or  to  rent  to  him  a  house  in 
which  to  place  his  idols.  Objects  that  in  any  way 
may  }»•  connected  with  idolatry  are  forbidden  to 
be  sold  (i.  .I,  H.  !l).  Wine  lielonging  to  a  heathen, 
who  naiy  have  poured  out  some  of  it  as  a  libation, 
is  not  only  forbidden  to  be  used,  but  even  any  indi 
reel  benefit  derived  from  this  wine  is  prohibited 
(ii.  ;!) .  No  one  may  sit  in  the  shade  of  a  tree  that 
has  iH'cn  planti'd  for  idolatrous  purposes,  nor  make 
any  usi'  of  the  wood  taken  from  s\ich  a  tree:  evi>n 
till'  briad  bakeil  in  an  ovi  ii  that  has  l)een  heated  by 
such  wood  is  not  to  be  used   (iii.  7-!l). 

The  following  (•xamples  will  illustrate  the  other 
class  of  prohibitions  against  corruption  by  imnionil 
practises:  The  barbanais  gladiatorial  shows,  espe- 
cially the  public  tights  with  wild  beasts,  wherein 
the    heathen,    particularly   llu'    liiMoans,    delighted. 


were  regarded  as  so  inhuman  that  no  Jew  was  per- 
mitted to  sell  for  such  a  purpose  bears,  lions,  or 
even  any  instrument  of  cruelty,  or  to  erect  for  such 
use  buildings  in  which  blood  was  to  be  shed  or 
cruelty  practised  (i,  7),  On  account  of  the  deprav- 
ity among  the  heathen,  a  Jew  nuist  not  entrust  his 
animal  to  theircare,  A  Jewish  woman  must  not  be 
in  the  company  of  a  lieathen,  as  he  is  under  sus- 
|)icion  of  sexual  immorality:  neither  must  a  Jew 
remain  in  a  lonesome  place  with  heathen,  lest  he  be 
assjissinated  by  them  (ii,  1).  That  such  suspicions 
of  the  moral  character  of  the  heathen  were  not 
unfounded  is  evident  from  the  contemporaneous 
classical  literature  describing  the  moral  corruption 
prevailing  in  I{(ane  and  in  the  chief  cities  of  Asia 
un<ler  the  emperors  in  the  tirst  centuries  of  the 
conuuon  era. 

Interspersed  among  the  above-mentioned  laws, 
contained  in  the  ^lishnah  treatise  of  'Abodah  Zarah, 
are  also  .some  characteristic  narratives  in  reference 
to  idols  and  idolatry.  Of  these  the  following  is  of 
special  interest:  Tiic  Jewish  elders  in  the  city  of 
Rome  were  once  asked  by  a  heathen, 
Reasons  for  "  If  your  God  is  displeased  with  idols. 
Existence     why  does  lie  not  destroy  them'/"     The 

of  Idols,  answer  was,  "  Because  among  the  wor- 
shiiied  objects  are  also  the  sun,  the 
moon,  and  the  stars,  which  are  necessjiry  for  the 
world.  Should  God  destroy  the  world  on  account 
of  the  fools  that  worship  those  celestial  bodies'?" 
"But,"  rejoined  the  ((uestioner,  "why  then  does  your 
God  not  (iestrov  those  worshiped  objects  which  are 
not  absolutely  needed  for  the  existence  of  the  world':"  " 
And  tile  elders  rejilied,  "This  would  merely  conlirm 
the  heathen  the  more  in  their  false  belief  that  the  sun, 
the  moon,  and  the  stars  must  be  worshijjed  as  dei- 
ties, since  they  can  not  be  destroyed"  (iv.  7).  In 
the  Tosefta  the  answer  of  the  elders  closes  with  the 
remark,  "The  world  goes  its  natural  course,  undis- 
turbed by  the  foolish  acts  of  man;  but  God  will  call 
the  wii'ked  to  account  for  their  folly  "  (vii,  7) , 

The  Gemara  (Talmud  Babli  and  Yerushalmi), 
elaborately  commenting  on  the  Mishnah  treatise  of 
'Abodah  Zarah,  discusses  the  reasons  and  the  appli- 
cations of  the  various  laws  contained  therein,  and 
abounds  in  ethical  sentencesand  exegetical  remarks. 
Moreover,  it  contains  nvimerous historical  and  ethno- 
graphical records,  and  especially  many  statements 
and  legends  which  throw  much  light  on  the  customs 
of  the  heathen  world.  Both  the  Mishnah  and  the 
Genaira  show  a  remarkable  familiarilv  with  lu'athen, 
especially  Homan  and  Greek,  life,  and  are  a  store- 
house of  archeology  yet  to  be  explored.  There  is 
a  history  of  some  Jewish  martyrs  during  the  Iladri- 
anic  persecutions  contaiueil  in  folio  18  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud, 

Buu.KKiUAi'iiv  :  Tlie  MMinah  anil  the  Babuloiilan  Gemara  nf 
'Alinilnli  y.iiriih  wen^  translated  Intolii'niiBnbv  K,  C.  Kwald 
unit  the  Vinuhalmi  Giiimni  l)y  M.  Scbwali  In  tils  tran.slatlon 
of  tilts  Tiihnud  Vfrunbatmi, 

M.  M. 
ABOLAFIO,  JUAN  FERNANDEZ:    A  Ma- 

rano  of  Seville,  who  lived  in  the  liileenlh  centurv, 
lie  was  among  those  who  endeavored  most  zealously 
to  prevent  the  iutroductiou  of  tlu'  Iiniuisition  into 
Seville  in  14H0.  For  his  /eal  he  forfeited  his  life 
at  the  stake.  He  was  a  very  lenrneil  man.  being 
for  a  numlier  of  years  nlralilf  tie  jimlicia  ("criminal 
judge  ")  and  farmer  of  the  royal  taxes. 
llini.iniiKAi-nv:  Ivliw  Kins,  Ilixlitriiiilf  Im  Jtidltviilr  Etjtaila. 
III.  'its;  Ih'  ('u.sini.  ;/i.it.iiiii  i(.  hi.' JuiU'w  rii  Ki'jHiflii.  p.  117, 

51,  K, 
ABOLITION     OF     SLAVERY.      See    An'ti- 

SI..\Vl:llV    .MoVK.MK.NT. 


Abolitionists 
Abot 


THE  JEWISH   E^'CYCLOPEDIA 


80 


ABOLITIONISTS,  JEWISH,  IN  AMER- 
ICA.    See  Antislaveuy  Movement. 

ABOMINATION:  Remleriii!;  in  tlie  Englisli 
Versions  of  (lilli  Kilt  Hililiciil  terms  tlenoting  that 
wliieli  is  loathed  or  detested  on  religiims  grounds  and 
wliieli.  tlierefore.  is  utterly  offensive  to  the  Deity. 
These  terms  dilTer  greatly  in  the  degree  of  the  ab- 
horrenee  ini|ilied  and  should  lie  distinguished  in 
translation,  as  follows: 

(1)  navin  {tu'ebuk)-.  Ahomination  of  tlie  highest 
degree;  originally  that  which  offends  the  religious 
sense  of  a  people.  Tlius  (Gen.  xliii.  32) :  "  The  Egyp- 
tians migiit  not  cat  liread  with  the  Hebrews:  for 
that  is  an  abomination  unto  the  Egyptians."  The 
reason  is  that  the  Helirews,  as  foreigners,  were  con- 
sidered an  inferior  caste.  According  to  Herodotus, 
ii.  41.  no  Egyptian  would  kiss  a  Greek  on  the  mouth, 
or  tise  hisilish,  or  even  taste  meat  cut  with  a  carving- 
knife  belonging  to  a  Greek.  Hut  especially  as  shep- 
herds the  Hebrews  were  "an  abomination  unto  the 
Egyptians"  (Gen.  xlvi.  34).  The  eating  of  unclean 
animals  is  a  religious  offense  called  toet)ah:  "Thou 
shall  not  eat  any  abominable  thing"  (I)eut.  xiv.  3). 
This  is  the  introduction  to  the  laws  prohibiting  the 
use  of  unclean  animals  (see  Clk.w  and  U.nci.kan 
Axi-MAl.s) .  Still  more  offensive  to  the  God  of  Israel 
is  the  practise  of  idolatry.  The  idol  itself  is  called 
an  Abomination:  "for  it  is  an  abomination  to  the 
Lord  thy  God.  Neither  shall  thou  bring  an  abomi- 
nation into  thine  house  and  thus  become  a  thing  set 
apart  [taI)ooed=^<";vw/]  like  unto  it:  thou  shalt  ut- 
terly detest  it  and  utterly  abhor  it.  for  it  is  a  thing 
set  apart  [tabooed]"  (l)eut.  vii.  'i't,  2ti.  IIili.):  "Cursed 
be  the  man  that  maketh  a  graven  or  molten  image, 
an  abomination  unto  the  Lord"  (I)eut.  xxvii.  1.")). 
Often  the  word  to'ebah  is  used  for  idol  or  heathen 
deity;  for  instance,  in  Isa.  xliv.  19;  Deut.  xxxii.  16; 
II  Kings,  xxiii.  13.  and  especially  Ex.  viii.  22  (26, 
A.  V.) ,  it  is  to  be  taken  in  this  sense.  AVhcn  Pharaoh 
had  told  the  Isnielites  to  offer  sacrifices  to  their  God 
in  Egypt.  Jloses  replie<l :  "  How  may  we  sacrifice  the 
abomination  of  the  Egyptians  (that  is,  the  kind  of 
animals  worshiped  by  them]  before  their  eyes,  and 
they  not  stone  us?"  (.see  Ibn  Ezra,  (id  Inc.). 

AH  idolatrous  practise  is  an  Abomination  becatise 
of  its  defiling  character:  "Every  abomination  to 
the  Lord  which  he  hateth  have  they  done  unto  their 
gods  "  (Deut.  xii.  31 :  compare  Deut.  xiii.  15,  xvii.  4, 
XX.  18).  Also  magic  and  divination  are  an  Abomi- 
nation (Deut.  xviii.  12).  Sexual  transgression  is 
particnlarlv  denounceil  as  an  Abomination  (to'ebah) 
(Deut.  xxii.  n.  xxiii.  19  [18,  A.  V.],  xxiv.  4);  espe- 
cially incest  and  unnatural  offenses  (Lev.  xviii.  and 
XX.):  "  For  all  these  abominations  have  the  men  of  the 
land  done  wlio  were  before  you.  and  the  land  became 
iletiled  ;  le.st  the  land  vomit  you  out  also  when  ye 
defile  it  "  (Lev.  xviii.  27,  38,  //eJ. ;  compare  also  Ezek. 
viii.  15  and  elsewhere). 

But  the  word  toeliah  also  assumes  a  liigher  spiri- 
tiiiil  meaning  and  is  aiiplied  also  to  moral  iniquities: 
"Thou  shalt  not  have  in  thine  house  divers  meas- 
ures, a  great  and  a  small.  .  .  For  all  that  do  such 
things,  and  all  that  do  unrighteously,  are  an  abomi- 
nation tuito  the  Lord  thy  God"  (Deiit.  xxv.  14-16). 
In  the  same  strain  we  are  taught  that  "lying  lips" 
(Prov.  xii.  22) .  "  the  perverse  "  (//'.  iii.  32.'R.V.) .  the 
"  proud  in  heart''  ( ih.  x  vi.  5), "  the  wa.y  of  the  wicked  " 
(ill.  XV.  9) ,  "thoughts  of  evil  "  (i/,.  x'v.  26.  /M.) .  and 
"  he  that  justifieth  the  wicked  and  he  that  condenin- 
eth  the  righteous"  (il/.  xvii.  15)  are  an  Abomination. 
"These  six  things  doth  the  Lord  hate,  yea,  seven 
things  are  an  abomination  to  him:  haughty  eyes:  a 
lying  tongue ;  hands  that  shed  innocent  "blood ;  a 


heart  that  deviseth  wicked  imaginations;  feet  that 
be  swilt  in  running  to  mischief;  a  false  witness  that 
utterelh  lies,  and  he  that  sowetli  discord  among 
brethren  "  (('/(.  vi.  16-19.  Ilth.).  In  another  direction 
the  prohibition  of  an  abominable  thing  is  given  an 
ethical  meaning:  "Thou  shalt  not  sacrifice  \inlo  the 
Lord  thy  God  an  ox  or  a  sheep  wherein  is  a  blemish, 
for  that  is  an  abomination  unto  the  Lord  thy  God  " 
(Deut.  xvii.  1.  Il.h.).  Here  the  jihysieal  character  of 
the  sjicrifice  is  offensive.  I5ut  prophet  and  sage  de- 
dare  that  any  sacrifice  w  ithout  purity  of  motive  isan 
Abomination:  "Bring  no  more  an  oblation  of  false- 
hood— an  incense  of  abomination  it  is  to  me  "  (Isn. 
i.  13.  //(/<.;  compare  .ler.  vii.  10).  "The  sacrifice  of 
the  wicked  "  (Prov.  xv.  8,  xxi.  27)  and  the  pniyerof 
"him  that  turnelh  his  ear  from  hearing  the  law" 
(Prov.  xxviii.  9.  Ilth.)  are  an  Abomination. 

(■-)  "pC  (x/k/:'?)  or  "IpL"  (.■'/liH-nz)  :  Expresses  de- 
testation, or  a  detestable  thing  of  a  somewhat  less 
degree  of  hoiTor  or  religious  awe;  also  rendered 
"Abomination"  in  the  Aiithorized  Version  of  the 
Bible.  It  is  ajiplied  to  prohibited  animals  (Lev.  xi. 
10-13.  20.  23.  41.  42;  Isa.  Ixvi.  17;  Ezek.  viii.  10): 
"  Ye  shall  not  make  yourselves  abominable"  (Lev. 
xi.  43).  But  it  is  also  used  for  that  which  should  be 
held  as  detestable;  often  parallel  to  or  together  with 
to'ebah  and  applied  to  idols  and  idolatrous  practises 
(Deut.  xxix.  17;  llosea,  ix.  10;  Jer.  iv.  1,  xiii.  27, 
xvi.  18;  Ezek.  xi.  18-21,  xx.  7,  8),  See  especially 
Milcom,  "the  detestable  thing  of  the  Ammonites," 
the  god  of  the  Ammonites  (I  Kings,  xi.  5),  used 
exactly  as  to'ebah  in  the  jiassages  referred  to  above 
(see  also  Ahomixation  ok  Dicsoi.atio.n). 

(3)  t)1JD  (/'(.'/.'/"/):  Unclean,  putrid;  used  only  for 
sacrificial  fiesli  that  has  becomi'  stale  and  tainted 
(Lev.  vii.  18,  xix.  7:  Ezek.  iv.  14;  Isa.  Ixv.  4):  eom- 
parclihcni  incf/mil.  "the  loathsome  bread.''  from  r/itul. 
"to  loathe"  (JIal.  i.  7).  For  the  later  rabbinic 
conception  of  piggul.  sec  SArHiFicE.      H.  P.   M. 

ABOMINATION    OF    DESOLATION:     An 

expression  occurring  in  .Matt.  xxiv.  15  and  .Mark, 
xiii.  14  (A.  v.).  where  the  Greek  text  has  rb  lidi'/.v, fta 
T;/f  ipr/nuaeuc.  The  Greek  itself,  however,  is  lefer- 
able  to  a  Hebrew  expression,  DOC'O  I'lpC'.  found  in 

Dan.  ix.  37  (where  the  D  of  D'VlpL"  has  been  added, 
through  a  co|iyist's  error,  from  the  D  of  the  ensuing 
word);  in  Dan.  xi.  31.  and  in  Dan.  xii.  11  (with omis- 
sion of  the  prefixed  O). 

The  context  of  these  pas.sages  leaves  no  room  for 
doubt  as  to  what  was  intended  by  this  somewhat 
odd  expression;  namely,  the  transformation,  by  .Vn- 
tiochus  Epijihanes,  of  the  sacred  Temple  at  .Teru- 
saleni  into  a  heathen  one.  In  both  Biblical  and  rab- 
binical Hebrew  abomination  is  a  familiar  term  for 
an  idol  (I  Kings,  xi.  5;  II  Kiiisxs.  xxiii.  13;  .Sifra, 
Kedosliim.  beginning,  and  Mekilta,  .Mishpatim,  xx. 
ed. Weiss,  107),  and  therefore  may  well  have  the  s;inie 
application  in  Daniel,  which  shoidd  accordingly  be 
rendered,  in  agreement  with  Ezra,  ix.  3,  4,  "motion- 
less abomination  "or,  also,  "appalling abomination." 
The  suggest  ion  of  many  scholars — Hoffmann,  Nestle, 
Bevan,  and  others — that  DOL"  ppC  iis  n  designation 
for  .Jupiter  is  siiuply  an  intentional  perversion  of  his 
usual  appellation  "Baal  Shamem  "  (DDC  hv^-  "  lo"! 
of  heaven  ")  is  iiuite  plausible,  as  is  attested  by  the 
perversion  of  "  Beelzebub  "  into  "  ^n/.C,clhi'A  "  (Greek 
version)  in  Mark,  iii.  22,  as  well  as  the  express  injunc- 
tion found  in  Tosef. .  'Ab.  Zarali,  vi.  (vii)  and  Babli 
'Ab.  Zarah.  46^,  that  the  names  of  idols  may  be  pro- 
nounced only  in  a  distorted  or  abbreviated  form  (see 
the  examples  quoted  there).  Though  the  expression 
"  Abomination  of  Desolation  "  is  accordingly  recog- 


81 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abolitionists 
Abot 


nized  in  tlie  light  of  this  iuterpri-tation  as  a  mis- 
translation of  tlie  plinise  used  in  Daniel,  tlicro  is  no 
(liiiil)t  tliat  in  the  eircles  directly  inllneneed  by  tlie 
Hook  of  Daniel — the  same  eircles  that  orijrinated  llic 
apocalyptic  literature — the  expression  was  em  ployed 
to  desifinate  an  importiint  eschatolojriciil  conception. 
For  it  is  only  in  an  esclml<ilofcical  sense  that  the  ex- 
])ression  can  he  acle(|Uately  explained  iu  the  New 
Testament  passajjes  above  inenlioned. 

Aceonliiij^  to  most  modern  commentators,  these 
passajji's  are  a  Jewish  apocalypse,  somewluit  tinged 
with  t'hristianit}',  inten<led  to  propliesy  the  end  of 
time,  when  the  Antichrist,  as  the  Abomination  of 
Desiilation,  shall  be  enthroned  as  a  ruler  in  (Jod's 
Ti-Miple.  The  closely  related  "smaller  Apocalypse  " 
in  II  Tliess.  ii.  l~Vi  is  a  conclusive  justillcation  of 
this  view;  for  it  shows  that  neither  the  Kdinans  (as 
Weiss  in  his  coimnentary,  ml  lor.,  holds),  northe  Zeal- 
ots (Bleek,"Synoptische  Erklarunir,"and  others),  nor 
Caliiiula  with  his  .self deitication  (Spitta,  in  his  "Of- 
fenbaruni.' Jiiliannis  ")  can  be  intended. 

In  Kabbinical   Literature :    The   ralibis  as 

a  whole  ((insiilcr  that  the  expression  DDt^'  |'1pt^' 
refers  to  the  desecration  of  the  Temple  by  the  erec- 
tion of  a  Zens  statue  in  itssacred  precincts  by  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes  (see  Ai'dstemos).  Some  rabbis, 
however,  see  in  ij  an  allusion  to  Manasseh,  who,  as 
related  in  II  Chron.  xxxiii.  7,  set  up  "a  carved 
imaije  ...  in  the  house  of  God  "  (Yer.  Ta'anit.  iv. 
(iH,(,'and  Uashi  on  the  passage  in  Habli,  Hiid.iH/A.  The 
Haggadah  narrates  that  two  statues  were  erecteil, 
one  of  which  fell  over  upon  the  other  and  broke  olf 
its  liand.  I'pon  the  severed  hand  the  following 
inscription  was  found  engraved:  "I  sought  to  de- 
stroy God's  house,  but  Thou  didst  lend  Thy  hand 
to  its  protection  "  (Ta'anit,  'iShetseq.  ;coinpare  Hab- 
binovicz."  Variic  Lectiones,"  on  the  passage  for  vari- 
ant readings). 

imtMOGR.Kriiv  :  Compare  moflem  rommentators  — MetnlioliI, 
llfvan.  Wels.s  Prlllee— ujxtn  llle  passiiyes  in  l>anlel  jmd  Miil- 
ttifw  :  nlw)  Hoiis.s^'t,  t)rr  Autirhri:<t^  En^'Iisti  tniiislution.  ISiKi, 
i's|M-clMlly  liiili'X  ;  Spina,  < iffnihiiruiiii  Jnhatunn.  pp.  4'.i:M'.>7  : 
(ihU;{,  tjttfch.  (/.  Judtn^  iv.  note  15;  Cliajes,  Murhit.-*-StuilU}i. 

L.  G. 

ABOT    ("The     Fathers")    or    PIRKE    ABOT 

(■•('liiiplers  iif  the  Fathers")  :  The  ii.iinr  oC  a  small 
but  highly  valuiible  treatise  of  the  .Mishnali  con- 
taining the  olilest  cdlleetion  of  ethical  maxims  and 
uphorisnis  of  labbinieal  .sjiges.  It  is  the  liisl  nf  the 
nine  li-eatises  belonging  to  Nezikin.  the  fourth  sec 
tidiiof  the  .Mishnah  collection.  The  word  "  Abot  "in 
the  title  of  this  tiealise  is  used  in  the  .sense  of  chief 
autlmrities  whose  favorite  sjiyings  are  fnioted  in 
this  woik.  On  account  of  the  preeminently  ethical 
iharacter  of  its  ciintenls,  the  treatise  iscummonly 
designated  as  "The  Ethicsof  the  Falheis."  It  isili- 
vidid  into  live  ehaplei's.  which  ai'e  sulidivided  into 
paiagniphs.  The  lirst  chapleropeiis  by  stating  the 
continuity  of  tiadilinn  fidin  Mo.sestothe  Menidlhe 
Great  Synod,  anil  fiom  these  down  to  the  principal 
teachers  of  the  Mishnah,  The  oliject  of  this  histor- 
ical stati'inenl  wasevidentlyto  give  the  ethical  teach- 
ings cullected  in  this  treatise  more  weight  and  aullior- 
ily  by  linking  ihem  Ihrnugh  thechain  of  tnidilion  to 
the  Law  iif  >Iiis(s  proclaimed  mi  Sinai.  .Vt  lii-st  the 
treatise  comprised  only  the  chain  of  tnidilion  down 
to  I  he  school  of  Johaimn  ben  Zakkai,  but  it  was  grad- 
ually enlarged  and  inlerpolat<il  (see  HotTinan,  "Die 
Ersle  Mishnah,"  p.  M,  and  "Seder  Nezikin,"  p.  20, 
Berlin,  IHilS). 

The  lirst  four  chapters  of  PirHe  Abot  contain  sen 
tences  of  sixty  distiuguishcd  teachers  who  tlourished 
1.— (i 


during  a  period  covering  about  four  hundred  and 
lifty  years  that  extends  from  the  time  of  Simon  the 
Just  to  the  close  of  the  compilation  of  the  Mish- 
nah. Every  teacher  is  credited  with  one.  and  .some 
of  them  with  several  sjiyings.  The  sentence  thus 
ascribed  lo  a  certain  teacher  is  generally  one  which 
was  habitually  in  his  mouth  as  his  favorite  maxim, 
or  one  which  is  a  condensed  summary  of  his  experi- 
ence and  wisdom.  Like  theliiblieal  proverbs,  these 
ralibinical  sentences  ai'c  generally  brief  and  concise 
in  style,  each  conveying  some  important  truth  or 
precept.  Some  of  them  arc  like  precious  stones  of 
many  facets;  for  instance,  Hillel's  sentence:  "If  I 
do  not  care  for  myself,  who  will  care  for  me  '/  and 
if  I  care  only  for  myself,  what  am  I?  and  if  not 
now,  wIk'II':'"  (i.  14)  ;  which  sentence  reminds  us  of 
the<lntiesof  self-preservation  and  selfcnilivation, 
and  at  the  same  time  warns  against  selfi.shness  and 
against  ])rocrastinaliou.  Some  of  the  sentences  are 
either  a  condensation  or  an  ainplitica- 
Amplifica-  lion  of  Scriptural  teachings.  Thus, 
tion  of  the  Biblical  laws  of  justice  and  love 
Biblical  toward  fellow  men  are  summarized  in 
Passages,  the  sentences:  "Thy  neighbor's  prop- 
erty should  bi'  precious  to  thee  as  is 
thine  own"  (ii.  12)  ;  "Let  tliy  neighbor's  honor  be 
as  dear  to  thee  as  thine  own"  (ii.  10);  "Meet  every 
man  with  kindness  and  friendliness"  (i.  1.5,  iii.  12). 
In  some  instances  the  rabbis  gave  a  new  setting  to 
a  Biblical  maxim.  Thus,  the  Biblical  teaching  "A 
good  name  is  better  than  precious  ointment  "  (Eccl. 
vii.  1)  is  beautifully  set  in  the  rabbinical  sentence: 
"There  are  three  ci'owns.  the  crown  <if  learning,  the 
crown  of  priestliood,  and  the  crown  of  royalty;  but 
the  crown  of  a  gooil  name  excelleth  them  all"  (iv. 
IS).  Ill  some  of  the  sentences  we  lind  single  pearls 
of  Biblical  wisdom  gracefully  applied  to  practical 
life,  as  in  the  following  .sentence  of  Ben  Zoma  (iv.  1): 

"  Who  Is  wise'?  He  who  learns  from  evervbody,  as  is  salil  IPs. 
I'xix.  W.  Hill  J :  '  From  all  who  coiilil  teach  nie  have  I  ohtalned 
instruetlon.'  Who  Ls  a  hero?  He  who  suppresses  his  passion,  as 
II  Is  sjilil  (I'rov,  XV,  ;C  Ht/i.):  '  Hethat  riileih  his  spirit  Is  hi-tier 
tliHii  he  that  laketh  a  cltv.'  Who  Is  rioh  V  He  who  is  satlslled 
wilh  his  lot,  as  It  Is  said  IPs.  exxviil.  2.  Uch.):  'When  thou 
e:it4'st  Uie  labor  of  thine  hands,  thou  shall  be  happy,  and  It  Is 
well  with  thee.'  Who  Is  honorable?  He  who  honors  his  fellow 
nuMi,  as  it  is  salil  (1  Sam.  II. :»,  Uth.):  'Those  thai  honor  me  1 
will  honor'"  [lm|>lylnt'  that  In  himorlni;  theiTealure  you  honor 
the  Creator). 

The  fifth  chapter  differs  in  form  iind  in  contents 
fi-om  the  ]ireceding  four  chapters,  and  was  evidently 
an  additional  collection  made  by  iinother  compilc-r. 
With  the  exception  of  the  last  four  paragraphs,  the 
senteni'es  of  Ibis  chapter  are  not  cpioted  in  the  name 
of  lliiir  authors,  but  are  given  anonymously.  They 
contain  historical,  legendary,  and  ethical  aphorisms, 
arrani;ed,  in  the  main,  according  to  certain  numerals, 
especially  the  numbersten,  seven,  four,  and  three,  as: 

"By  ten  divine  words  the  world  wa.s  ereated."  ete.  (v.  II. 
"Seven  are  the  ehjinieliTlsties  of  ilie  wist-  and  seven  of  tlie  un- 
eultin-eil."  ete.  (v,  Ti.  "There  are  four  kinds  4if  ills[)osltlon8 
amoiiK'  men,"  ele,  (v.  1(1).  "He  who  im.s.si-sselh  the  followlnjic 
threti  vli'lues  Is  of  the  disciples  of  Altnihain."  ete.  (v,  IU), 

Although  ethics  is  not  treated  in  Pirlje  Abot  in  a 
coherent  system,  but  given  in  single  pithy  sentences 
coming  from  the  months  of  various  teachers  who 
belong  to  difTi'ienl  periods,  still  these  rabbinical 
sentences,  if  pioperly  arranged,  iire.sent  an  idinost 
complete  coile  of  hnnuin  duties.  They  are.  besides, 
|-eplete  with  wisi'  observatiiiiis,  praitieal  rules  of 
life,  and  also  with  some  purely  religious  iiphorisms 
concerning  ))rayer,  repentance,  and  the  future  life. 

The  treatise  Abot  hi>lils  the  same  place  in  the 
ralibinical  lilerature  as  does  the  Book  of  Proverbs  in 
till'  Bible.  .\  celebrated  Babvlonian  teaihiT  of  the 
lifth  century  |)roperly  remarked:    "lli'  who  wants 


Abot  de-Sabbi  Nathan 
Abraham 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


82 


to  become  truly  pio\is  and  virtuous,  let  him  study 
and  practise  the  tcachinirs  of  Aliot '"  (H  K.  *)(0.  The 
high  estimation  in  which  this  little  ticatisi>  is  held 
in  .Iiiduism  is  evident  from  the  laet  tliat  it  was  cm- 
bodied  in  the  old  prayci -liook  asa  part  «{  Ihelituriry 
for  the  Saturdav  al'leiiidon  service  during  the  sum- 
mer moiitlis.  In  that  |iniyer  hook,  the  live  chapters 
of  Ahot  are  increased  by  li  sixth  cliai)ter  containing 
rabbinical  sentences  collected  in  a  Haraita  (extra- 
neous Mishnah).  called  "  Kinyan  Tondi "  (Ac(iuisilion 
of  the  Law).  Through  lliis  iittirgi(  al  use  the  treatise 
Abot  became  the  most  |ii>iudar  of  all  rabbinical  wri- 
tings, and  in  this  way  its  ethical  contents  exercised 
the'mo.st  beneticial  intlueiice  on  the  Jewish  masses. 

There  is  no  Gemara  on  Abot.  as  the  nature  of  the 
contents  of  this  treatise  admitted  of  no  discussions: 
but  see  AuoT  de-IUui!I  N.vtii.vn. 

Bibliocbaphy:  (1)  Kditinm:  Tlie  treatise  yl/>r,(  Is  printed  In 
all  editlims  of  the  Tnhiuiil  ami  In  thiwe  of  the  .l/iWoiiili.  u.s 
well  u.s  In  nuiiiHr.iiK  si'iianitc  I'llltlnns.  .An  edition  of  Ihe  He- 
lirew  ti'.Nl.  arc"Mi|);inlid  Willi  UM-tuI  literary  notes  in  (iennan, 
wa.s  pulill-iliHil  h\  I'nif.  lliTiiiunn  1..  Slnii'k,  Lelpsie.  iss:.'. 

(L'l  Cuiiiiiii  iilarifti:  liesidi*8  the  peneml  coiniLipnliirli'S  on 
all  pans  of  Ihe  Mi.-^hiinh  thei-e  aiv  numerous  IN'lin-w  niniTiien- 

nirli's  I'xilusivciv  on  Pirlji-  Alitit.    A  collei'live niiiontary 

luidorlho  titloof  Miilra.'^liSliriiiiirl  was  pulilisli.'.l  l.y  Samuel 
da  ICc'da  iVrniir.  l.'iT'.ii.  and  has  siiiir  passrd  Ihroui-'li  sryen 
editions.  Valuahlecouiiiii-ntsonthelll-sl  Iliri'iM-haploT-sot  .l/iof 
ail'  piihlishi-il  in  Aliralmm  (ieiger's  JS'oihiirla.-^nir  Scliritliii. 
Iv.  :>l-:ill.  The  value  of  Ahiit  from  a  liisioi  ic-al  point  of  vie\y 
was  iiivi-sli«ated  bv  Z.  Frankel,  in  his  artli-U-  I'fhfi-  thii  Lnii- 
iiiiirxtiil  ilrr  TiiliiiiKlischiH  HiMorik, in MoiMti^chrift,  1H52, 
pp.  •Mid  s../.,  Kttc/  at'i. 

i:i)  Trau.-'kilinn.i:  Latin  translations  of  Ahnt  were  puli- 
llslied.  one  hy  Sehiustian  Miinster,  the  celeliniled  illsi'lple  of 
Beuelilin,  Basel,  sine  aiiiin.  and  one  hy  I'anlus  Fajrius,  Jsny, 
l.Ml.  It  tias  sinee  l)een  translated  Into  almost  all  niodei-n 
lanifuages.  Asto  EnRlish  tninslatlons.  special  nientlr>n  may  lie 
ma«te,  on  account  of  Its  vahiablo  notes,  of  Charles  Taylor's 
.S(i)/in(;.s  of  ()if  Jciei.s(i  Fiitlnrs.  'M  ed.,  CamliildKe.  ISM). 
For  a  full  list  of  iniiislations  see  BischoCf,  A'rid'.sc/ic  (.'i'- 
svhicliti  till-  Tiiliiuiil-l'rlirrsctzuinieti.  S  3«. 

(4)  Hniiiilflintl  lymhn  (m  Alint  in  modem  lanffiiages ; 
Lazarus  AilliT.  Sjirlklir  iltr  TiVro'.  Fiirtli,  1851 :  W.Aloys 
Moi.sel.  Hnmilii  II  llhn-  ilir  SprUi-hr  ilrr  Vilter.  Stettin,  IS.").): 
Alexander  Kohut,  Tin-  Ulliirs  of  the  yalheis,  translated 
from  the  German  by  Max  Cohen,  New  York,  1885. 

M.   M. 

ABOT  DE-RABBI  NATHAN  (]n:  IT  DUN):  A 
work  wliicli  in  the  form  now  extant  contains  a  mix- 
ture of  Mishnah  and  .Miilrash,  and  may  be  designated 
as  a  homiletical  exposition  of  the  Mishnaic  treatise 
Pirke  Abot.  having  for  its  foundation  an  older  re- 
cension of  the  treatise.  Touching  its  original  form, 
its  age,  and  its  dependence  on  earlier  or  later  recen- 
sions of  the  Jlishnah,  there  are  nmny  o]Miiions,  all 
of  which  are  ably  discussed  in  fschechter's  introduc- 
tion. There  aretwo  recensions  of  this  work,  one  of 
which  is  usually  jirinted  with  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mtid  in  the  appendix  to  the  ninth  volume,  contain- 
ing also  the  so-called  Minor  Treatises,  and  another 
wliieh.  until  recently,  existed  in  manuscript  only. 
In  bSS7  Solomon  8chechter  puhlished  the  two  recen- 
sions in  jiarallel  columns,  conttiliuting  to  the  edition 
a  critical  introduction  and  vahuible  notes.  In  order 
to  distinguish  the  two  recensions,  the  one  which  is 
printed  with  the  Talmud  may  be  called  .4:  and  the 
other.  7),  The  former  is  divided  into  forty -one  chap- 
ters, and  the  latter  into  forty-eight.  Scliechter  has 
proved  tliat  recension  7>  is  cited  only  by  (Spanish 
authors.     Hashi  knows  of  recension  A  only. 

In  contents  the  two  recensions  ditTcr  fiom  each 
other  considerably,  althou.irh  the  method  is  the  stime 
in  both.  The  se[>arate  sentences  of  the  Mi.shnah 
Abot  are  generally  taken  as  texts,  which  are  either 
biietly  explained — the  ethical  lessons  contained 
therein  being  suppf)rted  by  reference  to  Biblical 
pa.ssages  —  or  fully  illustrated  by  narratives  and  leg- 
ends. Sometimes  long  digressions  are  made  by  in- 
troducing subjects  which  are  connected  only  loosely 


with  the  text.  This  method  may  be  illustrated  hy 
the  f(dlowingexami)le:  Conunenting  on  the  sentence 
of  Simon  the  Just,  in  I'irk;!'  Abot,  i.  2.  which  desig- 
niiles  charitv  as  one  of  tlie  three  pillars  on  which 
the  world  ri-sts.  the  Ahot  de-Kabbi  Nathan  (recen- 
sion .1)  reads  as  follows: 

"  How  [does  the  world  rest]  on  charity  ?  Behold,  the  proplift 
f  Hosea,  yl.  »)l  said  In  the  name  of  the  Lord,  "  I  desir>-d  charily 
[mercy],  and  not  sacrillce. '  The  world  was  cn'ai.Ml  only  liy 
charity  [mercy],  as  Is  salil  IPs.  I.\xxlx.:i). 'MiTiy  shall  lie  l)ullt 
up  foreyer'  (or,  a.s  the  rablils  translate  tliLs  imssaRe,  "The  world 
Is  built  on  mercy"),  Kalitil  ,lohanan  ben  Zakkal,  accompanied 
by  U.  Joshum  once  pa.s.scd  .Icrusalem  [after  ILs  fall).  While 
lixiklnif  u|Kin  the  citv  and  the  ruins  of  Ihe  Temple.  11.  .lashua 
exclaimed.  'Wo  unto  us.  that  the  holy  jilace  Is  destroyed  which 
atoniMl  for  our  sins  I'  !(.  Johanan  replied.  "My  son,  do  not 
grieve  on  this  aiTonnt.  for  we  haye  another  atonement  tor  our 
sins :  it  Is  charity,  as  Is  said,  I  desired  charity,  and  not  saert- 
Uce"  (eh.  tv.). 

The  chapters  of  the  two  recensions  of  Abot  de- 
Rabbi  Nathan  corrcsiiond  with  those  of  the  Mish- 
nah .\liot  as  follows:  Chaps,  i.  to  .xi.  of  recension  ,1 
and  chaps,  i.  to  xxiii.  of  recension  ZJ correspond  with 
chap.  i.  1-11  in  Pirke  Abot:  chaps,  xii,  to  xix.  of  .1 
and  chaps,  xxiv.  to  xxix.  of  /?  correspond  with  chap, 
i,  Vi-\»  and  the  whole  of  chai>.  ii.  in  Pirke  Abot; 
chaps.  x.\.  to  XXX.  of  .1  and  chaps,  xxx.  to  xxxv. 
of  B  correspond  with  chaiis.  iii.  and  iv.  in  Pirke 
Abot:  chaps,  .xxxi.  to  xli.  of  .1  and  chaps,  xxxvi, 
to  .xlviii.  of  B  corresiwud  with  chap.  v.  in  Pirke 
Abot. 

Habbi  Nathan,  whose  name  appears  in  the  title  of 
the  work  under  treatment. can  not  possibly  have  been 
its  only  author,  since  he  flourished  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  second  century,  or  a  generation  jjiior  to  the 
author  of  the  Jlishnah."  Besides,  several  authorities 
are  quoted  who  flourished  a  long  time  after  U.  Na- 
than: for  instance.  R:ibbi  Joshua  ben  Levi.  The 
designation  "De-Habbi  Nathan  "  may  in-rluipsbe  ex- 
jilaiiicd  by  the  circumstance  that  K.  Nathan  is  one 
of  the  first  authorities  mentioned  in  the  opening 
chaiitcr  of  the  work.  Perhaps  the  school  of  the  tan- 
iiaite  R,  Nathan  originated  the  work.  It  is  also 
called  Tosefta  to  Abot  (see  Horowitz,"  rralte  Tosef- 
tas."i.  6,  Frankfort-on-t  he-Main.  1889:  Briills'-Jahr- 
bi'icher,"  ix.  i:i9  I'l  wf/.).  The  two  recensions  of  the 
work  in  tlx'ir  present  shaiie  evidently  have  ditTerent 
aiitliofs;  but  who  they  were  can  not  be  ascertained. 
Probably  they  belonge(i  to  the  jieriod  of  the  Geouim, 
between  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries, 

BiBLiooBAPnT :  Zunz,  G.  V..  1st  ed..  pp.  lOS  ft  scq. :  S.  Taus- 
siK.  JV'ciCfh  Slialiim.  Munich,  1ST3.  In  which  pamphlet  a 
part  of  Allot  ile-Uiitilii  ]\'iittmn,  recension  R.  wa-s  for  the 
llrst  tlmepublislii'd.  accordinir  hi  a  manuscript  "f  the  Munii'h 
Library;  s.  Srhecht.T.  -lb"(  il'-llnhhi  .YoOi.ni.  Vi.-iina.  IssT; 
Moii'ii^silirii'l.  Is-'^T.  pp. ;iTt  :i'<:i:  sti-in.schmidci.  Ilrhr.  ISilil. 
xli.  7.)  it  "i-'i.  A  Latin  translation  of  -Uio/  iti-Uiililii  Xiilliini 
was  published  by  Franz  Tayler.  London,  1(It4:  TravlatuH  ili- 
Piifri'iK.s  liatilii  yitlhan  Anctmr,  in  Liiniiitim  Liitiiiiim 
TrniifUiliix.  An  Enirlish  ycrsion  Is  tnven  by  M.  L.  Hodkinson 
in  his  troiislalion  of  the  Ualiiiloiiinu  Tnhiiint.  i.  '.I.  New  York. 
1!«HI.  Schcclilcr  cives  tlie  cdiiiinciitancs  lo  Ali"!  il'-ltiililii 
Aatlidii  ill  liis  edition.  xxvii.((  s, ,,.  F.uicndallons  were  made 
hy  Benjaiiiiii  Molal  in  bis  collci-lanea.  called  Tliliuiiiit  IV- 
slinrim.  Venice.  pl-.'-J.    ('oiiimenlaries  have  lieen  written  liy 

F.liezer  Lipman  of  Za sc-.  Zolkiev.  17Si:  by  Klijah  ben  Alira- 

ham.  and  noli's  by  Kliiali  Wilna,  Wilna.  183:3:  by  Aliraham 
Witmand.  Aluilmi  Hc^ii/.  Aiiisieidam.  I... ;  by  Joshua  Falk. 
Jiiiijian  YtliimlHra'.  Uvhernluith,  1788.  Stelnschnelder,  Cat. 
Bvai.  col.  2034;  Benjacob,  Ozar  ha-Sefarim,  p.  654. 

M.  M. 

ABRABALIA,*  JOSEPH  and  MOSES:  Sp:in 
ish  statesmen  who  tloiirished  in  Aragou  in  the  latter 


*  Kaufniann  thinks  it  possible  that  this  name  Is  derived  from 
Um  Albalia:  stelnschnelder.  however,  thinks  that  It  is  not  an 
Aniliic  name  i./.  ic.  (jiiart.  Itn:  x.  1311).  Don  Samuel  Abraballa 
was  a  member  of  a  ilepuuitiou  sent  in  1418  to  Pope  Martin  V. 
(tiralz.  ircscli.  (I.  Jiutiii.  M  ed..  pp.  m.  12R).  A  Solomon  Ah- 
ralialia  is  mentioned  a.s  a  printer  liviiiii  In  Salonlca  lu  the  year 
ViXi  (Stelnschnelder,  l'(i(.  limll.  No.  9«7«).  G. 


83 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abot  de-Rabbi  Nathan 
Abraham 


lialf  of  tlu>  thirteenth  century.  Josepli  was  minister 
of  tiniinec  to  Kinj^  I'eilro  III.  {r,'TI>-.%)) .  Solomon 
ben  Adret  refers  to  Josepli  and  .Moses  as  the  "two 
great  princes."  The  incident  which  broiiglil  them 
into  notice  is  connected  with  the  liistory  of  one  of 
lluwc  informers  from  whom  medieval  Jews  suffered 
so  much  and  on  whom  Jewish  law  was  so  severe. 

About  the  closi'  of  the  reiL;n  of  Kin.s  James  I.  of 
Ara.iron  (r2l:i-7(l)  there  appeared  at  Jiarcelona  an 
informer,  favored  by  llie  aulhorilies,  who  became  a 
source  of  daUL'er  to  the  Jews  of  Aratron.  FcdroIII.. 
on  ascerxlin^  the  throne,  sununoned  the  rei)re.scnta- 
lives  of  the  Ji'wisli  eonununities  into  his  presence  to 
answer  certain  charjres.  Knowinj;  that  these  could 
emanate  only  from  the  informer  of  IJarcelona,  the 
Jews  entreated  liini  to  withdraw  hischarices.  at  least 
on  this  occasion;  but  the  renegade  refused  to  he 
turned  aside  fr<im  his  jiurpose.  At  this  moment 
Joseph  Abrabalia  interceded  with  the  king,  expos- 
ing the  evil  designs  of  the  infdrmer  and  re(iuesting 
his  punishment.  Joseph's  intercession  met  with  en- 
tire success.  Pedro  III.  eauseii  the  informer  to  be 
seized  and  delivered  over  to  the  Jews.  Jonah  of 
Oerona  (Oeronchi).  and  later  also  Solomon  ben  Adret. 
investigated  the  case.  Tlx'y  condenmed  him.  though 
with  reluetani'e,  and  the  man  was  executed  by  the 
state  authorities  about  \\!S\,  It  seems  that  this  dras- 
tic measure,  which  was  prompted  chiefly  by  Josepli. 
<lid  not  meet  with  unanimous  approval,  and  three 
years  after  the  hitler's  death  many  gave  vent  to  their 
resentment.  This  bitter  feeling  caused  the  leading 
men  of  (Jerona  (Geronda)  to  ask  Solomon  ben  Adret 
to  revise  the  whole  case.  Adret  unreserveilly  ap- 
jiroved  of  the  action  of  Joseph,  and  in  order  fully  to 
appease  the  agitated  coiuniunities,  he  also  laid  the 
matter  before  .M<'ir  of  Kol  Ijenburg.  who  fully  con- 
curred in  his  decision.  These  responsa  make  it  pos- 
sible to  ascertain  thedateof  Joseph' sdeath.  on  which 
the  authorities  are  greatly  at  variance.  Steinschnei- 
der.  Zunz,  and  II.  linxly  placi'  it  in  l:i34.  which  is 
«|iiile  impossilile.  as  Adret.  who  died  not  later  tlian 
l;!10,  miMlions  Joseph  Abrabalia  with  the  memorial 
fiirmula  y  J.  I).  Kaufmaiin  places  the  date  of  death 
at  rjs;!.  which  is  more  in  accordance  with  Adret 's 
stateiuents.  A  iMoses  Abrabalia  is  also  mentioned 
in  the  responsa  of  Isjiac  ben  Sheshet.  though  it  is 
<loiibtful  whether  he  is  to  be  ideutilied  with  Moses 
Abrabalia,  the  brother  of  Joseph. 

Bnii.iocRAi'iiv  :  I).  Kniifmnnn,  In  Jiw.  Quart.  Ttcv.  vlll.  222  ct 
i*tq.,  where  the  ri'siwtn.sii  referred  to  are  repruUuced. 

M.  B. 


ABRABANEL. 


.VllliWAXEL. 


ABRABANEL  DORMIDO.  DAVID  (MAN- 
UEL MARTINEZ).    Sei  iJoit.Miuo,  Uwu)  .Ujii.v- 

V.VNKI.. 

ABRACADABRA:  Magic  word  or  formula 
useil  in  incaiiialions.  especially  against  interniillent 
fever  or  intlainmation.  the  patiint  wearing  an  am- 
ulet upon  his  neck,  with  the  following  inscription: 

A  I?  H  A  (•  A  I)  .\  n  n  A 

A  li  If  .V  (•  A  1)  A  li  |{ 

A  15  l{  .\  (•  A  l>  A  li 

A  1!  1{  A  ('  A  II  A 

A  I!  U  A  (  A  1) 

A  li  I{  A  V  A 

A  15  n  A  (• 

A  li  1!  .\ 

A  li  1{ 

A  li 

A 

The  underlying  idea  was  to  force  the  spirit  of  tho 

disease  gradually  to   relin*iiiisli  its  hold  upon  the 


patient.  It  is  first  menti(nie<l  by  Sereiius  Sammoni- 
eus.  |)liysieian  to  the  emperor  Caraculla.  whose  work. 
■■  I)e  Medicina  Pnecepta,"  was  admired  by  the  em- 
perors Geta  and  Alexander  Severus.  lie  "prescribes 
that  the  word  be  written  in  the  form  of  an  inverted 
cone,  the  whole  word  being  written  out  at  first,  then 
with  one  letter  less  on  each  line  until  one  letter 
stands  alone  (see  King,  "Gnostics  and  Their  Re- 
mains." |i.  :iI7).  The  explanation  thai  it  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  llii- Hiiii-hii  and  iJclnir  hardly  deserves  consid- 
eration. The-  Jewish  Cabala  Jtrobably  had  nolliing 
to  do  with  it.  But  it  finds  a  striking  parallel  in 
Pesal.iim,  Win.  which  recommends  the  same  means 
of  gradually  reducing  the  power  of  di.sease  by  an  in- 
cantation formula  which  subdues  the  invoked  spirit 
of  the  disease.  The  person  who  is  in  danger  of  be- 
coming a  victim  of  the  s])irit  Shabriri  ("Blindness") 
is  told  to  say:  "Mv  mother  hath  told  me  to  beware 
of 

SHABRIRI 

ABRIRI 

R  1  HI 

RI  R 

RI." 

It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  the  word  was  origi- 
nally the  name  of  a  demon  which  is  no  longer  recog- 
nizable. It  has  been  the  subject  of  the  following 
stanza  (King,  I.e.): 

"Thou  Shalt  on  paper  write  the  .sih-II  divine, 
Aliraradahra  culled,  in  many  a  line ; 
Earti  iilldt'r  eaeh  in  even  order  place, 
lint  the  lii.st  leiit-r  ill  eaili  line  efface. 

As  hy  di'^jrees  ttie  elflllellts  trrow  few 
Sim  take  awav.  Iiiit  Il.\  ttie  ivsidlle. 
Till  at  the  la-st  oie-  l.-tier  .stands  alono 
And  tlie  whole  dwimilt-s  to  a  laperinff  cone. 
Tie  this  aliout  tlie  iie.k  with  tla.xeri  string; 
Mit'lity  tile  t'ood  'twill  to  the  patient  lirliiR. 
Its  wondrous  poteiiry  shall  puard  his  liead. 
Aiid  drive  disease  and  death  far  fruiu  his  lied." 

K. 

ABRAHAM.— Biblical  Data;  According  to  the 
Bible.  Abniham  (or  Abraiiii  was  the  fatherof  the 
Hebrews.  The  Biblical  account  of  the  life  of  Abram 
is  found  in  Gen.  xi.  20  to  xxv.  10.  According  to 
this  ntirrativi'.  he  was  the  son  of  Terah  and  was 
born  at  Ir  of  the  Chaldees.  Terah.  with  Abniin. 
Sanii  (Abnim's  wife),  tind  Lot  (Abram's  nephew), 
left  I'r  to  go  to  the  land  of  Canaan :  but  they  tarried 
at  Ilaran,  where  Terah  died  (Gen.  xi.  ■Jl>-:!-'l.  There 
the  Lord  appeared  to  Abram  in  the  tii-st  of  a  scries 
of  visions,  and  bade  him  leave  the  country  with  his 
family,  promising  to  make  of  iiim  ii 
Birth  and    great  nation  (ib.  xii.   1-3).  a  promise 

Wander-  that  was  renewed  on  several  occasions, 
ings.  Accordingly,  Abram  with  Sand  and 
Lot  started  for  Canaan:  and  at  the  site 
of  Siehem  (or  Shechem)  the  Lord  pnuniscd  the  land 
as  an  inheritance  to  the  jiatriarch's  seed.  After  so- 
journing for  a  while  between  Beih-el  and  Ilai  (or  Ai), 
Abiiiin.  on  account  of  a  famine,  went  to  Egypt. 
Hi're,  to  guard  against  Pharaoh's  jeidousy,  lie  iias.se<l 
Sarai  oil  as  his  sister.  Plmraoh  took  her  into  the 
royal  household,  but.  discovering  the  deception,  re- 
leased her  and  sent  .Vbi-iun  and  his  family  away  (I'A. 
xii.  !t-"'l)).  Abnini  reHirnc<l  norlhward  to  his  former 
place  of  sojourn  between  Bethel  and  llai.  There 
Ids  shepherds  i|uarreled  with  those  of  Lot,  anil  the 
uncle  and  nephew  sipaniled.  Lot  going  east  to  So- 
dom, while  .Viirani  remained  in  Canaan  [ih  xiii.  1-12). 
.\giun  the  Lord  appi'aii'd  to  the  palriarch.  ami  prom- 
ised him  an  abundant  progeny  which  should  inherit 
the  land  of  Caniuin  (ih.  xiii.  14-17). 

Abram  now  removed   to  Mature  (»'>    xiii.  1>*)  in 


Abraham 


THE  .lEWISlI   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


84 


Hebron,  whence  he  miuie  n  sureessful  expedition 
apiinst  C'hcdorliioinor.  kinsr  of  Elani.  and  Ids  con- 
federate  kinirs.  finni  whom  lie  rescued  Lot,  wlioni 
Cliedorlaonier  lia<l  captured  in  tlie  course  of  an  at- 
tack  upon  Sodom  and   Goniorrali.     On  )iis  return 


could  be  found  therein  (I'ft.  xvili.  17-32),  The  cities 
were  destroyed;  but  Lot  and  his  fandlv,  wlio  had 
been  warned,  fled  from  Sodom  before  its  destruction. 
Abraham  now  journeyed  to  Genir,  between  Kadesh 
and  Shur.  and  for  the  second  time  passed  Sarah  off  as 


--((ij(Ji*«f*\-ii^;i 


TKADi;,. ;: UIA.M. 

(From  It  photograph  reproduced  by  peroiision  of  th«  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,) 


from  this  expedition,  Abram  was  blessed  by  Jlel- 
chizedek,  king  of  Salem,  antl  refused  to  retain  the 
recaptured  booty  offered  him  by  the  king  of  Sodom 
{ib.  xiv.). 

Once  more  the  Lord  appeared  to  Abram  with  a 
promise  of  abimdant  olTs])rin,!;,  at  the  same  time 
foretelling  their  captivity  for  four  hundred  years  in 
a  strange  land  and  tlieir  subsequent  inheritance  of 
the  land  between  "the  river  of  Egypt"  and  the 
Euphrates.  "And  he  believed  in  the  Lord;  and  he 
counted  it  to  him  for  righteousness"  {ib.  xv.  6).- 
Sarai  had  hitherto  been  barren.  She  now  gave 
Abram  her  liandiiiaid  Ilagar,  an  Egyptian,  as  wife; 
and  the  latter  boi'e  a  son.  Ishmael,  Abram  being 
at  the  time  eighty-six  years  old  (ib.  xvi.).  Again 
the  Lord  appeared  to  the  patriai'ch  with  the  prom- 
ise of  a  numerous  posterity.  At  the  same  time,  in 
token  of  the  promise,  Abram 's  name 

Birth  of      was  changed  to  Abraham  ("Father  of 

IshmaeL  Many  Xations  "),  iind  that  of  S:iral  to 
Sarah  ("  Princess  "),  The  Lord  also  in- 
stituted the  "covenant  of  circumcision,"  and  |irom- 
ised  that  Sarah  should  bear  a  son,  Isjiac,  with  whom 
he  would  establish  it.  Abraham  thei-eupon  circum- 
cised himself  and  Ishmael  (ih.xvn.  1-21).  Soon  after, 
three  angels  in  human  guise  were  hospitably  enter- 
tained by  Abraham  in  ilamre.  where  the  Lord  iigain 
foretold  Isjjac's  Ijirth,  and  when  Sarah  doubted  the 
promise,  the  Lord  himself  appeared  and  renewed  it 
{ib.  xviii.  1-1.5). 

In  recognition  of  Abraham's  piety  the  Lord  now 
acquainted  him  with  ilis  intention  to  destroy  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah  on  account  of  their  wickedness ;  hut. 
after  several  appeals  from  Abraham,  He  promised 
that  Sodom  should  be  spared  if  ten  righteous  men 


his  sister.  Abimelech,  king  of  Gerar,  took  her  into 
his  house;  but,  on  being  rebuked  by  God,  released 
her  precisely  as  Pharaoh  had  done  (/*.  xx.). 

At  the  appointed  time  Isjiac  was  born,  Abraham 
being  a  hundred  years  old.     Soon  after.  Ishmael, 
Hagar's  son,  was  seen  "mocking"  by 
Birth  and   Siirah,  and  at  her  solicitation  he  and 
Sacrifice      his  mother  were  biiiiished.    Hagar  was 
of  Isaac,     ciiinforteilin  the  wilderness  by  anangcl 
of  God  (eh.  xxi.  1-12).     Abraham  was 
now  a  powerful  man ;  and  at  the  solicitation  of  Abim- 
elech, king  of  Gerar,  he  made  a  covenant  with  Ih.it 
monarch  at  Beer-sheba   in  the   land  of  the  I'liilis- 
tines.  At  Beer-sheba  Abraham  sojourned  many  days 
((i.xxi,  22-34). 

The  greatest  trial  of  the  patriarch's  life  came 
when  God  bade  him  offer  up  his  only  son  as  a  burnt 
offering.  Without  a  moments  hesitation  Abraham 
took  Lsaac  and  proceeded  to  the  land  of  Moriali, 
where  he  was  just  about  to  sacriliee  him,  when  an 
angel  of  the  Lord  restrained  him,  once  more  deliv- 
ering the  prophecy  that  the  p.-itriareh's  seed  shi>iild 
be  "as  the  .stars  of  the  heaven,  and  as  the  siiiid 
which  is  upon  the  sea.shore."  and  that  in  them  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  should  be  blessed.  Instead 
of  Isaac  a  ram  caiight  in  a  thicket  was  sacrificed  (ib. 
xxii.  1-18).  Abraham  returned  to  Beer-sheba.  and 
was  sojourning  there  when  Sarah  died  at  Kirjath- 
arba  (also  called  Hebron  and  ^lamre),  at  the  age  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  (ib.  xxiii.  1.  2), 
Abraham  went  to  Mamre  and  bought  the  cave  of 
JIachpelah  as  a  bui-ial-place  ;  and  there  he  buried 
Sarah  (ib.  xxiii.  3-20). 

Isaac  was  now  thirty-six  years  old,  and  Abraham 
sent  Eliezer.  his  servant,  to  bring  a  wife  for  him 


85 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDLV 


Abraham 


from  anionj;  Abralmm's  own  people.  Eliczer  jour- 
ricycil  to  Xiilior.  ami  rctunicil  with  Ri-bckah,  Abra- 
ham's frraiKlniccc.  whniii  Isaac,  marricil  {ih.  xxiv.). 
Ahraliam  now  man'i<'il  aj;ain,lakiiis;as  his  wife  Kt'tu- 
rail,  liy  whom  he  had  srvrnil  children.  Bcfiirc  his 
death  "he  "i^aveall  that  he  had"  to  Isaac,  and  sent 
the  sons  of  his  concubines  away  after  lieslowinsr 
some  gifts  upon  them  {ib.  \\v.  l-fi),     Abraham  died 


Abralmm  and  Isaac. 

(From  til..  Saraj.'V.i  HA};i;^'i"h.) 

at  the  auo  of  one  hundred  and  sevontyfive  years; 
and  Isaac  and  Ishmael  buried  him  beside  Sarah  in 
the  cave  of  Machpelah  (rt,  .\.\v.  7-9).       C.  J.  M. 

In  Apocryphal  and  Rabbinical  Literature  : 

In  the  Old  Ti'StanKMit    Abraham    ]iresenls  the   type 
of  a  simple  Bedouin  sheik  who  wanders  from  |)iace 
to  ]dace  in  search  of  paslure  for  his  herds,  a  kind- 
hearted,   riirhteous,   and   God-fcarinir 
Prototype  man  whom  God  chose  on  account  of 
of  the       his  faithful  and  rifihtcous  character  to 
Jewish      be  the  father  of  a  nation  peculiarly 
Race.       favored  by  Him  in  the  possession  of 
the  coveted  land  of  Canaan.     Once  he 
is  spoken  of  as  a  "  prophet  "  (Gen.  x.\.  7).    Incident- 
ally wi'  learn  that  his  fallier,  '!"(  rah,  was  an  idolater, 
like  the  rest  of  the  Chaldeans  (.losh.  .\xiv.  2);   blU 
how  Abraham  betaine  a  worshiper  of  the  TiOrd.  or 
why  God  singleil  him  out  and  led  him  forth  to  Ca- 
naan, is  left  to  surmise.     No  sooner,  however,  did 
Ihe  .Jewish  jx'ople  come  into  closer  contact  with  na- 
tions of  hiirher  culture,  especially  with  the  Greeks 
in  Alexandria,  than  the  figure  of  Abraham  became 
the  prototype  of  a  nation  sent  forth  to  proclaim  the 
moMotheisi  je  faith  to  Ihe  world  while  wanderinir  from 
land  to  land.    Aceordingly.  the  divine  promi.se  (Gi'n, 
xii.  I!,  xxii.  \>^)  is  undersiooil  to  mean;  "...  in  thee 
[instead  of  "  with  lhi'e"|  shall  all  Ihe  families  of  the 
earth  be  blessed"  (see  I, XX.  mi  lor.). 

In  the  third  and  second  centuries   li.r,,  Alexan 

drini'  .lews,  writing  under  the  name  of  Heiata'usand 

Herosus,  and  Samaritans,  like  Kupole 

Propagator  mus,  <oinposeil  works  on  .lewish  his 

of  the         tory,  from  which  .losephus  (".Vnt."  i. 

Knowledge  7,  S;  f<)  gives  the  following:  Abraham, 

of  God.       endowed  with  great  sagacity,  with  a 

higher  knowledge  of  (iod  and  greater 

virtues  than  all  the  risl.  was  determined  to  change 

the  erroniiius  opinions  of  men.      He  was  the  first 

who  hail  Ihe  courage  to  proclaim  GimI  as  Ihe  sole  Cre 

alor  of  the  universe,  to  whose  will  all  Ihe  heavenly 

bodies  are  stibjeet,  for  Ihcv  by  their  motions  show 

Ihcir  depeiiilenee  on  Ilim.     His  opposiiion  to  astrol 

ogy  prcivcikid   Ihe  wrath  of  the  Chaldeans,  and  In- 


had  to  leave  tlieir  country  and  go  to  Canaan.  After- 
ward, when  he  came  to  fegyjit.  he  entered  into  dis- 
putes with  all  Ihe  iiriests  and  the  wise  men.  and 
won  their  admiration  and,  in  many  cases,  their  as- 
sent to  his  highi'r  views,  lie  imparted  to  them  the 
knowledge  of  arithmetic  and  astronomy,  which  sci- 
ences came  to  Egypt  from  Chaldea  only  in  the  days 
of  Abraham,  Abraham's  revolt  from  Chaldean 
astrology  is  spoken  of  in  Philo  ("On  Abndiain," 
xvii.),  in  connection  with  Gen.  xv.  .")  (compare  Gen. 
U.  xliv.). 

Concerning  his  religious  awakening  in  his  father's 

house,  the  Book  of  .Juliilecs,  written  ])rol)ably  in  the 

time  of  John  Hyrcanus.  relates  (xi.)  that,  in  order 

not  to  participate  in  the  idolatry  prac- 

Opposes      tised   in    connection    with   astrologj' 

Idolatry,  by  the  whole  house  of  Xahor,  Abra- 
ham, when  he  was  fourteen  5-ears 
of  age,  left  his  father,  and  prayed  to  God  to  save 
him  from  the  errors  of  men.  Abrah;im  became  an 
inventor  of  better  modes  of  agriculture,  showing 
the  iicojile  how  to  save  the  seeds  in  the  field  from 
Ihe  ravens  that  devoured  them,  lie  then  tried  to 
persuade  his  father  to  reuomice  idol-worshi]),  but 
Terah  was  afraid  of  the  people  and  told  him  to  keep 
silent.  Finally,  when  Abraham  met  with  the  oi)po- 
sition  of  his  brothers  also,  he  arose  one  night  and 
si't  lire  to  the  housit  in  which  Ihe  idols  were  kept. 
In  an  attempt  to  save  these,  his  brother  llanin  was 
burned  tode;ith. 

When,  in  the  night  of  thenew  moonof  Tishri  (the 
Xew-year),  Abraham  was  watching  the  stars  to 
forecast  the  year's  fertility,  the  revelation  came  to 
him  that,  in  view  of  God's  omnijjotent  will,  all  as- 
trological predictions  were  valueless,  and.  after  fer- 
vent jirayer,  he  received  word  from  God  to  leave  the 
Chahieans  and  set  out  on  his  mission  to  ble.ss  the  ua- 
lions  by  teaching  them  the  higher  trnlhs.  An  angel 
of  God  taught  him  Hebrew,  the  hinguagc  of  revela- 
tion, by  which  he  was  enabled  to  deei])herall  the  se- 
cretsof  Ihe  ancient  books  (see  Gen.  I{.  xlii).  Leaving 
hisbrotherXahor  with  his  father,  Abraham  went  to 
the  Holy  Land  and  ol)served  there  all  Ihe  festivals 
and  new  moons  (afterward  ]irescribed  to  the  Israel- 
ites, but  already  written  on  the  heavenly  tablets  re- 


AhnUiaai  ami  Isuiic. 

(Kr..m  n  lonili«loli«  tti  III..  |rT»%'ry«r,l  ii(  Ihif  Anwlor.lam  PortamiM*  Coni:T»ir»li,'ii.) 

vealed  to  Enocli),  besides  many  other  custonts  ob- 
served bv  the  i>riestliood  of  the  second  rentury  n.r. 

Accorc^ing  to  one  opinion,  .Vbraham  altaincd  the 
true  knowlidgi'  of  God  when  liewas  threeyeai'sold: 
according  to  otlurs,  at  ten;  and  again  a  more  soImt 
opinion  claims  that  he  was  forty  eight  years  old 
(til'll,  l{.  xxx). 

In  his  warfare  ngninst  the  liosts  of  Anin\i>hel  anil 


Abraham 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


86 


other  kings,  Abraham  cast  dust  upon  them,  and  it 
turnid  into  swords  and  Innces.  and  the  stubble  turned 
into  l)(i\vs  and  arrows  (accordini;  to  Isji.  xli.  2).  Og. 
tlie  jjiant  king  of  Hashan,  was  the  one  "  tliat  escaped  " 
(/iiilHilil).  and  brought  him  the  news  of  the  capture 
of  I>ot.  Og  was  of  the  rinuiant  of  the  giants  that 
lived  before  the  Flood  (Dent.  iii.  11).  Hecast  a  lust- 
ful eye  upon  iSandi.  and  hoped  to  see  Abraham  killed 
in  the  war  in  order  that  he  might  take  hir  to  wife. 

Far  more  explicit  is  the  story  of  Abraham's  life 
in  Ills  Chaldean  home  as  told  by  the  Palestinian  rab- 
bis of  the  .second  century,  and  afler- 
His  Birth,  ward  further  developed  under  the  in- 
fluence of  i5aby!onian  folk-lore.  Ik- 
was  born  in  Kuta,  another  name  for  Ur  of  the  Clial- 
decs  (B.  B.  !)!«)•  <^u  the  night  when  he  was  born, 
Tendi's  friends,  among  whom  were  councilors  and 
soothsayers  of  Ninuod,  were  feasting  in  his  house, 
and  on  leaving  late  at  night  they  obscrveil  a  star 
which  swallowed  up  four  other  stars  from  the  four 
sides  of  the  heavens.  They  furthwitli  hastened  to 
Nimrod  and  siud:  "Of  a  certainty  a  lad  has  been 
born  who  is  destined  to  con(iuer  this  world  and 
the  next;  now,  then,  give  to  his  parents  as  large  a 
sum  of  money  as  they  wish  for  the  child,  and  then 
kill  him.  "  But  Terah,  who  was  present,  Siiid :  "  Your 
advice  reminds  me  of  the  nude  to  whom  a  man  Siiid, 
'I  will  give  thee  a  house  full  of  biirliy  if  thou  wilt 
allow  me  to  cut  oil  thy  head,'  whereupon  the  mule 
replied:  "Fool  that  thou  art,  of  what  use  will  the 
bailey  be  to  me  if  thou  cuttest  ofT  my  head'/'  Thus 
I  say  to  you:  if  you  slay  the  son,  who  will  inherit 
the  money  j'ougive  to  the  parents?"  Then  the  rest 
of  the  councilors  said :  "  From  thy  words  we  per- 
ceive that  a  son  has  been  born  to  thee."  "Yes," 
said  Terah,  "a  son  has  been  born  to  me,  but  he  is 
dead."  Terah  then  went  home  and  hid  his  son  in  a 
cave  for  three  years.  AVlien,  on  coming  out  of  the 
cave,  Abraham  saw  the  sun  rising  in  all  Jiis  glory  in 
the  east,  he  said  to  himself:  "Surely  this  is  the 
Lord  of  the  universe,  and  Ilim  I  will  worship."  But 
the  evening  came,  and  lo!  the  sun  set  and  night 
befell  him,  and  seeing  the  moon  with  her  silver  radi- 
ance, he  Siiid,  "This,  then,  is  the  Lord  of  the  world, 
and  all  the  stars  are  His  servants;  to  Him  I  will 
kneel."  The  following  morning,  when  moon  and 
Stars  had  disappeared  and  the  sun  had  risen  anew, 
Abraham  said:  "Now  I  know  that  neither  the  one 
nor  the  other  is  the  Lord  of  the  world,  but  He  who 
controls  both  as  His  servants  is  the  Creator  and 
Ruler  of  the  whole  world."  Forthwith  Abraham 
asked  his  father :  "  Who  created  heaven  and  earth '!  " 
Terah,  pointing  to  one  of  his  idols,  reiilied:  "This 
great  image  is  our  god. "  "  Then  let  me  bring  a  sacri- 
fice to  him !  "  said  Abraham,  and  he  ordered  a  cake  of 
fine  flour  to  be  baked,  and  offered  it  to  the  idol,  and 
when  the  idol  did  not  eat  it,  he  ordered  a  still  finer 
meal-offering  to  be  prepared,  and  offered  it  to  the 
idol.  But  the  idol  did  neither  eat  nor  answer  when 
addressed  by  him,  and  so  Abraham  grew  angry  and, 
kindling  a  fire,  burned  them  all.  When  Terah,  on 
coming  home,  found  his  idols  bvirnt,  he  went  to 
Abraham  and  said:  "Who  has  liurned  my  gods?" 
Abraham  replied:  "The  large  one  (piarreled  with 
the  little  ones  and  btirned  them  in  his  anger."  "Fool 
that  thou  art,  how  canst  thou  say  that  he  who  can 
not  see  nor  hear  nor  walk  should  have  done  this?" 
Then  Abraham  said:  "How  then  canst  thou  forsake 
the  living  God  and  serve  gods  that  neither  see  nor 
hear?" 

According  to  Gen.  R.  xxxviii.  and  Tanna  debe  Eli- 
yahu,  ii.  25  (probably  a  portion  of  Krke  R.  El.), 
Terah  was  a  manufacturer  of  idols  and  had  them  for 
sale.    One  day  when  Terah  was  absent  and  Abraham 


was  left  to  take  charge  of  the  shop,  an  old,  yet  vig- 
orous, man  came  in  to  buy  an  idol.  Abraham  handed 
him  the  one  on  to|i.  and  he  gave  him 
Breaks  the  price  asked.  "  How  old  art  thou  V" 
Idols.  Abraham  asked.  "Seventy  years,  "was 
the  answer.  "Thou  fool,"  continued 
Abraham,  "how  canst  thou  adore  a  god  so  much 
younger  than  thou  ?  Thou  wert  born  seventy  years 
ago  and  this  god  was  made  yesterday."  The  buyer 
threw  away  his  idol  and  received  his  money  back. 
The  other  sons  of  Terah  complained  to  their  father 
that  Abraham  did  not  know  how  tosell  the  idols,  and 
so  Abraham  was  told  to  attend  to  the  idols  as  priest. 
One  day  a  woman  brought  a  meal-offering  for  the 
idols,  and,  as  they  would  not  eat,  he  exclaimed :  "  A 
mouth  have  they  but  speak  not,  eyes  but  .see  not,  ears 
but  hear  not,  hands  but  handle  not.  May  their  mak- 
ers be  like  them,  and  all  who  trust  in  them"  (P.s.  cxv. 
5-8,  LIiiiA.  and  he  broke  them  to  pieces  and  burned 
them.  Abraham  was  brought  befcjie  Nimrod,  who 
sjiid:  "  Knowest  thou  not  that  I  am  god  and  ruler  of 
the  world?  Why  hast  thou  destroyed  my  images?" 
Then  Abraham  sjud :  "  If  thou  art  god  and  ruler  of  the 
world,  why  dost  thou  not  cau.se  the  sun  to  rise  in  the 
westandsetiu  the  east?  If  thouart  god  and  ruler  of 
the  world,  tell  me  all  that  I  have  now  at  heart,  and 
what  I  shall  do  in  the  future."  Nimrod  was  dum- 
founded.  and  Abraham  continued:  "Tlumart  the  son 
of  C'ush,  a  mortal  like  him.  Thou  couldstnolsjivc  thy 
father  from  death,  nor  wilt  thou  thyself  escape  it." 
According  to  Gen.  R.  xxxviii,  Nimrod  .said:  "Wor- 
ship the  fire!"  "Why  not  water  that  quenches 
the  fire?"  asked  Abraham.  "Very  well,  worship 
the  water !  "  "  Why  not  the  clouds  which  swallow  the 
water?  "  "  So  be  it ;  worshij)  the  clouds !  "  Then  Abra- 
ham .said:  "Rather  let  me  adore  the  wind  which 
blows  the  clouds  about!"  "So  belt;  )iray  to  the 
wind!  "  "But,"  said  Abraham,  "man  can  stand  up 
against  the  wind  or  shield  himself  behind  the  walls  of 
ins  house."  "  Then  adore  me!  "said  Ninnod.  There- 
upon Nimrod  ( Amraphel ;  see  Pesitc.  R.  §  3S,  'Er.  T,'Aa) 
ordered  Abraham  to  be  cast  into  a  furnace.  He  had 
a  pile  of  wood  five  yards  in  circumference  set  on 
fire,  and  Abraham  was  cast  into  it.  But  God  Himself 
went  down  from  heaven  to  rescue  him.  Wherefore 
the  Lord  appeared  to  him  later,  saying:  "I  am  the 
Lord  who  brought  thee  out  of  the  fire  of  the  Chal- 
deans "  (  (>  ICdsdim,  Gen.  x  v.  7).  The  legend  betrays 
Persian  influence  (compare  the  Zoroaster  legend  in 
Windischmann,  "Zoroastrische  Studien,"  pp.  'i07- 
313).  Regarding  the  cave  in  which  Abraham  dwelt, 
see  ib.  p.  113;  compare  also  B.  B.  10a.  The  dia- 
logue with  Nimrod,  pointing  from  fire,  water,  the 
cloud,  wind,  and  man  to  God,  has  its  parallel  in 
Hindu  legend  (see  Benfey,  "  Pant.schatantm,"  i.  376). 
Abraham  is  thereupon  commissioned  by  God  to 
propagate  His  truth  throughout  the  world,  and  he 
wins  many  souls  for  Him;  while  he  wins  the  men, 
Sarah,  his  wife,  converts  the  women.  In  this  man- 
ner "they  made  souls  in  Haran  "  (Gen.  xii.  .">,  lleb.). 
He  awakens  the  heathen  from  shnuber  and  brings 
them  under  the  wings  of  Ood,  He  is  the  father  of 
the  proselytes  (Gen.  R.  xliii;  .Mek.,  Jlishpatim,  §  18). 
Henceforth  he  was  to  become  "  like  a  stream  of 
blessing  to  purify  and  regenerate  the  pagan  world." 
Of  the  manner  in  which  he  converted 
As  a  Phi-  the  heathen  it  is  related  that  he  had 
lanthropist.  a  palatial  mansion  built  near  the  oak- 
tree  of  Mamre  or  at  Beersheba  on  the 
crossing  of  the  roads,  wherein  all  kinds  of  victuals 
and  wine  were  spread  on  the  table  for  the  passers- 
by,  who  came  through  the  doors  kept  open  on  all 
sides;  and  when  they,  after  having  partaken  of  the 
meal,  were  about  to  offer  their  thanks  to  him  before 


87 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham 


going  on  their  way,  lit-  pointed  to  God  above,  whose 
steward  he  was  and  to  whom  alone  tliey  owed  tlianks. 
Thns,  by  his  love  fur  man.  lie  taught  people  how  to 
worship  God.  .Viui.mia.m's  0.\k.  in  eonneetion  with 
wliieli  the  !Midr.ish  (to  Gen.  .\.\i.  'S'4)  relates  these 
things,  is  mentioned  also  by  Jerome  (i|Uoted  in 
Uhlnian's  "Liehesthiltigkeil,"  |).  ;K1).  This  philan- 
thropic virtue  of  Abraham  is  specifically  dwelt  ujiou 
in  the  Tkst.vmknt  ok  Abu.mi.vm. 

His  i)riiplietie  vision  (Gen.  xv.)  furnished  espe- 
cially grateful  material  to  apocalyptic  writers,  who 
beheld  fiinshaddwiil  in  th<'  fcnirdiller- 
Prophetic  cut  animals  used  lor  the  cnvcnant  sac- 
Vision,  rilice  the  •■  four  kingdoms  "  cd'  the  Book 
iif  Daniel  (see  also  the  Midrasliim  and 
Targunis  and  I'irke  K.  El.  xxviii;  compare  Apoca- 
lypse of  Abniham,  ix.). 

Regarding  Abraham's  relation  to  Melchizedek. 
who  taught  him  new  les.S(ins  in  philanthropy,  see 
JIki.chizkdkk.  Whereas  the  Bibh'  speaks  of  only 
one  trial  thai  Abraham  had  to  undergo  to  give  ])roof 
of  his  faith  in  and  fear  of  (Wid  (iheolVering  of  his  son 
Isaac,  Gen.  .\.\ii.).  tin'  rabbis  (Ab.  v.  4;  Ab.  I{.  N. 
.\xxiii.  [B.  x.\.\vi.] ;  and  I'irke  1{.  Kl.  .\xvi.  et  seq.; 
compare  also  Book  of  Jubilees,  xvii.  17,  and  xix.  5) 
mention  ten  trials  of  his  faith,  the  offering  of  his  son 
forming  the  culmination.  Yet  this  was  sutlicient 
rea-son  tor  Satan,  or  Mastemah,  as  the  Hook  of  Jidji- 
lees  calls  him.  to  imt  all  possible  obstacles  in  his  way. 

When  Abraham  linally  held  the  knife  over  his  be- 
loved son,  Isaac  seemed  doomed,  and  the  angels  of 
heaven  shed   tears  which    fell   upon 

Supreme  Isaac's  eyes,  causing  him  Idindness 
Test  in  later   life.     I5ut  their  prayer  was 

of  Faith,  heard.  The  Lord  sent  Michael  the 
archangel  to  tell  Abraham  not  to  sac- 
rifice his  son,  and  the  dew  of  lift'  was  poured  on  Isaac 
to  revive  him.  The  ram  to  he  offered  in  his  place 
had  stood  there  ready,  prepared  from  the  beginning 
of  creation  (Ab.  v.  li).  Abraham  ha<l  given  ])roof 
that  he  served  God  not  only  from  fear,  but  also  out  of 
love,  and  the  promise  was  given  that,  whenever  the 
"Akedali  chapter  was  read  on  the  New-year's  day, 
on  which  occasion  the  nim's  horn  is  always  blown, 
the  descendants  of  Abniham  shoidd  be  redeemed 
from  the  power  of  Satan,  of  sin,  and  of  oppression, 
owing  to  the  merit  of  him  who.se  ashes  lay  before 
God  as  lhoui;h  he  had  been  sacrificed  and  consumed 
(Pesilj.  I{.  ^  -K'  iiii'l  elsewhere). 

According  to  the  Hook  of  Jubilees  (xx.-xxii.), 
Abraham  appointed  Jacob,  in  the  presence  of  Ke- 
bekah,  heir  of  Ins  divine  bles.sings.  Jacob  remained 
with  him  to  the  very  last,  receiving  his  instructions 
and  his  blessiiiL's.  But  while  the  same  source  informs 
us  that  he  ordered  all  his  children  and  grand  chil- 
diiii  to  avoid  inaLri<-,  idolatry,  anil  all  kinds  of  im- 
purity, and  to  walk  in  the  path  of  riirliteousness. 
.li;nKMrMi  ii.Mi  Aiiii.v  (in  Saidi.  'Jlu)  tells  us  that  he 
beciuiathed  the  knowledge  of  magic  to  the  sous  of 
his  wife,  Keturah. 

About  his  death  rabbinical  tradition  has  preserved 

only  one  statement — that  the  .\n!;elof  Death  had  no 

power  over  him(H.  B.  I7<i).     There  is 

Abraham's    nevertheless  a   beautiful   description 

Death.  of  his  glorious  end  in  the  Testament 
of  Abndiam  (see  .\iih.\ii.\m,  Tkst.x- 
■Mi'.NT  okV  The  same  work  gives  a  touching  picture 
of  his  love  for  man.  while  Ab.  I{.  N.  (xxxiii.)  offers 
illustrations  of  his  spirit  of  righteousness  and  etpiity. 
AiuiA  .\itiKA  (l{;ili)evi-n  profe,s,sed  to  know  how  the 
men  of  .Vbraham's  lime  expressed  their  grief  at  his 
bier:  "Alas  for  (he  shi|>  (hat  hath  lost  its  captain! 
.Mas  for  humanity  that  hath  lost  its  leader!"  (B. 
B.  Old,  4.) 


Besides  the  discovery  of  astronomy,  we  find  as- 
cribed to  Abraham  the  invention  of  the  alphabet, 
the  knowledge  of  magic,  and  of  all  secret  lore  ('Ab. 
Zarah.  14i :  Eusebius.  "Prap.  Ev.";  D'llerbelot. 
■■  Bibliotheque  Orientale."  »./•.  "Abraham":  "Sefer 
Yezirah."  toward  theend).  All  this  is  based  on  Gen. 
U.  to  Gen.  xv.  o:  "God  lifted  him  above  the  vault  of 
heaven  to  cause  him  to  see  all  the  mysteries  of  life." 
It  is  related  (Tosef.,  Kid.,  at  end)  that  he  wore  a 
I)earl  or  precious  stone  of  magic  power  on  his  neck, 
wherewith  he  healed  the  sick;  and  that  all  the  secrets 
of  the  Law  were  disclosed  to  him,  while  he  observed 
even  the  most  minute  provisions  of  the  rabbis  {^lish- 
nah  Kid.,  at  end:  Gen.  R.  Ixiv.).  Even  in  physical 
size  he  towered  above  the  rest  of  men,  according  to 
Gen.  H.  xlix.  and  Sofcrim,  xxi.  9. 

There  is  a  deep  undercurrent  of  his  true  hu- 
manity in  all  the  legends  about  Abraham.  "Until 
Abraham's  time  the  Lord  was  known 
True         only  as   the  God  of  heaven.     When 

Type  of  He  appeared  to  .\braham.  He  became 
Humanity,  the  God  of  the  earth  as  well  as  of 
heaven,  for  lie  brought  Him  nigh  to 
man  "  (Midr.  R.  to  Gen.  xxiv.  3).  Abraham,  called 
"the  One"  (Isa.  li.  'i.  ILli.,  and  Ezek.  xxxiii.).  ren- 
dered the  whole  human  famih'  one  (Gen.  R.  xxxix) 
Whosoever  has  a  benign  eye,  a  simple  heart,  and 
a  humble  spirit,  or  who  is  humble  and  pious,  is  a 
disciple  of  Abraham  (Ab.  v.  29,  andBer.  Ci),  and  he 
who  lacks  kindness  of  heart  is  no  true  son  of  Abra- 
ham (Be/ah,  ■i'-io).  But  it  is  particularly  Abraham, 
the  man  of  faith,  the  "friend  of  God"  (Isa.  xli.  8), 
ujion  whom  are  founded  alike  the  Synagogue  (see 
Pes.  1174;  Mek.,  Beshallah,  S  3;  I  JIacc.  ii.  52 :  Philo, 
"Who  is  the  Heir'?"  xviii.-xix.),  the  Chinch  (see 
Rom.  iv.  1 :  Gal.  iii.  (i;  James,  ii.  23).  and  the  Mosiiue 
(Koran,  sura  iii.  08-6O).  "Abraham  was  not  a  Jew 
nor  a  Christ  ian.  but  a  believer  in  one  God  [a  Moslem]. 
a  haterof  idolatry,  a  man  of  perfect  faith  "  {il>.  suras 
ii.  \\t<.  iv.  124,  v'i.  162,  xvi.  121).  AVhen  God  said. 
"Let  there  be  light!"  He  had  Abraham  in  view 
(Gen.  R.  ii.). 

JIany  -Vrabic  legends  concerning  Abraham  based 
on  the  K<iran  foimd  their  way  back  to  Jewish  works 
(see  Jellinek,  "B.  H."  i.  25, "and  introduction,  xv.). 

BIBUOOBAPHV:  Well,  Bihl.  Legeuden  der  Mugelmanner,  jt. 
eH;  (irDnljiiuiii.  AViit  BcitriHn  zur  Simitischrii  Sdyrii- 
kuiiili,  pp.  t'l-iO;  B.  Beer,  Lchen  AhrtilinmK,  iimh  Aufax. 
sHtiudtr  Jlhtii<vtuti  Sage,  especially  pp.  UV2UI,  Lelpsle.  1St9 
this  book  contains  a  very  full  accuuni.  with  vuliitibte  refer- 
ence.1,  of  tile  nil)liliilolra(litlons  concerning  Abraham);  Hiurlies, 
Dktiuiuiru  oT  W(0*i,  s.v. 

K. 

In  Mohammedan  Legend  :  Of  all  the  Biblical 

personages  mentioned  in  the  Koran,  Abraham  is  uii- 
doubteilly  the  most  important.  As  is  the  case  with 
all  the  Biblical  material  contained  in  the  Koran,  its 
source  must  be  looked  for  not  in  any  written  docu- 
ments, but  in  the  stories,  more  or  less  tiiigi'<l  by 
midra.shic  additions,  which  Mohammei)  heard  from 
his  Jewish  or  Christian  teachers  and  friends.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  to  distinguish  the  various  perimls 
in  the  |ireacliingof  the  Arabian  prophet ;  for  in  these 
matfei-s  Mohammed  livi-d  from  hand  to  mouth,  and 
his  views  as  to  the  importanci-  of  Bil)lical  person- 
ages variid  with  changing  circumstances  and  chan- 
ging needs.  In  his  early  preachings  .Mohammed 
shows  very  little  knowle<lge  of  llie  patriarch.  The 
only  mention  of  him  during  lln'  early  Meccan  period 
is  found  in  sura  Ixxxvii.  It)  (compare  sum  liii.  87i. 
where  .Mohammed  makes  a  ]iu.ssing  reference  lo  the 
"Sul.iuf  Ibndiim"  (the  I^)lls  of  Abndiam);  these 
can  not  have  refcTence,  as  Sprenger  thinks  ("  Ix-ben 
u.  Lehre  .Mohammeds,"  ii.  'MH,  ;!ti3  <t  »)i/.),  lo  any 
real  apocryphal  books,  but  merely  to  a  reminiscence 


Abraham 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


88 


of  wlmt  Mobamineil  had  lit-nrd  about  the  nii'iition  of 
Abniliam  in  tlu'Sjicrcd  l)oi>ks(if  tlif  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians (Kufuen,  "National  and  I'niviTstd  Riliirimis." 
|).  2!IT,  nolf  1.  and  p]).  ;31T-:«3.  Ni'w  York.  1SS2). 
Similarly  in  sum  liii.  37 — a  passjiiri'  cirtainly  not 
okli-r  thiin  the  end  of  tin- first  Jleccan  period  (NiM- 
deke.  "Geseli.  des  Korans."  p.  7'J) — he  speaks  of 
Abraham  as  of  one  that  had  fulfilled  his  word,  giv- 
injr  as  his  reference  the  same  Holls  of  Abraham 
(Hirschfeld,  "Beitrilge  zur  KrkliUiinir  des  Korans," 
J).  12;  compare  Gen.  xxii.  Ki).  To  this  later  Mecean 
period  nmy  also  belong  what  Mohammed  has  to  say 
of  Abraham  as  one  who  was  oppressed  for  preach- 
ing the  true  religion  and  f(U' championing  his  God. 
This  part  of  Abraham's  career  appealed  very  strongly 
to  Mohammed;  for  he  saw  in  it  a  certain  prototype 
of  his  own  early  and  severe  struggles  with  the  \ni- 
tricians  of  his  native  city.  As  Jlohamined  is  the 
last  of  the  projihets.  so  Abraham  is  among  the  first. 
Abraham  is  evidently — though  this  is  not  directly 
stated — oneof  the  seven  liearers  of  Jlatani.  the  mes- 
sages repeated  from  out  of  the  heavenlj-  book  (sura 
XV.  81;  compare  xx.\i.\.  24).  The  other  six  are  the 
prophets  of  Ad,  Thamud,  and  Jlidian,  and  Noah. 
Lot,  and  Jloses.  Abraham  is  a  righteous  man  (pns) 
and  iirophet  (sura  xix.  42). 

In  the  later  suras  Mohammed  seems  to  have  learned 
more  about  Abrahaiu.  In  sura  vi.  75  he  relates 
how  the  prophet  came  to  worshiji  God  by  watch- 
ing physical  phenomena:  "Thus  did  we  show  Abra- 
ham the  kingdom  of  heaven  and  of  the  earth,  that 
he  should  be  of  those  who  are  sure.  And  when 
the  night  overshadowed  him  he  saw  a 

"  Great,      star  and  Sitid,  '  This  is  my  Lord  ';  but 

Gi-eater,  when  it  set  he  said,  '  I  love  not  those 
Greatest."  that  set.'  And  when  he  saw  the  moon 
beginning  to  rise  he  said,  '  This  is  my 
Lord  ';  but  when  it  set  he  said,  '  If  my  Lord  guides 
me  not  I  shall  surely  be  of  the  peo]ile  who  err.'  And 
when  he  siiw  the  sun  beginning  to  rise  he  said.'  This 
is  my  Lord,  this  is  the  greatest  of  all ' ;  but  when  it 
set  he  said,  '  <)  my  people,  verily,  I  am  clear  of  what 
ye  associate  with  God ;  verily,  I  have  turned  my  face 
to  Ilim  who  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth.'  " 

The  name  of  Abraham's  father  is  said  to  have  been 
Azar,  though  some  of  the  later  Arab  writers  give  the 
name  correctly  as  Terah.  Others  claim  that  Azar 
was  his  real  name,  while  Terah  was  his  surname 
(Nawawi,  "Biograjiliieal  Diet,  of  Illustrious  Jlen," 
p.  128;  but  see  Jawaliki,  "  Al-Muarrab."  ed.  Sachau, 
p.  21;  "Z.  I).  M.  G."  xxxiii.  214).  Still  a  third  class 
of  authorities  say  that  Azar  means  either  "  the  old 
man"  or  "the  perverse  one. "  Modern  scholars  have 
suggested  that  the  word  is  a  luistake  for  'niTSn 
(B^  B.  l"w(;  see  Paulz.  "^Mohammed's  Lehre  von  der 
Ofl'enbarung,"  p.  242).  This  Azar  was  a  great  wor- 
shiper of  idols,  and  Abraham  had  hard  work  in  dis- 
suading him  from  worshiping  them.  The  story  is 
told  in  sura  xxi.  53  ct  mq. :  "And  we  gave  Abraham 
a  right  direction  before;  for  about  him  we  knew. 
"When  he  sjiid  to  his  father  and  to  his  jjcople.  'What 
are  these  images  to  which  ye  ]iay  devotion'? '  sjiid 
they,  'We  found  our  fathers  serving  them.'  Said 
he,  '  Both  ye  and  your  fatlnrs  have  been  in  obvious 
error.'  They  Siuil,  '  Post  thou  come  to  us  with  the 
truth,  or  art  thou  of  those  that  sport'? '  He  said, 'Nay, 
but  j'Our  Lord  is  Lord  of  the  heavens  and  of  the 
earth,  which  He  created;  and  I  am  of  those  who  tes- 
tify to  this,  and,  by  God,  I  will  plot  against  your 
idols  after  j-c  have  turned  and  shown  me  your  backs. ' 
So  he  brake  them  all  in  pieces,  except  a  large  one 
that  haply  they  might  refer  it  to  [la_v  the  blame  upon] 
him.  Said  they,  '  AYlio  has  done  this  with  our  gods'? 
Verily,  he  is  of  the  wrong-doers. '    They  said,"'  We 


heard  n  youth  speak  of  them,  who  is  called  Abraham. ' 
Said  they.  '  Then  bring  him  before  the  eyes  of  men  ; 
hai)ly  they  will  bear  witness.'  Said  they,  '  Was  ii 
thou  who  did  this  to  our  gods,  O  Abraham'?'  Said 
he.  '  Nay.  it  was  this  largest  of  Ihem;  but  ask  them 
if  they  can  speak.  .  .  .'  Said  they.  '  Burn  him  and 
help  your  gods  if  ye  are  going  to  do  so.'  We  .siud, 
'O  tire!  be  thou  cool  and  a  sjifety  for  Abraham. '  "  In 
suras  xxvii.  and  xxxix.  Mohammed  returns  to  this 
story,  and  ad<ls  the  account  of  the  messengers  that 
came  to  Abraham,  of  the  luoniise  of  a  son  named 
Isaac,  and  of  the  coming  destruction  of  Sndom  and 
Gomorrah.  "  We  turned  theseeitiesupsiile down  and 
rained  on  them  stones  of  baked  clay  "  (compare  sura 
Ii.  34).  The  destruction  of  the  two  cities  served  JIo- 
liammed  as  a  warning,  taken  from  history,  which  he 
desired  to  im|)ress  upon  his  oi)ponents  in  Mecca. 

The  'Akeiliih.  or  sacrifice  of  Isjjac,  is  mentioned 
in  several  places  in  the  Koran.  The  following  ac- 
coiuit  is  foiMid  in  sura  xxxvii.  KM)  d  niii.:  "Anil 
when  he  reached  the  a.ire  to  work  with  him  he  sidd; 
'  ()  my  boy  !  verily  I  have  .seen  in  a  dream  that  I 
should  saeritice  thee;  look,  then,  that  thou  seest 
right.'  Said  he,  '  ()  my  sire!  do  what  thou  art  bid- 
den; thou  wilt  find  me.  if  it  plea.sc  God,  one  of  the 
patient.'  And  when  they  were  resigned  and  Abra- 
ham had  thrown  him  down  upon  his  forehead,  we 
called  to  him.  'O  Abraham!  thou  hast  verified  the 
vision  :  verily,  thus  do  we  reward  those  who  do  g(M)d. 
This  is  surely  an  obvious  trial.'  And  we  rewarded 
him  with  a  mighty  victim." 

Mohammed,  however,  went  further  than  this,  and, 
in  order  to  strengthen  his  iiosition  against  his  Jew- 
ish opponents  in  Medina,  made  out  of  Abraham  the 
most  prondnent  figure  in  ]iremoliam- 
Prominence  medan  n'ligious  history.     He  alleges 

Given  to  that  .\braliam  was  the  real  founder  of 
Abraham,  the  religion  that  hi'  himself  was  preach- 
ing; that  Islam  was  merely  a  restate- 
ment of  the  old  religion  of  Abraham  and  not  a  new 
faith  now  preached  for  the  first  time.  Abraham  is 
the  "  friend  of  God  "  (suraiv.  r24).  an  appellation  that 
the  followers  of  Islam  now  usually  apply  to  him.  and 
on  account  of  which  to-day  the  city  of  Hebron  is 
called  Al-Halil  (compare  IsTi.  xli.  .S;"Ab.  H.  X.  Ob;). 
He  is  also  said  to  have  been  an  imam,  or  religious 
leader  (comjiare  suras  ii.  UH.  xvi.  121).  and  perhaps 
alsoa  "hanif  "  ;  "he  wasnot  oneof  theidolaters.  .  .  . 
[God]  chose  him,  and  He  ginded  him  unto  the  right 
way.  .  .  .  Then  we  ins]ured  thee.  Follow  the  faith  of 
Abraham,  a  hanif,  for  he  was  not  of  the  idolaters." 
The  exact  meaning  of  "hanif"  is  inicerlaiu;  but  it 
seems  in  general  to  designate  a  man  who  searched 
after  the  truth  and  des|)isid  idolatry  (Kuenen,  l.r. 
note  2.  pp.  323-326;  Wellhausen,  "Skizzen,"  iii. '207). 

Characteristic  is  the  following  saying:  "Abraham 
was  not  a  Jew  nor  yet  a  Christian,  but  he  was  a 
hanif  resigned,  and  not  of  tiie  idolaters.  Verily, 
the  people  most  worthy  of  Abraham  are  those  that 
follow  him  and  his  jirophets.  and  those  that  believe  " 
(sura  iii.  •!()).  With  the  same  theological  intent 
Mohammed  makes  various  references  to  the  yfilhit 
Ihrahim  ("l{eligion  of  Abraham")  as  the  one  he  do- 
sires  his  people  to  follow  (suras  xvi.  124,  ii.  134, 
xxii.  77). 

During  the  latest  period  of  Jlohammed's  activity 
in  Jledina  he  became  still  bolder,  and,  in  developing 
his  theory  in  regard  to  Abraham,  left  entirely  the 
beaten  track  of  Jewish  and  Christian  Midrash,  It 
had  become  necessary  for  him  to  break  entirely  with 
the  Jews,  who  refused  to  acknowledge  him  as 
]u-ophet.  The  kibla/i,  or  direction  of  pra3-er,  was 
still  toward  Jerusalem.  As  the  Jews  had  refused 
to  follow  Mohammed  it  was  necessary  to  dissociate 


89 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham 


his  rfligion  from  theirs,  and  to  turn  the  faces  and 
thi)Ui;hts  of  his  followers  from  .Tcnisalcm  to  Mecca. 
Ill  order  that  tlie  eliaiii;e  miirlit  lie  elTected  with 
as  little  friction  as  possible,  Jloliamnied  eonnccted 
Mecca  and  its  holy  house,  the  Kimlia.  with  the  his- 
tory of  Abraham,  the  real  founder  of  his  Islam.  It 
is  here  that  Ishniael  comes  for  the  first  time  promi- 
nently forward.  In  one  of  the  latest  suras  (ii.  118 
ft  fif/.)  a  passajre  reads:  "And  when  we  made  the 
house  a  place  of  resort  unto  men.  and  a  sanctuary, 
and  (said)  take  the  station  of  Abraham  for  a  place 
of  prayer;  and  eovenaiiled  with  Abraham  and  Ish- 
niael. saying.  "  Dove  two  cleanse  my  house  for  those 
who  make  the  circuit,  for  those  who  jiay  devotions 
there,  for  those  who  bow  down,  and  for  tliose.  too. 
who  adore.  .  .  .'  And  when  Abraham  raised  up 
the  foundations  of  tlie  house  with  Islimael,  'Lord, 
receive  it  from  us.  Verily,  Thou  art  hearing  and 
Thou  dost  know.  Lord,  and  make  us,  too,  resigned 
unto  Thee  and  of  our  seeil  also  a  nation  resigned 
unto  Thee,  and  show  us  our  rites,  and  turn  toward 
us;  verily.  Thou  art  easy  lobe  turned  and  merciful. 
Lord,  and  send  them  an  ajiostle  from  amongst  theni- 
si'lves.  to  read  to  them  Thy  signs  and  teach  them 
the  Book  and  wisdom,  and  to  purify  them;  verily. 
Thou  art  the  miglitv  and  the  wise  '  "  (compare suiiis 
iii.  '.IIMJ3,  .\.\ii,  ST-ai). 

There  is  no  local  tradition  connecting  Abraham 
witli  Mecca;  and  we  are  forced  to  i)ut  tliis  down  as 
a  pure  invention  on  the  part  of  the  i)rophet,  based 
on  jiolitical  as  well  as  on  theological  reasons.  Ac- 
cording to  Shahrastani  (Arabic  text,  p.  430),  this 
Kaaba  was  tlie  reproduction  of  the  one  in  lieaven. 
The  ■•  ^lakam  Ibrahim."  or  Station  of  Abraham,  is 
-■lill  pointed  out  within  the  sjiered  enclosure  at 
.Mecca;  and  the  footsteps  of  the  patriarch  are  be- 
lieved l)y  the  worshipers  still  to  lie  there  (.Snouck 
nurgroujc,"IIet  .MekkaanseheFeest,"  p.  40;  Mekka, 
i.  11). 

Tlie  stories  in  regard  to  Abraham,  told  in  a  few- 
words  in  the  Koran,  naturally  form  the  basis  for 
furlher  midrashic   expansion    among 

Moham-     the  Arabs.    The  likeness  of  the  history 
medan       of  Abraham  to  certain  features  in  the 

Midrasb     life  of  their  own  prophet  made  him  a 
on  favorite  .subject  in  the  hands  of  com- 

Abrahain.  menlators  and  historians.  .Mohamme- 
dan writers  had  t  wo  s(  lurces  from  which 
thcydrcw  their  know  ledge  of  the  Hil)leand  of  its  mid- 
rashic interpretation:  verbal  information  from  the 
it/./ihiir  ("rabbis"),  and  a  study  of  the  text  of  the 
Bible  itself,  and  oceasionally  of  <()mments  upon  it. 
The  former  source  was  undoubtedly  the  more  pro- 
lllic  of  the  two.  Till  material  is  to  be  found  in  the 
standard  commenlalorson  the  Koran — Zamakhshari, 
liaidawi,  Tabari;  but  more  have  been  incorporated 
in  the  works  of  Arabic  historians,  who  commenced 
their  histories  with  the  earliest  accounts  of  man, 
and  were  thus  bound  to  have  a  more  or  less  close 
aii|uaiiitance  with  IheTaurat  (Torali)  and  the  Mid- 
rash  upon  it.  Some  of  the  historians  are  quile  e.\- 
aet,  as  Ibii  Kiitaibah.  and  the  lirsl  pliilosc>|ilier  of 
history,  Ibn  Klialdiin  ;  others,  howiver.  are  less 
crilieal.  as  Tabari,  Masudi,  Hainza.  Biruni,  ^la- 
krizi,  Ibn  alAtliir.  Abu  al-Fida  (compare  Goldzihei, 
"  Cber  Mohamiiiedaiiiselie  Polemikgegeii  die  Ahl  al 
Kilab."  iii"Z  I).  M.(i."  .\x.xii.  \i')').  They  have  much 
to  s!iy  about  the  trials  that  Abraham  un<lerwent 
in  tighting  idolatry.  They  dilate  upon  the  great 
furnaee  thai  Ninirod  had  built  in  Kullia  for  this 
purpose,  and  how  the  furnace  was  changed  into 
a  garden.  A  Kurd  named  llayiin,  llaizar.  or  llai- 
zan.  is  said  to  have  advised  Xininxl  to  have  Abra- 
ham   burnt.      Abndiain's    father    is    suid    to   have 


been  a  carver  of  images;  and  Abraham,  in  selling 
his  father's  wares,  attempted  to  convert  the  people 
by  crying  out,  "Who  wi.shcs  to  buy  that  which 
neither  hurts  nor  betters?"  Large  midra.shic  addi- 
tions are  made  in  order  to  bring  Nimrod  into  con- 
nection with  Abraham.  It  is  sjiid  that  the  star- 
gazers  warned  him  that  a  boy  would  be  bom  that 
would  in  the  future  break  all  the  idols;  that  Ximrod 
gave  orders  to  put  to  death  all  children  bom;  but 
that  when  Abraham  was  bom  his  mother  hid  him 
in  a  cave  in  wliieli.  during  a  few  days,  he  giew  to 
man's  estate,  and  thus  foiled  the  ]>urposeof  the  king. 

The  incongruity  of  Mohamnieti's  connecting  Abra- 
ham with  the  building  of  the  Kaaba  was  evidentlj* 
clearly  felt,  and  it  is  therefore  added  that  his  going 
to  Slecca  was  due  to  the  rupture  between  Sarah  and 
Hagar,  God  told  Abraham  to  take  the  bondmaid 
and  her  cliiUl,  Ishmael,  into  Arabia;  and  it  was  at 
the  Zemzeni  well  within  the  sjiered  enclosure  that 
the  water  rose  up  which  slaked  the  thiret  of  the 
boy.  On  two  occasions  Abraham  is  sjiid  to  have 
paid  a  visit  to  Lshmael's  house  in  his  absence;  and, 
by  the  answers  which  each  wife  gave  to  her  father- 
in-law,  Abraham  advises  his  son.  in  the  one  case,  to 
.send  his  first  wife  away,  and  in  the  other  to  keep 
his  second  wife.  In  the  building  of  the  Kaaba, 
Abraham  was  assisted  by  the  Shekinah  (rU'St?);  oth- 
ers say  by  a  cloud  or  by  the  angel  Gabriel.  Abra- 
ham acted  as  muezzin,  delivered  all  the  necessary 
prayers,  and  made  the  various  circuits  demandetl 
by  the  later  ritual.  It  was  he  also  who  first  threw 
stones  at  Iblis  (the  devil)  in  the  valley  of  Miua,  a 
procedure  which  still  forms  part  of  the  ceremonies 
connected  with  the  /injij.  It  is  natural  that  in  these 
later  accretions  Ishmael  should  take  the  place  of 
Is;iac.  Some  authors  even  stale  that  it  was  Ishmael 
who  was  to  have  been  otl'ered  up:  and  that  he  there- 
fore bears  the  name  AlDliabih  |"  Slaughtered  One  "). 
The  place  of  the  'Akedah  is  also  transferred  to  Mina, 
near  Mecca.  The  ram  ofl'ered  uy}  in  lieu  of  the  son 
is  said  to  have  been  the  same  as  the  one  offered  by 
Abel.  The  slaughtering  of  Lsaac  is  dwelt  upon  at 
length,  as  well  as  the  firmness  of  Abraham  in  resist- 
ing the  enticement  of  Iblis,  who  placed  himself  di- 
rectly ill  his  path.  This  is  Siiid  to  have  been  one  of 
the  trials  (sura  ii.  IIS)  which  Abraham  underwent. 
Arabic  commentators,  however,  speak  of  three  trials 
only,  and  not  of  ten,  as  does  the  Jewish  Ilaggadah. 

Many  of  the  religious  obsi»rvances  that  are  now- 
found  in  Islam  arc  referred  to  Abraham;  parallels 
to  which,  as  far  as  the  institution  of  certain  prayers 
is  coiKerned,  can  be  founil  in  rabliinical  literature. 

Abraham  is  often  called  by  Arabic  authors  the 
"fatlierof  hospiiality  ";  and  longaecounlsare  given 
of  the  visit  of  the  angels.  He  is  also  sjiid  to  have 
been  the  first  whose  hair  grew  white.  Of  his  death 
an  Arabic  Midrash  has  the  following:  When  GihI 
wished  to  take  the  soul  of  Abraham  He  sent  the 
Angcl  of  Death  to  him  in  the  form  of  a  decrepit  old 
man.  Abraham  was  at  table  with  some  guests,  when 
Ik-  saw  an  old  man  walking  in  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
He  .sent  an  ass  to  carry  the  man  to  his  tent.  The  old 
man.  howevir.  had  hardly  suflicieiit  strength  to  put 
the  food  .set  before  him  to  his  mouth:  and  even  then 
he  had  the  greatest  iliflieulty  in  swallowing  it. 
Now,  a  long  time  bcfon-  this.  Abraham  had  asked 
God  not  to  lake  away  his  .soul  until  he(.M>rahain) 
should  make  the  reciinst.  When  he  .saw  the  actions 
of  this  old  man  111- asked  him  what  ailc<l  liiin.  "It 
is  the  result  of  old  age.  O  Abraham!  "  he  answered. 
"How  oUl  are  you.  then?"  asked  Abraham.  The 
old  man  gave  his  age  as  two  years  more  than  that 
of  Abraham,  upon  which  the  patriarch  exclaimed. 
"  In  two  years' time  1  shall  Ih- like  him!    OGo<i!lake 


Abraham 

Abraham,  Apocalypse  of 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


90 


me  to  Thyself. "  The  old  mun,  who  was  no  ot  her  than 
the  Anjrel  of  Death,  then  took  away  Abnihanrssoiil. 
|{nl)l)iniciil  iiiiiirashie  jianillclsean  easily  be  found 
to  most  of  the  lei;ends  referred  to  almve:  a  large 
number  are  given  in  GrUnbsium  ("Neue  Bcitrttge 
zur  8emitisehen  (Sagenkunde ").  It  is  of  interest 
to  observe  that  these  ^loliannnedan  additions  have 
also,  in  some  cases,  found  their  way  into  .Jewish  lit- 
cmture.  They  are  met  witli  in  works  that  liave 
been  written  tinder  Araliie  iiilliience  in  one  form  or 
anollier.  Abraham's  visit  to  Isliinael  is  found  in  the 
Pirke  R.  Ei.  x.\x.  and  in  the  "Sefer  ha-Yasliar."  In 
the  "Shebet  .Mus!ir"of  Elijah  ha-Koheii  there  is  an 
appendix  entitled  "Tale  of  That  AVhich  Happened 
to  Our  Father  Abraham  in  Conneelioii  with  Is'im- 
rod."  Elijah  lived  in  Smyrna  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteentli  century,  which  fact  will  explain  the 
Arabic  inlbienee. 

BlIil.iocRArnv  :  ivmnii.surasll.  111.  iv.vl.xl.  xxix.  xxxvll.  ll.lx. 
(tin- citjitidiis  above  are  from  Haliner's  tnnislation  in  llie  Sit- 
artl  JiiMihs  iif  the  KfUtt^  vols.  vi.  ix.),  and  tlie  ronimeiitJitors 
ntt'iitioneil  In  tlie  article;  Taliari,  Aniuths,  i,'J.'Att  .•**■(/.;  Ilm 
al-.\tlilr.  ( JirojnV'oH,  eti.  Tomtiem.  1.07(7  s(<i,\  Ibn  Kutail>ali, 
Handhufli  ill  r  fri-irhwhtr,  ed.  Wiisit-nreld.  pp.  1(» £f'.s(g.;  Ma- 
sndl.  Lis  ;'r.nri..v  fyor,  ed.  Barl)iir  d.-  M.-ynanl,  tx.  lir>.  In- 
dex :  Psi'iidii.^ia.suill,  Alin'tie  ili\i  Mi  rvi  illis.  Ir.  by  C'arra  de 
Vaux.  pp.  1;M.  ;ii.';  Wii.-ileiifeld,  Dir  Chruniken  ilcr  Sladt 
Mi'khn,  .\ndiie  text,  i.  -1  rt  .•<"/,.  (ierriian  tr.  iv.  7  ct  seq.; 
Al-Yakul)l.  IIist'iriii\  I'll,  Hont.sma,  I.  2]  it  sn/.i  Yaljut's '»tY>- 
(/riiiih'i.<i}iis  Wi'irtirlnHh,  ed.  Wjistenfeld.  vl.  AK,  Index. 
For"  special  liisioiies  of  the  prophets  m-c  I'.ri'eki-lniann,  (ictcch. 
(Iir  AriiliLicJint  Lit.  i.  •V'lti.  The  Inidjiicns  in  the  Koran  and 
later  works  are  colleeied  in  .\l-.\a\va\vi.  Itiufiruphical  Diet, 
of  IViLstriou.t  Men.  I'll.  Wiisteiifeld.  jip.  VS't  it  svq.;  and  .\bn 
al-Fida,  ftistnrin  Anii  isliiniirn.  ed.  Kleisrher,  pp.  l:i')  cf  .sc*;. 
AI>nthani's  iM(sition  iti  tlie  history  of  reli^rion  from  the  .Mi»tiam- 
Tiiedaii  siaiiHpoim  is  considered  Ity  .\l-stiahnislani,  Kitali  aU 
Miliil  iiid-ynhiil.  eil.  cureton,  pp.  244,  247,  2111  ((ierman 
transl.  by  Haafbriicker.  index,  s.v.i.  Modern  works  on  the 
subject:  (ieit.'er,  U'o-w  Hut  Miiliunnnid  tiusili  iii  JtuteuthMmc 
A  ufuiniii'iiiii  II  i  pp.  121  it  siii.x  llirschfeld.  liiilriliif  zur  Kr- 
klitntnu  dru  Kitmufi,  pp.  4^.1,  -V.t;  (inmiiic.  Miiliiiiumid,  1.  (iO 
et  .S(Y/.,  ii.  "*),  H2  ct  acq.',  Panlz,  Miilntiiiiiii  d's  Lilur  run  drr 
Offetihanmii,  pp.  lot,  22S;  siiiiili.  Tin  Hihli  mnl  Ishim.  pp, 
BH  et  scq.;  Bate.  S'dofics  in  /.■-/o;//,  iip.  ij(i  i  f  m  </.  Korilie  later 
legends  see  Weil,  liihlisiiu  I.iiinnlni  dir  MuKdiniiiinir.pp. 
68  ct  scq.x  (iriinbauii).  Xiiii  liiitriini  ziir  Si  niiti.-iiliin 
Siwrnkundr,  pp.  -Sii  et  fteq.;  Bacher,  ItUiit  unit  ]lilili.-*che 
Gisihiilili-  in  mr  Mulianimrdaniiichen  Litiratur.  in  Ko- 
hak's  Jisrhurun.  vill.  1-29;  (;.  A.  Kohut,  Himnitdie  E(<- 
1111  nts  in  Araliic  Liw mis.  in  Independent.  New  York, 
Islis.  .laii.S  (7  siq.;  Lidzl>arski,  De  Prufctiein.qtieBdicuntur, 


Lmi-ndi.'i  Ariiljici»,  Leipsic,  ISiW. 


G. 


Critical  View  :  The  original  and  proper  form 

of  this  name  seems  to  be  either  "  Abraiu"  or  "  Abiram" 

(I  King.s,  xvi.  34;  Dent.  xi.  6),  with 
Etjrmology.  the    meaning,    "  my    Father   [or    my 

God)  is  exalted."  The  form  "Ahra- 
ham  "  yields  no  sense  in  Hebrew,  and  is  probably 
only  a  graphic  variation  of  "Abram,"  the  A  lieing 
simply  a  letter,  indicating  a  preceding  vowel,  a; 
but  popular  tradition  explains  it  "father  of  a 
multitude"  {ab  /lamon),  given  as  a  new  name  on 
the  occasion  of  a  tvirning  lioint  in  the  patriarch's 
career  (Gen.  x  vii.  5).  The  name  is  personal,  not  tribal ; 
it  appears  as  a  personal  name  in  Babylonia  in  the  time 
of  Apil-Sin  (about  2320  n.c. ;  Mcissner,  "Heitriigc 
zum  xUtbabylonischen  Privatrecht."  I^o.  Ill),  and  is 
not  employed  in  the  Old  Testament  in  an  ethnical 
sense  (for  example,  it  is  not  so  employed  in  Micah, 
vii.  20,  nor  in  Isa.  xli.  8). 

In  the  earlier  so-called  Jahvistic  narrative,  Abra- 
ham embodies  particularly  the  conception  of  Israel's 

title  to  the  land  of  Canaan.    He  comes 

National     from  the  East  to  Canaan,  receives  the 

Signifl-       promise  of  the  hind,   separates   from 

cance.        Lot   (>[oab  and   Amnion),    from   Ish- 

mael  (Arabitm  tribes),  and  from  the 
sons  of  Keturah  (other  Ambian  tribes),  thus  elim- 
inating any  possible  future  contention  as  to  the 
title  to  the  country.     A  continuous  process  of  selec- 


tion and  exclusion  is  here  cxeniplitied,  the  result  of 
which  is  to  identify  Abndiam  with  Canaan;  such 
was  the  liopular  conception  of  him  as  liite  as  the 
time  of  E/.ekiel  (Ezek.  xxxiii.  24).  In  the  narrative 
which  the  critics  regard  as  postexilian.  or  the  Priestly 
Code.  Abraham  further  represents  the  formal  cove- 
nant of  God  (El  Shaddai)  with  the  nation,  sealed  by 
the  rite  of  cireumeision  (Covenwxt).  He  stands, 
in  a  word,  for  the  premosiuc  religious  constitution 
of  the  people. 

Abmham's  singularly  majestic  and  attractive  per- 
sonality, as  it  appears  in  Genesis,  is  in  this  view  the 

outcome  of   generations  of   thought. 
Character.   Each  age  contributed  to  the  iiortrait 

of  what  it  held  to  lie  purest  ami 
nolilest  and  worthiest  of  the  first  forefather.  The 
result  is  a  ligure.  solitary,  calm,  strong,  resting  im- 
swervingly  on  God,  anil  moving  unscathed  among 
men.  Later  he  wtis  lli()iii;ht  of  as  "the  friend  of  God  " 
(I.sji.  xli.  S).  Paul  calls  him  the  fsither  of  all  who 
believe  (Rom.  iv).  .Mohammed  takes  him  as  the 
representative  of  the  absolute  primitive  religion, 
from  which  .ludiiismand  Christianity  have  diverged, 
and  to  which  Islam  has  returned.  The  character 
shows,  however,  a  commingling  of  high  and  low. 
There  are  genero.sity  (Gen.  xiii.),  bravery  (Gen.  xiv.), 
a  fine  sense  of  justice  (Gen.  xviii.).  But  tradition,  in 
Older  to  bring  out  God's  special  care  of  the  hero, 
twice  makes  him  guilty  of  falsehood  (Gen.  xii.,  xx.); 
tills  last  fact  throws  light  on  the  ethical  ideas  of  the 
eighth  century. 

Is  there  any  historical  kernel  embedded  in  the 
narrative?     Obviously  it  contains  much  legendary 

mtittir.     The   stories  of  Lot,   Ilagar, 

Relation  to  and  Ketiinih  are  ethnological  myths; 

History,      the  theoplianies  and  the  story  of  the 

destruction  of  the  cities  are  legends; 
circumcision  was  not  adopted  by  the  Israelites  in 
the  way  here  represented  ;  imd  the  story  of  the  at- 
tempted sjicrifice  of  Isaac  is  a  product  of  the  regal 
period.  Abniham's  kinsfolk  (Gen.  xxii.  20-'24)  are 
personifications  of  tribes,  and  his  iiredeccssors  and 
successors,  from  Noah  to  .Jacob,  are  mytliical  or 
legendary.  What  is  to  be  said  of  the  much  debateil 
fourteenth  chapter'/  First,  it  must  be  divided  into 
two  parts:  the  history  of  the  Elamite  invasion,  and 
Abraham's  connection  with  it.  The  first  part  may 
be  historiciil,  but  it  no  more  follows  that  the  second 
part  is  historical  than  tJie  reality  of  the  miracu- 
lous role  assigned  to  Moses  follows  from  the  reality 
of  the  Exodus.  On  the  contrary,  the  mention  of 
Salem  anil  of  tithes  points  to  a  iiostexilian  origin 
forthe  iiiinignipb.  The  invasion  iiiny  be  histoiTcal 
—  "IDV7113  (Cliedorlaonier)  and  imN  (Arioeli)  are 
Elamite,  and  a  march  from  Baliylouia  to  Cansuin  is 
conceivable — but  no  mention  of  it  has  been  found  in 
inscriptions,  ami  it  is  not  easy  to  reconcile  it  with 
known  fiicts.  If  PSIDX  (Amraphel)be  Hammurabi, 
Abraham's  date  is  about  2300  n.c. 

The  liiograpby  of  Abniham  in  Genesis  is  probably 
to  be  regiirded  as  legendary ;  it  has  grown  up  around 
■sjicred  iiliices.  ideas,  and  institutions.  Yet  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  name  involves  some  histor- 
ical fact,  and  that  this  fact  has  to  do  with  tribal 
migration:  the  name,  though  personal,  not  tribal, 
may  reiiresent  a  migration.  By  reason  of  the  pau- 
city of  information  the  whole  question  is  oliscure,  and 
any  conclusions  must  be  largely  conjectural. 

The  text  represents  Abrahiim  as  coming  to  Canaan 
from  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley.  A  migration  of 
Hebrew  ancestors  from  that  region  is  not  necessary 
for  the  explanation  of  what  we  know  of  Hebrew 
history.  But  weight  must  be  attached  to  the  well- 
formed  and  persistent  tradition,  and  a  migration  of 


91 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham 

Abraham,  Apocalypse  of 


this  sort,  as  tlii-Ti'll-el-Aiiiiirua  inscriptions  indicate, 
must  be  rejrarded  as  possible.  If  a  motive  for  tlie 
movement  be  sought,  it  may  be  found  in  the  wars 
which  were  constantly  going  on  between  the  thickly 
settled  and  feebly  organized  inhabitants  of  the  valley 
between  tlie  rivers.  Distinct  indications  of  an  Abra- 
Iiamic  migration  from  Babylonia  are  found  by  some 
scholars  in  the  similarity  between  ISabylonian  and 
Hebrew  institutions  (as  the  Sabbath)  and  m3ths 
(Creation,  Flood,  etc.):  by  others  this  similarit}'  is 
referred  to  Canaanite  intermediation,  or  to  later  bor- 
rowing from  Assyria  or  liaby Ionia. 

Tlie  supposed  relation  of  the  names  "  Sin "  (tlie 
wilderness)  and  "Sinai"  (the  mountain,  and  a  Ca- 
naanite tribe)  to  the  Habylonian  moongod.  Sin,  is 
doubtful.  The  migratina:  tribes  would  speak  Baby- 
lonian or  Anmiaic,  but  would  speedily  become  ab- 
sorbed in  their  new  sunoundiiigs  and  adopt  the 
language  of  the  region.  If  sucli  a  l)r)dy  settled  in 
northern  Arabia,  this  might  account  for  the  connec- 
tinn  of  Abndiam  with  Ilagar  and  Krtunih.  The 
Hebrew  tribes  proper,  cominj;  to  dwell  in  that  region. 
may  have  found  his  name  as  that  of  a  local  hero,  and 
may  gradually  have  adopted  it.  But  of  the  condition 
of  things  in  Canaan  from  '2'i»()  to  'J(Mi()  n.c.  nothing  is 
known,  and  between  Abraham  and  .Moses  there  is  al- 
most an  absolute  blank  in  the  history. 

BiiiLKX^iiAniv  :  Tomkins,  .SfwdiMoii  thr  Time  iif  Ahrnlinm, 
M  eU..  ISilT;  W.  J.  Dfane,  .Dmiluim  :  Ili<  l,l(r  ,niil  Tinu.^. 
Sew  York  ("  Mm  nf  tin  llilih  S.  ri.  s  " ,  :  KiUrl.  Ili.-t.  i.i  lli. 
i/c/^rcioi.  1.  passim;  Uubert.-ntn.  Kitrlji  lirliiiinn  n1  IsnnK 
passim ;  Uommel,  Ancknt  Hcbr.  Traditiotu  v. 

T. 

ABRAHAM,   APOCALYPSE  OF :   An  apoc- 

ryplioii  ilial  lias  lin  ii  |in  served  in  Old  Slavonic 
literature.  Its  title  does  not  fully  explain  its  con- 
tents, for  about  one-third  of  it  might  more  appropri- 
ately be  called  "The  Legend  of  Abraham,"  as  this 
contains  an  account  of  Abraham's  conversion  from 
idolatry  to  monotheism  quite  apart  from  the  Apoc- 
alypse which  follows. 

Abraham,  the  son  of  the  idol-maker  Tek.\ii  (Gen. 
]{.    -X.xxviii.    13),  was,   like  his  father,  a  thorough- 
going idolater,  being  chietly  devoted 
Abraham     tothe  worship  of  the  stone  idol  called 
the  Merumat  ("Ebeii  Marumah,"  stone  of 

Iconoclast,  deceit  and  corruption).  But  on  a  jour- 
ney to  a  plae(Miear  Fandana  (Padan- 
aram),  some  of  his  idols  were  smashed,  and  having 
long  felt  misgivings  as  to  their  power,  he  became 
convinced  of  the  unreality  of  such  deities.  Hence- 
forth he  fearlessly  j>ropagaled  this  n<w  truth,  de- 
fending it  even  against  his  own  father,  whom  he  in 
vain  I'udeavored  to  cnnvert.  He  threw  the  wooden 
iddl  Barisat— (K)nL"X  "13  ("Son  of  the  Fire")— into 
the  tlames,  and  when  remonstrated  with  declared 
that  it  must  have  thrown  itself  in,  in  order  to  hurry 
the  boiling  of  the  f(  If  id  (compare  a  similar  anecdote 
related  of  Abniham  in  (!i'n.  H.  .xx.xviii.  Hi).  But  not 
ev<'n  this  argument  intliieneed  his  father;  and  his 
more  elaborate  ones  in  favor  of  monotheism,  which 
almost  to  the  very  letter  are  identical  with  those 
found  in  the  Midmsh  (Den.  I{.  I.e.),  also  proved 
futile.  Finally  (!od  told  Abraham  to  li'ave  his  fa- 
ther's house,  which,  no  sooner  had  li<'  dune,  than  it 
was  consumed  bv  lire,  as  was  also  his  father.  The 
Biblical  "Irof  the  Chaldets"  ((Jen.  xi.  ;tl,  xv.  7) 
is  here  interprited  as  llie  tire  of  the  Chaldees,  and 
later  in  fuller  detail  in  the  Book  of  Jubilees,  and 
Btill  more  fully  in  the  rilidnush.  Gen.  Ii.,  ami  in 
Pi's.  l\Hit.  In  till'  last  pas,sjigo  the  account  of  llu' 
death  of  Ha  ran  and  of  I  hi'  miniculoiis  escape  of  Abra- 
liam  from  the  lire  of  the  Chaldees  is  based  on  a  com- 
bination of  this  .Vpoealypse  with  the   Book  of  .111- 


bilees.  The  relative  age  of  these  works  can  be 
determined  by  comparing  the  legend  of  Abraliam 
as  contained  in  the  Apocalypse  with 
Date  of  Its  those  in  the  Talmud  and  in  the  Book  of 
Composi  Jubilees.  The  legend  of  the  raven  in 
tion.  the  Book  of  Jubilees  (xi.  18)  and  the 
account  of  the  conversion  of  Abraham 
in  his  boyhood  are  still  unknown  to  the  Apoca- 
lypse, while  the  legend  of  the  tire  of  the  Chaldees  is 
found  there  still  in  its  incipient  stage.  The  mockery 
of  the  idol  Barisat  is  more  extended  in  the  Midrash 
than  ill  the  Apocalypse  ;  also  the  condemnation  of 
Terali  as  an  itiolater.  as  related  in  the  Apoealy])se, 
discloses  the  older  Haggadah  (Gen.  K.  xxxi.x".  7), 
whereas  the  Book  of  Jubilees  iire.sents  the  later  one 
(compare  Gen.  R.  xx.\.  4,  xxxix.  7,  where  Terah  is 
treated  (luite  mildly).  As  the  Book  of  Jubilees  can 
not  have  been  written  later  than  70  (see  Jumr.EES, 
Book  of),  the  date  of  the  composition  should  be 
set  before  the  middle  of  the  first  century. 

It  is  by  no  means  dillieult  to  ascertain  with  some 
degree   of  certainty    the   language    in   which   this 
legend  was  originally  written.     The 
Its  Origi-    siircastic  names  given  to  the  idols  pre- 
nal  suppose  a  familiarity  with  a  Semitic 

Language,  dialect  which  a  Greco-.Iewish  writer 
would  scarcely  have  expected  of  his 
readers.  It  is  not  certain  whether  the  book  was  writ- 
ten in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic.  The  frequent  phrase, 
■■  And  1  said.  Behold  me."  suggests  the  Hebrew  idiom 
'Jjn.  while  the  expression  "silver"  for  "money"  is 
common  to  both  languages. 

The  .second  part  of  the  book,  the  main  Apoca- 
lypse, is  a  commentary  on  Gen.  xv.,  which  is  not 
only  interpreted  by  the  Haggadah  as  a 
Abraham  revelation  of  the  future  destinies  of 
and  the  Israel  up  to  their  final  redemption 
Angels.  (Gen.  H.  xliv.  l,")),  but  also  as  imply- 
ing the  fact  that  "God  lifted  .\bniliam 
above  the  firmament"  and  told  him  to  "look  down 
upon  the  world  beneath."  The  Apocalypse  re- 
lates minutely  the  circumstances  under  which  this 
ascension,  mentioned  in  the  Jlidnish,  took  jdacc. 
According  to  this,  Abniliam's  sacrifice  of  the  animals 
(Gen.  XV.)  took  place,  by  God's  commami,  on  the 
holy  Mount  Iloreb,  whither  Abraham  was  led  by  the 
angel  ?Nin'  (Yahoel)  after  a  journey  of  forty  days. 
The  angel  introduces  himself  to  Abraham,  the 
"frienil  of  God  "(Book  of  Jubilees,  lil;  Jleu.  r<3l>), 
as  a  being  pos-scssed  of  the  power  of  the  Ineffable 
Name  n^^n  Df  (Name  of  the  Existing) ,  a  quality 
assigned  elsewhere  bj'  the  rabbis  to  ME'r.\'rnoN, 
"  whose  name  is  like  unto  that  of  God  Himself  "  (Sanh. 
38A).  This  also  explains  why,  in  the  Apocalypse, 
the  name  Yahoel  is  evidently  a  substitute  for  the 
Ineffable  Name  (niiT) ,  of  which  even  the  wri- 
ting out  in  full  was  forbidden.  Yaboil  is  also  the 
heavenly  choirniaster,  who  teaches  the  angels  their 
hymn  (m'C).  a  function  which,  according  to  Yal- 
kut,  i.  S  i;i;i,  is  as.signed  to  Michael.  Similarly,  the 
control  over  "the  threats  and  attacks  of  the  reptiles" 
ascribed  here  to  Yahoel  is  iLssigned  to  Michael  (see 
Sciiwab,  "  Vocabulaire,"  p.  "JH;!).  Even  Jlichael's 
chief  tji.sk  of  protecting  and  watching  over  Israel 
(Dan.  xii.  1)  is  tussiinicd  by  Yahoel,  who  says  to 
Abraham:  "I  am  .  .  .  with  the  generation  pre- 
pared from  of  old  to  come  frimi  thee,  and  with  me  is 
Michael."  These  are  the  oldest  instances  of  the 
gradual  transformation  of  Michael,  originally  the 
guardian  angel  of  Israel,  into  Me|a(ron — that  is, 
unto  the  one  who  conci'Ulrates  in  hims<'lf  all  that 
is  great,  a  developmeiil  in  Jewish  angelology  of  the 
greatest  inllueiice  upon  the  Christian  doctrine  of 
the  I.K)gos  (see  Aiiu.Mi.v.M.  Tkst.vmknt  of).     I'nJer 


Abraham,  Apocalypse  of 
Abraham,  Testament  of 


Tin:  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


98 


the  guidance  of  Yahoel,  and  assisted  bv  many  otlier 
an  pels,  Abraliam  offers  up  his  siioritire(C}en.  xv.).  Imt 
not  withdiit  l)einj;  disturlicd  liy  A/azc].  the  fallen 
arehangel  and  sedueer  of  niaiikind,  as  he  is  eliaraeter- 
ized  in  the  Apoealj-pse  (in  ajrrcenient  withtlie  Midr. 
Alikir,  Yalk.,  Gen.,  S  -l-l)-  1"  '1"'  form  (if  an  unclean 
bird  he  swoops  down  "upon  the  carcasses"  (Gen. 
XV.  11),  and,  speakinjr  with  a  liuman  voice,  tries  to 
persuade  Abniham  to  leave  the  holy  place.  But 
Abndiani  was  not  the  man  to  be  seduced  by  Sa- 
tan (Sauh.  S!l/<).  Yahoel  spoke  to  Azazel,  saying. 
"Listen.  Iliou  [evil]  adviser,  leave  this  man  alone 
thou  canst  not  lead  him  astray  :  thou  canst  not  tempt 
the  righteous."  Accordinir  to  Baba  Batra,  ITrt. 
Abmliam  was  one  of  the  three  risrhtiims  ones,  over 
whom  Satan  (VimV  llie  Evil  Spirit)  had  no  power. 
Yahoel  then  adds  that  the  c<U'Stial  jrarments  which 
Satan  liad  worn  now  bclons  to  Abraham ;  which  isalso 
expressed  in  Pirke  de  Habbi  Eliezer.  xx.  and  in  Tar- 
gum  Yer.  Gen.  iii.  'i\.  where  it  is  said  that  the  gar- 
ments of  light  nix  m:nD  for  -nv  nuns.  G<'n.  H.  xx. 

29)  of  the  lirst  two  liuiiian  beings  were  made  out  of 
the  skin  of  the  primeval  serpent.  The  Apocalypse 
understands  Azazel 's  siu  to  liave  consisted  in  "scat- 
tering the  secrets  of  heaven  upon  eartli"  (compare 
Book  of  Enocli,  viii.  1)  an<l  in  devising  rebellion 
against  tlie  Jliirhtv  One  (T3X) ;  compare  also  Gen. 
R.  xix.  and  Pirke'H.  El.  xiii. 

After  this  interview  with  Satan,  Abraham,  borne 
by  a  dove  (compare  Matt.  iii.  10),  ascended  to  heaven, 
the  splendor  and  glory  of  which  are 
Abraham's  describeil  at  great  length,  and  jiarticti- 
Ascension.  larly  the  rivalry  of  the  living  creatures 
about  the  heavenly  throne  (NDSn  nvn ; 
see  Tan.,  ed.  Buber;  Gen.  x.).  He  also  saw  there  the 
angels  that  are  born  daily,  and  disappear  as  .soon  as 
they  have  s\ing  their  hymn  (Gen.  K.  Ixxviii.  1.)  He 
repeats  the  prayer  spoken  for  him  by  the  angel,  es- 
pecially the  following  passage:  "  Thou,  O  Light,  didst 
shine  before  the  primeval  morning  [the  Slavonic  text 
has  "  morning-light."  a  mistranslation  of  the  original 
PC'NI  ■)1X  or  S"cnp  Nmnj]  ujiouThy  creatures,  to 
cause  the  day  to  ilhunine  the  earth  by  the  light  of 
Thj-  countenance,"  which  is  also  found  in  the  ritual. 
This  view  rests  upon  an  ancient  conceiition  known 
to  the  students  of  the  ilerkabah  mysteries,  anil  is 
rendered  in  Gen.  U.  iii.  4;  "God  wrapped  Him.self 
in  a  garment  of  light,  with  which  He  illuminated  the 
earth  from  one  end  to  the  other." 

Ascending  higher,  Abraham  reaches  the  seventh 
heaven,  where  he  sees  the  throne,  but,  he  does  not  see 
God,  as  He  is  iuvisiljle.  Here  he  is  shown  by  God 
everything  that  exists  in  the  heavens:  the  angels,  the 
celestial  l)odies.  also  the  earth,  and  everything  that 
is  moving  upon  it.  He  sees,  in  addition,  the  Levi- 
athan and  its  possessions  in  the  nethermost  waters 
(compare  Cant.  R.  on  i.  4).  and  the  world  founded 
upon  its  fins  (compare  Pirke  R.  El.  ix).  Furthermore, 
lie  sees  the  rivers  and  their  origin,  and  |iaradise  (Syr- 
iac  Apoc.  of  Baruch,  iv.  4).  The  fall  of  mankind 
is  explained  to  him.  just  as  in  the  Slavonic  Book  of 
Baruch  and  Pirke  R.  El.  xxi.  Adam  and  Eve  are  led 
to  commit  (sexual)  siu  by  Azazel  (Satana-El  in  the 
Book  of  Baruch ;  Sama-El  in  Pirke  R.  El. )  through  his 
causing  them  to  eat  from  the  forbidden  fnnt,  a  grape 
from  the  vine  (compare  Slavonic  Book  of  Baruch  and 
Bar.  40rt).  God  informs  Abraham  that,  notwithstand- 
ing yeur  ha-rn'  ("the  lustful  desire"),  and  ^C  NQHIt 
Cnj  ("the  pollution  of  the  serpent"),  with  which 
man  from  that  time  has  been  possessed,  he  has  a  free 
will  of  his  own  and  maj'  choose  to  abstain  from  sin. 
Abraham  then  obtains  an  insight  into  the  future  of 
both  individuals  and  nations,  andespecially  is  he  fore- 
warned of  the  sufferings  of  the  people  of  Israel  and 


their  tinal  redemiuion  in  the  Messianic  time.  The  de- 
.struction  of  the  Temple,  which  sorely  grieves  Abra- 
ham, is  declared  by  God  to  be  a  neces.sary  punish- 
ment for  the  sins  of  the  jieople  of  Israel;  and.  as  in 
Pirke  H.  El.  xxviii.,  a  time  is  hinted  for  the  end  of 
their  sulTerings  under  the  four  empires.  The  ile- 
scription  of  the  period  preceding  the  Messianic  time 
is  the  only  part  containing  Christian  interpolations, 
which  are  easily  separated  from  the  main  part,  all  of 
which  has  a  decidedly  Jewish  character.  This  isevi- 
di-nci'd  by  the  mention  of  the  ten  jdagues  which  shall 
befidl  the  heathen  nations,  a  ciaistantly  recurring 
feature  in  the  description  of  the  Messianic  time  (see 
Tan.,  ed.  Buber,  ii.  30;  Ex.  R.  ix.  13),  and  by  the 
concluding  part  of  the  Apocalypse,  which  contains 
the  prophecy  of  tlie  gathering  of  Isniel  in  the  Prom- 
ised Land,  to  be  ushered  in  by  a  trumpet-blast  from 
God  (Jellinik.  "  B.  II."  vi.  TiS),  smd  by  the  judgment 
to  he  passed  upon  the  heathen  anil  the  wicked. 

Concerning  the  date  of  the  composition  of  the 
Apocalypse  proper,   it  clearly  can   not  have  been 

written  before  the  destruction  of  the 

Date  of     First  Temiile,  as  it  contains  Abraham's 

Composi-    lamentations    over   that   catastrophe. 

tion.         The  emphasis  laid  on  the  freedom  of 

will,  notwithstanding  the  fall  of  man, 
presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the  Christian  doctrine 
of  sin,  against  which  this  pas.sage  seems  to  be  di- 
rected. But  this  very  opposition  to  the  Christian 
dogma  shows  that  at  the  time  the  Apocalypse  was 
written  Chiistlaiuty  was  not  far  removed  from  Ju- 
daism, at  least  not  in  Palestine,  where,  since  be  used 
a  Semitic  language,  the  author  must  have  lived. 
The  last  decades  of  the  first  century  appear  to  be  the 
lieriod  in  which  the  Apocalypse  was  written.  This 
remark,  however,  applies  to  the  main  ])art  of  the 
book,  and  not  to  its  t'hrislian  and  (Jnostic  interpola- 
tions. In  connection  with  these  must  be  considered 
the  statement  found  in  the  Apocalypse  that  Azazel, 
who  is  described  as  being  endowed  wit  h  twelve  wings 
(which  description  coincides  exactly  with  that  given 
in  the  Ilaggadah.  Pirke  R.  El.  xiii.),  shares  with  God 
the  power  over  Israel.  This  is,  no  doubt,  the  Gnostic 
doctrine  of  the  God  of  the  Jews  as  Kakodalmon;  and 
in  this  connection  Ircnaus  may  be  quoted,  who  says 
of  the  Ophitic  Gnostics  ("Contra'E^fj.vof."  i-  30,  9). 
"et  projectibilem  serpentem  duo  habere  noniina,  Mi- 
chael et  Samael,  dicim' "  (and  they  called  the  wretched 
serpent  two  names,  Michael  and  Samael).  Thus,  iu 
the  mind  of  these  Gnostics. .Samael  (pnijpV  CTIJ  "the 
entwined  serpent  ")  and  Jllchael  were  fused  into  one 
being.  Therefore,  it  is  (juite  jirobable  that  certain 
jiartsof  the  heretical  Apocalypse  of  Abraham,  which 
was  in  circidation  among  the  Gnostics  (Epiphanius, 
J]avdi>inv  39, ."))  .were  incor]iiirateil  in  the  present  text. 
Subtracting,  then,  the  first  part,  which  does  not  be- 
long to  the  Apocalypse,  and  the  Gnostic  and  Chris- 
tian interpolations,  only  about  three  hundred  lines 
remain,  and  this  lumdier  would  exactly  coirespond 
with  the  number  which,  according  to  the  stichom- 
etry  of  Nicephorus,the  Apocalypse  of  Abraham  con- 
tained. Outside  of  this,  no  trace  of  the  A])ocal_vpsc 
is  found  in  ancient  writings.  The  (|\iotation  by  Ori- 
gen  ("In  Lucam,"  hom.  35)  from  an  apocalypse  of 
Abraham  certainly  does  not  refer  to  the  present  text. 
(  ompare  also  Azazel  and  Abr.\ii  am,  Testament  of. 

Bibliography:  T>ie  Ai>i)l<altiti»r  Ahraliamx.  pii.  G.  Nattianael 
Bonwetseh  in  Stwlirn  zur  (ii-sch.  ih  r  Tlicnl.  iitnl  Kirclit:, 
ed.  G.  Nattianael  Bonwet.si-li  ami  R.  Seeberp,  i.  1.  I^elpsir.  1837; 
Schiirer,  Geach.  Hi.  ajO-2.>i ;  Uinzberg,  Die  HamKi'hih  h.  <l. 
KirrUem-iltern.  in  ilomtisichrift,  im,  pp.537-»jy,  and  18S», 
pp.  17-22,  61-75,  etc.  t      p 

ABRAHAM'S  BOSOM  :  In  the  New  Testament 
and  in  Jewish  writings  a  term  signifying  the  abode 


93 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham,  Apocalypse  of 
Abraham,  Testament  of 


of  bliss  in  the  othtT  world.  According  to  IV  Mace. 
.\iii.  17,  the  righloous  who  die  for  their  faith  are 
received  by  Abraham,  Isjuic.  and  Jacolj  in  paradise 
(ciimpare  Matt.  viii.  11:  "Many  shall  come  from 
the  cast  and  the  west  and  sit  down  with  Abraham, 
liijiac.  and  Jacob  in  the  kingdom  <if  lieaven  ").  In 
Kid.  72A,  Adda  bar  Ahal]a,  a  ralilii  of  tlie  third  cen- 
tury, is  said  to  be  "sittinir  in  tlie  bosiim  of  Abraliam," 
which  means  tliat  he  has  entered  i)aradise.  With  Ibis 
should  be  eom])ared  the  statement  of  K.  Levi  (Gen. 
H.  xlviii.)  :  "In  the  world  to  come  Abraham  sits  at 
the  gate  of  Gehenna,  permitting  none  to  enter  who 
bears  the  seal  of  the  covenant  "  (see  CiiiClMcisioN). 
In  the  Hellenistic  Testament  of  Abraham  it  is 
Adam,  the  representative  of  humanity,  who  sits  at 
the  gate  of  hell  ami  paradise;  the  Jewish  view  of 
later  times  placed  Aliiaham.  the  progenitor  of  Israel, 
in  Adam's  place.  This  was  also  the  view  of  the  New 
Testament  writers  as  presented  in  Luke,  xvi.  19-31, 
the  story  of  La/.arus  and  the  rich  man.  Lazarus, 
the  beggar,  died  and  was  carried  by  the  angels  into 
Abraham's  IJosom;  the  rich  man  died  and  was  put 
into  Gehenna,  where  he  sjiw  La/arus  in  the  ISosom 
of  Abraham,  full  of  joy,  whereas  lu'  suffered  great 
torment.  Thereat  he  cried:  "  Fatlier  Aliraham,  have 
mercy  on  me !  "  and  linally  he  asked  .Vljrahaiu  to  send 
La/.arus  to  his  father's  housi'  to  admonish  his  five 
brothers  to  lead  lives  characteri/ed  by  repentance,  in 
order  not  to  meet  the  sjime  fate  as  his  own.  AVhcre- 
upon  Abraham  siud :  "They  have  the  law  of  Moses 
and  the  teaclungsof  the  proi)hets;  let  them  be  mind- 
ful (if  these,  and  they  will  enter  paradise  as  well  as 
La/.arus."  On  La/arus  (Kliezer)  and  Abraham  see 
(Jeiger's  "  Ji'idiselie  Zeitsclirifl  fi'ir  Wissenschaft  uiul 
Leben,"  vii.  200.  It  is  iilain  that  Alnaham  is  here 
viewed  as  the  warden  of  paradise,  like  Michael  in 
Jewish  and  St.  Peter  in  Christian  folk  lore  ("Texts 
and  Studii-s."  v.  .")."i,  tii).  Camhridge).  Of  Abraham 
as  attornev  i>leading  for  Israel,  R.  Jonathan   also 

speaks  I  Sliab,   Nil/-  ).  ■"  K. 

ABRAHAM'S  OAK  :  A  famous  and  venerable 
(y.ik  {(^iiiiciiK  imiiihi-ciicrifirtt)  which  still  stands  at 
Manue,  half  an  hour's  journey  west  of  Hebron,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall  over  which  it  projects. 
Josephus  probably  refers  to  it  ("Ant."  i.  10,  ^4),  or 
a  predeces.sor  on  the  same  spot,  when  he  mentions 
that  Abraham  dwelt  by  an  "ogygian"  (prehist<irie) 


Altnilllilti'o  '  )ak  III  !  ~  1. 

tree.  According  to  trailition,  it  was  opposite  this 
oak  that  .Mindiam's  lent  was  pitched  at  the  time 
thai  the  anirels  came  to  him  and  promised  him  a  son 
and  heir;  also  when  he  was  ni'gotialing  with  K|)liidn 
the  Ililtite  for  the  eavi>  of  .Maehpelah  (Gen.  xviii. 
and  x.\iii.).  Some  have  eonneeled  the  oak  with  an 
earlier  stage   of   tree  worship.     In  Jerome's   time, 


fairs  were  held  under  it.  During  the  Crusades  Abra- 
ham's Oak  was  visited  frequently  bj'  the  pilgrims; 
and  it  became  customary  to  hold  the  Feast  of  the 
Trinity  under  its  shadow,  connecting  the  subject  of 
the  feast  with  the  three  angels  of  the  Biblical  nar- 
rative.   The  inventive  traveler  Odoricus  (1286-1331) 


Abraliam 's  Ual:  as  it  appeared  in  liiil7. 

connects  the  oak  with  the  legend  of  the  Cross  ("  Itin- 
erarium,"  chap.  xlvi.).  Josippon  stales  that  it  lasted 
until  the  days  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  when  it 
withered.  Its  wood  was  used  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses, the  belief  being  that  such  a  use  itreventcd 
any  illness  up  to  the  day  of  death  (Chronicle  of 
Jerahmeel,  i)p.  Ixxi.  and  78). 

Near  the  oak  in  former  times,  on  its  north  side, 
stood  a  terebinth,  which,  according  to  Josephus  ("  H. 
J."  iv.  i),  S;  7).  had  existed  since  the  beginning  of  the 
world.  It  was  under  this  tree  that,  in  liadrian's  time, 
the  great  sales  of  Jewish  slaves,  numbering,  it  is 
said,  no  less  than  lii.5.000.  took  place. 

Abraham's  Oak  has  become  considerably  weak- 
ened in  recent  yeai's.  as  is  shown  by  the  acconijiany- 
ing  illustrations,  taken  in  the  years  1847  and  18it7  re- 
spectively. In  183'2  a  large  branch  was  broken  oil  by 
lightning ;  and  the  wood  from  it  formed  eight  camel- 
loads. 

BlBI.IofiRAPIIV:  Sepp,  JinwWfiii  loiri  (/(in  Ki'id'yc  Laml,  I. 
(ill-IESi:  I'aU'stine  Exploration  Fund,  (Jmirtirly  SttilciiKUt, 
ISW,  pp.  3»,  40. 

F.  II.  IC— J. 

ABKAHAM,  TESTAMENT  OF:  An  apoc- 
ryphal li'iol^,  piil.lisli,  il  Inr  ilic  lir-i  time  by  Mon- 
tague Kliodes  James,  in  two  ililVeient  i-ecensions, 
in  IJobinson's  "Texts  and  Studies," 
Recent  ii.  No.  2  (Camliridge,  lis'.12).  and  trans- 
Discovery    laled  from  the  Greek  original  by  W. 

of  Book.  A.  Craigie  in  the  "  Ante-Nicene  Libra- 
ry," ix.  182-201.  Elhiopic.  Slavonic, 
and  Humanian  versions  also  have  been  found,  and 
some  of  them  published. 

The  book  contains  the  story  of  the  death  of  Abra- 
ham, told  in  exactly  the  saini-  foiin  as  that  in  which 
the  death  of  Moses  is  deserilxil  by  the  ancient  Ilag- 
gadah;  with  the  view  of  portraying  in  poetic  style 
the  pious  man.  on  the  one  hand,  struggling  against 
the  fate  of  mortality,  and  yet.  on  the  ollii'i-,  enjoying, 
while  still  in  mortal  garb,  the  privilege  of  survi'y- 
iiig  the  whole  World  with  the  eyes  of  an  immortal 
being  (.'<ee  Mosks.  Ascknsiox  of.  and  Anu.Mi.vM, 
Aroc.vt.vi'SK  OF).  Abraham,  the  model  of  a  beneli- 
cent,  hospitable,  and  just  man.  having  reached  the 
full  measuii'  of  life,  (iod  sends  Michael,  his  chief 
general  (compare  Slavonic  Hook  of  Knoch,  xx.  tl, 
and  Buber's  "Midmsh  Agadah."  p.  U>2.  inlerpn-t- 
ing  Josh.  V.  14),  to  prepare  him  for  the  approaching 
end.     The  ari-hangel  appears  as  a  common  tniveler 


Abraham,  Testament  of 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


94 


to  Abraham  in  the  field,  and  is  received  with  cus 
tomary  hospitality  and  invited  to  Aljoiliam's  house. 
On  their  way  home,  Abraham,  who  understands  the 
language  of  trees)  as  did  .Tolmnan  ben  Zaklvai. 
Sukka.  28fl).  hears  the  huge  tamarisk-tree  with  its 
three  hundred  and  thirty  one  branches  (=^  C'N; 
Gen.  .\.\i.  :!;i)  singing  a  song  wliieh  .seems  to  be 
the  foreljoding  of  some  misfortune  (Zohar,  Wa- 
yera.  Gen.  xviii.  1,  end).  Tears  spring  to  his  eyes 
as  he  washes  tlie  feet  of  the  archangel;  and  Michael 
weeps  also,  his  tears  turning  into  pearls  wliidi 
Abraham  catlbes  quickly,  hiding  them  under  his 
cloak.  Michael,  before  sitting  dowu  at  the  table, 
departs  for  a  few  moments,  as  it  is  sunset,  the 
time  when  the  ministering  angels  sing  the  prai.se 
of  the  Lord  in  heaven,  and  Jlicliael,  their  chief, 
must  lead  them  (Yalk.,  Gen.  i^  133).  But.  in  ad- 
dition to  this,  Michael  .slirinks  from  bringing  the 
tidings  of  approaching  death  to  Abraham,  wlio.se 
eiiual  for  goodness  of  heart  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  world.  When  God  reassures  him  by  the 
promise  that  He  will  send  a  prophetic  dream  to 
Isaac,  announcing  to  him  the  death  of  his  father,  an- 
other difficulty  presents  itself  in  reentering  Abra- 
ham's house-  How  can  he.  a  celestial  beiug.  par- 
take of  the  meal  spread  before  him?  God  tells  him 
to  sit  down  at  the  table,  and  that  He  will  send  over 
him  "a  devouring  spirit  that  shall  eat  upeverytliing 
out  of  his  hands  and  mouth."  Compare  Justin  Mar- 
tyr, "Dial,  cum  Tryph."  Ivii.,  where  the  eating  of 
the  angels  is  compared  with  tlie  eating  of  fire,  a 
view  wliich  dilTers  from  the  Docctic  one,  which  re- 
gards the  eating  of  the  angels  as  merely  apparent, 
not  real  (Tobit.  .\ii  19;  Josephus,  "Ant."  i.  11,  J;  2; 
Philo.  "De  Abrahamo."  S  23.  ed.  Mangey,  ii.  18; 
B.  M.  866;  Gen.  R.  xlviii.  U.  and  most  of  the  Church 
Fathers),  and  differs  also  from  the  ingenuous  one 
in  the  Targum  on  Gen.  xviii.  8,  and  Tanua  debe  Eli 
yahu  R.  12. 

Immediately  after  midnight  (the  time  of  divine 
favor,  Ber.  3?/)  Isaac  dreams  of  his  father's  death. 
Having  related  the  dream  to  Abraham,  son  and  fa- 
ther begin  to  weep,  thus  rousing  Sarah,  who  recog- 
nizes Michael  as  one  of  the  three  angels  (Gen.  xviii. 
1-10) .  According  to  recension  A,  Michael  had  been 
the  speaker  of  the  three;  while,  according  to  recen- 
sion B.  he  had  gone  to  rescue  Lot  (see  Gen.  U.  1.  2,  and 
B.  M.  86A).  Abraham  confirms  Sarah's  observation ; 
saying  that,  when  washing  Michael's  feet,  he  .saw 
that  the  stranger  was  one  of  the  angels  ("for  their 
feet  were  straight  feet :  and  the  sole  of  their  foot  like 
the  sole  of  a  calf's  foot."  I^zek.  i.  7;  compare  Gen.  R. 
Ixv.  21) .  Michael  had  also  appeared  to  Isaac,  in  his 
dream,  as  a  man  of  gigantic  size,  shining  more  than 
seven  suns  (see  Isa.  xxx.  26),  or,  according  to /?, 
"like  the  father  of  light"  (see  also  Apoc.  Mosis. 
§  36 ;  "  father  of  lights  ").  He  introduces  himself  to 
Abraham  as  the  archangel  who  stands  before  the 
face  of  the  Lord  (Sar  ha-Pauira.  "  Prince  of  the  Pres- 
ence." is  Michael's  original  title  before  lie  is  trans- 
formed into  the  Jletatron — Tanhuma,  Genesis,  ed. 
Buber.  p.  IT.  and  Slavonic  Book  of  Enoch,  xxii  6), 
and  reveals  to  him  the  meaning  of  the  dream.  But 
Abraham  refuses  to  give  him  his  soul.  Jlichael  re- 
turns to  the  Lord,  who  orders  him  to  plead  with 
Abraham,  and  to  tell  him  that  all  the  descendants 
of  Adam  and  Eve  must  die,  but  that,  as  an  espe- 
cial token  of  divine  favor,  he  will  be  transferred 
to  a  better  world  without  ])ain  or  the  pangs  of 
death. 

Finally  Abraham  yields;  but  at  the  same  time  he 
rotjuests  Michael  to  intercede  with  the  Lord  and  to 
ask  that  he  (Abraham)  may  be  permitted  to  see  the 
Tvhole  world  created  by  one  word  (the  "ten  creative 


words" — Ab.  v.  1 — is  a  later  rabbinical  view;  see 
Mek.,  Shirah,  x.,  ed.  Weiss,  .52A.  end)  before  his 
death.  The  Lord  consents,  and  orders  Michael  to  take 

a  cloud  of  light,  'anan  knlxxi  (the  rab- 

Abraham's  binical  'amuriu  dentira,  Ket.  17n,  62A). 

■Visit  to     and    angels   of   the    chariot    {mfikn- 

Heaven,     hili).  and   to   place  Abraham  in   the 

chariot  of  the  cherubim  and  to  carry 
him  (compare  II  Kings,  ii.  11.  and  Tanna  debe 
Eliyahu  R.  v.)  to  heaven,  whence  he  would  l)c 
able  to  survey  the  whole  universe.  His  ride  begins 
with  the  Great  Sea  (mistranslated  in  the  .\pocr. 
"ocean";  but  compare  Slavonic  Book  of  Enoch, 
iii.  3,  and  "the  waters  above  the  firmament."  Gen. 
i.  6).  While  surveying  all  the  world  with  its  joys 
and  W(H-s,  its  beautiful  and  evil  things,  he  is  filled 
with  indignation  at  the  sight  of  the  awful  crimes 
committed;  and  he  asks  the  archangel  to  smite  all 
malefactors  with  instant  death — which  he  did.  But 
a  voice  resounds  from  heaven,  crying:  "O  Arch- 
angel Michael,  order  the  chariot  to  stop,  and  turn 
Abraham  away,  lest,  seeing  that  all  live  in  wicked- 
ness, he  destroy  all  creation.  For  behold  Abraham, 
not  having  sinned  himself,  has  no  pity  for  sinners ; 
but  I,  who  made  the  world,  take  no  delight  in  de- 
stroying any,  but  await  the  death  of  the  .sinner, 
that  he  may  be  converted  and  live."  Michael  di- 
rects the  heavenly  chariot  eastward  toward  para- 
dise (B.  B.  84«;  Ethiopic  Book  of  Enoch,  xxxii. ; 
and  Slavonic  Book  of  Enoch,  xlii.  3),  near  which 
Gehenna  lies,  separated  only  by  a  handbreadth 
(Yalk,,  Eccl.  ^  976).  At  this  point  an  interesting 
picture  of  the  Judgment  of  the  .Souls  is  presented: 
Two  gates,  one  narrow  and  one  wide,  lead  into 
heaven;  and  before  them  sits  upon  a  golden  throne  a 
man  whose  appearance  is  terrible  like  that  of  the 
Lord.  It  is  Adam,  the  image  of  the  Lord  (B.  B,  'ySfi); 
and  all  the  souls  pass  by  him — the  just  through  the 
narrow  gate  and  the  wicked  through  the  wide  gate, 
each  by  his  own  merit  or  demerit,  but  none  encum- 
bered by  Adam's  sin  (Tan..  Num.,ed.  Buber,  p.  124; 
Zohar,  Gen.  vii.  6).  .Vbraham  is  allowed  to  watch 
the  procedure  of  judgment  within  the  wide  gate. 
He  sees  the  scourging  angels  called  mnlnke  httMiitlnh 
(Eccl.  R.  iv.  3),  riidhike  sntiin  (Tosef.,  Shab,  'xvii.  3), 
"fierce  of  appearance,  pitiless  of  mind,  lashing  the 
souls  with  fiery  tongues."  On  a  table  is  spread  a 
book  ten  cubits  in  breadth  and  five  cubits  in  thick- 
ness (a  combination  of  Ezekiel,  ii.  9.  and  Zechariah, 
v.  1.  2;  see  'Erubin,  'iln),  in  which  all  the  good  and 
all  the  bad  actions  of  man  are  recorded  by  two  an- 
gels. As  to  the  many  parallels  in  the  apocrvphal 
literature,  compare  Harnack's  notes  to  his  edition  of 
"  Henna;  Pastor  "i.  3,  §  2,  and  Baraita,  R,  H.  164;  also 
Slavonic  Book  of  Enoch,  xix.  5.  While  the  two 
angels  officiate  temporarily  as  recorders  dru'ing  the 
judgment  (Hag.  16") .  the  permanent  recorder  is 
Enoch  (see  Book  of  Enoch  and  Targ.  Yer.  Gen.  v. 
24).  "the  teacher  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  scribe  of 
righteousness."  But  the  actions  of  the  man  are  also 
weighed  in  the  scales,  to  find  out  whether  the  good 
outweigh  the  bad.  enabling  the  .soul  to  enter  para- 
dise, or  whether  the  bad  prevail,  resulting  in  the 
consignment  of  the  soul  to  Gehenna.  In  case,  how- 
ever, his  good  and  evil  deeds  are  equal  in  weight, 
the  sold  has  to  undergo  the  process  of  purification 
by  fire,  remaining  in  an  intermediate  state  (Benoni) 
corresponding  to  the  purgatory  of  the  Church 
(compare  Tosef,,  Sanh.  xiii.  3;  'Er,  19a;  Hag,  27*/; 
Origen,  in  Psalm  xxxvii.  hom.  3;  Ambrose,  enarrnlio 
in  f'sixlm  xxxvii.  No.  26).  But  the  weighing  of  the 
sins  is  also  done  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  their 
quality,  .since  there  are  light  and  heavy  ones,  sins 
such  as  advdtery  being  compensated   for  only  by 


05 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham,  Testament  of 


many  good  actions  (R.  H.  17«).  The  name  of  the 
weighing  angel  is  very  significant— Dolviel  (com- 
jmre  Isa.  xl.  15,  31,  '"by  the  dust  [pT]  in  the  bal- 
ance"; see  Jerome  on  this  passage),  while  the  an- 
gel who  probes  the  soul  is  called  I'uriel,  from  the 
Greek  word  for  lire.  ^vi>.  This  apocrypha  con- 
tains an  utterance  of  God  which  is  peculiar  to 
it-  "I  shall  not  judge  man  [see  Gen.  vi,  :i|;  tlierc- 
f(ire  shall  Aliel,  tlie  lirst  man  born  of  woman,  be 
judge." 

Abraham  is  then  represented  in  a  touching  way 
as  pitying  a  soul  that  is  just  bein.g  weighed,  and 
that  lacks  Imt  one  meritorious  act  to  outbalance  its 
evil  doings.  He  intercedes  on  its  behalf:  the 
angels  join  in;  and  the  soul  is  at  last  admitted 
into  paradise.  The  merit  of  the  pious  helping  the 
sinner  is  often  mentioned  in  rabbinical  and  apocry- 
phal literatiue  (compare  Slavonic  liook  of  Knoch,  vii. 
4,  and  Apoc.  Mosis,  ;i;);  Sotah.  U)li).  Al)raham  now 
reproaches  himself  for  having  previously  cau.sed 
the(leatli  of  tli<'  male  fact  ois  l]y  Ids  e.\ces.sive  zeal,  but 
is  assured  by  (iod  thai  "an  uncianmon  mode  of  death 
works  pardon  for  all  sins,"  and  that,  consequently, 
his  act  was  beneticial  {compare  Saidi.  4;Wy). 

Abraham,  having  seen  the  entire  world  above  and 
lielow,  is  carried  back  to  his  own  house  by  the  arch- 
angel, who  for  the  third  time  is  com- 
Abraham    manded  by   God  to  take  Abraham's 
Refuses  to  soul;  but  (as  is  the  case  with  Moses  in 
Yield  His    the  legen<l)  Abraham  peisistiMitly  re- 
Soul.         fuses  to  surrender  it  to  him.     Michael 
returns  to  the  Lord,  saying ;  "  I  care  not 
to  lay  hand  upon  Abraham,  who  was  Thy  friend  from 
the  begimiing  and  has  none  like  him  on  earth,  not 
even  .loll,  the  marvelous  man  ";  meaning  that  Abra- 
ham bad  learned  to  worship  the  One  God  as  a  child 
of  three   (or  thirteen)  years  (see   Anit.vil.XM,  where 
the    dilTerent    traditions  of  the   rabbis    are  given), 
whereas  Job  became  a  worshiper  of  the   Lord  oidy 
when    he    was    king   (see    Jon.    Ti-.st.\.mi:nt    of). 
Furthermore,  Abraham  worshiped  God  from  love, 
while  Jol)  onlv  feared  the  Lord  (compare  Jlishnah 
Sotah,  v.  r,  {•i1l>]). 

Another  plan  for  obtaining  the  soul  of  Abraham 
is  resorted  to.  Death  (Aza/.el),  the  angel  of  the 
dauntless  countenance  and  of  the  pitiless  look,  who 
spares  neither  young  nor  old.  is  conunanded  to  ap- 
pr;ir  in  the  guise  of  a  bright  and  beautiful  angel 
iiefon^  Alu'aliam.  This  disguise  is  considered  neces- 
sary lest  Abndiani,  as  Moses  did  after  him.  might 
drive  Death  olT  at  once  by  using  the  jiower  of  the 
Holy  Name  (tniDDn  DC'),  hut  when  tin;  angel  tells 
him  that  he,  "  the  bittercu))  «(  (hath  '  (Samael) .  has 
come  to  take  his  soul.  Abraham  refuses  to  go  with 
him.  The  Angi'l  of  Death  tliereupon  arouses  Abra 
hum's  curiosity  by  saying  that  the  form  in  which 
he  appears  is  not  his  real  one;  the  vimt  sight  of 
which  woidd,  by  its  terrors,  bring  death  to  tlie  sin- 
ner. Abraham  naturally  expresses  the  wi.sh  to  .see 
him  in  his  true  form,  and  the  luigel  then  appears 
with  his  seven  serpent-heads  and  fourteen  faces; 
and  the  very  sight  kills  seven  thoiisand  male  anil 
fi-rnale  slaves  of  Abraham's  household,  Abndiam 
himself  liecoming  sick  unto  death  ((-ompare  M.  K 
1!.%'.  concerning  the  "  (errors  of  the  .\ngel  of  Dialh," 
and  till'  description  in  'Ah.  Zar:di,  ".'ll/'  of  his  face 
full  of  many  terrible  eyes  anil  of  the  bitter  cu])  of 
]mison  which  he  carries  with  him  to  cast  into  tlie 
mouths  of  mortals  as  they  open  them  at  the  ghastly 
sight,  .so  as  to  kill  them;  see  also  Jellinek,  "  IV  II."  I. 
l-'iO)  Aliniham  restores  the  lives  of  the  seven  thou- 
siuiil  slaves  by  his  priiyer.  and  then  causes  the  Angel 
of  Death  to  explain  to  him  all  the  teirible  faces 
xvhich  he  has  shown  to  him.  .is  will  !is  tin-  seventv- 


two  kinds  of  death,  timely  and  untimely,  that  men 
may  meet.* 

Abraham,  however,  does  not  fully  recover  from 
the  shock ;  and  God  (according  to  recension  /i, 
which  is  here  more  consistent  tlian  A)  removes  his 
soul  "as  in  a  dream" — for  which  the  more  poetic 
expression  of  the  ralibis  is  "by  a  kiss"  (B.  B.  \7ii) . 

Then  Jlichael.  the  heavenly  caretaker 

God  Takes  of    soids   (Apoc.    Mosis.    ed.    Tiscli- 

Abraham's  endorf,  '2()f.  and  "  Pe^irat  Jlosheh"). 

Soul.        with  a  host  of  angels,  comes  and  wraps 

.\bndiani  in  heaven-spun  linen  and 
anoints  him  with  paradisiacal  incense  (comp.  Ai).\M, 
Book  oi-) ,  and  :ifti-r  the  lapse  of  three  days  they  bui-y 
him  under  the  tree  of  Mamre  (compare  Gen.  H.  e.). 
Then,  andd  hyimis  and  praises  of  the  saints,  they 
cairy  his  soul  up  to  heaven,  and  having  prostrated 
himself  before  God  the  Father.  Abraham,  the  friend 
of  God,  is  brought  into  paradise  to  tin-  pavilions  of 
the  righteous  (compai-e  B.  B.  7")//:  "The  Lord  shall 
build  pavilions  for  the  righteous  ones,  for  each 
according  to  his  me)-it."  "where  there  is  neither 
trouble  nor  grief  nor  anything  but  peace  and  rejoi- 
cing and  life  unending  " — Ber.  17rt). 

The  above  description  of  the  contents  of  the  apoc- 
rypha, with  the  numerous  parallels  given  from  rab- 
binical literature,  which  extend  to  the  smallest  de- 
tail, leaves  not  the  least  room  for  doubt  as  to  its 
Jewish  origin.  In  fact,  ajiart  from  .some  late  Chris- 
tological  additions  made  in  a  few  manuscripts  liy 
copyists,  thei-e  is  not  a  single  Christian  interpolation 
found  in  the  whole  book.  In  claiming  a  Christian 
origin  for  the  Testament  of  Abraham,  James  eiro- 
neously  ]ioints  (p.  .'"id)  to  Luke,  i.  1!),  where  the  po- 
sition of  chief  angel  that  stands  "in  the  presence 
of  God  "  is  intentionally  a.ssigned  to  Gabriel;  while 
ancient  Jewish  angelology  ascribes  it  to  Michael,  the 
heavenly  chieftain  of  Israel.  Neither  is  the  idea  of 
the  "tw-o  w-ays"  and  the  "two  gates"  taken  fiom 
Matt.  vii.  i;i."  Aside  from  the  fact  that  the  "Two 
Ways"  is  originally  a  Jewish  work  (see  I)ii).\rni;), 
the  conception  is  known  to  Johanan  b.  Zakkai  (Ber. 

2W') .  and  is  found  also  in  the  Greek  al- 

Je-wisli       legorical  work.  "Tabula  Cebetis,"  by 

Origin  of     the  Theban  philoso|)her  Cebes,  a  pu- 

tlie  Book.    i>il  of  .Socrates.     Dr.  James  has  failed 

toob.servc  that  Luke,  .x.xii.  'MK  jtrcsents 
the  Christiaid/ed  view  of  the  Jewish  doetrine  con- 
cerning "the  future!  judgment  of  the  world  by  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel,"  referied  to  in  chap.  .xiii.  of 
the  Testament  of  Abrithain,  and  also  expressed  in 
Yalk..  Dan.  S;  1(105.  thus:  "In  the  time  to  come  the 
Lord  will  sit  in  judgment,  and  the  great  of  Israel  will 
sit  on  thrones  prepared  by  the  angels  and  judge  the 
heathen  nations  alongside  of  the  Lord."  Luke,  as 
a  Pauliiw  wiiter.  transfornu-d  the  twelve  tribal  rep- 
resentative judges  of  Isiael  into  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Isiael  being  judged.  The  very  spirit  of  this  pas.sage 
is  decidedly  nonC'hristian.  It  does  not  contain  so 
much  as  an  allusion  to  the  Messiah  as  tlie  judge. 
The  very  belief  in  a  personal  Messiah  .seems  to  lie 
unknown;  nor  is  .Vdain's  fall  anywhere  referred  to 
in  chap.  xi.  .1.  or  viii.  />.  wlieie  theie  was  ample 
o(-casion  for  mentioning  it.  Death  does  not  show 
any  relation  to  Satan.  .VU  these  facts,  together  w  ith 
the  view  of  the  worlirscreation  by  one  word  instead 
of  leu  words  (see  Gin/.beig.  "Die  Ilaggiula  bei  den 
Kirchenvillern "  in  ".Moniits.schrift,"  1!<00,  p.  410), 


•Tills  iiiiiiilii'r!«'Veiilv-l\voliiisnntliliiirii>ilinvlilillii's<'Vi'iily. 
two  iiiitloiis  (M.  II.  Jiiiiifs),  lull  Is  Ilie  MHiii-  ii.«  the  si'venlv-lwo 
iituiriii'M  wlileli  vl.«li  ilie  In«Iv  of  .\iIiimi  III  iiiiwi'.|iii'iii'>'  "f  liis  sin 
ill  iMiniillii' (Vila  .\il>i'i'l  Kvie,  :U>,  iiml  Ik  ruiiinl  In  1*11111111  iIi'Imi 
I  Kllvuliii  11.  V.  mill  •irlirlniillv  us  a  nil>l>lulout  tmilltl"ii  "t  Aki>- 
lilii  li.  .Meliiiliili'l  ISIfni,  Tiuh'n.  Si. 


Abraham,  Tower  of 
Abraham  Alaehkar 


THE  .IKWISII    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


96 


point  to  a  very  early  liato  for  the  Testament  of  Abra- 
liain.  But  tlicrc  are  also  clear  indications  of  the  ex- 
istence of  a  Hebrew  original;  as.  for  example,  the 
name  of  the  angel  Dokiei  (chap,  xiii  .1)  ;  the  allu- 
sion to  the  names  Aza/.el.  D'JD  TJ)  and  Samael.  XDD 
NniDT  ("Poison  of  Death''):  and  i)articularly  the 
misunderstamlingof  the  Greek  translator  (chap  viii. 
/)'),  who  mistook  the  heavenly  "'Great  Sea  "  I^Min  D') 
for  "the  ocean  beneath,"  which  is  the  usual  neo- 
Hebrew  designation  for  "ocean."  The  expression 
"thrice  holy"  (chaji.  xx.)  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  Christian  Trinity,  as  Dr.  .lames  thinks(p.  5(1).  but 
is  the  translation  of  the  rabbinical  term,  Khilbish  ke- 
ilimliiih.  for  the  angelic  song  (Isa.  vi.  3,  Tanua  debe 
ICliyahu  H.  vi.). 

Whelher  the  author  of  the  book  was  a  Pharisee  or. 
as  Kohler  asserts,  an  Essene.  can  not  be  determined 
liere.  though  it  is  significant  that  the  Law  is  not 
ouce  mentioned.     The  view  of  retribution,  as  pre- 
sented in  the  Testament,  certainly  precludes  Saddu- 
cean  authorshi]).     As  regards  the  two  recensions,  A 
and  B.  neither  is  jirobably  a  faithfid  translation  of 
the  Hebrew  original:  and  the  reconstruction,    here 
attempted  for  the  lirst  time,  depends  sometimes  upon 
one  and  sometimes  upon  the  other. 
Hibuohrapht:  See  the  valuable  preface  and  notes  by  M.  R. 
James  to  hised.df  the  Tcatamcnt  nf  Al'Vuhttiiu  ls!)2;  Schiirer. 
6rf.v(7(..  ;Wed.,  ill.  'St'^;  and  especially  on  Hit'  .l«-\vish  oriifin  ami 
ehanieter  of  ttie  book:    K.  Kobler.  iHc.   I'n  -Tuliuudii'  lUw- 
tliKhih.  In  .!i  11-.  Q\nnl.  Ili  r.  IS'.i,'),  vii.  .WHiOti. 

L.  Ct. 

ABRAHAM,  TOWER  OF:  Often  mentioned 
in  the  Book  of  .lubilees  as  a  mansion  of  great  iin- 
jtortance,  said  to  have  been  built  on  the  height  of 
Hebion  by  Abrahiim,  who  bequeathed  it  to  Jacob, 
his  gi-andson  (xxii.  24;  xxix.  16,  19;  xxxvi.  13-20; 
xxxvii.  14;  xxxviii.  4,  8). 

A  midrashic  fragment  at  the  close  of  JIasseket 
Soferim  IX.  mentions  an  ii'on  citadel  built  by  Abra 
ham.  of  such  a  height  tlmt  the  sun's  I'jiys  coidd  not 
penetrate  it:  it  received  its  light  fi-om  a  disk  made 
of  precious  stones.  Abraham  gave  it  to  the  sons  of 
Keturah,  and  when  at  the  last  days  sun  and  moon 
shall  pale  before  the  full  light  of  God's  glory,  this 
tower  will  be  opened  in  order  to  shelter  God's  own. 
Bibliography  :  J.  Muller,  Masscket  Soferim,  1878,  p.  301. 

K. 

ABRAHAM    BEN    AARON    DE    BOTON. 

Sec-    liciTllN.     .\r,l;.KH.\M    m.S    A.MinNTii; 

ABRAHAM  AARON  BEN  SHALOM 
BRODY.      See    Bhody,    Abrah.^m     Aahox    ben 

SlIAI.d.M 

ABRAHAM    BEN    AARON    TROKI.      See 

Tkiiki,    Ai:i:,\ii.\M   r.K.N   .Vakhn 

ABRAHAM  ABELE  BEN  ABRAHAM 
SOLOMON:  Kimwu  ms  .MkIc  I'dsveller  (li-om 
Pciswol  in  the  government  of  Kovno);  acting  rabbi 
of  Wilna;  died  .Inly  20,  l.SUfi  He  was  considered 
one  of  the  leading  Talmiidists  of  his  age.  Although 
hi'  has  left  no  iiideiieiideiit  litemry  work,  he  con- 
tiibuted  to  the  rabbinical  compositions  of  many  of 
liis  contemporaries.  Among  these  were  the  novelhv 
of  Zebi  Hiisch  Katzenellenbogen,  "Xetibot  'Olam  " 
(Wilna,  1822) ;  the  responssi  of  Simon  of  Slonini. 
"  Minhah  Belulah  "  (Wilna.  1832) ;  the  novelhe  of 
Dob  Baer  Kadisch.  "Yehegeh  Hokmah "  (Wilna 
1>>30);  and  the  responsa  of  Samuel  of  Byelostok. 
"  Biffde  Yesha-  "  (Wilna.  1S44).  Solomon  ben  .Tud;ili 
Loeb  of  Wilna  pronounced  a  eulogv  on  him,  which 
was  published  under  the  title  ""Emek  ha-Bakah  ' 
(Vale  of  Tears),  AVilna.  1836.  With  Akiba  Egerand 
Moses  Sofer  he  exercised  a  powerful  intiuence  on 
the  religious  practises  of  the  Russian  Jews.  lie  was 
distinguished  as  the  only  conservative  rabbi  of  his 


time  who  gave  his  a])i)rol)ation  to  a  work  by  I.  B. 
Levinsohn.  "Teudah  be-Yiswel."  which  initiated 
the  H.\sK.M..Mi  movement  in  IJussia.  Hischarity  and 
kindness  became  proverbial  al  Wilna. 

Bini.iocRAi'iiv  :  Kiienn.  Kmrtil  Viamcl,  p.  9.  Warsaw,  1888; 
idem.  Kirnah  yunutmth,  pp.  --i4---i)>. 

I,.  G  — D. 
ABRAHAM   ABELE  COMBINER:     P.ilish 

Taliiiudist  ;  born  about  Kiii'")  al  Gonibiii.  in  Russian 
Poland;  died  at  Kalisz  about  16S3.  He  was  a  son 
of  Hayyim  ha  Levi,  who  was  killed  by  the  Cos- 
sacks in  Hi.").")  Abraham  was  one  of  tlie  most  emi- 
nent Talmudists  of  liis  time  ;  a  fact  clearly  shown 
by  his  commentary  on  the  "Sliulhan  Anik,  ( )rah 
Ilayyim,"  entitled  "  Magen  Abi-aliam"  (Shield  oif 
Abrahiun),  writt<'n  by  him  at  the  age  of  thirty, 
and  which  was  published  in  1692  at  Dyhernfurlh. 
This  work  has  exercised  a  remarkable  intluence  on 
the  religious  practises  of  the  .lews,  and  still  contin- 
ues to  do  so.  German  and  Polish  Jews  genenilly 
were  guided  by  its  decisions;  conseiiuenlly  the  work 
was  freciuently  commented  U])on  by  the  later  rabbis. 
Besides  this  book,  lie  wrote  the  "Zayit  Raanan" 
(Green  Olive  Tree),  Dcssiiu,  17(t4,  containing  caba- 
listic and  pilpulistic  dissertations,  to  which  he  ap- 
pended a  part  of  his  Pentateuchal commentary,  "She- 
men  Sason ''  (Oil  of  Gladness),  printed  as  far  as  the 
weekly  ]iortion  Ilayye  Sarah,  and  a  commentary  on 
the  Onli-r  Nezikiu  of  the  Tosefta,  Amsterdam.  IT32. 
In  addition,  he  wroteaconimentary  on  the  "Sliulhan 
'Anik,  Eben  ha-'Ezer,"  with  a  siiecial  essay  on  the 
correct  spelling  of  Jewish  names  in  ofbcial  docu 
tucnts,  and  scholia  to  the  treatises  Zebahim  and 
Menahot.  Xeitlier  of  these  works  is  now  extant. 
He  also  attempted  to  write  pii/iitim  ;  but  the  result 
showed  that  he  lacked  all  poi'lic  instinct.  Abraham 
s|ient  nearly  all  his  life  at  Kalisz.  Poland,  wlieic  he 
held  the  ]iosition  of  assistant  ralilii,  or  dayyan.  His 
last  wish  was  tluit  his  name  and  the  titles  of  his 
works  should  be  his  only  e|iil!iph. 

BiBi.ioGRAPnY:  Michael.  Or  )i(i-Hn//)/im,  No.  !H;  Land.shnth, 
'Atnmiuir  }m-\llnnlah.  p.  2:  Iltt-Shftlifir,  ix.  16;  Freiidcntliai, 
Au.<  iter  Hfimiith  ilniihh:«i\in'>'.  p.  2ii. 

L    G. 

ABRAHAM    ABELE    BEN    JEREMIAH: 

Interpreterof  the  Masora  ;  lloiirished  in  tlie  iiiiildle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  at  ICalwaria.  in  the  govern- 
ment of  iSuwalki.  Russian  Poland.  He  wrote  "  Seder 
Abraham"  (Order  of  Abraham),  Frankfort  on  the- 
Oder,  17.52,  containing  interpretations  of  the  Maso- 
retic  notes  on  the  Pentateuch,  arranged  in  iilphabet- 
ieal  order,  and  lie  edited  and  anuf)tated  po  "1310 
(Frankfort  on  the  Oder  1769).  a  poem  made  up  of 
;ill  the  Hebrew  words  commencing  with  the  letter 
Sin  (f). 

BiBi.iooRAPnY:  Ropsit,  Cat.  d.  HoHcntTtaUchen  Bihl.  II.  ap- 
pendix. No.  mi;  Zedner.  Cat.  Hrh.  Unnhx lirit .  Mns.  p.  18: 
Benjacob, Os<ir/in-Scf<irim,  p.  409;  Fuenn, K'i-)it'.''C(  Vltract, 
p.  ;il. 

1) 

ABRAHAM  ABELE  BEN  NAPHTALI: 

Rabbi  in  Kherson  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century:  author  of  "Bet  Abraham  "(Hou.se  of  Abra 
ham),  Szydlkow.  1837,  containing  (1)  notes  on  the 
ritual  codes,  chiefly  exceri)ted  from  the  literature  of 
the  responsa;  and  (2)  various  novcllai  an<l  homilies 
and  three  responsa 
Bibliography  :  Fuenn.  Knirsct  Yhrnel.  p.  2S. 

D. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ABIGBOR:  Bohemian 
rabbi,  Ikiiii  in  the  latter  |i;irl  of  the  Jifleenth  century; 
died  at  Prague.  0(t.  7.  l.")42.  For  the  last  twenty 
years  of  his  life  he  wasrablii  of  Prague  and  as  such 
jiad  many  pupils,  among  whom  was  Abraham  Jaffc, 


97 


THE  .JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham,  Tower  of 
Abraham  Alashkar 


f:itlicr  of  Mdrdcciii  Jaffi'.  Abraham  wroto  frlosses 
Kii  tlic  "Tur  Oral.i  Hayvim"  of  I{.  Jacob  ])  Asber, 
some  of  which  were  iiulihshcd  at  Aujrstiuifr  in  the 
year  1.j4((.  They  arc  diaractcrizcd  liy  clearness  and 
vigor,  and  arc  mainly  restricted  to  simple  verbal 
explanations,  in  opposition  to  the  more  elaborate 
.sysl<in  of  the  /ii/jiii/.  which  was  then  comiiifr  into 
use  in  llic  schools  of  I'oland  and  Germany  Abra- 
ham was  trained  in  secidar  learnini;,  and  Icficnd 
aserilies  to  him  a  knowledire  (if  the  "seven  sciences  " 
It  is  proliable  that  Mordecai  .lall'e's  predilection,  both 
for  secular  scholarship  and  for  literal  explanation 
(fifuhiit).  then  very  rare,  was  due  to  the  iiiHiiencc  of 
Abraham  l>en  Abigdor, whose  pupil,  Abruham  JafTe. 
was  .Mordccai's  father  and  teacher. 

Acci>rdinf;  to  David  (Jans,  Abraham  also  wrote  a 
supcrconimentary  on  Hashi  This  is  probably  no 
lonjier  extant:  but  a  nilihnh  (penitential  prayer), 
which  he  wrote  on  the  threatened  exjiulsion  of  the 
,Iews  from  IJohcmiu  in  1.542.  still  forms  part  of  the 
I'olish  lituriiy.  and  is  found  in  some  of  tlic  prayer- 
liooks  of  Germany.  It  is  recited  on  Vom  Kipimr 
Kataii 

Itiiii.iu(iR,\PMV  :  I),  fiiins,  Zemah  Dnvirl.  p.  .t8.  Warsaw  edillcin. 
1M«I:  Lanilshulti,  ■.Imnimd  ha'-'Almtlah.  p.2:  Michael.  Or (m- 
tjiillllii".  N(i.:CJ:  Zunz,  Litcralurgcsch.  p.  'JM.  The  Inscrip- 
tl(»n  on  Attnihum's  tombstone  Is  ptven  in  -i;*  "^j.  No.  1-1. 

F,    G 
ABRAHAM  BEN    ABIGDOR   ^ARA.     Sec 
KMi\.   .\e.1i\M\M    r.i  \    .\i;i(:uoit. 
ABRAHAM  ABOAB.     See  under  Abo.\» 

ABRAHAM,  ABRAHAM:  English  author  and 
comnuiiial  wmker;  died  .Manli  :!I.  lS(i;i.  at  IJver- 
pool.  lie  icsided  at  J^iverpool  lor  forty  years,  dui'ing 
thirty  of  which  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the  .Jewish 
alfaii's  of  that  city;  holding  various  hononiry  odiccs 
in  the  synagogui'.thc  pi-esideiicy  of  lln-  Philanlhropic 
Institution,  as  well  as  of  the  Jewish  school.  Though 
activelv  engaged  in  commerce,  he  found  leisure  for 
scicntihc  and  literary  studies. 

Abndiam  is  chictly  noteworthy  for  his  efforts  to - 
waiil  the  introduction  of  regular  vernacular  sermons 
in  the  synagogue  .services  of  England.  Through 
his  exertions  pulpit  instruction  was  established  in 
1S27  at  Liverpool,  whence  it  extended  to  the  |)ro- 
vincial  synagipgnes  Al  a  later  date  it  was  adopted 
in  London.  In  IS'JTa  pulpit  wasei-<'cted  in  the  syn- 
agogue at  Liverpool.  The  innovation  was  hailed 
with  derision,  and  not  until  Prof.  I).  M.  Isjiacs  was 
formally  installed  iu  otlice  was  pulpit  instruction 
succi-ssful 

Abiaham  was  the  author  of  several  publications 
designed  lo  benelit  the  young  lie  translated,  fidui 
the  Krench.  (alien's  "  Catechisme  "  and  IScii  Levi  s 
"  Matinees  (111  Sained  i  ";  the  latter  is  known  under  the 
title  of  ".Moral  and  Heligious  Talcs  for  the  Young 
of  the  Hebrew  Faith." 
BiBI.KKMiAl'ilv  :./.»'.  nir.iH.  April.  IfWt.  q     t 

ABRAHAM  (ABRAM),  JACOB:  (ierman 
mcdalisi  anil  lii|iiilai\  :  binii  at  Sli'elil/.  in  lT'2:t,  died 
at  Berlin,  June  17.  ISIHI.  He  learned  the  art  of 
engraving  from  a  workman  in  the  Polish  town  of 
Lissa.  For  nearly  half  a  century  lie  worked  in  the 
royal  mints  of  Stettin  (l7.V.i|.  Ki'inigsberg  (17."i7).  and 
Itcrlin  He  began  his  career  as  a  heraldic  engraver, 
and  although  he  could  neither  design  nor  model,  he 
brought  his  art  to  a  surprising  state  of  perfection 

The  more  iiolewortliy  of  his  medals  are  those  that 
cominemonilc  the  victories  of  Frederick  the  Great 
diirini:  the  Seven  Years'  War,  such  as  the  one  (om- 
meniomiing  the  victory  at  Torgau,  in  17()<l,  cut  from 
Hamlcr's  model  and  Meil  s  design  In  addition 
may  be  mentioned  the  medal  contaiuiug  tlie  clligy 
I.-7 


of  Prince  Potemkin  and  the  fortress  of  Otchakov : 
"  Ot.schakovia  Exjiugnata  ";  and  that  struck  in  com- 
memoration of  the  .liibilee  festival  of  the  French 
community  in  Berlin.  June  10.  1772.  from  the  design 
of  I).  C'hodowiecki.  Another  of  his  successful  med- 
als was  one  representing  Sigmund  van  der  Heyde, 
the  defender  of  Kolbcrg.  17(50. 

Jacob  Abraham  was  reputed  the  foremost  medalist 
of  his  time  in  Germany,  and  his  three  sons,  of  whom 
Abraham  and  Jacob  are  known,  inherited  his  talent 
(see  Aiiit.\ii.v.MS().N,  Abraiia.m).  The  similarity  of 
the  names  has  led  to  the  confusion  of  fatlier  and  son 
}>y  historians. 

BiBI.iocRAPiiv  :  FussM.  KIluMterlfrikrin.  2(1  t.dltlon,  part  II. 
-'.  Zlirlch,  ls(16;  Sehllclieysen.  Erkiani)i(icn  iter  Alikllitaii- 
II'  II  niif  Mliiizeii.  lH.j;.  p.  144  ;  Julius  Meyer,  AUu-  KUin-IUr- 
hxikuii.  1.  SJ,  Lelpsic,  1872. 

H.  R 

ABRAHAM  ABUSH  BEN  LEVI  HIRSCH 
KATZENELLENBOGEN.     See  Kat/.k.mi.i.k.n- 

BOGE.N.  AliKAlIA.M    Al!i:SH    liEN  LeVI  HlKSCIl. 

ABRAHAM,  ADOLPHE :  French  colonel; 
born  :ii  'riiiniiville.  Frame,  .M.-iicli  21.  1HI4,  When 
eiglileeii  he  enlisted  as  a  volunteer,  and  was  as.sigiied 
to  the  .")2d  Regiment  of  the  line,  which  starlcij  im- 
mediately afterward  for  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  He 
is  one  of  the  last  survivors  of  that  siege.  From  the 
ranks  he  advanced  step  by  step  to  the  grade  of  lieu- 
tenant, which  he  attained  on  April  27.  lS4(i.  After 
the  Paris  rising  of  June.  1S48,  he  received  the  Cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  as  a  reward  for  organizing 
and  conducting  to  the  front  the  2d  battalion  of  the 
Xational  Guard  of  the  Seine,  which  captured  the 
Pantlu'on  from  the  mob.  Promoted  captain  in  IN.il, 
he  fought  through  the  Crimean  war,  and  took  partin 
the  assiiult  on  Scbastopol. 

During  the  war  against  Austria  in  Italy  in  IS.iO 
lie  was  present  at  the  battle  of  ^Magenta.  June  4.  and 
at  the  capture  of  the  railway  station  there,  where 
he  was  wounded  at  the  side  of  General  Lespinasse. 
He  was  appointed  major  (commandant)  at  Solfe- 
rino  on  the  very  morning  of  the  battle  (June  24). 
He  stormed  and  captured  Casa  Nuova  and  four  guns. 
For  this  he  was  mentioned  in  the  "orders  of  the  day" 
of  the  H.")tli  Hc.irimcnt  After  having  pas.sed  three 
years  with  the  army  of  occupation  in  Home,  Abra- 
ham asked,  in  isiid.  to  be  retired  on  account  of  ill 
health  Hut  a  life  of  inactivity  weighed  upon  him.  .so 
in  istis  he  was  entrusted  witli  the  reorganization  of 
the  (Jarde  .Mobile,  in  the  deiiartment  of  the  Seine. 
Recalled  to  active  service  in  1S7I).  he  was  ]iromoled 
lieutenant  colonel  of  the  ."list  Infantry,  which  at  that 
time  formed  a  jiart  of  the  army  of  Paris,  and  fought 
in  two  battles  at  Chaiupigny,  Nov.  HO  and  Dec.  2 

In  the  days  of  the  Comnuine.  Abmliam  rendered 
ellicicnt  .service  lo  the  national  government. 

At  the  re(|ucst  of  General  Berteaux.  in  lS7."i. 
Colonel  Abraham  assumed  the  command  of  the  I'.llh 
Infantry  (reserve),  wliich  he  retained  till  1S7!I.  when, 
atlaining  the  age  limit,  he  was  permanently  retired 
Colonel  Abraham,  who  received  the  military  medal  of 
Sardinia  and  the  cro.ss  of  the  Order  of  Pius  IX..  was 
created  ollicerof  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  l.'<t>4  From 
Queen  Victoria  he  received  the  Crimean  medal, 

Abraham  remained  steadfast  to  the  Jewish  faith, 
and  waselected  president  of  the  congregation  of  Ver- 
sailles. He  discharged  the  functions  of  tbisonicc  till 
IHftl,  when  he  withdrew  to  Granville,  J.  15. 

ABRAHAM  IBN  AKRA  BEN  SOLOMON. 

See  .\  ui!  Ml  \M  r.i  s  Sni  hmus   Al, u  \. 

ABRAHAM    ALASHKAR.      See  Alasiik.mi. 

AllKAIIAM 


Abraham  ibn  Alfacbar 
Abraham,  Bernard 


THE  JEWISU  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


98 


ABRAHAM  IBN  ALFACHAR.  8ie  Ai.fa- 
CiiAi:,    Ar.iiMivM    n:N 

ABRAHAM  ALFAaUIN.  See  Alfaqcin. 
Ami  Ml  \M 

ABRAHAM  ALGAZI.  See  Algazi,  Abra- 
ji  \\i 

ABRAHAM  AL-TABIB.      See     Al-Tabib, 

Ar.ll  AIIAM 

ABRAHAM  AMIGO.     See  Amoo,  ABRAnAM. 

ABRAHAM  OF  ARAGON  :  A  skilful  oculist, 
V  lid  llourisliid  ill  tin-  ii\i(l(il<-  of  the  tliirtfeulli  cen- 
tury. Shortly  after  the  Council  of  IJeziei'S.  in  Vi-ld, 
liiici  forbidden  Jewish  physiciiius  to  prnctise.  Abra- 
liani  was  requested  by  Alphonse.  count  of  I'oitou 
and  Toulouse,  and  brother  of  Louis  IX.  of  France. 
to  treat  him  for  an  atTcclion  of  the  eye.  The  count 
at  tirst  implored  Abraham's  help  in  vain;  for  lie.  bc- 
injr  a  man  of  indeiiendeni  spiiit,  held  stoutly  to  the 
opinion  that  even  the  brother  of  a  king  was  not  ex- 
empt from  the  decreeof  a  council.  It  wasonlyafler 
the  seigneurof  Lunel.  with  the  assistance  of  his  Jew- 
ish agent,  had  persistently  pleaded  with  Abraham 
that  the  latter  consented  to  cure  the  count. 
ISiBLioGRAPnv:  Griitz,  Ga>c}i.  dcr  Judcn,  2(1  ed.,  vll.  lit. 

L,   G 

ABRAHAM  ARYEH  LOEB  B.  JUDAH 
HA-LEVI :  A  Taliinidii-  aulhoi  and  rabbi,  who 
lived  at  Sli'vzhow  (Galieia,  Austria)  at  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth.  His  works,  bearing  the  general  title 
"Derishat  An"  (A  Lion's  ('omment),  contain:  (1) 
"Eben  Pinnah"  (The  Corner-Stone).  dealing  with 
tlie  Jewish  laws  concerning  family  life;  (3)  "Otot 
La-Sliauiayim  "  (The  Signs  of  Heaven),  on  circum- 
<'ision,  i)hylacteries.  Sabbath,  and  festivals;  (3)  "  Hok 
u-Mislipat "  (Law  and  Justice),  on  civil  law  (Lcm- 
berg,  1804;  Jitomir,  1805). 

Bibliography:  W«lden,  Shcm  ha-GedoUm  he-Hadash,pA~i 
Benjacob,  Ozar  ha-Sefarim,  p.  113. 

MB 

ABRAHAM  (ASHER  JACOB)  BEN  AR- 
TEH  LOEB  ?;ALMANKES.    Sec  Asiiion,  jAcon 

AliHAH.V.M    liKN    .\KVl:ll    I;<1KU   KaLMANKKS. 

ABRAHAM  (BEN  GEDALIAH)  BEN 
ASHER  (=ABA):  A  eoiunieutator;  native  of 
Safed,  Syria ;  held  rabbinical  olHce  at  Aleppo  in  tlie 
second  half  of  the  si.Meentli  century.  He  was  a  pu- 
pil of  Joseph  Caro  (1488-1575),  with  Avhoni  In  later 
years  he  maintained  a  learned  correspondence.  Abra- 
iiam  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Midrash  Rabbot, 
entitled  i)3C'n  niX  ("The  Light  of  Reason"),  only  a 
jiart  of  Avhich — that  on  Genesis  RabbaU — has  been 
published  under  the  subtitle  "Ma'adanne  Melek " 
(Royal  Delicacies),  Venice,  1567,  by  his  brother-in- 
law,  Senior  ben  Judah  Falcon  of  Venice.  The  other 
parts  of  the  conunentary  are  still  e.xtant  in  manu- 
script, and  include  also  a  midrashie  commeutary  at- 
tributed to  Rashi. 
Bibliography:   Ro-st,  Catdhiu  <li:r  Kiwciif/iol'schcii  BibUu- 

thek,  i.  34 ;  Benjarub.  (Mar  ha-Scfarim,  p.  28. 

vr  B. 
ABRAHAM  BEN  ASUS  DE  BOTJRGXJEIL. 

See  Bl  itoii,  F\Mli.v. 
ABRAHAM   AUERBACH.     See  Atjerbach, 

AliliAllAAI 

ABRAHAM  OF  AUGSBURG:  Proselyte  to 
Judaism  ;  died  a  martyrs  death  Nov.  21,  1265.  He 
seems  to  have  adopted  his  new  faith  -with  such 
enthusiasm  that  he  publicly  assailed  Christianity 
and  attacked  images  of  the  saints,  for  which  he  was 
sentenced  to  torture  and  death.  The  incident  at- 
tracted considerable  attention,  and  it  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  elegies  by  Mordecai  ben  Hillel  (who  himself 


sulTered  martyrdom  in  1298)  and  by  the  liturgical 
poet  Moses  ben  Jacob. 

UiBLiocRAPiiY:  Zunz.  .S.  P.  pp.  avi,  :MU  :  S.  Kolin,  Miirdcnii 
hen  llilkl^  pp.  4(Mii  and  apiMMidl.x  I.:  IVrlt-s,  In  Mixiatii' 
nchrift,  ls;;t.  pp.  r>i:t, SH ;  snitfUI.  Marliinihmium  des lYUni- 
bcrocr  McwoiliuvhcK.pp.'Ji.liV.lSIO.  t     q 

ABRAHAM  OF  AVILA:  A  pseudo-Messiah 
and  wonderwdrker,  who  llvcil  at  the  end  of  the 
Ihirteenlh  century.  There  seems  to  be  some  doubt 
concerning  the  name  of  this  man,  though  the  facts 
are  well  attested  by  Solomon  ben  Adret  and  the 
apostate  Abner  of  Burgos.  The  mystic  propaganda 
carried  on  in  Sjiain  l)v  Abraham  Abulatia  inlluenced 
at  least  two  men  to  turn  to  their  own  advantage  the 
credulous  excitability  of  the  people.  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  private  life  of  this  pseudo-JIe.ssiah 
other  than  that  he  was  an  ignorant  man,  unable 
either  to  read  or  to  write,  and  that  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Abulalia  in  Messina.  He  claimed 
that  by  the  intervention  of  an  angel  he  had  written 
a  voluminous  work,  nD3nn  niN?D  ("  Wonders  of 
'Wisdom  "),  and  a  eonimeiitaiy  upon  it. 

Abraham  came  to  the  community  of  Avila,  Spain, 
with  a  forged  letter  from  David  Ashkenazi,  calling 
first  upon  Solomon  ben  Adret.  In  perplexity  the 
community  turned  to  Adret,  the  greatest  rabbinical 
authority  of  that  day.  for  advice  as  to  the  attitude 
to  be  maintained  toward  the  new  pio])het.  Adret, 
without  directly  condemning  him,  exjircssed  strong 
doubts  as  to  his  prophetic  gifts.  Prophec.v,  he 
.Sfiid,  did  not  rest  upon  an  ignorant  man,  nor  was  it 
a  time  for  prophetic  inspiration;  furthermore,  the 
prophetic  gift  was  given  l)y  God  in  Palestine  ex- 
clusively. For  these  reasons  Adret  urged  care  and 
further  investigation  into  the  reputed  miracles. 
The  community  took  him  at  his  word,  and  awaited 
with  curiosity  the  last  day  of  the  fourth  month  of 
the  year  1295  —  the  day  on  which  the  Messianic  time 
was  to  begin.  The  peojile  assembled  in  the  .syna- 
gogue in  the  white  burial  garments  used  on  the  Day 
of  Atonement;  and  the  story  goes  that  on  these  gar- 
ments small  cros.ses  appeared.  Such  an  im])ression 
was  made  uiion  Abner  of  Burgos  by  this  "  miracle," 
that  it  helped  toward  his  conversion  about  twenty- 
live  years  later. 

Bibi.iooraphy:  Solomon  bon  .4dret,  Rf.'jioH.ia,  No.  IMS,  whloh 
has  been  wronplv  talien  bv  Landauer  and  Jelllnek  to  refer  to 
Abulalia  (Slcinscfinelder,  Ji  u:  Lit.  p.  'M\  8  47).  From  the 
responsuiii  in  iiiirsiinn  it  is  inijH'ssililf  tot^-ii  wiietherthennine 
of  tile  fahe  [)r('i'htt  w;i.s  M.ssiiii  bt-n  .\lirahaMi.  ils  I'erles  (Sal- 
omi)  hen  .1  ilm  th,  p.  r»t  siiiiposcs.  or  whetlier  Nissliii  wa.s  the 
bearer  of  a  letter  to  Adret  cii  the  .subject,  a-s  Kaufiiiann,  In  liev. 
t^t.  Juives,  .x.x.wi.  ~-'vS,  thluks.  For  Alfonso  (Abnerj  of  Bur- 
pos.  see  liev.  £t.  Jnii^es,  xvill.  57,  5s ;  coiupare  also  Griitz, 
Geach.  der  Judcn.  2d  ed.,  vil.  318-;i21 ;  Mi/uatitiiehrift.  1887. 
p.  .5.57.  G. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  AZRIEL  OF  BOHEMIA : 

A  Bohemian  Talmudist  and  grammarian,  avIio  nour- 
ished in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  and 
probably  lived  at  Prague.  Among  his  works,  yet  un- 
published, is  a  commentary  on  the  JIahzor,  entitled 
"Arugat  lia-Bosem  "  (Bed  of  Spices),  probably  the 
most  ancient  Jewish  literary  effort  in  any  Slavonic 
country.  In  this  Abraham  shows  himself  to  have 
been  a  faithful  follower  of  the  scholars  of  northern 
France,  who.  uniiilluenced  by  Arabo-S|i:iiiisli  jihi- 
losophy.  devoted  their  attention  solely  to  the  Bible 
and  the  Talmud.  As  a  Talmudist  Abraham  exhib- 
ited a  strong  tendency  to  casuistry,  while  as  a  Bible 
cxegete  he  was  simple  and  sotind.  Avorking  chiefly 
after  the  method  of  RaSHBaM,  whose  commentary 
he  often  quotes.  It  is  not  certain  that  he  enjoyed 
iictual  jHisonal  intercourse  Avith  his  French  breth- 
ren; he  may  have  been  influenced  only  by  their 
literary  productions. 


99 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ibn  Alfachar 
Abraham,  Beruard 


Tlic  cxiilanation  of  many  obscure  Hebrew  words 
by  llieir  IJoliiniian  equivalents  in  Abnihani's  work 
shows  that  I  III- .lews  of  Bohemia  at  tliat  time  made 
use  of  tlie  vernacular;  and  some  of  the  Bohemian 
expressions  there  adduced  are  among  the  oldest  in 
the  language. 

BiHLMKJR.KPHV ;  Berliner's  Maiiazin,  I,  2, 3 ;  Perles,  In  Munaln- 
fchrift.  1H77.  iip.  :i<liKi;:i ;  Kaufmann,  ibid,  imsi,  pp.  ■illi-.iH, 
aiill  :!7II,  41l>l-*.i;  IHMi,  pp.  VMitxq. 

L.  G. 
ABRAHAM  BALI  BEN  JACOB.    See  Rait. 

Ai;i:  Ml  \M 

ABRAHAM  DE  BALMES  (or  DE  PALMIS) 
BEN  MEIR :  Italian  jiliysiciau  and  translate' of 
till-  early  sixteenth  eentiiry ;  born  at  Leeee,  in  the  old 
kiiifrdoni  of  Naples;  died  at  Venice,  l.'iilS.  A  short 
time  liefore  his  death  he  was  physician  in  ordinary 
to  the  cardinal  Doniinieo  Grimani  at  Padua.  See 
Sleinsehneider,  "llelir.  Bilil."  xxi.  7  and  G7;  "  Hebr. 
I'ebers."  p.  lii;  Perles.  "Beitriige,  "  pp.  193,  107,  etc. 
Tlirough  his  Latin  translations  of  many  Hebrew 
works  on  philosoiihy  and  astronomy  lie  attained  a 
great  reputation  in  the  Cliristian  world.  He  dedi- 
cated to  Cardinal  Grimani  two  of  these  translations: 
(1)  of  an  aslroMomieal  work  in  Arabic  by  Ibn  al- 
Heitliam  (died  llKBs),  which  had  been  translated 
into  Hebrew  by  .Jacob  ben  Machir,  in  1372.  under  the 
title  "Liber  de  .Mimdo";  (■>)  of  the  "Farewell  Let- 
ter" of  the  Arabic  philosopher  Ibn  Baga  (Avem- 
pace),  whicli  he  translated  from  the  Hebrew  under 
tlie  title  "Epistola-  Expeditionis "  (MS.  Vat.  No. 
8Mi)7.  The  dedication  is  imblished  in  "Kevue  des 
£tudes  .luives."  v.  li~)) .  In  Padua  Abraham  deliv- 
ered philosophical  addresses  to  Christian  audiences. 
He  also  comiiiled  a  Hebrew  grammar,  in  which  he 
attempted  to  treat  iihilosophically  the  construction 
of  the  Hebrew  language  and  to  refute  the  opinions  of 
the  eminent  granimarian  Uavid  Kimhi.  In  this  work 
Abraham  was  the  first  to  treat  the  syntax  (which 
lie  called  in  Hebrew  hnrkabah)  as  a  special  iiiiil  of 
the  grammar.  The  liook  was  published,  with  a  Latin 
translation  and  a  supiilenientary  treatise  on  the  He- 
brew accents,  under  the  title  ".Mikneh  Abram."  by 
Maestro  (Culo)  Kalonymosben  David,  a  well  known 
translator.  Griltz  ("(iescli.  der  .Iiiden,"  ix.  'i\T))  sug- 
gests, without  evidence,  that  the  printer  Daniel 
Boniberg  (who  is  supposed  to  have  learned  Hebrew 
from  Bulmes)  translated  this  grammar.  At  his 
death,  honoi-s  were  paid  to  his  memory  by  his  Chris 
tiiin  pupils. 

UiiiLKHiluriiv:  .Stt'lnsolinelder,  Cat.  Bndl.  rol.  687;  Idem, 
Hrhr.  rihcrv.  H  aOB,  348,  .581;  Idem,  BihllngraphlMlini 
llandliiicli.  N.I.  IW,  l^lpsle,  185l>;  T.  Wllles/."s  dLvsenmiun, 
BuduiH-tl,  islkl. 

H.  M. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  BARUCH  :  Writer  on  ritual ; 
lirotlier  of  Meir  of  Kol lieiibiirg;  lived  in  southern 
Germany  about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
He  wrote  "  Sefer  Sinai  "  (The  Book  of  Sinai),  a  col- 
li'i'lion  of  legal  and  ritiialislic  deeisioiis,  compiled 
from  dilTerent  rabbinical  authorities.  The  work  is 
still  extiint  in  manuscript  at  Wittenberg.  According 
to  the  copyist,  the  word  »J»D  was  chosen  by  the 
iiiilhor  us  the  tith'  on  acconnl  of  its  having  the 
numerical  value  of  mi]!  ("  humility  ") ;  but  it  is  really 
one  les.s;  the  copyist  evidently  counted  the  word 
it.seir  as  an  additional  unit.  Aliraham  is  mentioned 
by  hisr-onlemporary  H.  Jlordecai  l>.  Ilillel  Ashkeiia/.i. 
the  author  of  the  "Mordecai"  (on  tJit.  ^  40-1). 

UiliuiiOKAI'iiv  :  Mlilmel.  Or  hii-lliiiiiliiii.  No.  08;  Ziiiiz,  Z.  (1. 
p.  IIC!;  Ik'njiuxili,  (Mur  liu-S(farim,  i>.  41U. 

M.    B. 

ABRAHAM     BEN    BARUCH    MIZRA^I. 

See  ,\Ii/.u.\lll,  .\llll.MI\M  Ivl.N  liMllill 


ABRAHAM  OF  BEJA:  A  learned  Jew  who 
lived  in  Alenitejo.  Portugal,  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  tifiecnlh  century.  Being  an  extensive  traveler, 
he  knew  many  languages,  and  tor  that  reason  King 
John  H.  ordered  him  to  accompany  Jo.seph  Za- 
pateiro  of  Lanugo  upon  the  latter's  expedition  to 
discover  Covilhani,  who  had  himself  been  sent  in 
search  of  the  mythical  Christian  king,  Pre.ster  John. 
They  discovered  Covilham  in  Lower  Egypt,  and 
brought  back  news  of  his  welfare,  together  with  in- 
formation that  led  to  the  epoch-making  voyage  of 
Vasco  da  (Jama. 

liiiiLiocinPiiY  :  (iriilz,  Grsrh.  d.  Juden,  viil.  .")80  (in  the  Eng- 
lish iniiisliiliciii  llils  niinii.  is  erroneously  given  as  Abraimm  de 
Hryiii;  KiiyscrliiiL.'.  CnhniilniK,  pp.  19,  a);  Jacobs,  SUirii  of 

(i'jinii<n'i"''ii  I'i'i'ii'irii.ii.m.  -^y    j£ 

ABRAHAM  BENDIG.  SeeBEXDiG.AnR.\n.\.v. 
ABRAHAM    BEN    BENJAMIN    AARON: 

.\  Polisli  Taliiiuilisl  of  the  first  liuli'  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  died  at  Brest.  Lithuania,  in  1G42. 
He  was  rabbi  at  Taruopol  in  163C,  and  otliciated  in 
other  Polisli  towns.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  called 
to  the  lalibinate  of  Brest,  then  the  largest  community 
in  Poland,  and  remained  there  till  iiis  death.  The 
leading  rabbis  of  that  time — JoelSirkes,  Meir  Kolien- 
Zedek.  and  Habbi  Hcschel,  of  Cracow — treat  him  in 
their  writings  with  the  greatest  respect  and  ven- 
eration. Besides  his  responsa,  contained  in  the 
works  of  the  above-mentioned  rabbis,  he  also  left 
scholia  to  the  "'Pur  Oral.i  Hayyini,"  which  are  ap- 
pended to  his  lather's  work. 

His  father,  Bkn.i.vmix  Aaison  (died  1620),  was 
the  author  of  "ilasat  Binyauiin,"  a  collection  of 
responsa, 

Bini.indRAPiiv:  Felnsteln,  'Ir  TeMllah,  pp.  28.  118.  136.  154, 
170,  sua.  Warsaw,  18»« ;  Mlcbael.  Or  ha-Hauuim,  No.  Hi. 

L.  G. 
ABRAHAM  BEN  BENJAMIN  ZE'EB 
BRISKER:  Polish  aiillioror  the  seveiilieiith  een- 
liiiy.  went  to  \'ienna.  and.  on  tlie  expulsion  of  the 
Jews  from  that  city  in  1670,  went  to  Brest,  Lithu- 
ania, wli<re  he  married  a  daughter  of  Elijah  Lip- 
schUtz.  He  was  the  author  of  "  'Asarah  Maamarot " 
(Ten  Words),  a  w  ork  treating  of  the  ten  divine  words 
which,  according  to  Pirke  Abot  (v,  1),  were  used  in 
the  creation  of  the  world;alsoof  the  Decalogue,  pub- 
lished in  Iti.'^ll  at  Flambiirg  or  Frankfort  on-the-()der. 
In  KiS,')  he  published  "Zera'  Abraham"  (.Vbraliam's 
Seed),  on  the  connection  of  the  weekly  lessons 
in  their  Pentateiiihal  order.  In  1698  he  wrote  the 
cabalistic  treatisi-,  "  Perush  'al  '  Eser 'Atarot  "(Com- 
mentary on  the  Ten  Crowns),  on  the  Decalogue,  in 
which  .Vbrahani  mentions  his  intention  to  emigrate 
to  Palestine.  The  additions  to  the  "  Yefeh  March  " 
(Fair  of  Countenance)  of  Samuel  Jaffe  (.\mslerdam, 
17'27),  attriliuted  to  Abraham  by  Steinschneider 
("Cat,  Bo(ll."col.  '21'27),  are  not  his,  but  were  written 
by  Aliniliam  Hellen,  rablii  in  Glo.gau,  and  author  of 
a  commentary  on  .Midrasli  Kabbah. 
BiBUOUR.vrnv:  Kaulmaun,  i)ii  Litzle  Vertreihuna  drr  Ju- 
den aw)  Wieii,  p.  iSa-,  FvlusU-iu,  '/r  Tehmah,  pp.  x:.  158, 
191.  p   B 

ABRAHAM    BENVENISTE.      See    Ben-i-e- 

Msi  i:.  .\iu;  \ii  \M 

ABRAHAM,  BERNARD:  French  brigadier- 
general  of  ailillriy.  ntiiid;  born  at  Nancy.  Jan. 
I'.;.  1H','|.  His  father,  who  wils  a  member  of  the 
Jewi.sh  Consistory  of  Nancy,  was  known  as  JloTsi". 
though  his  name  was  MoVse  .\biidmm.  The  sons 
were  all  calleil  MoVse.  and  ftdouaril.  a  brother  of 
the  genend.  an  artist  al  Paris,  has  retained  the  pa- 
ternal appellalion  in  llie  spelling  Moyse  (MovsK, 
feiioiAiil)),     After  passing   through   tlie    Lycce  at 


Abraham,  Bernard 
Abraham  ibn  Daud 


TIIK  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


100 


Kanoy,  Aliraliam  entered  the  ficole  Pol_vt<'cbnique 
at  the  age  of  nineteen.  Nuv.  1.  in4y.  Tlieuce  lie 
went  to  the  Sehool  of  Applied  Seienees  at  Jletz. 
from  which  he  was  ijradiiated  in  lfS47,  after  wliieh 
he  served  for  seveiiil  years  at  Slrasburg  as  a  lieu- 
tenant. He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain 
in  iy.")4.  and  .served  in  the  t'riniea  on  the  stall  of 
Gencnd  I.ebienf.  After  the  fall  of  Seliastopol  he 
received  the  cross  of  clicvalii'r  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  as  Captain  Bernard  MoTse.  Having  returned 
to  Fniuce  he  was   detailed  in   !?<•")()  for  service   at 

theordnanct-  foundry 
at  Stnisburg.  Two 
years  later  he  mar- 
ried, and  wasotiliged 
to  assume  the  name 
of  Abraham,  under 
which  he  was  regis- 
tered in  all  the  civil 
documents.  In  IKoil 
he  took  part  in  the 
campaign  in  Italy 
against  Austria.  For 
gome  time  after  the 
Cfinvention  of  Ville- 
franche,  Abraham 
remained  in  Milan, 
but  subse(|Uently  re- 
turned to  France. 
On  the  restoration 
of  peace  he  was  as- 
Bemard  AbrHlmm.  signed  to  the  depart- 

ment of  artillery  at 
Strasl)urg.  He  went  to  Paris,  was  promoted  major, 
anil  took  part  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  IWTO. 
He  was  detailed  to  the  army  of  the  Hhine  at  Met/, 
and  there,  after  the  battle  of  Gravelotte.  was  deco- 
rated with  the  cross  of  an  oflicer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  After  the  war  Abraliam  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  connuittee  on  coast  defenses,  and 
became  a  memljer  of  the  military  commission  on 
railways.  He  advanced  in  rank  rapidly,  reaching 
the  grade  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  1874  and  that  of 
colonel  in  1877.  As  the  latter  he  commanded  the 
Seventeenth  Infantry,  for  several  years,  at  La  Ff-re. 
He  was  finally  niad<'  brigadier-general  June  2.  1883, 
and  remained  in  active  service  till  Jan.  \'i,  1886. 

In  1895  Abraham  succeeded  Dr.  Widal  in  the  Cen- 
tral Consistory  of  the  Israelites  of  France,  and  re- 
tained the  seat  for  several  months.  J.  W. 

ABRAHAM    BIBAGO     BEN    SHEM-TOB. 

Sei-  Bii'.Aoo  r.KN  Siir.M Tor.,   .\r.K\M\M. 

ABRAHAM  OF  BOHEMIA:  Pn  feet  of  the 
Jews  of  Great  and  Little  Poland  at  the  beginning  of 
the  si.xtoenth  century.  In  1512  King  Sigismund 
I.  of  Poland  issued  a  decree  notifying  his  subjects 
in  Great  Poland  and  Little  Poland  that  he  hail  ap- 
pointed Abraham,  a  Jew  of  Bohemia,  jirefect  over 
them,  and  that  one  of  Abraham's  duties  was  to  col- 
lect all  taxes  due  from  them  and  to  deliver  the  same 
into  the  king's  treasury  ("Acta  Tomiciana."  iii.  No. 
252;  "MetrikaKoronnaya,"  1518-211.  book  No.  iW,  p. 
118).  Abraham  was  recommended  to  Sigismund  by 
the  latter's  brother,  the  king  of  Hungary  and  Bo- 
hemia, and  by  Emperor  JIaximilian  of  Germany. 
Both  attested  his  honesty  and  blameless  life.  The  law 
courts  of  Poland  had  no  jurisdiction  over  Abraham, 
he  being  responsible  only  to  the  king's  own  court. 

Abraham  was  one  of  the  many  Jews  who  enu- 
grated  from  I'oliemia  to  Pi>land,  He  was  also  from 
time  to  time  counselor  for  some  of  the  Jewish  com- 
munities of  Poland,  as  is  apparent  from  the  king's 
order  to  the  Jews  of  Cracow  to  pay  Abraham  200 


florins,  promised  liim  as  a  rewanl  for  a  defense 
"against  certain  accusations."  The  Polish  Jews 
were  not  pleased  with  their  new  Hohenuan  prelect, 
who  had  become  .so  iiowerful.  The  king  ordereil  all 
the  Jews  of  Poland,  and  especially  the  rabbis,  to  re- 
spect the  liberties  and  privileges  granted  loAbndiam, 
and  not  tocneroaeh  upon  them  by  excomuuuiieation 
or  in  any  other  way.  For  thesi'  privileges  .Vbraham 
|iaid  an  annual  personal  tax  of  20  ducats  (about  $iiOO 
or  §400,  nominal). 

linii.KxiRArnv:  Bersliadskl,  [z  iKlnril  Yrvrri/er  v  LUviir  I 
I'nlKhin  iu  Yemi-iliiDia  /liWi""(.  An.  vll.  :iO-;i"..  SI.  I'i-i<ts- 
tiiirv.  1ST!!:  Iilein.  Mutirial}!  lAiia  Miirii  Ycvrcutv  i'i'"Wij/c 


In  Vns.  s<MiI..  IMtl.  I'll.  lll-l:;i;. 


H.  H. 


See  BoI..\T,  AmiA- 

SAT7L.     See 


See    Bkun- 


AbKitiaiu  d'j  C'ulugna. 


ABRAHAM  IBN  BOLAT 

IlAM  ii;n 

ABRAHAM     BRODA      BEN 
BnonA.  .\r.K\u\M.  ni:.\  Sai  i,. 

ABRAHAM     BRXJNSCHWIG. 

sniwic;.    Al'.K  \UAM. 

ABRAHAM  CABRIT.     SeeCAimiT.AitiiAiiAM. 
ABRAHAM    DE    CASLAR   BEN   DAVID. 

See  ('a^i.\i;i.    Aiihauam  iikn  Dwio 
ABRAHAM   (VITA)   DE   COLOGNA :      An 

Italian  rabbi,  orator,  and  political  leader;  born  at 
.Mantua,  1755;  died  at  Triest,  1882.  While  hold- 
ing the  post  of  rabbi 
of  his  native  city  he 
was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Parliament  of 
the  Napoleonic  king- 
dom of  Italv.  and  in 
18()()  a  dejiu'ty  to  the 
as.sendily  of  notable:; 
in  Paris.  L'pon  the 
formation  of  the  San- 
hedrin  in  1807  he  was 
ajipointed  vice-chair- 
man, and  in  1808  a 
memberof  the  French 
Central  Consistory; 
later  also  of  the 
Consistory  of  Turin. 
Abraham  exhibited  all  the  characteristics  of  men  of 
transition  periods:  a  strong  desire  for  reform,  and 
an  indetinili^  cmception  of  the  aims  and  means  nec- 
essary to  realize  that  desire.  He  left  a  volume  of 
sermons  and  apologetic  essjij's. 
liiBi.ioURAPnv  :  Kiilin.  .Irc'iirc*  Ixrii/litrtt,  lS4n,  p.  32. 

M.  B. 

ABRAHAM  OF  COLOGNE  (BEN  ALEX- 
ANDER):  German  rabbi;  tlourished  about  1240. 
He  was  considered  the  most  eminent  pupil  of  Eleazar 
of  Worms.  Solomon  ben  Adret  relates ("Teshubot." 
i.  No.  .548)  that  he  saw  Abraham  when  he  caini'  to 
the  king  of  Castile,  probably  Ferdinand  II.  (the 
Saint).  On  this  occasion  Abraham  assumed  the  name 
of  Nathan  to  conceal  his  identity.  Adret  also  claims 
to  have  heard  from  an  old  man  that  Abraham  of  Co- 
logne preai-hed  on  Num.  vii.  1.  in  the  house  of  Adret's 
father  before  a  great  many  eminent  rabbis,  and  dis- 
jilayed  much  erudition. 

Abraham  was  the  author  of  a  small  book  entitled 
"Keter  Shem-Tob"  (The  Crown  of  a  Good  Name), 
the  concluding  chapter  of  which — containing  an  ex- 
jilanation  id'  the  Setirot,  or  Ten  Mystical  Siihcres — is 
a.serilied  in  some  mantiscripts  to  Menahem  Ashke- 
nazi,  another  pupil  of  Eleazar  of  Worms.  Certainly 
either  Abraham  of  Cologne  or  Menahem  was  the 
lir.st  rei!resenlativ(t  of  German  mysticism  to  show  a 
familiarity  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Sefirot. 

ISnu.iOGRAPnY  :  jHllini-li.  Ansii-nlil  Kdlihnlixtixrlirr  ^^Ul'Hh> 
No.  4;  Steinwtinvidfr.  I'at.  r(.  r  llrhr.  Ilmiilsrliriftt  ii.  Iluyal 
Library  at  Munich,  Ni«.  ll:i",  Sll";  idem,  }hhr.  Uild.  vl. 


101 


THE  JEWLSII  ENCYCLUI'EDIA 


Abraham,  Bernard 
Abraham  ibu  Daud 


13H,  vlll.  147,  xll.  11-' :  Koliak,  Jt«ihuni/i.  vl.  Ulil,  whi-ri'  Atiru- 
hiuu  i-ulis  !i1m  fatlier  AchftchUir  or  Aclt»clrct'i.  TUls  iiiuiic  may 
be  u  inLiprlnl.  jj    jj 

ABRAHAM  CONaUE  OF   HEBRON.      See 

C'i)M;i  i;  (Ci  I'.Mji  ]).  Ai;k\iiam.  iiF   lIi:i;i;i>N. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  DANIEL  :  Poet  !iii<l  rabbi  ; 
Ijiiiii  at  Mii.lcnu  in  l"ill.  i''(ir  si-vt-ral  years  lie  was 
a  tutor  at  Viadaiia.  iliHlciia,  IJivarolo,  Are/.zo.  ami 
Forii,  ami  finally  lie  became  rabbi  at  Ferrani.  From 
133(5  to  lo.Vi,  (les])ite  unceasiiis?  bodily  ailments,  he 
composed  over  a  thousand  jioetical  prayers  in  vari- 
ous meters  and  forms,  six  of  them  bein;;  in  the 
Aramaic  liiniruaire.  Several  of  the  poems  were  writ- 
ten for  friends,  (jr  suir.irested  by  public  events,  ])apal 
oppressions,  or  jirevalent  sickness  ;  and  one  of  them 
is  in  honor  (jf  his  cousin  Iladassiih,  whom  he  mar- 
ried in  l.");ii).  A  maiuiscript  collection  of  his  prayers 
in  the  liodleian  Library,  O.xford,  bears  the  title 
"Sefer   lia-Vashar"  (The  Hook  (jf  the  Wsrhteous). 

BiHi.iinMiAi'HV  :  Ziinz.  Lit*  ratuiyi:Hth.  p.  '^J-t;  Neuliaiicr,  t'nt. 

li'iill.  II,  hr.  MSS.  N,..  IISI. 

M.  K. 
ABRAHAM  IBN  DAUD  (  =  DAVID)  HA- 
LEVI;  r.'illeil  Ben  Daud  (erronc'ously  Daur, Dior); 
aU'p  RABaD,  from  the  initials  of  liis  name,  and 
RABaD  I  lo  distini;uisli  liim  from  Aiikaiia.m  hk.n 
Is.vAC  (JF  NahhonM':  (K.VHal)  II.)  anil  AnitAiiAM 
BKN  David  <iK  I'(is()iif;iti:s  (K.VBal)  III.):  Spanish 
a.strononier,  historian,  and  |)hiloso]iher;  l)orn  jit  To- 
ledo about  11  lb;  died,  aceoiclins;  toconunon  rejiorl. 
a  martyr,  about  llso.  ||is  mother  belonu-ed  to  a 
family  famed  for  its  leai'uin,!;.  His  chronicle,  a 
work  written  in  IHil  imder  the  title  of  "Sefer  ha- 
Kabbalah  "  (IJook  of  Tradition) ,  in  which  he  fiercely 
attacked  the  contentions  of  Karaism  and  justith'd 
rabbinital  .Judaism  by  the  cstablishmetit  of  a  chain 
of  traditions  from  Jloses  to  his  own  time,  is  reidete 
with  valuable  jreiiend  inbirmation,  especially  rela- 
tini,'  to  the  time  of  the  (ieonim  and  to  the  history  of 
the  .lews  in  Spain.  An  astronomical  work  written 
by  him  in  l\K(t  is  favondily  noticed  by  Isaac  Israeli 
the  Youn!,'er("  Yesod  ■Olam."  iv.  IK).  1  lis  philosoph- 
ical work,  "Al-'akidah  alHatiyah"  (The  Sublimit 
Faith),  written  in  11(!H,  in  Arabic,  has  been  pre- 
served in  two  Hebrew  translations:  one  l)y  Solomon 
1).  l.abi.  with  till'  title  "  Kmunah  l{;imah  ";  the  oilier 
by  Samuel  .Motot.  Labi's  translation  was  r<'trans- 
lateil  into  (Jernian  and  published  by  Simson  Weil. 
Ibii  Diiild  was  by  no  means  an  orii,'inal  thinker, 
nor  <liil  he  produce  a  new  philosophy;  but  he  was 
the   lirst    to   introduce   that    phase  of 

His  Posi-  .lewish  jihilosophy  which  is  fienerally 
tion  as  Phi-  attributed   to  .Slaimonides  and  which 

losopher.  dilTers  from  former  systems  of  jihi- 
losophy mainly  in  its  more  thoroiiirh 
systematic  form  derived  from  .\iislolle.  Ac<drd 
in);ly.  Hasdai  Crescas  meiilions  Ilin  Dauil  as  the 
onlv  .lewish  philosopher  amonir  the  jiredecessors  of 
Maimonides  ("Or  Adonai.  '  chap,  i  ).  Hut  havinir 
been  completely  overshadowed  by  Maimonides' 
classical  work,  the  "  .Mon'h  Ni-bnkim."  Abniham 
ibii  Dauil's  "  KmiiTiah  Kaniah  "  (Sublime  Faith),  n 
work  to  which  .Mainioniihs  himself  was  indebted 
for  many  valuable  sui;i;estioiis,  received  scant  notice 
from  later  philosophers. 

Till'  only  .lewish  philosophical  works  that  Ibn 
Daud  had  before  him,  accordinir  to  his  own  state- 
ment ("  Kimiiiah  Ifamah."  p.  'J,  or  in  (iermaii  trans., 
)i  ;!),  were  Saadias  "  Kmmiot  we  De'ol."  and  "The 
Fountain  of  I.ile"  by  Solomon  ibn  fiabirol.  On  the 
one  Imnd,  he  fully  nconnizes  the  merits  of  Saailiii, 
althoUi;h  he  does  not  adopt  his  views  on  the  free- 
dom of  the  will,  not  withslandiii.i;  that  the  solution  of 
this  problem  was  to  be  the  chief  aim  and  luupose  of 


his  whole  sj'stem  ("Emunah  Uamah,"  ]i.i)H;  (German 
trans.,  p.ia.'i).  On  the  other  hand,  hisattitude  toward 
Gabirol  is  entirely  antaironistic,  and  even  in  the  pref- 
ace to  his  "  Kmunah  Kaniali  "  he  iiitilessly  condemns 
Gabirol's  "Fountain  of  Life."  See  Kaufmam!."Stu- 
dien  iiber  Solomon  ilin  Gabirol."  IJudapest.   1^99. 

Heinjj  the  lirst  strict  Aristotelian  among  the  .lews — 
who  considered  Aristotle  and  his  Arabic  commenta- 
tors, Alfarabi  and  Ibn  Sina.  to  be  the  only  true  phi- 
losophers ((7/.  pp.  2;:!,  50,  0'^;  German  trans.,  pp.  30,  G.5, 
78) — Ibn  Daud  feels  him.self  provoked  to  constant  op- 
position by  the  doctrines  of  Gabirol.  who  represents 
the  Xeo])lalonic  philosophy.  Impartial  enough  to 
accord  to  childlike  faith  its  full  ri.i:hts.  Ibn  Daud 
desires  also  to  defend  the  rights  of  reason,  and,  con- 
sequently, resists  with  the  utmost  energy  any  at- 
tempt to  set  bounds  to  science;  regarding  this  as  a 
culpable  encroachment  upon  the  ])lan  of  the  Divine 
Uuler,  who  did  not  endow  man  with  the  faculty  of 
thought  wilhout  intent. 

True  iihilosophy,  according  to  Ibn  Daud,  does  not 
entice  us  from  religion;  it  tends  ratlicT  to  strengthen 
and  solidify  it.  Jloreover,  it  is  the  duty  of  every 
thinking  .lew  to  become  acijuaintcd  with  the  har- 
mony existing  between  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  .ludaism  and  those  of  philosophy,  and,  wherever 
they  seem  to  contradict  one  another,  to  seek  a  mode 
of  reconciling  them.  Ibn  Daud  insists  that,  how- 
ever highly  Jihilosophy  may  be  valued,  the  religion 
of  .Judaism  is  jireferable.  Iviiowled.ire.  which  had 
been  aci|uii-ed  by  jihilo.sojihers  through  the  evolu- 
tion of  sc'Veial  thousands  of  years,  and  aft<'r  over- 
coming the  gravest  errors,  had  been  beslowed  ujion 
.ludaLsm  from  the  beginning  through  revelation  iili. 
j>.  (i'i;  German  trans.,  j).  79).  As  to  moral  truths,  it 
may  be  even  assumed  as  jirobable  that  the  jihiloso- 
jihers  did  not  attain  to  them  through  indejiendent 
study,  but  rather  under  the  intluence  of  the  doctrines 
(if  Holy  Scrijiture  (/A.  ji.  HH  ;  German  trans.,  jv  13(1). 

It  is  true  that  on  certain  jioints  llin  Daud  could  not 

alwaysavoid  conllict  with  the  doctrines  of  Aristotle: 

this  wasesjiecially  true  in  re.irard  to  the 

rbn  Daud  hitter's  theory  of  the  Creation.  Ac- 
and  cording  to  Aristotle,  all  coming  into 
Aristotle,  being  results  from  the  fusiiai  of  matter 
intoacertain  form;  matter,  therefore, 
is  the  neces.sary  basis  for  any  genesis;  jirimary  matter 
itself,  as  the  subslaiiee  common  to  all  thin.irs  exist- 
ent, must,  therefore,  lu'  without  beginning  and  must 
be  eternal.  Hut  the  accejilance  of  jircexistent  and 
eternal  matter  can  n<it  be  reconciled  with  the  Hiblical 
history  of  creation,  which  implies  a  creation  out  of 
nothing,  and  subject  lo  time.  From  this  conllict, 
which  later  caus<'d  Maimonides  lo  disjiule  tlu'  au- 
thority of  Aiistolle  in  all  matters  transcendental, 
Ibn  Daud  was  not  able  to  extricate  him.self;  and. 
therefore,  he  rather  tries  to  glide  over  the  existing 
ditlicidties  than  to  solve  Ihem.  For  lie  represents 
the  course  of  creation  as  a  series  of  creative  acts; 
which  recalls  Gabirol's  doctrine  concerning  the  suc- 
cession of  the  various  substances.  Hut  lie  hims<-lf 
sub.seiiuently  admits  that  this  was  only  a  hyjiolhesis 
to  satisfy  the  need  of  giving  an  archilectonie  linisli 
lo  our  notions,  intended  to  mark  thai  gradual  jiroci'.ss 
of  things  which  would  result,  had  creation  reallv 
gone  throngh  all  the  stages  of  ixisleni-e.  from  pri- 
mary mailer,  w  hicli  is  inijiercejitible  lo  us,  toall  indi- 
vidual things.  thoUirli  some  of  these  sla.ires  may  be 
regarded  as  jwirlly  existing  only  in  abstract  notions. 
To  concede  the  jiossibility  of  such  a  gradinil  jiroci'ss 
of  creation,  however,  would  be,  ai'cording  to  Ibu 
Daud,  a  conlriidicliou  of  our  coucejilion  of  God's 
mode  of  acting. 

As  to  tlio  doclriuo  of  Owl,  Abnihaiu  ibu  Daixl, 


Abraham  ibn  Daud 
Abraham  ben  David 


THE  .lEWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


102 


like  Aristotle  iiml  bis  Arabic  ititerjirotors.  prorecding 
from  the  priuciplc  of  niolion,  and  l)asiii,ir  his  argu- 
ment upon  the  proof  of  the  impossi- 

His  Doc-    bility  of  a  rrf/niaiis  iit  iiijiiiitum.  ar- 
trine  of     rives  at  tlie  conception  of  a  First  Cause 
God.         of  all  motion,  or  of  a  Prime  Mover,  who 
Himself,  as  First  Cause,  can  not  have 
any  other  cause  of  motion  above  Him.  and  must, 
therefore,  be  thoujrht  of  as  motionless.     The  Prime 
Mover  is  God.     Hut  this  proof  of  the  existence  of  God 
leaves  still  open  two  important  ([uestions  relating 
to  the  truth  of  our  knowledge  of  God:  one  concern- 
ing the  incorporealitj-,  and  tlie  other  respecting  the 
unity  of  God. 

As  to  theincorporeality  of  God,  it  follows  logically 
from  the  notion  of  intinity  which  belongs  to  the  First 
Cause  of  motion  that  no  corporeal  thing  can  be  inti- 
nite  itself:  nor  can  infinite  force  be  attributed  to  it. 
But  the  Prime  Mover  is  infinite ;  for.  since  He  Himself 
is  without  motion.  His  force  also  remains  unalTected 
by  the  motion  of  cliange  and  transformation.  There- 
fore tlie  Prime  Mover— that  is,  God — can  not  be  cor- 
poreal (i/i.  p,  47:  German  trans.,  p,  60), 

But  as  a  being  of  neees.saiy  existence,  God  must 
also  be  absolutely  simjile  and  single;  inasmuch  as  the 
conception  of  a  plurality  in  His  essence  would,  at  the 
same  time,  nullify  the  notion  of  the  necessity  of  His 
existence.  For  the  consolidation  of  this  plurality  into 
a  unity  must  have  been  etVected  by  another  being 
different  from  itself ;  hence  the  existence  of  this  plural 
being  would  be  no  more  necessary,  that  is,  determined 
by  its  own  essence,  but  woidd  be  dependent  upon 
that  other  being  which  brought  about  the  unification 
{lb.  p.  49:  German  trans,,  p.  63). 

From  the  notion  of  absolute  unity  results  the  con- 
ception of  the  uniqueness  of  God;  for  if  two  beings 
of  this  kind  could  exist,  the  unity  of  God  would  be 
nullified,  since  to  one,  at  least,  of  the  tmils  a  S|)ecial 
character  must  be  attributed  so  as  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  other  (ib.).  With  the  doctrine  of  the 
unity  of  God  is  connected  the  doctrine  of  the  di- 
vine altribute.s,  which  is  preceded  in  Abraham  ibn 
Daud's  system  by  the  doctrine  of  the  negative  at- 
tributes, already  accepted  liy  Bahva  ibn  Pakuda 
("Ilobot  ha  Leiiiibot,''  i,  10)  and  by.Iudah  ha-Levi 
(Cuzari,  ii.  2)  from  the  older  Arabic  theology.  Ac- 
cording to  Ibn  Daiui,  only  negative  attributes,  in 
the  strict  and  proper  sense,  can  be  imputed  to  God; 
so  that,  whatever  multiplicity  of  these  negative  at- 
tributes may  be  ascribed  to  Him,  no  nuiltiplicity  in 
the  essence  of  God  can  result.  Certainly  this  is 
equivalent  to  a  renunciation  of  a  positive  concep- 
tion of  the  Divine  Being;  for  negative  statements 
may  suffice  to  prevent  erroneous  ideas,  but  a  positive 
knowledge  can  never  be  obtained  through  them  alone 
(ib.  p.  .5;  German  tran.s..  p.  6.5),  Indeed,  our  whole 
knowledge  of  God  is  limited  to  two  certainties,  (1) 
that  He  exists  and  (2)  that  His  es.sence  is  incompre- 
hensible (i'4.  p,  .56;  German  trans,,  p,  71),  Inaddition 
to  the  negative  attributes,  only  relative  attributes 
can  be  predicated  of  God  :  for  even  these  latter,  how 
many  soever  may  be  a.ssumed,  since  they  do  not  ap- 
ply to  the  essence  of  God  but  only  to  Ilis  relation  to 
the  world,  produce  no  modification  in  the  notion 
of  the  unity  of  the  Divine  Being  (ib.  p.  .54;  German 
trans,,  p.  69). 

From  the  speculative  doctrines  of  faith,  the  truth 
of  which  can  be  proved  only  by  reasoning,  are  to  be 
distinguished  the  historical  dogmas  whose  authentic- 
ity is  based  principally  upon  divine  revelation,  or. 
to  speak  more  exactly,  upon  the  historical  tradition 
of  such  a  revelation  {ib.  p.  69;  German  trans.,  p,  87), 
The  tradition  concerning  an  event  that  is  reported 
to  have  taken  place  publicly  before  a  great  body  of 


men.  which  originated,  so  lo  say,  under  the  control 
of  public  opinion,  without  having  been  disputeil  by 
contemporaries,  and  has  descended  with  an  uninter- 
ruptecl  continuity,  possesses  an  argumentativeness 
which  can  not  be  controverted  even  by  the  profes- 
sional logician  (ib.  pp.  78,  81;  German  trans,  pp, 
98,  l(i;}).  The  trustworthiness  of  historical  tradition 
forms  a  presmnption  in  favor  of  the  truth  of  proph- 
ecy. In  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  according  to 
the  axioms  eslablisshed  above  for  the  reliability  of 
historical  tradition,  there  can  be  only  as.sertion  of 
real  prophecy  when  the  divine  revelations  ap|)ly  lo 
important  public  matters:  while  tlio.se  revelations 
which  pertain  to  less  important  matters,  or  even  to 
the  personal  affairs  of  a  single  individual,  can  not  be 
classed undertliishead((Vi,  p,71  ;Germantrans.,  p.  89), 
Thus,  as  Ibn  Daud  remarks,  jierhaps  witlia  reference 
to  the  miracles  attributed  to  .lesus,  the  authenticity 
of  the  Torah  would  be  in  a  sorry  plight  if,  instead 
of  being  based  on  miracles  of  real  historic  certjiinty, 
such  as  those  of  Jloses,  it  were  supported  merely 
by  miracles  of  such  private  character  as  the  resurrec- 
tions effected  by  Elijah  and  Elisha(i6,  p.  80;  German 
trans.,  p,  101). 

Relying  upon  the  doctrines  of  Alfarabi  and  of  Ibn 
Sina.  Ibn  Daud,  whom  Maimonides  follows  in  many 
wa.vs  in  his  conception  of  prophecy,  further  sets 
forth  that  the  gift  of  prophecy  must 
His  Theory  not  be  considered  as  a  phenomenon, 
of  Prophecy,  interruiiting  the  continuitj'  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  human  mind,  but  ia 
a  certain  sense  as  the  final  stage  of  a  natural  evolu- 
tion whose  lower  pha.ses,  though  they  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  prophecy  proper,  arc  nevertheless 
connected  with  the  same  faculty  through  a  certain 
identity  of  nature.  And  even  if  the  true  stage  of 
prophecy  is  reached,  this  gift  is,  nevertheless,  still 
capable  of  progressive  dev(lo]iment.  although  it  may 
exceptionally  at  once  reach  the  highest  perfection  in 
particularly  gifted  individuals. 

The  connection  between  the  mind  of  the  prophet 
and  the  higher  intellects,  principally  with  the  Active 
Intelligence,  furnishes  a  sulHcient  explanation  of 
the  higher  cognitive  faculty  of  the  jirophet,  as  well 
as  of  his  power  of  transcending  natural  law.  .\p- 
pointed  to  become  an  intermediary  between  God  and 
man,  the  prophet  is  elevated  almost  to  the  plane  of 
the  separated  intelligences,  or  angels  (ib.  p.  7:J;  Ger- 
man trans,,  p.  91). 

Based  upon  the  philosophical  system  developed 
above,  and  after  the  exposition  of  the  doctrine  of 
faith,  the  problem  of  human  free-will  and  its  re- 
lation to  faith  in  a  divine  providence. 
On  Predes-  or  iiredcslination.  may  be  regarded  as 
tination.  much  nearer  its  solution.  The  ol)jec- 
tion  that  faith  in  a  divine  provi<l(nce 
is  inconsistent  with  the  existence  of  evil  in  the  world, 
because  God  can  not  be  the  author  of  evil  and  good 
at  the  same  time,  is  refute<l  by  the  fact  that  evil  has 
no  existence  in  il.self,  but  is  only  the  natural  result  of 
the  ab.sence  of  actual  ,irood,  and  that,  consequenlly, 
evil  needs  no  creator.  The  defects  and  imperfections 
which  appear  in  this  world  are  in  nowise  contradic- 
tory to  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  God,  The  de- 
fects appear  only  to  a  finite  conception  which  consid- 
ers things  separately  and  in  themselves,  and  not  in 
their  connection  with  the  whole.  Viewed  from  a 
higher  standpoint  the  imperfections  adhering  to 
things  or  individuals  would  perhaps,  in  their  relation 
to  the  whole,  even  prove  to  be  iierfections  and  ad- 
vantages ((■*.  p,  9.5;  German  trans.,  p.  121), 

The  human  free-will  as  a  subjective  principle  has 
for  its  objective  correlate  the  notion  of  possibility, 
by  which  one  of  two  alternatives  may  occur.      This 


103 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ibn  Daud 
Abraham  ben  David 


docs  not  cause  the  divine  omniscience  tn  undergo 
any  limitation  ;  unless,  misled  by  common  usage,  one 
should  designate  as  "'  possible  "  those  things  wliosc 
umlelermined  state  results  not  from  their  own  essence, 
but  only  from  our  deficient  knowledge  of  the  essence. 
I!ut  this  kind  of  possibility,  which,  indeed,  is  no  pos,si- 
liility  at  all.  must  be  eliminated  from  God  as  quite 
irreconcilable  with  His  omniscience.  In  its  strict  and 
preci.se  form,  the  notion  of  possibility  is  not  at  all  an- 
tjigonistic  to  tlie  omni.science  of  Go(l;  for  it  is  easily 
conceivable  that  God  from  the  beginning  regulated 
creation,  so  that  for  certain  cases  both  alternatives 
should  be  "possible"  events;  that  the  Creator,  in 
order  to  grant  to  human  liberty  the  opportunity'  to 
display  its  own  energy,  left  the  tinal  issue  of  certain 
actions  undecided  even  for  His  own  knowledge  (ib.  p. 
9G:  German  trans  .  p.  123). 

Human  free  will,  it  is  true,  suffers  a  certain  limita- 
tion througli  the  variety  of  moral  dispositions,  partly 
due  to  natural  causes,  to  be  found  in  single  individ- 
uals, as  also  in  entire  nations.  I5ut  man  is  able  to 
overcome  his  natural  disposition  and  appetites,  and 
to  lift  himself  to  a  higher  plane  of  morality,  by  puri- 
fying and  ennobling  himself  (rt.  p.  97;  German  trans. , 
p.  124).  The  Torah.  and  the  study  of  ethics  which 
i'onns  a  part  of  practical  philosojihy  and  is  designated, 
by  an  cxjircssion  borniwed  from  I'lato  ("Gorgias," 
404),  as  the  "doctrine  of  the  healing  of  souls,  "are  the 
guiding  stars  to  this  exalted  plane;  but  no  scientific 
presentation  of  practical  philo.sophy  approaches  in 
this  regard  the  lofty  heights  of  the  Scriptures, 
wherein  are  clearly  expressed  the  most  sublime  moral 
principles  known  to  philo.sophers  (ib.  pp.  98,  101 ; 
German  trans.,  pj).  liti,  130). 

The  ceremonial  laws  also  serve  the  purpose  of 
niond  education,  and  are,  therefore,  in  view  of  their 
ethical  tendency,  to  be  numbered  among  the  moral 
laws;  although  when  compared  with  the  doctrines 
of  faith  and  the  ethical  laws  proper,  they  have  only 
a  subordinate  importance,  as  the  Holy  Scriptures 
also  attribute  to  the  sacrifices  a  relatively  minor  im- 
portance in  comparison  with  the  moral  laws  {ib.  p. 
loC;  German  trans.,  p.  131). 

Ilini.KXiR.M'iiY:  SfffrJi(i-^'(iW«i((i/i,  Willi  I>ntln  translation  by 
(i.  (■vni-IinirU,  Maotiia.  1.">IU.  Paris,  I.'>T~,  Cnicew,  lH:i(i;  Neu- 
huiuT,  Miitifrrnl  Jrw.  ntnnt.,  i.;  Hinunah  Itttiimh,  tmnti- 
lal»'«t  by  S.  Well,  Fmnkfnrt.  IS.S2;  Jtwepli  (iupptMilieliner,  IHc 
IifliUttin.-<jihiln.-<nfihit'  fits  AlfnOtiim  tttn  luwiit,  AURHtmrsr, 
ItCid;  J.  liuttritunn,  Itif  Iii:Ufn'»i.'<iihih>s<>iiltit'  dis  Ahra- 
Imin  ihn  Ihnul  ans  Tnhdn,  (ii'itiinj^fii,  IsTll. 

J.  G. 

ABRAHAM    BEN    DAVID.     Se.^    Yj/ii.\ki, 
Ann  Ml  \\i 
ABRAHAM  BEN  DAVID  OF  OSTROG  ( Vol- 

hynia)  :  (  ommi  nlatur;  llourished  about  l.")00.  He 
wrote  ZTXw  "113  ("  Furnace  f<ir  ([old  ").  a  commentary 
on  the  Targiimim  In  the  Pentateuch.  Some  also  at- 
tribute to  him  a  treatise  on  the  thirteen  liermeneu- 
tleal  rules  of  Hubbi  Ishmael.  published  at  Canterbury 
in  1597,  by  the  converted  Jew  Philip  Ferdinand. 
Bini.inuRArilY:    SttlnschnfldiT,  Cal.  BwU.  Nos.  4215,  4210, 

Af.  T..  M. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  DAVID  OF  POSftUlJlRES 

(RABaD  III.  T  3Sn):  FreiK  h  Talmudic  commen- 
lator  ;  burn  In  i'rovcnee,  France,  about  112.");  died 
at  Posi|uieres,  Nov.  27.  lUW.  Son  in  law  of  Abra- 
ham ben  IsjuK-  .\li  Het-Din  (RAHaD  II).  The  teach- 
ers under  whose'  guidance  he  aciiuinil  most  of  his 
Talmudic  learning  were  .Moses  ben  .loseph  (according 
to  .Michael,  "Or  ha  llayyim."  p.  24.  Ilie  latter  was 
the  chief  teacher  of  K.MJal).  but  the  manuscript  note 
to  which  Michael  refers  ri'ads  i|uite  ililTerenlly  in 
Uubers  introduction  to  "Shibbale  liu-L«-ljet  ")  "and 


Me.slnillam  ben  Jacob  of  Lunel.  RABaD  (abbrevia- 
tion for  I{;ibbi  Abraliam  ben  David)  remained  in 
Lunel  after  completing  his  studies,  and  subse- 
quently became  one  of  the  rabbinical  authorities  of 
that  city.  He  went  to  Montpellier,  where  he  re- 
mained i)ut  a  short  time,  and  then  removed  to  Nimcs, 
where  he  lived  for  a  considerable  period,  Moses 
ben  Judah  ("Temim  De'iui."  p.  6i)  refers  to  the  rab- 
binical school  of  Xlines,  then  under  Abraham's 
direction,  as  the  chief  seat  of  Talmudic  learning  in 
Provence. 

But  the  real  center  of  RABaD's  activity  was  Pos- 

quifires,  after  which  place  he  is  often  called.     It  is 

dillicult  to  determine  when  he  removed 

Persecu-  to  Posquieres:  but  about  lUi.TBcnja- 
tion.  min  of  Tudela,  at  the  outset  of  liis 

travels,  called  upon  him  there.  This 
traveler  speaks  of  HABaD's  wealth  and  benevolence. 
Isot  only  did  he  erect  and  keep  in  rejiair  a  largo 
school-building,  but  he  cared  for  the  material  wel- 
fare of  the  poor  students  as  well.  It  was  his  great 
wealth  which  brought  him  into  peril  of  his  life; 
for.  in  order  to  obtain  .some  of  it.  Elzear,  the  lonl 
of  Posquieres,  had  him  cast  into  prison,  where, 
like  Rabbi  Meir  of  Rothenburg,  he  might  have  per- 
ished, had  not  Count  Roger  11.  of  Carcassonne,  who 
was  friendly  to  the  .lews,  intervened,  and  by  virtue 
of  his  sovereignty  banished  the  lord  of  Posquieres 
to  Carcassonne.  Thereupon  Abraham  ben  David 
returned  to  Posquieres,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death.  Among  the  many  learned  Talmudista 
who  were  his  disciples  in  Posquieres  were  Isaac 
ha  Kohen  of  Xarbonne.  the  first  commentator  upon 
the  Talmud  Yeriishalmi;  Abraham  ben  Xathan  of 
Lunel,  author  of  "  Ha-AIanhig " ;  Meir  ben  Isaac 
of  Carcassonne,  author  of  the  "Sefer  lia-'Ezer"  ;  and 
Aslier  ben  Aleshullam  of  Lunel,  author  of  several 
rabbinical  works.  RABaD's  influence  on  Jonathan 
of  Lunil  also  is  evident,  though  the  latter  did  not 
attend  his  lectures. 

Besides  being  an  active  teacher,  Abraham  was 

a  |irolitic  author;    for  he  not  only  wrote  answers 

to    hundreds   of    learned    iiuestions — 

Literary      which  responsa  are  still  partially  pre- 

Works.  served  in  the  collections  "Temim 
De'im,"  "  Orhot  Hayyim.''and  "Shib- 
bale ha-Leki't" — but  he  also  wrote  a  cmnmentary 
on  the  whole  Talmud  and  compiled  several  com- 
pendiums  of  rabbinical  law.  Most  of  his  works  are 
lost;  but  tliose  which  have  been  preserved,  such  as 
the  "Sefer  Baale  ha  Xefesh  "(The  Book  of  the  Con- 
scientious), a  treatise  on  the  laws  relating  to  women, 
))ublishe<l  in  1002.  and  his  commentary  on  Toral  Ko- 
lianim,  published  in  lH(i2  at  Vienna,  are  suflicient 
evidence  of  his  untiring  industry  and  remarkable 
intellect.  Xeither  his  codifications  of  law  nor  his 
comnuiitariesare  true  examples  of  his  strength.  The 
title  of  "Baal  Hasagot"  (Critic),  given  him  fre(iuently 
by  the  rabbis,  shows  that  they  realized  the  direction 
in  which  his  ability  lay.  Indeed,  critical  annota- 
tions display  his  powers  at  their  best,  and  justify  his 
being  ranked  with  Alfasi,  Rashi,  and  Maimonid<s. 

It  may,  in  addition,  be  safely  asserted  that  Abra- 
ham bell  David  dill  even  more  for  the  study  of  the 
Talmud  (which  for  .so  many  centuries  was  for  the 
Jews  their  only  intellectual  sphere)  than  the  eele- 
braled  .Spanish  scholars.  Without  accusing  >lai- 
monides  of  intending  to  supplant  the  study  of  the 
Talmud  itself  by  means  of  his  compendium,  the 
"  Yad  ha  lla/'iikah."  it  is  nevertheless  a  fact  that  if 
Alfasi  ami  Mainioiiidcs  had  not  encountered  smli 
keen  opposition,  rabbinical  Judaism  would  have  de- 
geiieratid  into  an  exclusive  study  of  the  legal  code, 
which  would  have  been  fatal  loanv  original  Intel- 


Abraham  ben  David 
Abraham  ben  £liezer 


Tin-:  .lEWISII  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


104 


liTtunl  (U'vclopinont  in  n  poiisidcrablc  portion  of  the 
Jewish  i)eople  This  (Uiatrer  was  uot  so  imminent 
for  tliose  .lews  wlio  lived  in  lands  where  Arabian 
eulture  ruleil;  for  there  the  study  of  the  Hebrew 
language  "ihI  poetry,  and  especially  of  the  srienees 
and  philosophy,  would  always  have  aliorded  a 
wide  tii'Ul  for  inlellcetual  (hvelopuient.  It  was, 
therefore,  siitlieient  that  the  U'adiuij;  Jewish  ralibis 
domiciled  in  .Moorish  countries  should  devote  much 
attention  to  furiiishinu;  a  clew  to  the  labyrinth  of 
tlie  Talmud,  intricate  and  peri)le.\iii,!r  as  the  latter 
had  become  by  the  addition  of  tlie  copious  post- 
Talmudic  literature  of  law  and  custom.  Some  .sort 
of  jruide  liad  become  imperatively  necessary  for  the 
practical  application  of  this  voluminnus  and  intri 
cati'  nuileiial.  l!ul  in  Christ ian  countries  like  Fnincc 
and  Germany,  where  the  lari,'csl  comn\unitiesof  Jews 
existed,  tlirouirhout  the  Mi<l(llc  Ages  there  was  no 
such  outlet  for  Jewish  intellectuality  as  the  culture 
of  literature  or  of  the  sciences  which  e.xisteil  in  Moor- 
ish Spain,  Their  own  reli,a;ioiis  law  was  the  only  Jield 
open  to  the  intellects  of  the  Jews  of  Germany  and 
norlh<-rn  France, 

Tliat  the  Jewish  mind  remained  fresh  and  produc 

live,  in  spile  of  the  festrietioiis  that  hampered  the 

IH-ople  durin.i;  the  Middle  Ages,  is  due 

Rashi  and   niaiidy  to  the  elforts  of  such  men  as 

BABaD.  Hashi  and  Abraham  ben  David,  who 
utilized  the  Talmud  as  an  arena  in 
whii-h  they  could  exercise  their  intellect.  In  liis 
Contmentary,  Hashi  furnished  a  smooth  and  well- 
paved  road  to  the  Talinuil  ;  while  KABal),  by  his 
acute  criticism,  jiointcd  out  the  way  intelligently 
and  with  discrimination.  This  critical  tendency  is 
characteristic  of  all  the  writings  of  HAIiaD.  Thus, 
in  his  commentary  upon  Torat  Kolianim  (])p.  41((, 
71/;;  compare  also  Ilarkavy's  "  Respon.sen  der  Geo- 
nim  "  in  "Studien  nnd  Mittheilnngen,"  iv.  164),  wc 
find  the  caustic  observation  that  many  obscure  pas- 
sages in  rabbinical  literature  owe  their  obscurity  to 
the  fact  that  occasional  explanatory  or  niar.irinal 
notes  not  tending  toelucidate  the  text  have  been  in- 
corporated. The  real  strength  of  RAUaD  is  shown 
by  his  criticisms  of  the  works  of  va- 
Attitude  as  rious   autliors.     The  tone  which   he 

a  Critic,  employs  is  also  cliaraeteristic  of  his 
attitude  toward  the  pei^ons  under  crit- 
icism, lie  treats  Alfasi  with  the  utmost  respect, 
almost  with  humility,  and  refers  to  him  as  "the 
sun  by  whose  brilliant  rays  our  eyes  are  daz/.led  " 
("Temim  De'im,"  p.  2i(i).  His  lan.guage  toward  Ze- 
raliiah  ha-Levi  is  harsh,  almost  hostile,  Tliough 
only  eighteen  .years  old,  this  scholar  jiossessed  the 
courage  and  the  ability  to  write  a  sharp  criticism 
upon  Alfasi,  and  RABaD  refers  to  him  as  an  im- 
mature youth  who  has  the  audacity  to  criticize  liis 
teacher.  However,  in  fairness  it  must  be  stated  that 
Zerahiah  had  himself  provoked  this  treatment  by 
sharply  criticizing  RABaD,  and  by  incorporating 
into  his  own  work  some  of  liAI5aD's  interpretations 
without  acknowledgment  to  the  author  (compare 
Gross,  I.e..  .'54."),  and  I<eifmann,  "Toledot,"  p   .54), 

Abraham's  criticism  of  the  "  Yad  ha-Hazakah  "  of 

Maimonides  is  also  ver_v  har.sh      This,  however,  was 

not  due  to    personal    feeling    but    to 

Maimon-     radical  differences  of  view  in  matters 

ides  and     of  faith  between  the  two  greatest  Tal 

BABaD.  mudists  of  the  twelfth  century,  IMai 
monides'  aim  was  to  bring  order  into 
the  vast  labyrinth  of  the  Halakah  by  presenting  final 
results  in  a  detiidte,  systematic,  and  methodical  man 
ner  liut  in  the  opinion  of  RAHaD  this  very  aim 
was  the  principal  defect  of  the  work.  A  legal  code 
which  di<l  uot  state  the  sources  and  authorities  from 


which  its  decisions  were  deriveil,  and  offered  no 
jiroofs  of  the  correctness  of  its  statements,  was.  in 
the  opinion  of  Abraham  l)en  David,  entirely  unre- 
liable, even  in  the  practical  religious  lif<',  for  which 
purpose  -Maimonides  designe<l  it.  Such  a  code,  he 
considered,  could  bi'  justilied  only  if  written  by  a  man 
claimiii.!:  in  fallibility — by  one  who  could  demand  that 
his  as.sertioiis  be  aecepteil  without  (|uestion  If  it 
had  been  the  intention  of  Maimonides  to  stem  the 
further  development  of  the  study  fif  the  Talmud  by 
reducing  it  to  the  form  of  a  code,  RAUal)  felt  it  Ids 
duty  to  oppose  such  an  attemi>t.  as  contrary  to  the 
free  spirit  of  r.ibbinical  Judaism,  which  refuses  to 
surrender  blindly  to  authority. 

R.Vlial)  was  thus  an  ojiponent  to  the  codification 
of  the  Halakah  ;  but  hi>  was  even  more  strongly 
opjjosed  to  the  construction  of  a  system  of  dogmas 
in  Judaism,  particuhirly  according  to  the  method 
followed  by  Jlaimonides,  who  often  .set  up  the 
concepts  of  the  Aristotelian  idiilosophy  as  Jewish 
theology.  Jlaimonides,  for  instance,  in  atvordance 
with  his  i)hilo.so|)hical  conviction  and  in  the  true 
s]iirit  of  Juiiaism,  declares  the  incorporealily  of  God 
to  be  a  dogma  of  Judaism,  or,  as  he  formulates  it, 
"  whosoever  conceiv<'S  God  to  be  a  corporeal  being  is 
an  apostate  "  ("  Va<l  ha  Hazakah.  Teshid)ah,"  iii,  7). 
In  the  circles  with  which  RABaD  was  connected, 
a  certain  mystical  anthropomorphistic  conception 
of  the  Deity  was  usual  ;  and  therefore  it  was  but 
natural  that  a  statement  which  practically  declared 
his  best  friends  apostates  should  arouse  his  resent- 
ment. He,' therefore,  appenih'd  to  Maimonides'  for- 
mida  this  brief  but  em|>liatic  criticism-  "Why  docs 
he  call  such  jiersons  ajioslates'^  Men  belter  and 
worthier  than  he  have  held  this  view,  for  which 
they  believe  they  have  fotind  authority  in  the 
Scriptures  and  in  a  confusing  view  of  the  Ilagga- 
dah  "  The  phrase  concerning  the  Ha.srgadali  shows 
that  I{.VI5aD  is  himself  far  from  advocating  the  an- 
thropomorphistic vii'W.  His  opposition  to  Maimoiu- 
des'  statement  of  the  ilocliine  of  the  incorporeality 
of  God  is  oidy  directed  against  its  being  raised  into 
a  dogma  Jud.dsin  is  to  Abraham  Ijcn  David  a  re- 
ligion of  deed,  and  not  one  of  dogmas.     His  attitude 

toward  the  teachings  of  Maimonides 

Judaism  a    in  regard  to  the  future   life  and  the 

Religion  of  eleriuty  of  the  world  is  in  harmony 

Deed,  not     with  this  jioint  of  view     According  to 

of  Dogma,    him  the  opiin'on  of  Maimonides  on  this 

(|Uestion  was  as  distinctly  ln'relical 
as  the  corporeality  of  God  from  the  standpoint  of 
Maimonides;  yet  lie  has  no  word  of  vituperation 
for  its  author,  but  merely  contents  himself  with  re- 
cordin,g  his  difference  of  opinion  (/  r.  viii.  2,  8). 
Thus,  the  idtra-eonservative  Talmudist  was  broader- 
minded  and  more  tolerant  than  tlut  greatest  of  the 
medieval  Jewish  philosophers  (compare  Smolensky, 
"'.\m  'Ulain,"  chap,  13), 

Abraham  ben  David  is  jiarticularly  severe  on  the 
attem]its  of  Maimonides  to  smu.irgle  in  his  philo- 
sophic views  under  cover  of  Talmudic  passages. 
To  cite  one  example  Sorcery,  according  to  both 
Biblical  and  rabbinical  law,  is,  imder  certain  condi- 
tions, an  offense  punishable  with  death  The  opin- 
ions in  the  Talmud  on  the  various  acts  coming 
under  the  category  of  sorcery  differ  widely,  owing, 
no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  it  was  not  practicable  to 
look  upon  every  superstitious  practise,  from  which 
Talmudic  Judaism  itself  was  not  entirely  free,  as  a 
heinous  offense  JIaimonides,  who  from  the  pf)int 
of  view  of  ills  philo.sophy,  looks  upon  sorcery,  as 
trology,  augury,  tind  the  like  as  pure  absurdities, 
decides  that  even  the  innocent  actions  which  Scrip 
ture   narrates  of  Eliezer  (Gen,    xxiv     14).   and  of 


105 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ben  David 
Abraham  ben  EUezer 


Joniithan  (I  Sam  xiv  s-Il>)  an- tn  be  considered  as 
falUiii,'  under  I  lie  l)aii.  Here  HAHal)  is  nol  cniiteiit 
■with  merely  eorreetin;;  the  statement  of  Mainion- 
ides.  but  lie  declares  that,  in  his  opinion.  Mainionides 
deserves  the  ban  for  the  calumnious  views  he  ex- 
presses conceruinsr  these  Biblical  iiersoiiaires  (Yad 
Akum,  xi.  4).  This  suHices  to  explain  the  piiiieiple 
tliat  actuated  Abraham  ben  Davicl  in  his  intense  op- 
]iosition  to  .Maimoniiles.  and  particularly  to  his  '"  Yad 
ha  Hazakah,"  which  David  liimself  lUsi ■mates  as  a 
jtreat  acliii'vemenl  (Kilayiin,  vi.  i).  However,  his 
criticisms  are  not  merely  bitter,  but  wonderfully 
skilful.  They  are  seldom  more  tlian  a  few  lines 
loni:,  yet  tlie  defenders  of  Mainionides  have  written 
without  success  paire  after  page  of  laborious  reason- 
iiiLT  in  support  of  their  master.  Abraham's  remark- 
able command  of  the  entire  Talmudic  literature,  his 
extraordinary  acuteness  of  intellect,  and  his  jdie- 
nomenal  critical  (lowers  are  shown  at  their  best  in 
this  criticism  of  "  Yad  ha  Hazakah";  and,  as  he  wrote 
it  only  a  few  years  belore  his  death,  and  at  an  ad- 
vanced ajie.  it  is  all  the  more  noteworthy. 

The  cabalists  look  upon  Abraham  ben  David  as 
one  of  the  fathers  of  their  system,  and  this  is  true 
to  the  extent  that  he  was  inclined  to  mysticism, 
which  led  him  to  follow  an  ascetic  mode  of  life  and 
gained  for  him  the  title  of  "the  iiious."  Hi'  fre- 
(|ueiitly  spoke  of  "  the  holy  sjiirit  (or  Klijali)  disclos- 
ini:  to  him  (lod's  secrets  in  his  studies  ''  (se<'  his  note 
to  "Yad  liaHazakah."  J-ulab,  viii  Ti;  Het  lia-lJehi- 
rah,  vi.  11),  great  mysteries  known  only  to  the 
initated  ("Y'esode  ha  torali."  i.  10).  It  may  be  as- 
serted with  conlidence  that  HAKaD  was  not  an 
enemy  to  secidar  science,  as  many  diem  him.  His 
works  jirove  that  he  was  a  close  student  of  Hebrew 
lihilology;  and  the  fact  that  he  encouraired  the 
translation  of  Hal.iya's  "  Hobot  ha  l.elmtiot  "  (com- 
|iare  Gross,  l.r.  1^74,  p.  ](>.">)  proves  thai  hi'  was  not 
hostile  to  philosophy.  This  philosophic  work  argues 
strongly  against  the  anthroponiorpliisiic  conception 
of  the  Deity;  and  the  favor  wilii  which  Abraham 
ben  David  looked  upon  it  is  sullicieiit  ground  on 
w  liich  to  aciiuit  him  of  the  charge  of  having  held 
luithropomorphistic  views.  Moreover,  his  works 
show  aci|uaiiitanee  with  philosophy;  for  instance, 
his  remark  on  "  Hilkot  Tesiiubah."  v..  end.  is  a  literal 
i|iiotatioii  from  Honein  b.  Isaac's  "  Musre  ha  I'liiloso 
phim."  [ip.  11,  Vi — or  Loewenthal,  \k  -i',).  below — 
■which  is  extant  only  in  All.iarizi's  translation 

Bini.IiMiR.vPiiv:  fimss.  In  .V"iio(>«r/inYMS7'J-74  :  Renan,  Lnt 
Itahliiliit  Franrili"  (//Woiir  Litlhiiiri'  ili  In  Fidnii .  vul. 
xxvll.i:  Mli'lmel,  Or  hn-llaintiin.  No.  711;  Tlie  CaljiNwiii'S  et 
StclnM'hneliler  iiiiil  Neuliauir  "f  the  .Munlili  anil  D.vfunl  lllini- 
rlo,  under  yl/;ra/iam  Inn  iMiviil. 

I.  <;. 

ABRAHAM   BEN   DAVm  PROVENCAL : 

Il:ili;in  T;iliiiudi^t  of  the  siMeenlli  eititiiry  lie-  was 
a  member  of  an  illustrious  laniily  of  Italian  ralibis 
who  came  originally  from  I'loveiice  in  the  south  of 
Fniiice.  .\braliani  olliciated  as  rabbi  in  Casjile  .Mon- 
ferratoand  in  Mantua,  Italy  Hesides  being  a  learned 
Talniudist.  he  possessed  a  Ihorougli  knowledge  of 
I.alin  and  philosophy  He  taught  Abndiam  Porla- 
leone.  and  was  a  friend  of  Azariah  dii  Hossi.  w  ho 
refers  to  him  as  a  storehouse  of  science.  According 
to  Michael  (" ( »r  ha  Hayyim,"  p.  HI)  he  was  still  liv- 
ing in  DiitS  He  wrote  a  preface  to  Klijali  di  Yidas' 
cabalistic  work.  "  Kesliit  Hokinali."  Yeniee.  liW.i. 
IliiiLiiKiRAi'iir:  Zunz,  Ilinnmi'liU  "f  -iMiin'i  iln  llinvl  In 
"O:""  •\iiZ  wl.Wllna.  isdl.  p.  21;    MU'buel.  Or  ha-ltdumni. 

Ne.  s:;. 

D 

ABRAHAM  DOB  BAER  BEN  DAVID    OF 
OVRUCU:    Kabbi  ,.{  .litomir.  Kiissia.  about    IS.1() 


His  Talmudic  studies  were  pursued  under  Mordecai, 
rabbi  ol- Chernobyl  and  a  disciple  of  Israel  Haal  Shem 
(Beslit)  He  wrote  homilies  upon  the  Pentateuch, 
called  "Bet  Hayyim"  (House  of  Life)  whicli  treat 
the  Scripture  text  according  to  the  fourfold  method 
of  interpretation  known  as  dTiS.  that  is,  peru>,h 
("  literal  explanation  ").  roues  ("allegorical  ").  dervsli 
("homiletical  ").»«/ ("mysticar').  The  work  also 
contains  inquiries  concerning  points  of  rabbinical 
law  and  respousii.  The  closing  years  of  his  life  were 
Jiassed  at  Safcd,  Palestine. 

BIIU.IOGRAPIIV  :  Zedner,  Cat.  Hthr.  BixikuBrit.  3Ius.  p.  31. 

S 

ABRAHAM  DOB  BAER  BEN  SOLOMON  : 

Habbi  in  ( )rslia  in  ibe  laller  halt  of  the  eighleeiilh 
century  He  wrote  Dm3X  1X3  ("Abraham  s  Well  "). 
containinsr  Glosses  on  the  First  Part  of  the  Code 
Shulban  'Aruk.  Yoreli  Deah,  Sliklov.  1783        D. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ELIEZER:  Commentator 
(probably  a  Contemporary  of  El,lJ.\  11  31izi!.\lll);  lived 
in  the  tiftei-nth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  probablyat 
Constantinople.  He  wrote  a  supcrcommentary  on 
Hashi's  Bible  Commentary.  Only  a  small  fragment 
of  it,  covering  the  weekly  portion  "Mas  ey,"  has 
been  published  in  Jacob  Canizal's  collectanea,  a  very 
rare  collection  of  supcrcommentaiieson  Pashi  (Stein- 
Schneider.  "Cat  Bodl."No.  5515).  Abraham  died  in 
l.j'^.j,  at  a  very  old  age 
BiDLiOGRAPiiv ;  Mlcliael,  Or  ha-Hajniim,  Nos.  47.  281. 

L    G 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ELIEZER  HA-KOHEN  : 

Polish  il.iislniii.  or  pnaclier;  llnuiNlicd  in  llir  srv- 
enteeiitli  and  eighteenth  centuries  He  was  the 
great-grandson  of  Issacbar  Baer.  surnamed  Baerman 
Ashkenazi.  the  commentator  of  the  Pabbot.  At  Am- 
sterdam, in  1073,  he  edited  his  grandfather's  work. 
"  March  Kohen,"  to  which  he  added  an  introduction. 
Subsei|Uently  he  was  stricken  with  blindness.  Forty 
years  later,  being  then  well  advanced  in  years,  he 
published  his  own  work.  "Ori  we  Y'islri"  (Berlin. 
1714) .  containing  a  selection  of  his  sermons,  treating 
of  ri']ientaiice,  pmyer.  and  charity.  The  title  of  his 
work.  "  My  Light  and  My  Salvation."  was  suggested 
by  the  facts  that  he  had  regained  his  .sight,  and  that 
he  had  had  a  fortunate  escape  Irom  a  dangerous  fire. 

Bibi.ioi;r.\I'1IV  :  .MUbael.  Or  liii-Hiiiiiiim.  No.  30. 

I..   ('. 

ABRAHAM   BEN    ELIEZER    HA-LEVI : 

German  Talniudist  ;  tiourished  in  the  second  half  of 
the  thirleinlh  century.  Probably  he  was  a  pupil  of 
H.  Meir  of  HotlienbuVg  (died  Vi'S'.i).  to  whom  he  ap- 
])lii'd  for  decisions  in  dillicult  ritualistic  cases.  He 
also  maintained  a  learned  correspondence  with  his 
relative.  Aslier  ben  Jehiel  (born  TJ.")!!;  died  i;i'.J7), 
also  a  pupil  of  R  Meir  and  did  not  interrupt  it  even 
when  Asher  emigrated  to  Spain  in  VMYi. 
linil.loMlAI'llV  :   Mlilliiel.  Or  li<l-ll"Uiliiil.  No.  4!' 

I.     C 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ELIEZER  HA-LEVI 
BERUKIM:  A  cabalistic  writer,  born  before  1.">4(I. 
lived  lor  a  long  time  in  Jerusidcm.  and  died  at  an 
ailvanced  age  in  ItilKt  A  puiiil  of  .Moses  Conliivero 
and  Isjuic  I.uria  (died  ir^'i).  and  a  man  of  great  piety 
and  sincerity,  .\bi-aliam.  by  liisiarnestness  won  many 
people  toil  scrupulously  rilii;ious  life  His  chief  aim 
was  to  see  the  Sabbath  observed  as  strictly  as  pos.si- 
ble  and  to  warn  Israelites  against  itsdesecralion  To 
this  end  he  urged  them  to  begin  itscelebnilion  before 
sunset,  and  ijierefrom  derived  his  title  "  Beriikim  " 
(The  Siiyer  of  Henediclions)  His  chief  work  is 
"TiljIvUiie  ShabViat  "  (Onliuances  o{  the  Sabbath), 


Abraham  ben  Elijah 
Abraham  ben  Hayyim 


THE  JKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


106 


cabalistic  dissertations  on  the  Salibntli,  publislicd 
together  with  "  Kiz/.iir  Mennnit  ha-Maor."  Amster- 
dam, 1(563,  and  "  Heshit  Hnkinah  liaKazer,"  Verona, 
1600. 

Other  works  written  by  him.  but  not  published, 
are;  (1)  "Gale  Razyya"  (Revealer  of  Jlysteries),  on 
the  transmijrration "of  souls;  (2)  "Zirutini"  (Alpha- 
betical Combinations  and  Gematria) ;  (3)  "  Ila-Beriah" 
(On  Creation),  two  volumes  on  I  he  Cabala  of  Isaac 
Ashkenazi  (see  Oppenheimer,  "Catal."  fol.  8H(i; 
quarto  930,  1033,  1036.  10.56).  According  to  Azulai 
("Shem  ha-Gedolim  ")  he  actually  saw  the  Shekinah, 
or  glorious  presence  of  God,  at  the  Wall  of  Wailing 
("Kotel  Ma'arabi")  of  the  Temple  ruins. 

Michael  ascribes  to  him  also  the  authorship  of 
"Mashre  Kitrin"  (I'ntier  of  Knots),  an  ai)0<alyptic 
w^ork  on  the  Jlcssianic  time.  Michael  also  attributes 
fo  him  the  commentary  on  the  Prophecy  of  Nahman 
Ka^ofa  ;  a  journal  of  his  wanderings  as  e.\ile — "  Sefer 
Migroshaw";  another  cabalistic  work.  "  Masoret  ha- 
Hokmah" ;  a  work  on  the  duty  of  surrendering  life 
during  persecutions  ("jNIegillat  Amraphel");  "Ohel 
Mo'ed,"  on  the  Ten  Setirot;  and  "Sefer  Zikkaron,"a 
supercommentary  to  Rashi,  but  these  are  really  the 
works  of  Abi!.\ii'am  h.\-Levi  the  Elder  (h.\Z.\ken). 

BiBLIOGRAPnT:  nenjacoli.  Oja)/ia->Sf  fnn'm.  p.  fiTfl;  Michael.  Or 
ha-Hauiiim,  K>>,  l.>t.  who  'believes  this  Aitraham  to  be  iden- 
tical'with  .\linihaiii  lia-Zakcn. 

.T.  L.  S.— K. 

ABRAHAM     BEN     ELIJAH.       See   Pikes, 

AT!IiAII  \M. 

ABRAHAM   BEN   ELIJAH   BRODA.     8ee 

Broha,  AiiitAiiAM  1!i;n-  Ei,r.r\i[. 
ABRAHAM   BEN    ELIJAH  HA-KOHEN : 

German  ritualist;  flourished  in  thelifteenth  century. 
His  epitome  of  the  precepts  governing  prohibited 
articles  of  food  was  printed  for  the  first  time  in 
1.599,  as  an  appendix  to  the  Basel  edition  of  Isaac 
Dilren's  "Sliu'are  Dura."  The  author  did  not  ad- 
dress himself  to  scholars,  but  to  the  masses,  whom 
he  desired  to  instruct  in  a  concise  manner  on  the 
subject  of  forbidden  food.  A  letter  to  the  commu- 
nity of  Ilalberstadt,  which  is  in.serted  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  his  epitome  (p.  84),  is  an  appeal  to  the  mem- 
bers of  that  community  to  circulate  the  booklet 
among  the  people  of  the  neighboring  communities 
and  to  e.vplain  it  in  German  to  those  who  do  not 
understand  Hebrew. 

Identical  with  this  Abraham  seems  to  be  Abra- 
ham ConEN-ZEDEJC,  who,  according  to  a  note  in  the 
responsa  (No.  88)  of  Solomon  Luria  (died  1.573). 
had  put  the  Passover  diniin  into  rime,  in  order  to 
afford  useful  entertainment  to  those  people  wlio,  ac- 
cording to  ancient  custom,  spent  the  larger  portion 
of  the  first  two  nights  of  the  Passover  in  joyous  de- 
votions. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  lie  composed  the  above  ha- 
lakic  poem  at  the  request  of  the  community  of  Ilal- 
berstadt. The  opinion  of  Michael,  that  this  Abraham 
ben  Elijah  ha-Kohen  is  identical  with  the  one  men- 
tioned by  Maharii.  (R.  Jacob  ben  Moses  MGlln), 
must  be  rejected  on  clironological  grounds;  for  this 
Abraham  tlourished  later  than  Jlaharil,  as  may  be 
seen  from  Luria  (I.e.).  Abraham  ben  Elijah  ha- 
Kohen  left  some  responsa  in  manuscript,  which 
are  now  in  the  Bodleian  Librarv.  O.xford.  England 
("Cat.Bodl.  Ilebr.  MSS."  No.  820),  and  which  fur- 
nish, at  least  approximately,  the  date  of  his  life. 
The  period  of  his  activity  could  not  have  extended 
much  beyond  the  year  1470. 

BIBI.IOCRAPHT:  Michael.  Or  ha-Hntni<ir),  No.  42:  Ziinz,  Z.  G. 
i.  11)1,  \9i:  Neubauer,  Cut.  Ilinli.  Hchr.  iltiS.  No. 830. 

L.  G. 


ABRAHAM   BEN   ELIJAH   OF   WILNA: 

Russian  'I'almudist  and  author;  born  in  Wilna  about 
17.50;  died  there  Dee.  14,  1808.  The  .son  of  Elijah, 
the  gaon  of  Wilna,  a  prominent  Talmudist,  he  was 
educated  under  the  supervision  of  his  father,  who  was 
opposed  to  the  fanciful  mysticism  of  the  Hasidim.  as 
well  as  to  the  dry  scholasticism  which  so  absolutely 
dominated  the  rabbis  of  Poland  at  that  timeas  to  |ire- 
vent  the  growth  of  all  seieiitilic  interests.  Accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  the  time,  he  married  at  the 
age  of  twelve  years,  but  continued  liis  studies  in  the 
Talmudic  colleges  in  other  cities,  and  after  a  few 
years  returned  home,  where  he  finished  his  studies 
under  his  father.  It  was  due  to  his  father's  in- 
fiuence  that  he  developed  a  lilerary  activity  of  a 
far  more  scientitic  ehai'aeter  than  was  usually  found 
at  that  age  or  in  that  country,  f^specially  inter- 
ested in  tlie  history  of  the  ol<l  homiletical  literature, 
he  edited  the  "ilidrash  Agadat  Bereshit,"  with  a 
number  of  other  mostly  pseudepigraphic  works  of 
similar  character  ( Wiina,  1802),  adding  valuable 
notes.  The  best  part  of  this  edition  is  tlie  preface, 
in  which,  for  the  first  time  so  far  as  we  know,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  give  a  com|)lete  history  of 
the  midrasbic  lileialure.  A  jilagiarist,  Jacob  ben 
Naphtali  Her/,  of  Brody,  reprinted  this  edition  with 
the  preface  (Zolkiev,  1804),  but  was  careful  to  omit 
the  name  of  Elijah  Gaon  wherever  the  son  had 
mentioned  him.  He  omitted,  also,  on  the  title-psige 
the  mention  of  Abraham  of  Wilna's  edition,  refer- 
ring only  to  the  one  which  had  been  printed  in  Ven- 
ice in  1618.  Zunz.  not  knowing  the  real  author, 
gave  credit  for  the  work  to  the  i)lagiarist  (Zunz,"  G. 
v.,"  2d  ed.  p.  26S).  und  so  did  Zunz's  critic,  Gctzel 
of  Brody  (n^aST  'D.  p.  4,  Budapest,  1837). 

This  introduction  was  only  part  of  liis  greater 
work,  "  liiib  Po'alim  "  (From  Many  Woiks),  pub- 
lished by  Simon  Chones.  Warsaw.  1894.  This  Imok 
is  an  alphabetical  index  of  all  Midrashim  known 
to  the  author.  It  seems  that  Abraham  of  AVilna 
believed  literally  in  the  statement  that  the  eighty 
concubines  of  King  Solomon  (Cant.  R.  vi.  8)  meant 
eighty  .Midrashim.  This  is  at  li-ast  testified  to  by 
Samuel  Luria  in  a  letter  to  Simon  Chones  ("  Rab 
Po'alim,"  p.  9).  The  book,  however,  contains  over 
one  lumdred  and  twenty  midrashic  works.  While 
.\braham  of  Wilna  shows  greater  interest  in  litera- 
ture and  literary  (luestions  than  is  found  among  his 
contem|mniiies.  he  has  no  idea  of  the  meaning  of 
lilerary  criticism.  He  a.scribes  the  Zohar  to  Simeon 
ben  Yol.iai,  in  spite  of  the  many  proofs  against  its 
authenticity  produced  by  various  writers  since  the 
time  of  Abraham  Zacuto.  He  makes,  however,  the 
ailmi.ssion  that  the  book  was  preserved  for  several 
generations  by  oral  tradition.  So  he  considered  the 
Pirke  R.  Eliezer  (a  fanciful  Midrash  written  about 
the  middle  of  the  ninth  century)  to  be  written  by  R. 
Eliezer  ben  Hyrcanus  abotit  Idll.  Still,  in  spite  of 
its  many  shortcomings,  the  book  is  a  very  valuable 
one  (even  after  Zunz  has  treated  the  same  subject 
in  his  methodical  manner) ,  because  the  author  has 
collected  many  valuable  references  from  rabbinical 
literature. 

Abraham's  interest  in  secular knowledge,quite  rare 
in  his  environment,  is  also  manifest  in  the  writing  of 
a  Hebrew  geography,  "Gebulot  Erez,"  published 
anonymously,  Berlin,  1821.  He  edited  Menahem 
Mendel's  index  to  the  Zohar,  "Tamim  Yahdaw."  to 
which  he  added  an  introduction  and  notes,  Wilna, 
1808.  Of  his  numerous  inanusciipts  which  contained 
glo.sses  to  the  Talmud,  Jlidrash,  "Shulhan  'Aruk," 
and  explanatory  notes  to  his  father's  works,  a  com- 
mentary on  the  introduction  to  the  "Tikkune  Zo- 
har" (Wilna,  1867),  a  commentary  on  Psalms  i.-c.. 


107 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ben  Elijah 
Abraham  ben  ^ayyim 


Dmax  "INI  (Wiirsaw,  1HS7),  "Sa'arat  Eliyaliu." 
excj^i-lical  miles  and  biogra])hical  iluta  abcmt  liis 
father  (Jenisuli-m,  1KH9),  anil  "Targvuii  Abraham," 
notes  on  Targinn  Onkclos  (.lerusali'ni.  1896),  have 
been  published.  The  last-mentioned  were  edited  by 
his  great-grandson  Klijah,  whoealls  liimself  Landau. 
Abraham  of  Wilna  was  very  mueli  interested  in  Tal- 
miidie  ]iliilology  aii<l  archeology;  but  while  very  in- 
dustrious and  well  versed  in  ral)binieal  literature,  he 
betrays  a  lack  of  secular  knowledge. 

Abraham  Wilna.  like  his  father,  never  ofliciatod  as 
rabbi,  but  was  a  highly  respected  nienilier  of  the 
Jewish  coninuinity  of  \Vilna.  in  which  he  held  vari- 
ous offices. 

BlBi.ifXiRAI'iIV:  Fnenn.  Kirj/fih  Xi't'mtnuih,  pp.  307  ct  urn., 
Wllllii,  1«»):  IdiMii,  Kriirxet  Yixriicl.  p.  21,  Warsaw,  IHW); 
Chouea'  intro(Un-tl(in  to  liah  I''t'alim,  Warsaw,  1S94. 

1). 

ABRAHATVr,  ^MILE :  French  i)laywright; 
born  at  Paris,  ISi:?.  He  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
the  drama,  as  playwright,  as  theatrical  critic,  and 
as  editor  of  "L'Entr  iicte,"  the  theatrical  column  of 
the  "Petit  tlournal."  Later  he  became  general  sec- 
retary of  the  Porte  St.  Martin  and  the  Gymnase 
theaters.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  comedies 
and  vaudevilles,  among  which  may  be  mentioned: 
"C'hapitre  V."  (l^lfilS)  ;  "  Lc  Lorgnon  de  I'.Xmour" 
(180;i)  ;  "  Les  Parents  d(^  Province  "  (ISf),")).  with  Jules 
Prevel;  "  L'Amour  d'une  Ingenue  "  (IWifl);  "L'Ave- 
nue  des  Soupirs"  (IHtiC)  ;  "Nicaisc"  (1H67)  :  "Les 
Petits  Creves"  (18fiH),  with  A.  Flan  and  J.  Prevel: 
"La Clef  Perdue"  (1876);  "La  Clmrite  Chretienue  " 
(188!)) . 

Abraham  also  wrote  a  number  of  librettos  for 
operettas,  among  which  are:  "  L'lloimiie  entre  Deu.\ 
Ages"  (18«'.2)  ;  "I'll  Drame  en  I'.Vir"  (180.^)).  with 
Adrien  JIar.\  and  ('artier;  "  Le  Train  des  Maris" 
(18(iS)  ;  "Les  Cro(|Ueu.ses  de  Pomnies  "  (1869).  with 
Eugt^ne Grange;  "  LaCrucheCas.see  "  (1870),  with  H. 
I-ucas;  "Les  Flaneurs  de  Paris  "(1876),  withEugJne 
(imng6. 

Under  the  pseudonym  "Adrien  Laroque,"  Abra- 
ham |iublished  a  theatrical  I)iographical  annual, 
"Acteurs  et  Aetrices  de  Paris." 

BlBLiOfaiAPMY  ;  Va^reau,  Diet (onnalrc  Unlversfl  des  Cttn- 
Umjiiintiiijt^  «,v. 

J.  8 

ABRAHAM  BEN  EPHRAIM  NIEDER- 
LANDER  SOPHER  OF  PRAGUE.  See  NiK- 
lii.ici.AMJii:.  .\i;u.\u.\M  i;i..\  I^ciikmm,  Soi-iiicu  ok 
I'UAc^i  i;. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  EPHRAIM  BEN  SAN- 

CHO.       Sil     SWlUil     .\l'.l;\M\M    I'.IN    F.E'IIU.MM    nK.N . 

ABRAHAM  IBN  EZRA.     .Sc.'  In.v  Ezii.v. 
ABRAHAM     GALANTE.      See     Galaste, 

AlUIMI  AM     CI    S     MiiKDI  (    \l 

ABRAHAM  GASCON.  See  Gascon,  Abka- 
nwi. 

ABRAHAM      GUERDI      CORDOVA.       Se, 

Al'.H  Ml  VM      I  III       Ml  INK 

ABRAHAM  OF  HAMBURG  (called  also 
Rab  Aborle) :  Warden  ami  liiiding  spirit  of  llie 
Ashkena/.i<'  coiumunity  of  Londiui;  born  at  Ham- 
burg after  MmO;  died  at  Lonilon  after  1721.  By  in- 
ducing the  »/i<;m((A  (sexton)  of  the  only  .Vshki'iia/.ic 
.synagogue  at  that  lime  siirreplitiouslv  lo  mulilale 
till'  ('il/it,  or  prayer  scarf,  of  the  nibbi  .Iiidah  Loeb 
ben  F.pliniim  .\nschel — in  wliiih  condilion  he  iin- 
\vitlini;ly  used  it — \\r  forced  .\n.schel  lo  go,  and  in- 
stalli'd  i'ri  Pho'bus  in  Ids  place  (17(15).  Abraham 
interfered  not  only  in  Ihi' alTairs  of  the  Aslikeiuk/ic. 
but  alscv  in  those  of  the  .Sephardic  eimimunity ;  for 


it  was  he  who  drew  Zebi  Ashkenazi's  attention  to 
an  expression  iiiasernion  of  David  Nieto's  on  Prov- 
idence (nt)."))  wliicli  savored  of  heresy.  In  this  case 
Abraham  failed  to  carry  his  point ;  and  he  was 
eiiually  unsuccessful  in  trying  to  induce  Ashkenazi 
to  coiilirm  a  decree  of  e.xcommimicatiou  against 
Mordecai  Hamburger,  who  thereupon  seceded  and 
founded  the  IlA.MiiHo'  Sv.N'Aooori:.  Later  in  life 
Abraham  became  involved  in  dilliciillics,  owing  to 
a  lawsuit  with  bis  brother  in  law  at  Hamburg  and  to 
the  conduct  of  Ids  sou,  who  dissipated  at  Paris  the 
fortune  Abraham  had  made  at  his  trade  as  jeweler. 

BiRi.iOGRAPiiY  :  D.  Kaufmunn.  In  Tnin.iacliimn  of  the  Jewixh 
lIMnncta  Stir.  111.  llM-119;  Sclnult.  Jlld.  Mfrkwllrilia- 
A'ri7fH,  iv.  1-;J.");  n^ferenoes  In  t'rl  l*lKi'bus.  Urim  ire-Txi- 
»KiHi,  1707,  and  Jotianan  Holleschuirs  answer.  Ma'aseh  Iiat\ 
17117:  also  in  Jai-eb  Kiiiclen,  Mei/ilhit  Si  fir.  e<l.  D.  Kohn, 
pp.  77  ct  .s(?(/.,  Wai-saw,  1m;i7. 

.1 

ABRAHAM    IBN     HASSAN     HA-LEVI : 

Author  of  a  work  on  the  six  biindn'd  and  thirteen 
liiblical  precepts,  published  as  an  appendix  to  the 
"lirst"  rabbinic  Bible  (by  Daniel  Boniberg.  Venice, 
1517)  under  the  title,  "Commands  :ind  Prohibitions, 
by  Kabbi  Abraham  Ibn  Hassan  ha  Levi."  This 
work,  originally  written  in  Arabic,  contained  at  first 
only  a  list  of  the  Biblical  precejits,  arranged  in  the 
order  of  the  weekly  lessons,  where  they  are  re- 
corded, ami  annotated  with  the  corresponding  ref- 
erences to  Maimonides'  "Yail  ha  H"zakah."  Later, 
however,  it  was  consiiicrably  enlarged  by  its  He- 
br<'W  translator.  Judah  ben  Shoshan  or  Shushan. 
who  is  otherwise  unknown;  he  added  to  it  corre- 
sponding pas.sages  from  the  Talmud  and  Sifre. 
Througii  this  enlargement  its  original  purpose  of 
serving  as  a  short  educational  guide  was  lost.  The 
Hebrew  text  was  imblished  only  once,  but  a  Latin 
tran.slaljon  of  it.  made  by  the  converted  Polish  Jew, 
Philip  Ferdinand,  was  |uinted  at  Canterbury  in 
1597.  and  afterward  reprinted  by  J.  von  Lenz  in  his 
"Theologia  Jiidaica,"  in  1694.  Ferdinand  gives  the 
name  of  the  author  as  Aliraham  ben  Kattani  and 
the  title  of  the  book  as  "Kol  Adonai."  Upon  what 
grounds  he  does  so  is  not  clear,  since  he  himself 
refers  to  the  Boniberg  Bible  as  his  source.  In  some 
manuscrijits  of  Abraham's  W(irk  he  is  more  fully 
described  as  one  coming  from  "Arnut  in  the  land  of 
Lanardii."  which  does  not  atl'ord  much  help.  Vet 
we  may  safely  assunn'  that  the  author  came  from  a 
country  where  Arabic  was  generally  spoken  among 
the  Jews;  for  only  this  language  can  be  implied 
when  Judah  ben  Shoshan  describes  himself  as  the 
translator  of  the  work.  This  assumption  tinds  strong 
support  in  the  Arabic  names  Hassan  and  Shoshan, 
and  renders  impiobabli'  Neiibain-r's  as,serlion  that 
the  work  of  Hassan  is  iilentieal  with  the  well-known 
law  digest,  "Sefer  ha  H'"""'^- "  written  originally 
in  the  rabbinic  Ilibrew  idiom. 
Bini.iooRAPiiv  :  Steliisilinclilpr,  I'lil.  niull.  4230.  .VVW;   Neu- 

tiaiier.  In  Mnnalxirhrifl.  1S77,  .xxl.  ISl.  IS.';  litem.  Cat.  B.«H. 

Ilihr.  MSS.  Ni.s.  7:),  ssr.  S-t-'-i.  JAVi. 

L  <; 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ^AYTIM  (called  also  Abra- 
ham ben  ^ayyiin  ben  Reuben  and  Abraham 
ben  Hayyiin  ben  Abraham  ben  Reuben):  liabbi 
of  Narbonne.  where  he  liveil  in  thi'  lirst  half  of 
Ihe  thirteenth  century.  H<-  was  a  brother  of  Heu- 
ben  ben  H'i.''y'"i.  "'"■  P"pil  of  Isjiac  ha  Kolieii  of 
Narbonne.  am!  the  U'achiT  nf  Meiiahem  MeVri.  .\bra- 
ham  left  his  nallvc  plaie  alioiil  I'J-KI  and  si'llle<l 
at  Villefranehe  (U' Conlluenl.  ii  small  town  in  Hous- 
silloii.  where  his  son,  Ihe  philosopher  Levi  ben 
.\bndiam,  aulhor  of  "Liwyat  Hen."  was  boni.  Tlio 
son  took  an  aiiivi>  pari  in  Ihe  religious  discussions 
lliiit  liislid  from  i:t03  to  IStHJ. 


Abraham  ^ayyi 
Abraham  bar  ^ 


im 

yya  ha-Nasi 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


108 


Tn  the  introduction  to  liis  work.  "Bel  lin  Bclnm''." 
Mcmiliciu  Mciri  rifci-s  to  Al)riiliiun  l)cn  Hayyini  in 
the  hiu'lii'st  Icrnis.  nnd  names  liini  atnon;:  llie  most 
famous  rat)liis  of  Narbonne  ("  Haliliins  Knineais,"  p. 
.143).  Griltz  ("Geseh.  d.  .luden,"  vi.  40(i)  eon  founds 
liim  with  .\l)nihain  hen  Ilayyim  of  Heziers,  to 
whom  .^hrahain  ihn  Ezra,  while  in  that  cily  in  ll")"i, 
dedicated  his  "Siler  ha  Shi'ni."  He  is,  rather,  to  he 
idenlilied  willi  tlie  ]ioet  Aliraliani  hen  Ilayyim.  tlie 
autliorof  the  four  liturjrieal  eoniiiosilions  (h roh„l) 
emhodied  in  llie  rilual  used  in  the  eily  of  Carpenlras. 
France,  and  which  were  recited  on  Sal)balh  I'arah  in 
the  ancient  Comtat-Venaissin.  Indeed,  one  of  lliese 
poems  bears  the  acrostic  of  Abraham  and  anotlier 
lliat  of  Aliraham  l)ar  Hayyim, 
BinLiO(;R.\riiv  :  Itetiiin.  I.e-'  /fdWiiiic  Froiii;<ii.s  p.  629;  Zunz. 

i,i(tni(»)i;i«(i.  i>.  4)<1;  Unws.  (iiillin  Jiidaica.  p.  421. 

S     K 

ABRAHAM  HAYYIM  BEN  GEDALIAH : 

GuliiiuM  ■I'.iliiiuili-il.  He  llnuri>lic-d  early  in  the 
niueteentli  eentvuT.  was  a  disciple  of  llie  brolliers 
PInnehasand  Sanaul  Horowitz. and, like  his  leacliers, 
is  considi-redoneof  the  most  erudite  of  tlie  l.Iasidim. 
He  did  not  derive  his  Hasidic  jirinciples  from  tliese 
teachers,  but  directly  from  tlie  innr/r/id  (preacher) 
of  ilezhirilz.  whose  utterances  he  freciuently  (juotes 
in  his  "  Orali  la  Hayyim"  (The  Way  to  Life),  "Zolkiev. 
1817.  This  work  appeared  posthumously  and  con- 
tains an  introduction  by  K.  Ephraim  Solomon  Mar- 
caliot. 

Bibliography  :  WaUlen,  .S/icni  lia-GcdoUm  he-]1adaKh,  p.  14; 
Ik'iijiieob.  i)z(ir  }tit-Scfaritn.  p.  49. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  HAYYIM  LISKER.     See 

Liski;k.  .\r.KAii\\i  r.i:N  IIayvim. 
ABRAHAM  BEN  ?AYYIM  BEN  REMOK 

("|1D"l) :  Spanish  .scliolar;  born  in  Barcelona  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourteentli  century.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  Psalms  which  is  still  e.xtant  in 
manu.script  at  O.vford  (IJodU'ian.  Xo.  32fi) .  Abra- 
ham lien  Hayyim.  the  aiilliorof  "Zi?  ha  Zaliab,"  a 
ciinimenlary  on  the  Sonir  of  Son>;s  and  Hulh,  is 
lierhaps  ideiilical  with  Abraliam  ben  Hayyim  ben 
Hemok,  Li  the  inlroduction  to  the  commenlary  on 
the  Psalms,  the  author  gives  a  short  autobiograpliy, 
wliich  throws  some  liglit  on  the  conditi<ins  which 
prevailed  at  tlie  time  anion.g  tlie  Jews  in  southern 
Europe.  He  was  obliged  to  leave  his  native  town  on 
account  of  the  persecutions  that  began  aboul  the  end 
of  June.  1348  (GriUz.  "Gesch.  d  j'uden."  vii.  3G3) . 
and  moved  to  Uarbastro.  Aragon.  where  he  remained 
over  tliirty  years — in  fact,  until  I3ill  (Griilz.  ib.  viii, 
GOetseij.).  in  which  year  tlie  persecution  of  the  Jews 
began.  His  house  was  pillaged,  his  property  de- 
stroyed, and  he  himself  thrown  into  prison.  How- 
ever, he  was  liberated  after  having  taken  part  in  a 
public  disputation  (Tortosa.  1413  and  1414)  between 
Jews  and  Christians.  Jewish  scholars  were  even  for- 
bidden to  study  the  Law,  and  as  Abndiam  states."in 
those  times  tliey  were  not  allowed  to  retain  the  Tonih 
or  tile  prayer-book,  but  had  to  deliver  tlieni  up  to  tlie 
churches." 

BTBi.Ior.R.KPHT:  Stelnschnelder.  TTchr.  BiliL  i\.  111.  jtv.  infl; 
Jeic.  Quart.  Urr.  xl.  612.  where  referenoes  are  jflven  to  the 
pronunciation  of  the  name  !iinii)k  ;  Neut)auer,  Cat.  liodl. 
Hi  Id:  MSS.  Xos.  Kiiaml  I1.'>1. 

L    G, 

ABRAHAM  HAYYIM  RODRIGUEZ.     See 

Roiusn.ri.z.   .\r.iiMi\M   Hwvim 

ABRAHAM  HEILBUT.    See  IlKii.ni  t,  ABii.\ 

IIAM 

ABRAHAM  DE  HERRERA.    See  Herkera, 
Abh.vii.\-m  dk. 


ABRAHAM  BAR  HILLEL  :    One  of  the  few 

Hebrew  poets  in  Egypt ;  lived  in  the  second  half  of 
the  twelfth  century,  and  wrote  the  "  Megillah  Zutta" 
inelegant  rimed  prose,  narnilingan  important  epi- 
sode of  Jewish  liistory  in  Egypt.  As  a  iirologueand 
an  ejiilogue.  he  added  poems  which  slinw  llu'ir  au- 
thor to  have  been  a  skilful  versilier.  This  work  was 
conipleted  in  117<i.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  there  are 
very  few  literary  remains  of  the  Jews  w  ho  dwelt  in 
Egypt  during  the  Middle  Ages,  these  efTorls  of  Abra- 
ham bar  Ilillel.  which  were  only  discovered  in  1896 
in  the  i/enizah  of  Cairo,  have  especial  value. 

BiBi.ioiJRAPIiV:  NVul>aiier.  in  Jfir.  Quart.  liev.  1896,  vlll.  541- 
aiil;  I).  Kanfmnnn.  iliid.  Inn.  ix.  10H-ir2. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  BAR  HIYYA  HA-NASI  (failed 
by  lion  .lews  Abraham  Judaeus,  and  fre(|uently 
Savasorda,  which  is  u  cdiruptinii  of  the  Arabic 
.v.i/((7)  ,i/ .i/iiirtfi/i — "gnverMiir  nf  a  city"). — As  a 
Mathematician  and  Astronomer :  A  ei'lebrated 
Jewish  matliemalieian.  astroncimer,  and  |ihilo.soplier 
of  the  twelfth  century.  Hi'  lived  in  Barcelona  in  1 13(5. 
According  to  S.  I).  Luzzatlo.  there  exists  a  manu- 
script, (hited  April  10,  1131!,  in  which  the  scribe  adds 
to  the  name  Abraham  bar  l.Iiyya  the  formula  for  the 

dead,  ^VT  ("May  the  memory  of  the  righteous  he 
blessed").  From  this  it  may  be  inferred  that  1136 
was  the  year  of  his  death.  I'erha]is.  further  proof 
of  this  is  afforded  by  the  circumstance  that  the  trans- 
lator Plato  of  Tivoli.  having  completed  the  transla- 
tion of  the  "(Juadripartitum  "  of  Ptolemy.  October 
20.  1138,  does  not  mention  Abraham  bar  Hiyya, 
although  before  that  time  Plato  had  availed  himself 
of  his  services  as  interpreter.  But  some  scholars 
think  that  the  JIagister  Abraham  who  dictated  "  De 
Astrolabio"  (probalily  at  Toulouse)  to  Hudolph  de 
Bruges  (a  work  that  the  latter  tiiiislied  in  1143)  was 
identical  with  Abraham  bar  Hiyya.  As  the  title 
"Sephardi"  (Spaniard)  is  always  appended  to  his 
name,  it  is  certain  that  he  was  Spanish.  Neverthe- 
less, he  must  have  passed  several  years  iu  south- 
ern France,  as  he  comi>osed  some  works  for  the 
Proveii(;al  Jews,  in  which  he  comjilains  of  their  ig- 
norance of  mathematics  Steinsclineider  has  proved 
that  he  was  not  a  disciple  of  K.  Moses  liaDarshan 
or  the  teacher  of  Ibn  Ezra. 

Abraham  bar  Hiyya.  together  with  Abraham  ibn 
Ezra,  occupies  an  important  place  in  the  historj- 
of  Jewish   science.      Ho  was.   indeed,    one  of  the 

most  important  ti.irures  in  the  scien- 
Original  tific  movement  which  made  the  Jews 
Works.       of  Provence.  Spain,  and  Italy  the  in- 

tenuediaries  between  Mohammedan 
science  and  the  Christian  world.  He  aided  this 
movement  not  only  by  original  works,  but  also  by 
translations,  and  by  acting  as  interpreter  for  another 
great  translator,  the  celebrated  Plato  of  Tivoli, 
Steinsclineider  has  also  .shown  that  his  original 
works  were  written  in  Hebrew  and  not,  as  some 
have  thought,  in  Arabic.    These  original  works  are: 

(1)  njlOSn  ^nJDI  n:i3nn  mC  ("The  Founda- 
tions of  L'liderstanding  and  the  Tower  of  Faith  "), 
an  encyclopedic  work,  which  is  said  to  treat  of 
arithmetic,  geometry,  optics,  astronomy,  and  music. 
Unfortunately  only  a  few  short  fragments  of  this 
work  have  bien  preserved  (MSS.  De  Rossi  Library, 
No.  1170;  Berlin  Library.  No  244:  Muinch  Li- 
brarv.  No.  36:  and,  under  a  false  title,  MSS.  Bod- 
leian. 1268,  No.  7). 

(2)  mi3L"nni  nn'L"nn  -nan  ("Treatise  on  Ge- 
ometry"), ]in.bably  intended  to  be  a  part  of  the 
preceding  work.     This  is  the-  celebrated  geometry 


100 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ^ajryim 
Abraham  bar  Hiyya  ha-Nasi 


translated  in  lllB  (?)  by  Plato  of  Tivoli,  under 
the  title  "  Liber  Enibiidoniin"  (see  IJonconipagni  in 
"Atti  dell'  Aceadeniia  dei  Lincei."  IH.jl,  iv.  275; 
"Hebr.  Bibl."  vii,  K4:  "Senipeiim,"  18.JS,  p.  34;  it 
was  edited  by  Sleiiisehneider  in  the  "Publications 
of  the  Mekize  Nirdaniiin."  IH!),"),  vol.  xi). 

(3)  inUT}  miV  ("  Form  of  the  Earth  "),  an  astro- 
nonneal  work  on  the  fonnalioii  of  the  heavens  and 
the  earth,  whieh  was  to  have  been  followed  by  a 
second  part  on  the  course  of  the  stars  (see  Xo.  4). 
A  portion  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Sebastian 
Mlinster  and  by  E.  ().  Sehreekenfnehs.  It  appears 
also  that  complete  translations  into  Latin  and  French 
were  made  (Steinsehneider,"  Abraham  Jiidieus."  12). 
MS.  20o3  in  the  Hodleian  Library  at  O.xford  con- 
tains a  copy  with  aconunenlary,  apparently  by  Hay- 

YIM    LiSKKK. 

(4)  CaSUn  niS^nO  pacn  ("Calculation  of  the 
Courses  of  llie  Stars"),  the  seciuel  to  the  preceding 
work,  which  is  fo\inil  sometimes  in  manuscripts  with 
the  notes  of  Aliraliain  ibn  E/ra  (MS.  37  of  Leyilen, 
according  to  the  catalogue  of  Steinsehneider,  p.  147; 
MS.  203  of  Rome,  "Bibl.  Casanatense,"  according  to 
the  catalogue  of  Sacerdote). 

(5)  nimi)  or  N<L"3n  nim^  ("  Tables  "  or  "  Tables  of 
the  Prince"),  astmiioinical  tables,  called  also 
"Tablesof  AlBattani,"  because  the  author  followed 
the  Arabic  astronomer  of  that  name  (see  B.vtt.kxi). 
Several  manuscripts  of  this  work  contain  notes  by 
Abraham  ibn  Ezra;  and  this  fact  has  occasioned 
some  confusion  l)etween  the  "Tables"  of  these  two 
authors. 

(t>)  "liajjn  lED  ("Book  of  Intercalation").  This 
work  was  piililislieil  in  ls.")l,in  London,  by  Filipow- 
ski.  It  is  the  oldest  Hebrew  work  treating  of  the 
calculalioi!  of  the  calendar  (see  C.\i.ESUA]{). 

(7)  C'Bjn  |Vjn  ("Meditation  of  the  Soul"),  an 
ethical  work  upon  a  rationalistic  religions  basis.  It 
was  published  in  IHtW  by  Freimami,  with  a  biog- 
raphy of  the  author  (by  the  editor),  a  list  of  his 
works,  and  a  learned  introducti<in  by  Rapoport. 

(S)  n^JOn  rhiD  ("ScroU  of  the  Revealer"),  a 
controversial  work,  in  defense  of  the  theory  that 
the  Messiah  would  appear  in  the  year  oils  (13.")8; 

MS.  Munich.  W.  rhtiCn  11D). 

(9)  An  apologetic  epistle  addres.sed  to  Judah  lien 
Barzilai  al  Harzeloiu. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  Abraham  bar  I.Iiyya 
assisted  a  numberof  scholars  in  their  translations  of 
.seientitie  works.      But    there  is  still  a 
Transla-      great  deal  of  doubt  as  to  the  particu- 
tions.         lais.     A  numberof  Jewish  translators 
named   Abraham  existed  during  the 
twelfth  century;   and  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
identify  the  one  in  r|iiestion.   It  isoidy  jiossible.  there- 
fore, to  give  the  titles  of  the  works  thus  translated, 
without  touching  upon  the  (piestion  of  authorship, 
or  in(|uiring  into  the  language  of  the  originals,  as 
follows: 

(10)  "Dellorarum  Eli'elioiiibus,"  the  well  known 
treatise  of  All  bin  Ahmad  al  Imrani. 

(It)  "Capitida  C'eulilotjuiuni,"  astrological  aph- 
orisms. 

(12)  .\  commentary  of  Ahmad  ibn  Yusuf  on  tlie 
"('entiloi|uium."  attributed  lo  I'lnlcmv. 

(13)  "I»e  Astrolal)io"  of  Rinlolph  d'e  Bruges. 

(14)  "  Libc-r  Augmenti  et  Diminiuionis,"  a  treatise 
on  nialheinaties;  a  manuscript  in  the  BibliotheijUe 
Nationale  of  I'aris  (7377  A). 

iuiii.ioon.ienv:  sii'lnwliiieliliT,  .lf>rii/i>iiii  ./ik/hk".  In  y.ril- 
Hilnifl  fl)r  Maltiiiiintih  iiiiil  I'liiiKih,  IM'.  xll.  I  if  ».<;.;  Iiliiii. 
.Itini/mm  iliii  Hsni.  Ilild.   ls.sii.  xxv.  Illl.  li'i;  lileiii.  //,  ).i 
mill.  vIl.  W;  Idem,  Ihlir.  filing,  iip.  .VC,  .W..  .«i,  nci.  Mi. 


T,--i,  .5X5.  .594.  972:  idem.  Cat.  nf  Hihr.  Manuyrriiiln  in  the 
Lihraiii  4,f  Liuikn,  p.  148 :  Wolf,  BiliUiithfitt  Hihrita,  1.  51. 
iv.  Ttil ;  IUp<*iH>rt.  prefacr  to  Htininn  lui-yriH<h  :  Boncom- 
puinii,  in  Atli  ilrlV  Aiciiihiniii  'hi  IJiiKi.  Isist,  p.  at,",; 
Wneplie,  Mrnuiiyf  kio-  In  l'yu/i<m(unh  <hs  1'tiitfns^  p.  SO; 
K'  r<  in  Jit  nitil.  vll.77:  (ielffnr,  Moslnh  In  n  Mnimim,p.~0\ 
(irnss.  (.alliti  .Iu<liii<a.v.^'M:  Bacher.  lih  llilirl,re(iese  (ler 
JlliU.'^hcn  Itttiyiousphiliutiiphcn  vor  Mttiiituid.  ch.  iv. 

G.  S. 

As  a  Moral  Philosopher  :  Abraham  b.  Hiyya 

or  (as  Rapoport  in  his  introduction  to  the  "Hegyon 
ha-Xefesh."  ]).  63,  suggests)  Hayya,  so  as  to  rime 
with  Zakkaya,  was  a  pioneer  in  his  field  of  work. 
In  the  preface  to  his  book,  "Zurat  ha  Are? "  he 
modestly  stales  that,  because  none  of  the  .scientilic 
works  such  as  e.xist  in  Arabic  was  accessible  to  his 
brethren  in  France,  he  felt  called  ui)on  to  compose 
books  which,  though  containing  no  research  of  his 
own,  woidd  help  to  popularize  knowledge  among 
Hebrew  readers.  His  Hebrew  terminology,  there- 
fore, occasionally  lacks  the  clearness  and  precision 
of  later  wiiters  and  translators. 

Not  only  as  mathemat  iciaii  and  astronomer, but  also 
as  moral  pliilosopher,  the  author  of  the  jirofoundly 
religious  work,  "Hegyon  ha  Nefesh"  (Meditation  o"f 
the  Soul)  deserves  special  notice.  In  this  held  of 
jihilosophy  he  had  also  pioneer  work 
As  Moral  to  do;  for,  as  is  shown  by  Guttmann 
Philoso-  (".Monat.ssehrift."  1000,  p.  19o).in  refu- 
pher.  lation  of  Kaufmann's  assumption  that 
the  "Hegyon  ha  Xefesh  "  was  origi- 
nally written  in  Arabic  ("" Z.  D.  M.  (}."  .\.\.\.  304 ;  "  Die 
Spureii  Al  Batlajusis,"  p.  2S,  and  Bacher,"  Die  Bibel- 
e.xegese  der  Jiidischen  Ri'ligionsphilosophen  des  3Iit- 
telalters,"  p.  H2),  Abraham  b.  Hiyya  had  to  wrestle 
with  the  dillieiilties  of  a  language  not  yet  adapted 
lo  iihilosdpliic  terminology.  Whether  composed  es- 
pecially for  the  Days  of  Repentance,  as  Rapoport 
(iliid.)  and  Rosin  ("Ethik  des  .Maimoiudes,"  ]).  I.')) 
think,  or  not,  the  object  of  the  wijrk  was  a  practi- 
cal, rather  than  a  theoretical,  one.  It  was  to  be  a 
homily  in  four  ehsipteis  on  re])entanee  based  on  the 
Haftarot  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  and  Sabbath  Shii- 
bah.  In  it,  with  the  fervor  of  a  holy  preacher,  he 
exhorts  the  reader  to  lead  a  life  of  purity  and  devo- 
tion. At  the  same  time  he  does  not  hesitate  to  borrow 
ideas  from  non  .lewish  philosophers;  and  he  |iays 
homage  to  the  ancient  sjiges  of  the  heathen  world 
who.  without  knowledge  of  the  Torah,  arrived  at 
certain  fundamental  truths  r<'gar<ling  the  beginning 
of  things,  though  in  an  inii>erfect  way,  because  both 
the  end  and  the  divine  source  of  wisdom  remained 
hidden  to  them  ("Hegyon,"  pp.  1,  2).  In  his  o|)in- 
ion  tlie  nonJew  may  attain  tons  high  a  degree  of 
godliness  as  the  .lew  ("Hegyon,"  p.  8(0. 

Abraham  b.  lliyya's  jihilosophical  .system  is  like 
that  of  Ciabirol  and  of  the  siiithor  of  "Torot  ha- 
Xefesh"  (  Retlections  on  the  Soul),  ed.  Broyde, 
180(i — Xeoplalonic  as  Plotiinis  has  slated  it;  Matter, 
being  void  of  all  reality,  rei|uires  form  to  give  it 
existence.  Xow  the  union  of  these  two  by  the  will  of 
God.  which  brings  them  from  a  slaleof  potentiality 
into  one  of  actuality,  is  creation,  time  itself  being 
simultaiKonsly  produced  with  the  created  things. 
Both  matter  and  form  eonsist  of  twd  dilTerenl  ele- 
ments. There  is  pure  and  there  is  impure  matter.  So 
also  there  is  form  too  sublime  lo  mingle  with  matter, 
such  as  that  of  the  angelie  or  llii'  upper  world;  and 
form  whieh,  being  receptive  and  hollow,  is  sus- 
ceptible to  nuxlure  with  inatler  The  upper  world, 
while  gazing  upon  the  lower  and  radiating  its  hiirlier 
light,  causes  the  inixlure  of  matter  willi  reci|itive 
form,  the  t'lhii  irn/Ki/iii :  anil  out  of  pnre  matter 
the  celestial  boilies.  lUid  out  of  impure  matter  the 
four  eliiiients.  were  evolvid.  But  while  the  lirst 
formed  iiitoan  inseparable  combination  and  the  ini.\- 


Abraham  bar  9iyya  ha-Nasi 
Abraham  b.  Isaac  of  Narbonne 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


110 


tiiiv  of  the  latter  is  diii'  which  ci-nstjmlly  chnngts, 
a  third  form  exists  whicli  mixes  wiih  matter  for  a 
certain  time,  to  live  a.!jraiii  in  a  disembodied  state  after 

its  separation,  aud  this  is  tlie  liunian 

Hatter  and  soul.      According    to    its    wisdom — 

Form.         which  makes  it  seek  the  ii|>i)er  world, 

the  pure  lastiiis:  form — r>r  its  folly — 
•which  makes  it  follow  lln>  impure  matter  of  the  per- 
ishable world  below — the  soul  of  man  partakes  of  the 
nature  of  either  the  one  or  the  other .  but,  liis  dcstiua 
tion  being  to  live  forever  like  the  angels,  man  has  been 
appointedby  Godtobetherulerof  all  beings  on  earth; 
and  in  the  same  measure  in  wliieli  he  fullilsor  deviates 
from  his  destination,  does  he  rise  or  fall  in  dignity 
above  or  below  his  fellow  creatures.  Says  Abraham 
b.  Hiyya,  in  common  with  Aristotle  ("Ethics,"  vii. 
11),  aud  others,  "(ireatir  is  he  who  has  succeeded 
in  training  himself  to  abandon  every  thought  of 
worldly  passion  and  longs  only  for  the  service  and 
adoration  of  the  Most  High,  tjian  he  who  has  still 
to  wrestle  with  the  appetites  of  the  llesh,  though  he 
overcome  them  in  the  end."  For  after  all,  Siiys  he 
with  Plato  ("Pha'do,"  p.  lU),  the  soul  in  this  world 
of  llesh  is,  as  it  were,  imprisoned,  while  the  ani- 
mal soul  craves  for  worldly  pleasures,  anil  experi- 
ences pain  in  foregoing  them.  Still,  only  the  sen- 
sual man  requires  corrections  of  the  tlesh  to  liberate 
the  soul  from  its  bondage;  the  truly  pious  need 
not.  or  rather  should  not,  undergo  fasting  or  other 
forms  of  asceticism  except  such  as  the  law  has 
prescribed  ("Hegyon,"  p.  16</).  But,  precisely  as 
man  has  been  set  apart  among  his  fellow  creatures 
as  God's  servant,  so  Israel  is  separate  from  the  na- 
tions ("Hegyon,"  p.  T),  the  same  three  terras  {hara, 
yaziir,  'asa/t)  being  used  by  the  prophet  for  Israel's 
creation  (Isa  .xliii.  7)  as  for  that  of  man  in  Genesis. 
Like  Bahya  ("Ilobot  ha-Lebabot,"  ix.  3)  Abraham 
b.  Hiyya  distinguishes  three  classes  of  pious  men: 
(1)  such  as  lead  a  life  altogether  apart  from  worldly- 
pursuits  and  devoted  only  to  God  ("these  are  but 
few  in  number  and  may  in  their  sovereignty  over 

the  world  be  regarded  as  one  individu- 

Three       ality";  Alfarabi,  "Model  State";  see 

Classes  of  Guftmann,  ih.  p.  2ri,  note);  (2)  such 

Tious  Men.  as   take  part   iu   the  world's  affairs. 

but  are.  as  regards  their  conduct,  ruled 
only  by  the  divine  laws  aud  statutes  without  con- 
cc-iiing  themselves  with  the  rest  of  men  (these  form 
the  "holy  congregation"  or  the  "  faithful  city"  ); 
and  (3)  such  as  lead  righteous  lives,  but  take  care  also 
that  the  wrong  done  outside  of  their  sphere  is  pun- 
ished aud  the  good  of  all  the  people  promoted  (these 
form  the  "  kingdom  of  justice  "  or  the  "  righteous  na- 
tion ").  In  accordance  with  these  three  cla.sses  of 
servants  of  God,  he  finds  the  laws  of  the  Torah  to  be 
divided  into  three  groups:  (1)  The  Decalogue,  con- 
taining the  fundamental  laws  with  especial  reference 
to  the  God -devoted  man  who,  like  ]Mos(S,  lives  solely 
in  the  service  of  God  (the  singular  being  used  be- 
cause only  Moses  or  the  one  who  emulates  him  is  ad- 
dressed). The  first  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  which 
he  considers  merely  as  an  introductory  word,  ac- 
centuates the  divine  origin  and  the  eternal  goal  of 
the  Law ;  the  other  nine  present  the  various  laws  in 
relation  to  God,  to  domestic  life,  and  to  society  at 
larire.  Each  of  these  three  clas.ses  again  refers  either 
to  the  heart  or  sentiment,  to  the  s])eecli  or  to  the  ac- 
tion of  man.  (2)  The  group  of  laws  contained  in 
the  second,  third,  and  fourth  books  of  Moses,  in- 
tended for  the  people  of  Israel  during  their  wander 
ing  in  the  desert  or  during  the  E.xile.  to  render  them 
a  holy  congregation  relying  solely  upon  the  spe- 
cial protection  of  God  without  resorting  to  warfare. 
(3)    The  Deuterouomic  legislation  intended  for  the 


people  living  in  an  agricultural  state  and  forming 
a  "kingdom  of  justice."  However,  in  the  time  of 
the  Messianic  redemption,  when  the  evil  spirit  .shall 
have  vani.shed  altogether,  when  the  sensual  man  shall 
have  become  a  spiritual  one,  and  the  passions  that 
created  hatred  and  strife  shall  have  given  way  to 
love  of  man  and  to  faithful  obedience  to  the  will  of 
God.  no  other  laws  than  those  given  to  the  God- 
devoted  one  in  the  Decalogue — the  law  written  upon 
the  heart  of  man — will  be  necessary.  Men,  imbued 
solely  with  love  for  their  fellows,  free  from  sin,  will 
rise  to  the  standard  of  the  God-devoted  man,  and, 
like  him.  share  in  the  eternal  bliss  of  God  Against 
Uapoport,  Guttuumn  has  shown  ("  Monats.schrift," 
p.  201,  note  2)  that  Nahmanides  read  and  used  the 
"Hegyon  ha  Nefesh,"  though  occasionally  differing 
from  it;  but  while  Saadia  is  elsewhere  quoted  by 
Abraham!).  Hiyya,  he  never  refers  to  him  in  "Heg- 
yon" (Guttm'ann.  in  "Monatsschrift,"  pp.  199,  200). 
Characteristic  of  the  age  is  the  fact  that  while  Abra- 
ham b.  Hiyya  contended  against  every  superstition, 
against  I  he  Ukiifiih  ("  Sefer  ha'Ibbur,"  p.  8).  against 
prayers  for  the  dead  ("  Hegyon."  p.  32a),  and  similar 
practises  (rt.  p.  40(;),  he  was,  nevertheless,  like  Ibn 
Ezra,  a  firm  believer  in  astrology.  In  his  "  Megillat 
liaMegalleh  "  he  ealculaled  from  Scripture  the  exact 
time  for  the  advent  of  the  ilessiah  to  be  the  vear  of 
the  worid  5118  (see  "Ben  Chananja,"  1869,  iv.  7,  8). 
He  wrote  also  a  work  on  redemption,  from  which 
Isaac  Abravanel  appropriated  many  ideas.  It  is  in 
defense  of  .Judaism  against  Christian  arguments,  and 
also  discusses  .Mohammed,  "the  Insane";  announ- 
cing the  doH  nfall  of  Islam,  according  to  astrological 
calculation,  for  the  year  4940  a.m. 

BiBi.iociRAIMlT :  Stelnsctinililer,  Z.  D.  M.  Q.  1876,  p.  fi.'B :  Idem. 
Ihlir.  mill.  18<)1.  iv.  IIIS-KKI  (whcrp  Itapoport"  s  reading  of  the 
name  "Ilayyah,"  instead  of  "tliyyah."  isadopte<l):  1876,  xvl. 
iKI  (Where  the  name  ".^ItiarRPlonl"  Is  declared  to  be  u  pure 
invention).    See  also  Briilfs  Jahrli.  ii.  ISU. 

.1.    G  -K. 

ABRAHAM    BEN    ISAAC    AUEKBACH : 

Liturgical  poet  of  the  seventeenth  century;  born  at 
Kosfeld  and  became  rabbi  at  jMllnster.  During  a 
visit  to  Amsterdam  in  1()T.5,  he  was  made  acquainted 
with  an  attempt  by  a  clergyman,  named  Christopher 
Bernard,  to  asperse  the  .Jews,  who  triumphantly  dis- 
proved the  charges.  Abiaham  ben  Isaac  composed 
a  luunber  of  stlihot  (i)euitential  hymns)  and  piz- 
moniin  (triumphant  cnles),  the  former  while  the  dan- 
ger was  impending,  the  latter  when  it  was  past. 
These  were  printed  by  Joseph  Athias  at  Amsterdam 
in  1677,  in  a  Jjrochure  which  lias  become  very  rare 
and  which  is  distinguished  by  the  ntimber  of  rabbin- 
ical authorities  who  expressed  their  approbation  of 
Auerbach's  poetical  efforts.  Both  the  past  and 
present  rabbis  of  the  German  congregation  of  Am- 
sterdam. Isaac  Aboab.  the  hakam  of  the  Portuguese 
congregation,  besides  rabbis  and  rabbinical  assessors 
of  Posen.  are  included  among  the  signatories  of  the 
kaskiimah  (approbation) 

BlBLKXiRAPHV :  Steinschnelder,  Cnt.  Bod?.  No.  2041 ;  Rocst, 
Cir(<iJo(/  iler  Heliraica  und  Judaica  awsderL.  RoscnlhaV- 
schen  BUAiuthek.  p.  23. 

J. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ISAAC  BEDAKESI.    See 

Bkd.mii.m,   .\Kr.,\HA.\i  i;kn  1sa.\(  . 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ISAAC  OF  GRANADA : 

Cabalist  of  the  tliirlecntli  century.  He  wrote:  (I) 
A  work  on  the  Cabida.  under  the  title  of  "Sefer 
ha-Berit."  This  is  quoted  by  Mo.ses  Botarel  in  the 
introduction  to  his  commentary  on  the  "Sefer  Ye- 
zirah,"  which  passage  contains  a  reference  to  Mai- 
monides'  "  Jloreh. "  (2)  Another  work  on  the  Cab- 
ala, under  the  title  "Berit  Menuhah,"  valued  highly 


Ill 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  bar  ^iyya  ha-Nasi 
Abraham  b.  Isaac  of  Nar bonne 


by  Isaac  Luriii  for  its  profound  comnu'uts.  Its 
language,  as  wr-ll  as  tlic  nianiiiT  in  wliicli  Simon 
bi-n  Yohiii  is  iiitroiluccil  as  s|i«ikiT.  slmws  strik- 
ing rcsfniblanci-  to  the  Zoliar,  and  it  may  be  that 
the  autlior  had  a  larger  version  of  the  Zoliar  before 
him  than  is  now  extant.  (3)  A  work  entitled 
"Megalle  lia-Ta  aluniot,"  quoted  by  the  author  in 
the  work  i)reviously  mentioned. 

liiiii.iooRAPHY:  Jcllliick.  AuamiM  KiOihalUiliiKhcr  MiiKtil'.  I- 
!i  (lifnimn  part):  Mlilmcl,  Or  hd-Hnyuiin.  No.  Uti;  Heii- 
Juculi,  IKiir  lul-Si  (mini,  pp.  S4.  si;,  ^IC. 

K  — ,1    L.  S. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ISAAC  HAYYOT :  (.'oni- 
niriitator;  livid  in  the  seventeenth  crnliiry.  He  is 
the  author  of  "  llolek  Tamim  "  (He  Who  Walks  Per- 
fect), e.xplaiiiing  the  laws  of  the  I'entateueh  after 
the  fourfold  method  of  interpretation  known  as 
DTIQ;  "'"'  is.  peruxh  ("literal  e.xplaiiation  "),  remez 
(•■  allegorical "),  (lirnn/i  ("  homiletieal"),  and  sod 
("mystical")  (Cracow,  1034). 
BiBLioGRAPiiY:  MIebael,  Or  ha-^/af/i/im.  No.  14.      jj     jj 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ISAAC  BEN  JEHIEL 
OF  PISA  :  Cnuidson  cil  ihi-  fuiiious  philaiilhrupist, 
Jkiilkl  of  Pisa,  whose  charity  did  much  to  alleviate 
the  sufferings  of  the  Spanish  exiles  in  M'Ji.  Abra- 
ham was  a  worthy  member  of  tliat  distinguished 
faniilv.  He  died,  according  to  the  report  of  Gedaliah 
ibn  Vahyah,  in  lli'i4,  in  the  prime  of  manhood.  Mi- 
chael is  mistaken  in  thinking  him  to  be  identical  with 
that  Abraham  ben  Isaac  of  Pisa  from  whose  pen  a  re- 
sponsum  exists  in  the  coUeetioQ  of  Menahem  Azariah 
<hi  Fano,  who  died  in  1020. 
Illlil.lixlHAI'llv  :  Miciiiic-I,  I ir  lui-lliiiiilhii.  N".  111.  j) 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ISAAC   HA-KOHEN  :  A 

hymn-writer  who  tiourished  in  Germany  about  10%; 
]i"robably  the  son  of  Isaac  ben  Eleazar  ha-Koheii, 
who  lived  in  .Mentz  in  10i)3.  He  is  the  author  of 
seveml  liturgical  works,  in  one  of  which  reference 
is  made  to  the  cruelties  perpetrated  upon  the  Jews 
by  the  crusaders.  He  compo.sed  several  yozerot  for 
f^abbath  Hanukkah,  in  one  of  which  the  story  of 
Judith  and  Holofernes  is  repeated. 
BuiLKKiltAl-nv  :  Zutiz.  L\thrnturij>i'rh.  \->.  \'i\.  j     (- 

ABRAHAM    BEN    ISAAC    HA-LEVI :     A 

Spanish  'I'almudist  and  author;  born  at  Barcelona  in 
the  early  part  of  the  fourtienlh  century;  died  at 
Narboiiiie  in  October,  i:!ii;!.  He  was  a  religious 
poet  and  leader  of  the  Jewish  community  in  Oerona 
(Catalonia),  an<l  is  praised  not  only  for  his  deep 
Talniudic  knowledge,  but  more  especially  for  the 
disinterested  manner  in  which  he  performed  his  func- 
tions. It  is  i)robable  that  he  left  Gerona  at  the  time 
of  the  terrible  persecution  of  i:i!ll  and  settled  in 
Narbonne.  A  poem  for  the  Passover  service  and 
four  poetical  lameiitalions  from  his  pen  are  preserved 
in  manuscript.  In  i:!!lt,  I'roliat  Duran  wrote  a 
memorial  notice  of  Abrahaiu  (printed  in  ".Maaseh 
Efod,"  edited  by  Priedliimler  anil  Kohn,  Vienna. 
1«85,  p  11)1).  A  letter  exists  in  manuscript,  ad- 
dressj'd  by  Moses  Vidal  ha-Levi  to  Abraham  I.saac 
ha  Levi,  ideiitilied  by  Neubuuer  with  the  subject  of 
this  article, 
llnil.ionnAiMiv.  Zunz,  hilernluryrwh.  p,  512;  Griltz,  (7fwJi. 

<l.  Jiiileii.  vlH.  4IW:  .V<i"(i»i»i  K'o.1,  p.  0;  licv.  fy.  Jiiii'tn. 

1.1.  IIT;  dni^.s,  <;ri//iii  ./iii/iii.(i,  p.  117.  q 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ISAAC  IBN  MI0A8.    See 

lllN    Mil.  \-      A  I-.?:  Ml  \M    C.l    N    I-  \  M 

ABRAHAM    B.    ISAAC    OF    NARBONNE 

(ri>mnioiil\  calird  RABuD  II.  Iiom  thi-  iiiiii.il  liltcis 
of  his  ollicial  designation  "ab  iiit  din  " --  chief  judge) 
Distinguished  Talmudisl  of  Ijinguedoc;  born  prob 


ably  at  Montpellier  about  1110;  died  at  Xarbonne, 
1179.  His  teacher  was  Moses  b.  Joseph  b.  Merwan 
ha-Levi,  and  during  the  lattcr's  lifetime  KABal)  H. 
was  appointeil  president  of  tlie  rabbinical  board  of 
Narbonne — composed  of  nine  members — and  was 
made  piineii)al  of  the  rabbinical  academy.  In  the 
latter  cai)acity  lie  taught  two  of  the  greatest  Tal- 
mudists  of  Provence — namely,  Abraham  b.  David 
III.,  wlio  afterward  became  his  sou-iu  law,  and  Ze- 
raliiah  ha-Levi. 

Like  most  of  the  Provencal  scholars.  RABal)  II. 
was  a  diligent  author,  composing  numerous  com- 
mentaries upon  tlie  Talmud,  all  of  which,  liowever, 
have  been  lost  with  the  exception  of  that  upon  the 
treatise  Baba  Bati-a,  of  whieli  a  manuscript  has  been 
preserved  in  Munich.  Numerous  quotations  from 
these  commentaries  are  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of 
Zerahiah  Gerondi,  Nahmanides.  Nissini  Gerondi,  and 
others.  ^lany  of  his  cx]ilaiiations  of  Talmudical  pas- 
Siigcs  are  also  repeated  in  his  responsji  which  give  his 
method  of  treatment.  In  Atiraham's  comments  on 
the  Talmud  he  seems  to  have  taken  Rashi  as  his  model ; 
for  they  are  marked  by  the  same  precision  and 
clearness  of  exposition.  An  idea  of  this  writer's  Tal- 
mudical knowledge  may  be  gatliercd  from  his  book 
"Ha  Eshkol"  (three  parts  of  which  were  published 
by  M.  Auerbach.IIalberstadt,  ISOT-OH).  This  work, 
the  fourth  part  of  wliich  exists  in  manuscript  in  the 
library  of  the  Alliance  Israeliteof  Paris, 
Ha-Eshkol.  was  modeled  after  the  well-known 
work  of  Alfasi.  and  was  the  first  impor- 
tant attempt  at  a  legal  code  made  by  the  French 
Jews.  It  can  not,  however,  be  said  to  equal  Alfasi's 
work  either  in  originality  or  in  depth,  but  it  con- 
tained some  noteworthy  improvements  upon  its 
model,  such  as  the  arrangement  of  its  contents  ae- 
cording  to  subject-matter,  wliich  greatly  facilitated 
its  iniictical  use.  KABal)  II.  also  drew  upon  the  Je- 
rusalem Talmud  and  the  gaonic  literature  much  more 
fully  than  Alfasi,  and  treated  at  much  greater  length 
many  subjects  which  were  only  briefly  considered 
by  tiic  latter.  His  depth  and  acumen,  however,  are 
shown  to  much  better  advantage  in  his  responsa, 
([uoted  in  the  collection  "  Teniim  Deim  "  (part  iv.  of 
"Tummat  Yesharim,"  by  Benjamin  Jlotal,  Venice, 
lOiil.and  in  the"  Seferha-Terumot "  of  Samuel  Sardi. 
( Ither  responsii  sent  to  Joseph  ben  lien  (Graziano)of 
Barcelona  and  Meshullam  ben  Jacob  of  Lund  are 
found  in  a  manuscript  belonging  to  Baron  de  GUnz- 
burg  in  St.  Petersburg.  As  an  acknowledged  itib- 
binical  authority  and  president  of  the  rabbinical 
board,  he  was  frequently  called  upon  to  give  his  de- 
cision on  dillicult  questions;  and  his  answers  show 
that  he  was  not  only  a  lucid  exegete,  but  also  a  log- 
ical thinker. 

Though  he  lacked  originality  Abraham's  influ- 
ence upon  Talmudical  study  in  Provence  ought  not 
to  be  underrated.  Laiiguedoc  formed  politically  a 
connecting  link  between  Sjiain  and  northern  France, 
in  like  manner  Jewish  scholars  iilayed  the  rCile  of 
intermediaries  between  the  Jews  of  these  countries. 
Abraham  b.  Isaac  rei>resented  this  function;  he  was 
the  intermediary  between  the  dialectics  employed  by 
the  tosatists  of  France  and  the  systematic  .science 
of  the  Spanish  nibbis  The  Flench  Italian  ciHlitiers — 
Aaron  ha-Kohen  of  Lunel,  Zeilekiah  b.  Abraham,  and 
many  others — took  .\biiihani  b  Isaac's  "  Ha  Kshkol  " 
for  their  model;  audit  was  not  until  the  appeaninco 
of  the  "Tnr."  written  by  .laeob  b  Asher.  a  tJerman 
.lew  resident  in  Spain,  that  "  Ha  Kshkol "  lost  its 
iiiiporlanceand  sank  into conii>aiative oblivion  TIlO 
school  founilid  by  Alinihiimb  Isiiiic,  asexeiiiplitied 
In  HABal)  III  and  Zerahiah  ha  I>evi.  was  neverthe- 
less the  creator  of  a  svstem  of  Talniudic  criticism; 


Abraham  ben  Isaac  Shalom 
Abraham  ba-Levi 


THE  JEWISU  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


112 


ami  tlu'  method  it  ciiiployi'tl  was  in  fact  no  otlur 
than  thi'losatist  dialectic  niodilicd  and  siinplilicd  by 
Spanish-Jewish  Ioumc. 

BIDI-IOURAI'IIY  :  II.  (iross.  In  .Vi>na(«fw?irf,f(,  1868,  xvli.  341-255, 
281-L1H ;  Idem,  fiaUiii  Jiiiliiird,  pp.  414-41.'> :  Renan,  Leu  Unli- 
biris  Fra  mo  in.  pp.  .'ilii.  "ils,  rai.  .M;i :  Mlrhael,  ( >r  li(i-lliiiiii<<i<. 
No.  1;B;  Zilnz.  In  (ielt'er's  Zeit^chrifl  f.  J.  nt„l.  II.  :ilir-:t(ia. 

L.  G. 
ABKAHAM   BEN    ISAAC    SHALOM.     Sec 
Sii.M.oM.   .\r.i!\n\\i   i;kn   I>aa( 

ABRAHAM  BEN  ISRAEL  COHEN  RAP- 
OPORT  ("  Schrenzel").     Sec- UAroi'dur. 

ABRAHAM  ISRAEL  PEREYRA.  Sec 
Pkkkvua.  .\i'.uaiiam  I>uai'.i,. 

ABRAHAM,  JACOB.  See  ABRAn.\M  (Abua.m). 
Ja(  cm 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JACOB  BERAB.    See  Be- 

RAl!.    .VlU!  \IIA\1    ni.N  .1  A(  cii;. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JACOB  DE  BOTON.     See 

BOTON,    .VllliAIIAM     IIKN    .Ia(  111;  UK 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JACOB  MOSES  HELIN. 

Sec   III   1. IN.     .VnitAIIAM    r.KN  .Ja(  nl;  Mosls 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JACOB  ZEMAH :  Pales 
tiniaii  ralilii  and  author;  lioru  about  lllTd.  lie  was 
a  ralilii  at  .Jerusalem,  and  a  member  of  the  bet  din, 
or  rabbinical  tribunal,  presided  over  by  Moses  ben 
Jonathan  Galante.  He  is  the  author  of  a  theolog- 
ical work  called  "Bcrit  Abraham"  (The  Covenant 
of  Abraham).  I.Iayyim  Abulatia  quotes  him  in  his 
book  "  'Ez  Hayyim,'  and  elsewhere. 
Bibliography  :  Michael,  <»■  ha-Ilayilim.  No- 1-''^. 

J.   L.  S. 

ABRAHAM     JAFE     KALMANKES.      See 

Kai.ma.nkks.  Ai;haiia\i  Jakk. 
'  ABRAHAM   JAGHEL   BEN  HANANIAH 
DEI  GALICCHI.     Sr,>  .Ialiiki..   Ainimmm 

ABRAHAM  JEDIDIAH  BEN  MEN  AHEM 
SIMSON.     Sir  Hash, All,  Ai!i;mi.\m  .Ikdiiiiaii, 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JEHIEL  COHEN  POR- 
TO.    Sir  I'liKiii,  .Vbuaiiam   r.KN  .Ikiiiki,. 

ABRAHAM  JEKUTHIEL  SALMAN  LICH- 

TENSTEIN.      Sir   l.lrllTKNSTKIX.    Abhaham, 

ABRAHAM  JESOFOVICH :  Secretary  of  the 
trea.sury  of  Lithuania  under  Kinir  Sigismuud  L  of 
Poland";  born  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century; 
died  at  Brest  I.itovsk,  1.519,  When  Alexander  Jau'el- 
lon  expelleil  the  Jews  from  Lithuania  in  14!).-)  (from 
which  banisliinent  they  returned  iu  1.5U3) .  the  most 
prominent  Jews  of  the  principality  were  the  three 
brothers  .lesofovich  of  Brest :  Abraham.  Michael,  and 
Isaac.  Abndiam  was  then  assessor  of  Kovno,  and 
as  soon  as  the  edict  for  the  banishment  of  the  Jews 
■was  issued,  he  went  to  Wiliia  to  return  the  accounts 
of  the  district  which  had  been  entrusted  to  him.  He 
probably  emigrated  to  Poland  with  the  rest  of  his  co- 
religionists, liut  returned  and  emliraced  Cliristiaiiity. 
This  so  pleased  Ale.Vandrr  that  he  elevated  him  to 
the  rank  of  nobility,  giving  him  the  supplementary 
name  "  Jastrzhembetz."  In  1.506.  when  .Vbrahain 
fanned  the  revenue  of  the  customs  of  Kovno.  he  held 
the  titles  of  alderman  of  Smolensk  and  ]irefect  of 
Minsk,  and  the  king  presented  him  with  the  estate 
of  Voidiing.  When  King  Sigismund  I,  ascended  the 
throne  in  l.")()G,  he  continued  the  titles  and  gifts 
granted  Abraham  liy  Alexander  and  farmed  out  to 
him  many  other  taxes,  together  with  the  mint  of 
Lithuania.  Abr.diam  stood  high  in  the  royal  favor, 
and  in  1.50!)  Sigismund  I,  granted  him  the  estates 
and  manorial  rights  of  Grinkov  and  two  estates 
in  the  district  of  Troki,  In  1.510  Abraham  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  treasury  of  Lithuania,  which 
position  he  held  until  his  death.    His  brothers  Michael 


and  Isaac  did  not  change  their  religion.  Xever- 
tlieli'ss,  they  were  always  on  good  terms  with  their 
brother.  Probably  owing  to  .Xbndiam's  intliieiice, 
Michael  was  appointed  "senior"  of  all  the  Lithua- 
nian Jews,  with  the  power  of  jurisdiction  over  them. 
The  will  of  .\braham.  dated  at  Brest  Litovsk.  Sep- 
tember "J.},  1.51'J.  bears  among  other  signatures  I  he 
names  of  his  brothel's  .Michael  and  Isaac,  Through 
the  influence  of  Duke  Albert  of  Prussia  and  "in 
memory  of  the  siTvices  of  the  late  Abraham  Jesofo- 
vieli."  etc,  the  king  in  1.525  raised  the  Jew  Michael 
Jrsofovich  to  the  rank  of  nobility,  lie  died  about 
15:!ll,  .Many  of  the  descendants  of  Aliialiaiii  .lesofo- 
vich held  high  positions  in  Lithuania.  Thus,  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  a  certain  senator,  Andrei  .\bram- 
ovich.  was  castelian  of  Brest-Litovsk  (lT57-tj;i), 

Uini.iooRAPiiY:  Bershiwlski.  LUnroliir  Ycrrci.  St.  Petersbunr, 
IHK),  p.  :J4iilT.ai31T.  anrt.l/iram  Jfw/orio/i,  Klev,li*D(:  Wolft, 
/i;i/  MiiiMrcin  Kn'ila  Xuomunta,  ITacow,  188.5;  Berrliln, 
I'l  iTci  Ministr  Vik.,  1«W,  v,  1(K  ct  wn. 

II.    15. 

ABRAHAM  (JACOB  JOSEPH)  BEN  JOEL 
ASHKENAZI  KATZENELLENBOGEN.  S,  e 
Kai  zi  Nil  i.iM'.iH.i  N,    Auk  Ml  wi 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JOSEPH  HA-LEVI,  OF 
CRACOW:  Polish  commentator,  born  at  Cracow 
about  UiJO;  died,  probably  in  Hamburg,  about  1070, 
or  at  least  some  time  after  1().59,  In  conseiiucnce  of 
the  persecution  of  the  Jews  of  Poland  by  the  Cos- 
sacks in  1C.5C  he  lied  from  his  native  city  and  sought 
asylum  in  Hamburg,  Here  he  produced  a  commen- 
tary upon  Megillat  Ta'anil.whicli  was  iiiiuled  at  Am- 
sterdam, in  10.59,  and  went  through  several  editions. 
His  work,  however,  was  not  favorably  received  by 
his  contemporaries,  for  both  Ejdiraim  Cohen,  ••lullior 
of  "Sha'ar  Lphraim,"  a  collection  of  rabbinical  ile- 
cisions,  and  Abraham  Gonibiiier,  author  of  "  .Magen 
Abraham."  refer  to  him  somewhat  disparagingly. 

BiHLioiiKAPilv  ;  .Mirhuel.  Or  htr-Hiiitiiim.  No.  124. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JOSEPH  OF  ORLEANS  : 

I'lrmji  Taluiuilist;  lived  al  t  Miraiis,  and  perhaps  at 
London,  iu  the  twelfth  century.  He  belongs  to  the 
older  tosatists.  and  his  interpretations  of  the  Tal- 
mud are  i|Uoted  several  times  in  the  Tosafot.  He 
is  mentioned  as  the  father  of  three  daughters.  He 
was  the  father-in-law  of  Judah  ben  Isjiac,  of  Paris, 
siirnamcd  Sir  Leon  (110G-12',i4) ,  and  therefore  a 
contemporary  of  Habbenii  Tain  of  Kauieru,  the  head 
of  the  tos;itis"tie  ,school  in  the  middle  orihe  twelfth 
century.  It  has  been  suggested  by  Jacobs  that  he 
is  identical  with  the  Abraham  til  Habbi  Joce,  men- 
tioned in  the  English  records  of  the  twelfth  century. 

BIBMOC.RAPHY  :  Zunz.  Z.  G.  p.  47:  Jacobs,  Jews  nf  Anycpin 
EimlamU  pp.  400,  417;  Gross,  G<iltk<  Jiulaica,  p.  57. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JOSEPH  SOLOMON  HA- 
I^AZAN  :  Karaite  rabbi  at  Koslnv,  now  Kiipaloria. 
Crimea,  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
His  father,  Joseph  Solomon,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the 
rabbinate,  instructed  him  in  the  literature  and  science 
of  the  Karaites.  He  is  the  author  of  six  Hebrew 
poems,  which  arc  found  in  the  "Karaite  Litvirgy  " 
(Vienna  ed,,  pp,  108  </.'«■?, ),  In  a  poem,  composed 
in  honor  of  Siinha  Bobowich,  who  was  head  of  the 
Koslov  community — which  poem  is  also  incorpo- 
rated in  the  "Liturgy  "  (p.  187)— he  calls  himself, 
from  the  initials  of  his  fathers  name,  Ibn  Yashar, 

BiBLiocRAPHV:  Ffirst.  Gr.ich.  d.  Knriirrt.  111.  i:J8:  Gottlolwr, 
imhiint  If-T'ilohit  liti-Kainim.  p.  l."il. 

I,  Bk, 

ABRAHAM  JOSHUA  HOESHL  :  Uabbi  at 
Kolbushowa,  and  lateral  .Miedzyboz,  Poland;  lived  in 


113 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ben  Isaac  Shalom 
Abraham  ha-Levi 


the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  lie  wrote 
twoconmienturiesDM  tin-  Pentateucli .  "Tnral  Knict  " 
(The  Teaching  of  tlie  Tnitli)  and  "OIrI)  Yisrael " 
(Till'  Lover  of  Isnicl).  In  liotli  works  Aliraliani  gives 
four  different  explanations  of  the  Scripture:  the  lit- 
eral, the  honiiletic,  the  allegoric,  and  the  mystic. 
Bnn.iociHAPiiv  :  Wiildi'ii,  Slum  lia-GeduUm  Iu-1I<iiIiikIi,  p.  13. 

I.    I!. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JOSIAH  OF  JERUSA- 
LEM: A  Kurailc  author,  who  Uourishcd  in  the 
lirsi  half  of  the  eigliteenth  century,  lie  went  from 
Palestine  to  the  Crimea,  where,  iu  ITI'2,  he  finished 
"Enuuiah  Omen,"  a  work  on  Karaite  theology,  ed- 
ited hy  .lacoli  Inn  Abraham  Firkovitch.  Kupaloria. 
1840.  II<'  treats  of  divinity  and  the  immutaliility 
of  the  Law,  on  the  main  issues  tietween  Karaite  and 
Piibhiiiite  (loclrines,  and  on  the  relations  of  science 
to  religion.  Without  exhiliiting  any  originalit}- of 
lliought,  the  work  is  remarkalile  as  displaying  the 
thorough  familiarity  of  the  author  with  the  entire 
raliliinical  literature;  it  shows  also  the  high  esteem 
in  which  he  held  such  authorities  as  JIaimoniih'S  and 
Ihn  Ezra.  In  171-").  under  the  iiseudouym  Abraham 
Kalai  (after  the  town  in  which  he  resided  at  tlie  time). 
he  wrote,  under  the  title  ^SC  buc  ("  Shaol  Shaal  "), 
a  work  on  the  rules  for  the  slaughtering  of  animals, 
u  favorite  Karaitic  subject.  .lost's  doubts  as  to  his 
identity  with  Abraham  Yerushalmi  were  dispelled  by 
Gottlober,  "  Bikkoret  le-Tole<lot  ha-Karaim,"  p.  l")!. 

K. 

ABRAHAM   BEN   JOSIAH  HA-ROFE :    A 

Karaitic  scholar  and  physician,  born  iu  Troki,  a  town 
near  Wilna,  in  Lithuania,  about  l(!;i('i;  died  therein 
\(iXX.  lie  was  one  of  the  leading  scholars  of  Ids 
time,  and,  according  to  Karaitic  tra<lition.  a  diseiide 
of  Joseph  Solomon  Delmedigo.  In  his  later  years 
he  wasappninti'd  physician  in  ordinary  to  King  John 
Sobieski  (H!7-l-it(i) .  lie  wrote  a  luimbcr  of  works 
on  medicine  and  natural  science,  which,  however, 
were  never  printed. 

Bint,in(;K,\rirv ;    Nf'ul«uit*r,  Av»  ilfr  Petervhurqcr    Bihlio- 
thfk^  pp.  72,  riS;  Fuenn.  Kcnc/tet  Yit^racU  pp.  28  ct  sei/. 

S.  M.  D. 

ABRAHAM    JTJD^US.     See   Auu.\ii.\.m   ihn 

Ezii  \ 
ABRAHAM  JVDJEVS  MEDICUS.  See  AnuA- 

II  \M  i;i  N  Siii.M    I'oe. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  :  Flourished  in  the 
tliii  li  (-nth  ci-ntuiy  at  liaicclona.  Spain.  According 
tciDe  Hossi  ("  nizzionario."  p.  ;.'ii7)  there  is,  among 
the  manuscripts  of  thi'  Vatican  library,  aii  un])ub 
lislied  philosophical  work  by  him,  in  four  parts, 
called  "Arba'ali  Turim  "  (The  Four  Hows),  which 
Ireals  of  Clod's  existence,  of  divine  |>rovi(lcnee.  of 
the  reasons  for  the  Mosaic  laws,  and  of  the  purpose 
of  the  Jewish  prayers  M.  K. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  :  A  physician  who 
wrote  in  Hebrew  a  mcdic.il  wiak.  ".\Iareot  lia  She- 
tanim"  (.\spectsof  the  Irine);  date  of  birth  and  death 
unknown.  Acconling  to  a  statement  in  the  inlro- 
dnetion.  the  aiilhor  intiiidcd  bis  work  to  be  a  guide 
for  youni;  practilioiicrsand  a  refcriiiee  book  for  lay- 
men. Ill'  promised,  also,  to  make  a  compilation  on 
this  .same  subject,  drawn  from  the  writings  of  the 
best  authorilies.  Il  is  not  unlikely  that  his  book  is 
oidy  an  exlniel  from  the  work  on  mine  written  by 
ls.\AC  lHitAi;i.i,  who  died  about  ilod. 
Hllil,lliiin,\l'liv:  Sla'iiisi'liiU'liler.  Ihlir.  f 'i  licix  p.  7-'>n. 

L.    O. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  BERLIN:  (iir 
man  rabbi;    ilicil   at    Amsterdam   .March    i:).   ITyih 


son  of  the  famous  court  Jew,  Jost  Liebman.  and  dis- 
ciple of  Isiiiah  Horowitz,  the  second  of  that  name 
at  Posen.  He  was  rabbi  in  Ilalberstadt  in  l(i!ti  (Auer- 
bach,  "(jcsehichte  der  Israelitischen  Gemeinde  Ilal- 
ber.stadt,"  18(i(i,  p.  331),  and  in  1710  or  1717  he  was 
called  to  Amsterdam,  where  until  his  death  he  olfi- 
eiatcd  as  rabbi  and  jireachcr.  He  left  no  work  be- 
hind him.  and.  judging  from  his  contributions  to 
the  works  of  others,  he  does  not  appear  to  have  pos- 
.sessed  any  originality,  as  shown  bv  the  res|)onsji 
DnL"n  Pn"  by  Eliakim  Goetz,  rabbi  of  Hildesheim, 
No.  .■)(;  (Dyhcrnfurth,  1733),  and  also  by  Abraham's 
.scholastic  notes  on  the  Talmud,  found  in  the  collec- 
tion mirr  hip  of  Judah  Loeb  ben  Hanina  Selig  of 
Glogau,  Amsterdam,  1729;  reprinted  various  times, 
and  lastly  at  Lublin,  1S97. 
HiBi.ioORAPUY :  Michael,  Or  ha-Hauuim,  No.  107. 

I) 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  DE  BOTON.    See 

BoTiiN.    .\i;i;\u\M    i:l.N   .liiiAii    iiiv 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  EBERLEN. 
See  Kiti;ni,i-;.N.   Ai;i:ai[a.m  iii;N  .li  i)\u 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  ELIMELECH 
(ALMALIK):  A  cabalistic  wiitcr  w  Im  lived  at  I'e- 
saro^  Italy)  about  the  end  of  the  lift  cent  h  century  and 
was  probably  a  Spanish  exile.  He  wrote  a  book 
entitled  "  Likktite  Shikhah  u  Peah  "  (Gleanings),  a 
cabalistic  commentary  on  haggadie  portions  of  the 
Talmud.  In  its  preface  the  author  gives  some  detail 
of  his  life.  It  was  published,  together  with  Josei)h 
ben  Hayyim's  commentary  on  the  Ten  Setirot.  and 
Joseph  Giquitilla's  treatise  on  cabalistic  subjects, 
Ferrara,  ir).5(i. 

BuiLioiiRAFiiv:  Michael,  Or  ha-Haui/im,  No.  106;  Benjaci'b, 
Ozar  ha-Scfarim,  No.  aiO,  p.  ZlSf. 

J.  L.  S. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  I^ADIDA.      See 

Hai)II>v.  .\f.i;Aii\M   i'.i;n  .Iidaii 
'  ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  IBN  HAYYIM. 
See  HwviM,  .\i;iiaiiam  i'.i.n  .Ii  haii  iun 

ABRAHAM     BEN     JUDAH      LOEB.       See 

MasKII.I.L.ImiN.     .\i;k  \UAM. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  LOEB  SARA- 
'VAL.     >rr  S\e:a\  \i..  Ai'.i;aiiam  ia;N  .Ii  o\ii  l.ni  i; 

ABRAHAM  BEN  JUDAH  SEGRE.  See 
Si:oiii..    .\i'.i!  \iiA\i   i:i:n  Ji daii. 

ABRAHAM  KABASSI.     See  Kauassi,  Abiia- 

II  AM 

ABRAHAM  KIMHI.     See  Ki.Mi.n,  Abraham. 
ABRAHAM  KIRIMI.      See    KiitlMt,    Abha- 

II  AM 

ABRAHAM    KLAUSNER      Sec    Ki  ai  sNi;ii. 
Aim  Ml  \M 
ABRAHAM     KOLISKER.      S.  c    Koi.iskkk, 

A  11 1!  A  II  \M 

ABRAHAM  KONAT  BEN  SOLOMON.  Sec 

KoNAr.    .\l'.l;\M\M,    KIN    Sol  ONION 

ABRAHAM  LANIADO  BEN  ISAAC,  s,  e 
Lamnoo.    .\r.i:Mi\M     ci  n    I-vm 

ABRAHAM  LANIADO  BEN  SAMUEL. 
See   l.xNiMio     .\i'.iivn\M.    r.i  n   Sxmii.i. 

ABRAHAM  OF  LERIDA :  Physician,  sur 
geon.  and  a>tnilogir  .Ml  that  is  known  of  him  is 
thai,  on  Si'plcmber  I''.  M('>8.  he  couched  a  cataract 
ill  the  rigid  eye  of  King  John  II.  of  Anigon.  and 
afterward  wasequally  successful  with  the  left  eye. 
nini.ioc.RAPnv:  Kuywrliiig,  OcwJi.  ilcr  Jiulcii  in  /^lrtlly<l^ 

"•"•"""'"■•  M.   K. 

ABRAHAM   HA-LEVI.     Sec  Aiiiiaiiam   ues 

Isaac  Zi.m  \ii   ii  \  Li;\  i. 


Abraham  ha-Levi 
Abraham  ben  Moses 


Tin:  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


114 


ABBAHAM  HA-LEVI :  Tosntist.  tii>l  y«t  fully 
idintiliiil.  Ill  'I'iskf  T.isiifi.t  "  an  Aliriilimii  Im- 
Ltvi  is  (iiKitid  who  is  mil  Uiii>«n  otherwise  limn 
iinikT  this  name.  However,  it  is  iiroliable  ihat  he 
was  iJentical  with  one  of  the  many  German  or 
French  tosatisis  of  the  name  of  Alnaham,  as  the 
addition  "ha-Levi"  may  liavi-  bei^n  dropped  for  con- 
venience. He  is  possibly  identical  with  Abraham  ben 
Haruch.  brother  of  Jleir  (lia  Levi)  of  Hotlieiibiiiir. 
who  nourished  about  l-'-.25-'.(;i.  and  was  the  author 
of  a  work  which  still  e.\ists  in  manuscript. 

Bibliography  :  Zunz,  Xiir  Gt»chUhte  ituil  Lileratur.  pp.  4", 
•It*.  «0,  KB.  ,      „ 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  HA-LEVI  BEN  ELIEZER 
HA-ZAKEN  (the  Elder):  Spaiiisli  .Nile  in  Pales- 
tine, author  and  cabalist  of  the  early  part  of  the 
si.vtccntli  century.  He  was  brother-in-law  of  Abra- 
ham Zacuto,  the"aiithor  of  the  "Yuhasin."  On  be- 
ing exiled  from  Spain,  14il2,  he  lived  for  a  brief  period 
in  Egypt  and  Constantinople.  Subse(iiieiitly  he  went, 
to  Jerusalem  and  Sal'e<l.  where  he  studied  the  Cabala. 
At  Jerusalem  he  was  admitted  to  the  school  of  Sam- 
uel :Misod  of  Safed  and  Jacob  ben  .Maui.  In  a  letter 
sent  by  the  bet  din  to  a  philanthropist,  his  name 
stands"  at  the  head,  showing  that  he  was  the  ab 
bet  din.  Later  he  wasappointed  head  of  the  school 
of  David  ben  Su.san. 

His  courageous  attitude  is  manifested  in  the  rcspon- 
sum  to  Isaac  Sholal— at  that  time  wir/ul  of  Egypt 
— on  the  (jucstion  whether  it  is  allowable  to  pray 
to  the  angels.  Therein  he  strongly  opposes  those 
cabalists  who,  as  he  says,  "while  leaving  the  path 
of  righteousness  to  go  into  the  paths  of  darkness, 
serve  idols,  but  not  the  Lord  God."  Of  certain  old 
customs,  he  says:  "These  are  not  usages,  but  .  .  . 
Pay  no  attention  to  what  is  found  in  treatises  writ- 
ten" by  unknown  men;  for  many  falsilical ions  are 
found  in  them."  On  ini[iiiries  into  dreams,  which 
often  occupy  the  attention  of  the  cabalists.  based 
upon  I  Sam."  .xxviii.  (i.  1.").  he  says:  "Deep  thought 
and  exaggerated  imagination  suggest  to  j-ou  some- 
times a  iJible  passage,  in  which  the  anxious  mind 
accidentally  finds  an  answer." 

He  wrote  a  commentarv  on  the  little  book  called 
"Nebuot  lia-Yeled"  (The  Prophecy  of  the  Child), 
attrilnited  to  an  imaginary  |ierson  named  Nal.iman 
Katofaaiidsjiid  to  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  the 
city  of  Tiberias,  written  on  old  parchment  and  hid- 
den in  an  earthen  jar.  The  meaning  of  this  nianu- 
scri|)t  was  very  obscure.  The  commentary  was 
])ublished  in  l.iUi.  Abraham  is  also  the  author  of 
"  .Ma.shre  Kitrin  "  (The  L'n tier  of  Knots),  Coustantino- 
iile.  I.IIO.  a  commentary  on  the  .seventy  weeks  of 
Daniel's  prophecy  (Dan.ix.  '^4-27).  a  subject  treated 
also  in  "  Nebuot"  ha-Yeled."  According  to  Abra- 
ham's explanation,  the  year  of  redemption  should 
have  been  1530.  He  also  "wrote  "Tikkune  Shalibat." 
mystical  reflectionson  the  Sabbath  ritual,  which  went 
through  several  editions  in  Venice.  Amsterdam. 
Basel.  Wandsbeck.  Cracow,  Frankfort-on-tlie-Oder. 
Zolkiev.  etc.;  "Masoret  ha-Hokmah."  on  the  Ten 
Setirot.  and  "  Megillat  .Vmraphel"  on  the  merits  of 
an  ascetic  life.  See  Aiju.\iiam  ben  Eliezer  ha- 
liEvi  HEiifKiM,  with  whom  he  has  sometimes  been 
confounded. 
Bibliography  :  Mlcliael,  Or  ha-ljauyim.  No.  15.3. 

ABRAHAM  HA-LEVI  SHIMSHXJNI  OF 
PRAGUE.     Sei    SinM>iuM.  AiiHAiiA.M  iiA  Levi, 

OK    Pit  Mil. 

ABBAHAM  LICHTSTEIN.  See  Lichtsteix, 
Abraii.\m. 


ABBAHAM  OF  LTJNEL  :  A  celebrated  French 
philologist  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  is  .said  to 
have  niastcred  twenty  languages.  He  embraced 
Christianity,  and  about  l.WT  was  made  i)rofes.sor  of 
Hebrew  at  Avignon.  As  he  grew  older,  however, 
love  for  his  old  faith  revived  in  him,  and  being  un- 
able to  conceal  his  true  sentiments,  he  was  accused 
of  being  a  Jew  in  secret,  and  in  l.")i);i  was  deprived 
of  his  otlice.  To  avoid  a  worse  fate  he  lied  to  Venice, 
where  he  openly  returned  to  Judaism. 

BinLiOGRAPnv:  Gallia  Chrintiana,  I.  8»»;  Gnas,  Gallia  Ju- 

(((lira.  p.  SHI. 

L.   G. 

ABRAHAM   (ABTJLMENI)   MAIMTJNI    I. 

See  .Maimon.  .\iii:aii\m  i;i  n  .Mor-Ks. 

ABRAHAM  MAIMTJNI  II.  See  Maimi  Nl 
II.,  Ann  Ml  \M 

ABRAHAM     MALAK,    or    HA-MALAK : 

Russian  rabbi:  only  sou  of  Dob  Baer  of  .Mezhirich, 
who  was  the  first  leader  of  the  South  Kiissiai)  llasi- 
diin;  follower  of  Baal  Shem-Tob,  and  son-in-law  of 
Meshullani  Pluvbusof  Kremenetz;  dieil,  while  com- 
paratively young,  at  Fastov.  a  village  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Kiev,  aliont  1780.  He  was  educated  in  the 
principles  of  the  Hasidim  and  the  Cabala,  but  on  ac- 
count of  his  retiring  habits  and  bis  un|)ractical  nature 
did  not  succeed  his  father  as  head  of  the  sect.  He 
withdrew  after  Habbi  Baer's  death  to  the  village  of 
Hamiipol.  where  he  led  the  life  of  a  hermit,  admit- 
ting into  his  presence  only  a  few  zuihlikiiii  ("pious 
men  "),  among  whom  were  Zaimau  of  Lyady,  his 
friend  and  sclioolmate,  and  iS'ahum  of  Chernobyl. 
Nalium  procured  for  Abraham  the  position  of 
Iireacher  at  Fastov.  where,  until  his  death,  he  con- 
tinued his  secluded,  introspective  mode  of  life.  It 
was  on  account  of  his  ])ious  seclusion  from  the  world 
and  of  his  strict  observance  of  Hasidic  ordinances 
that  the  epithet  Malak  ("Angel  ")  was  given  to  him. 
His  son  was  Shalom  of  Pogrebish. 

Abraliaiu'sconinieiitary  on  the  Pentateuch,  which, 
combined  with  that  of  his  friend  Abraham  ha  Kohen 
Kalisliker.  was  published  under  the  title  "  Hescd 
le-Abraham,"  long  after  his  death,  by  his  grandson, 
Israel  of  Hozenoi  (Czernowitz,  18.j1  ;  Warsaw,  1883), 
is  partly  cabalistic  in  character,  and  partly  histor- 
ical, and  contains  many  passjigcs  reproving  the  de- 
generate Hasidim  of  his  generation.  Two  passages 
are  characieristic  as  to  the  jiersonality  and  standpoint 
of  the  author.  In  the  preface  he  <omplains  that 
whereas  wisdom  (Cabala)  represents  the  purest  re- 
ligious metaphysics,  it  had  become  obscured  by  a 
grossly  materialistic  conception,  as  was  also  tin-  case 
with  the  sublime  teachings  of  true  Hasidism.  "  This 
is  the  protest  of  a  noble  soul  against  the  commencing 
degradation  of  Hasidism,"  says  Dubnov.  "against 
the  irreverent  and  intemperate  degradation  of  the 
worship  of  God  and  the  crude  idolatry  which  man- 
ifests itself  in  the  cult  of  the  zaddikim."  In  another 
place  Abraham  describes  the  ideal  zadiiik.  and  it  is  an 
echo  from  his  own  soul  when  he  mourns  that  "  this 
generation  can  not  comprehend  the  great  mis.sion  of 
such  a  one.  Like  Saul  of  old.  he  is  taller  than  his 
contemporaries,  and  so  absorbed  in  the  meditation  of 
divine  wisdom  that  he  can  not  descend  to  the  lower 
steps  upon  which  ordinary  people  staiul." 

liini.ior.KAPiiv:  Diihnov.  In  Vm..  Dec,  IHflO,  pp.  142  fi  mn.; 
Gnttlcilier.  in  Ha-Bukci-( h:  Jan.,  1S.SI :  Sider  ha-Dnrot.  p.  29; 
Walden.  Shem  ha-Gnliilini  lie-I,lntla»h.  No.  M;  Seller  ha- 
Dnrnt  lie-Harlash :  ninlkinsun.  Tolednt  'Ammvde  llahad; 
Tann;  Ud-Eshkol  (Hebrew  Ency.),  Warsaw,  1888. 

ABRAHAM  MALAKI :  A  poet  who  flourished 
at  Carpentras,  near  Avignon,  about  the  end  of  the 


115 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ha-Levi 
Abraham  ben  Mosea 


thirteenth  century.  In  liis  poem.  "Tiie  Fliitning 
iSwortl,"  AliriUmni  Hechushi  recognizes  his  ]ii>e(ie  till- 
(■111.  Zunz  {■■  IJt.Tatiiri^esch."  p.  .50(1)  nienticins  ii 
liluri,Mcal  pi  jet  olthc  iiiiiiic  of  Abraham  of  Carpentras. 
He  ideiililies  him  with  Abraham  ben  Isaac,  siirnanied 
Don  Abraham  of  .MonlpelUer,  one  of  the  [Jarlizansof 
the  anti-.Maimonist  Al)l)a  Mari  of  Lune),  an<l  tiiinks 
lie  is  the  author  of  the  introduction  to  Il)n  Galiirol's 
"Azliarol."  wliieli  were  recited  on  tlie  lirst  and  sec- 
ond nights  of  Shabu'ot  (Pentecost)  in  tlie  commu- 
nilies  of  the  aiieii'iil  eounly  of  Venaissin.  and  are  still 
in  the  Sephardic  liturgy.  Gro.ss.  however,  with  more 
reason,  altributesthis|)oem  to  Abraham  Malalii,  who 
is  culled  by  .lonie  Abraham  the  Old,  and  by  others 
simply  Abraham  ("(jii'lli'i  Judaica,"  p.  GOT).  The 
unfortunate  poet  Isiuic  ben  Abraham  Gorni,  who  was 
at  Carpentras  at  the  .same  time,  speaks  of  Abraham 
Jlaliiki  in  the  higliest  terms.  "Abraham,"  he  said, 
"will  intervene  in  favor  of  the  sinners  of  Sodom  [Car- 
pentRusj,  where  there  arc  not  ten  righteous." 

liiiii.KxiK.vrnr :  E.\lra<t from Gomfs Dh'an, In Mimats-ichrift, 
ISfC,  p.  .'it:.':  Zuuz,  Litcrututyisch.  p.  500;  Uross,  (ItMia  Ju- 
diiU-ii,  p.  (iOT. 

S.  K. 

ABRAHAM    MANELES.      Sec     B.\ciiR,vcn. 
Ann  Ml  AM 
ABRAHAM    (ALLXJF)    MASS  ARAN.     Sec 

JIassm;  \n,    .\ki:  \ii  \m 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MATTATHIAS  :  Compiler 
of  llic  113  Sip  (■•  Kuli-liiH  li  "^ ,  a  collection  of  ani- 
mal fables  ill  .Juilieo  (Jermau  prose  and  verse,  pub- 
lished at  Verona  in  lo'io. 

Bnir.inHRAPiiY:   Stelnsclinelder,  Cnl.   Btidl.  So.  iX'J;    Kilrsl, 

mill,  jiiii.  1. 9. 

G. 

ABRAHAM  MEDINA.     See  Medi.n.v.  AiiU.v- 

II. \M 

ABRAHAM    MEIR    (called    MEIRI).      See 
Jli.ini    .Vr.uAiiAM 
ABRAHAM  BEN  MEIR  ABI  ZIMKA.    See 

AniZiMiiv   iir.N  Zimkai,  .\i:ii\h\m  i;i,.\  ,Mi-:ii<. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MEIR  IBN  EZRA.  Si  !■ 
IiiN  KzK  \.  .\  i;i;  Ml  \\i  i;i.N   Ml  ii; 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MEIR  IBN  KAMNIAL. 
See  KwiMM,.  ,\i;k\ii\\i  CI  N    .\1|JI(  ii;\. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MEIR  HA-KOHEN : 
I<;iblii  and  byiiiii  wrilrr  nf  llir  end  i>t  the  ele\  eiilli 
Century;  lived  probably  at  Speyer.  He  was  a  col 
league  of  Itiislii,  wilh  whom  he  carried  on  a  learned 
correspondence.  In  UMIti  he  compo.sed  an  elegy 
(kiim/i)  on  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews,  of  which 
he  was  an  eye-witness. 

llnii.KMiiiAPilv  :  MIrtmel,  Or  liii-Uiijiirim.  No.  llirt;  Land.sliiilli, 
'.1  niniuiU  hil-\ltnKlitli,  p.  .'i ;  /.uiiz.  .N'.  /*.  p.  4IM. 

L,  Ci. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MEIR  HA-LEVI  EP- 
STEIN.     See  El'STKlN,  AUUAIIAM  BKN  Meiii  ua- 

I.IM 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MEN'AHEM  MANAS- 
SEH    BACHARACH.      >, .     I!  \i  ii  m;  \i  ii.    .\iiiia- 

II  \M     Kl   S      M  I    \  Mil   M     M  \S  SS~I   II 

ABRAHAM  MESHULLAM  BEN  ABIO- 
COR.     Si'    .\i;ii.iMiii,   .\i'.itMi\\i    HiiM.r  iii.N   y\i: 

Mil  1  I   \M 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MESHULLAM  OF  MO- 
SENA :  llelirew  scholar;  one  of  llie  correctors  of 
tile  lirst  edition  of  llieZohar,  pulilished  at  .Mantua 
in  I.ViM-tlO,  in  praise  of  wliieli  he  wrote  verses  wliieh 
Wire  printed  in  the  prefair'.  He  has  ln-eii  frei|iu>iitly 
nilsiaken  for  Aiuiaimm  .\nioiioit  iir.N  Mksiu  i.i.am, 
mil hor  of  several  philosophical  treatises. 
Bini.iiiiauriiv  :  .Mliluul.  i>i  liii-ll<iiniiin,  Nu.  IHT. 

L.  O. 


ABRAHAM  DE  METRARGUES :  .V  phy- 
sician who  lived  in  Marseilles,  l-'raiiee,  during  the 
tirst  i|uarter  of  tlie  tifteentli  century.  He  is  men- 
tioned in  conimercial  and  official  documents  of  tliat 
town  for  the  years  140:>-ia. 

BiBLIonnAniv:  Bartlielemy,  Les  MMecins  d  JlarveiUe,  In 
Her.  £'  .  Juivca.  vll.  HH  ;  Gross,  Oallia  Judaica,  p.  .'Wi}. 

W.  M. 

ABRAHAM  MINZ.     See  MiNZ.  AiiiiAiiAM. 

ABRAHAM  THE  MONK  :  A  Palestinian  friar 
who  lived  in  a  monastery  on  Mount  Sinai.  He 
was  born  about  the  close  of  the  si.xtli  century,  and 
became  a  convert  to  Judaism  about  ()15.  As  a 
Christian,  he  spent  his  life  in  penance  and  prayer. 
Doubts  as  to  the  Christian  dogma  grew  in  his  mind, 
and,  after  a  prolonged  struggle,  he  deserted  his  cell 
in  the  monastery  on  Sinai  and  wandered  through 
the  desert  into  Palestine,  tinally  reaching  Tiberias. 
Here  he  submitted  to  circumcision  and  became  a 
Jew,  receiving  the  name  Abraham,  by  which  he 
was  subsequently  known. 

Bibliography:  lilliU'ilhcca  Patrum,  ed.  Leyden,  xll.  285; 
tiriitz,  (Icsch.  d.  Judcn,  v.  20,  3»». 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  MONSON.  See  MoxsoN,  Abra- 
ham 

ABRAHAM  OF  MONTPELLIER  :  Commen- 
tator on  the  gieatir  part  of  the  'ralniud.  His  coin- 
mentaries  on  Hullin  and  Ketubot  are  quoted  by 
Jacob  ben  Moses  of  Baguols,  who  wrote  between 
llioT-til,  and  by  Jlenaliem  di  Lonzano,  who  lived  in 
the  second  half  of  the  si.\teentli  century.  He  has 
been  mistaken  for  the  father  of  the  celebrated  anti- 
Jlaimonist  Solomon  ben  Alirahani  of  .Montpellier, 
who  nourished  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Isaac  de  Lattes.  in  his  "Sha'are  Zion  "  (ed. 
Buber,  p.  42) .  names  Kabbi  Abraham  among  the 
scholars  of  the  generation  succeeding  Solomon,  of 
whose  father  he  sjieaks  simply  as  "Abraham,"  with- 
out the  title  of  rabbi. 

11iiiiiii(;kapiiv  :  lie  l/ittes.  Sha'are  ZUm,  ed.  Buber,  p.  42; 
Ni'ulMiuur,  ill  Ilcc.  £t.  Juices,  1884,  xvll.  3J;  Uruss,  (Jallia 
Judaica,  p.  32ti. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MORDECAI  FARISSOL. 

See  KMit^MU,   .\i;i:\ll\M    i;i  N    MoliOli  M, 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MORDECAI  GALANTE. 
Seei;M.\Nri.   .\ki;mi\m  i:i  n   Mokihi  m. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MORDECAI  HA-LEVI: 
-Vn  Kgypliiiii  niblii  of  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
cenliirv.  In  lli'.ll  he  ediud  at  Venice  his  fallier'.s 
responsa,  "Darke  No'am,"  adding  a  treatise  of  his 
own  on  circumcision,  which,  however,  met  with  a 
great  deal  of  opposition  from  contemporary  rabbis. 
.Vbraham's  own  colled  ion  of  responsa,  "Ginnat 
AVenidim  "  (Garden  of  Hosesi .  arranged  in  the  same 
ord<T  as  the  four  "Turiin."  and  his  treatise  on 
divorce,  "  VaVr  N<lib"  (Illuminator  of  the  I'ath), 
were  published  at  t'onstanlinopli'  in  17H>-1S.  by  his 
son  in  law  Hayyim  ben  Moses  Tavila,  physician  in 
ordinary  to  the  sultan. 

BiHi.ioiiRArnv:  Aziilal,  Shcm  Im-O'ri/olim,  s,v. ;  neiijarob, 
Itztir  Iia-Srfarim,  pp.  119,  213. 

W.   B. 

ABRAHAM    MORPURGO.     See  ^Mourriioo, 

'  ABRAHAM     BEN     MOSES     (SCHEDEL): 

I'rinlir  .iihI  ii'initor  for  the  press;  nourished  in 
I'lau'iiealiout  IHoo.  Atindiam  niel  wilh  some  succesii 
ill  authorship  He  Iraiislaled  the  Hook  of  Kzekiel  into 
Judieo-tiernian  rime,  and  printed  it  in  his  own  estab- 
lishment in  llMi.     He  shows  liimseK  to  liave  been 


Abraham  ben  Moses  Alashkar 
Abraham  Saba 


THE  JEWISH  E>X"YCL0PE1)IA 


116 


one  of  the  best  cultivators  of  that  particular  field 
of  literature  from  which  spraujr  llie  JuiheoGermau 
folk-sonjrs. 

His  father,  Jloses  ben  Abnihani,  lived  at  PrafTue 
(15S5-lti0o),  bein^  preacher  and  judge  there,  as  well 
as  author  of  a  conimeutarv  on  the  Passover  Hag- 
jradah.  entitled  "Helljiat  Jiehokelj  "  (Portion  of  the 
I^awgiver).  He  was  employed  as  proof-reader  in 
the  printing  establishment  of  Mordecai  Cohen.  His 
brothers.  . I udah  (known  also  as  Loeb  or  Loew)  and 
A/.riel.  also  occupied  themselves  with  the  "holy  art 
of  printing."  as  they  styled  it. 

BiBLiooRAPUv:  Stelnschnelder,  Jeu'Mi  Literature,  p.  239; 
Idem,  OK.  Bmll.  No.  7722;  Zunz,  Z.  G.  p.  282. 

H.  B. 

ABRAHAM    BEN    MOSES    ALASHKAB. 

Sec  .\i.  \^iiK  AM.    .\i;k\ii\\i    i-.i.n    Mom.>. 

ABRAHAM  B.  MOSES  COHEN  :  A  learned 
ralibi.  iHiibalily  ni  Spimisli  oiiL'in;  lived  in  Italy 
during  the  liist  half  of  the  si.Meinlh  century;  died 
about  ITmO.  The  data  given  by  writers  who  men- 
tion himarecontlietinir.  The  earlier  biblioixraphers. 
Bartoloici  ("  Bibliotheca  Rabbinica,"  Nos.  44,  si),  107) 
and  Wolf  ("Bihl.  llebr."  i.,  No.  100),  eonfoimd  him 
with  Abraham  of  Pisa. 

Abndiam  1).  Mo.ses  Cohen  was  the  editor  of  Judah 
he-Hasid's  "  Sefer  Hasidim."  to  which  he  added  a 
table  of  contents  of  one  hundred  colunuis.  a  lengthy 
introduction,  and  an  epilogue.  He  also  wrote  a  sui)er- 
commeiitary  on  Kashi.  and  another  on  the"Sheiltot," 
and  made  a  collection  of  his  sermons  and  responsa; 
but  none  of  these  works  has  been  published. 

He  is  perhaps  identical  with  the  Abraham  Cohen 
of  Bologna  mentioned  in  the  responsa  of  Benjamin 
b.  Mattathiah.  inihlished  in  l.")3!t  (^^  l"-^  and  249).  as 
well  as  with  the  Abraham  b.  Moses  praised  by  Sol- 
omon Athias  (l."i4i))  and  with  the  Abraham  Cohen 
mentioned  in  the  "Yuhasin"  among  the  learned 
rabbis  of  Italy. 

BiBLlOGRAPnY :  StPlnschneider,  ( V7(.  limtt.  cols.  1322,  282.1, 
2f^:  idem.  Hrttr.  liilij,  i.  4;J:  .\l>ralmm  Zacuto,  I'w/ia^oi, 
p.  16.5;  Conforte,  Kiirc  lia-Dorut,  p.  'H. 

W.   M. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MOSES  DE   FANO.     See 

F.VNO,    Ar.liAIIAM    r.KN   ^[o^l;s  III.. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MOSES  KOLOMITI.   See 

Koi.oMiTi,  Ar.i;Aii\\i  c.kn   Mosi>. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MOSES  OF  REGENS- 
BUBG  (called  "The  Great  Rabbi  Abraham") : 
Gennan  tosalist.  wh.>  tlourishcd  about  I'-'oii  at  Hat- 
isbon.  Germany.  His  interpretations  of  the  Talmud 
and  halakic  decisions  are  found  in  the  Tosafot  and 
in  other  writings. 

BiBLioGRAPHT:  Zunz.  Z.  G.  p.  48;  Michael,  Or  ha-I1ainiim, 

No.  179. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  MOTAL  OF  SALONICA.     See 

MoT\i,  Ar.i;MiAM.  en-  Sai.omi  \, 

ABRAHAM  BEN  MTJSA  (Moses):  Moroccan 
rabbi  and  cabalist  of  the  lirst  half  of  the  seventeenth 
centtiry,  who  studied  the  Cabala  with  Abraham 
Azulai.  lie  wrote  commentaries  upon  several  trea- 
tises of  the  Talmud.  His  commentary  on  Xazir  has 
been  printed  in  the  collection  "Berit  Vaakob"  (.Ja- 
cob's Covenant) .  published  by  Jacob  Feitusi,  Leg- 
horn. 1800.  His  commentaries  on  Yoma  and  Sotah 
exist  in  manuscript  in  the  Bodleian  Librarv  at 
Oxford. 

BiBUOGRAPiiY :  Mirtiael,  Or  hfl-Hai/yim,  No.  167;  Neubauer, 
Cat.  Bodl.  Ilebr.  MSS.  No.  461, ' 

W.  B. 


ABRAHAM  NAFTALI  HIRSCH  HA-LEVI 
SPITZ    BEN    MOSES.      S(r    Si-nz,    Amkaiia.m 

NaKIM.I     lIllCMII     II  \    l.l,\I.    I'.KN    MllSKS. 

ABRAHAM  NAHMIAS :  Tninslat or  of  Thomas 
Aquinas'  "  ( 'iniiMiciil.iry  on  .Vristotle's  Metaphys- 
ics."    Sic   Xahmia^.  .\r.i:\ii\M.  1. 

ABRAHAM  NAHMIAS  OF  VENICE.  See 
Naiimi  \-.    .\r.i;  \ii  \M.  - 

ABRAHAM  NAHMIAS,  in  Joseph  Caro's 
"  Bcril  .bisipli   "     Si  (    N MiMiAS.  AniiAiiAM,  3. 

ABRAHAM  NAHMIAS,  in  nsponsa  of  David 
Xahmias.     Sir  N\iimi\~.  .\i:uaiia.\i.  4. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  NATHAN  :  French  author; 
born  in  llie  secimil  half  of  Ihc-  Iwilfth  century,  prob- 
ably at  Lunel,  Languedoe.  He  received  his  educa- 
tion in  that  town,  after  which  he  is  sometimes  call<-d 
C'HABN  "=  Rabbi  Abndiam  ben  Nathan  — H. 
Klie/.er  ben  Nathan  has  also  the  .ssune  designation^ 
"ha-Yarlii  "=  of  Lunel.  since  the  Hebrew  ynrenh  is 
the  eiiuivalent  of  the  French  bine),  perhaps  undir 
the  guidance  of  B.VBjil)  HI.  (.see  Abhaiia.m  iikx 
David  ok  PosijuifcnKS).  His  regular  rabl)inical 
.studies,  however,  were  pursued  at  Dampierre.  in 
northern  France,  at  the  academy  of  R.  Isiiac  ben 
Samuel,  called  R.  Isaac  ha-Zakcn.  Abraham  subse- 
tiuently  left  hisbirlhplace.  aiid.aftermuch  traveling, 
finally  settled  in  Tolrdo  in  1204.  where  his  learning 
([uickly  gaine<l  for  him  the  favor  of  the  rich  and 
learned  Joseph  ibn  Shushan  and  that  of  his  sons. 
Solomon  and  Isaac.  To  these  patrons  he  dedicated 
his  work  "  IlaManhig  "  (The  Guide),  or  sis  the  author 
called  it.  "Manhig  'Olam."  which  he  began  in  1204 
and  completed  some  years  later.  In  its  present  form 
the  book  consists  of  two  distinct  portions,  the  first 
of  which  comprises  a  collection  of  responsa.  com- 
piled from  his  numerous  written  and  oral  decisions, 
some  of  the  former  of  which  still  bear  the  usual 
epistolary  conclusion:  "Shalom!  A.  B.  N."  (Greet- 
ing! Abraham  ben  Nathan).  The  second  part  con- 
tains extnicts  from  the  halakic  works  of  Alfasi, 
Isaac  ibn  Giat,  and  Isaac  ben  Abba  Mari,  a  relative 
of  Abraham's. 

The  "Manhig"  did  not  exert  any  important  influ- 
ence on  halakic  literature  and  is  only  occasionally 
mentioned  by  rabbis  of  the  ^Middle  Ages.  How- 
ever, it  must  be  considered  as  of  some  importance 
in  the  history  of  Jewish  literature,  for  it  contains 
numerous  literal  quotations  from  the  two  Talmuds 
and  most  of  the  halakic  and  haggadic  Jlidrashim, 
as  well  as  from  certain  collections  of  the  Haggadot 
which  have  been  wholly  lost ;  so  that  the  "  Manhig  " 
contributes  considerably  to  the  textual  criticism  of  all 
of  those  works.  It  gives  interesting  and  instructive 
details  concerning  sjieeial  synagogical  tisages,  per- 
sonally observed  by  the  author  in  northern  France, 
southwestern  Germany,  Burgundy,  Champagne, 
Provence,  England,  and  Spain,  and  for  which  there 
is  no  other  source  of  information.  Thus,  he  tells  vis 
that  it  was  the  custom  in  France  forchildren  to  bring 
their  Christian  nurses  to  the  courtyard  of  the  syna- 
gogue on  Puiim  where  their  jiaretits  and  rehitives 
loaded  them  with  gifts  (p.  43".  ed.  Berlin).  He  relates 
also  that  this  custom  was  strongly  objected  to  by 
many,  becanse  the  Jewish  poor  were  losers  thereby, 
and  Raslii  is  said  especially  to  have  denounced  it. 

Abraham  is  Siiid  also  to  have  written  a  work  en- 
titled "Mahazik  ha-Bedek,"  upon  the  ritual  for 
slaughtering  animals  for  food,  mention  of  which, 
however,  is  made  by  but  on<' writer  in  1467.  Renan 
was  mistaken  in  saying  that  this  work  is  mentioned  in 
"  Ha-Manhig  "  (p.  1//;  Renan."  Les  Riibbins  Frani^ais." 
p.  747).  for  the  words  nifri  wahnzik  Jui-fiedfk  refer, 
as  may  be  seen  from  page  2i.  line  6,  to  the  "  Ha- 
Jlanhig,"  which  was  designed  to  counteract  any 


117 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ben  Hoses  Alashkar 
Abraham  Saba 


scliism  (,pl2)  ill  matters  of  ritiml.  Zacuto.  in  "Yii- 
^nsiii"  (ed.  Filipowski.  p.  '~2\),  who  is  followed  by 
Coiiforte,  in  his  ••  Koic  liii-Dorot  "  (cd.  Hciliu,  III//), 
ascribes,  without  itiviug  his  authority,  a  fertaiu 
book  entitled  "  Mal.iazik  haliedek "  to  Abraliaiu 
ben  Nathan.  But  Heifmann's  assertion  that  HAI5X 
■was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  "Bet  Zebul " 
(llal)itation)  is  wholly  unwarranted;  for  these  two 
words,  oceurring  in  the  inlroduelion  to  "Ha-Man- 
hlg"  (p.  1,  1.  (i),  refer  to  the  "  Ila-Maidiij;  "  itself, 
as  is  evident  from  the  passaire  on  i>age  ~',  line  (i. 
KAHX  wrote  also  a  commentary  on  the  treatise 
"  Kallali, "  which  is  extant  in  f  i-agmeiitary  form  only : 
specimens  of  it  were  given  in  the  Hebrew  weekly 
'•Ila-Maggiil"(180.j.  pp.  149.  loO,  ].-)7,  158). 

During  his  long  stay  in  Spain,  Abraham  learned 
Arabic  sulliciently  to  translate  into  IIel)rew  a  re- 
sponsum  by  Saadia.  which  is  to  be  found  in  the 
"IlaMaidng"  (ed.  Beriin,  p.  !).")).  Q\ute  recently 
also  his  responsa  were  publislied  in  Wertheimer's 
"(iinze  Yerushalayim,"  18%. 

Bini.iOfiRAniv :  ConrKHc,  Knrr  lia-Dnrot,  pp.  19/*,  2(»:  Kenan. 
J,r.i  linhtiiuH  Frmintis,  pp.  rc'l,  747  :  1».  Cu-sst?!,  in  tlie  Zitnz- 
JiihctM-hrifl.  pp.  l--i  i:)7;  (Jmss.  (inlllii  .iKflttkii.  p.  2)Ni;  Hell- 
iimnii.  in  Mmiiiziit  f.  t/.  Wi^i  tti(ili.  il.  Jwl,  v.  (;(.MS7. 

L.  G. 
ABRAHAM  OF  NIORT  :  Talmudic commen- 
tator; livedat  Niorl  (now  in  the  department  of  I)e\i.\ 
ijevi'es),  France,  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century'.  Isaac  de  Lattes,  in  his  chronicle  "Sha'aro 
Zion,"  refers  to  him  as  a  notable  scholar  and  com- 
mentator on  the  Talmud.  The  name  of  his  native 
town  is  variously  s|ielled  in  Hebrew  literature;  it 
appears,  among  other  forms,  as  C'DKT'J .  which 
Gross  identities  with  Niort,  the  Latin  Niortium. 
BuiLiodP.APnv:  ilmss,  ddlUa  Jiuliiini.  pp.  ;!!t'.  HIS. 

L.  G. 
ABRAHAM  BEN  NISSIM  HATYXTN.    See 
n\\vi  N.  Ai;i;\u\M  i;i;N  \i>mm. 

ABRAHAM,  PHILIP :  English  and  Hebrew 
author;  iHiru  18U;i;died  in  London.  I)e(\  17,  18'J0.  Ho 
published:  (1)  "The  Autobiography  of  a  Jewish 
Gentleman"  (18(;());  (•>)  "Autumn  Gatherings,"  a 
<(illeetion  of  prose  and  |)oeli'y  (London.  18(i());(;{) 
"HaNistarot  weha-Niglot  "  (The  S<cnt  and  He- 
vealed  Things');  (4)  "Curiosities  (jf  Judaism:  Facts, 
Opinions,  Anecdotes,  and  Hemarks  Relative  to  the 
Hebrew  Nation"  (London,  187!)). 

BiliunriliAIMiv:  Jiii:  Chnm.  Di'c.  1!),  ISflO.  p.  ft;  .\llit)one.  DiV- 
ttimnninf  EiifjlUdi  X.(/tTat«r*',  supplement,  vol.  I.,  Pliilatlel- 
plila,  isni. 

B.    B. 

ABRAHAM,  PHINEHAS  :  West  Indian  mer- 
<-liaiit  ;  bum  in  llie  inland  dI  .laniaica  about  tile  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century;  and  rlied  Feb. 
lit,  1887.  He  was  one  of  the  last  survivors  of  the 
body  <if  West  Indian  merchants  who  contributed  in 
a  high  digree  to  the  |irosperily  of  the  West  Indian 
colonial  posses.sions.  In  former  years  Abraham  was 
one  of  the  largest  landed  proprietors  in  the  island  of 
Jamaica.  He  held  various  olllces  outside  of  the  Jew- 
ish community.  He  was  si'iiioi-  justice  of  the  peace 
for  the  parish  of  Trelawny  in  Jamaica,  an  agent  of 
Lloyds"  and  the  last  surviving  captain  in  the  Tre- 
lawny militia.  He  was  also  oneof  the  earliest  mem- 
bers of  the  Berkeley  Street  Synagogue,  London. 
DliiiioiiiiMMiY:  Jew.  Chriin.  Vr\i.  i-\  1KS7. 

O.  L. 
ABRAHAM  PROCHOWNIK  ("The  Powder- 
maker");  .\  legendiir\  personage  said  to  have  been 
nominated  prince  of  i'oland,  in  8-12,  undei-  the  fol- 
lowing cireunislances:  After  thi'  death  of  Prince 
Popiil,  the  I'dles  helil  a  cmniiil  at  Knishwilz.  to 
i'lect  !i  succes.sipr.     They  disagiced   for  a  long  time. 


and  finally  decided  that  theperscni  who  first  entered 
the  city  on  the  following  moniing  should  be  their 
ruler.  This  was  none  oilier  than  the  Jew  Abraham 
the  Powder-maker  (iirtirhoiriiik).  who  was  escorted 
to  the  couneilhall  and  ])roelaimed  in'ince  of  Poland. 
Abraham  declined  the  honor  and  insisted  upon  their 
electing  the  wis(;  Pole  Piast,  who  became  the  founder 
of  the  Piast  dynasty  (compare  the  similar  legend 
concerning  S.\ti,  W.\rii,).  A  choice  of  king  bj'  lot  or 
chance  encounter  is  found  in  many  folk-tales. 

Binr.ioc.RAPiiv:  A.  Kraiislmr,  Histnrii<i  Zml'''U' w  PijUce,  i. 
4^ ;  Sternbertf,  Ucxch.  Ucr  Judcn  in  Pulen,  p.  4. 

II.  R. 

ABRAHAM    PROVENQAL.     See  Ann.in.VM 
iii;.N   Dwii)  I'iiovi:n/, Ai, 
ABRAHAM    OF    PRZEMYSL     (pronounced 

pnlii'  iiiislil)  :  I'lilisli  ralilii  wlio  llourished  about  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century ;  son  of  Judah  Loeb, 
rabbi  of  Ulanov.  in  Galicia.  At  an  early  age  he  went 
to  Fitrth.  in  Germany,  with  the  intention  of  pub- 
lishing his  fatlier's  woi-k,  "'Ez  Kol  Peri"  (Trees  of 
Every  Fruit),  but  encouraged  by  the  court  agent, 
Model,  son  of  Anishel  of  Ansbach.  he  published  in- 
stead his  own  work,  "  Petah  ha Ohel  '  (Entrance  of 
the  Tent) .  It  consists  of  two  parts,  the  tirst,  an  al- 
phabetical collection  of  popular  haggadic  subjects, 
niostlj'  selections  from  homiletic  and  cabalistic 
works,  which  were  eagerly  read  in  those  times;  the 
second,  an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  difficult  and 
much  disputid  legal  points  in  tin-  Talmud  and  the 
casuistic  works.  Abraham  of  Przemysl  was  related 
to  Joel  Ileilpiin,  rabbi  of  Lemberg. 

BiBLiOGRAPiiv  :  Mlitiufi,  Or  ha-Hauili»'.  No.  113. 

P.  B. 

ABRAHAM   BEN    RAPHAEL    ^ALFON. 

See   Hai.fon,    .\i;ii\ii\\i    i;i.N    1!  \i'M  M  i.. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  RAPHAEL  DI  LON- 
ZANO.  See  LoNz.\No,  Ahh.mi.v.m  ben  Rapii.\ei, 
1)1. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  RAPHAEL  MELDOLA. 
See  Mi;i.iMii.\.  .Vi:k\ii\m  i;i;.\  Hm'Uai.i.. 

ABRAHAM   REUBEN.     See    lIosuKE,  Keu- 

liK\, 

ABRAHAM  SABA:  A  preacher  in  Castile. 
where  he  was  bdin  in  the  miildle  of  the  tifteenth 
century.  He  became  a  pupil  of  Isimc  de  Leon.  At 
the  time  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain 
he  took  refuge  in  Portugal,  where  he  met  with  fur- 
tliermisfortune  ;  forscarcely  had  he  settled  in  Oporto 
when  King  Emanuel  ordered  all  Jews  to  be  ex- 
pelled from  Portugal,  all  Jewish  children  to  become 
Christians,  and  all  Hebrew  books  to  be  burned 
(Dec.  '^4.  1401)).  Saba's  two  sons  were  forcibly  taken 
from  him,  and  he  lied  from  Oporto,  abandoning 
his  entire  library  and  sueeeeding  only  at  the  risk 
of  his  life  in  saving  his  own  works  in  manuscript. 
He  tied  to  Lisbon,  but  before  reaching  there  was 
told  of  a  new  onU-r  of  the  king  decreeing  the  death 
of  any  Jew  with  whom  a  Hebrew  book  or  lijilliii 
(phylacteries)  were  f<iund.  He  hid  his  rnanuscripis 
luid  tetillin  iinihr  an  olive  tree  and  4'ntered  the  city. 
Upon  leaving  Lisbon  he  attempted  to  ri'cover  his 
hidden  treasure,  but  being  diseoviTcd  bv  the  king's 
guards,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  aft<T  a  six 
months'  contiiu'meiit  was  sent  across  the  frontier. 
He  went  to  Fez,  Morocco,  where  he  resided  for  ten 
years.  Sikiii  after  his  arrival  he  fell  ill;  his  groat 
privations  and  terribU'  sulTerings  having  nnder- 
mined  his  health.  On  his  recovery  lie  recommitted 
to  paper  from  iminory  the  following  works,  the 
original  miuiuseripts  cif  which  hail  been  lost  in 
Portuiral:  (1)  "  Eslikol  iia  Kofir"  (.\  Cliislerof  Cam- 
pliirei.  a  commeutary  on  Ruthand  Esther,  (".M'Zeror 


Abraham  ibn  Sahl 
Abraham  ibn  Sboshan 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


118 


hallayyim  "  (Bundip  of  Lifi-).  rommcnlarirs  on  the 
Sonir  of  Soiiffs  and  the  trt'alisc  Hcnikot ;  {'■i) "  Zi-Titr 
ha-Mor"  (BuikIIc  of  Myrrh),  a  commciilary  on  the 
Pental<'iKli.  containinjr  interpretations  aecordini;  to 
both  the  ordinary  sense  and  llie  niyslieni  method  of 
the  Zohar:  (4)  "Zeror  lia-Kesef  "  (Bundle  of  Silver), 
lejrai  decisions  (compare  "  Monatsschrift,"  185!!.  pp. 
24(i,  217.  and  the  Leyden  Catalogue,  pp.  94,  90).  A 
manuscript  of  his  commentary  on  the  Book  of  .Tol) 
was  in  .lellinek's  library.  Saba  wrote  also  a  conmien- 
tary  on  Pirke  Aliot.  mentioned  in  his  commentary  on 
Genesis.  |i]i.  ;i  and  5. 

Aecordini;  to  A/.ulai  ("Shem  Iia-Gedolim  "),  who 
read  the  anecdote  in  a  work  entitled  "  Dihre  Yosef," 
Abndiam  in  journeying  from  Fez  to  Verona  became 
sick  on  the  sliip  in  mid-ocean  during  a  great  storm. 
The  captain,  \mable  to  control  the  ship,  had  given 
up  all  hope,  and  implored  Bjibbi  Abniham  to  pniy 
for  divine  assistance.  Abrnlium  stipidated  that  in 
case  of  his  death  his  body  should  l)e  delivered  to  the 
Jewish  community  of  Verona,  and  then  jirayed  for 
the  safety  of  the  vessel.  His  prayer  was  heard,  the 
storm  abated,  and  the  shijj  went  safely  on.  Two 
days  later  Abraham  died,  and  the  captain,  keeping 
his  promise,  brought  the  body  to  Verona,  where  it 
was  buried  w'itli  great  liouors.  Abraham  is  not  tob(t 
confounded  with  U.  Abraham  Saba  of  Adrianople, 
who  is  mentioned  in  the  responsa  of  H.  Elijah  Miz- 
rahi,  No.  52. 

BiBLIOGRAPnv  :  Steinschneider,  Cat.  Bodl.  No.  4:!01;  Griitz, 
Uesvh.  ri.  Judeii,  M  ed.,  vlil.  219,  379;  Michael,  Or  ha-IIath 
mm.  No.  199. 

J.   L.   S. 

ABRAHAM    IBN    SAHL:    See  Asv  Ishak, 

IliliAIIIM    IllN    S  \ni,. 

ABRAHAM  SAHTUEL  :  Talmudist,  preacher, 
and  liturgical  poet;  flourished  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  (-eutury.  lie  was  a  pupil  of  Abraham 
Metal,  rabbi  of  Salonica,  and  later  became  teacher  and 
preacher  at  Istib  (Humelia).  He  died  childless  about 
the  year  Ki.'iO.  In  order  to  prevent  his  name  from 
falling  into  oblivion,  Xis.sim  ben  Closes  Cohen  of 
Venice  published,  in  1T19,  a  part  of  his  manuscripts 
under  the  title,  "Shirat  Dodi "  (The  Song  of  Aly 
Friend),  a  versification  of  the  halakot  contained  in 
Mishnah  Shabbat.  As  poetry  it  has  no  value  what- 
soever, as  ndght  have  been  expected,  considering 
the  dry  legal  matter  lie  had  to  handle. 

The  aiithorship  of  the  mriDin.  printed  in  the 
"Nagidti-JIezawweh,"  p.  22  (Amsterdam,  1712).  can 
not  be  ascribed  to  him.  Inasmuch  as  the  memorial 
formula  ^'ST  i^  omitted  after  his  name,  the  author  of 
the  tiihiihol  must  have  lived  after  1712,  whereas  Abra- 
ham Samuel  died  about  1650.  The  writer  of  these 
tokahot  is  called  Abraham  ben  Samuel,  and  not 
Abraham  Samuel. 

BiBLIOGRAPnT:  ronforte.  If  ore  hn-Domt,  od.  lS4fl,  p.  32h; 
Steinschnetder,  Cat.  BmII.  No.  44iU8:  Michael.  Or  ha-Hay- 
llim.  No.  354.  Both  Steinschneider  and  Michael  overlooked 
C^onforte's  note  and  therefore  fell  into  errors. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SAMXTEL:  Physician  in  Bar- 
celona about  U);i(l;  eiintemporary  of  Abraham  ben 
Hiyyah.  He  was  highly  esteemed  at  the  court  of 
Count  Berenger  for  his  knowledge  of  medical  science. 

M.  K. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SAMUEL  BEN  ALDE- 
MAGH :  Hebrew  poet  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
some  of  whose  verses  arc  found  in  Hebrew  trans- 
lations of  Maimonides'  Arabic  commentary  on  the 
Mishnah. 
BIBLIOGRAPHT :  Catatnque  dcs  Mamixcrlts  TJthreitx  el  Samar- 

itains  de  la  BihliotUtyue  Is'ationak  dc  Parte,  p.  44. 

G. 


ABRAHAM  BEN  SAMUEL  COHEN  OF 
LASK,  known  as  "The  ^asid  [Pimis]  of  Am- 
sterdam "  :  A  Jewish  ascdic  who  tlourishedal  the 
<  lid  of  tli<' eigliteenth  century.  He  went  to  live  at 
Jerusalem  in  17H5.  but  aflerwanl  tmvelcd  through 
Europe  as  an  agent  f(irlhec<dleetion  of  donations  for 
the  Polish  Jews  in  Palestine,  making  .\msterdam 
his  center;  he  died  as  hakam  at  Safed.  Paleslini-, 
duiing  a  riot  against  the  Jews,  who  had  protested 
against  e.\ces.siveta.\ation.  He  was  an  ascetic  of  a  re- 
markable type;  he  fasted  six  days  of  tlii'  week,  from 
Sabbath  night  toSabbalh  eve.  but  feasted  (luite  lux- 
uriously on  th(;  Sabbath.  Often  he  deviited  entin; 
days  and  nights  to  the  study  of  the  Torali,  .standing 
upright  during  that  timi'.  He  took  his  daily  ablu- 
tions in  the  river  before  orfering  liis  prayers  in  tlie 
morning,  often  breaking  through  the  ice  in  winter 
for  this  purpose.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  this  austerity 
he  was  a  man  of  uncommon  vigor. 

Once  in  Palestine,  together  with  a  number  of  .Tew- 
ish  scholars.  Abraham  was  dragged  to  prison  by  some 
Turkish  oHicials,  and  sulije<ted  to  the  bastinado,  for 
no  other  reason  than  that  it  was  the  usual  method 
pursued  by  the  Turkish  government  for  extorting 
money  from  the  Jews.  Abraham  and  another  rabbi 
alone  survived.  At  every  stroke  received  Abraham 
uttered  the  rabbinic  phrase.  n3ic5'  It  DJ  ("  This,  too,  is 
for  the  best").  He  was  hehl  in  nverence  by  the  best 
men  of  the  time  as  "the  holy  man  of  God."  He  pub- 
lished several  cabalistic  liomilie.s,  one  tmder  the  title  of 
•■  Weshab  ha  Kohen"  (The  Priest  Shall  Keturn),  ],<vg- 
liorn,  17S.S;  anotlier.  "  Wehishab  lo  ha  Kohen  "  (The 
Priest  Shall  Ueekon),  Fiirth,  1784;  a  third,"  Bet  Va- 
'aljob" (Jacob's House),  Leghorn,  1792;  andafourth, 
" 'Ayin  Paniin  ba-Torah  "(Seventy  Jleanings  of  the 
Law),  Warsaw,  1797.  The  last  work  gives  seventy 
rca.sons  for  the  order  of  the  sections  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, as  W(M1  as  .seventy  reasons  why  the  Law  be- 
,!;ins,  "  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and 
the  earth"  (Gen.  i.  1).  All  arc  tille<l  with  fantastic 
numerical  and  alphabetical  combinations. 

BinLiOGRAPnY:    Munz,    Jiatthi    Elcaztir  Slicmcn   Rohcali, 
pp.  :.'".K)1 :  Zedner,  Cat.  llchr.  Buvk»  Bril.  Mus.  a.  v. ;  KDrsU 

Bil'l.  .jKil.  11.  £J!. 

K. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SAMCTEL  HASDAI.  See 

H.vsDAi.  .\r.i;Mi.\\i    1'.i;n   Samiki.. 
'  ABRAHAM    BEN    SAMUEL    METU^AS. 
See  JlKVrirAs.  .Vukaiiam   I'.h.x  Samii;!.. 

ABRAHAM  SON  OF  SAMUEL  THE  PIOUS: 
An  eminent  Talmudie  scholar  ami  elegisl.  the  brother 
of  .Tudah  the  Pious  (of  the  Kalonymus  family);  was 
born  at  Speyer  about  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth 
century.  He  attained  a  very  old  age.  for  l-{abbi  Klii-- 
zer  beii  Nathan  (It.VBX)  of  Mayence,  whose  death 
occurred  before  1170,  considered  him  a  ral>bini<al 
authority  of  the  fir.st  order,  and  Isaac  of  Vienna,  the 
author  of  "Or  Zaru'a,"  who  flourished  about  1250, 
knew  him  jiersonally.  Abraham  was  the  author  of 
several  elegies  on  the  sufTeringsof  the  Jews  during 
the  tirst  (liilili)  ami  the  second  (1147)  Crusades,  as  also 
of  a  few  .sdihiil  or  penitential  poems.  lie  was  also 
active  as  an  apologist  for  Judaism,  as  is  shown  in  the 
"Nizzahon," 

Bibliography:  Zanz.  .<?.  P.  p.  2S!:  Mlihael,  Or  ha-Hamiim, 
So.-MH;  M,mat«schrift,  189.5,  x.\xix.  4^18;  1897.  xli.  146. 

L.   G. 

ABRAHAM,     SAMUEL,     OF     SOFIA:     A 

Turkish  Talmudist  who  llourishe<l  in  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  collaboration  with 
Jlichael  ben  Moses  ha-Kohen  he  wrote  "Moreh 
Zedelj"   (Teacher   of    Righteousness),    which  was 


119 


Tin:  .n:\visii  encyclopedia 


Abraham  ibn  Sahl 
Abraham  ibn  Shoshan 


printed  in  Salonk-ii  in  16.")").  This  is  in  the  nature  of 
siCDncorduuce  lotlie  works  of  the  Ai.mroniMi,  or  later 
casuists. 

[tnii.iiiiiitAriiv:    StclnwhiiPlilcr,  Cat.   Ilmll.  N'os.  tit!):!,  ('.ill:.'; 
.Mii-hacl,  (tr  lut-IInmit"iy  Ni>.  ~'A. 

L.  G. 


See    S.\xci    (Sanciii), 
See 


ABRAHAM    SANCI. 

Aim  MIAM. 

ABRAHAM     BEN     SAUL     BRODA. 

I!i:ciii  \,  A  I'.i!  Ml  \M    i;i'  \   S  mi, 

ABRAHAM  SCHRENZEL.  S,c  I!  M'.iPdUT, 
Ami  Ml  \M 

ABRAHAM  HA-SEPHARDI :    lUhrew  poet 

anil  ril  iiiilisl.  Ilr  uas  ralilii  :il  .\ilaiii  l")'-il.  Though 
not  a  Karuile.  lie  has  been  cicililnl  with  the  author- 
ship of  the  seven  pcienis  of  I'liur  lines  eiiili  uliieh  pre- 
cede the  dilVeniit  sections  of  the  Xineteentli  I'sidni, 
printed  in  tlie  Kaniite  prayer-book  for  use  during 
the  seven  days  of  I'assover. 

Bibliography  :  Zunz,  RUwi.  p.  101 ;  Idem,  S.  P.  p.  Ml. 

(!. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SHABBETHAI  COHEN 
OF  ZANTE(eall.d  aUo  Abraham  Cohen  Rofe)  : 

I'liysieiaii  and  poet;  bmii  in  Crele  in  1(170;  died 
in  i7-'!l.  1I(.  must  have  ninoved  al  an  early  jieriod 
to  Zante.  lie  studied  uiidei-  llezekiali  Manoiili  Pro- 
vencal, a  ])hysician  of  Veidiia.  He  was  the  author 
of  aiioctical  paraphrase  of  the  P.salnis.  which  he  ])ul)- 
lished.  to.i^etber  with  oilier  poems  of  his  own,  under 
the  title  "Kehunat  Abraham"  (Abraham's  Priest- 
hood), Venice,  1710.  A  speeinicn  of  this  work, 
now  (piite  rare,  wasreprinled  in  the  ]ieriodieal  "  Ila- 
>Ieassef,"  iii.  1,  and  in  "liiUkure  ha  iltim,"  v.  Hii. 
While  he  shows  a  good  command  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  his  poetry  is  not  of  a  high  order. 

Biiu,iof;UAPnv :  DelUzsrh.  ^lo'  fifsrhirhte  fkr  JUflisrhni 
I'lunii,  y.  74;  Slelll.Hilillelller,  C<1(.  lioiil.  vol.  7(Hi ;  Mirlmel, 
Or  ha-ltii!/iihn,  Nu.  'J^i^K 

1). 

ABRAHAM  SHALOM.  >.  e  Siiai.om.  Ac.ha 
HAM 

ABRAHAM  SHALOM  BEN   ISAAC   BEN 

JUDAH   BEN  SAMUEL.     See  Sii.^i.o.M,  AiiK.\- 

II  \M.    lU  N    l>\\c    III  N   .ll  umi  IlKN  S.VMfKI,. 

ABRAHAM     SHAMSULI.      Sic    SuAMsri.t, 

Ann  Ml  \M 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SHEM-JOB :  Medical 
writer;  bmn  in  tin'  iiiidilli-  of  iIh'  lliirlecnlh  ceiilury. 
probably  al  .Marseilles,  ubi  ri.  his  I'.ilher.  .Sliem  Tob 
l)en  Isaac  of  Tiwlosa.  |iraelised  medicine.  He  is  au- 
thor of  u  medical  handbocik  (  "J-na  HSIST  11311 
mVp)  in  ninety  (ine  paragraphs.  ( )f  this,  two  manu- 
scripts are  ill  the  I5ibliolliei|ue  Nalionale  de  Paris 
(Ilebr.  .MSS.  Nos.  Ib'^l,   IIH','),  in  which  the   scribe 

adds  after  the  name  of  the  author  the  eulogy  \yp  \-n 
("(iod  ])re,serve  him  ").  He  is  also  called  "  .\bndiani 
the  Hebrew  of  Tortosa."  by  nonafos  lionlil  Astrnc. 
the  Hebrew  translalor  of  llie  "  l.iber  Piaeticie"  of 
Zidirawi.  and  ".Umilmin  .Iiidieiis  Torluosensis,"  by 
Simon  of  (bnoa,  also  known  as  a  medical  writer. 
He  studied  probably  in  Italy,  as  the  last  chiinler  of 
his  handbook  shows  the  inlluenee  of  the  Ilalian 
physician  (ieiililc  Abraham  ben  Shem  Tot)  assisted 
in  the  translation  of  "Seiapion  ile  Simplicibiis " 
(prinled  in  I  I7:tt,  and  alsolninslated  chapter  twenly- 
el(.'ht  of  the  ■■  I.iber  Pniclicie."  under  the  special  title 
"  l.iber  Serviloris."  It  Irealsof  the  preparation  of 
simple  mnlieamenls.  The  Hebrew  Ininslation  is  lost. 
buHhe  I. Ill  in  version  still  exists  under  the  title  "  I.ibir 
Sirviloris  .WVUIde  Prapiiralione  .Mediiinarum 
!sini|ilicinm,  Iranslaliisii  Simonu.Ianucnsi,  iuterprete 


Abraliamo  .ludito,"  Venice,  1471.  Abraham  was 
the  actual  translator  and  Simon  merely  added  his 
nani(.. 

BlHLKHiiiAPiiY:  Niniliauer,  In  lifv.  Et.  Jiiivr»,  v.  ir>;  Pteln- 
sclnieider.  J/ci)r.  Vehcrs.  pp.  657, 973;  Gross,  Oallia  Judaiea, 
p.  i7ti. 

M.  S. 

ABRAHAM    BEN    SHEM-TOB    BIBAGO. 

See   l!ii;\iai.    .\i;uMi\\i    r.iN   Siii.m  Toll. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SHERIRA :  (JaoninPuni 
bedita ;  succe.s.sor  to  Uabbi  .Joseph  bar  Abba,  from 
811)  to  828.  He  was  inclined  to  mysticism,  and  was 
reputed  to  have  the  abilil.y  for  predicting  future 
events  by  watchin.ir  the  motion  of  the  branches  of 
trees.     He  is  quoted  in  'Aruk,  «nb  riidiccnO- 

A.  K. 

ABRAHAM  SHMOILOVICH  :  A  Lithuanian 
mercbant  kimwii  also  as  "  The  llonorabh!  Sir -Vbra- 
liani,  the  .lew  of  Tnrisk,"  w  ho  flourished  at  the  end 
of  thesi.xteenth  and  the  beginning  of  theseveuteenlh 
century.  His  name  tigures  in  the  books  of  the 
lirest-Litovsk  custom-house  for  the  year  1.W3  as  an 
exporter  of  lumber  and  cereals.  On  May  IK,  1.59."), 
.Vlcxander  Prouski,  the  warden  of  Troki,  leased,  for 
a  term  of  three  years,  to  the  "Noble  SirBurkatzki  " 
and  the  "  Honorable  Sir  Abraham  Shmoilovieh  "  of 
Tnrisk  a  feudal  estate  in  the  district  of  Vladimir, 
with  its  population  and  all  ilsappurtenanees.  Even 
the  resident  .lews  and  the  income  derived  from  them 
were  inchulcd  in  Ibis  list.  The  lessees  alsoac(|uired 
the  right  to  collect  all  the  revenues,  ami  in  fact  en- 
joyed (he  privilegesof  full  manorial  lords.  On  May 
27,  l.")!t."),  the  Prince  and  Princess  Grigori  Sangiishko 
leased  to  Shmoilovieh  and  to  his  wife,  Rikia  Odinna. 
the  village  of  Kosliar  and  others  adjoining,  and  six 
years  later,  Aug.  2i),  ItiUl,  still  other  towns  and 
hamlets. 

liini.iofiRArnY:  Archciiiiratichcski  Slmrnik,  iv.  3t!0:  Pfiiii- 
iltituikl  Vn:miiniin  I\iimtnit<sii,  vol.  i.,  piirts  II.,  tx.,  and 
.v.;  Arlihtv  )'i(i/"-Z(i/'i('//i.*i  Iios:<ii^  vol.  1.,  part  vi.,  p.  :>8 ; 
Itificstii  i  yailiji.fi,  elc,  Nus.  67.!,  7111,  7ia,  7;;4,  SI.  Petersburg, 

IstlO. 

n.  R. 

ABRAHAM  SHOFEf  (BEN  SAMUEL) :  A 

Kaiaile  ll  iider;  livid  in  Pnhiiid  at  the  end  ot  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  He  was  a  favorite  of  King.lohn 
Sobieski  (U''^1-'"'V  and  lar.uely  instrumental  in  tin' 
foundation  of  Karaite  colonies  in  the  nei.irhborhood 
of  Lemberg.  (ialici;i.  .Vecording  to  a  lb-brew  manu- 
script concerning  the  Karaites  in  Poland,  it  was  Kin.g 
.lobn  Sobieski  who  conceived  ibe  ]ilan  of  these  colo- 
nies, iind  in  lliss  onlcred  .\liiabam  Shol'et  to  issue  in- 
vitations to  several  Karaite  families  in  Lithuania  and 
the  Crimea  to  settle  in  Galieia.  Many  from  TroUi 
complied,  and  on  them  grants  and  priviU'ges  were 
bestowid  as  well  as  communal  autonomy.  As  to 
the  surname  Shofet  (".Iudge"1.  Xcubaner  surmises 
that  the  l.iakani.  or  spiritual  h'ader.  of  Ibe  l.ilhuanian 
Karaites  was  clothed  with  judicial  authority. 

liiiii.iocRAPliY  :  Neiit>aiier.  Ahk  ilrr  Prtrm/iiiiycr  lillilititlifli, 
l»|i.  71,  T*:  Filrst,  tic.^cb.  </.  Kiiriit  rt.  HI.  s"». 

.M.  I?. 

ABRAHAM  IBN  SHOSHAN  :  Well  known 
philanlhropi-l  and  rinaiicli  i  ;  member  of  the  famous 
Spanish  family,  lo  which  llie  Sassoons  tnice  their 
descenl.  He'  lived  in  Spain  (most  likely  at  Toledo) 
in  the  fourlcenlh  ceiilurv.  He  is  mentioned  .several 
limes  in  the  responsa  of  .\sher  ben  .lehiel,  and  also 
in  David  .Miiidraham's  work  on  the  ritual. 

BlIiLluCilurilY:  .Mlcliuel,  Or /iii-)/ii|/|/(iii.  No.  SKI. 

n. 


Abraham  ibn  Shoshan 
Abraham  ha-Takiui 


THE  JEAVISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


120 


ABRAHAM  IBN  SHOSHAN   OF   CAIKO : 

Itulilii  ill  (niro,  lvi.'\  |il.  ill  tin-  sixlifiilli  rculury,  who 
t()f;clliir  with   HaDli.VZ   (I)avicl  iliu  Abi   Zimni), 
giiVL'  a  (lecisiou  ou  a  poiut  of  ritual. 
BIBLIOOKAPHV:  Mlcbael,  Or /i(i-.tf(i|/l/fni.  No.  234. 

u . 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SIMEON  HAIDE  (HAI- 
DA).     Si-.'   II\iii\,  .\r.ic\ii\\i    i;i;n   Simkon. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SIMEON  BEN  JUDAH 
BEN  SIMEON  OF  WORMS:  falialist  ;  horn 
14UI;  (liiil  1440.  Ill'  was  tlic  author  of  "Sciriillat 
Mclakiin  "  (Royal  IX'vice.s) ,  a  treatise  containing  in- 
fornialion  on  praetie.-il  Cabala  and  on  magie  and 
naliiral  sciiuct',  wliicli  he  collected  on  his  travels. 
This  treatise  he  wrote  for  his  .son  liaineeh.  w  hoin  he 
warned  against  magic,  which  he  denounced  as  the 
"black  art."  The  work  isdivided  into  four  parts,  of 
which  only  the  lirst  part  and  the  tabic  of  contents  to 
the  other  three  parts  are  preserved,  in  a  manuscript 
originall_v  belonging  to  David  Oppeiiheinier's  library, 
now-  in  O.xford.  Abraham  was  a  pupil  of  K.  .lacob 
Eliin  in  Egypt,  contemporary  of  Pope  JIartin  V. 

BiHr.iooRAriiY:  NpubiiinT.  Cal.  UihII.  Uclir.  MSS.  No.  2051 ; 

Mioliael,  Or  ha-Hnimim^  No.  'Su. 

K. 

ABRAHAM    SIRALAVO.      See    Sns.vL.wo, 

Am:  \ii  \M. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SOLOMON:  Talmudic 
scholar,  who  nourished  in  Ital.v  al  tlie  l)eginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  Some  of  his  interpretations 
and  decisions  are  recorded  by  Zedekiah  l)en  Abraham 
'Anaw,  the  author  of  the  "  Shibbole  ba-l^eket ''  (Ears 
of  Gleaning) ,  who  probably  had  before  him  some 
of  Abraham's  manuscripts.  Abraham  had  the  crit- 
ical faculty  suHiciently  developed  to  consider  Isa. 
xlv.  7,  "I  form  the  light  and  create  darkness,"  as 
directed  against  the  dualism  of  the  Parsees  (I.e.  12). 

Bibliography:  Zeileklnli  ben  Ahralinui,  Shihlmlr  ha-LclU'(, 
p. tJh:  Ruber,  inlrnduetlon  to  Shibholc ha-Lcli<t^liJj\  Michiiei, 
Or /ia-H(i|/i/im,  .Nil.  2:tT. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  BEN   SOLOMON   AKRA:    An 

Italian  scholar  and  editor  of  scientitic  works;  lived 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  lie  edited  the 
work  "Meharere  Nemerim  "  (Venice,  1599),  a  col- 
lection of  several  methodological  essays  and  com- 
mentaries on  various  Talmudic  treatises.  Akra  is 
the  author  of  a  methodological  treatise  on  the  Jlid- 
rash  Rabbot,  which  Isaiah  Ilorwitz  (n  pt')  embodied 
in  his  work  "Shene  Lul.iot  ha-Berit  "  (ed.  Amster- 
dam, p.  411),  without  credit.  The  same  thing  occurs 
in  the  Wilna  edition  of  the  Midrash  Ralibot,  where 
Akra's  treatise  is  reproduced  from  the  "Shene  Luhot 
ba-Berit."  Akra's  work  appeared  originally  as  an 
appendix  to  the  "Arze  Lebanon,"  a  collection  of 
cabalistic  essays,  Venice,  1001 .  Abraham  makes  there 
the  interesting  statement  that  be  saw  in  Egypt  the 
manuscript  of  the  ^lidrash  Alikir.  This  is  the  last 
trace  of  tlie  existence  of  that  small  Midrash. 
BiBLiOGRAPnv :  Michael,  Or  ha-Haiillim,  No.  H'. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SOLOMON  CONTI.     See 

CoNTi,  Achaiiam  ckn  Soi.omun. 

ABRAHAM  SOLOMON  OF  SAINT  MAXI- 
MIN :  Physician,  who  tiourished  in  the  tifteenth 
centurj-.  being  in  high  favor  with  Rene  of  Anjou. 
count  of  Provence.  Ctpsar  of  Nostradamus,  himself 
of  Jewish  origin,  in  "L'Histoire  et  Chronologic  de 
Provence,"  p.  G18  (Lyons,  1624),  says: 

"There  was  in  the  city  ot  Saint  Maximin  a  Hebrew,  very 
learned  anrl  widely  known  in  niediciiU'.  a  celebrated  philoso- 
pher named  Abnihain  .Solomon,  who,  despite  the  fact  that  ho 
was  a  Jew,  stood  in  hit'b  favor  with  the  prandees  of  bis  day, 
especially  with  Rene   of  Anjou.    As  the  king  desired  to  keep 


liliii  In  Ids  sen  ice,  lie  was  excuseii  from  payInK  the  taxes  usu- 
ally levied  upou  the  Jews." 

Tliis  is  not  surprising  on  the  part  of  Rene,  who 
devoted  a  great  part  of  his  life  to  art,  and  especially 
to  the  collection  of  the  iioetry  of  the  Proven(,'al 
troubadours,  being  himself  an  author  of  some  re- 
nown. Abraham  was  not  the  only  .lew  ish  physician 
in  the  service  of  the  count.  According  to  Nostra- 
damus(p.  021),  it  was  through  his  .Jewisli  physicians 
that  he  liecamc  aware  of  the  miserable  comlition  in 
which  the  Proveiu.id  Jews  lived,  and  he  did  what 
he  could  to  ameliorate  it. 

Abraham  proliably  belonged  to  the  Abigdor  fam- 
ily, and  has  been  idenlilied  as  the  Abraham  Abig- 
dor (14;ii3-4S)  mentioned  in  a  list  of  physicians  al 
Marseilles  during  the  fourteenth  and  tifteenth  ceii- 
turies  ("Rev.  f;t.  Juives."  vii.  294).  Here  Abraham 
Solomon  really  means  Abralwim  Ixn  Solomon,  the 
word  "ben"  being  often  omitted  in  such  names. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  his  father  may  liave 
been  Solomon  ben  Abraham  Abigdor,  a  translator  of 
some  repute. 

BiBi-iooRAPHV  :  Gross.  In  Monntsuchrift.  xxix.  410:  Steln- 
schnelder,  Ih'hr.  Uehcrtt.  p.  (M;!;  Deppinpr.  Leit  Juiftt  dan-* 
le  Miiiicn  Aye.  p.  Xi'>.  Parts.  18:39:  Nubling.  Die  Jutiowc- 
mciiuicti  lies  MittcUtltcrs^  p.  Sti. 

G. 

ABRAHAM    BEN    SOLOMON     SELAMA. 

See  Si:i.A\i\.   .Vuumiam   I'.i;.n   Sulumon. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SOLOMON  OF  TORRU- 
TIEL  (Spain):  Historian:  lived  at  the  end  of  the 
tifteenth  century  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth. When  only  nine  or  ten  years  old.  lie  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  Sjiain  (1492)  in  the  company  of  those 
whom  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  had  driven  from  thi'ir 
homes.  He  seems  to  have  been  of  the  family  of  Asher 
ben  Jehiel,  whom  he  calls  'jnx.  while  he  speaks  of 
Asher's  father  as  '3'pt.  iVpimreutly,  his  teacher 
was  one  Jacob  7XI?;  which  name  Graetz  takes  to 
be  a  mistake  of  the  copyist  for  Alfual,  while  llar- 
kavy  emends  it  to  "  Al-Wali."  Abraham  went  with 
a  number  of  the  exiles  to  Fez,  Morocco,  and  with 
them  sutl'ered  much  through  want,  and  by  a  lire 
which  broke  out  in  the  city  eight  mouths  after  his 
arrival. 

In  later  years  Abraham  ben  Solomon  wrote  an  ap- 
pendix to  "Sefer  ha-Kabbalah."  the  historical  work 
of  Abraham  ibn  Daud.  continuing  an  account  of 
the  Jews  from  the  year  in  which  Abraham  ibn 
Daud  died  (IIW))  to  the  year  l.")2'").  This  aiiiiendix 
is  made  U])  of  three  parts:  (1)  A  list  of  learned  men 
not  mentioned  by  Abraham  ibn  Daud,  taken  largely 
from  the  "Sefer  Zeker  Zaddik  "  of  Joseph  ibn  Zad- 
dik ;  (2)  a  list  of  learned  men  from  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham ibn  Daud  down  to  that  of  Isiiac  Campanton 
(1408) — a  man  for  whom  he  expresses  the  highest 
admiration;  (8)  a  history  of  the  kings  that  ruled  in 
Spain  up  to  Ferdinand ;  an  account  of  the  expul- 
sion of  tlu!  Jews  from  Spain,  of  the  learned  men 
that  lived  after  Campanton.  and  of  the  fortunes  of 
the  exiles  in  Fez.  In  the  preface  he  promises  to  add 
what  Abraham  Zacuto  has  to  say  upon  the  events 
that  haiipened between  the  years  l.')09and  l.'iW. 

The  third  section  is  of  the  most  interest.  Like 
the  author  of  the  "Shebct  Yehudah,"  Abraham, 
though  young  at  the  time,  was  an  eye-witness  of 
the  events  that  he  narrates  with  so  much  feeling. 
He  .speaks  with  much  bitterness  of  the  altitude  of 
the  rich  men  of  Spain,  who,  with  Abraham  .Senior, 
chief  rabbi  of  Castile,  at  their  head,  preferred  to 
change  their  faith  rather  than  suffer  martyrdom  or 
exile.  He  holds  that  the  expulsion  of  1492  was  a 
just  sentence  of  God  u]ion  the  Jews  of  .Spain,  be- 
cause of  their  many  sins,  and  especially  on  account 


121 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ibn  Shoshan 
Abraham  ba-Takiui 


of  the  arrogance  of  their  great  men,  who  neglected 
the  Liiv.'  and  left  it  to  be  observed  only  by  the  poor 
and  lowly. 

BiBi.iiKiRAPIiy:  The  manusrrirt  of  the  SV/cr  lia-Ifrililtalah 
with  the  iip|H'ii()i.\<'[  Ahniliaiu  tien  Sotoinoli  wa^bniil^ht  from 
thf  FiJLst  by  Ahruhuiii  Harkavy.  and  is  now  in  tl.^'  BiKlk'iau.  11 
wiL"*  piiiittii  Ity  Neui>aucr  in  his  MidUrol  Jt  whh  (Viro/iic/c^, 
1W7,  1.  liil-lli  ((■onii)aii'  |i.  .viv.(.  anil  ":ls  ajraln  fdltiMl  vviih 
critical  wilra  by  A.  Harkavy  in  llalibin.jwitz's  Hebrew  Inins- 
lalion  of  Griilz's  liij*t<»rv,  IHliS,  vol.  iv.  \Hinl<ifthint  gnm  Ytfli- 
(Uiiiii.  ii.  2|;  liriilz,  Ucsch.  <(.  Jwkn.  'M  cil.,  viil.  4H1 ;  Fidel 
Fitu,  In  liuktin  dc  la  Itiul  Acadtmia  dc  Jliiti/rUi,  Ix.  -'•(."). 

(1 

ABRAHAM     BEN     SOLOMON      TREVES 

?ARFATI.   .•>.,• 'I'liiiN  ]>.  .\i;i:.Mi\M  i:i.n  Soiumon. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SOLOMON  YARHI  ZAR- 

FATI.       Sri     V\l:lll.    .\l;lCAll\M    |;1.N   S(iI.n\lnN. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  SOLOMON  OF  ZAMORA 
(Spain):  Kschutoloirical  writer  of  the  Ibirteeiith  cen- 
tury. His  work  exists  iu  the  library  of  .Miiiiieh  tCo- 
de.x  4*.  7(/).  bill  liii.s  not  yet  been  imblished.  ll  hii.s 
been  conjeetiiieil  by  Ziiiiz  that  one  of  Abialiam  ibn 
Ijiyyah's  worlds  was  dedicated  to  him.  In  tlie  bib- 
liographiciil  sources,  however,  some  confusion  seems 
t<)  e.\ist  between  him  and  Solomon  hex  Akuaha.m. 
There  is  a  scribe  of  the  same  name  who  wrote  in  the 
year  1299acode.\  found  in  the  Sara val  collection. 

Bini.IO(iR.iPHV:  Slcinschneider.  Cat.  Bo'/!,  cols.  227(1. 2:s,>|;  Idem, 
Jll.f.  Lit.  (sec  index;;  idem,  }[iljr.  Bilil.  iv.  1U(I ;  idem.  Uwlcn 
Ottalinnic.  US;  ideui,  Muitich  Cafaiotfiit,  S.',  4ti,  5;  Zunz, 
addition  to  Leiptiic  Catalogue.,  333. 

J . 

ABRAHAM  SULMAR.     See  Sulmar,  Abra- 

IIAM 

ABRAHAM   TALMID.     Sec  Talmid,  Abra- 
ham 
ABRAHAM   IBN   TAW  AH.     See  Tu^TTAn, 

AllltAliAM     ll'.N 

ABRAHAM  TAWXL  BEN  ISAAC.  See  Ta- 
wii.,  .\\iii  Ml  \M    i;i  \  N  \Ai 

ABRAHAM  OF  TOLEDO  (called  also  Don 
Abraham  Alfaquin  =  .Viable  hnkiiu.  "physician  " 
or  "wise  mall"):  I'hysiciau  of  King  Alfonso  the 
AVise  of  Castile,  who  esteemed  him  liiglily  :  flour- 
ished in  thi'  st'cond  half  of  the  tliirteenth  century. 
At  the  king's  reipiest  he  translated  several  books 
from  And)i<'  into  Spanisli.  One  of  these  was  Al- 
Heithum's  treatise  on  the  construction  fif  the  uni- 
verse, the  Latin  translation  of  which  ("De  .Mundo 
ot  Cu'lo")  is  based  on  Abraham's  Spanish  version. 
It  is  not  strictly  a  translation,  but  rather  a  para- 
phrasi-  of  the  .\iidiic  oiiginal.  as  oliserved  by  the 
anonymous  Latin  translator,  wlio  reniiirks  in  lils 
prt'faee  that  the  king  had  ref|iiested  Abraham  "to 
iirninge  llie  work  in  better  ordiT  than  it  was,  and 
to  divide  it  into  chapters."  More  widely  known  is 
-Miraliam's  Spanish  translation  (liTT)  of  Zarkali's 
".\strolabe."  which  furnished  the  foundation  for  the 
Ijilin  iuid  Italian  tianslations.  The  Fniicli  transla- 
tion of  the  si'vcniiclli  sura  of  the  Koinii.  by  Bona- 
Ventura  de  Sine,  is  also  based  on  the  .S|iiiiiisli  trans- 
lation made  by  .\braliam  in  l-IU.  Some  wrilers  have 
tried  to  identify  this  .\braham  with  .\bralmin  .lu- 
da'us  Tortuoseiisis.  who.  toward  the  tiiil  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  translated  several  works  from  the 
Arabic  and  perhaps  also  from  the  Latin  :  for  in- 
stance: "'IJe  Simplicibus  opus  e.x  Dioscoride  et 
<iideno  aggregatiun.'  iiilerprete  .Vbndiamo  .Iiidieo 
Tort uosensi."  and  ""Liber  Servitoris.'  interprete 
Abrahamo.ludieo  Tort  uosensi  "  (Venice.  1171).  Com- 
pare .\nitAiiAM  11.  SiiKM-Ton. 

Itiiii.ioiiiiAriiv:  SIHnw'linelder.  /frfir.  tVficni.  H  .1*7,  370, 
47  111.  4711.  .>) ;  idfin,  Hflir.  Ullil.  vl.  75;  Urltz,  G'fwh.  <l.  Jti- 
•  li  II,  vll.  447. 

L.  G. 


ABRAHAM    TROKI    BEN    JOSIAH.      See 

Abhaiiam   r.i  n  .Jomau  iia  Kdkk. 

ABRAHAM  OF  TROYES  :  Head  of  the  com- 
munity of  'I'loyis.  Knaice;  lived  about  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  a  contenipfirary  of 
Rililienu  Tam.  The  influence  that  he  exercised  at 
Troyes  gave  rise  to  a  somewhat  curious  legal  inci- 
dent, Eleazar  ha-Xadib  (the  word  luidi/j  (leiiotes  a 
.Jewish  JLecenas) ,  against  whom  he  had  brought  an 
action,  demurred  to  appearing  before  the  rabbinical 
court  at  Troyes;  and,  being  supported  by  Isaac  ben 
Siiinuel  of  Dampierre.  had  his  case  refeiTcd  toanother 
trilninal  (Gloss."  Gallia  Judaica,"  pp.lGJ,  2:i!)).  Yom- 
Tob  ha-Nadib,  the  son  of  Eleazar,  being  placed  in  a 
similar  position,  also  refused  to  be  judged  at  Troyes, 
and  was  sustained  in  his  contention  by  Judah  Sire 
Leon  of  Paris  ("Rev.  fet.  Juives,"  vii."42).  At  the 
same  time  Simson  ben  Abraham  of  Sens  took  the 
liart  of  the  .son-in-law  of  Simson  of  Troyes.  who, 
being  afr.iid  of  tlie  influence  of  the  opposite  party, 
also  objected  to  being  tried  before  the  rabbinical 
court  of  tliut  town  (Gi'oss,  /.'■).  S.  K. 

ABRAHAM  OF  VALLADOLID.  SeeABSEu 

OF  BlKi.o- 

ABRAHAM  DEL  VECCHIO  OF  FERRARA. 

See  1)1.1.  \i  I  1  mo.  Ai;i;aiiam.  ok  Fki!Kaua. 

ABRAHAM  HA-YAKINI  (this  name  seems 
to  be  of  Turkisli  origin,  and  is  pronounced  some- 
what like  llaikiui):  One  of  the  chief  agitators  in 
the  Shabbethaiau  movement,  the  son  of  Pethahiah  of 
Constantinople  ;  born — according  to  a  not  entirely 
reliable  source.  '3V  DiyilKD  (Lemberg,  1M71,  p.  3)— 
on  Sejit.  H,  liill.  He  studied  under  .Joseph  di  Trani 
of  ('onstuntiniiiile  (died  1044).  and  under  Jlonlecai, 
a  German  cabalist.  From  the  latter  he  probably  de- 
rived the  touch  of  mysticism  which,  combined  with 
cunning  and  great  intelligence,  made  him  the  most 
suitable  representative  of  Shabbetliai  Zebi.  Ha- 
Yakini  persuaded  Shabbethai.  who  at  that  time  was 
convinced  that  he  was  the  Messiah  but  was  timid 
and  fearful  of  proclaiming  himself,  lioldly  to  de- 
clare bis  claims.  It  was  iu  Constantinople,  about 
ll!.");!.  that  Shiilibetbai  Zebi  became  acquainted  with 
Ha-Yakini,  who.  on  account  of  his  learning  and  oia- 
torical  powers,  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  in  his  na- 
tive town.  He  is  described  by  contemporaries  as  the 
best  preacher  of  his  day. 

Ha- ViiUini  put  into  the  bands  of  Shabbethai  Zebi  a 
spurious  book  in  archaic  characters,  which,  he  as- 
sured liini,  contained  the  Scriiilural  proof  of  bis 
Messianic  origin.  This  fabrication,  entitled  "The 
Great  Wisdom  of  Solomon,"  began  as  follows: 

"1.  Abraham,  was  conllned  in  a  cave  for  forty  years,  and  I 
wonikTfd  (fniitlv  that  llie  time  of  miracles  did  not  arrive. 
Then  was  lieanl  a  voice,  |>nH'laimintr.  '  .\  sim  will  lie  iKirn  In 
the  year  .tWi  IliLli)  to  Monliiai  Zcbl  and  he  will  be  called 
siialilH'ilmi.  He  will  Immble  the  tTi^ai  dnitton  ...  lie,  the  tnie 
Mcrsslah,  will  .sit  uiHjn  My  [tiod'sj  thiMne.'  " 

In  this  milliner,  and  in  a  style  imitating  the  ancient 
apocalypses,  this  fabrication,  attributed  to  Ila-Ya- 
kiiii.  who  was  a  m;ister  of  Hebrew  diction,  conlinues 
to  describe  the  vision  which  had  apjieared  to  the  licti- 
tious  Abrahiim.  Sbabbetlmi  Zebiaccejited  this  work 
as  an  actuiil  revelation  and  determined  to  go  to 
Salonica— the  panulise  of  cabalists— and  there  begin 
bis  public  activity.  Zebi  was  not  ungrateful,  and 
later  appointed  liaYakini  among  the  kings  whom 
be  purposed  to  enthrone  over  bis  prospective  world- 
wide empire,  lla  Yakini  on  bis  side  proveil  himself 
not  unworthy  of  the  confidence  shown  by  his  mas- 
ter. He  pive  proof  of  his  devotion  at  the  lime  when 
Shabbethai  Zebi  was  in  prison  in  Constantinople,  and 
when  even  the  grealest  enthusiast  could  no  longer 
be  in  doubi    miiieruiug  his  true  characler.      He 


Abraham  ben  Tefet 
Abrahaxnson,  Abraham 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


122 


forged  ofliciiil  opinions  of  tlic  mlibinicnl  council  of 
Conolantinoplc  in  favor  of   Slmbbctlmis  claims  to 
Mcssiahslii|).      Willi   irrcal   siihllcly  lie  obtained  in_ 
liucncc  over  two  Polish  rabbis  wlio,  as  delegates  i>f 
the  Jews  of  eastern  Europe,  had  come  to  Constanti- 
nople  in  order  to  investigate   the  claims  of  Sliab 
betliai.  and  exercised  such  inllucnce  over  them  as 
to  lead  Ihiin   to  declare   th<iiis<'lves  his  adherents. 
The  conversion  of  Slial>belliai  to  Moliamniedanisni 
put  an  end  to  the  career  of  Ila  Yakiiii  as  an  agitator. 
Notwitlistanding  his  activity  in  tins  direction,  lie 
foiuKl   time    for   literary  work,   which   is   of  such 
merit  that,  had  it  not  iiecn  for  the  deceptions    he 
pnictisc<l.  it  would  have  secured  him  an  iiouorable 
place  among  the  Jewish  scholars  of  his  time.     He 
is  the  author  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  psalms  (com- 
posed in  imitation  of  tliose  in  llie  Bible),  wliich  ap 
pcared   under   the   title  "Hod   Malkut "    (Glory  of 
the  Kingdom),  Constantinople.  H>">">.   He  also  wrote 
"Eshel  Abraham  "  (Aliraliam's  Oak),  a  collection  of 
sermons,  and  "Tosefet   Merubbah "    (Additions   to 
Additions),  a  commenlary  upon  the  Tosefta,  and 
responsa.  At  the  reciuest  of  the  Dutch  scholar  and  bili- 
liophile  L.Warner,  whom  he  knew  i)ersonally  and  for 
whom  he  copied  many  Karaitic  manuscripts,  he  com- 
posed a  work  on  the  genealogy  of  tlie  patriarch  Abra- 
ham, wliicli  is  still  preserved  in  tlie  Warner  collection 
at  Leydcn.     From  a  Hebrew  letter  of  Ha-Yakiiii  to 
Warner  it  is  learned  that  the  former  was  in  favor  with 
the  Dutch  minister  at  the  Turkisli  court,  and  it  must 
be  stated  to  the  creilit  of  Ha-Yakiui  that  he  used  Ins 
influence  in  behalf  of  strangers.    It  may  be  men- 
tioned that  with  the  Crimean  Jews  (Crimcliaki)  Ha- 
Y'akini  is  still  a  name   to   conjure   with;    al  their 
prayers  in  memory  of  Israel's  great  dead  his  name 
is  mentioned  with".special  solemnity. 
BiBLior.UAiMiv  :    Steinsilmelder,    Cat.  Boill.  No.  434(1 ;  Idem, 
Lcii'ten  Cnlaliiiiiir.  p. -".Kl;  Fiirst,  (lexrl,  il.hantert.  111.  5.  ; 
Annurkumtii,  p.  iC;  (iriltz,  Ocn-li.  il.  Judeu.Med.  x.  IHl. 
211,  217;  I).  Kaliana.  Khin  ha-To'im.  pp.  6,29.  .J.  ;  Azulu  , 
Shem  ha-Oedolim  he-mila.sh.  letter  Alc)jli.  No.  a8;  DuluanI, 
Mcuna  Krim.  11. 1'jil.  ,     ,, 

Jj.   tr. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  YEFET  ( JAPHETH):  Ka- 
raite poet  ;  born  about  the  beginning  of  the  tifteelitli 
century;  died  after  Utill.  He  traced  his  descent  to 
Moses'D.\u'i.  the  celebrated  Karaite  poet.  He  copied 
the  rcligio-legal  comix'ndium  <if  Samuel  ha-Kofe  ha- 
Ma'arabi  in  1460.  Abraham  ben  Yefet  is  probably 
identical  witli  the  Karaite  i>oet  Abraham  ha-Rofe, 
since  Hofe  is  a  cognomen  of  many  of  the  ancestors 
of  Abraham  ben  Yefet.  Even  in  his  work  as  scribe 
he  reveals  his  poetic  nature  by  subjoining  an  epi- 
gram at  the  end  of  each  mauuscripl  that  he  copied. 
I!ini.lO(;RAPiiv  :  Pinsker.  hihhuU  Kmlmimiot.p.iO.  and  sup- 
I'lit,  pp.  115,12);  Stelnsclmeider,  Hcltr.  Lebera.  p.  322. 


plenient.  pp. 
note. 


T,    C. 


ABRAHAM     YIZHA?:i     OF     SALONICA. 

See  lloKsuKi,.  AiiUAiiA.M   Josiir.v. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  YOM-TOB   BONDI.     See 

BONDI.     AlUtAU.WI    Ill'.N    YoM  T"l''  „       „. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  YOM-TOB  OF  JERUSA- 
LEM;  Astnmomer  and  rabbi  of  ('niislaiKuinpli-; 
born  about  1480.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Elijah  Mi/.ral.ii, 
and  is  r|uoted  by  Joseph  Caro  as  a  high  authority 
In  15r)fi,  at  the  instance  of  Joseph  Nasi,  he  joined 
the  rabbis  of  Constantinople  who  attempted  to  in- 
terdict commerce  with  Ancona  on  account  of  the 
oppression  that  the  Alanvnos  of  that  port  suffered 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  popes.  Abraham  ben 
Y'om-Tob  edited  a  calendar  for  the  Jewish,  Chris- 
tian and  Mohammedan  vears.  which  is  printed  in 
the  Greek  Mahzor  (ed.  Elijah  ha-Levi,  Constanti- 
nople, 1526).     He  follows  thie  system  of  Ulugh  Beg, 


which  he  veritied,  he  siiys.  by  means  of  an  instru- 
ment divided  into  minutes,  the  diagonal  of  which 
was  almost  twenty-four  spans  long.     He  cites  Isiuvc 
Israeli. 
Him  iiiiiRAi'iiv  :  StelnsrhiiPldiT.  (W.  KoiK.  No.2587:  Idem.  .Vii- 

Ihiimilili  hei  <l<  11  Jitiliii.   Ill  Aliliiiiiilluiig  zur  (ienrh.  d. 

.Md/d.iiKidV,,  purl  ix.  ir.->.  l.i'ipslr.  IMKi. 

.\.    I\  — G. 

ABRAHAM  BEN  YOM-JOB  OF  TTJDELA : 

Commeiitalor,  ulm  llnurislnil  in  Spain  alioiil  \'M»>. 
He  was  the  iiutlior  of  a  coniiiniitary  on  Baba  Biilni. 
which  is  still  extant  in  manuscript  in  the  Bndleiau 
Library,  Oxford,  p^nglaud. 

HiuLloiiKAFllv  :  Neubauer.  Cat.  Bodl.  Hcbr.  MSS.  No.  448. 

M.  K. 

ABRAHAM  ZARFATI.     Sec  Z.\rfati,  AnuA- 

"  ABRAHAM  ?ARFATI  (BEN  SOLOMON 
TREVES).     Sir    •rKi;vi.s.    .\i;i!aiiam     r.i.N    Soi,- 

ABRAHAM    IBN    ZARZAL.      See    Zakzai,, 

AiiiiAii  \\i  ir.N  _    T,  ,.  , 

ABRAHAM  ZEBI  OF  PIOTRKOW :    Polish 

Talmuilist;  tlourislied  at  the  begiiuiiug  of  the  nini'- 
teeiith  centurv.  He  was  a  rabbi  in  several  I'olish 
communities,"  including  I'iolrkow,  where  he  died. 
His  work.  "Berit  Abraham"  (Dyhernfurth,  1H1><), 
contains  responsa  covi'riiig  the  tield  of  all  f<mr 
parts  of  the  "Shulhan  -.Vruk."  Besides  this  there 
are  several  responsa  of  his  in  the  works  of  his  con- 
temporaries. 
liiiu.iooRAPHY:  Benjaoob,  0?ar;i<i-Sc/arim,  p.  83. 

L.  G. 

ABRAHAMS,  ABRAHAM  :   AVriter  on  sliehi- 

tiik  (laws  of  ritualistic  killing  of  animals);  born  at 
Siedlce  in  Poland.  December.  1801,  and  died  at  Je- 
rusalem. January  2:!,  1S80.  He  was  familiarly  known 
as  Ralibi  Abi-aliam.  and  for  nearly  half  a  century  he 
performed  the  duties  of  luincipal  ^li'^het  in  London. 
Owing  to  the  persecution  of  the  Jews  by  the  Uussian 
government,  he  tied  from  Poland  to  England  in  18:17, 
and  received  the  appointment  of  sholiet  at  Leeds. 
Two  years  afterward  he  became  chief  sholiet  of  Lon- 
don. 'As  an  authority  on  shehitah  he  enjoyed  a  very 
wide  reputation,  being  the  author  of  several  popular 
Hebrew  works  upon  this  and  otlwr  Talmudical  sub- 
jects. His  opinions  on  the  minutiieof  the  ritual  and 
observances  were  greatly  resiiected,  especially  in  Po- 
land His  best -known  works  are  "  Bet  Abraham 
and  "  Yizkor  le-Abraham."  the  latter  being  his  auto- 
biography. A  year  before  his  death  he  settled  in 
JerVisaleiii,  in  order  to  end  his  days  in  study  in  that 
city.  Onir  of  his  last  acts  was  to  present  to  the 
Mishkenot  Israel  Buildiiiff  Society  the  house  he  had 
purchased  iu  the  Holy  City,  directing  that  it  be 
used  ill  ]ieriietuily  as  a  synagogue.  His  son  by  a 
se('onil  marriage  wasBAUXKTT  AnuAHAMS. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY  :  Jcic.  ChVKn.  Feb.  i:!.  IHS(1;  Jew.  TCorM.  Feb. 
'■'•  '■^"-  G.  L.  • 

ABRAHAMS,  BARNETT :  Dayyan,  or  as- 
sistant rabbi,  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Con- 
greo-ation  of  London.  England,  and  prineiiial  of 
Jews'  Collece.  He  was  born  in  Warsaw,  Poland, 
in  18:il  and  died  in  London.  November  l."i,  186:i 
\brahams  was  educated  at  University  College,  and 
received  the  degree  of  B.A.  from  the  I  mversity  of 
London.  He  received  his  rabbinical  instruction  from 
his  father.  From  a  minor  position  in  the  Spanish  con- 
gregation Abrahams  liecame  dayyan,  performing  at 
the  same  time  the  duties  of  l.iakam.  On  the  resig- 
nation of  Dr.  Loewe  Abrahams  became  principal  of 


123 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraham  ben  Yefet 
Abrahamson,  Abraham 


Jews'  College,  a  position  for  wliicli  lie  was  eminently 
fitted,  as  the  bent  of  his  mind  was  toward  the  edu- 
cation of  the  youn>r.  With  tliis  object  before  him  he 
succeeded  in  foundina:  the  Society  for  the  DilTusion 
of  Religious  Knowledfre  Amontc  the  Young,  and  lie 
remained  one  of  its  most  iiilluenlial  members  till  his 
death.  He  wrote  several  of  the  tracts  published  by 
the  society.  Twfi  of  his  sons,  Joseph  and  Moses, 
became  .Jewish  ministers,  and  a  third  son,  Israel,  is 
senior  tutor  of  Jews'  College. 

BiDLiOGRAPiiv  :  Jew.  Chron.  Nov.  20,  WB. 

G.  L. 

ABRAHAMS,  ISRAEL :  English  author  and 
tcailiir;  lii'i'M  ill  l.iiMcliiii,  .November  20,  1858:  son 
of  Baknktt  Aiik.mia.ms.  lie  received  his  educa- 
tion at  Jews'  ('ollege,  of  which  his  father  was  prin- 
cipal, and  at  University  College,  London,  He  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  >I,A.  from  the  University  of 
London  in  IHHl.  Abrahams  taught  secular  subjects 
as  well  as  liomilctics  at  .Tews'  ('oll<'ge,  and  was  ap- 
pointed senior  tutor  of  that  institution  in  IftOtl.  lie 
is  a  forceful  lecturer  and  an  earnest  lay  preacher. 
As  honorary  secretary  of  the  Jewish  Historical  So- 
ciety of  England  and  as  a  member  of  the  Committee 
for  Training  .Jewish  Teachers,  hi;  has  been  very  ac- 
tive. He  is  also  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  the 
Anglo-.Iewisli  As.sociation,  and  of  several  other  insti- 
tutions of  the  community. 

Abrahams  was  joint  author  with  Chiude  G.  Mon- 
tefiore  of  "  Aspects  of  Judaism,"  published  in  1H!).~). 
His  chief  works  are  "Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle 
Ages,"  IsiKi,  and  "Cliaptcrs  on  Jewi.sh  Literature," 
1898.  Since  1HH9  he  has  been  joint  editor  of  the 
"Jewish (Quarterly  Heview,"  and  has  helped  materi- 
ally to  raise  it  to  ils  present  high  position.  He  is 
a  prolific  colli  riliiitor  to  periodical  literature,  and  is 
especially  well  known  for  his  articles  on  literary 
subjects,  which  appear  weekly  in  the  ".Jewish 
Chronicle  "  under  the  title  of  "Books  and  Bookmen." 

Bini,iOGRAPiiv:   Who's  TTTionOOO;  Hanis,  Jeu'.  YearBook, 
1800. 

C.  L. 

ABRAHAMS,  LOUIS  BARNETT :  Head 
nia^tiT  of  III  .li'Ws'  Kri'c  ScIkhiI.  London;  born  at 
Swansea.  Smilli  Wales,  LSp,'.  H,.  was  educated  in 
the  Jews'  School  at  .Manchester,  whither  his  family 
had  removed  in  1845.  In  1M54  he  was  indentured  to 
Moses  Angel  at  the  .Tews'  Free  School,  London,  as  a 
pupil-teacher,  and  in  180-4  he  was  appointed  princi- 
pal inslructorof  English.  For  the  next  twenty  years 
Abrahams  had  charge  of  nearly  all  the  teaching  stall 
of  the  boys'  department  of  the  school.  In  1884  he 
was  appiiintid   vice-master.      When,  in   December, 

1807,  failing  lieallh  compelled  the  retirement  of 
Moses  .\ng(l,  .Mirahams  was  elecled  head  master  of 
the  schiiol,  while  .Moses  Angel  became  principal;  on 
thedealh  of  ilie  latter  in  September,  1898,  Abrahams 
succeeileil  him. 

Abrahams  is  a  gnidiiate  of  the  London  University, 
and  one  of  the  foiimlers  of  the  Jewish  Educational 
Board  and  of  the  Teachers'  Training  ('(immillie. 
Mis  piiliiiNlied  works  are;  "A  Manual  of  Scriptural 
Historv  for  Jewish  Sclioiils  and  Kainilies."  I.,ondon. 
1882;  ""  A  Translation  of  the  rrayer-Book  for  School 
Use";  "  A  Chronological  Ilislory  of  England." 

On  the  establishment  of  the  "Jewish  Hecoril,"  in 

1808,  Abrahains  acted  as  ils  tlrst  editor.  He  has 
been  also  a  freiiuent  contributor  to  other  Jewish 
perimlieals. 

Biiii.iooinniv:  Jew.  rlirmi.  ritv.  in,  isic,  p.  9 ;  Jew.  Year 
liiKik,  IMW;  I'liuni;  /uriicl,  IXt.,  IWW  l|><>rtmll). 

G.  L. 


ABRAHAMS,  NICOLAI  CHRISTIAN  LE- 
VIN: Danisli  scholar,  prolessor  of  the  French  lan- 
guage and  literature  at  the  University  of  Copenha- 
gen; born  at  Copenhagen  Sept.  0,  1798;  died  there 
Jan.  25,  1S7I).  He  entered  the  university  in  1815,  and 
graduated  in  law  in  1818.  He  was  one  of  the  twelve 
Danes  (<(//(7f/()^^''o  sent  the  literary  challenge  to  the 
Danish  author  Baggesen  in  reply  to  his  criticism  of 
the  literary  idol  of  the  time,  Adam  Oehlenschlilger. 
For  four  years,  in  order  to  continue  his  studies,  he 
traveled  in  foreign  countries,  and  in  1H28  he  returned 
to  Copenhagen  and  wrote,  to  gain  the  degree  of  mas- 
ter of  art.s,  a  dissertation  on  W'ace's  "  Boman  de 
Brut."  A  year  later  he  was  appointed  lector  of 
French  at  the  Univei-sity  of  Copenhagen,  and  in  1833 
was  promoted  to  a  professorshiji  after  he  had  been 
baptized.  Abrahams  did  much  for  the  promotion 
of  the  study  of  French  in  Denmark,  not  only  by  his 
lectures,  but  also  by  his  publications,  of  which  some 
are  scientific  and  otliiM-s  are  of  a  more  popular  nature. 
In  1857  he  retired  from  his  jiosition  at  the  university 
and  became  notary  public.  For  some  years  he  was 
president  of  the  Society  of  Fine  Arts  in  Copenhagen, 
a  history  of  which  he  wrole  in  1804.  He  was  also 
president  of  the  Society  for  the  Development  of  Da- 
nish Literature.  Among  his  works  are  "  Description 
des  Manuscrits  Fran<;ais  du  Moyen-Age  de  la  Bib- 
liothique  Hoyale  de  Copenliague,"  1844;  "Fransk 
Sprogliire,"  1845;  "  Baltliasari  Castilioni  Aulici  Liber 
Tertiiis  Secundum  V'lterem  Versionem  Gallicam." 
1848;  "Mcddelelser  of  mit  Liv,"  published  by  his 
son  in  1870. 

Bini.iooRAPiiv:  KTickBi,  Dan»k  Biograftsk  Lexiknn.s.v.;  Sal- 
moiisen,  .Store  lUustrerede  Konversatioiu  Lexikon,  s.v. 

A.  M. 

ABRAHAMSON,  ABRAHAM  :  German  nied- 
ali--t  and  master  of  the  I'russiaii  mint;  born  at 
Potsdam,  1754  (1752 '0:  died  in  Berlin,  July  23, 
1811.     As  an  engraver  he  was  considered  one  of  the 


Medal  Conimeiii(initln(r  Enfranililsfiiienl  of 
Jews  in  Weslpliiilla. 

best  of  his  time.  Having  learned  the  art  of  engra- 
ving from  his  father,  Jacdii  Ahuaiiam,  he  soon  ex- 
celled iiim  in  artistic  execution.  There  exists  a 
medal  of  the  actor  Brockmaun,  which  is  said  to 
be  the  joint  production  of  father  and  son. 

Abrahamson  was  much  intluenced  by  the  designs 
of  t'hodowiecki,  and  sought  to  ilniw  nearer  to  na- 
ture than  did  llie  laller.  and  thus  avoid  the  dangers 
of  too  pedanlie  a  style  On  account  of  this  the  ob- 
verse sides  of  his  medals  are  much  finer  than  the 
reverse,  which  always  exhibit  the  poverty  and  cold- 
ness of  allegorical  creation.  Up  to  the  year  17S8 
.Vbnihainsoii  had  engnivedonly  the  designs  of  others; 
then,  in  search  of  ideas  and  to  study  form,  he  .set  oiil 
for  the  various  art  centers  of  Europe.  He  spent  four 
years  abroad,  and  on  his  return  most  of  the  med 
als  he  made  were  of  his  own  design.  The  following 
are  by  far  the  best  of  his  numerous  productions: 


Abrahamson,  Abraham 
Abramowitsch,  Solomon  Jacob 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


124 


"E(|iiippin<;  the  Prussian  Troops"  (1778);  "Peace 
of  Tesclun"  (1779);  "Dc-alli  of  Duke  U'opolil  of 
Brunswick";  "Peace  with  Hussia  "  (17(i2);  "Occu- 
pation of  the  District  of  the  Nelz<-"  (1772);  "Tlie 
Kinir's  Seventy-lirst  Birthchiy"  (178'2);  "liitnxluc 
lion  of  Silkworm  Culture"  (1783);  "Moetinj;  of  tlie 
Monarchsat  Tilsit  "  (lyOS) ;  "  Death  of  tjucen  Louise" 
(1810);  "  Enfrancliiscment  of  the  Jews  in  West- 
phalia": "Tlie  Emancipation  of  the  Jews  by  Alex- 
ander I." :  the  last  two  are  known  as  historic  thalers. 


AbrabaiusoQ'8  Metial  connin*nii»railniJ  the  Eutaucipallou 
of  tbe  Jews  by  Alexander  I. 

lie  also  designed  and  engraved  a  medal  commemo- 
rating the  death  of  Queen  Alarie  Antoinette;  but 
his  greatest  work  was  a  medal  bearing  the  bust  of 
Frederick  the  Great  on  a  stone  pediment  that  crushes 
a  sphinx.  The  legend  on  this  meilal  reads,  "Fred- 
oricus  Legislator  1785."  In  addition  to  these  Abra- 
hamson executed  a  series  of  medals  of  the  great 
men  of  his  time.  This  included  Moses  Mendelssohn, 
Kant,  Lessing.  Wieland,  Kander,  Sulzer,  Enler, 
Spalding,  D.  Bernouilli,  Overbeck.  Kololf,  ^larg- 
graiT,  Formey,  Martini,  Gall,  Burg,  Gelihardi, 
Weisse,  Spiegel,  and  others.  The  frontispiece  of 
the  eighty-sixth  volume  of  the  Kri'iuit/.-Florke 
"Okonomische  Encyklopjidie "  (Hcrlin,  iW2)  is  a 
copperplate  portrait  of  Abrahamson.  lie  is  the 
author  of  "Versuchuber  den  Gesclimack  auf  Me- 
daillen  und  .Miinzen  "  (Essay  on  Style  in  Jledals  and 
Coins).  Berlin.  1801.  .Many  other  designs  created 
by  him  have  been  cut  by  Daniel  Berger,  and  after- 
ward reproduced  in  copi)erplate  as  engravings  for 
books. 

BIDLIOGRAPHT :  Meusel,  Teutsches  Knnstlerkrikon .  1808; 
NIcolai,  7}i  S(')ir<i7(»n(;  Bcrlin'x.  Hi.  .3,  aiipenill.x,  Berlin.  1786 ; 
T\iss\UKI>iistliili.iili<m,ii.2:  i7)iV/..  su|i|ileiiiiMit.  p.  :i;  Sclilick- 
eysen.  Krlil'irtnini  n  ihr  AhhUrztuiw  n  mif  Minizrii.  18.57, 
pp.  41,  4;t,  .>t :  liert'iT,  Wcrke.  Nos.  ■J.V.i.  iHi)-W8.  jijii;  Julius 
Meyer,  AUg.  KUnxllciicxilum,  i.  3S,  Leipsic,  1873. 

F.    S.    W. 

ABRAHAMSON,  AUGUST:  Swedish  philan- 
thropist, and  lounderof  llie  Sluid  Seminary  of  Niiiis, 
near  Goteborg;  born  Dec.  29,  1817,  at  Karlskrona, 
Sweden,  where  his  parents,  originallv  from  German  v, 
had  settled;  died  May  (i,  1808;  at  Xiiiis.  August  "in 
his  fourteenth  year  was  apprenticed  tf)  a  hardware 
merchant  in  Gi'iteborg.  and  eventually  he  became 
founder  and  owner  of  one  of  tlie  most  extensive 
businesses  in  Sweden. 

The  large  fortune  which  he  thus  accumulated  was 
used  by  him  for  the  improvement  of  the  educational 
system  of  his  native  country.  In  18(i8  he  retired 
from  business,  and  bought  the  magnificent  estate  of 
Niiiis,  with  its  i)ictures(|ue  old  castle.  Here  he  at 
once  devoted  himself  to  philanthropic  and  educa- 
tional work,  founding  free  schools,  and  otherwise 
furthering  the  material  and  spiritual  interests  of  the 
community  in  which  he  lived.  Litter  his  efforts 
were  directed  to  wider  enterprises.  In  1872  he  es- 
tablished at  NUiis  an  industrial  school  for  boys,  and 


two  years  later  a  similar  institution  for  girls,  in  both 
of  which  instruction  in  manual  training  formed  an 
iniporlant  filature.  At  the  head  of  these  schools  be 
l)laceil  his  nephew,  Otto  Salomon,  to  whose  efforts 
the  remarkable  success  of  the  undertaking  was 
largely  due. 

To  meet  the  growing  <Iemand  for  instructors  ID 
handicrafts,  Abrahamson  and  liis  neiihew  added  in 
1874  a  sloid-training  department  forteachers.  Sloid 
work  may  be  des(  iil)e<l  as  a  series  of  carefully  grad- 
uated exercises  in  the  making  of  articles  of  common 
household  u.se.  varying  from  simple  objects,  suehasa 
pen-rest,  to  a  tabli>  or  <abinel.  This  sloid-training 
department  dcvelo|)<Ml  into  thi' great  Sloid  Seminary 
of  Niiiis.  which,  by  Al)rahamson's  will,  became  pos- 
sessed of  his  entire  estate  (y8(),000  crowns,  or  about 
§102,600)  on  ccmdiliou  that  the  institution  should  he 
continued  under  th<>  name  "August  Abrahamson 's 
Sliflelse."  Every  year  large  numbers  of  students 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  receive  at  the  .seminary 
graluilous  instruction  in  sloid  work.  The  splendid 
results  a<'hieved.  an<l  the  world-wide  renown  of 
the  institution,  are  worthy  memorials  of  the  jiioneer 
of  manual  training  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 

BiBUOiJRAi-llv:  Chiimhcrs'  Encu.  under  S!o)/tJ. 

A.  S.  C. 

ABRAHAMSON,  DAVID  :  German  physician; 
born  in  Danzig,  1740;  died  therein  18l)(l.  IIe"studied 
medicine  at  Kiinigsbeig, , -11111  from  177.'i  jiractised  liis 
lirofessiou  at  IIaseni)oth  in  Kurland.  Shortly  before 
his  death  he  returned  to  his  birthplace,  lli'  published 
"  Betracht iingen  eines  Arztes  am  Kraukenbette  seines 
Patienten,"  Konigsberg,  1785. 

Bini.iofiRAPIIV:  Wunderbar,  Oench.  tier  Juikn  in  Lirr-unil 
Karhtiitl,  Mitau,  18.T:f;  Itosentlial,  Toitdiif -d ii»)ic  Slicm  lie- 
Kurhind  in  Ha-Mdiz. 

U.  H. 

ABRAHAMSON  (ABRAMSON),  MEYER: 

A  (ieniiaii  phvsieian  and  writer  on  mi'dieine;  born 
at  Hamburg.  1704;  died  there  October  21.  1817.  He 
graduated  from  the  I'niversity  of  GiJItiugen  in  1783 
and  began  jiraclise  in  his  native  city,  where  his  fa- 
ther hail  also  been  a  medical  practitioner.  Shortly 
afterward  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Jew- 
ish Hospitjil  in  the  city  of  Hamburg  and  to  the  poor 
of  that  city.  In  178-i  he  began  his  literary  career 
and  became  a  prolific  and  popular  writer  on  medical 
subjects.  Most  of  his  essjiys  w-ere  i>iiblishcii  in 
"  Hichter's  Chirurgiseho  Bibliothek,"  "  lialdinger's 
Magazin,"  "Meckel's  Neues  Archiv  der  Praclischen 
Heilkunde,"  and  "Hufeland's  Journal."  In  book 
form  he  published;  " Abliandlungen  und  Beobach- 
tungen  Uber  Einige  Krankheiten  der  Augen  "  (1785); 
"Unterricht  fi'ir  Diejeuigen.  die  mit  Leibesbri'ichen 
Behaftet  Sind"  (178(;):  "Einige  Worte  an  das  Pub- 
likum  i'lber  die  Wichtigkeit  der  Kuh]iocken-Iin- 
lifung"  (1801);  "lliimorrhoiden"  (third  ed.,  1815; 
translateil  into  Swedish,  1807):  "Gicht"  (1815;  sec- 
ond ed.,  181()) ;  "  Der  Arzt  fiir  Ilypochondrische  und 
Hysteri.sehe  Fiauenzimmer  "  (1817).  Of  a  more  Sci- 
entific character  is  his  treatise,  "Untersuchungen 
idler  die  Gi"o.sse  Sterblichkeit  unter  Schwangeri'n. 
Wiichnerimien  und  Neugeborenen  Kindern"  (I806). 
Alirahamson  was  a  member  of  several  .scientific  so- 
cieties of  Germany  and  Sweden. 

Bibliography  :  Schimicr  and  Klosp.  Uamhurger  SchrifUtel- 
Ur,  V.  233 :  ha  Grande  EncricluncdU,  s.  v. 

M.  B. 

ABRAMOVICH,  MIKHAIL  SOLOMONO- 
VICH :  l{u.ssian  poet,  son  of  Solomon  (Sh;doni) 
Abramovich ;  born  at  Berditchev  in  1859,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  Gymnasium  of  Jitomir.     At  the  age  of 


125 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Abrahaznson^  Abraham 
Abramowitsch,  Solomon  Jacob 


twenty  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  only  for  a  sliort 
time.  IJeing  inii)li(iileil  in  a  revolutionary  move- 
ment, he  «a.><  lianishcil  tirst  to  the  j;"^'ernnient  of 
Areliani;el,  then  to  Samara  anil  Kazan.  In  1S8T  he 
pradualcd  at  St.  l'cliTsl)urir.  wlu-re  in  I'.KIl  he  jinic- 
tiseil  law.  I  lis  earliest  poems  appeared  in  "  Vos- 
kliod."  "Xedyelya."  an<l  oilier  jieriodieals,  and  were 
published  in  book  form  in  INMll.  Exeepting  those 
devoted  to  .Judaism  or  that  treat  of  IJililieal  subjects 
his  poems  do  not  e.xhibit  mueli  originality. 

BiULiiKiR.ipuv :  Venirerov,  Kritiko-BingraflcheKki  Slnvar.  s. v. 

H.  R. 

ABRAMOWITSCH,  SOLOMON  (SHALOM) 
JACOB,  ■■  The  .h-wisli  (.irvanles,"  known  also  by 
the  name  of  his  work.  "Mendele  Moelier  Seforiin  " 
(.Meiidele  the  liookseller)  :  A  Hebrew  and  .Judaci- 
German  writer;  born  at  Kopyl.  Lithuania,  in  lH;i(l. 
He  studied  Talmud  at  the  heder  and  bet  lia-mi<lrash 
until  the  deatli  of  his  father,  which  oeeurred  in  1K49. 
Asa  youth  he  wandered  from  town  to  town,  visitinj; 
Slutsk  and  \Vilna,  and  learninj;  Hebrew  literalure  in 
the  rabliinie  eoUeires  of  those  towns.  Early  in  life 
the  poetic  side  of  his  nature  asserted  itself,  and  he 
wrote  several  Hebrew  lyrics,  but  witho\it  much  sue- 
cess.  Through  family  circumstances  he  was  com- 
pelled to  remove  from  Lithuania  and  to  go  to  Vol- 
hynia  and  thence  to  Podolia.  During 
Wander-  his  wanderings  he  became  thoroughly 
ings.  aci|Mainted  with  the  conditions  of 
.Jewish  life  iu  Russia.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  settled  in  the  city  of  Ivamcnetz-I'iKlolsk, 
where  he  made  the  nciiuaintanee  of  the  Hebrew 
poet  Abraham  Gottlober,  and   began  the  study  of 

modem  l{us.sian  and 
German  literalure, 
under  the  guidance 
of  Gottlober's  elder 
daughter. 

In  1M.")()  he  became 
a  teacher  in  the  Jew- 
ish Boys'  College  of 
the  government  in 
Kamenel/..  and  in  the 
same  year  he  pub- 
lished his  tirst  essay, 
imder  the  title  "On 
Education. "  in  the 
perio<lical  "  Ha  Jlag- 
gid."  At  this  lime 
a  strong  progressive 
movement  took  pos- 
session of  the  cul- 
tured Jews  in  Russia 
in  eonsei|Uenee  of  the 
reformsof  .Mexatiderll.  (see  n\sKAl..Ml).  Abramo- 
wilsch  inlered  into  the  light,  and  wrote  political 
artichs  for  the  periodicals  and  likewise  published 
many  essjiys  in  Hebrew  on  natural  science.  Two 
volumes,  inadi'  up  of  coUeeled  articles  on  politics, 
were  pulilishecl  by  him  undir  the  tillis  "  >Iishpal 
Shalom") Peaceful  .ludirmeiil),  isiio.  and  "'En  .Mish- 
pat  "  (Crilieal  Eye).  IMCifi.  In  |H(>',>  Abmmowilseh 
l)egan  the  publiealion  of  his  work  "Toledol  ha- 
Teba' "  (Natund  History ). adapted  from  the"Nalur 
gesehichli' "  of  II  ()  Len/  Three  volumes  of  this 
work  weri'  linishi-d  befnre  1M7','.  They  aroused  grc'at 
interest  in  Ihi'  study  of  natural  science  among  the 
younger  generation. 

Hut  it  was  not  in  this  line  of  literalure  that  the 
talent  of  Abraniowilseh  reached  its  fullest  develop 
inent.  lie  was  by  nature  an  artist,  a  novelist  who 
pcnelmted  thedeplhsof  Ihi' great  mass  of  the  peo 
pie  and  their  customs.      In  lM(i.S  he  published  a  novel 


.  J.  .\bnitMuv\'lt,Hi-h. 


under  the  title  "Ha-Al)ot  wc-ha-Banim"  (Fathers 
and  Sons) ,  a  descriptive  tale  of  life  among  the  Rus- 
sian Jews  of  his  generation,  iu  which  he  pictured 
the  struggles  between  the  orthodox  parents  and 
their  progressive  sons.  This  work  has  been  trans- 
lated into  Russian.  Abramowitseh's  talent  main- 
fested  itself  especially  in  his  tales  of  the  life  of  the 
common  people,  written  in  the  Ju(heo-German  dia- 
lect. His  tirst  novel  in  this  line,  entitled  "Das 
Kleine  Menschel,"  was  written  iu  \HIJ'>  an<l  pub- 
lished imder  the  pseudonym  "  Mcndele 

Novels.  Mocher  Seforim"  (Jlendele  the  liook- 
seller). It  was  a  biting  satire  on  an 
unworthy  Jewi.sh  favorite  of  the  governor  of  his 
province.  Xot  content  with  attacking  such  an  in- 
tlueutial  person,  he  published  in  IWi!)  "Die  Ta.xe 
Oder  die  Bande  Stadl-Baale-Tobot  "  (The  Gang  of 
City  Benefactors),  translated  into  Russian  b}'  Joseph 
PetVikovski  (Byelaya  Tzerkov,  1SS4),  a  very  sharp 
satire  on  the  Russian  puriiiiKiiii  who  nianagcil  the 
allairs  of  the  congregalion  in  their  own  interest. 
This  work  provoked  the  wrath  of  the  zealots  at 
the  head  of  the  congregalion  of  Berditehev,  where 
.Vbraniowilsch  lived,  and  he  was  forced  to  move  to 
Jitomir,  which  was  then  the  center  of  the  MaskUim 
(Progressists).  In  18T3  he  ludjlislied  "  Die  Kliat.sche," 
partly  translated  by  'Wiener  under  the  title  "  Dob- 
bin" "("  Yiddish  Literalure"  pp.  2T7-281),  an  alle- 
gory which  describes  the  life  of  the  Jews  in  their 
exile,  both  iu  the  past  and  present,  with  a  remark- 
able psychological  thoroughness.  This  book  was 
later  translated  into  Russian,  but  the  censor  inter- 
dicted its  circulation  after  the  iniblication  of  the 
tirst  few  chapters.  A  few  years  later  the  novel  "  Kiz- 
/.ur  JIas'ot  Binyamin  ha  Slielishi "  (An  Abridged 
Account  of  the  'Tmvels  of  Benjamin  HI.),  of  which 
a  specimen  is  translated  by  Wiener,  pp.  i?8.')-'20.'5, 
gave  a  satirical  pictmi^  of  the  life  in  the  small 
towns  of  Vol  by  Ilia.  Bolh  "  Klialsehe"an<l  "  .Masot " 
were  translated  into  Polish  by  the  Christian  author, 
Clemens  Junosza  of  Warsjuv.  The  translation  of 
the  sect)nd  book  bears  the  title  "The  Jewish  Don 
Quixote."  From  1888  to  18S)0  he  imblished  two  re- 
markable novels:  "Fischke  der  Krunnner,"  descri- 
bing the  life  of  waniUriug  Jewish  beggars  and 
soot hsjivers  with  considerable  psyclmlogical  skilland 
subtlety,  and  "  Wi'inschlingerl."  of  a  more  historical 
cast,  dealing  with  the  limes  of  Nicholas  I.  and  .\lex- 
ander  II.  In  1881  Aliramowitscli  removed  to  Odessa, 
where  he  became  principal  of  the  Talnunl  Tonih 
School.  In  1884  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  his 
literary  activity  was  celebrated. 

In  later  years  Abnimowilsch  was  again  inclined 
to  write  in  the  classical  Hebrew,  to  which,  through 
his  literary  talent,  he  gave  a  new  shajie  and  which 
lie  enriched  by  new  terms.  In  this  laii.iruage  he  pub- 
lished his  books,  "Sliem  we  Yaphit  ba'Agalah" 
(Shem  and  Ja|diet  in  the  Chariot),  18i)();  "Bi-Yeme 
ha  Ra'a.sli  "  (In  the  Days  of  Storm),  181M;  "Bi  Ye- 
shibah  shel  .Maalah  "  "(In  Celestial  Councils),  jnih- 
lished  inSokolows".\hia.saf,"  18!l.'i;  anil  "  Be'Emelj 
ha  Baka"(In  the  Vale  of  Ti-ars"),  in  "  Ha  Sliiloal.i," 
l.S!»7-!)8.  The  last  novel  was  the  aulhor's  own  He- 
brew tnuislalioii  of  his  book,  "  Wllnschlingerl."  but 
with  many  addilioiis  and  correclioiis.  In  recent 
years  Alirainowilsch  has  become  a  eonlribulor  to  the 
jndao Herman  paper,  "Der  Juil,"  which  is  edited 
in  Russia  and  published  al  Cracow,  Austria.  In 
this  i)aper  he  published  a  novel  with  an  aulobio- 
grai>liic  notice  under  the  title  "Shelomoh  Rabbi 
llavvim's."  The  inlliience  of  such  a  literary  talent 
as  llial  of  .\bnimowiis<h  on  his  contemporaries  has 
been  very  great,  and  he  has  more  limn  any  other 
helped  to  shape  the  style  adopted  in  Yiddish  litem- 


Abrams,  Harriet 
Abravauel 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


126 


tiire,  to  wliicli  be  a(l(io<l  inuiiy  expressions  borrowed 

from  bis  native  Litbiianiau  dialect. 

ItiBUOGRArnv:  L.  ItlnsUH-k,  in  Vrw.  1884.  No.  12;  Sokolow, 
Scfrr  '/Ahkamn.  Warsiiw,  1889  {Abraimneituch.  Autohiii- 
iiii'iihiail  Shelch);  Alle  Ktsmiwim  i-mi  Mciiihle  Miicher- 
Si/i,rim.  I.  il.. Odessa.  lKs.t-(ici;  wiener,  ViMLsh  Litcraluif. 
pp.  laO-lWP,  MJ.  atSi  (llsl  of  Works). 

S.  M.  D. 

ABRAMS,  HARRIET  :  En.slisb  soprano  vocal- 
ist and  composer;  horn  ITliO;  died  in  tlietirst  lialf  of 
tlie  nineteenth  century.  Slic  was  the  eldest  of  tlirec 
sisters  (Harriet,  Theodosia,  and  Eliza),  all  excellent 
vocalists.  Harriet  liersiOf  was  a  ]uipil  of  Dr.  Arne, 
and  niaiie  lier  debut  at  Drury  Lane  Theater,  Lon- 
don, in  her  ina.ster's  musical  piece.  ".May  Day,"  Oc- 
tober 28,  1TT.5.  She  and  her  sister  Theodosia  sang 
at  the  opening  of  tlie  Concerts  of  Ancient  Music  in 
1770.  8lic  sjiug  also  at  the  Handel  C'onunemonition 
in  Westminster  Abbey  in  1784  and  at  the  princiijal 
London  concerts  for  several  j-eare  afterward,  when 
she  and  her  sisters  retired  into  private  life.  Harriet 
Abrams  composed  several  jjleasing  songs,  two  of 
which,  "The  Orphan's  Prayer "  and  "Crazy  Jane," 
aided  by  the  impressive  singing  of  her  sisters,  l)e- 
canie  very  popular.  Slie  published,  further,  in  1787, 
a  collection  of  Scotch  songs  harmonized  for  three 
voices,  besides  other  pieces  at  later  dates. 
BiBUOORAPHY:  Brown,  Dirliniiarfinf  Musicians.s.y.;  Grove, 
IMcl.of  Mime  awl  Musi,  inna.  IKiK),  vol.  i.;  Champlln,  Ciiclo- 
jMilki  of  Munic  anil  .Uii.Minrii.v,  i.  4.  Nvw  York,  lW,i. 

G.  L. 

ABRAMSON,  ARTHUR  VON  :  Russian  civil 
engineer;  born  at  Odessti.  ^March  S,  18.34.  He  was 
educated  at  the  gymnasium  of  Iiis  native  city,  and 
studied  mathematics  at  the  L'nivcrsity  of  Odessji, 
which  hi'  left  to  lake  a  course  in  civil  engineering 
at  I  he  I'olytechuikum  of  Zurich,  Switzerland,  from 
which  he  was  graduated  in  187(i.  Returning  to  Russia 
in  1879,  he  passed  the  state  examination  at  the  Rus- 
sian Imperial  Institute  of  Roads  and  Communica- 
tions, and  was  appointed  one  of  the  directors  of  the 
Russian  .state  railway  at  Kief.  He  devised,  built, 
and  managed  the  sewer  system  of  Kief,  and  con- 
structed the  street-railroad'of  that  city.  In  1881  he 
founded  and  became  editor-hi-chief  of  a  technical 
monthly,  "Inzhencr"  (The  Engineer).  He  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  local  sewer  company  and  di- 
rector of  the  Kief  city  railroad.  H.   R. 

ABRAMSON,  BERNARD  :  Russian  physician 
of  (he  nineteenth  century.  He  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Academy  of  Science, 
and  for  valued  work  in  sanitation  was  made  a  hered- 
itary hononiry  citizen  by  the  Russian  government. 
Owing  to  his  interest  in  Jewish  matters,  he  was  re- 
quested by  the  government  to  draw  up  a  curriculum 
for  the  Jewish  .school  at  Uman  in  the  government  of 
Podol.  In  1849  the  title  of  collegiate'councilor  was 
conferred  upon  him;  and  in  the  sjimc  year  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Odessii  English  Club  (com- 
posed of  Russian  noblemen).  He  wrote  various 
medical  works. 

BiBi.inoRAPHY :  Orient.  1R49.  pp.  31. 112;  JIUI.  Alhc»llum.  s.v.. 
Leipsic,  18.51.  tt     p 

ABRASS,  JOSHTJA  (OSIAS) ;  called  also 
Pitzi :  A  I'aniiius  hazuii.  orcantdr;  l)orn  in  Austria 
about  1820,  and  died  at  Odessii  in  1883.  He  was 
cantor  in  Tarnopol,  1840-42;  afterward  in  Lcmlierg. 
1842-<i0;  and  from  18H()-83  he  waschief  cantor  of  the 
great  synagogue  of  Odessa.  He  composed  n'  JTIDT 
("Hymns  and  Religious  Songs  for  Sabbaths  and 
Festivals  of  the  Year  ").  Vienna.  1873.  His  daughter 
was  Abrastzova.  a  popular  Russian  singer. 
Bibliography  :  Lippe,  BibliographUches  Lexicon,  s.v. 

H.  R. 


ABRAVALLA(N<i)xaxn2S).  SAMUEL, called 
THE  GREAT :  The  richest  Jew  in  Valencia.  He 
was  forced  during  the  i>erseeution  of  1391  to  accept 
Chrislianity.  The  jiini(hs  of  Valencia  reported  on 
this  baptism  on  July  14.  1391,  as  follows:  "Yester- 
day there  was  baptized  the  great  Don  Samuel  Abra- 
valla  with  great  solemnity  in  the  palace  of  En 
Gasto  under  the  patronage  "of  the  martinis,  and  he 
has  received  the  name  of  Alfonso  Ferrandes  de 
Villanueva,  from  an  estate  which  he  owns  in  the 
niari|uisate,  called  Villanueva"  (De  los  RIos,  "Hist. 
(le  los  Judios  de  Espana  y  Portugal,"  ii.  G03) .  This 
Samuel  Abravalla  can  scarcely  be  identical  with 
Don  Samuel  Abravanel,  who  was  also  baptized  in 
1391,  but  took  the  name  Juan  de  Sevilla.  Abra- 
valla soon  returned  to  Judaism,  as  did  also  Abra- 
vanel. He  was  sent  with  Don  Solomon  ha-Levi 
to  Rome  as  ambassador  of  the  Spanish  Jews,  and 
had  an  interview  with  the  pope. 

Bibliography:    Slicbct  I'l/iiKfa/i,  No. 41:  Gratz,  Gesch.  d. 
JiK/iii,  iv. 21S). 

M.  K. 

ABRAVANEL,  ABARBANEL,  or  ABRA- 

BANEL  :  Oneof  the  oldest  aiul  most  distinguished 
Spanish  families,  which  traces  its  origin  from  King 
David.  Jlemhers  of  this  family  lived  at  Seville, 
where  dwelt  its  oldest  representative.  Don  Jiidah 
Abni vanel.  Samuel  Abravanel,  his  grandson,  .settled 
at  Valencia,  and  Samuel's  son,  Judah  (or  jierhaps  he 
himself),  left  Spain  for  Portugal.  Isaac,  the  .son  of 
Judah.  returned  to  Castile,  where  he  lived  till  the  time 
of  the  great  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain  in 
1492.  Then,  with  his  three  sons.  Judah,  Jo.sei)h,  and 
Samuel,  Isaac  went  to  Italy.  Their  descendants,  as 
well  as  other  members  of  the  family  who  arrived 
later  from  the  Iberian  peninsula,  lived  in  llollaiul. 
P^ugland,  Turkey,  and  elsewhere  during  and  since 
the  si.xteenth  century. 

Pedigree. 

Judah  or  Joseph 

Samuel  (Juan  de  Serilla) 

I 
Judah  (In  LIstwn) 

I 

Isaac 

awm  1437 :  died  1.508) 


Judah  I.«>on 


Joseph        Samuel=Bpnvenlrta 
(d.  Ferrara,  1.5.52)       (d.  Ferrara,  1551) 


Isaac 
(in  Turkey) 


Judah 
(d.  at  Ferrara, 
Dec.  15, 1583) 


Samuel 

Isaac 
(d.  Ferrara,  1.573) 


Judab 


r 


Samuel 

I 


I 


~|    (n.  Amsterdam,  1710) 


Joseph    Ephratm  Manasseb    Joseph 

(Physician  at  I        (d.  Amster- 

Amslerdam)  |         dam,  1620) 

I  Jonah 

I 

Jonah  Manuel 

Isaac  Abravanel :  Statesman  and  Bible  com- 
mentator, son  of  tiie  Portuguese  treasurer,  Dom 
Judah.  was  born  in  the  year  1437  at  Lisbon,  and  died 
at  Venice  in  1.508.     He  was  buried  in  Padua. 

Abravanel  received  a  careful  education  and  was 
a  pupil  of  Joseph  Hayyim,  rabbi  of  Lisbon.  Well 
versed  in  Talmudic  literature  and  in  the  learning  of 
his  time,  endowed  with  a  clear  and  keen  mind,  and 
full  of  enthusiasm  for  .Judaism,  he  devoted  his  earlj'' 
j'ears  to  the  study  of  Jewish  religious  philosophy, 


127 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abrams,  Harriet 
Abravauel 


and  when  scarcely  twenty  years  old  wrote  on  the 
original  foini  of  I  lie  natural  clcnicnts,  on  the  most 
vital  religions  (jucstions,  on  proplicc}',  etc.  His  po- 
litical abilities  also  attracted  attention  while  he  was 
still  yoMiifr.  He  entered  the  service  of  King  Alfonso 
\.  of  Portugal  as  Ireastircr.  and  soon  won  the  con- 
fidence of  his  master.  Notwillistanding  his  high  posi- 
tion and  the  great  wealth  he  hail  iidierilcd  from  his 
fat  her,  his  lo  VI'  for  hisallliclcd  hrcthrcn  wasunaliatcd. 
ANlieii  Arzilla.  in  iMorocco.  was  taken  by  the  iMoors, 
and  the  Jewish  captives  were  sold  as  slaves,  he  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  funds  ueetled  to  manumit 


AbraviUU'l  Cuut  uf  Arms. 

(From  the  Arctilvi-s  of  the  AtiiNterdnui  rorliiji'ie**'  Congregitllon.) 

thcni.  anil  pirsunully  arninged  for  collections 
throughout  T'orlugal.  He  also  wrote  to  his  liarneil 
anil  wealthy  friend  .lehiil,  of  Pisji.  in  behalf  of  the 
,\flir  the  death  of  Alfonso  he  was  obliged 
•        '       '    bv 


captives 


V*l[M    I    »    T     ,-..  .  1    I  tl     I       t    IIV       H.     .41    .1     .  '1        ,»  ...  ..I...     ...  .. .— ■     ■* 

to  reliiiquish  his  otlici'.  having  been  accusi-il  by 
King  John  II.  of  connivance  with  the  duke  of  I5ra- 
panca.  who  had  been  executed  on  the  charge  of  eon- 
spiniev.  Abravanel.  warned  in  lime,  .saved  himself 
by  a  hasty  flight  lo  Castile  (148:!).  Ilis  large  for- 
tune was  coniiscated  liy  royal  decree.  At  Toledo, 
Ilis  new  home,  he  occui)ied  himself  at  first  with  liib- 
lical  studies,  and  in  the  courseof  si.\  months  ])ri>iluced 
nn  extensive  eoimnentary  on  the  books  of  Joshua, 
Judges,  and  Samuel.  Hut  shortly  afterward  he  en- 
tered  the  service  of  the  house  of  Castile.  Together 
with  his  friend,  the  intluentiid  Don  Abraham  Senior, 
of  Segovia,  he  undertook  lo  farm  the  revenues  and 
lo  supply  provisions  for  the  royal  army,  contriuts 
that  he  carried  out  to  the  entire  salisfitction  of  (Jueen 
Isabella.  During  the  Motirish  war  Abravanel  ad- 
vanced considenibic  sums  of  money  to  the  govern- 
melil.  When  I  he  banish ineiit  of  I  he  Jews  from  Spain 
was  decreed,  he  left  nothing  unilnne  to  induce  tlie 
kiiiL'  to  nviike  the  edict.  In  vain  did  he  otTer  him 
30,(Ml()  ducats  (.*i(is..l(H),  nominal  value).  With  his 
brethren  in  faith  he  left  Spain  and  went  to  Naples, 
where,  soon  after,  he  entered  Ihc  service  of  the  king. 
For  a  short  time  he  lived  in  peace  undisturbi  il ; 
but  when  the  city  was  taken  by  the  French,  bereft 
of  all  his  possessiiins,  lie  folhiweil  the  young  king, 
Ferdinand,  in  ll!l."i,  to  Messina;  then  went  to  Corfu; 
and  ill  Mix;  settled  in  Monopoli,  and  lastly  (irilllt)  in 
Veiiici'.  where  his  services  weri'  employeil  in  nego- 
tialing  a  conunercial  Ireitly  between  I'orlugal  and 
the  \enelian  repulilic  (Zurita.  "Ilistoria  del  Hey 
Don  Fernando  el  Ciili'ilico."  v    IM'.'.m  M    K. 


Abravanel's  importance,  however,  lies  not  only  in 
his  changefid  and  active  career.  Although  his  works 
can  .scarcely  he  said  to  he  of  an  absolutelj-  original 
character,  they  contain  so  luuch  iusti  uctive  material, 
and  I'Xerted  so  wide  an  intluence,  that  they  demand 
special  attention.  They  may  he  divided  into  three 
i-lasses,  referring  to  (1)  exegesis,  such  as  his  com- 
mentary upon  the  entire  Bible  with  the  exception 
of  the  llagiograiiha ;  C2)  philo.sdpliy,  dcalin.g  with 
]ihilosopliy  in  general  and  particularly  with  that  of 
the  Jewish  religion;  (3)  apologetics,  in  defense  of 
the  Jewish  doctrine  of  the  Messiah.  Characteristic 
of  Abravanel's  exegetic  writings  is  his  accurate  esti- 
mation of  the  historical  standpoint  in 
As  Author  the  ancient  annals  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
and  Exe-  pie.  All  ]uecedrng  Jewish  cxegetes 
gete.  iiad   been  too  far  removeil  from  the 

tumult  of  the  great  world  to  jiossess 
a  ))roper  estimate  of  the  historical  epochs  and  epi- 
scides  described  in  Scripture.  Abravanel,  who  had 
himself  taken  part  in  the  politics  of  the  great  pow- 
ers of  the  day,  rightly  perceived  that  mere  eon.sider- 
ation  of  the  literary  elements  of  Scrii)ture  was  in- 
sullicient,  and  that  the  political  and  social  lifeof  the 
peii|ile  nuisl  also  be  taken  into  account.  lie  reeog- 
ni/ed  also  the  value  of  jirefacing  the  individual 
books  of  the  Bible  with  a  general  introduction  con- 
certung  the  character  of  each  book,  its  date  of  com- 
position, and  the  author's  intention  ;  he  may  conse- 
(|uently  be  considcreil  as  a  pioneer  of  the  modern 
science  of  Bible  propa'deutics.  The.se  excellences 
of  Abravanel's  commentaries  were  especially  ap- 
]ireeiated  by  the  Christian  scholars  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries.  No  less  than  thirty 
Christian  writers  of  this  period — amon.g  them  men 
of  eminence,  like  the  younger  Bu.xtorf,  Buddeus, 
Carpzov,  and  others — occupied  themselves  with  the 
do.sestudy  of  Abravanel's e.xegetical  writings,  which 
they  condensed  and  translated,  and  thus  introiliiced 
lo  the  world  of  Christian  scholarship.  Possibly 
somewhat  of  this  ap- 
preciation of  Abra- 
vanel by  Christians 
wasdue  to  the  hitler's 
tolerance  toward  the 
Christian  cxegetes — 
Jerome,  Augustine, 
and  Nicholas  de  Lyra 
— all  of  whom  were 
closely  stuilied  by 
him  and  quoted 
without  prejudice, 
receiving  praise  or 
disa]i)irobalion  as  Ihe 
case  demanded. 

Abravanel's  Jew- 
ish preileees.sors  in 
the  realm  of  philoso- 
phv.  whoever,  by  no 
means  received  the  same  amoimt  of  tolerance  nt  his 
hands.  Men  like  Allialag.  Pah|Uera.  Ctcrsonides, 
.Narboid.  and  others,  were  roundly  dentuinced  by 
Abravanel  as  inlidels  and  misleading  gtiides,  for  ven- 
turing to  assume  a  comparatively  lilieral  stand  point  in 
religio-pliilosophical  ([uestions.  Although  he  wasthe 
last  Jewish  Aristotelian,  Abravanel  wases.sentially  an 
if  philosophy,  for  his  entire  conception  of 
Jinlaism.  opposed  lo  thai  of  Mainion- 
As  Phi-  ides  and  his  school,  was  rooted  in  a 
losopher.  tirni  conviction  of  Ood's  revcJalion  in 
history,  and  particularly  in  Ihc  history 
of  Ihe  selected  people.  Had  Abnivanel  not  been 
nusled  by  the  "  <!uide  "  of  Maimoidiles.  for  whom  he 
shared   the    traditional    vcnenition,   he    inighl    have 


(Tr. 


.1. 


.11- 


<p|ionenl  i 


Abravanel 
Abraxas 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


128 


given  an  exposition  of  liis  views  on  the  relations  of 
])Uiloso|)liy  and  ri'lijiion.  As  it  is,  however,  these 
views  are  (Dufuseil.  being  at  one  and  the  stune  time 
Jlaimciiiistie.  anti-.Maimonistie,  and.  in  a  measure, 
even  cahalislie.  A  eharaelerislie  instance  of  liis  vacil- 
lation is  afforded  liy  his  most  important  rcliirious 
work,  the  "  Hosh  Amanali  "  (Tlu'  I'innacle  of  Faith i, 
based  on  Cant.  iv.  8.  This  work,  devoted  to  the 
championship  of  the  Alaimonideau  thirteen  articles 
of  belief  a.irainst  the  attacks  of  Crescas  and  Alho.  ends 
witli  the  statement  that  Maimonides  compiled  these 
articles  merely  in  accordance  with  the  fashion  of 
other  nations,  which  set  up  a.xioms  or  fundamental 
principles  for  their  science;  but  that  the  .lewish  re- 
lijlion  has  nothintr  in  common  v.Mlli  human  science; 
that  the  teacliinjrs  of  the  'I'cirah  are  revelations  from 
God,  and  therefore  are  ail  of  equal  value  ;  that  ainoni; 
them  are  neither  principles  nor  corollaries  from 
principles;  which  certainl)'  is  rather  a  lame  conclu- 
sion for  a.  work  purporting  to  be  a  defense  of  Jlai- 
nionides.  It  would  not  be  just,  liowever,  to  assert 
that  Abravanel  makes  a  pretense  of  chani]iioniiig 
JIaimonides,  while  being  actually  opposed  to  him. 
Abravanel  is  no  hypocrite;  wherevi'r  he  thinks  that 
Maimonides  deviates  fnim  traditional  beli(d',  he  does 
not  hesitate  to  condiat  him  si  Tenuously .  lie  thus  as- 
sails JIaimouides'  conception  that  the  prophetic  vi- 
sions were  tlie  creations  of  imaginaliiai.  Abravanel 
will  not  hear  of  this  explanation  even  for  the  hit 
kol  of  the  Taluuid,  which,  according  to  him,  was 
a  verital)le  voice  made  audible  by  God — a  miracle, 
in  fact  (ccimnientary  on  (icii.  xvi.).  lu  like  manner 
Aliravanel  exceeded  all  his  predecessors  in  combating 
MainKniidcs'  theory  of  the  "Heavenly  Chariot"  in 
Ezekiel  ("  'Ateret  Zekenini."  xxiv.,  and  connnentary 
on  the  "Morch,"  part  iii.  71-74,  ed.  Warsaw).  In- 
deed the  most  noteworthy  feature  of  all  Abravanel's 
philosoidiical  disquisitions  is  the  success  with  which 
he  demonstrates  tlie  weak  points  in  the  Mainionidean 
system. 

One  point  of  JIaimouides'  system,  however,  and 
one  that  was  not  strictly  in  the  line  of  tradition, 

found  in  Abravanel  a  zealous  imita- 

As  Apolo-    tor:  the  belief  in  a  Messiah.     He  felt 

gete.         deeply  the   hopelessness  and   despair 

which  possessed  his  brethren  in  the 
years  following  their  exjiulsion  from  S|)ain,  and 
set  him.self,  therefore,  to  cham|iion  the  Messianic 
belief  and  to  strengthen  it  among  his  desponding 
brethren.  Willi  this  aim  he  wrote  the  following 
three  works:  "Ma'yeue  ha-Yeshu'ah  "  (Sources  of 
Salvation),  completed  Dec.  6.  14!)();  "Yeshn'ot  Me- 
shiho"  (The  Salvation  of  His  Anointed),  completed 
Dec.  20,  1497;  and  '•  Mashmia'  Yeshu'ah "  (Pro- 
clainnng  Salvation),  completed  Feb.  2G,  1498 — all  of 
them  devoted  to  the  exposition  of  the  Jewish  belief 
concerning  the  Messiah  ami  the  ^lessiauica.ge.  The 
first-named  of  these  is  in  the  form  <if  a  commentary 
upon  Daniel,  in  which  he  controverts  both  the  Chris- 
tian exposition  and  the  Jewish  rationalism  of  this 
book.  Curiously  enough,  in  oppo.sition  to  the  Tal- 
mud and  all  later  rabbinical  tradition,  he  counts 
Daniel  among  the  prophets,  coineiding  therein — but 
therein  only — with  the  current  Christian  interpreta- 
tion. He  is  impelled  to  this  by  the  fact  that  Daniel 
furnishes  the  foundation  for  his  Messianic  theory. 
The  renniinder  of  his  commentary  is  devoted  to 
an  exhaustive  and  caustic  criticism  of  the  Christian 
exposition. 

The  second  work  is  ]irobably  unique  in  being  an 
exposition  of  the  doctrine  concerning  the  ilessiah 
according  to  the  traditional  testimony  of  Talmud 
and  Midrash;  it  is  valuable  for  its  exhaustive  treat- 
ment and  clearness  of  jireseutation.     Of  no  less  im- 


portance is  his  third  apologetic  work,  wliich  con- 
tains a  collection  of  all  the  Messiainc  pas.sjiges  of 
the  Bible  and  their  interpretations,  in  the  coui-se  of 
which  latter  Abravanel  very  freiiuenlly  attacks  the 
Christian  interpretation  of  these  passages.  It  con- 
tains (pp.  '.yir-AVi.  ed.  Amstenlam)  a  descriplion  of 
the  Jle.ssiainc  age  as  conceived  by  the  Jewish  ortho- 
doxy of  the  Middle  Ages.  These  apologetic  works 
of  Abravanel  were  widely  read  by  his  c<ireligionisls, 
as  is  evidenced  by  their  frc(|uent  republication,  and 
they  contributed  undoubtedly  to  the  reassurance  of 
many  of  his  brethren  as  to  a  better  future  for  Israel. 

The  fiillowing  list  of  Abravanel's  works  is  ar- 
range<i  alpliabetically,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
alpliabet,  the  date  of  the  lirsl  edition  being  given 
in  each  ca.se: 

(1)  ""Ateret  Zekenim  "  (Crown  of  the  Ancients), 
Sabbionetta,  1507;  (2)  "Yeshu'ot  lyieshiho"  (Tho 
Salvation  of  His  Anointed),  lOulsruhe,  1828;  (3) 
"Maamar  Kazcr"  (Short  Treatise),  Venice,  1574;  (4) 
"  Mayene  ha-Yesliuah "  (Sources  of  Salvation), 
Ferrara,  1501;  also  at  Nai)les,  no  date,  possibly  <rf. 
pi-iitripx  ;  (5)  "JIashmi'a  Yeshu'ah"  (Proclaiming 
Salvation).  Saloniea,  152G;  (6)  "Mif'alot  Elohim" 
(Works  of  God).  Venice,  l.")y2;  (7)  '•:Mirkebet  Im- 
Mishneh"  (Second  Chariot),  Sabbionetta,  1551 ;  (8) 
"Nahlat  Abot"  (The  Paternal  Inheritance),  Con- 
stantinople, 1505;  (9)  "  Perush  "  (Connnentarv)  on 
the  Pentateuch,  Venice,  1579;  (10)  "  Perush  "  on  the 
Earlier  Prophets,  Pesjiro,  1511  (doubtful);  (11) 
"Perush"  on  the  Later  Prophets.  Pe.saro.  1.520  (?); 
(12)  "Perush  "on  Maimonides'  "  .Mi  irdi  Nebukim," 
Karisruhe,  1831 ;  (13) "  Kosh  Amanah  "  (The  Pinnacle 
of  Faith).  Amsterdam,  1.505;  (14)  "Shamavim  Hado- 
shim"(The  New  Heavens),  Rodelheim.  "1828 ;'  (1.5) 
"Zurot  ha-Yesodot"  (Forms  of  the  Elements),  Sab- 
bicnietta.  1.557;  (16)  "Teshubot"  (Responsa),  ad- 
dres.sed  to  Saul  ha-Kohen  of  Candia,  Venice,  1574. 
See  also  An.\M.\,  D.^viu;  Uibaoo,  Ahiiailvm. 

BlBLiocR.vPUY:  .•\iitolii(ipTaptiU'iil  notices  are  piven  In  tlie  In- 
troduction to  liis  coiiiiiu'iilaries  on  Joshua,  Kiiit.^.  and  Deu- 
teroiiom.v  and  in  his  Tt^shuliot ;  IJanicii  i-Tin.  preface  to 
Abnivand's  Mti'nnic  (is  of  (Treat  value);  ramioly.  In  Jost's 
,-l»M((?rM.l.Siit,  it.Uil ;  also  an  anonymous  writer,  i^.  p.lHI;  Luz- 
zalto.  iliiil.  1S40.  |ip.  17,  24:  .lost,  (len-li.  (/.  IxraeUtcn.  111. 
IW  Ki'.i;  i.iiitz,  (;...r(i.  (f.  Jio/cii,  vlll.  and  ix.,  see  Index;  M. 
H.  Kiiclliin.lcr.  Clinrlime  Ua-lhirot.  liriinn,  18.sn,  pp.  i:i6-l.-|(l; 
Scliwcrin-.Vt'itrhancI.  in  Rcrliticr's  Mit\i(izin,  isttl,  xviii.  l.'tt- 
14."). :.':iVL'tl;  Slcinsrhncldcr,  Cil.  n«U.  No.  :i>ta:  KiiT>it,  liihl. 
J  ml.  pp.  ll-l.'i;  ■[hi-  .liiiniriiii  /.mu.  lilr  (CinciniiiLtl,  (I.I.  IHliS, 
pp.  213. 220. 2-Js,  'S-iii,  244,  contains  a  tnmslaliou  Uucoiuplete)  of 
the  liosh  Atnanah. 

L.  G. 

Isaac  Abravanel:  1.  Son  of  Joseph  Abravanel, 
and  graiidsdu  cd  the  P.ible-commentator;  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  philanthropy  and  his  devotion  to 
science.  He  lived  at  Ferrara.  Italy,  where  he  died 
in  1573.  He  entrusted  the  edue;iti<in  of  his  children 
to  Isaac  de  Lattes  in  15(;7.  Aniiilus  Lusitanus  was 
in  friendly  intercourse  with  him  ami  a  frequent  visi- 
torat  his  iiouse.  2.  A  rich  and  higlily  respected  man 
who  lived  at  Venice  in  16()8. 

Jonah  Abravanel :  1.  Poet;  flourished  at  Am- 
sterdam in  llie  .seventeenth  Century  ;  died  there  Aug. 
II.  l(ii;7.  He  was  the  S(n]  of  the  physician  Josepli 
Abravanel.  and  a  nephew  of  Manas.seh  ben  Israel. 
He  wrote  "Elegio  em  Louvar  da  Nova  Yesiba,  in- 
stitudo  por  o  "Senhor  Yshac  Pereira,  de  que  ho 
Kos  Yesiba  o  Senhor  Ilaham  Menasse  ben  Israel " 
(Amsterdam.  1644) .  He  wrote  also  elegies  upon  tho 
martyrs  Isaac  de  Castro  Tartas  (1647)  and  the 
Hernals  (1655).  He  published  with  Dr.  Ephraim 
Bueno.  after  1630.  ritualistic  works  and  "Psitlterio 
de  David  .  .  .  transladado  con  toda  fidelidad " 
(Amsterdam.  1644).  2.  A  learned  and  highly  re- 
spected man  who  lived  also  at  Amsterdam,  where 


129 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abravanel 
Abraxas 


lie  dictl  Feb.  19.  1707.  3.  Son  of  Maiiasseli  Abra- 
vanel; was  11  niiinltcr  of  ilie  Tiilniuilical  Academy 
'Ez  lliiN  yiiH  ill  ■Viiistcnlaiii.  1710. 

Joseph  Abravanel:  1.  I'liysieian  and  scholar; 
son  of  Isaac  Aliravaiicl ;  born  at  Lisbon  in  1471; 
died  about  \'i')'~.  lie  lived  at  Venice  and  later  at 
Ferrara,  and  enjoyed  a  great  reputation.  2.  A 
physician,  brother  of  Jianas.seh  Abravanel;  flour- 
ished at  Amsterdam  in  the  .seventeenth  century; 
died  about  1020.  3.  A  member  of  the  Academy 
'Ez  I.luy  vim  at  Ainsfrnlam,  in  1700. 

judah  Abravanel:  1.  Keceivir  of  customs  at 
Seville,  Sjiaiii,  in  KilO.  lie  rendered  substantial 
service  to  the  grandees  of  Caslile.  The  infante  Don 
Pedro,  in  liis  will,  dated  Seville,  May  9,  i;il7,  or- 
dered that  Judah  be  jiaid:  (I)  1.5,000  maravedis 
(§yO,000)  for  clothes  delivered  ;  (2)  90.000  mara- 
vedis (§72,000)  as  iiart  of  a  jiersonal  debt,  at  the 
same  time  re(|uesliiig  Judah  to  release  him  from 
paying  the  rest.  Judah  had  been  in  great  favor 
with  King  Alfonso  the  AVise,  with  whom  lie  once 
had  a  conversation  regarding  Jews  and  Judaism. 
2.  Granilsim  of  the  preceding;  Portuguese  treas- 
urer about  1400.  Ill-  managed  the  financial  af- 
fairs of  the  infante  l)om  Fernando,  who  assigned 
to  liiin,  in  1437,  over  half  a  million  reis  blancos. 
8.  See  Lko  Hiciik.ki.s.  4.  The  grand.son  of  Judah 
Abravani'l,  or  Leo  Ilebra'us.  bore  also  the  name  of 
Judah.  He  was  a  much  respected  miin,  who  died 
Dec.  !•").  l.")S:i,  at  Ferrara,  al  the  age  of  tifty.  He 
lived  with  his  brollur  Jacob  Abravanel  and  another 
Judah  Abravanel,  who  was  renowned  for  his  wealth 
and  for  his  philanthropy. 

Samuel  Abravanel:  Son  of  Judah  Abravanel 
of  Seville;  seltlcd  in  Caslile,  lie  became  a  liatron 
of  learning.  lie  supported  the  scholar.  Meiiahem 
ben  Zerah.  and  had  him  ch'clcd  rabbi  of  Toledo. 
As  a  mark  of  his  gratitude  iMcnahem  dedicated  to 
Abravanel  his  work.  "Zeclah  la-Derek"  (Provision 
for  the  Journey).  During  the  i)ersecutionof  1391  he 
8id)mitte(l  to  baptism  and  was  named,  according  to 
Zaento.  Juan  of  SevilU'.  He  soon,  however,  re- 
turned to.luilaism.   Seealso  AiiU.\v.\i,l,.\,  S.VMfET.. 

Samuel  Abravanel:  Youngest  son  of  Isaac 
Abravanel.  and  grandson  of  Judah;  was  born  in 
1473,  at  Lislion.  His  father  sent  him  to  Salonica  to 
pursue  his  Talmuilic  studies,  where  he  became  the 
pupil  of  Joseph  Fasi.  He  liveil  at  Naples,  anil  was 
employed  as  liiianeier  by  the  viceroy  Don  Pedro  de 
Toledo.  He  made  the  best  ])ossible  use  of  his  great 
wealth,  which  amounted  to  moii^  than  200,000  gold 
zecchini  or  scijuins  (about  §4">0,000).  The  poet 
Sanund  Usipie  said  that  he  ileserved  the  surname 
"Tremegisto."  that  is."  thrice  great "  ;  great  in  schol- 
arsliip,  great  in  name  (ancestry) .  and  great  in  wealth. 
"He  generously  employs  his  wealth  in  promoting 
the  welfare  of  his  coreligionists.  He  enables  many 
orphans  to  marry,  su|)porls  the  needy,  and  en- 
deavors strenuously  to  free  <aptives,  so  that  in 
liim  are  combined  all  the  great  (|Ualities  which 
make  one  litted  for  the  gift  of  prophecy."  I5y  his  con - 
tem|)oraries  he  was  surnamed  "  Nasi  "  (Prince),  and 
was  much  respected.  His  ,second  wife.  Itenveniila 
Abmviinela,  a  woman  of  prudence,  culture,  grace, 
piety,  and  charity,  nobly  seconded  his  elTorts.  The 
viceroy  of  Naples  permitted  his  daughter  Leonora, 
Inter  grand  duchess  of  Tuscany,  to  be  on  friendly 
terms  with  Henvenida  and  even  to  become  her  pu- 
pil. Leonora  looked  up  to  her  with  lilial  love  and 
K'spect . 

Samuel  Abravanel  was  a  patron  of  Jewish  learn- 
ing. His  liousi'  was  n  favorite  resort  for  Jewish  and 
Christ  inn  scholars.  The  I'ortuguese  refugee,  David 
ben  Vahya,   whom  Sainuil  siieieedid  in  phieiiiu'  iis 

I       9 


rabbi  at  Naples,  and  the  cabalist  Baruch  of  Bene- 
vento,  were  his  intimates.  Following  in  the  foot- 
steps of  his  lather,  and  aided  by  liis  noble  wife, 
Samuel  was  always  ready  to  defend  his  brethren  in 
faith,  AVlien  Cliarlcs  V.  issued  an  edict  to  expel 
the  Jews  from  Najiles,  Henvenida,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Leonora,  intervened  in  their  behalf  .so  effect- 
ively that  the  decree  was  revoked.  But  several 
years  later,  when  Charles  V.  ordered  the  Jews  either 
to  leave  the  land  or  to  wear  the  badge,  the  Abrava- 
nels  settled  in  Ferrara,  where  Samuel  died  in  1551, 
and   lieiivenida  three  years  later. 

The  fnllowing  were  also  prominen.  luembers  of 
the  family  :  the  wealthy  and  learned  "  Prince  "  I.Iiyya 
Alnavaiiel.  who  lived  at  Salonica  with  the  preacher 
Senior  Abravanel  (died  1020)  ;  Hirsh  Abravanel, 
who  was  head  of  the  rabbinate  at  Lissa,  Prussia 
(died  1.S03). 
liiiii.iiiiiii.u'iiv:  Usque.  0)mnla(flm,  p.  206;   Grfitz.  Ocsch. 

(I.  Jiiiltii.in.  47  ct  scq.,  327  et  seq.;  Kayserllng,  (JcKch.  d. 

Jmlen  in  Portugal,  p.  3M ;  Idem,  DieJildUchen  Frmten, 

pp.  77  et  »€Q. 

M.  K. 

ABRAVANEL  DORMIDO,  DAVID.  See 
Duit.Miiiii.  D.wu)  Aiii!,\v.\Ni.i.. 

ABRAXAS  or  ABRASAX  (  A,J/)dfaf,  oftener 
'A^paaii;)  :  A  term  of  (Jnostic  magic,  of  uncertain 
etymolog}'.      According    to    Irenajus    ("Adversus 


Abraxas  God  (Gnostic  Gem,  Obverse  and  Reverse). 

(From  King's  "GDOrtlc*.'*) 

Ilarcses."  i.  24,  3-7),  the  Gnostic  Basilidcs  (died 
about  130)  gave  the  name  of  Abraxas  to  tlie  highest 
Being,  who  presides  over  the  364  kingdoms  of  spirits 
(53  X  7  =  304) ,  because  the  ntuiieiical  value  of  the 
letters  of  this  name  is  equivalent  to  365  (a  =  1,  b  =: 
2,  r  =  100.  a  =1.  X  -  60.  a  =  1.  s  =  200)— t. ,-..  the  364 
spirits  -|-  the  Highest  Being  Himself.  In  a  magic  pa- 
pyrus it  is  expres.sly  stated  that  Abraxas  is  equiv- 
alent to  305,  the  number  of  days  in  the  year 
(Wessely,  "Neue  Za\iberpapyri,"  p.  .50;  Dietcrich. 
"Abraxas."  j).  40).  Bellcrmann  ("Versuch  liber 
Ocnunen  mit  Abraxasbild."  Berlin,  1817-19,  derives 
this  word  from  the  Coptic.  He  claims  it  is  a  com- 
pound of  Aliriik  and  «<7.r,  meaning  "the  holy  Word." 
"the  blessed  Name."  See.  on  the  other  hand, 
Kauilissin.  "Studien  zur  Semitischen  Heligionsge- 
.schichle."  i.  lf<9.  note  1.  Other  etymologies  and  a 
summary  of  all  investigations  in  the  matter  are 
given  by  Matlir  in  his  "Histoire  Critique  du  Gnos- 
iicisme,"  1H2.S  (Girman  trans,  by  Dilrner,  ii.  56  et 
neq..  lleilbronn,  1^34).  Glldemann  sees  in  Abraxas 
some  connection  with  the  magic  formula  of  the  pap- 
yri, ••arbathiaoth  "  (which  he  identifies  with  y3")X 
hvniK',  the  four- let  tired  name  of  God  ("  Fest.sehrifl 
ziim  .\ch/.igslen  Geburfstage  Moritz  Sleinschmi- 
dcrs."  p.  15).  MoYse  Schwab  suggests  that  Abraxas 
is  the  e(|invalent  of  Kia  3K  ("till'  F^ither  created") 
("Vocabulaire  de  rAiigelologie,"  p.  383).  Geiger 
suggested  a  derivation  for  Abraxas  from  the  Ile- 
,brew  hii-ln-rnknh  ("the  blessing");  this  is  approved 
bv  King.  "Gnostics,"  p.  251.  but  rightly  rejected  by 
Kraussin  Pauly-Wissowa."  Healencyklopildie."  p.  7. 
.\s  has  been  shown  by  Schmidt  ("Gnostische 
Seliriften  in  Kopt.  .'^prache."  pp.  .502<7»»/  ).  .\bra.sax 
■.i.'iiiils  ill  no  oiL'aiiie  <oiinection  with  the  Basilidiau 


Abraxas 
Abrogation  of  Laws 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


130 


system  and  its  365  worlds  correspondiiif];  with  thenu- 
mcrical  value iif  tlicCJrcck  Icltcrs  nf  Abrasjix.  Liki' 
ISarbelo  and  111  liir  similar  names  inciitioiiiMl  l)y  Priseil- 
lian,  Alnasax  rcpresenteil  a  demiurge,  a  divine  po- 
tency elevated  by  some  heretic  seel  to  the  posilion  of 
a  ;rod.  From  the  papyri  and  the  maiiie  frems  it  is 
certain  that  the  word  refers  to  the  use  of  th<'  Inelfalile 
Name  as  a  master  key  with  which  the  powers  of  all 
the  upper  and  the  nether  world  are  locked  or  un- 
locked, bound  or  loo.sened,  by  the  great  Manda  da 
llaye  (Wisdom  of  Life  =  God).  Now  there  occurs  in 
the  mystical  writings  the  name  I{;iza  l{iU)ba  ("the 
Great  iSecret"),  met  also  in  the  Cabala  under  the  name 
of  Haza  de  liizin  ("  Secret  of  Si-crets").  This  sug- 
gests the  etymology  from  Ab  Kaza,  "Father  of  the 
Secret."  which  is  the  same  as  "  Master  Secret."  See 
Brandt,  "  .Mandaeische  Schriften,"  pp.  143  et  seq.; 
'•  Maudaeische  Heligion,"  pp.  213  et  xeq. 

Abraxas-gems  are  engraved  stones  of  varying 
material  and  form  upon  which  this  word  aiijiears, 
either  alone  or  with  other  names  of  God,  and  in  con- 
nection with  mystic  tigures  and  groups  of  Utters. 


Altra.\i(,'-  UIll^^O^■  tteiii,  obvelsi'  mid  liever-st^). 
(From  King's  "  Gnosllcs.") 

The  most  freciuenllj-  encountered  Abraxas  figure  is 
a  human  form  with  a  fowl's  head  and  the  extremi- 
ties of  a  serpent,  carrying  in  the  one  hand  a  shield 
and  in  the  other  a  whiji.  These  Abraxas-stones, 
especially  those  which  from  their  mat<-rial  are  used 
for  superstitious  practises,  are  also  of  interest  from 
the  standpoint  of  Judaism,  inasmuch  as  they  often 
bear  Hebraic  names  of  God :  lao,  Sabaoth,  Adonai, 
Eloai.  Beside  an  Abraxas  figure  the  following, 
for  instance,  is  found:  lAH  ABPA2AH  AiON  ATA, 
"lao  Abrasiix,  thou  art  the  Lord"  (BcUermann. 
"Versuch,"  ill.,  N'o.  10).  With  the  Abra.xas-shield 
are  also  found  the  divine  naiiK'S  Sabaoth  lao,  lao 
Abrasax,  Adonai  Abrasax,  etc.  (Baudixsin.  "Studien 
7,ur  Somitischen  Religion.sgeschichte,"  i.  189  et  Keq.). 
All  these  stones  are  used  as  amulets,  and  they  furni.sh 
indisputable  evidence  of  Jewish  influence  over  the 
views  of  heathen  nations  of  antiipiity.  The  magic 
jiapyri  reflect  the  same  iileas  as  the  Abraxas-gems. 
The  following  example  will  stdlice:  "lao  Sabaoth, 
Adonai  .  .  .  Abrasax"  (Wessely.  "Neue  Zaiiber- 
papyri,"  p.  27,  No.  22i):  see  the  index).  In  the 
group  "lakoubia,  laosabaoth  Adonai  Abrasax" 
(ibid.  p.  44,  No.  715),  the  first  name  .seems  to  be 
composed  of  Jacob  and  Ya.  The  patiiarchs  are 
sometimes  addressed  asdi'ities:  for  which  fact  many 
instances  may  be  adduced.  The  magic  word  "Ab- 
lanathanalba, "  which  reads  in  Greek  the  same  back- 
ward as  forward,  also  occurs  in  the  Abraxas-stones  as 
well  as  in  the  magic  papj-ri.     This  word  is  usually 


conceded  to  be  derived  from  the  Hebrew  (Ara- 
maic), meaning  "Thou  art  our  father"  (ns  p  3t<), 
and  also  occurs  in  connection  with  Abraxas;  ilio 
following  inscription  is  found  upon  a  metal  plate  in 
the  Carlsriihe  .Museum. 

ABPA2AH 

II  BAANAG 

ANAAEA 

It  is  evident  that  the  last  two  lines  ought  to  be 
read  Ablanathanalba,  which  Baiulissin  (/.c  202)  has 
overkioked.  From  the  examples  adduced  it  is  evi- 
dent that  Abraxas  probably  means  "  holy  name," 
•seeing  that  it  is  often  attached  to  divine  appella- 
tions. It  does  not  seem  to  be  of  Hebrew  origin,  as 
there  is  no  possible  derivation  or  etymology  for  it 
(a  fact  which  in  itsi'lf  would  be  remarkable  in  view 
of  the  imchanged  adojition  of  the  names  Adonai, 
Sabaoth,  Kloe,  and  lao),  nor  has  it  maintained  it- 
self in  Jewish  lore,  while  names  of  God  jday  as  im- 
portant a  imrt  in  Jewish  mysticism  as  they  do  in 
Gnostic-heathen-Jewish  magic,  the  most  imp<irtant 
testimonies  to  which  are  the  magic  jiapyri.  There 
is  not  a  single  reliable  instance  of  DSDt^X  or  DD313K 
occurriiigin  Hebrew.  Schwab,  in  his  "  Vocabulaire 
de  I'Aiigelologie,"  under  JJ10X  Abragag  ( =  .\bra- 
.sax),  refers  to  "  Sefer  Raziel."  37/(;  un<ler  bsDISS  h(! 
refers  to  the  article  TX',  where  also  there  is  nolhing 
more  than  a  reference  to  "Raziel"  (7(')  astain.  In 
Gaster,  "The  Swonl  of  Closes"  (London,"  1«9G) ,  on 
p. 8,  No.  C,  among  certain  unintelligible  magic  groups 
of  letters,  DD33X  is  found,  which  Gaster  emends 
DDSIDS-  .\sthe  olilerand  much  more  fre<iuent  form 
of  the  word  is  Abriusax,  this  emendation  is  certainly 
a  hazardous  one. 

BlBMOCRAPIiv  ;  Dareruberg  and  SaGlio.  DU-lUnntairc  I'liiver- 
scl  ihs  Anti([Hitrs  (iVfcqucs  ft  Ui'iniiiu' .•^, '.iil  eij.,  iK'^l.s.v. 
.llirit!<n.r:  Ilerzoir.  Pri>tfst(tiili.-<r}it  li'iih  nrtiKlttiti'iilit  ,:{<teit.. 
IS^N",;  I'jiiilv-Wis.'iiiwii.  ltc(tlriicukl"l"'lili':  ilrr  Kht.<'<i.'<clicn 
AtlertlninisiiiKsnisrliaft,  vol.  1.  Sluttirart,  ISiM:  llllircnfelil, 
Kctznwscli..  pp.  U)7  (7  st'i/.  On  Atiraxas-penis  sc*-  espe- 
cially Kopp.  I'al'Viinrnphki  Critk-n,  vols.  111.  and  Iv.  (Maiin- 
lielm.  lS27-2i») ;  Kiii(r,  The  frtiosticsantl  their  JicmttinK.  htm- 
den.  24l  ed.,  lH.*i7,  an<I  Ibe  lltemttire  given  Ity  Jacobs,  ilnil. 
pp.  4.'>1-4;V>. 

L.  B.-K. 

ABRECH.— Biblical  Data:  The  iirodamation 
of  the  eiieis  on  the  approach  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xli. 
43).  It  lias  lieen  variously  explained.  Some  favor 
an  Egyptian  origin,  others  a  Semitic  one.  Jewish 
commentators  derive  it  from  Iniriik  (to  bend  the 
knee)  and  recognize  in  it  a  hijihil  formation.  The 
general  opinion  of  scholars  at  present  is  in  favor  of 
Semitic  origin.  Dclitzsch  ("  Hebrew  Language,"  p. 
25)  refers  it  to  the  Assyrian  abnnd-kit  (a  titled  person- 
age),  which  has  much  in  its  favor.  The  El-Amarna 
tablets  prove  the  possibility  of  a  .Semitic  w:)rd  find- 
iuir  its  wav  into  Eirvpt  at  an  earlv  date. 

G.  B.  L. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  The  term  Abreeh, 

which  occurs  only  once  in  the  Scriptures,  engaged  the 
attention  of  the  rabbis  from  an  early  date.  The  fol- 
lowing two  explanations  were  given  in  the  miildleof 
the  second  century  of  the  common  era  :  Judali  b.  Ilai 
considered  Abreeh  asacimipound  of  3X  (fatlier)  and 
■]T  (tender),  anil  explained  Josejib's  title  to  mean 
one  who  is  a  father  in  wisdom  but  young  in  years. 
This  explanation  was  held  by  Judah's  contemi)0- 
rary,  Jose,  "son  of  a  woman  (jf  Damascus,"  to  be  a 
jM'rversion  of  words.  According  to  Jose,  Abreeh  is 
identical  with  the  title  "  Alabarchos,"  given  to  the 
head  of  the  Jews  in  FJgypt  (Sifre,  Dent.  i. ;  Mek.  on 
Dent.  i.  1. published  b\'  Hoffmann  in  the  Hildesheimer 
"  Jubelschrift."  Hebrew  part,  p.  5).  Despite  the  op- 
position to  it,  Judah's  explanation  prevailed  among 
the  Jews  (see  Gen.  R.  xc.  3).     Urigen  and  Jerome,  in 


131 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abraxas 
Abrogation  of  Latvs 


their  tiiiiiiMciitaiics  ou  tlic  word,  doubtless  obtained 
JiKlah's  e.\|ilaiiati(jn  from  tlieir  .lewisli  teaehers, 
tlioiij^li  ()rij;cn  sii])|ilements  liis  remarks  by  saying 
that  Abreeli  is  to  be  literally  rendered  as  ■jinmruew 
(bending  of  the  linee).  This  view  is  advocated  by 
Jcwisli  grammarians  from  tlie  time  of  Jonali  ibn 
Giinah.  An  interpretation  dilTerent  fiom  tlie  fore- 
going.which  isof  Palestinian  origin,  islhat  given  by 
Babylonian  scholars,  who  exjilain  the  word  as  being 
a  compound  of  "ab"  (father)  and  "rak"  (Old  Per 
»ian  (irjiikii  =  kin.g),  siirnifving  "  father  of  the  king  " 
(B.  B.  4'/;  Targ.  U.,  targ."Ycr.  iitl  lor.).  The  Baby- 
lonian etymology  is  followed  by  Peshito  as  well  as 
by  the  Arabic  translator,  both  rendering  the  word 
"  fatherand  ruler".(.see  Brllll,  in  Oeiger's  "JiUl.  Zeit." 
iii.  2S1  ctudi.;  Ginzberg,  in  "  Moiiats-schrift."  1S99. 
xliii.  ri|."ii  L    (!. 

ABREST,  PAUL  D'  (  pen  name  of  FRIED- 
RICH  KOHNABREST)  :  .lournalist;  born  at 
Prague.  \<i^^ .  diiil  at  \cislau.  near  Vienna,  iu  July. 
lN!i:!.  lli-rcccivcd  liiseihnation  al  the  Lycce  Bona- 
parte in  Paris,  and  on  its  completion  he  devoted  him- 
self to  journalism,  lie  was  a  fre()\icnt  contributor  to 
"Le  Petit  Journal."  "LaVerite."  "  l.e  Happel,"  "Le 
Siede."  and  "  L'Independancc  Beige."  Later  lie 
became  corresjiondent  of  the  "Temiis  "  at  Vienna, 
at  the  same  time  contributing  to  Austrian  and  Hun- 
garian journals.  During  the  Ru.ssoTurkish  war  he 
represcnii-d  the  "  Siecle  "  ;  and  afterward,  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  French  government.  In-  went  to  Bosnia 
to  investigate  tlie  economic  con<lition  of  that  coun- 
trv.  Besides  his  articles,  several  collections  of 
which  have  appeared  in  book  form,  Abrest  wrote: 
"  Vienne  sous  Pram/ois  Joseph."  a  "  Life  of  General 
Hoelie."  anil  a  history  of  the  opera. 
IlllilIOdliAPiiv  :  .JrwMi  Chniniclr.  Ainnist  \.  IKS!,  |).  li. 

B.  B. 

ABROGATION  OF  LAWS:  In  Dcut.  .xiii.  1 
(.\ii.  ;W,  A.V.).Mo.scs  is  described  a.s  saying:  "What 
tiling  soever  I  command  you.  ob.serve  to  do  it :  thou 
Shalt  not  add  thiTclo,  nor"iliminish  from  it."  Taking 
this  injunction  literally,  the  Sadducees,  and  later  the 
Karaites,  rejicted  the  ralibiiiical  development  of  Ju- 
daism, as  additions  to  ami  moditications  of  the  Mo- 
saic laws.  But  the  injunction  could  not  have  fiicant 
that  for  all  future  time,  without  regard  to  varying 
cireunistances.  not  the  least  alteration  or  modilica- 
lion  should  be  made  in  the  ndigious  and  civil  laws 
establislnd  for  the  people  of  Israel. 

The  ancient  rabbis  claimed  authority,  not  only  to 
nijike  new  provisions  and  to  establish  institutions 
as  a  ■'  hedge  "  for  the  protection  of  the 
Rabbinical  Biblical  laws,  but  under  cerlain  cir- 
Authority.  euinstances  even  to  suspend  and  to  ab- 
rogate a  Biblical  law.  They  derived 
Ihis  authority  from  the  passage  in  Dent,  .x'vii.  8-11. 
in  which  mention  is  made  of  a  supreme  court  con- 
sisting of  priests.  Levites,  and  "the  jud.ire  that  shall 
Ih'  In  those  days."  Doubtful  (|Uestions  of  law  were 
to  lie  brought  Iwforc  this  court,  and  unconditional 
olxdicnce  to  this  supreme  authority  in  all  religious, 
civil,  and  criminal  matters  is  emphatically  enjoined 
in  the  words: 

"  Acronlliiit  til  tlie  law  wlilili  llifv  sliiill  li-mli  tlipo.  ami  no- 
ronllnRtotlic  Juiluineiii  wlili-li  ttieysimll  Ii-ll  lliii'.  tliouslmit  iln; 
ttwiii  sliiilt  not  ili.|»irt  fnini  tlie  wont  whii-li  llicy  may  ti-ll  thee. 

lothiTlKlllnrt.ithe  Ifft." 

In  iifcrenee  to  this,  Maimonides  tt-achcs  in  his 
celebrated  code  "Ililkot  Mamrim,"  I.  1: 

"  Fmm  the  Sanlieilrin  in  .Icnisiilcin,  law  anil  flivtston  mIiouIiI 
SO  iiirth  1.1  III!  Nnii'l.  WhulcviT  li  lauk'lil  rlllirr  ils  tniilltli.u  c.r 
hy  tnteriinuillc.il  mwrilliii,' to  thf  liiTiiieni'uMi-  nile.s  or  wliat- 
pvi>r  It  I'liaiteil  luwrtlliiK  u>  the  e.\l(fi.|iilc,s  i.f  the  tliiie.  inu>I  W 
obeyed. ' 


"  A  later  court  has  a  right  to  reject  a  decision 
based  on  the  interpretation  of  a  former  though 
higher  court,  for  .Scrijiture  says:  'Go  to  the  juilge 
wlio  will  be  in  those  days,'  meaning,  you  shall  go 
according  to  the  authority  of  your  own  time"  {iUd. 
ii.  1) .     And  again : 

"  Any  rell(?loas  court  [kol  het  din]  has  the  power  to  set  ajiide 
even  a  liililli'al  law  a.*  a  leniporarv  iiiea.'.ure.  If  thev  tlnil  It 
ni>i-i->snry  to  su.siicnd  for  the  tiiiu-  hi-inn  an  injnnctidn.  or  to 
[leniiii  one  to  art  against  a  prohii.itifni  in  onliT  to  liriiiu'  the 
Tna,s.-ii-s  hark  to  the  Tonih,  or  in  onler  to  ini-vcnl  a  irrnili-r  i-vil, 
lliosi'  in  autliority  may  do  an-onlintr  to  the  e.Nit'encvof  the  t line. 
Jnst  as  a  physielan  Is  soniethiies  i'oni|>e||e(l  loanipntat.-  tire  lijnl) 
of  a  patient  in  order  to  save  his  lite  and  iieneial  health,  .so  those 
in  authority  [liet  dinl  may  at  any  timedeeree  tlie  i.inpor-.irv  sus- 
pension of  some  laws  In  order  to  secure  the  fullllinenl  of  the 
reliifious  law  in  Keiieral  "  {ilnil.  ii.  4). 

Allliough  Maimonides  here  refers  only  to  the  right 
of  temporarily  suspending  a  law,  there  are  cases 
mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  as  will  be  seen  later,  in 
which  a  Biblical  law  was  entirely  abrogated.  Be- 
sides, the  simile  used  by  Maimoiiidcs  in  the  passage 
just  (|iioted  applies  rather  to  the  abrogation  than 
to  the  lemporary  suspension  of  a  law:  for  the  am- 
putation of  a  limb  to  .save  the  life  and  health  of  the 
patient  is  not  a  mere  temporary  separation. 

The  Talmud  contains  the  following  maxims  by 

which  the  religious  authorities  of  various  periods 

were    guided    in    abrogalinir    certain 

Talmudic  laws;  "The  abrogation  of  a  law  is 
View.  sometimes  ef|uivalcnt  to  the  niaiiile- 
nanceof  the  law  ";  that  is.  to  .seta  law 
aside  is  sometimes  as  meritorious  as  to  establish  it 
(Jlen.  99i).  "It  is  better  that  a  single  law  be  up- 
rooted than  that  the  whole  Torah  be  forgotten" 
(Tcm.  Wi) .  "There  are  times  when  the  duty  of 
working  for  the  glory  of  God  re(|iiires  the  abolition 
of  a  law  "  (Ber.  Mn  aiid  (3*0-  "The  court  [the  relig- 
ious authority]  may.  under  circumstances,  decree 
to  ujiroot  a  iiositivc  law  of  the  Bible"  (Veb.  8%). 
In  citing  some  cxamphs  of  suspension  and  of  abro- 
gation of  Mosaic  laws  in  different  periods,  one  may 
be  recorded  from  the  Bible.  According  to  I  Kings, 
xviii.  Jil,  the  prophet  Elijah  ofTered  a.sacrilice  upon 
the  altar  erected  on  .Mount  Carmel.  This  was  in 
conlravcntion  of  the  law  in  Dcut.  xii.  Hi.  which 
forbade  the  olTering  of  sacritices  outside  of  the  cen- 
tral sanctuary.  The  rabbis  defend  the  act  of  the 
luophet  on  the  ground  that  il  was  a  temporary 
measure  neces-sitated  by  the  circumstances  (Yeb. 
90/-) . 

Of  more  importance  are  the  following  cases  of 
the  abrogation  of  a  Biblical  law  as  stated  in  the 
Talmud:  Ezra  (according  to  Yeb.  H6/i,  Hid.  131//) 
decreed  that  the  lirst  tithe  should  be  given  to  the 
priests,  contrary  to  the  Mosaic  Law  in  Xum.  xviii. 
21.  which  ordained  that  lliey  should  lie  given  to  the 
Levites.  In  consci|iience  of  this  abrogation  another 
law  had  to  be  abrogated,  namely,  that  which  re- 
ferred to  the  solemn  profession  which,  according  to 
Dent.  xxvi.  13-l."i,  every  farmer  had  to  make  annu- 
ally ill  the  Temple;  for  the  pas.sage  in  this  confes- 
sion. "  have  given  it  [the  tithes]  to  the  Levile," 
could  not  aiiv  longer  be  said  in  truth  (.Sotah,  4iA, 
after  Toscf..  "Sotah.xiii.  Id). 

Hillcl  the  Elder  enacted  a  measure,  termed  Plios- 
lit'L,    which  was  tantamount  to  an   abrogation  of 
the  Biblical  law  in  Dent.  xv.  2.  con- 
The  Pros-    cerniiig  the  ridea.se  from  debt  in  the 
bul.  Sabbaiical   year.     Finding   that    this 

law. which  was  intended  to  benetit  the 
poor,  proved  in  the  course  of  time  nillier  a  disad- 
vantage to  them,  as  no  one  was  willing  to  li'iid  then) 
money  lest  he  lose  bis  claim  at  the  approach  of  the 
Sabbatical  year,  llillel.  by  virtue  of  his  authority  as 
head  of  the  Sanhedriu,  caused  a  law  to  be  euuctcd 


Abrogation 
Absalom 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


132 


by  wliicli  till'  creditor  oniilil  tmnsfer  the  debt  to  the 
court  in  wriliii;;.  so  tlml  tli<'  hitter  might  collect  it 
iu  spite  of  the  Siibbiiticul  year  (Mishimh  Slieb.  x.  3, 
4).     See  Accommodation  ok  tiik  Law. 

While  the  Sabbatical  year,  especially  in  so  far  as 

it  concerned  the  fallow  land  (I-cv.  xxv.  3-7),  was 

striclly  observed  during  the  period  of 

Discon-       tlie  second  Temple,  and  even  after  its 
tinuance  of  destruction,  there  is  no  historical  rec- 

Jubilee.  ord  of  the  observance  of  the  jubilee 
year  as  ordained  in  Lev.  xxv,  S-1'2. 
Accordin.5  to  the  Talmud  (Ar.  S'ih).  the  observance 
of  the  juViilc'C  ceased  from  the  tim<'  when  the  tribes 
of  Keuben  and  (Jad  and  the  halftribe  (pf  Manasseh 
were  carried  otT  by  the  kinjr  of  Assyria.  The  Tal- 
mud justities  the  abrojration  of  this  I>il)lical  insti- 
tution by  a  rather  loo  literal  interpretation  of  the 
words  in  the  law  conceruiri!;-  the  jubih'c  year:  "  And 
ye  shall  proclaim  liberty  llirimghout  the  land  unto 
111!  the  inhabitants  thereof";  only  when  all  the  in- 
habitants were  in  the  land  was  the  jubilee  to  be 
observed,  but  not  when  some  tribes  were  exiled 
from  it  ('Ar,  ibid.).  The  abrogation  of  other  Bib- 
lical laws  on  accoiuit  of  chaiiL'ed  circumstances  is 
ascribed  to  Ral)bi  Johanan  luii  Zakkai.  as  the  abro- 
gation of  the  water  of  thv  ordeal,  ordained  in  Nimi. 
v.  11-31  for  the  trial  of  a  woman  suspected  of  adul- 
tery (Sotah,  ix.  9) ,  and  the  alirogalion  of  the  solemn 
rite  of  expiation  (Eglah  'Arufali)  for  a  murder  the 
l)erpetrator  of  which  is  unknown,  as  ordained  in 
Dent,  xxi.  1-9  (To.sef..  Sotah,  xiv.  1  and  ihiil.). 

In  consequence  of  the  destruction  of  the  Second 
Temple  by  the  Romans  numerous  laws  were  sus- 
pended, especially  the  .sacrificial  laws 

After  and  most  of  the  laws  concerning  Le- 

the Second  vilical  unelcanliness  and  purification. 
Temple.  The  Sauhcdrin  of  .Tabueli,  on  the  mo- 
tion of  Riibbi  Joshua  ben  Hananiah, 
permitted  an  Ammonite  to  enter  the  Jewish  congre- 
gation of  Israel,  thus  actually  abrogating  the  Hiblical 
law  in  Deut.  xxiii.  4  [A.  V.  3]:  "An  Anuuonite  shall 
not  enter  into  the  congregation  of  the  Lord."  The 
reason  for  setting  this  Biblical  law  aside  was  that  it 
was  claimed  by  the  rabbis  that ,  in  consequence  of  the 
conquest  of  the  land  of  the  Anuuonites  by  Sennache- 
rib, the  rer.l  descendants  of  that  nation  could  not  with 
certainty  be  identified  (Jlishnah  Yad.  iv.  4).  In 
connection  with  the  above-mentioneil  cases  in  which 
Biblical  laws  were  abrogated,  the  following  one  may 
here  be  referred  to;  though  it  does  not  concern  any 
express  Biblical  law.  it  deals  with  one  which  was 
considered  to  have  a  Biblical  basis.  For  many  cen- 
turies it  was  regarded  as  a  transgression  of  the  Law 
to  commit  the  traditional  law  to  writing;  it  was  to 
be  transmitted  only  from  mouth  to  mouth,  and  was 
therefore  called  the  oral  law,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  written  Law  contained  in  the  Pentateuch. 
The  purpose  of  this  i>rohibition  was  probably  that 
the  traditional  law  should  not  be  regarded  as  of 
equal  sanctity  with  the  Law  of  Moses.  A  Biblical 
basis  for  this  prohibition  was  found  in  the  passage 
of  Ex.  xxxiv.  27;  "  Write  thou  these  words,"  etc.  By 
emphasizing  the  word  "these"  the  passage  was  in- 
terpreted to  mean :  "  Only  these  words  (of  the  divine 
Law)  you  may  write,  but  not  the  traditional  law." 
Nevertheless,  when  in  the  course  of  time  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  oral  law  had  acciunulated  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  became  almost  impo.ssible  to  preserve 
it  by  oral  transmission,  it  was  written  down  in  the 
>Iishnah  and  kindred  works  ;  and  the  abrogation  of 
the  prohibition  so  long  regarded  as  Biblical  is  justi- 
fied in  the  Talmud  by  a  reference  to  the  principle: 
"  It  is  better  that  one  law  be  set  aside  rather  than  that 
the  whole  Law  be  forgotten"  (Tem.  144). 


As  regards  the  abrogation  of  rabbinical  laws,  cus 
toms,  and  institution,s,  the  following  princii>les  are 
laid  down  in  the  Talmud:    "A  later 
Abrogative  court  [that  is,  an  authoritative  assem- 
Power  of     biy  of  scholars]  may  abrogate  the  de- 
Later         cision  of  a  former  court  oidy  when  it 
Courts.        is  superior  in  learning  and  in  num- 
bers" (Mishnah  'Kduy.  i.  ."d.    "A  pro- 
hibition passed  by  a  majority  of  votes  recpiires  for 
its  abrogation  another  majority  of  votes"  (Be7.ah. 
.%).     "We  must  not  impose  on  the  community  a 
restriction  which  the  majority  can  not  endure  "  ('Ab. 
Zarah,  'M'xi) .     In  accordance  with  these  |)rinciples 
and  their  actual  application  in  cases  mentioned  in 
the  Talnuid.  Maimonides  formulates  in  his  code  the 
following  rules: 

1.  Laws  and  customs,  whether  prohibitory  or 
mandatory,  if  cstaljlished  by  a  former  authority  and 
generally  accepted  in  all  Israel,  may  only  be  abro- 
gated by  a  later  assend)ly  that  is  superior  to  the 
former,  both  in  learning  and  in  numbi-r.  By  the  lat- 
ter term  is  meant  the  number  of  contemporaneous 
.scholars endorsing  the  authority  and  the  decision  of 
that  assembly. 

2.  Kestrictive  mea.sures,  however,  which  were  en- 
acted by  a  former  authority  as  a  necessary  "hedge" 
to  ]>rotect  the  Torali,and  which  have  been  accepted 
in  all  Israel,  may  not  be  abrogated  by  a  subsequent 
though  higher  authority. 

3.  If  it  is  found  that  such  laws  are  not  as  gener- 
ally acceiited  or  as  generally  tolerable  as  was  for- 
merly supjiosed.  a  later  though  inferior  a.ssi'mbly 
may  abrogate  them. 

4.  Every  law,  however,  may  be  set  aside  tempo- 
nirily  by  a  minor  authority,  when  it  is  necessary 
for  the  maintenance  of  religion  in  general  ("Hilkot 
Mamrim,"  ii.  2-7) . 

Jlention  may  liere  be  made  of  cases  where  the 
motives  which  had  caused  the  enactment  of  a  law 
have  ceased  to  ojierjite.  According  to  Maimonidcs 
even  such  a  law  can  be  abrogated  only  by  an  as- 
sembly of  superior  authority:  while,  according  to 
Abraham  ben  David,  the  celebrated  critic  of  Mni- 
monides'  code,  and  according  to  Asheri  and  others, 
the  abrogation  of  stich  a  law  can  be  decided  by 
any  rabbinical  assembly,  though  it  be  of  lesser  au- 
thority than  that  which  ha<l  enacted  the  law.  Dur- 
ing the  Jliddle  Ages  and  down  to  the  last  century 
the  religious  leaders  in  Israel  kept  within  the  limits 
of  the  above-stated  rules  regarding  the  Abroga- 
tion of  Ijaws.  In  the  seclusion  of  their  ghetto  life, 
and  under  the  ojipression  and  ]iersecution  which 
they  liad  to  endure,  the  Jews  felt  neither  the  neces- 
sity nor  the  desire  to  abrogate  any  of  the  sacred 
laws  and  customs  inherited  from  their  forefathers. 
The  teaehei's  were  in  general  inclined  rather  to 
increase  than  to  diminish  the  burden  of  the  law. 
From  the  time,  however,  when  in  most 
Modem  of  the  civili/ed  countries  the  Jewsbe- 
Times.  gan  toenjoy  the  bles.singsof  emancipa- 
tion and  to  [larlicipatc  in  the  modern 
culture  of  the  world,  the  necessity  for  abrogating 
some  of  their  ancestral  laws  and  customs  which 
were  not  compatible  with  their  new  circumstances 
became  more  and  more  apparent.  Not  having,  as 
heretofore,  their  own  judicature,  the  civil  law  of 
the  Pentateuch,  so  elaborately  developed  in  the 
Talmud  and  in  the  rabbinical  codes,  w:ls  of  neces- 
sity set  aside.  In  this  respect  even  the  most  con- 
servative willingly  acquiesced  in  its  abrogation,  fol- 
lowing the  princi|)le  laid  down  by  Saiuuel,  one  of 
the  most  prominent  teachers  in  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century,  (liiin  di-innlkntu  (Una  ("the  civil  law 
of  the  land  in  which  we  live  is  our  law,"  Git.  104). 


133 


THE  JEWISH   ENCY(  l.ol'KDlA 


Abrogation 
Absalom 


Jinny  of  the  ritual  and  ceremonial  laws  and  customs 
fell  <if  themselves  into  disuse;  olliers  «erc  either 
abolished  or  modified  l)y  the  various  nibl)inical  con- 
ferences held  durinj;  the  last  half  century  in  (id- 
many  and  in  th('  L'nited  States.  The  authority  (jf 
these  conferences  has  tjcen  recognized  by  the  re 
fonn  Jews  only.     See  Conkkuexces,  R.xiiiii.Nic.vi,. 

BriiLIOfiRAPnv  :  I).  Hpr.\lielmpr  In  (ielper's  Witwiimeli.  Ziil. 
till-  Jlhl.  TliioliifiU;  n.  SilW^.');  I..  l.«ew,  a<niimniiH, 
Sihrifltn,  I.  1'>--1I;  Sti'lnsctineldur,  l'ulcini.iclic  iiiui  Aimln- 
i;((i«/it  LiUrutur,  pp.  Sii,  SSi. 

M.    M. 

ABSALOM  ('The  Fat  li<r  of  Pence  '').— Biblical 
Data:  'I'hinl  son  of  Kin;;  David,  born  in  lliliron 
in  the  early  years  of  that  l<inf;'s  reij;n.  His  motlier, 
Maachali,  was  the  dauybter  of  Talniai,  Uini;  of 
GeshurdI  Sam,  iii,  :i;  11  Sam.  .\iii.  JiT;  IC'hion.  iii,  2). 

Absidom  appears  as  llu'  avenger  of  his  sister  Ta- 
inar,  who  hail  been  entrapped,  outra,se(l,  and  shame- 
fully cast  aside  by  her  half  brotlier  Amnon.  David's 
eldest  .son.  Ilavin.g  heard  of  the  crime,  the  king  was 
greatly  irrilaled,  but  he  had  not  the  courage  to 
punish  .Vnuion,  on  aecoimt  of  his  love  for  his  first- 
born.  The  vi<-lim  scnight  refuge  in  the  house  of  .\b- 
salom,  who  adviseil  lier  to  bear  the  insult  in  silence. 
Ab.salom  himself  did  not  at  lirst  resent  it  ollierwi.se 
than  by.systennilieally  ignoring  Amnon  (II  Sam.  .\iii. 
1-22),  but  on  the  occasion  of  a  banciuet  two  years 
later,  at  which  all  David's  sons  were  present,  Ab- 
salom's servants,  at  the  command  of  their  master, 
fell  upon  Anmon  and  slew  him  (H  Sam.  .\iii.  2:i-8;i). 
The  other  sons  of  David  hurried  back  to  Jerusalem, 
when^'a  rnnior  had  alri-ady  spreail  tliat  Absalom  bad 
killed  all  bis  l)rotliers;  and  the  king  deeply  nLoiiriicd 
over  the  death  of  Amnon.  As  for  Absalom,  he  lli'd 
to  Talmai,  his  grandfather,  in  Geshur,  and  remained 
there  three  years  (II  Sam.  xiii.  3;!-;W) . 

Hut  soon  David  longed  to  see  Ab.salom,  and  Joab, 
David's  nephew,  moved  by  s^'mpathy  for  the  mur- 
derer, availed  himself  of  this  ojiportunily  to  jier- 
suadi!  the  king  to  recall  Abs;dom.  David  eonsenled, 
and  Joab  went  to  Geshur  and  brought  Absalom  to 
Jerusalem,  where  he  was  restored  to  his  house  and 


Atisiileiii  i'tiiitflit  In  H  Tree, 

m  th-  Vl.Miih  "  YMlfpon,"  nnh,  !:*■*.» 


is  represented  as  a  handsome  and  full-grown  man. 
His  beauty,  in  combination  with  au  amiable  dispo- 
.sition,  rendered  him  popular  among  the  people,  and 
he  took  advantage  of  this  popularity  to  strengthen 


family,  but  was  gninted  no  prtvilepi'S  of  rank  at 
court.  Through  the  intluence  of  Joab  a  reimi 
rilialion  liilween  falh<r  and  son  was  brought 
about  (II  Sam.  xiv.  1-2-t).     At  Ibis  time  .\bs-dom 


The  Traditional  Tomb  <it  .\b.^luiu. 

(From  a  photograph.) 

his  ow  n  position  and  to  arouse  dissatisfaction  with 
David  (iliitl.  S.")-;!.")).  Absidom  asked  his  father's 
leave  to  go  to  Hebron,  and  he  used  the  opportunity 
to  cncoura.ire  a  rebc'llion  against  David  (II  Sam.  .\v. 
1-0),  Ahithophel.  David's  counselor,  joined  Absii- 
lom,  w  bile  Joab  remained  f.'nlhful  to  David.  The 
rebellion  assumed  such  large  pro)iortions  as  to  oblige 
I  )avid  lo  leave  Jerusalem  and  seek  refuge  beyond  the 
JoitD.vN.  Absalom  entered  Jerusalem,  anil,  on  the 
advice  of  Ahithophel,  ajipropriated  the  harem  of 
David  as  a  symbol  of  havin.ir  entered  upon  royal 
eonlrol  (II  Sam.  .\v.  10-.\vi.  2;l). 

.Miilhophel  proposed  to  pui-sue  David  with  12,0(M) 
pieked  soldiers  and  to  brin.s  back  to  Absalom  all 
llie  people  lliat  had  tied  with  David.  This  plan 
was  fnislralid  by  Ilusliai.  who  counseled  thai  all 
Israel  be  galhired  from  Dan  lo  Hier  sheba.  unto 
Absalom,  and  that  the  latter  shoiilil  then  go  to  bat- 
tle in  Ins  own  person  (II  Sam.  .wii.  7-13).  It  is 
verv  likelv  thai,  during  this  inlcrval,  Absidom  was 
anoinled  Iking  (II  Sam.  .\ix.  11).  I?ul  the  delay 
gave  David  lime  to  reach  the  Jordan  unmolesled 
and  also  In  slreiiglheii  his  army.  AVhile  the  king 
himself  remained  in  Mahanaim  he  sent  forth  his 
warriors  divided  into  I  line  columns  (II  Sam.  xviii. 
II).  The  eneounliT  took  place  in  the  forest  of 
Kplimim.  Absidom  was  defeated,  and  while  lie  wii.s 
llei  iiig  through  Hie  forest  his  long  hair  was  caught 
ill  the  bnmches  of  a  tree.  One  of  Joab's  men  fouiul 
hiiii  siispeiidid   from  the  tree  and   nporled  the  fuel 


Absalom 
Abstinence 


THE  .IKWISII  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


134 


to  Joab.  who  thrust  thri-c  darts  through  the  lieart 
<.f  tile  rcliclliDUS  iirinrc.  The  death  (if  Alisaloni  put 
an  end  to  thf  rolKllinn.  Arciuilinir  to  II  Sam.  xviii. 
:W.  xi.v.  1-5.  Diivids  mourning  WHS  groaliT  for  Al)- 
sjiloin  than  for  Ainnou.     Sue  Ahs.m.om's  'I'omh. 

II.  II. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  The  life  and  death 

of  Al)salcini  olli  led  lo  llie  i'alil)is  a  welcome  tlieme 
wherewith  to  warn  the  |>eople  against  false  ambition, 
vuinglorv,  and  unlilial  eonduet.  The  vanity  with 
which  lie   displayed  his  beautiful  hair,  the  rabbis 


(Niddah,  34A).  Indeed,  "hell  itself  opened  beneath 
him,  and  David,  his  father.  <ried  s<>ven  limes:  'My 
s<m!  my  son  I  '  while  bewailing  Ins  death,  praying  at 
the  sjime  time  for  his  redemption  from  the  seventh 
section  of  Gehenna,  to  whiili  he  was  consigned" 
(Sotah.  1(1/0.  .\eeording  to  U.  .Mc-ir (Saidi.  Ur.Vi).  "he 
has  no  share  in  the  life  to  come."  .Vnd  according 
to  till-  description  of  (Jchcnna  by  .loshua  bcii  I.evi, 
who,  like  Dant<',  wandered  through  hell  under  the 
guidance  of  the  angel  Duma,  Absalom  still  dwells 
there,  having  the  rebellious  heathen  in  charge;  and 


ruADITIONAL   TOMB   OF   .\HS.\I.OM,   SHOWINti    ITS  POSITION   NKAB  TIIK   WaI.I.  I)K  JKRCSAI-SM. 

(I-"r'iiii  r\  [ihiitovTrii.h.) 


say,  became  his  snare  and  his  stumbling-block. 
"By  his  long  hair  the  Xazarite  entangled  the  people 
to  rebel  against  his  father,  and  by  it  lie  liiiiiself  lie- 
came  entangled,  to  fall  a  victim  to  his  pursuers" 
(Misliiiah  Sdtali.  i.  S).  And  again,  elsewhere:  "  By  his 
vileslralagem  he  deceived  and  stole  three  hearts,  that 
of  his  father,  of  the  elders,  and  finally  of  the  whole 
nation  of  Israel,  and  for  this  reason  three  darts  were 
thrust  into  his  lieart  to  end  his  treacherous  life" 
(Tosef.,  Sotah,  iii.  17).  More  striking  is  the  follow- 
ing: "Did  one  ever  liear  of  an  oak-tree  having  a 
heart?  .Vnd  yet  in  the  oak-tree  in  whose  branches 
Alisijlom  was  caught,  we  read  that  ujioii  its  heart  he 
was  held  iiji  still  alive  while  the  darts  were  thrust 
through  him  [Mek.,  Shirah.  t;6].  This  is  to  show  that 
when  a  man  becomes  so  heartless  as  to  make  war 
against  his  own  father,  nature  itself  takes  on  a  heart 
to  avenge  the  deed." 

Popular  legend  states  that  the  eye  of  Absalom 
was  of  immense  size,  signifying  his  insatiable  greed 


HIBI.IOOHAPIIV:   Ma'iisHli  de-Ralilil  Jnsliua  In 
nek's  lilt  lin-Miilmsh.  II.  M.  r,\. 


when  the  angels  with  their  liery  rods  run  also 
against  Absalom  to  smite  him  like  the  rest,  a  heav- 
enly voice  savs:  "Spare  Absalom,  the  son  of  David, 
.My  servant." 

•n  I,i'vi.  in  .lolll- 
K. 

ABSALOM'S  TOMB :  A  tomb  twenty  feet  high 
and  1  wiiily  four  feel  siniare.  which  late  tradition 
points  out  as  the  resting-place  of  Absalom.  It  is 
situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  valley  of  Kidron, 
to  the  east  of  Jerusalem.  In  all  probability  it  is  the 
tomb  of  Alexander  .lann.Tus  (Conder.  in  Hastings' 
"Diet.  Bible,  "article  ".Jerusalem."  p.  .597).  It  existed 
in  the  days  of  .Joseidius  ("Ant."  vii.  10,  §  3).  See 
illustrations  on  pp.  133,  134. 
HiBLlOGRAPiiv  :  Sepp,  JcnimUm.  i,  376-278. 

G.  B.  L. 

ABSALOM  ('AV'<)?.w/iof):   One  of  the  five  sons  of 
John  Ilyrcanus.  who  was  thrown  into  prison  with 


135 


THE  JEWISH    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Absalom 
Abstinence 


his  mollicr  aiul  two  of  liis  brothers  when  Judas 
Aristobulus  aseeudcd  the  Ilasiiioiican  throne  (10") 
ii.(-.).  However,  after  a  year's  siillerinjr,  the  king's 
death  released  him.  His  brotlier,  Alexander  Jan- 
na'us,  then  assumed  tlie  royal  dii;nily,  and  eavised 
the  execution  of  another  brotlier,  who  had  aimed  at 
the  crown,  while  Ab.sjdom,  who  preferred  the  life 
of  a  sid)ject,  lie  covered  with  honors.  Nolhinj;  more 
is  known  concerning  Absalom's  career,  except  that 
he  outliveil  all  his  brothers,  and  was  taken  prisoner 
by  Fonipey  when  he  captured  Jerusalem  in  63  li.c. 
Through  his  daughter,  who  married  his  nephew 
Aristoliulus  II.,  Absjilom  became  the  greatgrand- 
father  of  Marianine,  the  wife  of  Herod  the  Great, 

BiBMOORAPnY  :  Josephii.s  .1 »'.  xlll.  11, 8  1 ;  12,  S  1 ;  14,  S 1;  idrm, 
IS.  J.  i.  us,  n.M:  (iraiz,  CVtwh.  d.Jmlcn,  til.  117.  livt. 

M.  Bit. 

ABSALOM  THE  ELDER:  A  Tanna,  the  dates 
of  ulic'sr  birlh  and  dralli  are  unknown.  A  homi- 
letic  interpretation  of  Ex.  xiv.  1.")  is  recorded  in  his 
name  in  tlie  Mekilla,  Ueshallah,  3.  There  is  no  cer- 
tainty about  his  name,  for  in  a  parallel  passage  (Ex. 
R.  xxi.  H)  he  is  (|unted  as  "  Abtolis,"  "  Abtelos"  (an 
abbreviation  of  Ablolmus  Kutolemus).  Elijah  Wilna 
corrected  his  name  in  accordance  willi  Ibis  in  llie 
passage  of  Jlekilla,  an  emendaliou  fully  justilied 
considering  I  hi'  fact  that  copyists  were  generally 
not  familiar  with  (Ireik  names.  L.  G. 

ABSALOM   BEN   MOSES   MIZRAHI.     See 

Ml/.ltAMl.    .\];^\lo\|     Ill.N     .MnM.~ 

ABSBAN,  SOLOMON  (|X3D2S):  Habbi  of 
Aleppo  abuiii  l.")SIP;  was  a  grandson  of  Jacob  Berab. 
lie  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  learning,  prudence, 
sagacity,  and  piety  by  contemporary  scholar.s,  such 
as  iloses  Alslieik.  Samuel  Laniado,  and  others,  with 
whom  he  corresponded. 
nilil.inciRAPiiY  :  Oinforte,  [yirr  lin-Dnriit,  :t9/>,  41l»,  43a  ;  Ghl- 

n)nUl  unU  NVnl,  Ttrlcdot  (iednh-  Y'isracU  p.  3:^. 

M.  K. 

ABSOLUTE,  THE  (from  the  Latin  al)i«,liitun= 
loosened,!  I  ino  veil  ti  i  ■in  other  tilings;  Greek  xiffoirorr 
self-existing,  by  itself):  A  philo.sopliic  term  in<liea 
tinga  biMngor  substance  free  from  contingency  and 
external  determination.  It  isdetine<lby  the  philos- 
ophers in  various  ways.  Spinoza  delines  it  as  the 
caiiMi  mii.  the  cause  of  itself:  Kant  as  the  Dinf/  an 
tirli.  the  thing  in  itself;  Kiclite  as  the  f/mizlir/i  I'n- 
viinti-liroidtm,  the  completely  unlimiled:  Schopen- 
lianer  as  (/««  Aiiiiir/ihlldnfiiiftt'.  the  unconnectid  ; 
Spencer  as  "the  Unknowable."  The  opjiosite  idea 
is  that  of  t/ie  rilnlirr,  thf  miitlilioiinl,  the  iliteriiiiiuth 
From  Aristotle  down,  the  notions  of  Deity  and  of 
The  Absolule  are  idenlilied  wilh  each  other  in  phi- 
losophy;  for  Deity  is  nniversilly  conceiveil  as  the 
uncaused  cause  of  all  other  existences,  as  tlii'  nnixii 
Jirimii.  as  the  lirst,  unpreceded  souni>  of  all  existence 
(Aristotle,"  .Melapliysics,''ii.  S.xii.TiVw/.  :  "  Physics" 
viii.  T);  Maimonidcs"  "  .Morih  Nebukim,"  i.  (i!»).'  This 
first  Ciiiise  is  called  in  Arabic  by  two  synonymous 
terms,  illiih  and  miIhiIi,  which  are  reproduced  in 
the  philosophic  Hebrew  by  the  terms,  also  .synony- 
mous, rhv  ""il  n3D.  The  Absolute  forms  the  limit 
of  the  conceivable,  the  highest  point,  of  related 
thoUL;lit. 

The  pyramid  of  logical  thinking  must  pause  or 
reach  its  sunuiiit  at  the  crowning  point :  a  reiirrimuH 
ill  iiijiniliiiii.  that  is,  a  pushing  of  thought  beyond 
this  last  reach  of  mental  abilitv,  is  impossible,  Ac- 
cordini;  to  Maimonides  (/.r.,  Ixviii.)  anil  the  other 
Arabic  Jewish  philosophers,  this  hiirhest  attainable 
coal  of  Ihouglit  is  identical  with  (lod  and  The 
Absolut!'.  Tile  classical  representative  of  Gernian 
philosophic  romanticism,  Sclielliiig,  approaches  very 


closely  in  his  views  to  the  Arabic-Jewish  concep- 
tion of  The  Absolute,  in  which  the  thinking  subject 
and  the  thought-object  become  one.  L.  S. 

ABSTINENCE:  Refraining  from  enjoyments 
which  ale  lawful  in  themselves.  Abslinencecan  be 
considered  a  virtue  only  when  it  serves  the  purpose 
of  consecrating  a  life  to  a  higher  purpose.  The 
saints,  or  adherents  of  religious  and  philosophical  sys- 
tems that  teach  the  inortitication  of  the  flesh,  prac- 
tise asceticism  only  with  the  view  of  perfecting  the 
soul  for  the  higher  state  of  bliss  for  which  they 
believe  it  to  be  destined  (see  Asckticis.m).  The 
Jewish  religion,  having  for  its  fundamental  ethical 
princi]de  the  law  of  holiness:  "W'  shall  be  holy: 
for  I  the  Lord  your  (lod  am  holy  "  (Lev.  xix.  2).  ac- 
centuates the  perfectibility  of  the  whole  man,  wdiile 
demanding  the  sjinctitication  of  all  that  pertains  to 
human  existence.  "The  Lord  did  not  create  the 
world  for  desolation  :  he  formed  it  for  human  habita- 
tion''(Isii.  xlv.  18)  is  the  principle  emphasized  by 
the  rabbis  (Pes.  SNA).  In  the  ideal  state  of  things 
nothing  should  be  profane.  "In  that  day  there 
shall  be  [inscribed]  upon  the  bells  of  the  horses: 
Holiness  unto  the  Lord!  And  the  pots  in  the  Lord's 
house  shall  be  like  the  bowls  before  the  altar  "  (Zecli. 
xiv,  20,  21).  This  view  is  expressed  in  no  uncertain 
terms  by  Hab  in  Yer.  Kid.  iv.,  at  the  end:  "JIan 
in  the  life  to  come  will  have  to  account  for  every 
enjoyment  olTered  him  that  was  refused  without 
sullicieiit  cau.se."  Accordingly  we  find  asceticism, 
or  abstinence  as  a  principle,  condemned  in  the  Tal- 
mud. "  Why  must  the  Xazarile  bring  a  sin  offering 
at  the  end  of  his  term'/  (Num.  vi.  13.  14).  Because 
he  sinned  against  his  own  person  by  his  vow  of  ab- 
staining from  wine,"  .sjiys  Eliezer  ha-Kappar  (Sifra. 
ml  liir.,  and  Ned.  10</),  drawing  his  conclusion  from 
this  Bililical  ])as.sage.  "  Whosoever  undergoes  fasting 
and  other  iieiiances  for  no  special  rea.son  commits  a 
wrong.  '  "Is  the  number  of  things  forbidden  by 
the  Law  not  enough  lh:it  thou  veiiture.st  to  add  of 
thine  own  accord  by  thy  inconsiderate  vow':'"  says 
H.  Is!mc(Yer.  Ned.  ix.  4H).  See  Maimonides,"  Yiid 
hal.Iazakah,  De'ot,"  iii.  1,  where  the  mona.stic  prin- 
ciple of  abstinence,  whether  in  regard  to  marriage 
or  to  eating  of  meat  and  drinking  of  wine,  or  to  any 
otii'.'r  personal  comfort,  is  most  emphatically  con 
denimd  as  antagonistic  to  the  spirit  of  .ludaism. 

Still  abstinence  is  freiiuenlly  considered  merito- 
rious, if  not  actually  necessiiry,  as  a  means  of  self- 
discipline.  Simon  the  Just  said:  "I  partook  of  a 
Nazarite  meal  only  once,  when  I  met  with  a  hand- 
some youth  from  the  South  who  had  taken  the  vow. 
When  I  asked  him  the  reason,  he  said:  '  I  Siiw  the 
Evil  Spirit  pursue  me  as  I  beheld  my  face  rcHecled 
in  the  water,  and  1  swore  that  these  long  curls  shall 
be  cut  olT  and  olTered  as  a  sjicrifice  to  the  Lord.' 
Whereupon  I  kissed  him  upon  his  forehead  and 
blessed  him.  saying:  "  .May  there  be  many  Nazarites 
like  thee  in  Israel!  '  "  (Nazir,  Ah).  In  this  sense  absti- 
nence is  supposed  to  have  a  positive  value,  as  a 
training  in  self  control.  t'ons«'iiuently  the  law:  "Be 
holy  1  "  w;is  interpreted:  Exercise  abstinence  in  onler 
to  arrive  at  the  state  of  purity  and  holiness  CAb. 
Zarali.  20'i;  Sifra,  Kedoshini,  beginningV  Excessive 
indulgence  ill  wine  or  in  any  form  of  en  joymeni  being 
harmiful  (Prov.  xxiii.  '-'111.  man  must  learn  self  re- 
st iiiiiit  in  due  time.  "  Haste!  "  people  say  to  the  Naz- 
arite. "  Pa.ss  (luicklv  around  the  vineyanl,  come  not 
loo  near  the  grape''  (B.  M.  Vrin)  became  the  prover 
bial  warning.  "  .Make  u  fence  around  the  Law  "  i  Ab 
i.  1 ;  Ab.  K.  N.  ii.).  "Abstain  from  everything  evil 
and  from  wliat.soever  is  like  unto  it,"  a  rule  found 
alike  in  the  "  DiD.vciiK,"  iii.  I,  and  in  the  Talmud 


Abtalion 
Abu  Ali 


Tin:  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


136 


(Hul.  44A) — asiiyiiis  l»iw<lf"i  J"'',  xxxi.  1.  "Abstain 
from  lusts  of  the  tlcsli  ami  the  world"  f  Didiichc," 
i.  4).  All  tho  .Mosjiic  laws  conccriiing  diet  arc  de- 
clared by  Hall  to  have  for  their  purpose  the  puriti- 
cation  of  Isniel  (Lev.  H,  13) — to  train  the  Jew  in  self- 
ilisei|)line. 

Accordingly  there  were  those  that  taught  and 
practised  abstinence  for  the  purpose  of  self-conse- 
cration. Such  were  the  followers  of  the  Hecliabitcs 
(Jer.  xx.w.  2)  among  the  Esscnes,  "llie  water- 
drinkers "  (-^ek.,  Yithro,  Anialek  2).  A  revival  of 
their  principles  was  attempted  in  Pcnsia  byAnu  IsA 
.\i.-Isi'.\ii.\Ni  in  the  eighth  century,  who  added  to 
the  prohiliilion  of  wine  also  thatof  meat.  Willi  this 
may  be  comiiarcd  the  vegetarianism  of  the  modern 
sect  of  H.\sii)i\r.  The  tendency  to  mysticism  in- 
duced moral  philosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages  like 
Bahya  ibn  Pakuda  to  favor  abstinence  as  a  mode  of 
moral  self-elevation  (see  "llobol  ha-l^eliabot."  i.\. 
5,  xi.  6). 

The  Biblical  narrative,  however,  according  to 
which  man,  in  the  golden  age  of  innocence  (Gen. 
i.  29),  abstained  from  eating  the  tiesli  of  animals, 
while  after  the  Hood,  in  an  age  of  decline,  the  eat- 
ing of  meat,  with  the  exeeiition  of  the  blood,  was 
permitted  (Gen.  ix.  2  it wj.).  is  in  striking  accord 
with  Greek  or  Aryan  tradition  (Plato,  "  l)e  Legibus," 
vi.  782;  Plutarch," iSyniposion."  viii.  83;  Porphyrins, 
"  De  Abstinentia,"  iii.  25,  2();  Diogenes  Laertius,  viii. 
2(t;  Spiegel,  "Eranische  Altertlu'imer,"  i.  455). 

As  a  rule,  however,  Jewish  opinion  has  been 
against  total  abstinence,  and  is  best  represented 
by  Maimonides,  who  advocates  the  "golden  middle 
way"  of  moderation  ("Yad  ha-Hazakah.  Ililkot 
De'ot."  i.-iii.).  K. 

ABTALION,   POLLION,   or  PTOLLION :   A 

leader  of  the  Pharisees  in  the  mi<ldle  of  the  lirst  cen- 
tury n.c.  and  by  tradition  vice-president  of  the 
great  Sanhedrin  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  of  heathen 
descent  (Bab.  Yonui,  71//;  'Eduy.  v.  6;  Git-  574;  Yer. 
M.  K.  iii.  814;  see  Weiss,  "  Dor  Dor  we-Dorshaw,"  i. 
1,  and  Landau,  p.  319).  Despite  this  fad,  Abtalion, 
as  well  as  his  colleague,  Sheniaiali,  the  president  of 
the  Sanhedrin,  was  one  of  the  most  influential  and 
beloved  men  of  his  time.  Once,  when  tlie  high  jiriest 
was  being  escorted  home  from  the  Temple  by  the 
people,  at  the  close  of  a  Day  of  .Vtonement,  the  Tal- 
mud (Yonia.  714)  relates  that  the  crowd  deserted 
hiiu  upon  the  approach  of  .\hlalionand  his  colleague 
and  followed  them.  Abtalion  usid  his  inllueuce  with 
the  people  in  persuading  the  men  of  Jerusalem,  in 
the  year  37  li.c,  to  open  the  gates  of  their  city  to 
Herod.  The  king  was  not  ungrateful  and  rewarded 
Abtalion,  or,  as  Josephus  calls  him.  "Pollion,"  with 
great  honors  (Josephus,  "  Ant."  xv.  1,  S;  1).  Although 
there  is  no  doubt  that,  in  this  jiassage  of  Josephus, 
Abtalion  is  meant  Uy  this  name  Pollion  (the  original 
form  of  the  n;ime  is  ])resumably  "  Ptollion."  which 
exjilains  both  the  prelixcd  -1  in  the  Talmud  and  the 
omission  of  the  t  in  Josephus),  in  another  place 
("Ant."  XV.  10.  %  4),  where  this  name  recurs,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  Abtalion  is  intended  or  not. 
Josephus  relates  there  how  Herod  exacted  the  oath 
of  allegiance  under  penalty  of  death,  and  continues- 
"He  desired  also  tocomiiel  Pollion.  the  Pharisee,  and 
Sanieas,  together  with  the  many  w  ho  followed  them, 
to  take  this  oath;  they,  however,  refused  to  do  this, 
but  nevertheless  were  not  punished  as  were  others 
who  had  refused  to  take  it,  and  this  indeed  out  of 
consideration  for  Pollion."  Since  this  episode  took 
place  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  Herod's  reign  (20  or 
19  n.c),  this  Pollion  can  not  have  been  Abtalion, 
who  died  long  before,  as  we  learn  from  authorita- 


tive Talmudic  sources,  according  to  which  Hillel, 
the  ]iupil  and  successor  of  Abtalion,  was  the  leader 
of  the  Pharisees  about  30  n.c.  It  is  probable,  there- 
fore, that  Joseiihus  was  misled  by  thi^similarity  of  the 
names  Sheniaiah  and  Shammai.  and  so  wrote  "  Pollion 
and  Sameas"  instead  of  "Hillel  and  Shanunai." 

Very  little  is  known  concerning  ilie  lilV  of  Abta- 
lion. He  was  a  pu])il  of  Judah  ben  Tabbai  and  Simon 
ben  SiK'tah.  and  probably  lived  for  some  time  in 
Alexandria,  Egypt,  where  he  and  also  his  teacher 
Judah  took  retuge  when  Alexander  Jaunieus  cruelly 
persecuted  the  Pharisees.  This  gives  iierlinenee  to 
his  well-known  maxim  (Ah.  i.  12),  "Ye  wi.se  men, 
be  careful  of  your  words,  lest  ye  draw  upon  your- 
selves the  punishment  of  exile  and  be  banished  to  a 
))lace  of  ba<l  water  (dangerous  doctrine),  and  your 
discijilcs,  who  come  after  yon,  drink  thereof  and 
die,  and  the  name  of  the  Holy  One  thereby  be 
profaned."  He  cautions  the  rabbis  herein  a.gainst 
participation  in  polities  (compare  the  maxim  of  his 
colleague)  as  well  as  against  emigration  to  Egypt, 
where  Greek  ideas  threatened  danger  to  Judaism. 
Abtalion  and  his  colleague  Sheniaiah  are  the  lirst 
to  bear  the  title  durnlnui  (I'es.  ~i)ii).  and  it  was 
probalily  by  no  mere  chance  that  their  pupil  Hillel 
was  the  lirst  to  lay  down  hcrmeneulic  rules  for  the 
interpretation  of  the  Jlidrash;  he  may  have  been  in- 
debted to  his  teachers  for  the  tendency  toward  hag- 
gad  ic  interpretation.  These  two  scholars  are  the  tirst 
whose  sayings  are  recorded  in  the  Haggadah  (Mck., 
Besliallah.  iii.  3(i.  ed.  Weiss.).  The  new  method 
of  ill  riis/i  (Bil)lical  interpretation)  introduced  by  Ab- 
talion and  Sheniaiah  seems  to  liave  evoked  o]ipo- 
silion  among  the  Pharisees  (Pes.  704.  Comjiare  also 
Josephus,  l.r.,  U'l/./jui'  6  liui/iinaioc.  where  a  title  is 
probably  inteniled).  Abtalion  and  Sheniaiah  are  also 
the  tirst  whose  Ilalakot  (legal  decisions)  are  handed 
down  to  later  times.  Among  them  is  the  important 
one  that  the  paschal  lamb  must  be  ofTered  even  if 
Pa.ssover  fall  on  a  Sabbath  (Pes.  GUii).  Abtalion 's 
academy  was  not  free  to  every  one,  but  those  who 
sought  entrance  paid  daily  a  small  admission  fee  of 
one  and  a  half  tiopaika;  that  is,  about  twelve  cents 
(Yonia.  3.54).  This  was  no  doubt  to  prevent  over- 
crowding by  the  people,  or  for  some  reasons  Stated 
by  the  Shammailes  (Ab.  K.  N.  iii.  [iv.]  1). 

Bini.Kic.RArnv:  Mnnalnschrift.  I.  lis- 121);  Griitz.  Grurh.il. 
J  Willi,  ai  ed.,  iii.  1K7  et  .w/..  'ilT-«1S;  Landau,  in  Mimat»- 
svhrifl,  vil,  .317-;i39;  Herzfeld,  Uiiil.  ill.  ;K7;  lilein,  (lisi-h.  d. 
Fn//fcjt  IsrafU  ii.  1Sj3;  DerenlKninr.  Kxsiii,  jip.  llfi,  117.  U9, 
4tl3 :  Wels.s,  Dor.  1. 148  ct  neq..  l.W.  ISi :  Brull.  Mclm.  pp,  iVST ; 
Hamluirjrer,  B.  li.  T.  il„  s.v.  Si  maun,  Lihniaii,  in  Iti  i:  it, 
Jnivi-s,  xxlv.  1)8-81.  y      p 

ABTALION  (OTTAVIANO),  SONOFMOB- 
DECAI  (MARCO)  OF  MODENA :  Italian  He- 
brew scholar;  born  in  Jlodena  in  15211;  died  in  Eerrara 
in  Kill.  From  the  fact  that  Azaiiah  de  Hossi  in  his 
".Meor  'Eiiayim,"  ]i.  9S4,  refers  to  lihii  as  nj'lID  C'K 
("a  man  of  .Modena"),  it  isassuiiie<l  that  he  was  a  iia- 
liveof  that  city.  The  mere  family  name  De  Modena, 
when  not  imidying  actual  birth  or  residence,  is  Cx- 
pres.sed  in  Hebrew'by  nniDD  ("of  Moch'iia").  The 
descendants  of  this  family  now  bear  the  simple  name 
"  Modena. "  The  family  originated  in  France,  whence 
it  emigrated  to  Italy  during  one  of  tlii^  expulsions 
of  the  Jews.  Mordeeai.  the  father  of  Abtalion,  was 
a  very  learned  rabbi  and  distinguished  physician  in 
liologiia.  Abtalion,  the  youngest  of  four  sons,  re- 
moved to  Ferrara.  where  he  distinguished  him.self 
through  his  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  his  secular 
attainments.  Both  he  and  his  father  seem  to  have 
written  nnicli,  though  nothing  has  been  printed. 

Abtalion  is  remembered  chietly  because  of  his  in- 
tercession with  Pope  Gregory   XIII.,  who  in  1581 


137 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abtalion 
Abu  AU 


had  decreed  that  all  Jews,  under  threat  of  severe 
penalties,  deliver  up  all  the  copies  of  the  Talmud 
and  other  rabbinical  works  in  their  possession,  in 
order  that  they  be  burnt.  The  .lews  were  naturally 
an.\ious  to  secure  the  repeal  of  this  decree,  and,  as 
Abtalion  was  well  acquainted  with  I-atiii,  a  number 
of  Jewish  congrcfiations  in  his  district  chose  him  as 
their  delegate.  The  pope  admitted  him  to  several 
audiences.  A  loni;  and  well-conceived  address  in 
choice  Latin,  whicli  Abtalion  delivered  before  the 
pope  and  many  of  the  Church  diiinitarics.  made  a 
deep  impression  upon  them,  and  the  decree  was  re- 
voked. Abtalion  appears  to  have  been  in  his  youth 
a  eabalist,  for  it  was  commonly  rcporteil  that  he 
had  invoked  the  prophet  Elijah,  who  revealed  him- 
self to  him. 

Bibliography  :  Ghlmndl  and  NepI,  TnlffinI  Grdnle  Vun-ael, 
8.V.;  cir^U,  fji-Krh.  il.  JiiilrtK  X.  Ill ;  V(i(^elsteln  iind  Riet'er, 
Gfwh.  d<T  JwUn  in  U<ni\.  il.  ITii.  A  rt-Uc  i»f  an  old  family 
archive  is  In  tile  poewesj^lon  of  a  des<-en(lant,  AlHi  ul-Kader 
Uudena,  as.sl.stiint  lltinirlun  of  tlie  I'nlviM-slty  of  Padua.  It 
contains,  unions  otliiTS.  a  letter  sent  to  .^l)talion  frniii  Koine, 
dated  13(S1,  InfunnlnK  him  of  tlie  steps  which  liad  iK'en  taken 
to  secure  the  revocation  of  the  Talmud  de<Te»;  hy  the  Paiwil 
See.    In  tliis  letter  his  naiue  is  written  Utta\  iano  da  .MMlena. 

E.  L. 
ABTALION  BEN  SOLOMON:  Italian  rabbi; 
born  at  C'on.siiilio  alicul  ViW;  died  Oct,  H).  Kill). 
He  wasajiupilof  Samuel  Judah  Kat/.enelleiibogen, 
rabbi  of  Padua.  His  veneration  for  his  teacher  was 
80  great  that  he  had  his  portrait  painted  and  hung  in 
his  stud}'.  When  asked  to  <xplaiii  this  act.  then  an 
uncommon  one  among  the  Jews,  he  wittily  replied 
that  Isaiah  had  Siiid  (Isa.  .\.\.\.  20),  "AikI  thine  eyes 
shall  see  tliy  tcacliei-s."  After  liaving  completed 
liis  studies  lie  settled  as  rabbi  at  Hovigo.  A  decision 
rendered  by  Abtalicjii  on  a  (|iieslion  concerning  the 
ritual  litne.ssof  a  taikireh  (ritual  bath)  gave  rise  toa 
heated  discussion  among  the  Italian  rabbis,  his  oppo- 
nents being  the  rabbis  of  Venice,  who  were  the  most 
learned  in  i  lie  country.  Apart  from  several  decisions 
on  that  cauKf  ci'lihre,  scattered  through  the  works  of 
the  most  important  rabbis  of  tho.se  times,  there  arc 
four  books  whollv  devoted  to  the  subject ;  namelv: 
"Mill.iamot  Adoniii  "  (Venice,  l(i08):  "  .Mikweh  Vis 
mel"  (Vcnlei,  U)o7) :  "Paige  Mayim"  (KilT)  for. 
and  "Mashbit  Milhamot"  (IGOO)  against,  Alitalion. 
Abtalion  vehemently  condemned  the  piljiu!  method, 
and  opposed  it.  Leon  de  Modena,  the  critic  (l.'iTl- 
1648),  ploritieil  Abtalion 's  name  in  an  elegy  which 
was  used  as  the  hitter's  e])itai)h. 

BlBLiooRAi'iiv  :  (ihinindlnnd  Ncpl,  Tiileilot  Oednle  Yi»rael, 
pp.  l'-,  1";  .Mlr|iui-1,  III-  Uii-IUiiiiiiiii.  No.  s.  J      „ 

ABTERODE  (APTROD).  DAVID:  Kabbin 
ical  writer;  gieat  graiullalber  of  David  Sin/.iikim; 
probably  br)rn  at  Abterode  near  Krankrort  on  liie- 
Maln,  in  whii  h  town  \\v  lived  toward  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  and  at  the  bigimiiiig  of  the  eiglileeiith 
century.  Hi;  wrote  commentaries  on  tlie"Sifer  Ihisi- 
dim  "  and  on  the  "  Vo^.erol  "  (Liturgies  for  Festivals); 
but  the  manuscripls  were  completelv  destroyed  by 
the  great  tire  in  that  city  in  1711.  itis  sou  Solomon 
Zalnian  ri'wrole  fidin  memory  the  commeiilary  on 
"Sefer  l.lasidim,"  and  published  it  in  1724. 
BiliLloiiRAi'iiv  :  MIcliui'l,  Or  /iii-//ii|/|/iiii.  No.  Till*. 

y\.  B. 

ABTOLMUS.     Sec  EfToi.EMrs. 

ABU:  .V I  abic  word  meaning  "  father."  With  its 
ilitlei'ciil  eases  hIhi  (accusal ivi)  and  nhi  (genitive), 
as  Well  as  its  abbii'viati-d  form  hu,  it  is  frei|Uently 
u.sed  in  .Vrabic  as  the  lirst  element  in  certain  com- 
pound names.  Tht;  relation  belwei'U  "  Abu  "  and  the 
succeeding  name  is  either  of  genealogical,  historical, 
or  atlributivi'  nature,  asSleinsehneidir  desigimt4S  il. 

The  genealogical   relali(ai  is  the  oldest  and  most 


original,  for  in  olden  times  Abu  denoted  the  actual 
father  of  a  son  (more  rarely  of  a  daughter),  upon 
whose  own  proper  name  the  word  Abu  followed. 
Thus,  when  a  man  whose  real  name  was  Ibrahim  mar- 
ried and  had  a  sou  whom  he  named  Ishak  (Isaac)  he 
woulil  thenceforward  be  called  Abu  Ishak. 

The  use  of  Abu  in  the  formation  of  names  in 
those  eases  wherein  some  relation.ship  in  history  or 
legend  is  to  be  expressed  is  called  the  historical  rela- 
ticm  of  the  word.  When,  for  instance,  any  one  of 
the  name  of  Ibrahim  (Abraham)  receives  the  cogno- 
men of  Abu  Ishak  (Isaac),  the  particle  Abu  is  in- 
teiiile(l  to  recall  the  particular  Ibrahim  mentioned 
ill  the  nilile  and  Koran,  who  actually  was  Abu 
("  Father  ")  of  Isjiac.  Owing  to  the  extensive  use  of 
these  names  among  the  Arabs  and  the  great  diffi- 
culty they  olTer  to  Europeans,  the  following  list  of 
historical  names,  called  kunya  by  the  Arabs,  maybe 
of  service:  (1)  The  usual  cognomen  for  Ibrahim  is 
Abu  Ishak.  (2)  Ishak  is  Abu  Ibrahim:  in  which 
Abu  has  entirely  lost  its  original  signitication  of  "  fa- 
ther." (:!)  Yaiikul)  (Jacob)  is  called  Abu  Yiisuf 
(Joseph).  (4)  Yusuf  again  is  called  Abu  Ya'akub. 
(•"i)  Miisa  (Moses)  has  two  cognomens,  Abu'  Imram 
(Aniram)  and  Abu  Ilarun  (Aaron),  ((i)  Harun's 
kunya  is  Abu  3Iusa.  (7)  Da'ud  (David)  is  called  Abu 
Sulaiman  (Solomon).  (8)  Sulaiman  is  called  Abu 
Da'ud,  or  even  Abu  Ajub  (.lob). 

Abu  is  used  attributively  in  conjunction  with 
adjectives  or  abstract  nouns,  fonning  names  like  the 
English  "Goodman,"  "Prettyman,"  "Longman," 
"  Longfellow,"  etc.,  as,  for  instance.  Abu  al  Klieir, 
"Father  of  the  Good."  The  following  adjectives, 
iic<-ording  to  Steinschneider,  are  those  most  employed 
by  JiuheoArabie  writers  in  connection  with  Abu, 
either  with  or  without  the  definite  article: 

Allaor  .\llyya  Fath  Mal.iasln 

'Ala  FlUui  Manznr 

'All  llajuj  Muna 

llamkat  ijasan  or  Ifa-ssan  Munadim 

Kada  Hashim  Nasr 

Fa'dhll  .layyid  Ridha 

FaraJ  Klielr  S'ad  or  Sa'ad 

mni.iofiRAriiY  :  Steinschneider,  in  Jf  ic.  Qi«irf.  Rev.  Ix.  228- 
:;«),  i!li)-i>i<).  jj    (J 

ABU    AARON    OF    BAGDAD.     See  Aaron 

\\\  s   Swii  i;i,  OF   Baiivion. 

ABU      ABDALLAH      MOHAMMED      AX- 

NASIR  :    .\l Iiadc  sultan:    ruler  of  .Miirncc.>  and 

southern  Spain  at  the  bcgimiingof  the  thirleeiilh  cen- 
tury. The  rule  of  the  -Vlmohade  sultans  necessarily 
proved  oppressive  to  the  Jews  under  their  sway. 
They  had  to  choo.se  between  conversion  to  Islam 
and  (luitting  the  country.  Many  adopted  the  former 
course,  though  only  outwardly,  a  practise  .sanctioned 
to  a  certain  extent  by  Maimonidcs'  father,  a.s  well  as 
by  Maimonides  himself.  This  was  not  unknown  to 
the  Jewish  authoriiiis.  who  ac(|uiesced  in  it.  Abu 
Viisuf  Ya'akub  (lls4-fl.'S),  himself  a  noted  theolog- 
ical aulhinity  among  the  Almoliaile  rule|-s,  hoped  to 
make  the  prosilyles  better  Moslems  by  onliring  them 
to  wear  a  special  garb,  consisting  of  a  black  gown 
with  long  sleeves,  a  coiirsi^  veil  to  starve  as  headgear. 
As  si«)n  as  his  son  .\bdallah  al  Nasir  ascendeil  the 
throne,  the  Jews  of  the  Mairhrib  tried  to  iniluce  him 
to  repeal  this  law  ;  but  they  met  with  small  siicce.s.s. 
He  only  changed  the  colors  and  ordered  llieinlowear 
yellow".  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  distinguishing 
(•oslunie  worn  by  Jews  in  the  Midille  Ages,  ami  the 
practise  was  soon  imitated  in  European  countiies. 
See  Hadce. 

IliniKiiiRAriiT:  ANI-nl-Wnlild  nl-MuTfkiwhi's  HMortinf  Ihe 
lliiio/iiiil.K.  iHl.  Dozy,  2U  iHl..  IWl.  p.  ast;  (irflti!.  ntwh.  il. 

JuiU  II.  Ml.  ai.  II    ll_ 

ABU  ALT.     See  Ji-:i-UET. 


Sa'ld 

■fahlr 

Taur  or  Thiir 

Walld 


Abu  Ami'am  Joseph 
Abudaiham,  David 


THE  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


138 


ABTJ    AMRAM    JOSEPH    IBN    HASDAI. 

S,'!'  .Iiisi  I'll    ir.N    II  \-ii  M 

ABU  AMRAM  (IMRAM)  MUSA  (MOSES) 
AL-SA-AFRAM  AL-TIFLISI.  S,,-  .\1i>a  ..k 
Til  i  I- 

ABU  AMRAMITES.     S, ,    Mi  -\  ok  Tifms 

ABU  ANAN  YIZ^AK  BEN  ALI  BEN 
YISHAK.     Sir  Imimv  iiiN  All 

ABU  AYUB  ( SULAIMAN  IBN  ALMUAL- 
LEM)  OF  SEVILLE.     S,.  Si  imman  iun  Ai.mi  ■ 

ABU  AL-BARAKAH  HIBAT  ALLAH.    See 

llii;\  r   .\i.i  Ml. 
ABU    FADHL    HASDAI.     S. c   HAst>Ai,  Am- 

!•"  \1>ML. 

ABU   AL-FARAJ   FUTIKAN   IBN  ASAD. 

Si'l'    .losin   A     BIN     .ll    I)  \1I 

ABU  AL-FIHM  LAWI  IBN  YA'KUB  IBN 
AL-TABBEN.  Sr,Ai.  Tahhkn.  I,i-,\  i  r.i:N  .Iakh; 
ii:n 

ABU  AL-HASAN  IBN  SAHL.  Soc  IiiX  S.vhl, 
Aiu    \i.  1Ia>\n 

ABU     IBRAHIM    ISHAK    IBN    BARUN. 

ScrIs\AC    IllN     I'iMMN,    Ar.i       ll'.KMllM. 

ABU    IBRAHIM    ISHAK  IBN  HALFON. 

Sit   Isaac    ii;n    II  m.ihn 

ABU  IBRAHIM  ISHAK  IBN  JASOS  IBN 
SAJRTAR,     Sir    l-AAi    ii;n   .fA>o>   ir.N   Sauiau. 

ABU  ISA  OBADIAH.    Sn Ouaihaii,  Aiu  Isa. 

ABU  ISHA:^  AL-ELVIRI:  .\lc,li;iniiiR(liin 
piicl  ;  lived  ill  Siiuiii  tiiWiinl  tla-  iniclilli'  (if  llic  ck'V- 
enth  ccnUiry.  In  (nic  of  his  poems  he  attacked  Jews 
ill  general,  and  in  particiilar  Joseph  ibn  Nasriela. 
whom  Badis,  Ivinj;  of  the  ISeibers,  had  appointed 
vizier.  Abu  Isl.iak's  inllainniatoiy  verses  hastened, 
if  they  did  not  directly  cause,  the  assassination  of 
Jose|)h  ibn  Xagrela. 

Bini.KKJRAPiiY  :  Criitz.  f!(scl>.  ll.  Jmli  II,  vi.  .V* ;  >Iimk,  .V<i(id' 
sur  .Ihinitnoliil,  \*]^.  Ut!  ft  ftt'if.  \\'     yi 

ABU  ISHA15  IBRAHIM  IBN  SAHL  (oi 
SUHL)  AL-ISRAILI  OF  SEVILLE:  Spanisli 
pciet  (if  the  tlMrlieiilh  ceiiliiiy :  tiled  at  sea  in  l'J."i'.)  or 
l"i(iO.  Under  tlie  pressure  of  tlu;  Almoiiade  rule  he 
embraced  the  Mohammedan  faith, but  it  was  believed 
in  Spain  that  he  recanted  before  he  died.  There  e.xist 
three  editions  of  his  works  (Cairo,  187.5  and  1885; 
Beirut.  188.")). which  were  written  in  Arabic. and  were 
edited  by  Hasan  b.  JIohanimedal'Attar.whoalso  ap- 
pended a  biography  of  the  poet. in  which  he  broadly 
discussed  the  tiuestion  of  the  sincerity  of  Ibn  Sahl's 
conversion  mentioned  above.  The  poems  are  mostly 
of  a  rclicious  character :  a  specimen  may  be  found  iu 
I.Iaji  Ivlialfah's  article  on  the  poet  (vol.  iii.  241.  "  Di 
wan,"  p.  '>'2).  Larger  extracts  are  given  in  Moham- 
med ben  Shakir's  biographical  dictionary  ("'Faawat 
al-Wafayat,"  Bulak,  18G(1,  pp.  2!»-;i.-)).  The  attention 
paid  to  this  poet  is  probalily  due  to  thecircuni.stanee 
that  he  was  a  converted  Jew  ■.  for  this  reason  the  au- 
tliciilicity  of  many  of  his  iioenis  is  open  to  grave 
doubt.  Abu  Sahl  ranks  among  the  oldest  ]i(Xts  who 
developed  the  sjieeies  of  mnirnshslnih  songs,  or  girdle 
rimes,  consisting  of  rimed  stan/as  lieadeil  and  con- 
cluded by  verses  of  different  rimes,  but  repeated  in 
eacli  subsequent  strophe.  One  of  Abu  Sahl's  iii>i- 
)r«ji/(.»/(«7(.s  is  printed  together  with  si.\  other  poems 
in  a  little  volume  entitled  "The  Seven  Sparkling 
Stars;  that  is.  the  Andalusiaii  Muwaslishahs, "  p.  9. 
Beirut.  1864.  The  te.xl.  however,  shows  considerable 
variation  from  Al-Attar's  edition.  Iiotli  as  regards 
the  arrangement  of  the  stanzas  and  the  wording. 
BiBLioiiRAPHV:  Al-Makhari.  trans,  by  Cayangos,  1.  1.58f(  :'cq. 
Hajt  Kbalfali's  Lexicon  HiliUimrniihUum  et  Kncfiehiju- 
aicuin.  and  Al-'Attar  ;  Steinsdineider,  In  Jeic.  Quart.  Ilcv. 
I1-313.  fl.    HlU. 


ABU    IS^A^    IBRAHIM    IBN    ZAHAB. 

See  Ir.nAiiiM   niN   Zaiiai; 

ABU  ISHAg  (=;  IBRAHIM)  IBN  AL-MU- 
HAJIR  :  Spanish-Arabic  vizier  of  themiddleof  the 
twelfth  century  mentioned  in  the"  I)iwan"(colleelion 
of  poems)  of  Moses  ibn  Ezra,  with  the  title  "vezir." 
This  is  the  only  fact  known  about  him.  but  the  im- 
portaneeof  the  position  a.s.sigi)ed  to  him  by  Ibn  Ezra 
has  led  to  t  wo  atlemptsat  identilication.  According 
to  Steinschneider  he  is  identical  with  the  Aliraham 
ibn  Meir  to  whom  Moses  dedicated  his  "Tarshish."' 
(See  "  Kerem  llenied,"  iv.  'H);  Griltz.  "Gesch.  d.  Jii- 
den,";ided.,vi.  KM);  Steinschneider, "Cat.  Bodl."  col. 
1808;  "Jew.  Quart.  Bev. "  i.\.  61!t.)  A  p(«t,  Joseph 
ben  Meir  ibn  Muhajir,  is  supposed  by  Steinschneider 
to  have  been  a  brother  of  Aim  Ishak("Cat.  Bodl." 
col.  ISO'.I).  Luzzatio  supposed  that  he  was  the  son 
of  Abu  Ibrahim  ibn  Muha.jir.  to  whom  Judah  ha-Levi 
dedicated  a  poem  ("Betulat  bat  Yehudali,"  p.  20). 

Abu  Sulaiman  (  =  David)  ibn  Muhajir,  pos.sibly  a 
relative,  is  mentioned,  together  w  ilh  Isaac  Alfasi  and 
Judah  ibn  Balaam,  by  Moses  ibn  Ezra  in  his  "  Kitab 
al-Muhadarah  "  (Fi'irst's  "  Lileraturblatt  des  Ori- 
ents," .\.  2(i;i;  Steinschneider.  "Cat.  Bodl."  col.  1809). 
although  Schreiner  does  not  speak  of  him  in  his 
(lescrii)tion  of  Ibn  Ezra's  work  ("  Kev.  fit.  Juives," 
.\.\i.  .vxii.).  Abu  Sulaiman  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  David  ibn  llajar  mentioned  in  "Sha'are  Zedelj," 
as  was  done  by  Griitz,  "Gesch.  d.  Juden,"  2d  ed., 
vi.  112. 

BiBiiotiRAi'iiv:  Steinscbneider,  In  Jcic.  (jtiart.  Rev.  x. 53). 

G. 

ABU  JACOB  BEN  NOAH,  Karaite.  See  YusuF 

BKN  NdAU.  .\r.i    V  \'  \K[  \; 
ABU  KARIB  TUBBA.     Sec  Pur  \i  was. 

ABU-OMAR  JOSEPH  IBN  HASDAI.     See 

JOSI-IMI     ir.N     11  \S|>A1 

ABU  SAHL  ADONIM  BEN  TAMIM  OF 
KAIR'WAN.     See  Dix.v.sii  ben  T.v.mim. 

ABU  SAHL    ALI.    See  Ai.i,  aiu  Saht.. 

ABU  SAHULA,    ISAAC   BEN    SOLOMON 

IBN.       Si  I     IsAAl-   KKN  .Sol.oMOX   IB.N   AlU'   SaHUI-.V. 

ABU  SAID.     Sec  Levi  hen  Japiiet. 

ABU   SARI    SAHL   BEN   MA^LIA?,     See 

Saiii,   iun    Mazi  1  Ml 
ABU   SULAIMAN   DAUD   IBN   HUSAIN. 

See  1  Iai  i>   ii;n    llr>M\- 
ABU  SULAIMAN  IBN  AL-MUHAJIR.  See 

Am    Isu  M>  ii;n  ai.  Mi  iia.iik 

ABU  TALIB:  Imaginary  name  of  the  .Moham- 
medan disputant  in  the  controversial  epistles  of  Sam- 
11(1  M.ii(iccanus(see  .\nuAs.  Sami  k.i.  aiu'  Xasii  iun). 
Tile  name  is  given  in  some  editions  as  Abucalls  or 
Abucalib.  The  manuscripts  in  which  the  name  oc- 
curs attribute  the  "translation"  to  Alfonsus  Boni- 
liominis,  identified  by  Steinschneider  with  Abner 
OF  Biuoos.  But  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether 
any  Arabic  original  existed,  and  the  name  of  the 
defender  of  Islam  is  probably  therefore  (piitc  fic- 
titious. It  cannot  be  identified  with  any  known 
Arabic  writer. 

Bibi.iocrapiiv  :  Steinschneider.  Polemisehe  und  Apnloactitiche 

Lilt  rutin',  p.  KIT.  J. 

ABU    YA'AKUB    IBN  BAHLUL.     See   Ib.\ 

Baih.i'i  .   .\iu     ^  \'  MU  r. 
ABU  YA'A^UB  IBN  NOAH.    See  IsA.\c  ben 

NoAll 

ABU-YUSUT,  .-Umohatle  prince.      See  Almo- 


139 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Abu  Amram  Joseph 
Abudarham,  David 


ABU-YUSUF     BEN     ISAAC    IBN     SHA- 

PRUT.     Sir  ll\Mni   Ar.r   \  i -i  K  lux  .SiiAruiT. 

ABU  YUSUF  HA-ZAKEN.  Sic  J<>si;i-ii  ii.v- 
Zakin 

ABUBTJS :  Fiilhcr  of  Ptolemy,  who  niunliTtd 
Sinioii  al  .111  icho,  where  he  was  statioueii  as  military 
cltii<r.     (I  Maee.  xvi.  11,  1."),)  G.  B.   L.  " 

ABUDARHAM  (Arabic :  Abu-dirham  or  Abu- 
darahim,  ■■  I'.illin-  of  the  Dirhrins" — or  lax):  A 
faiiiilN  iiaiiK'  lioiiic  liy  Spanish  .Jews,  for  the  lirsl  lime 
by  David  Abudarhiam,  who  wasa  tax-eolU'ctoraiid 
elder  of  Ihe  coiiirreiiatioii  of  the  .Jews  of  Tudi'hi  ilur 
ill  if  the  reii^ii  of  Sancho  the  Great,  kiiij;  of  Castile  aii<l 
Leon  (r-'.")IS-'.t.")).  Sanelio  was  the  tirst  to  reirulate 
the  taxes  which  the  various  Jewish  comnniiiities 
had  to  pay  to  the  royal  treasury.  For  this  purpose 
a  commission  of  the  four  chief  meuof  the  comuiuni- 
ties  was  suiiimoued  to  meet  at  Huete.  September, 
1200.  Ill  the  event  of  1  lie  commission  failiii,!;  toai^'ree. 
it  was  the  kiuif's  order  tlial  the  whole  mailer  be  re- 
ferred to  David,  and  bnlh  parlies  wen'  to  abide  by  his 
decision.  See  Ihe  liocunieiil  in  .laeolis,  "Sources," 
p.  141.  where  Dim  Dani  Abudarham  is  ci|uivalent 
to  Don  David  Abudarharri;  Kayserlinj;.  "  Hev.  Et. 
Jilives,"  wwiii.  •J.">4;  (iriilz.  "Gescli.  d.  Judeii." 
vii.  IGT.  UiK  In  an  elcjry  on  the  catastrophe  which 
overtook  the  Jews  of  Toleilo  in  1391  ("  Leilerbodc," 
vi.  ;!;!-:!T)  mention  is  made  of  "the  Synairosiiic  of 
Abudirhain  "  (^i?':"^^'!.  probably  so  called  after  this 
David,  who  iniist  have  caused  it  lo  be  built  (Kay- 
geiiiiiiT.  in  "  liev.  ftt.  Juives,"  xxxviii.  'Syi).  David's 
son's  name  was  Joseph,  and  his  gi-.inilson's  David, 
the  best  known  of  Ihe  family. 

In  1.V.J4  Moses  and  Isaac  Abudarham  are  nic  n 
tioned  as   livini;-   in    Home  anil   eiitcrtainin.i;   .Moses 
Heubeiii  for  a  short  while  (Voffelstein  and  Kieger. 
"Gesch.  d.  Judrii  in  lioiii."  ii.  44). 

A  certain  Abraham  Abudarham  while  at  A>rra- 
mimt  in  14  14  copied  the  Hebrew  translation  of  Ar- 
istolle's  "Nieomaeliean  Ethics"  (Neubaucr,  "Cat. 
Bodl.  llebr.  .MSS  "  col.  .lOS.  No.  1420). 

About  ITKll  Uonianelli  mentions  the  family  Abu- 
darham in  Norlh  Africa  ("Jew.  Quart.  Hev."  xii. 
llli).  anil  a  eerlain  J.  Abudarham  is  said  to  have 
lived  in  CJibralhir  in  1S4:'m"  \oiee  of  Jacob."  vol.  iii., 
list  of  subscribers).  An  .Vbinlarum  is  mentioneil  in 
Marseilles  in  ISST;  anil  in  'ruiiis  Ihe  family  Abou- 
Derham  is  to  be  found  al  jirescnt  (Cazes,  "E.s.sai  sur 
I'Histoire  ilcs  Israelites  dc  Tunisic,"  188t(,  p.  177). 

BtDi.ioc.ii.kriiv:  on  nirhiuii  iis  iin  Aralile  proper  nnmp.  soe  Spy- 
Ixilil,  //><i  ii(-.l(ii'»  Kiiiijii  M'rnlcrhiiili.  i>.  'M\  lust  line. 
Weliniir,  ismi;  VaVui's  (ii'nir.  I'irl.,  Inilex,  p.  4:i'>  ( luiiimn' 
tlie  use  nf  *'  Dlimr"  in  ii  similar  wnse.  Si'vUilil.  p.  Its;  ^'iikiit, 
Nlllic  plllie.    SlelllHihlieiiler.  ./i  ic.  yi(.01.  Iliv.x.  liHI,  liellevi-s 

■  It  III  !»•  II  hv-imiiie  iif  siHiie  iilii'  imiiiiil  Jiisepli.  lii'iaiise  l.lajjiij 
Im'II  Viisnf  WHS  Ilie  llrst  iiiinter. 

G. 

ABUDARHAM  (.1  ABUDRAHIM),  DAVID 
BEN  JOSEPH  BEN  DAVID;  .\  inninirnlalor 
on  1  lie  Syiiai;ii^ur  111  111  iiN  ,«  llli  lived  al  Seville.  Spain, 
about  liVli).  and  wasa  pupil  of  Jacoli  ben  Asher.  He 
lieloiij;ed  to  the  class  of  writers  who.  in  an  ajie  of 
decline,  felt  the  need  of  disseminalin!;  in  popular 
form  Ihe  knowled;;e  stored  up  in  various  .sources 
of  rabbinical  literal ure.  and  thus  obtained  a  wcll- 
dcserved  fame.  His  book  has  no  specilie  title  Iw- 
Vond  Ihe  name  "  Ilibbiir  I'eriish  ha  lierakot  we  ha- 
Tetillol,"  probably  because  it  was  intended  to  serve 
nsa  runninir  commenlary  to  the  liluri;y.  In  the  pref- 
ace he  slates  llial  he  desired  to  alToril  Ihe  people, 
whom  he  found  laekini;  in  knowledire.  the  means  of 
'Usinj;  Ihe  lilurjry  intilliiienlly,  and  for  this  imrpose 
lie  collected,  from  both  the  liabylonian  and  the 
I'alestiniiin  Talmuils.   from  the  Geoiiim  and  all  the 


commentators  down  to  his  own  time,  the  material 
for  the  explanation  of  each  portion  of  the  prayer- 
book.  In  order  to  elucidate  the  meaning  and  origin 
of  each  observance  connected  with  divine  worship 
Ihroughont  the  year,  he  made  use  of  all  the  works 
concerning  the  rites  he  could  obtain,  some  of  which 
were  very  rare.  In  addition  he  gave  a  systematic 
exposition  of  Ihe  Jewish  calendar;  but  at  the  same 
time,  he  lays  no  claim  to  any  originality.  He  cer- 
tainly sueeeedeil.  as  no  one  did  before  him,  in  wri- 
ting a  commentary  which  is  very  valcable.  if  not 
altogether  indispeii.sable,  to  the  student,  and  which 
deserves  to  be  translated  and  condenseil  for  the  ben- 
etil  of  those  who  still  use  the  ancient  ritual. 

Though  he  was  a  believer,  like  most  of  his  contem- 
poraries, iu  the  mystical  sense  of  words  and  num- 
bers, he  combined  a  fair  grammatical 
His  knowledge  (in  spite  of  occasional  cr- 

Accoun.t  of  rors,  as.  for  instance,  his  derivation  of 
the  Ritual,  uiiiihuli  from  nuntih  ymiKi).  good  com- 
mon-sense, and  a  comprehensive  rab- 
binical erudition,  and  thus  was  better  (lualitied  than 
many  of  his  predecessors  to  give  a  satisfactory  ex- 
lilanation  of  almost  every  phrase  of  the  ]irayer  book. 
The  work  slarled  by  Kaslii  and  .Meirof  Kolhenburg, 
and  proseeuleil  especially  in  France.  Spain,  and  Ger- 
many during  the  lourteenlh  century  (see  Zunz.  "Hi- 
tiis."  |>ii.  O^-'iO),  found  in  Abudarhanis  profound 
spirituality  and  wise  iinlgmeiit  a  lilting  conclusion 
and  consummation.  Three  introductory  chapters  on 
Ihe  reading  of  the  Shenia'  (Dent.  vi.  4).  the  Daily 
I'niyer.anil  the  various  Heneiliet ions  precede  tliecom- 
meiilary.  which  begins  with  the  Night  I'rayer.  and 
then  follnw  s  the  order  of  the  prayer-book.  cliicHy  of 
Ihe  Sephaiilic  .\Iinliag.  from  beginning  to  end:  lirst 
tlic  Daily  .Mornin,g,  Afternoon,  and  Evening  Prayers: 
Iheii  the  Sabbath,  the  >;ew  iloon.  and  the  Pas.sover 
Prayers  (including  the  Passover  Haggadah)  and  the 
Pentecost  Prayer.  Considerable  space  is  given  to 
the  prayers  oftlie  fast  days  in  general,  besides  those 
of  the  national  last  days  in  commemoration  of  Jeru- 
salem; thin  follow  New-year's  Day  and  Atonement 
Day  and  theSukkol  leslival  players.  This  section  is 
foliowed  by  a  chapter  on  the  llaftarot.  and  then  fol- 
low one  on  thecalenilar  and  a  special  discourse  on  the 
Tckubit  and  the  superstitiousbelicf  concerning  it. 

The  last  section  treats,  in  nine  chajilers.  of  the  vari- 
ous Heiieilictions.  as  for  example  before  and  after 
meals.  The  closing  paragraph  quite  eliaraeieristic- 
ally  contains  the  rules  regarding  Ihe  cutting  of  nails, 
and  ends  bv  slalinsr:  "This  bonk  was  completed  in 
Seville  in  .'^iioi)  after  the  Creation  of  the  WorUl,  by 
Abiiilarham."  In  the  manner  of  an  eclectic  he  fre- 
iiuintly  slates,  or  suggests,  many  ex|>lanations  for 
one  fact;  but  a  certain  warmth  of  religious  feeling 
pervades  Ihe  whole  book  and  makes  it  a  harmonious 
unit,  giving  it  an  edifying,  rather  than  a  nicri4y  legal, 
character.  That  Ihe  work  supplied  a  commonly 
fell  need  is  shown  by  ils  nine  eililions.  The  tirst 
edition  appeared  in  Usbmi  in  llsil;  the  .second  in 
Conslanlinople  in  l.'ii:!;  the  third  and  fourth  in  Ven- 
ice in  l.-pKl  and  l.'ilili  respectively;  Ihe  liflh  in  Am- 
sterdam in  17'J(>(in  lliisa  portion  of  Ihe  calendar  was 
omit  led);  the  si  Mb  a  lid  seventh  in  Prague  in  17S4aiid 
1H17  risiieetively ;  Ihe  eighlli  in  I.emberg  in  18."i7; 
and  the  iiiiilh  in  Warsaw  in  1ST7.  A  manusiript  ex- 
ists in  the  Friedlilndcr  Library  at  St.  Petersburg. 

llllil.loiiRAIMIv:  Mlelmi'l,  Or  liii-llniiiiiiii.  No.  T-lt;  Stoln. 
si-lilleldiT.  CiU.  Iliiill.  iiil.  KVi;  s.  Wli'lier.  Cii*.  llililiiinirm 
FriVi/lmiihiimi.p.  1 ;  Dellossl.  AiniiUri  llrli.  7'i/jmi(rii/i/iii  i 
III  .«.i..i(/ii  n:  p.  liT.  Sei'  also  llrflU's  Jnhrh.  II.  lil">.  Hiien- 
alteiillnii  isialli'il  liilliei«ixiaii<Miii  the  teliiiloiry  of  tlieorifaiis 
of  Ilii'  hiiinan  ImnIv.  lakiii  llienillv  fnnii  shaliln'tlial  Ihinolo, 
(iiiiiiiii  ii'iinfiiii  t/ir  liiii'U  IVfiiii/i,  l^l.  I'mtfue,  p.  Illi. 


Abudiente 
Abulafia,  Abraham 


TllK  .IKWISU   KXCYCLOPEDIA 


140 


ABTTDIEN'TE :  N'ami'  of  a  Manino  fiuiiily  liv- 
iiii;  at  l.islioii.  Gideon  Abudiente,  ahoiit  tliV  ciul 
of  tliu  sixictiuli  ((lit  my,  is  the  earliest  bearer  of  tliis 
name  of  whom  we  have  eojtiiizance.  Ills  son,  to- 
gether with  some  other  members  of  the  family, 
emijrnited,  early  in  the  si-venteenth  century,  to 
Amsterdam,  where  they  reverted  to  the  Synagogue. 
From  liere  some  Abudientes  went  to  Ilamburir.  and 
(itliers  to  London,  where  they  seem  to  liave  borne 
tlie  double  name  CJideoiiAbudiente;  but  in  England 
the  descendants  discarded  the  second  part  of  the 
name  and  called  themselves  Gideon.  In  the  lists 
of  the  Portuguese  cougregatinii  at  Anislerdam,  fur 
the  year  167r).  the  names  Eliau  Obediente,  Jeu- 
dah  Obediente,  and  Jeudah  Raphael  Obediente 
apjiiar. 

I!iiii.1(";r.mmiv  :  T)p  ra.«trci,  Dc  .^i/imyiiyr  ran  de  Port.-Ixrail. 
(tKtnt't  ittf  If  Amytt  viUiin.  1ST.>.  pp.  .'»!,  .M;  Kayserlinp,  lii 
M'<iiiiU-<ihrifl.  1.x,  il'.i:  I.uoleii  Wi.lf,  Die  Trci'cs  Familii  in 
Kimlomi  ireprinKKl  tniin  llie  Jt- ir.  C/iniii.l.  p.  15,  I/iinluii. 
ISlHi.  „ 

Lt. 

Abraham  ben  Gideon  Abudiente :  A  prominent 
Diilcli  scholar  anil  mystic:  born  about  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  ccniiirv;  died  after  KIOO.  He 
lived  in  Amsterdam,  and  his  signature  is  among  the 
first  on  the  letter  of  honuige  sent  by  twenty  four 
distinguished  men  of  Amsterdam  to  Shabbetuai 
Zeui  in  October.  1666. 
Bibliography  :  3fonot«8chri/t,  1876,  pp.  ui-iw.    ,,    ,. 

Daniel  Abudiente  :  I'nclc  of  JIosf.s  Gideon 
Abidientk.  whose  ■■  (Jraminatica  Hcbraica  "  he  com- 
memorated ill  11  Spanish  sonnet  i»relixcd  to  the  work. 

Gideon  Moses  Abudiente :  A  son  of  JIoses 
Gideon  Abidiente,  and.  like  his  father,  gifted 
with  poetical  talent.  He  wrote  a  eulogy  on  Joseph 
ben  Isaac  Penso's  "Pardes  Shoshaunim"  (Garden  of 
Lilies),  Amsterdam.  1673. 

Judah  Abudiente :  Probably  a  son  of  Daniel 
Abudiente;  lived  at  Amsterdam,  and  published 
"  Or  Tob  "  (Good  Light) ,  a  Hebrew-Spanish  glossary 
for  the  young  (p.  82.  Amsterdam.  1675). 

Moses  Gideon  Abudiente :  Portuguese  poet 
and  Hebrew  graiiiiiiarian ;  liorn  at  Lisbon  early  in 
the  seventeenth  century:  moved  to  Amsterdam.  Hol- 
land, about  1624:  and  died  at  Hamburg,  Germany. 
February  24,  1688.  For  some  years  previous  to  his 
removal  to  Hamburg  he  lived  at  GU'ickstadt.  Hol- 
stein.  He  wrote  in  Portuguese  "Grammatica  Ile- 
braica,"  the  tirst  part  of  which  appeared  in  Ham- 
burg. 1633,  and  included  in  the  fourth  ])arl,  devoted 
to  Hebrew  style,  some  of  his  own  poems.  He  also 
published  "  Fin  de  los  Dias  Publica  ser  Llegado.  y  Fin 
de  los  Dias  Proiioslicado  por  lodos  los  Proiihetas, " 
Glilckstadt.  166."),  treating  of  the  theology  of  the 
prophets,  in  which,  according  to  Da  Costa,  he  seems 
to  follow  Shabbethai  Zebi  ("Israel  en  dc  Volken," 
1873,  2d  ed.,  p.  51")).  His  Hebrew  poems  arc  said  to 
exist  in  manuscript;  some  of  them  were  published 
in  ■' Ha- Jleassef  "  (the  Hebrew  ma.srazine  issued  in 
1785),  and  reprinted  in  "Bikkure  ha-Itlim."' 

BIBi.innRAPHY:  Delitzsch,  Zur  Clench.  (I.  JIM.  Pncsir.  p.  82; 
StelnschiK^ider,  Cot.  Bodl.  col.  17(12;  Kavserllng,  in  MoiiaU- 
schrift,  ix.  Ii9. 

M.  K. 

Solomon  Abudiente :  Relative  of  Moses  Gideon 
Abudiente  :  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  seven 
teentli  century:  author  of  Hebrew  and  Spanish  po- 
etry, still  in  manuscript  at  Oxford. 

BiBLiOGn,KPHv:  Kavserllns,  Bihl.  Esp.-Port.  Jud.p.8;  Neu- 
baupr,  ('(It.  limtl.  llchr.  .l/.s'.'J.  No.  SKI,  No.  i. 

G. 

ABUDIENTE,  SAMSON.     See  Gideon,  Sam 

SON. 


ABTJ-L-FADHL    DATJD.      Set;     Daid,    Anu 

Faiuii 

ABXJ-L-KHEIR  (•  Fiithcrof  the  Good  ";  called 
also  Isaac  ben  Samuel) :  A  Spanish  scholar  and 
translator,  wlm  nourished  in  the  tifteenth  century. 
He  was  e.\pellcd  from  Spain  in  1492,  and  settled 
at  Padua,  where,  in  1496,  he  completed  his  He- 
brew commentary  u])on  Al-Fcrgain's  "  Extract  from 
the  Almagest."  which,  however,  as  Steinschncidcr 
showed,  is  in  i)ait  plagiarized  from  Handali's  com- 
mentary. Two  years  later  he  translated  Albuba- 
ther's  "Liber  de  Nativitulibus "  from  Latin  into 
Hebrew,  under  the  title  of  "Sefer  ha-Moladot," 
and  also  Ra,jirs  astronomical  work,  "Completus," 
Abu-1-Kheir's  works  have  not  been  printed,  but 
are  to  be  found  in  manuscript  in  many  Europeaa 
liljraries. 

Bibliocbapiit:  i^telnschneider,  Hebr.  Uebern.  11.546,  r>.'>7,580. 

L.  G. 

ABU-L-RABI.     See   Solomon   bex   Abuauam 

BEN    liMll  1  11, 

ABU-L-SAR  BEN   JUTA.      See    Sahl    ben 
Mazmah 
ABU-L-WALID  MERWAN  IBN  JANA?. 

See  lisN  .Ian AH, 

ABULAFIA  or  ABU  AL  'AFIYAH  iSs  13K 
X"2V"^13N  S'2y.  that  is,  "Father  of  Health";  writ- 
ten also  VBsisnX:  from  which  the  Italian  name 
"Bolalli"  and  the  English  "BolalTey  "  are  certainly 
derived.  See  Steinschneider.  ".lew.  Quart.  Rev."  xi. 
4S8.  The  name  appears  as  Abenefeia  in  the  Barce- 
lona list  of  1383.  "Rev,  6t,  Juives,"  iv.  66):  Name 
of  a  widely  .scjittered  Jewish  family  of  Spanish  or- 
igin, one  of  whose  branches,  for  the  sake  of  clearer 
(Icsignation,  bore  the  surname  of  Ha-Levi.  Jlembers 
of  this  family  were  found  in  various  tities  of  the 
Orient  and  in  Africa  in  the  sixteenth  century.  From 
the  datji  collected  by  Zunz,  "Z.  G,"  pp.  432—134, 
the  following  imperfect  genealogical  trees  can  be 
drawn  u]i:  for  later  descendants  see  Bolaffey; 

Judab  AbulaHa  ha-Levl, 
XII.  («nt, 

I 
Todros  of  Toledo,  1204 


Melr(J^-"">).d.  1214 

I 
Moses,  d.  12,5.5 


Joseph 

Todros  of  Burgos, 
d.  128:3 

I 

.loseph  of  Talavera, 

Xlll.  cent. 


Melr  Samuel 

I       (1280-1310) 


Judali.  d.  1»49 


Solomon, 
d.  1339 

I 


Samuel 


Melr, 
d.  VW 


1 

Josepti, 

d.  i:t.Vi 


Melr, 
d.  V.U9 


Samuel, 
d.  aliout  13fin 


Samuel, 
d.  1349 


The  first  Abidafia  lived  in  the  twelfth  century  in 
Toledo,  ami  the  first  .Tew  to  settle  in  Spain  in  modern 
times  was  an  Abulafia  from  Tunis.  It  is  probable 
that  Moses  and  Solomon  Afia  (n"Sy).  mentioned  in 
1445  as  prominent  men  in  Saragosi-a,  belonged  to  the 
same  family.  M.  K. — G. 


141 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abudiente 
Abulafia,  Abraham 


ABXILAFIA,  ABRAHAM  BEN  SAMUEL: 

One  of  the  earliest  eal)iilisls;  horn  r-'40al  Saragossii, 
in  Ara.cou;  died  some  time  after  I21I1.  Very  early 
in  life  he  was  taken  hy  his  i)arents  to  Tudela.  in  Na- 
varre, where  his  aired  father  eari'fully  iiislrucled  him 
in  the  ISible  and  Talmud.  When  eitihteen  year.s  old 
Ills  father  died,  and  two  years  later  Aliraliani  began 
a  life  of  cejiseless  wandering.  His  first  journey 
was  to  Palestine,  whence  he  intended  to  start  and 
find  the  legendary  riv<r  Sainliation  and  I  he  lost 
Ten  Trilies.  He  got  no  further  than  Acre,  however, 
owing  to  the  desolation  wrought  in  the  Holy  I^and 
by  the  last  Crusiides.  Hi'  then  determined  to  go  to 
Home,  but  stopped  short  in  Capua,  where  he  devoted 
himself  with  passionat<'  zeal  to  the'  study  of  philos- 
ophy and  of  tlie  "  Moreh  "  of  Maimonides,  under  the 
tutelage  of  a  philosopher  and  i)hysician  named  Hillel 
— proliably  the  well-known  llillcl  ben  Samuel  ben 
Elie/er  of  Verona.  Although  he  always  holds  Mai- 
monides in  the  highest  estimulion.  and  often  makes 
use  of  .sentences  from  his  writings,  lie  was  as  litlle 
satisfied  with  his  philosophy  as  with  any  other 
branch  of  knowledge  w  hich  lieacc|uired.  He  thirsted 
after  the  highest.  He  was  of  a  connnunicative  dis- 
l>osilion,  able  and  eager  to  teach  others.  He  wrote 
industriously  on  cabalistic,  philosophical,  and  gram- 
matical subjects.  an<l  succeeded  insurroimding  him- 
self with  numerous  iiujiils.  to  whom  he  imjiarted 
much  i>f  his  own  enthusiasm.  On  his  return  to 
Spain  lie  became  .subject  to  visions,  and  at  the  age 
of  thirty-one,  at  Barcelona,  immersed  hiinsi'lf  in 
the  stuciy  of  the;  book  "Yezinih"  and  its  numer- 
ous commentaries.  This  book,  and  |)articularl3'  the 
commentary  and  method  of  the  German  mystic. 
Eleazar  of  Worms,  exercised  ti  deep  influence  upon 
liim,  and  had  the  elTect  of  greatly  increasing  his 
mystical  Ixnt.  Letters  of  the  alpiiabct,  numerals, 
vowel  Jioints,  all  became  symbols  of  existence  to 
liiin.  and  their  combinations  and  permutations,  sup- 
plementing and  explaining  one  another,  possessed 
for  him  an  illumining  power  most  cITectively  to  be 
disclosed  in  a  dee]ierstudy  of  the  divine  names,  and 
especially  of  the  consonants  of  the  Tetragrammaton. 
With  such  auxiliaries,  and  with  the  observance  of 
certain  rites  and  ascetic  practises,  men.  he  says. 
may  attain  to  the  highest  aim  of  existence  and  l)e- 
come  prophets:  not  in  order  to  work  miracles  and 
signs,  but  to  rea<  h  thi'  highest  degree  of  percep- 
tion and  be  able  to  penetrate  intuitively  into  the 
inscrutable  nature  of  the  Deitv.  the  riddles  of  cre- 
ation, the  problems  of  human  life,  the  purpose  of 
the  precepts,  and  the  deeper  meaning  of  the  Torah. 
His  most  important  disciple,  and  oni'  who  carried 
his  system  further,  was  thecabalist  .loseph  Chii|ui- 
tilla.  Abulafia  soon  left  Spain  again,  and  in  1279 
wrote  at  I'atras.  in  <treece.  tlw  first  of  his  pro- 
|ihelic  books,  "  Sefir  ha  Vasliar  "  (The  Hook  of  the 
Uighteous).  In  obedienci' to  an  inner  voice,  he  went 
in  I2S0  to  Home,  in  oriler  to  elTi'ct  the  conversion 
of  Pope  Nicholas  HI.  on  the  day  before  New  Year. 
filMl.  The  pope,  then  in  S\iriano,  hearil  of  it,  and 
issuiil  orders  to  burn  the  fanatic  as  soon  as  he 
reai'hed  that  place.  (  lose  ti>  the  innirgali' the  stake 
was  cricted  in  preparation;  but  not  in  the  least  dis- 
turbed. Abulafia  set  out  for  Suriano  and  reached 
there  August  i'i.  While  passing  Ihrough  the  outer 
gate,  he  heard  that  the  pope  hail  suciinnbcd  lo 
an  apopU'Ctic  stroke  during  Ihi'  prcicding  night. 
Keturning  to  Home,  he  was  thrown  into  jirison  by 
the  Minorites,  but  was  liberated  after  four  weeks' 
detention.  He  was  next  heard  of  in  Si<ily.  wlure 
he  appeariil  as  a  prophet  and  >Iissiah  TJiis  claim 
was  put  an  eliil  to  by  a  letter  lo  the  Juiiple  of 
Palermo,  w  hich  most  energetically  coudenmed  Abu- 


lafia's  conduct.  It  was  written  by  R.  Solomon  ben 
Adret.  who  strove  with  all  his  power  to  guide  men's 
minds  aright  in  that  trying  time  of  hysterical  men- 
tal confusion.  Abulafia  hail  to  takeup  the  ])ilgrim's 
slair anew,  and  \niderdistressingconilitionsconipiled 
his  "Sefer  ha-Ot"  (The  Book'  of  the  Siitn)  on  the 
little  island  of  Comino,  near  Malta,  l','.s,>-HH.  In  1'291 
he  wrote  his  last,  and  perhaps  his  most  intelligible, 
work,  "Imre  Shefer"  (Words  of  Beauty);  after  this 
all  trace  of  him  is  lost. 

Abulafia  calls  his  cabalistic  sy.stem  "  jirophetical 
cabala."  distinguishing  it  thus  from  that  of  his  prede- 
cessors, which  he  considers  of  lower  grade,  be- 
cause it  satisfied  itself  with  the  characterization  of 
God  as  E/i-Siif  ("the  Being  without  end"),  with 
the  Sefirot  as  vague  intermediaries,  and  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and  because 
its  method  remained  essentially  speculative.  Such 
is  only  a  preliminary  and  inferior  graele  of  knowl- 
edge'; the  highe'st  goal  is  prophetism.  assuring  nu'n 
a  ecrlain  ele'gre'e'  e)f  ce)mmunity  with  Goel.  Jleans 
licreunte)are'  alTorele-el  by  the  close  stuely  of  the  names 
of  Geiel,  jiartieularly  of  the  four  lettered  YIIWH. 
anel  alse>  by  i/iiiHiln'n.  the  symbeilie-al  employment 
of  letters  as  nume-rals.  In  this  the  letters  e)f  a  word 
are  tei  be'  cemsielere'el  not  only  as  h'tters.  giving 
the  sounil.  but  as  numerals,  the  .sum  of  which  may 
be  replace'el  by  the  equal  .sum  of  eiMieT  letters, 
proeiucing.  eif  ceiiirse'.  a  new  word,  which  must  ])rovo 
lo  be'  ieli'iitieal  in  signifieance,  or  at  leeisl  allie'el.  with 
the'  first  we)rel  wheisc  sum  it  e'ejuals.  Thus  Abidafia 
calls  himself  se)metimes  pK'fl  and  sometimes  ^^'^^t, 
because  the'  teital  of  the-  letters  in  each  e)f  these 
words  e'quals  2-1H.  which  is  likewise  the'  total  of  the 
letters  in  his  e)wn  give'U  name  Dm3{<.  In  one  jilace. 
eh'siring  tei  call  himself  "Berechiah,"  he  miss])e'lls  it 
irrnaia  in  oreleT  te)  make  it  aggregate  24H  (Stein- 
sehneieler,"Cat.  Munieh."  No.  409).  He'alse)e'mple)ys 
the  processes  e  if  iinttiriknn  (regareling  each  letter  in 
a  weirel  as  the  initial  of  some  other  worel.  and  so 
nniking  of  it  an  airostic),  of  Umurah  (substitution 
eif  one  letter  feir  another),  and  of  ziriif  (cemnecting 
vnrieius  h'tters  of  the  same  word).  He  claims  to 
have  eleriveel  his  system  of  le'tter-symbeils  from 
Meises  Nalimaniile-s;  but  he  preibably  elre'W  it.  espe- 
cially the'  geniatria  anel  the'  play  with  the'  names  of 
Geiel  anel  the'  neeess;iry  attcnelant  ase-e'tie-  life  and 
continiplalion — n3113 — from  the  Germem  myslicisni 
e)f  Eleazar  eif  Worms.  His  view  eif  preiphetism  eir 
the  prophetie'  gift  as  the'  highe'St  goal  se-e'Uis  to  ineii- 
cate  the'  inlluenee'  eif  ,Tuelah  ha-Levi's  "Cuzari."  but 
his  iele'a  eif  thi'  iiiiliMe'eif  prophecy  itself  is  ralheT  in 
ace'eirel  with  Maiinonielis. 

Abululia's  iidliienee'  ujion  the  furtluT  eli'Vilop 
ment  eif  the  Cabala  was  rather  eif  a  relareling  than 
a  feislering  nature'.  He'  gave  it  a  visiemary  turn. 
Owing  to  hisintlue'ncelhe're  wa.s  a  growing  teneh'ne'y 
tei  juggle'  with  the'  nanus  e>f  Geiel  and  angels,  anel 
tei  enipleiy  ge'Uiatria  in  it.s  meist  elive'rse  feirms.  He- 
was  the'  first  eine'.  teio.  Ie>  alleiw  the' Chrislian  iele'a  eif 
thi^  Trinity  tei  sheiw  a  hunt  glinime'r  in  the'  Cabala. 

.Mudalia  be'gan  his  fruit  fed  lite'nirv  activity  in 
I'iTl:  he'  himself  stales  the'  niunbe'r  of  his  writings 
tei  be'  1  we'll  I  y  six,  eif  w  hieh  t  wenly  Iwiiari'  "  preiphet- 
ical."  Of  Ihi'Si'  the'  following  have'  bie'ii  printiel; 
"Se'fer  ha  <)l  "(in  the' ••Grillz-.lubilsehrifl."  Hibie'W 
part,  p.  (!.">);  m'\T\-h  DXTI  ("Anel  this  is  lor  .luelah"). 
ceinsisling  of  a  reply  tei  Solomon  be'U  Aelre'l 'sal  lack, 
in  Ji'llinek,  "  .\uswahl  Kablmlislischer  Myslik."  p. 
i:i;  "Sheba'  Nelibot  ha  Torah  "  (The' Seve'u  Ways  eif 
the'  Law),  anel  "  linri'  Shi'fe'r,"  in  .Ii'llinek,  "  Philosei- 
phie'  unel  Kidibala";  a  pari  eif  his  aulobieigmphy 
from  his  "O-zar  Eelin  Ganuz"(The'  Hielele-n  Tie'asuri' 
of  Eden),  in  jelliiiek,  "B.  H.,"iii.  intnxhulion   p   xl. 


Abula&a 


THE  JEWISH    KNCYCLOPEDIA 


142 


[Jilliu.k.  ill  his  |ii(fiuc  Id  "  Srfi  r  lia-Ot."  siiys  "In 
theS|mniiinl  Alinilmiii  Almlaliii  <if  llic  lliiitccntliccn- 
,  tiny  Essciiisiii  of  old  fdiiiid  ils  icsurrcclioii.  I'lciicli- 
inj;  iisccticisiii  iiiiil  Ihr  liij.'li<sl  potciitialily  of  llir 
spirit  tliniii.irli  coiiimiiiuoii  wiili  (!oil.  iiricliil  by  a 
perfrcl  knowli'iljju  ami  iisi-  of  His  names,  lie  was 
thoroii};lilv  coiivinccii  of  his  prophetic  mission,  ami 
consideieii  himself  to  be  the  (lod  sent  Messiah  and 
Son  of  God.  lie  ditlers.  however,  from  the  .Messiahs 
who  have  risen  at  dilTereiit  times  in  his  many-sided 
philosopliical  Iniininu:  as  well  as  in  his  jierfeet  un- 
sellishness  and  siiieerily.  He  aiMresses  liiiiiself  not 
to  the  masses,  but  to  the  educated  and  enliiihleiied, 
and  does  not  conliiie  his  mission  to  liis  corelifrion- 
ists,  Init  is  tilled  with  the  desire  to  extend  it  to  tlie 
adlierents  of  the  Christian  church  also.  It  seems 
that,  for  the  siike  of  intiuencinjr  these,  he  tried  to  con- 
struct a  Trinitarian  sysleni.  thoiiirli  it  was  a  Trin- 
ity in  form  merely,  and  did  not  touch  the  essence 
of  God's  personality.  Before  his  vision  stood  the 
ideal  of  a  iinily  of  faith,  the  realization  of  which 
he  lonircd  to  liriiijr  aliout.  Iinluicil  with  this  spirit, 
his  disciples  worked  in  Spain  and  Italy,  emphasi- 
zing still  more  the  Trinitarian  idea  while  treatiiig  of 
the  "Ten  Setirot '  in  order  to  win  the  adherents 
of  the  Church.  Hence  the  terms  Father.  Mother, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  borrowed  from  the  Christian 
creed,  in  the  cabalistic  literature  of  the  lliirteeiitli 
century.  In  order  to  understand  Alnilafia  psyclio- 
logicall.v  and  .indue  him  correctly  and  willioiil  bias 
in  the  light  of  history,  it  must  lie  borne  in  mind 
that  his  cradle  was  in  Spain,  the  home  of  religious 
ecstasy,  and  that  the  age  in  which  he  lived  was  that 
of  the  Cru.sades.  so  favorable  to  mjstic  speculation, 
an  ago  in  which  many  longed  to  .sec  the  barriers 
separating  Judaism,  Christianily,  and  Islam  broken 
down,  and  in  which  the  JMcssianic  hopes  of  the  Jews 
found  new"  nourishment  in  many  hearts."         K,| 

JeUinck  gives  a  list  of  Abiilatia's  works  in  the  in- 
troduction to  "Philosojihic  iind  Kabliala,"  p.  7;  but 
it,  needs  correction  from  Stciiiselineider.  "Catalog," 
2d  ed.,  No.  285  c<  pnxsim.  Munich.  Abulatia's  wri- 
lingsare  not  wanting  in  excellent  ideas  and  Ix'autiful 
illustrations,  but  these  are  so  over.sro\vn  with  mystic 
obscurity  and  abstruseness  that  a  ]K'nisalof  them  is 
not  very  edifying. 

Bibliography:  M.  H.  Landiuier,  in  Litnnttirhhilt  (hy  Drl- 
ent.1,  im't.  pp.  3S1  t(  .««■</.  (itils  si-liciliir  ilisinlcnvd  Almlnfla 
from  Ills  long  obsrurity) :  Jt'Uin4'k  iwlnnlrvntcd  a  irreat  deal 
of  sludv  tothis  auttior),  in  the  works  alit-ady  nit^itii'iit-d  and 
in  Ids  Ueitritfie  zur  Gcuch.  th  r  K'lhlmlit.  pi.  ji.;  sii-insrhnei- 
der.  (\ll(lhi(i  dcrHchr.  llniiflyrlirill:  ii  ih  r  StaatsltUiliiitliili 
zti  MDiii-hrn.  2d  ed..  Nus.  :is  it  nliti.  cuntainlntr  reffrences 
t<i  Hrhr.  Itihl.:  (iriilz.  (;.  m)i.  r/.  .Iiiilrn.  vli.  7 ;  Blocli.  Gesc-h. 
(/.  tJnhrirkrlntui  il.  Knhlmhi,  pp.  it'nl  seq.;  Vopelsteln  and 
Rieper.  (ri:.'<i'h.  d.  Jwkn  in  iiimu  i-  ^"  et  seq,  (nee<is  suine 
emendation) . 

P.  B. 

5ayyim  Abulafia  (Abolafia):  Author  of 
"Shibl.ie  Tannaim"  (The  Praises  of  Tannaim),  Salo- 
nica.  1ST2.  a  work  glorifying  the  Tannaites. 

Hayyim  ben  David  Abulafia :  Talmudist.  who 
lived  ill  I'ali-sline  al  llie  end  of  ihe  eighteenlli  cen- 
tury. He  held  rabbinical  ]iosls  in  Sated,  Lari.ssa, 
and  Smyrna.  An  extensive  work  from  his  pen  on  the 
Book  of  Commandments  ("  Semag  "  ="  Sefer  Jlizwot 
Gadol  ")  was  destroyed  by  tire  in  Smyrna.  He  was 
the  author  of  some  hag.eadic  expositions  which  are 
to  be  found  in  the  collection  of  rabbinical  decisions, 
"Esh  Dat"  (The  Fire  of  the  Law),  by  Joseph  Nal.i- 
miili,  Salonica.  1790.  Several  of  his  rabbinical  de- 
cisions and  sermons  appeared  after  his  death  under 
the  title  "Xishmat  Hay  vim"  (The  Breath  of  Life), 
Salonica,  1806. 

Bibliography:  Azulai.  Shcm  ha-Gcdolim,  I.  54. 


Hayyim  ben  Jacob  Abulafia :  Habbinical  nu- 

lliority;  born  in  Palestine;  died  al  Damascus.  17-14. 
lie  was  the  giandfallicr  of  Hayyim  lien  David 
Abiilatia  and  grandson  of  Isaac  Nissim  alien  (iainil. 
Abiilalia  was  a  rabbi  in  Smyrna,  w  here  he  instituted 
many  wholcsonu'  re.irulations.  In  his  old  ii.!.'e  he  re- 
stored Tiberias.  He  is  the  author  of  several  works: 
(1)  "Mikrae  Kodesli  "  (Holy  Convocations),  Smyrna, 
1729,  containing  treatises  on  Biblicaland  Talmudicnl 
themes;  (2)"Yosef  Lckah  "  (Increase  of  Learning), 
Smvrna,  173(1-;!2,  a  work  in  three  volumes  on  the 
Peiilateuch;  (:i)  "  Yashresh  Ya'akob"  {.laeob  Will 
Take  Uoot),  Smyrna,  1729;  and  (1)  "Slielmt  Ya- 
'akob"  (Till'  Captivity  of  Jacob),  Smyrna,  17:i;i,  an 
elabonite  commentary  on  the  hag.sadie  compilation 
"  '?;n  Ya'akol),"  by  Jacob  ibn  Habil)andotliers(Slein- 
schncider,  "Cat.  l?odl."  col.  820).  JI.  K. 

^^ayyim  Nissim  Abulafia :  Chief  rabbi  of 
.lenisalem :  born  near  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  proliably  in  Tiberias,  Palestine;  died 
at  Jerusalem,  Feb.  21.  isiil.  He  was  a  descend- 
ant of  Hayyim  Abulatia  (Fiirst.  "Bibl.  Jud."  i.  16, 
and  "Ziinrat  Im-Arez"  by  Jacob  Berab,  son-in-law 
of  Hayyim  Abulatia,  1st  ed.,  JIantua,  1745),  who, 
at  the  invitation  of  Sheik  Daliir  al-Einir,  came 
from  Smyrna  to  Tiberias  in  the  middle  of  the  ei.slit- 
ceiilh  century.  Hayyim  Nissim  was  cho.sen  chief 
rabbi  of  Jerusalem,  to  succeed  R.  Isaac  Kobo,  in 
Ihe  fall  of  185-1.  and  was  ricognized  as  such  by 
the  pasha  of  Jerusalem,  altlioiigh.  like  his  prede- 
ces.sor,  he  was  not  conlirmed  by  the  central  govern- 
ment of  Constantinople.  He  lield  the  office  for  six 
years  and  four  months,  when  he  died.  He  left  many 
works  in  manuscript,  but  as  far  as  known  none 
has  been  published.  K.  Abraham  Ashkenazi  was 
his  successor. 

ItiBMOr,R.vpifV  :    I.iincz.  Jfni.<o;<-iH  Tear  Book,  iv.  212,  213. 
For  Ijis  epitapli  ihid.  I.  14.")-l-l". 

P.  Wi. 

Isaac  Abulafia:  Riibbi  al  -Vlcppo,  and  author 
of  "  Pene  Y'izliak  ■  (Isaac's  Countenance),  Smvrna, 
1871. 

Jacob  Abulafia:  Kabbi;  died  at  Safed,  Pales- 
tine, at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century; 
father  of  Hayyim  ben  Jacob  Abulatia  and  grandson 
of  Jacol)  Berab.  Abulatia  was  a  juipil  of  .Vsbasan 
and  a  rabbi  in  Damascus.  His  rabbinical  decisions 
arc  still  extant  in  inanuscript  (Azulai,  "  Shem  ha- 
Gedolim."  No.  140;  Ghirondi  and  Nepi,  "Toledot 
(Jedole  Yisrael,"    No.  218). 

Joseph  ben  Meir  Abulafia  :  Spanish  rablii  in 
Seville.  SjiaiiKdied  al  'I'olrdo.  i:i49. 

Joseph,  ben  Todros  Abulafia:  Spanish  writer; 
lived  in  Talaver:!.  and  inililished  a  defense  of  Mai- 
monides.  which  he  addressed  to  the  rabbis  of  Pro- 
vence. Moses  de  Leon  dedicated  his  book  "Shekel 
ha  Kodesli  "  (The  Slickel  of  the  Sanctuary),  1292,' to 
him  (Ziinz.  "Z.  (J."  pji.  -l:!li  rt  xcq.). 

Meir  ben   Joseph  Abulafia:  Spanish  rabbi  in 

Toledo.   i:ill5. 

Meir  ben  Todros  ha-Levi  Abulafia  (known 
sometimes  as  Kamah  =  Rabbi  Meir  ha-Levi): 
Nasi  and  Talmudist;  born  al  Buriros.  S])aiii.  about 
1180;  dicil  .March  20.  1244.  He  was  the  son  of  Todros 
ben  .ludah.  to  whom  the  ]iliysician  Judali  ben  Isaac 
dedicated  his  poem.  "The  Conflict  of  Wisdom  and 
Wealth."  published  in  1214.  Meir,  the  schoolmate 
of  Moses  Nahmaiiides.  was  so  highly  esteemed  at 
Toledo  that  on  his  father's  death  in  1225  the  hitter's 
honorary  title  of  iiiixi  (prince)  was  applied  to  him. 
Although  he  did  not  hesitate  to  place  interpretations 
of  his  own  on  T:ilmudic  passages  wherever  they 
seemed  contradictory  to  his  idea  of  a  perfect  God 


143 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abulafia 


and  His  sitlrilmtOR.  his  uiiflinchina;  orthodoxy  led 
liini  lo  cliiifr  to  tlic  most  ixtnioidinarv  li'irciids  iiiiil 
opinions  of  tlif  Taltnud,  Ixliivini;  thcni  to  hi-  liter- 
ally tnic.  No  wondrr  that  the  manner  in  whieli 
Mainionidcs  treated  llie  doelrine  of  resurrection  in 
his  "  Yad  ha-Hazakah  "  made  a  painful  impression 
tipon  luni.  Meir  wrote  a  lei  ler  to  the  leadinir  men  of 
I.unel  in  order  to  express  his  indi;;nalion.  He  met, 
however,  with  scant  approval;  for  Aaron  l)en  JFeshul- 
Inm  answered  him  harshly,  rebukinjj;  him  for  his 
presumption  and  arroj,'anpc. 

Jleir,  who  was  so  haughty  that  lie  thought  it  de- 
rogatory to  his  dl;,'nily  lo  iiay  a  visit  to  his  father, 
couM  not  i|Uielly  sulTersueh  a  rebuke, 

Contest  anil  replied  willi  great  self  conlidence. 
with  Mai-  He  next  applied  to  the  scholars  of 
xnonides.  northern  France  regarding  the  sjime 
matter,  but  his  success  with  them  was 
not  greater.  None  the  less  he  remained  throughout 
his  lifetime  an  opponent  of  Maimonides  and  an  ad- 
herent of  the  Cabala.  On  account  of  advanced  age 
he  took  no  ]iart  in  the  controversies  which  broke 
out  lat<-r  with  regard  to  the  "  Moreh." 

Sleir  was  the  author  of  "Yad  Hamah ''  (an  allu- 
sion to  his  name),  a  commentary  on  the  'I'almudic 
treatises  Baba  Batni  and  Sanhedrin  ('2  vols.,  Salo- 
nica,  1790,  1798),  and  of  the  valuable  work,  "Ma- 
soret  Seyag  la-Torah,"  containing  Ma.soretic  notes 
on  the  Pentateuch,  alphabetically  arranged  (Flor- 
ence. 1750;  IJerlin,  17(il).  His  coiTespondence  witli 
the  "Sages  of  Lunel"  was  published  from  the  manu- 
script by  ,1.  lirill  under  the  title  "  Kilab  al-Hasji'il- 
Stfer  Iggerol"  (Paris,  1S71).  Compare  iVAUO.N  BEN 
Mksiiullam. 

BlBi.ioc.RAPMV:  Cclger.  JIM.  Zeil.  ix.   282  et  seq.;  Griitz, 
(Jfxeh.  d.  Judcu^  vll.  3t>  ct  »aj. 

Moses  Abulafia  (or  Abu  AmrumMusa):  Span- 
ish ?iiusieian  ;  (lied  r.Js;!.  He  was  Ihe  .son  of  .losejdi 
Aliulatia,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  music  (Stein- 
sclmeider,  "  Hebr.  I'ihl.'"  viii.  70,  xix.  iOct  sctj.;  idem, 
"llebr.  I'ebers.  ■'  p.  6Ki().  Another  Moses  Abulafia 
was  a  rabbi  in  Toledo  between  1470  and  1480  (Zunz, 
"Z.  G."  p.  4:m». 

Samuel  ha-Levi  Abulafia  (or  Al-Levi,  but  er- 
roneously AUavi):  Spanish  financier;  Imrii  at  Toledo 
about  i;j','ll;  was  treasurer  to  Don  Pedro  the Cniel  of 
Castile.  In  1U.">()  lie  was  recommended  to  the  king  as 
cliiif  treasurer  by  the  minisler  .luan  Alfonso  de  Al- 
biii|ueri|iie.  whose  estates  he  managed.  He  soon 
became  privy  (ciuneihjrof  his  new  master,  and  was 
the  most  iiillueiilial  man  in  Castile.  Through  his 
friendship  for  Dona  Maria  de  I'adilla,  the  mistress 
of  Pedro,  he  drew  on  himself  the  hatred  of  the  le- 
gitimate (lueen  and  of  the  grandees  who  adhered  to 
her  cause.  In  lH.Vt.  while  with  the  king  in  Ihe  fort- 
ress of  Toro,  he  was  suddenly  seized  by  the  enemies 
of  Ihe  monarch  and  thrown  into  prison.  He  sue- 
cee<led  in  procuring  his  release  Ihrougli  Ihi'  payment 
of  a  large  ransom  and  escaped,  togelher  with  Ihe 
king,  wild  had  also  been  seized.  Don  Samuel  ha 
Levi  restored  the  thoroughly  disorganize<I  tinanees 
of  the  slate,  and  by  rigorous  control  of  the  taxcol- 
h'clors,  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  an  arrangement 
which  hi'  made  with  the  credilors,  on  the  other,  lie 
managed  lo  accumiilale  a  large  amount  of  money  in 
the  riiyal  treasury.  He  appoiiiled  a  number  of  his 
relatives  ciilhclors of  taxes.  Ilisnephew.  Don  Jo- 
seph ha-Levi.  became  lax-eollcctorof  Siville.  Iloii 
Sannii'l  ha-l.evi  occupied  a  mansion  in  Toledo. which 
Is  still  known  as  Palacio  del  .ludio  (".lew's  I'alace  '"). 
Several  synagogues  were  built  at  his  expense  in  va- 
rious purls  of  Castile,  among  them  a  magnillceut 


one  in  Toledo.  This  synagogue  was  finished  in  1357, 
and  was  afterwarti  converted  into  a  church  under 
the  name  of  Ki.  Tn.ixsiTo.  Hebrew  in.scriptions,  still 
lucserved  on  the  side  walls  of  this  edifice — today 
a  national  monument — perpetuate  tlie  memory  of 
his  good  deeds.  Samuel  maintained  himself  nearly 
twenty  years  in  his  high  position.  In  1300  Don 
Pedro  discovered  the  existence  of  a  widespread  con- 
spiracy in  which  the  archbishop  of  Toledo  anil  Don 
Saiiiuel  were  sjiid  to  be  implicated.  The  archbishop 
was  ex]>elle(l,but  Don  Samuel,  who.  it  is  said,  had  been 
denounced  by  envious  coreligionists,  was  dragged  to 
Seville  and  imprisoned,  together  with  liis  wealthy 
relatives.  His  entire  fortune  and  that  of  his  rela- 
tives, consisting  of  190,000  doubloons  (Sit.50.000  or 
tl!)5,737),  twenty  boxes  filled  with  jewelry  and  silk 
and  velvet  clothing,  and  eighty  slaves,  were  confis- 
cated by  the  king.  lie  died  under  torture  in  Seville, 
November,  13(50.  "From  the  prison,  in  which  his 
king  caused  him  to  be  affiicted,  the  Lord  summoned 
him  to  a  lieavenh'  habitation." 

HlBI.Ioc.RAPlIV:  Amador  de  los  Hios,  Hixtnria  (If  Im  Jiid'ioB, 
II.  22a  ft  .stf/. ;  (iiiltz,  (Ifiich.  d.  Jtiden.  vll.  41 1  f  (  «</. ;  Kuyser- 
llrar.  l>"n  I'cdro  iind  scin  Scliatzmeiftcr  Samuel  Levi,  In 
MoiiiitKSChrift,  vl.  Htli  et  scq. 

Samuel  ha-Levi  Abulafia:  Translatorof  Toledo, 
whowas  still  livingin  r.37s.  At  the  command  of  King 
Alfonso  X.  of  Castile  he  translated  from  Araliic  into 
Spanish  "  Fabrica  y  Usos  del  Orlogio  della  Candela" 
(Manufacture  and  Uses  of  the  Candle  Clock). 

Buimograpiiy:  Stcinsclincider,  Cat.  Bndl.  col.  irViS;  Idem, 
Ihiir.  I'ebcrs.ji.'Mi;  Griitz,  rvcscd.d.  Jia/cii,  vll.ltili;  Kavser- 
lliig,  liihl.  Exjj.-Purt.  Jud.  p.  9il. 

M.  K. 

Todros  Abulafia :  Spanish  Talniudist,  religious 
lioet.  and  cabalist ;  born  in  1234;  died  at  Seville  after 
1304  (according  to  Griitz.  "(Jcsch.  d.  Juden."  viii. 
note  12;  Zacuto  in  the  "Yuhasiu"  gives  12S8;  Azu- 
lai,  1283;  Zunz,"Literalurge-scli."  p.  481.  1283).  He 
was  a  sfin  of  .Joseph  ben  Todros  ben  .Tudali  ha-Levi 
Abulafia  and  a  nephew  of  Jleirben  Todros  Abulafia. 
He  was  wealthv  and  inlluential  and  enjoved  the  royal 
favor  of  King'Sancho  IV.  of  Castile  {1284-95).  "At 
one  time  lie  fell  into  disgrace,  was  imprisoned  and  in 
danger  of  capital  punishment.  "While  in  prison  he 
had  a  vision  foretelling  his  speedy  release,  which  hap- 
))eneil  on  the  following  morning.  He  wasan  especial 
favorite  of  Queen  Maria  de  Molina  and.  as  one  of 
her  retinue,  accompanied  the  monarchs  of  Castile  to 
their  meeting  with  the  king  of  France  on  Provencal 
soil.  Upon  this  occasion  great  respect  was  shown 
him  by  the  .lews  of  southern  France,  and  the  poet 
Abraham  Isaac  Bedersi  coniposeil  .some  eulogistic 
verses  in  his  honor.  A  ]ioetie  dedicalion  by  Todros 
himself  is  mentioned  by  Ziinz  ("S.  P."  ji.  481).  and 
he  was  also  the  aulhorof  "Scfcr  Aliyot  Yebaniot," 
containing  novell.e  upon  the  Talmudic  treatise  Ye- 
baniot (.Vzulai,  "Sheiii  ha  (iedolim").  He  devoted 
most  alleiition,  however,  to  the  Cabala. 

He,  like  his  sons  .Joseph  ami  Levi,  liberally  sup- 
ported cabalistic  scholars.  He  wrote  two  cabalistic 
works,  (1)  "Slia'ar  halfazim"  (The  Gate  of  So- 
crel.s),  a  commentary  on  Ps.  xix..  in  which  he  ilis- 
cusscs  its  mysleries  in  connection  with  Ihe  St'firot; 
(2)"()zar  ha  Kabod  "  (The  Treasury  of  (Jlory),  an 
inli'rpretation  of  tln>  Talmudic  Haggadot  in  a  caba- 
listic .sense.  The  seilion  of  this  I  realise  dealing  with 
l{enikot  and  Mo'cd  has  JH'en  printed  (Novydvor, 
180S).  Quouil  ions  from  the  Zohar  occur  in  it  fortlie 
first  time  (27n;  mt3D  n3  I'tOCnD.  Zohar,  i.  3(fcr, 
14.V.). 

This  is  the  first  atteni|>t  al  a  cabalistic  explanation 


Abulfaraj  bar  Hebraeus 
Academies  in  Babylonia 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


144 


of  thellnpgadiit.     In  tlicsc  two  works  TodrosAbii- 
latin  appears  as  an  o\wn  opponent  of  Maimonidcs, 
whom  Ik- otherwise  jrreatly  honors. 
BlBi.uxiKAPHY:  Zunz.  X.  <i.  p.  4:i2;  Idi-m.  Literal iiriiritch.  p. 

4«1:  (iriitz.  tlfsch.  <(.  Jwleii.  M  ed.,  vll.  ISS  and  imte  12; 

MW\mf\.  Ill- hii-lli>ii>iiin.S-.M7.  p    g 

ABULFAKAJ   BAB   HEBR^ffiUS.     See  But 

IlKiiii.vi  s    Ar.i  IK  \K  \i. 

ABUL9ASSAN,  JTJDAH  BEN  SAMUEL 
HA-LEVI  (IBN  ALLEVI).    Scc.h D.vii  ii.v  Lkvi. 

ABUMAI:  (laoinn  Sura  from  Sll  to  HIO;  l)rotlier 
of  Kalihi  .Moniioai.  He  appears  to  have  lieen  tlie 
father  of  the  ;raon  of  tSum.  t'ohenZe(lel>.  who  is  re- 
nowned for  Ills  many  ritual  and  judicial  decisions. 

yee  (iHOMM  A.    K. 

ABUMAI  BEN  ABRAHAM :  Gaon  in  Puin 
liedita  froMi  SHI  to  S14.  >io  responsa  in  his  name  are 
known.     See  til'.oNI.M.  A.    K. 

ABUN   ASTRUC.     See  Astruc,  Desmaister 

liKN. 

ABUN  BEN  SAUL  :  An  elegist  who  was  prob- 
ably a  pupil  cif  Isaac  Alfasi  and.  most  likely,  is  the 
one  whose  death  Moses  ibn  Ezra  deplores  in  a  poem. 
Two  of  his  elegies  are  found  in  the  JIahzor  of 
Avignon. 
BiBi.iooRAPHT:  Zunz,  Liternturgciich.  p.  34!);  Luzzatto,  in 

Knnii  Iknicil.  Iv.  31,  :i2,  85, S«.  jj     jj 

ABUN  BEN  SHARADA:  A  Spanish  poet; 
flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century, 
first  at  Lucena,  afterward  at  Seville.  None  of  his 
poetical  works  has  survived;  and  his  name  is  known 
only  from  quotations  made  by  poets  like  Solomon  ibn 
Gabirol.  Moses  ibn  Ezra,  and  Judali  Alharizi.  In 
a  poem  attributed  to  Solomon  ilm  Gabirol  (compare 
Dukes,  in  "Orient,"  xi.  267)  Abun  is  mentioned  im- 
mediately after  the  lexicographer  Menahem  ben 
Saruk.  Moses  ibn  Ezra,  in  liis  "  Diwan  "  (compare 
Neubauer,  "Cat.  Bodl.  Hebr.  MSS."  Ko.  1972,  ii. 
12),  eulogizes  his  life  in  one  poem  and  bewails  his 


Tiamat,  the  Assyrian  Abyss. 

(From  Bull,  "  Light  from  the  Ea«l.") 

death  in  another.  The  eulogy,  however,  seems  to 
be  concerned  with  the  man  rather  than  with  the  poet. 
Indeed,  Judah  Alharizi  ("TahkcuKini."  iii.)  classes 
Abun  among  the  poets  whose  works  have  been  for- 
gotten because  they  were  of  but  little  interest. 

Bibliography  :  Dukes,  T\^nhal  ^cdiimim.  p. 7 :  Kcrcm  IJemril, 
V.  86 :  Moses  ibn  Ezra.  Divnn.  pp.  13,  U ;  Brody,  In  the  Steiii- 
seJin(-iticr-Fi--<t!<chrifl,   Hebrew  part,  p.  34;  Steinschneider, 


Cat.  Biiill.  ools.  I"!!!,  3:il4,  •Mo:. 


I.  Bn. 


ABYSS :  Term  for  the  DWD  (Gen.  vii.  11)  of  the 
Old  Testament,  nscd  in  the  apocalyptic,  New  Tes- 
tament, and  cabalistic  literature  for  the  place  of 
punishment  of  the  wicke<i;  hell;  the  abode  of  certain 
demons.  As  such  the  Abvssof  Fire  is  mentioned  in 
the  Book  of  Enoch  (xviiV  ll-lfi,  19;  xxi.  1-6;  xc. 
21-25)  as  the  prison-house  of  impure  angels  (com- 


Tlie  Acacia. 

1.   t'luWKrlng  branch.    9.   Seed-pod. 

pare  Luke,  viii.  31 ;  Rev.  ix.  1 ;  xi.  7 — Abyss,  the 
seat  of  the  dragon;  xx.  3,  where  "Satan  is  cast 
into  the  abyss,  shut  up  and  a  seal  set  upon  him"). 
According  to  the  Prayer  of  Manassch,  ver.se  3.  the 
Lord  has  closed  and  scaled  up  the  Abyss  by  His  aw- 
ful and  mystic  name.  There  was  a  place  beneath 
the  altar  of  the  Temple  at  Jernsjjlem  believed  to 
lead  down  to  the  very  Abyss  of  the  world,  the 
foundation-stone  of  the  earth  being  placed  there 
(Suk.  49(7.  riHii;  sec  Targ.  Yer,  Kx.  xxviii.  30,  and 
Zohar,  iii.  (il).  In  the  cosmography  of  the  rabbis 
(Midr.  Koncn)  the  Abyss  forms  part  of  Gehenna;  it 
is  beneath  the  ocean,  and  consists  of  three,  or  seven, 
departments,  one  above  the  other.  In  the  Cabala  the 
opening  of  the  great  Abyss  in  the  lower  world,  sealed 
with  the  seal  that  bears  tlu;  Holy  Name,  plays  a 
great  role  as  the  scat  of  the  evil  spirits,  and  with  it 
corresponds  the  opening  of  the  great  Abyss  in  the 
upper  world  as  a  cosmogonic  element.     See  Gehin- 

NOM  ;   SUF.OI,.  K. 

ABYSSINIA.     See  F.\i..\sii.vs. 

ACACIA.— Biblical  Data :  A  hard  and  durable 
but  light  wood;  at  lirst  yellowish,  but  gradually 
turning  very  dark,  like  ebony.  Of  this  the  Ark  and 
its  altars,  with  their  staves,  and  the  bars  of  the  Tab- 
ernacle were  made  (Ex.  xxxv.  7;  Dent.  x.  3).  The 
Acacia-tree  is  called  in  Hebrew  shittdli  (for  uliintah), 
plural  slnttim:  HDC,  D^UC,  -Vrabie.  Kunt;  an  Egyp- 
tian loan-word.  It  is  the  Sj/i'nn  ^-Kr/i/ptirira  of  the 
ancients  {MiiKOsa  Ailiitifn.  Linn.).  It  is  a  large, 
spreading,  thorny  tree  with  many  branches,  found 
in  Africa  and  Arabia.  The  name  of  this  tree  (shittim) 
is  found  in  various  locality  names  mentioned  in  the 
Bible:  Shittim  (Num.  xxxv.  1);  Abel-Sliittim  (ibid. 
xxxiii.  49);  Beth-Shitfcdi  (.ludges.  vii.  22).  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  highly  priz<d  (Isa.  xli.  19). 

BTBLinf;RAi'nv:  .I.'il>Ionskv,  Opusnilfi,  ed.  te  Water,  i.  260; 
HoscniruilliT,  H(iii<ll>ut'li  <hr  Itilit.  Allrrlhumxkundc,  iv. 
part  i.  \^.'S2;  Roliinson.  BihJ.  liisearches  in  Fitla<tine^  11. 
249;  Imauuel  Low,  Aramiii^chc  Pflanzennamen.  p.  .M;  p. 
M*7  (for  tlie  meaning  of  nhittah  =  mnt  ~  Acacia,  Acncia 
Nihitka),  p.  388  (for  the  meaning  of  toranita  =  cypress). 

J.   P.    P. 


145 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abulfaraj  bar  Hebraeus 
Acadetaies  in  Babylonia 


In  Rabbinical  Xiiterature  :  R.  H.  28n.  re- 
ferring to  Isii.  xli.  19.  ((iiiiits  the  sliittali  (explained  as 
tirratiita  —  "  cypress-tree"  acconliiig  to  Lijw."  I'llaiiz- 
oniiaineii,"  p.  'SHU:  aeeordinj?  to  others  =  "  pine  ") 
among  the  ten  kinds  of  eedar-trees;  so  also  B.  li.  Hd//; 
but  Yer.  Ket.  vii.  liU/;  Tan..  Teruniah,  S  9;  Ex.  I{. 
XXXV.,  mention  twenty-four  eedar-trees.  seven  of 
whieh  are  derived  from  Isa.  xli.  19  (compare  the 
fourteen  trees  in  Enoch,  iii.  and  Book  of  .lutiilees. 
xxi.  13.  where,  instead  of  n/inhd  (almond),  shittah 
(Acacia)  was  most  likely  theoriirinal  reading:  see  Dill- 
man.  "Das  Buch  Henoch,"  p.  91.  where  reference  is 
niadi'tol.sa.  xli. 19.  Iv.  13.  Ix.  13;  compare  also  "Geo 
ponica."  xi.  1,  where  fourteen  evergreen  trees  are 
enumerated).  Sec  Tan.  I.r.:  "Of  all  these  the  shit 
tim  wood  alone  was  si-lecled  in  order  to  atone  for 
the  sin  that  Israel  was  to  commit  in  Shitlim  (Num. 

XXV.  1  ('/»7.|.    Ind I. while  Phinchas  assuaged  the 

divine  wrath  [Num.  xxv.  7],  the  Holy  One — Messed 
be  He! — .said:  '  I  shall  in  the  future  Ileal  the  plague 
of  Shittim:  A  fountain  shall  come  forth  from  the 
house  of  the  Lord,  and  shall  water  the  valley  of 
Shittim'";  .see  Joel.  iv.  is.  //,/;.  (Tan.  I.e.). 

"Acacia  trees  without  any  knots  <ir  fissures  were 
cut  by  .Jacob  the  patriarch  in  Migdal  Zelio'aya. 
Palestine,  and  were  taken  down  liy  him  to  Egyjit 
to  be  |)reserve(l  by  his  children  for  future  use  in 
the  wilderness;  wherefore  we  read  (Ex.  xxxv.  24): 
'  Everv  man  with  whom  was  found  shittim  |  K.  V. 
acacia]  wood. '  H.  Haiiaiiiah  was  asked  regarding  the 
Acacia-trees  that  were  still  growing  there  whether  it 
was  right  that  people  should  refrain  from  using  them 
for  eoninion  ]iurposes  in  oriler  that  the  wood  might 
be  consecrated  solely  for  the  Ark,  to  wlii<'li  he  re 
Jtlied:  'Myall  means  remain  true  to  the  custom  of 
your  fathers. '  "  which  was  not  to  use  Acacia  for  such 
i)urposes(Oen.  U.  xciv.;  Cant.  R.  i.  13;  Yer.  Pes.  iv. 
80(/;sceaIsoTcstamentof  the  Patriarchs,  Simeon,  ^8). 

K. 

ACADEMIES    IN   BABYLONIA :  The  Jews 

of  Bahyloiiiii,  no  doubl,  shared  in  the  changes  and 
movi'meiits  that  Ezra  and  his  successors,  who  came 
from  Babylonia,  introduced  into  Pah'stiiie.  But  for 
the  four  centuries  covering  the  period  from  Ezra  to 
ilillel  there  are  no  details;  and  the  history  of  the 
succeeding  two  centuries,  from  Hillel  to  Judah  I., 
furnishes  only  a  few  scanty  items  on  the  state  oC 
learnint,'  among  the  Babylonian  Jews.  Sherira 
Oaon.  in  his  fanious  letter  (the  chief  source  of  in- 
fonnatioii  on  the  Baliylonian  scIkjoIs)  referring  to 
those  dark  centuries,  wrote:  "No  doulit,  here  in 
Baliyionia  ]iiil)lic  instruction  was  given  in  thi' 
Tonili ;  but  besides  tile  exilarchs  there  were  no  rec 
ognized  heads  of  schools  until  the  death  of  Babbi 
[Judah  1. 1"  The  principal  seat  of  Babylonian  J  u 
daism  was  Ni:ii.mii>i;a.  where  there  certainly  was 
Willie  iiisliliilion  of  learning.  A  very  aneii'iil  syiia 
gogiie.  built,  it  WHS  bclii'vcd.  by  King  .lelioiacliin, 
o.\isted  ill  Neliardea.  At  Iluzal.  near  Nelmrdea, 
then-  was  anolher  synagogue,  not  far  from  which 
could  lie  si-en  the  ruins  of  Ezra's  academy.  In  the 
periofi  bifore  Hadiian.  .\kiba.  on  his  arrival  at 
Kehaidia  on  a  mission  from  the  Sanhedriii.  entered 
bilo  a  discussion  with  a  resilient  seholar  on  a  point 
of  matrimonial  law  (Mislmah  Yeli..  endi.  Al  the 
same  lime  there  was  at  Nisiliis.  in  norlheni  Meso 
l)otaniiii.  an  e\ceMeiit  .lewi-.li  c-.i||ege.  at  the  head 
of  whidi  slooil  Judah  Icn  Bcleia  ( B.illiy  nil.  and 
hi  whieh  many  Pr.lesliiiian  scholars  found  refuge  at 
the  time  of  the  persi'culions.  A  certain  temponirv 
iinporlanee  was  also  attained  by  a  school  al  Neliar 
IVkod.  founded  by  the  Paleslinian  iinmignint  Hana 
niali.  nephew  of  Joshua  beu  llauauiah.  w  liich  school 
I  -Id 


miglit  have  been  the  pau.se  of  a  schism  between  the 
Jews  of  Babylonia  and  those  of  Palestine.  Iiad  not 
tin-  Palestinian  authorities  promptly  checked  Hauan- 
iah's  ambitirtn. 

Among  those  that  helped  to  restore  Palestinian 
learning,  after  Hadrian,  was  the  ]5abylonian  scholar 
Nathan,  a  nicniber  of  the  family  of  the  cxilarch, 
who  eoiitiiiueil  his  activity  excn  under  Judah  1. 
Another  Babylonian.  Hivya.  belonged  to  the  fore- 
most leaders  in  the  closing  age  of  the  Tannaim. 
His  nephew.  Aiii!.\  AiiiK.\.  afterward  called  simply 
Hab.wasoneof  the  most  important  jnipils  of  Judah  1. 
Bab's  return  to  liis  Babylonian  home,  the  year  of 
whieh  has  been  aecurately  recorded  (.'530  of  the 
Seleiicidan,  or  219  of  the  common  era),  marks  an 
epoch:  for  from  it  dates  the  beginning  of  a  new 
movement  in  Babylonian  Judaism — namely,  the  ini- 
tiation of  the  dominant  role  which  the  Babylonian 
Academies  played  for  several  centuries.  Leaving 
Nelmrdea  to  his  friend  Samuel,  w  hose  father,  Abba, 
was  already  reckoned  among  the  au- 
Nehardea,  thorities  of'that  town.  Kali  founded  a 
Sura,  Pum-  new  academy  in  Sura,  w  here  he  held 

bedita,  iiroperty.  Tlius.  there  existed  in  Baby- 
and  Ma-  Ionia  two  contemporary  academies,  so 
huza.  far  removed  from  each  other,  how- 
ever, as  not  to  interfere  with  each 
other's  operations.  Since  Hab  and  Samuel  were 
acknowled.tred  peers  in  position  and  learning,  their 
academies  likewise  were  accounted  of  equal  rank 
and  intbience.  Thus  both  Babylonian  rabbinical 
schools  opened  their  lectures  brilliantly,  and  the  en- 
suing di.sciissions  in  their  clas.ses  furnished  the  ear- 
liest strut uni  of  the  scholarly  material  deposited  in 
the  Babylonian  Talmud.  The  coexistence  for  many 
decades  of  these  two  colleges  of  eijual  rank  origi- 
nated that  remarkable  phenomenon  of  the  dual 
leadership  of  the  Babylonian  Academies  which, 
with  some  slight  interruptions,  became  a  permanent 
institution  and  a  weighty  factor  in  the  development 
of  Babylonian  Judaism. 

When  Odenathus  destroyed  Neliardea  in  259 — 
twelve  years  after  Ball's  death,  and  live  years  after 
that  of  Samui-1 — its  jilace  w  as  taken  by  a  neighboring 
town,  PiMnKDiTv,  where  .ludah  ben  Ezekiel,  a  pupil 
of  both  Bab  and  Samuel,  founded  a  new  school. 
During  the  life  of  its  founder,  and  still  more  under 
his  successors,  this  .school  aci|uired  a  reputation  for 
intellectual  keeniiessand  discrimination,  which  often 
degenerated  into  mere  liair-s]ilitliiig.  Pumbedita 
became  the  other  focus  of  the  intellectual  life  of 
Babylonian  Isiail,  and  retained  that  position  until 
the  end  of  the  giwniic  period. 

Nelmrdea  once  more  came  into  prominence  under 
.ViiKiuar.  a  contemporary  of  Ashi.  The  luster  of 
Sura  (also  known  liy  the  name  of  its  neighboring 
town,  Mata  ."Mel.msya)  was  enhanced  by  Bab's  pupil 
and  successor.  Iluna.  under  whom  the  attendanee 
al  the  academy  reached  uiiiisual  numbers.  When 
Hiiiia  di<'d.  in  297.  Judah  ben  Ezekiel.  principal 
of  the  Piimbedilii  Aca<leniy.  was  recognized  also 
by  the  sages  of  Sum  as  their  head.  On  the  death 
of  Judah.  two  years  later.  Sura  became  the  only 
center  of  learning,  with  Ilisda  (died  HO!t)  ns  its 
liead.  Hisda  had  in  Hiina's  lifetime  rebuilt  Bab's 
ruiiu'il  acailemy  in  Sura,  while  Huna's  college 
was  in  the  vicinity  of  Mata  Miliasya  (Sliirini). 
On  Ilisda's  dralli  .sSiini  lost  its  importance  for  a 
loni;  time.  In  Pumbedita.  Babliah  bar  Nahnmni 
olied  3311.  Joseph  (died  333).  and  Abaye  (died  338) 
tauiiht  in  sucec'ssion.  They  were  followed  by  Babii, 
who  tninsplanleil  the  college  to  his  niitive  town. 
Mahiiza.  I'lider  (lie.sc  niiLsters  the  study  of  the  Ijiw 
atlaiued  a  notable  dcvulopmcut,  to  which    certain 


Academies  in  Babylonia 
Academies  iu  Palestine 


THE  .JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


146 


PaU'stiniiin  si-liolnrs,  driven  from  their  own  liomesby 
tlie  pei-seeiitidiis  of  Honiuu  lyniuny,  contributed  u"o 
inconsiderable  share. 

After  Haba"s  death,  in  'i^fi.  Piinibedita  regained 
its  former  position.  The  lieud  of  llie  academy  was 
Nahman  bar  Isiiae  (died  Ooti),  a  pupil  of  Kaba.  In 
his  metliod  of  teacliin.!;  may  be  discerned  tlie  tirst 
traces  of  an  attempt  to  edit  tlie  enormous  mass  of 
material  that  idtimately  formed  the 
Rab  Ashi,  Habylonian  Talmud.  Not  Pumbedita, 
Founder  of  however,  but  Sura,  was  destined  to 
the  Baby-  l>e  the  birthplace  of  this  work.  After 
Ionian  Kaba's  death.  F'apa.  another  of  his  p\i- 
Talmud.  pils,  foimded  a  college  in  Naresh,  near 
Sura,  which,  for  tlie  time  bein.ic.  inter- 
fered with  the  firowthof  the  Sura  school;  but  after 
Papa's  death,  in  ■i''i,  the  collcfre  at  Sura  regained 
its  former  supremacy.  Its  restorer  was  Asm.  mider 
whose  guidance,  during  more  than  half  a  century 
(Ashi  died  427),  it  attained  great  prominence,  and 
p'"escnted  such  attractions  that  even  the  c.xilarchs 
came  there,  in  the  autumn  of  each  year,  to  hold 
their  customary  oDicial  receptions.  The  school  at 
Pumlieditu  recognized  the  ]ireeminence  of  that  of 
Sura;  and  this  leader-ship  was  lirmly  retained  for 
several  ceuturies. 

The  unusual  length  of  Ashi's  activity,  his  un- 
deniable high  standing,  his  learning,  as  well  as 
the  favorable  circumstances  of  the  day,  were  all  of 
potent  influence  in  furthering  the  task  he  under- 
took; namely,  that  of  sifting  and  collecting  the  ma- 
terial accunudated  for  two  centuries  by  the  Uaby- 
Ionian  Academies.  The  tinal  editing  of  the  literary 
work  which  this  labor  produced  did  not,  it  is  true, 
take  place  uutil  .somewhat  later  ;  but  tradition 
rightly  names  Ashi  as  the  originator  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud.  Indeed,  Ashi's  editorial  work  re- 
ceived many  later  additions  and  amplifications;  but 
the  form  underwent  no  materiul  niodilication.  The 
Babylonian  Talmiul  must  be  considered  the  work 
of  the  Academy  of  Sura,  because  Ashi  submitted 
to  each  of  the  semiannual  general  assemblies  of  the 
academy,  treatise  by  treatise,  the  results  of  his  ex- 
amination and  selection,  and  invited  discussion  upon 
them.  His  work  was  continued  and  perfected,  and 
probably  reduced  to  writing,  by  succeeding  heads 
of  the  Sura  Academy,  who  preserved  the  fruit  of  his 
labors  in  tho.se  sad  times  of  persecution  which,  shortly 
after  his  death,  were  the  lot  of  the. Jews  of  Baliy  Ionia. 
These  misfortunes  were  undoulitcdly  the  imniciliate 
cause  of  the  jiublicalion  of  the  Talmud  asa  complete 
work;  and  from  the  Academy  of  Sura  was  issued 
that  unitjue  literary  elTort  which  Avas  destined  to 
occupy  .such  an  extraordinary  position  in  .Judaism. 
Rabina  (li.  Abina),  a  teacher  in  Sura,  is  considered 
by  tradition  the  last  amoia;  and  the  year  of  his 
death  (812  of  the  Seleucidan,  or  .'lOO  of  the  common 
era)  is  considered  the  date  of  the  close  of  the  Talmud. 
The  three  centuries  in  the  course  of  which  the 
Bitliyloniau  Talmud  was  developed  in  the  aca<lemies 
founded  Jjy  I?ab  and  Samuel  were  followed  by  five 
centuries  during  which  it  was  zealously  preserved, 
studied,  expounded  in  the  .schools,  and,  through 
their  intiuence,  recognized  l>y  the  wlioht  diaspora. 
Sura  and  PumbeditJi  were  considered  the  only  im- 
portant .seats  of  learning:  their  headsand  sages  were 
the  undisputed  authorities,  whose  decisions  were 
sought  from  all  sides  and  were  accepted  wherever 
Jewish  communal  life  existed.  In  the  words  of  the 
haggadist  (Tan.,  Noah^iii.),  "'God  created  these  two 
academies  in  order  that  the  promise  might  be  ful- 
filled, that  the  word  of  God  should  never  depart 
from  Israel's  mouth  "  (Isa.  lix.  21).  The  periods  of 
.Jewish  history  immediately  following  the  close  of 


the  Talmud  are  designated  according  to  the  titles 
of  the  teachers  at  Sura  and  Pinnbedita;    thus  wo 
liave  "the  time  of  the  GiioMM  and  that  of  the  S.\- 
noKAlM.       The  Saboniim   were  the   scholars  whose 
diligent  hands  completed  the  Talmud  in  the  first 
third  of  the  sixth  century,  adding  manifold  anipliti- 
cations  to  its  text.     The  title  "gaon,"  which  origi- 
nally belonged  preeminently  to  the  head  of  the  Sum 
Academy,  came  into   general   use  in 
Saboraim     the  seventh  century,   under  Moliain- 
and  inedan  supremacy,  when   the  oHicial 

Geonim.  position  and  rank  of  theexilarchs  and 
of  the  heads  of  tlieacmlemy  were  reg- 
ulated anew.  But  in  order  to  leave  no  gaps  be- 
tween the  bearers  of  the  title,  hi.story  must  either 
continue  the  Saboraim  into  the  seventh  ccnttiry  or 
accejit  an  older  origin  for  the  title  of  gaon.  In 
jioint  of  fact,  both  titlesare  only  conventionally  and 
indilTerenlly  applied:  the  bearers  of  them  are  lieads 
of  either  of  the  two  academies  of  Sura  and  Pumbe- 
ditaand,  in  that  capacity,  successorsof  the  Amoraim. 

The  inherited  higher  standing  of  Sura  endured 
until  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  after  which 
Pundicdita  came  into  greater  importancu,  Sura 
will  always  occupy  a  proniiiuiit  jdace  in  .Jewish 
history;  for  it  w:is  there  that  Saadia  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  .Jewish  lore,  and  tlms  paved  the  waj'  for 
the  intellectual  regeneration  of  .Judaism.  Pumbe- 
dita, on  the  other  hand,  may  boast  that  two  of  its 
teachers,  Sherira  and  his  .son  Hai  (died  1038),  ter- 
minated in  most  glorious  fashion  the  ago  of  the 
Geonim  and  with  it  the  activities  of  the  Babylonian 
Academies. 

The  orticial  designation  of  the  Baliylonian  Acade- 
mies was  the  Aramaic  metibtn  (Hebrew,  ycKhibdh), 
ses.sion,    meeting.     The   head   of  the 
Organiza-    academy  was  accordingly  called  resh 

tion  of        metihta      (Hebrew,      mxli      ycuhibah). 

the  Acad-    There  is  a  tradition  that  Iluna,   the 

emies.        second    principal   of  Suiii,    was   the 

tirst  to  Ixar  the  title.    Before  him  the 

usual   appellation    in    Babylonia    was    resh  sidra; 

null    tiii'tihUi   leniaineil  the  ollicial  designation   for 

the  head  of  the  academy  till  the  end  of  the  gaonic 

period,  and  was  by  no  means  displaced  by  the  title 

gaon,  which,  in  fact,  signifies  merely  "Highness"  or 

"Excellency." 

At  the  side  of  the  rcsh  metibta,  and  second  to 

him   in   rank,   stood   the  resh  kallnh  (president  of 

the   general  assembly).      The  hnllah 

The  (general   assembly)  was  a   character- 

Kallah.  istic  feature  of  Babylonian  .Judai.sm 
altogether  tinkiiown  in  Palestine.  Ow- 
ing to  the  great  extent  of  Babylonia,  opportunities 
had  to  be  furnished  for  those  living  far  from  the 
academies  to  take  part  in  their  deliberations.  These 
meetings  of  outside  students,  at  which  of  course  the 
most  varying  ages  and  degrees  of  knowledge  were 
represented,  took  place  twice  a  year,  in  the  months 
Adar  and  Elul.  An  account  dating  from  the  tenth 
century,  describing  the  order  of  procedure  and  of 
the  differences  in  rank  at  the  kallah,  contains  de- 
t:iils  that  refer  only  to  the  period  of  the  Geonim; 
but  niucli  of  it  extends  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  the 
Amoraim.  The  description  given  in  the  following 
condensed  rendering  furnishes,  at  all  events,  a  curi- 
ous picture  of  the  whole  institution  and  of  the  inner 
life  and  organization  of  the  Babylonian  Academies: 

"  In  tlie  kallati-months.  tlmt  Is,  in  Klul.  at  tlifi  close  of  the 
suniiiier.  and  in  Adar,  at  tlie  close  of  tlie  winter,  the  discljiles 
journey  from  their  various  almdes  to  the  meeting,  after  tiavinff 
prepart'il  in  the  previous  tlve  months  the  treatise  announced 
at  the  close  of  the  preceding  kalhih-month  by  the  head  of  the 
academy.  In  Adar  and  Elul  they  present  themselves  tiefore 
the  head,  who  examines  tbein  upon  this  treatise.    They  sit  in 


147 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Academies  in  Babylonia 
Academies  in  Palestine 


the  following  onliT  of  rank  :  ImrntMlliitrly  ni'.vt  to  Ilie  president 
iHttHMIi'Nt  row,  fonslsllng  of  ton  inm  ;  so\on  tif  tho>(*  are  reslie 
kallah  :  three  ))f  them  are  eulle^l  "hiilierMii '  liisso<-iates].     Kaeh 
of  the  seven  reshe  kallah  has  under  him  ten  menealled  'alln- 
tlm '  [mastei-s].    The  seventy  alliiOin  foi-m  the 
Procedure  at   Sanhedrin,  and  are  willed  behind  the  above- 
the  Kallah.     mentioned  rii-st  ripw,  in  seven  rows,  their  faees 
belnn  Inrned  toward  the  |ii\-sldent.      Behind 
them  are  seated,  withrtut  speeial  locations,  the  I'emalniuj?  mem- 
ber* of  the  aeademv  and  the  ]Ls.senihled  dlsel[)les. 

"  The  e.xamination  proeeeds  In  this  wise :  They  that  sit  in  the 
first  row  recite  aloud  the  subject-matter,  while  the  membei-s  of 
llie  reiiuilnlntf  ntws  listen  In  silence.  When  they  reach  a  pas- 
8a*fe  that  recpilres  discussion  they  debate  It  airi<»ng  themselves, 
the  head  silently  takinp  note  of  the  suliject  ipf  discussion.  Then 
the  head  himself  let-tures  uimhi  the  treatise  under  considerathm. 
and  adds  an  e.\p<isitlon  of  those  pas.siii;es  ibid  have  clveii  rise  to 
(Il.s<'Usslon.    .'^omellmes  he  addn-sses  a  ipicsiion  to  those  assem- 

bkHl  as  Ut  how  acei-uun  llalakuh  Is  to  1 xplalneil:  this  must 

b«  answered  <>nly  iiy  the  scholiir  named  Ity  Uw  head.  The  head 
adds  his  own  exposition,  and  when  everylhiiiL'  has  been  made 
clear  one  of  iliose  in  lli<*  Ili-st  row  arises  and  delhei's  an  addres.s. 
Intended  for  llie  whole  as.sembly,  summint;^  up  the  arguments 
on  the  ihemi-  Ihey  have  been  i-onsiderlng.    ,    ,    . 

"in  the  fouilh  week  of  the  kallah-month  the  members  of  the 
Siinhedrin,  as  well  as  the  other-  disclpl.-s.  arc  examined  indi- 
vidually by  the  head,  to  pro\e  ihcii-  kiiouicilL'c  and  capacity. 
Whoever  is  shown  to  have  Insulllilentlv  pii'pared  himself  is  re- 
proved by  the  head,  ami  thivalened  wilh  the  withdrawal  of  the 
stipend  appropriated  for  his  suhsisieuce,  .  .  .  The  questions 
that  have  lieen  n-eelved  fnim  various  i|uarters  are  alsodlscussed 
at  th<!se  kallah  assi-iohlies  for  Ilnal  solution.  The  head  listens 
to  the  opinions  of  ihose  present  ami  formulates  the  decision, 
which  Is  immediately  vviiiien  d<»wn.  At  the  end  of  the  month 
these  collective  answers  (resjionsaj  are  read  aloud  to  the  as- 
aeinbly,  and  signed  by  the  head." 

niiir.TodUAPitY:  L(tliriif  Shrrira  Omm:  Zacuto,  Sc  fc  i  rii- 
hitfiii:  (Jratz,  fiCvh.  ./.  Jmi,  ii,  -M  ed.,  v.  «m;M:  idem,  He- 
brew trans.,  ill.  W  Mitt;  Is.  Ilalivy.  linnil  lia-Itixhnnim,  ill. 
X'14-iSI:  Wilss,  Ixir.  ill.  42.14.5;  Iv.  see  Index,  p.  .301;  Ad. 
Si'hwarA  llniUsclniUn  in  I'nliMiiin  uinl  Uahi/lnnii  ii,  in 
J(i/ir/i.  /.  JIht.  (lexch.  tiwl  IM.  l.silil.  ...    „ 

ACADEMIES  IN  PALESTINE:  According 
to  nil  (lit  iiuiilcil  tnnlitiiPM  of  llnsluiydh  (a  Cdllcctiir 
of  Timiiaile  tradiliuns.  wlio  lived  in  C'a'.s;iiva  in  llic 
first  lialf  (jf  llie  lliird  ci'iilurv).  there  existed  in  ,Jeru- 
sideiii  4H0  syiia.ifi lilies,  nil  ol'  wliicli  were  destroyed 
with  the  Temple.  Each  of  these  syna,ir<igiit's  was 
provided  with  ii  school  for  liihlical  instruction,  as 
well  as  one-  for  instruction  in  the  oral  law.  IJcsidcs 
these  schools  of  the  lower  and  middle  jrrades  men- 
tioui'd  by  the  tradition  (which  is  not  to  he  too  read- 
ily discrcdiled.  thotigli  it  may  have  cxafTjrcratcd 
tlieir  number  fipr  the  .sake  of  a  jrood  round  iijrurcl. 
there  existed  in  .lerusaleiii  a  sort  of  universitv  or 
aciideniy — an  institution  coin|>osed  of  the  scribes 
(Slices  and  teachers),  whose  |iu|iils,  having  out- 
grown the  .schools,  ijallicred  around  thctn  for  fur- 
tlicr  instruction  ami  were  callcil.  therefore,  tal- 
viiile  hithnniim  ("disciples  of  (he  wise").  Theri'  is, 
however,  no  certain  inforniatioii  as  tn  tlic  oriraniza- 
tion  of  this  iiislilule,  iw  of  the  relaliidi  in  which  it 
stood  to  Hie  (Jriiil  Sanhedrin.  whose  Pharisee  mem 
bcrs  certainly  belonoeil  lo  it.  The  mosi  importaiil 
details  of  its  activity  arc  alTorded  by  the  accounts 
concernino  the  schools  ("ludises")  of  IIiii.ki.  and 
SllAMM.vi,  whose  colli rovcrsiesiini I  ilebales  belonj;  to 
the  last  century  of  the  period  of  Ihe  Second  Temple, 
and  relate  not  caily  to  the  IlalaUah,  but  also  to 
i(Ueslioiis  of  liibli<al  exegesis  and  reliLrioiis  philoso- 
phy. For  cMimplc,  il  is  .-ijiid  llnil  the  schools  of 
Slmmnmi  and  Millel  occiipic'd  two  and  a  half  years 
in  discussiiii;  the  (|UcslicMi  wlielher  il  had  becii  hel- 
ler for  man  not  lo  have  been  cnaled  (Er.  V.Vi). 

The  ileslniclion  of  .lerusalem  put  as  abrupt  an 
end  to  the  disputes  of  llic  schoofs  as  it  did  lo  llic 
contests  between  poljlical  imrties.  Il  was  tlii'U  that 
R  disciple  of  Millel,  the  venerable  .Ioiianan  iikx 
Zakkai,  founded  a  new  lionic  for  .lewish  I,aw  in 
J.MiNKil  (,I\MM\),  and  thus  evoked  ii  new  intellcc 
tuiil  life  from  Hie  ruins  of  a  fallen  political  exist 
ciicc.  The  college  at  .laliucli,  which  at  on<-c  const i 
luted  itstlf  llif  siictfssor  of  tin-  Circat  Sunlicdiin  of 


Jidiisiilcin  by  )nitting  into  practise  the  ordiniinces 
of  that  body  as   far  as  was  uccesstiry  and   practi- 
c;ible,  attracted  all  those  who  had  cs- 
Jabneh,       eapcd    the    national    catastrophe   and 
Temporary   who   had  become  prominent   by  their 
Center  of     character  and  Ihcir  learning.   '^Morc- 
the  Jewish   over,  it  rearcil  a  new  generation   of 
Nation.       similarly  gifted  men,  whose  task  it  be- 
canie  to  overcome  the  evil   results  of 
still  another  dire  catastrophe — the  unfortunate  liar 
Kipklia  w;ir  wilh   its   melancholy  ending.      During 
till'   interv;il  between   these  two  disisters  (.")(>-117), 
or,   more  accurately,   until   the  "War   of  Quietus" 
under  Trajan,  the  schoipl  at  .Jabneh  was  the  recog- 
nized tribunal  that  gathered  the  traditions  of   llie 
past  and  contirmed  them;    that  ruled  and  ri'gulaled 
existing  conditions;   and  that  sowed  the  seeds  for 
future  development.      Next  to  its  founder,  it  owed 
its  splendor   and    its  undis|>uted   supremacy  es|)e- 
cially  to  the  energetic  Gamaliel,  a  great-grandson  of 
Hillel,  called  (Jamai.iki,  II.,  or  Gamaliel  of  .Tabneh, 
in  order  lo  distinguish   him   from  his  grandfather, 
Gamaliel  I.     To  him  Hocked  the  jnipils  of  .lohiiiaiii 
ben  Zakkai  and  other  masters  and  students  of  the 
Eaw  and  (pf  Biblical  interpretation.     Though  some 
of  llicin  taught  and  labored  in  other  places — Eliezer 
ben    llyrcanusin    Eydda ;   .Joshua  ben  llanaiiiah  in 
liekiin;    Islimael  ben   Elislia  in   Refar   Aziz,  .\kiba 
in   Hine  Henik;    JIananiah   (Il.iiiinii)  ben  Teradyon 
in  Siknin — .labncli  remained  the  center;   and  in  "the 
vineyanr'  of  .labneli,  as  they  called   llieir  place  of 
meeting,  IIk'V  used  to  assemble  for  .ioint  action. 

In  the  fertile  ground  of  the  .Iiibneh  Aeademv  Ihe 
roots  of  the  literature  of  tradition— Midrash  and 
>Iislinah.  Talmud  and  llaggadali— were  iKMirishecl 
and  sirengllieiied.  There,  too,  the  way  was  paved 
for  ;i  systematic  lie:itmint  of  Ilalakali  and  exegesis. 
In  .labneli  were  held  ihe  decisive  debates  upon  the 
canonicily  of  ccrt;iin  IJiblical  books;  lliere  Ihe  praver- 
lituigy  received  its  permanent  form  ;  and  there,  prcpb- 
ably,  was  edited  the  Targum  on  the  Pentateuch, 
which  became  the  foundation  for  the  later  Targum 
called  after  Onkclos.  It  was  .labneh  that  inspired 
and  sanctioned  the  new  Greek  version  of  Ihenible — 
lliat  of  .Vkylas  (.Viiuila).  The  evcnisthat  preceded 
and  fipllowed  Ihe  greal  civil  revolution  under  Har 
Kokba  (from  Ihe  year  117  lo  about  14(1)  resulted  in 
the  decay  and  dealli  of  the  school  at  .labneli.  Ac- 
cording to  inidilion  (K.  II.  ;!l/>),  the  Sanhedrin  was 
removed  from  .labneli  lo  I'sha,  from  I'sha  liiick  to 
.labneli,  aiul  a  second  lime  from  Jabneh  lo  I'slm, 
This  linal  setllcmcnl  in  I'sha  in<li(iites  Ihe  iiltimato 
spirilual  supremacy  of  Galilee  over 
Palestinian  .Imlea,  the  latter  having  become  do- 
Judaism  ppppulated  by  the  war  of  Hadrian. 
Restored.  I  --ha  ninained  foralong  time  the  seat 
of  Uie  academy;  its  imporlance  being 
due  lollie  pupils  ipf  .Vkiba.  one  of  whom,  .ludah  ben 
llai,  had  his  home  in  I'sha.  Here  was  undertaken 
lln'  great  work  of  Ihe  lesloralioii  of  Palestinian 
■liidaism  iiflcr  its  disinlegration  under  Hadrian. 
The  study  of  the  Law  nourished  anew;  anil  Simon, 
a  son  of  Gamalii'l,  was  invisted  with  Hie  rank  that 
had  been  his  falher's  in  .labneli.  Willi  him  Ihe  rank 
of  palriiirch  became  liercdilary  in  Ihe  house  of  llil- 
Icl,  and  Ihe  .si'at  of  liie  academy  was  maile  idcnlical 
with  that  of  the  palriiirch. 

In  Ihe  time  of  Simon  ben  Oiunnllel  the  s<'at  of 
the  Sanhedrin  was  freipiently  changed;  its  iii-st 
move  being  from  I'sha  lo  Shefarain  (Ihe  modern 
Slief'a  '.\nir,  a  village  about  twelve  miles  ea.st ward 
of  Haifa);  llicnce,  under  Simon's  .son  and  succes- 
sor, .ludah  I.,  lo  Itet  Shearim;  and  tlnally  to  SkI'- 
I'lioms  tZipporin).  the  miHlern  Scfooiieli,  where  a 


Academies  in  Palestine 
Accents  in  Hebrew 


Tin;  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


148 


celebrated  disoiple  of  Akilm.  Jose  Iioii  lliilfifia,  had 
l)cen  ti'apliiiijr.  Only  with  irniil  (lilliciilly  ciuilil 
SiiDiiii  Ih'Ii  Gamaliel  cslalilisli  his  an- 
Movements  tliority  chit  this  piipil  of  Akiba.  who 
of  the  faioutslioiu' him  in  liarniiifr.  Simon's 
Sanhedrin.  son.Jiulali  I.,  however,  was  fortunate 
eiiouu'h  to  unite  with  liis  inherited 
rank  the  indisputable  reputation  of  a  distinguished 
scholar,  a  combination  of  j;reat  importance  under 
the  circumstances.  JiD.vu,  in  whom  "'Porali  and 
diirnity  "  were  combined,  was  the  man  ajipointed  to 
close  an  important  epoch  and  to  lay  the  foundation  of 
a  new  one.  The  academy  at  Sepphoris,  to  which  em- 
inent students  from  Babylonia  also  (locked,  erected 
an  indestructible  monument  to  itself  tliroiiirh  Ju- 
dah's  activity  in  editinir  the  Mishnali.  which  attained 
to  canonical  standinjr  as  the  authentic  colh'ction  of 
the  leiial  traditions  of  relii;ious  ]>ractis<'.  In  the 
!Mishnah,  the  com])letioii  of  which  was  accomplished 
soon  after  the  death  of  its  author  or  editor  (about 
219).  the  schools  both  of  Palestine  and  of  Babylonia 
received  a  recofruized  te.xt-book,  upon  which  tlic  lec- 
tures and  the  debates  of  the  students  were  thence- 
forward founded.  The  recojinition  of  I{al)bi  .Tudah's 
!Mishiiali  marksaslron.il  dividinir  line  in  the  history 
of  the  Academies  and  their  teachers:  it  indicates  the 
transition  from  the  age  of  the  T.\xx.\i.\i  to  that  of 
the  A.Moii.MM. 

After  .ludah's  death  Sejiphoris  did  not  lon.s  re- 
main the  .seat  of  the  jiatriarch  and  the  Academy. 
Gamaliel   III.,  the  inipretentious  son 

Centers  of  a  distiniruished  father,  became  pa- 
of  Learn-  tiiarch:  but  l.Ianiiia  lien  Hama  slic- 
ing, ceeded  him  as  liead  of  the  school,  and 
introduced  the  new  order  of  thin.irs 
that  conuuenced  with  the  completion  of  the  ^lisli- 
nail.  In  Hanina's  lifetime  the  last  mi.irnition  of  the 
Sanhediin  occurred.  His  ])upil.  .loii.w.vN  n.  N.M"- 
i'.\n.\,  settled  in  TiiiKUi.vs.  and  the  patriarch  .ludah 
II.  (•iraudson  of  .ludah  I.)  soon  found  himself  cotn- 
Ix'Heil  to  remove  to  that  city.  The  imiiosinij  person- 
ality and  unexam]iled  leaniini;  of  .lohanan  rendered 
Tiberias  for  a  loni;  |ieriod  the  umlispnted  center  of 
Palestinian  .ludaism.  the  magnet  which  attracted 
Babylonian  students. 

When  .Johanan  died  in  279 — this  is  the  only  settled 
date  in  the  whole  ehronolo.sy  of  the  Paicstiniau 
amoraim — the  renown  of  the  Tiberias  Academy 
was  so  firmly  established  that  it  suffered  no  de- 
terioration under  his  successors,  although  none  of 
them  eipialed  him  in  learning.  For  a  time,  in- 
dited. C.KsAHK.v  came  into  prominence,  owin.ir  solely 
to  the  influence  of  Ilosn.\v.\.  who  lived  there  in 
the  first  half  of  the  third  century,  and  exercised 
the  duties  of  a  teacher  contemporaneously  with  the 
Church  father.  Origen.  with  whom  he  had  personal 
intercourse.  After  .lohanan's  death  the  school  at 
Ca'sarea  attained  a  new  sfandin.sr  under  his  pupil 
Abbahu;  and  throu.iihout  the  whole  of  the  fourth 
century  the  opinions  of  the  "sages  of  Ca'siirea " 
were  taken  into  respectful  aeci>unt,  even  in  Tiberias. 
Sepphoris  also  resumed  its  former  importance  as  a 
seat  of  learning;  and  eminent  men  worked  there  in 
the  fourth  century,  long  after  the  di.saster  to  the 
city  wrought  by  the  forces  of  the  enii)eror  Gallus. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  there  had 
been  an  academy  at  Lvnn.v  in  Judea.  or  "the 
South.  "  as  .Judea  was  then  called.  This  academy 
now  gained  a  new  reputation  as  a  school  of  tradi- 
tional learning.  From  if  came  the  teacher  to  whom 
.Jerome  owed  his  knowletlge  of  Hebrew  and  his 
in,sight  into  the  "Hebra'a  Veritas."  But  neither 
Ctvsarea.  Sepphoris.  nor  Lyddu  could  detract  from 
the  renown  of  Tiberias. 


Tilierias  aeoordinirly  remained  the  abode  of  the 
ollicial  head  of  .Inilaism  in  Palestine  anil,  in  a  cer- 
tain sense,  of  the  .ludaism  of  the  whole  Konian 
empire,  as  well  as  the  seat  of  the  Academy,  which 
coiKsidered  itself  the  successor  of  the  ancient  Sanhe- 
drin. The  right  of  ordination  which,  since  Simon 
ben  Gamaliel,  the  patriarch  alone  had  exercised 
(<'ither  with  or  without  the  consent  of  the  Council 
of  Sages),  was  later  on  so  regulated  th.al  the  degree 
could  only  be  conferred  by  the  palriarch  and  coun- 
cil conjointly.  The  ivatriarchal  dignity  had  mean- 
while become  worlilly,  as  it  were;  for  exceptional 
learning  was  by  no  means  held  to  be  an  es.seiitial 
attribute  of  its  possessor.  The  Academy  of  Tiberias, 
whose  unordained  mcndiers  were  called  luiberim 
(associates),  never  lacked  men.  of  more  or  less 
ability,  who  labored  and  taught  in  the  manner  of 
.Johanan.  Among  these  may  be  UK'nlioncd  Kleazar 
b.  Pedat,  Ann  and  Assi.  Iliyya  bar  Abba.  Zeira,  Sam- 
uel b.  Isaac.  .Jonah.  .Jose.  .Jeremiah.  Mani.  the  son  of 
.Tonah.  and  .Jose  b.  Aliin.  who  constitute  a  series  of 
brilliant  names  in  the  field  <>f  the  Ilalakah.  In  the 
dejiartmenf  of  the  lla.irgadah — always  highly  jirized 
and  popular  in  Palestine — the  renown  of  Tiberias 
was  also  greatly  augmented  by  many  prominent  and 
produ<t)ve  workers,  from  the  conteniporarii's  and 
])upils  of  .Iiihanan  down  to  Tanliuma  b.  Abba,  who 
was  illustrious  as  a  collector  and  an  editor  of  liag- 
gadic  liti'rature. 

The  imiieiishable  monument  to  the  school  of  Tibe- 
rias is  the  Palestinian  or.  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
the  .Jerusalem  Talmud,  of  which  .lo- 
The  hanan  b.  Xajiiiaha  laid  the  foundation; 

Jerusalem    for  which  reason  he  is  generally  styled, 

Talmud,  altliough  erroneously,  its  redactor  or 
author.  In  jioinl  of  fact,  however, 
this  work  was  not  completed  imtil  nearly  a  century 
and  a  half  after  .lohanan's  death;  and  its  close  is 
undoubtedly  connect<d  with  the  extinction  of  the 
patriarchal  ollice  (about  42.")).  But  Tiberias  did  not 
therefore  cease  to  be  a  seat  of  h'arning.  although 
very  little  of  its  subse(|Uent  activity  is  known.  Ac- 
cording toa  Babylonian  le.irend,  a  scion  of  the  Baby- 
lonian exilarch's  house  tied  to  Tiberias  in  the  first 
third  of  the  sixth  century,  and  there  became  a  rfsh 
jiirkd  (iipt(of7)fX("'/f  =  hea<l  of  the  school);  a  hun- 
dred years  later  a  Syiian  bishop  made  an  appeal  to 
the  sages  of  Tiberias  for  the  purpose  of  inducing 
Du  Xuwa.s.  the  .Jewish  king  of  South  Arabia,  to 
cease  his  persecution  of  the  Christians  there. 

Further  importance  was  gained  by  Tiberias  as  the 

seat  of  the  .Masoretic  traditions   anil   innovations; 

for  there  in  the  seventh  century  was 

The  Tibe-    introduced  that  system  of  punctuation 

rian  Punc-   which  wasdestined  toaid  soefliciently 

tuation.  in  the  proper  reading  and  understand- 
ing of  the  Biblical  text.  This  system, 
which  achieved  universal  recognition,  is  called  the 
"Tiberian  iiunctuation."  .\t  Tiberias  flourished, 
about  the  miildli'  of  the  eighth  century,  the  Masorite 
Phinehas,  called  also  Hosh  Yi-shibah"("  Head  of  the 
Academy  ").  and  Asher  I  he  Ancient,  or  the  Great,  fore- 
father of  five  generations  of  Jlasorites  (Xehemiah, 
Jloses,  Asher.  Moses,  and  Aaron),  was  to  a  certain 
extent  his  confemiiorarv.  The  last-named  Aaron  ben 
Jloses  ben  Asher  (liriefly  called  Ben  Asher),  a  con- 
temporary of  Saadia.  brought  the  Tiberian  school  of 
Masorites  to  a  distinguished  end.  Tiberias  thereafter 
ceased  to  jilay  any  part  in  .Jewish  learning,  until,  in 
the  twelfth  century,  it  enierired  for  a  brief  period, 
and  again  in  the  si.xteenth  century,  when  it  became 
the  oliject  of  the  pious  ambition  of  Don  Joseph 
Nasi  of  Naxos. 

^V.  B. 


149 


THE  .IKWISII   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Academies  in  Palestine 
Accents  in  Hebrew 


AqAN  (or  9AZAN),  MOSES  :  Identioal  por- 
Imps  with  llic  >I(isr:s  iiF.x  Joskimi  IIa/.an,  who  lived 
ill  124.>  at  '1"i)I(m1ii,  aii<l  inainlaiiicd  liusincss  coiincc- 
lions  with  Altoiiso  X..  tlic  Wise,  liiiiff  of  t'astile, 
Wlieii  Alfonso  was  in  C'uenea  in  1271,  Moses  Aean 
informed  him  of  tlie  business  relations  that  existed 
between  himself  and  the  infante  and  Don  Niinode 
(.ara.  as  well  as  the  grandees  of  Castile. 

BiBLiniiRAPHY:  MaHyrl(;o.  Hixt.  de  to  Ciudail  dc  Cuctu;n, 
p.  ai-'. 

M,   K. 

AgAN  (i  .r  9AZ AN),  MOSES  DE  Z ARAGUA: 

Native  of  Catalonia,  who  flourished  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  wrote  a  rimed  treatise  on  chess  in  the 
Catalonian  dialect,  which  he  begins  by  referring  to 
the  creation  of  the  world,  and  e.xhorts  his  fellow 
man  to  glorify  the  Creator  by  the  ])raetise  of  virtue. 
Favoring  chess,  he  opposed  all  games  of  chance, 
particularly  card-playing,  which,  he  declared,  would 
ruin  all  addicted  to  il.  This  treatise,  a  manuscript 
of  which  is  preserved  in  the  Escurial.  was  translated 
into  Spanish  in  ISoO,  probably  by  a  Castilian  Jew. 

BlRi.loiiRAPMV  :  De  los  Itlos,  Kntiiiliiig.  p.  2i)0 :  Stt-insehnelder, 
Schaih  liiiilcii  JikIi  ii,]i.  i'l;  KayaeT\lng,  Bihl.  Ei<i>.-l'i>rt . 
Jml.  p.  s. 

M.    K. 

ACAZ,  JACOB :  Keei>er  of  the  royal  lions  in 
Saragossji.  In  i:!><4  or  13H."),  by  orderof  King  Piilro 
of  Anigon,  Aca/.  took  some  lions  to  Navarre  u.s  a 
present  to  King  Chailes  II.  A  certiiiri  .Vbraham  A/.en 
is  mentioneil  in  MUM  as  liis  succes.sor  in  Saragos.S!i. 

ItiRi.iinjR.viMiv  :  M.  Kavserlinp.  in  licv.  ±^t.  Jitivei*,  xxv.  :i">. 

.^t.  K. 
ACBABA.    See  ()KT!.\it\. 

ACCAD  or  AKKAD  (Archad,  Septuagiiil.  or 
in  soMii'  maiuiscripts,  Achad). — Biblical  Data: 
Word  occurring  once  iu  the  Did  'reslamenl  (Gen. 
X.  Itl).  as  the  name  of  a  city ;  one  of  the  four  cities 
which  formed  the  liegimnng  of  the  kingdi>m  of 
Nimrod.  The  exact  location  is  unknown.  On  the 
Assyrian  and  liabylonian  cinicifonn  tablets  Akkad 
appears  as  the  name  of  a  city,  and  also  inan  inscrip 
tion  of  Ncbuchailne/.zar  I.  (about  IKi.")  ii.c),  but  the 
connection  in  w  hich  it  occurs  gives  no  hint  fif  its 
locality  or  history.  See  "  Keilinschriftliche  I5ib- 
liothek,"  iii.  17(1.  171.  Some  critics  are  inclined  to 
identify  this  place  with  the  city  of  Agadc  in 
nr)rtliern  Habylonia,  of  which  Sargon  I.  was  king 
about  3H00  it.c,  but  there  is  no  positive  proof  that 
the  two  are  identical.  The  word  Akkad,  as  used 
both  liy  Assyrians  anil  ISabylonians.  occurs  most 
frei|Uently  as  a  jjart  of  a  royal  title  much  affected 
l>oth  in  early  and  in  later  periods.  In  the  eaily  in- 
Bcriptions  it  hhif/nl  l\<ii;ii  (l\i)  I'li  {Ki).  whicii  aji- 
pears  in  Semitic  in  the  form  nliar  (unit)  Slutiiii-ri  ii 
(miif)  .\l.l.itili;  that  is,  king  of  Sunier  and  Accad. 
There  has  bi'en  nuich  controversy  in  recent  limes 
regarding  Ihe  exait  meaning  of  this  title,  and  it  can 
harilly  lie  said  th;it  a  conclusive  decision  has  yet  been 
reaclied  (see  It Mivi.iiNi  \).  It  is  at  least  reasonably 
clear  that  both  Ihe  li.ibylonian  and  Assyrian  kings 
who  l)ore  it  claimed,  by  its  use.  to  govern  the  w  hole 
of  Habylonia.  In  this  use  Accad  desiirnates  north- 
era  Ilabvlonia.  and  Siimer  southern  Mabvlniiia. 

i{    W.  R. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  Thi'  old  Jewish 

trudilions  ililTer  as  to  Ihi'  identity  of  Aeiad.  Ac 
cordini:  to  the  I'aleslinian  tradilion  (Targ.  Yer.  i  and 
ii.totJen.  .\.  Id.  (iin.  I{.  xxxvii.).  .\eead  is  identical 
with  Nisibis.  .lerome  and  Kphraem  Syriis.  in  their 
commentaries  on  Ihe  passage,  accept  this  view.  The 
Kaliylonian  authorities  considereil  Accail  to  be  the 
I'ily  of  Bashkar   (or   Kashkar;    s<'e  li^ibbiuowitch, 


"DikdiikeSoferim"  to  Yoma,  lOff,  note  10;  Jastrow, 
"Diet."  p.  (i76).  mentioned  several  times  in  the  Tal- 
mud ((•..'/.,  Y'oma,  10a).  Its  situation,  however,  is 
imknown. 

DiHi.KiiiRAPiiv:  (iinzbprg.  In  J/<)»n(t«c/in7(,  xllii.  -ISfi;    Xcu- 
liuui-i-,  (1.  T.  p.  :)4i>. 

L.  G. 

ACCENTS  IN  HEBREW:  Symbols  denoting 
Vocal  stresses  on  particular  syllables  in  pronouncing 
words  or  sentences.  1.  In  every  word  we  titter,  one 
syllable  is  spoken  with  greater  emphasis  and  clearer 
enunciation  than  the  rest.  About  it,  as  the  strongly 
stressed  or  accented  clement,  the  other  unaccented, 
or  rather  less  strongly  accented,  syllables  arc 
grouped.  Thus,  in  the  word  "con?)r/dict  "  the  last 
syllable  is  the  bearer  of  the  main  accent:  a  weaker, 
secondary  accent  rests  on  the  liist,  while  the  itali- 
cized intermediate  syllable  is  unaccented.  Simi- 
larly, in  a  .senlence,  some  words  are  pronounced 
witli  marked  distinctness,  while  others  are  spoken 
hastily,  almost  without  a  stoji,  and  made  to  lean 
forward  or  backward,  as  Ihe  italicized  words  in 
"  lie  i.i  II  man  i>f  llw  world  "  ;  "  /  knew  (7."  Hotli  the 
accent  whicli  belongs  to  every  Avord  in  itself  ("  word- 
accent")  and  the  one  which  indicates  its  rank  in  a 
sentence  ("sentenee-iiccent")  are  to  be  regarded  as 
the  vital  fon'c  whicli  welds  disjointed  siieech-cle- 
ments  into  harmonious  sensc-niiits.  The  stops  be- 
come jiariicularly  noticeable  w  lien,  in  a  larger  com- 
plex of  clauses,  they  serve  to  mark  the  limits  of  each 
clause  and  its  relation  to  the  others.  Some  pauses 
are  hound  to  be  made,  on  physical  grounds,  to  take 
lireath;  it  is  nearly  always  so  arranged  that  the 
logical  pauses  shall  coincide  with  those  intervals. 
In  an  ordinary  jiage  of  English  the  word-accent  is 
never  indicated  (as  it  is  in  Greek),  nor  do  the  signs 
of  punctuation  (.::.)  show  all  the  sto])s  which 
careful  reading  in  accordance  with  sense  (especially 
oratorical  delivery  or  the  forceful  recital  of  a  liter- 
ary iiiaster|)iece)  requires.  In  the  Hebrew  text  of 
Ihe  Bible,  on  the  contrary,  is  found  an  elaborate 
system  of  .signs  (notations  of  stresses,  or  Accents)  by 
w  hich  the  stronger  as  well  as  the  weaker  ,strcssc9 
belonging  to  syllables  and  words  are  marked,  so  that 
a  reader  who  is  acquainted  w  ilh  the  use  of  the  sym- 
bols may  recite  tlic  sacred  texts  correctly  anil,  in 
appearance  at  least,  intelligently,  without  consider- 
ing grammar  or  sense. 

3.  The  Hebrew  (Aramaic)  word  2>P  (""yp),  plural 
0^'>p.  (r?l"f?).  which  is  used  in  the  M.\son.vii  in  the 

sen.se  of  "accent,"  "accents,"  denotes. 
Name.        in  the  lii"st  place,  "  In.ste  "  (iu  the  lilenil 

sense,  as  in  Ex.  xvi.  31);  then,  "judg- 
ment," "good  sense"  (see  I  Sam.  xxv,  33);  in  Tal- 

muilic  Hebrew,  "scn.se"  (=*1S  ■?  O"???  "words  of 
sense";  5'"^?  ^^?,  T  "admitting  of  more  than  one 
sense").  This  is  Ihe  oldest  term  which  thus  con- 
clusively proves  that  Ihe  niblical  system  of  ac- 
centuation was  primarily  designed  to  mark  the 
various  degrees  of  logical,  or  sense,  |>ausaiion.  This 
method  of  piinctilious  dislribiition  of  gnat  and 
small  pauses  led.  however,  lo  a  peculiar  intonation 
ill  a  half  singing  style  which  is  called  Cvntii.i.v- 
TIiiN;  this  may  still  be  heard  in  (orthodox)  Jewish 
synagogues.  The  .Vccenis  have  Ihe  secondarv  func- 
tion of  marking  this  intonation,  each  .symbol  being 
equal  lo  several  musical  noles.  Hence  llieir  aj)- 
pillalion  in  Anibic,  hiliii.  pliind  nlhuii,  as  early  as 
llin  Koreish,  and  llie  Hebrew  lerin  ^>,''.'  "melmlv," 
plural  ~'"JJ. 

(»n  Ihe  term  "Imp"  (Ihe  same  as  the  English 
"  I  rope."  in  I  he  sensi' of  a  musical  cadence)  used  by  the 
Jews  ill   lliiir  venmculiirs,  see  IJerliuer,  "Beitrilgc 


Accents  in  Hebrew 


Tin:  .1  i:\visH  encyclopedia 


150 


zur  hi'brtlisclu-ii  Grammiilik  in  Tuliuml  unci  Mid- 
rastli."  p.  2!i.  note  4,  Ik'ilin,  1S79. 

3.  All  of  the  IK'brcw  Arcents  are  propcrlj-  "sen- 
tence-accents."   Hence  tliey  vary  in  form  (7,  ■   '.  ,  r 
etc.)    in    accordance    willi    their    varying    pausal 
functions.     The  sign  once  chosen,  the 
Sentence-    "  word  accent "     is    indicated    by   its 
Accent.       place  in  the  accented  syUablc.  above 
or  below  the  initial  consonant  in  the 
center;  when  theie  is  a  vowel  .sign  below,  the  latter 
occupies  the  center,  while  the  accent  sign  is  placed 

farther  to  the  left:  "'.-?  .-T":  .t^jr.  ,"?,";?'?.  Some 
of  the  accents  are  placed,  withotit  regard  to  the  ac- 
cented syllable,  invariably  at  the  beginning  or  at 
the  end  of  the  word  (hence  termed  pnpoxi t i rci<  auiX 

jwstimMtirtu  :  ''????!  .Hv?^:  in  the  editions  of  Baer, 
the  notation  is  repeated  on  the  accented  syllable: 

\i^^).     A  secondary  accent  (■>%.?  "bridle,"  that  is, 

check)  is  indicated  by  7 :  ^'■>^^\',.  A  word  may  lose 
its  accent;  then  it  is  joined  by  means  of  a  hyphen 
(115?  "coupler")  to  the  next  following  word:  ,  Ti?-, 
nbnpn-S^-rN;  ,n^N5-"i="f,';  the  words  thus  united  are 
regarded,  for  purposes  of  accentuation,  as  one  word : 

Hebrew  words  have  their  main  accent  either  on 
the  last  syllable  (>"^  ,?  "  below  ")  or  on  the  penult  (next 

to  the  last  syllable)  (''i:!l?  "above"). 
Place  of  The  accent  is  never  found  farther 
Word-  bjick  (for  a  seeming  exception  see 
Accent,      below).      In   the   majority   of  words 

(word-types)    the  accent  falls  upon 

the  last  syllable:  \?i«,  ^^\ .  3t>;,  etc.  Penultimate 
accentuation  is   found  in   the  pronouns  "'?^*?,  (and 

the   shorter  form  "•?,;),   ^JpN,    "s^r!,    "J?  (similarly 

in  the  dissyllabic  suffixes  ",y.-,  '^?,^7-) ;  in  verbal 
forms  of  all  stems  (conjugations)  ending  in  C"  (T"), 
'1^- ,  'J-,  ^l' ;  in  the  causative  stem  (/«/'('/),  addi- 
tionally in  the  forms  ending  in  ^-  and  '- ;  the 
latter  rule  applies  also  to  verbs  ?">'  and  '^"V  in  all 
stems  (except  those  which  follow  the  analogy  of 
triliteral  verbs),  hence  ^;i^. ,  etc. ;  in  the  noun  in 
forms    with   a   helping   vowel   like   1^5    (compare 

^"•^-M --),  as  in  verbal  forms  like  •.^'. ;  similarly  in  the 
dual  ending  2'-;  with  the  so-called  locative  ending 
^;  (with  a  few  exceptions);  in  verb  and  noun  be- 
fore the  suffixes   V-,    n-(^?-)    (when  preceded   by 

['].;  and  in   forms  of  the  type  ^7,^?i7    and   '^}'hp?,\, 

■^t-!!)?:.,  hence   ,n^ar;   similarly  ,ng.'?),   ^-   (in  iri?i^ 

I^I^ST)  and  '?-,  in  r.-,  before  "-,  \!-,  "-,  °-(in  orioi?), 

^=-and  ^>;  in  the  adverbs  "sj",  (also  ".?^)  and  ^?= 
and  those  with  the  locative  ending  ^7  like  ^J5  nnd 

'^9,V'  (although  not  unifonnly);  in  ?iTJ  forms  (not 
uniformly,  although  with  more  regularity  in  verbs 
i""*  and  '''>)  when  the  last  syllable  is  closed  and  the 
next  to  the  last  is  open,  hence  "'R?-',  1?.^^'.!.  ^°V-,  Oi7",'-, 

etc. :  in  forms  of  the  type  J?i;',  the  accent  remains  on 
the  penultimate  before  iJ-  and  (less  uniformly)  in  all 
forms  with  an  o]ien  peniillimate. 

Penultimate  accentuation  may  also  bo  due  to  re- 
cemon  C'""?  J^d;  "  stepping  back  "),  as  in  ^t'l.'^  "I^H , 
that  is,  when  a  non-pausjil  accent  (sec  g  4)  due  on 
the  ultimate  jirccedes  a  pausal  accent  (!Vi)rf.)due 
on  the  penultimate;  the  non-pausal  then  recedes  to 
the  penultimate  (and  even  farther  back  in  =".?  i=??.J,) 
on  the  same  conditions  as  the  secondary  accent 


if  the  two  words  were  hyphenated  (si-e  below); 
in  point  of  fact,  the  non  pausal  is  intended  as  a 
substitute  for  the  secondary  accent  (see  S;  4);  the 
rule,  however,  is  not  followed  cou.sistently  (see  Jos. 
Wijnkoop.  "Darke  ha  Nesiga,  sive  Leges  de  Ac- 
centus  Hcbraica'  Lingme  Ascensione,"  Leyden,  1881 ; 
also  in  Hebrew,  ^>'°-,^  "r?"!,  Amsterdam).  Finally, 
penultimate  accentuation  isduelo  recession  iu;«/i/*«, 

that  is,  when  the  accent  is  a  pausal  one,  7,  -,  7,  less 
often  J ,  .: ,  etc. ;  in  "^J!*,  VK,  ^^}i ;  in  verbal  forms 
ending  in  ^t  and  '-,  hence  ^^S'^.  ''''j"',.  ,  etc. ;  also  in 
'j':.?'':;,  '?^^.?i'',l  ;  in  forms  like  \";?,  ''};,,  055;  (for  the  non- 
pausal  forms  '"J.3, ,  'J?',  o^HO  ;  before  the  suffix  >, 
hence  '^-.'^'- ,  ^t".?!"! ,  etc. ;  in  adverbs  and  partici pies,  for 
example,  ^n?,  ^^i^-  Conversely,  the  pausjil  accent 
may    bring    about    ultimate    accentuation    as    in 

SsiM     .":">,   3_DM. 

Properly,  the  secondary  accent  is  due  upon  the 

second  .syllable  from  the  main  accent,  jirovided  the 
intervening   syllable   is  long,  that  is, 
Secondary    open  with  a.  long  vowel,  closed  with 
Accent       a  short   vowel,    or    ojiened,    that   is, 
i't'f).        originally  closed,  with  a  short  vowel: 
=':'?-;i,  ^'S^?.,  '"?>!7.    The  syllable  receiv- 
ing the  .secondary  accent  must  also  be  long  (open  with 
a  long  vowel,  o])ene(l  with  a  short  vowel :  ^"J^^,  ''"o*"- ; 
with  a  closed  syllable  the  sign  is  im|)lied,  l)ut  never 
expressed:  °,.7?^,'?).    When  the  syllabic  i)reccding  the 
main  accent  is  overlong,  that  is,  closed  with  a  long 
vowel,  the  secondary  accent  will  be  placed  there: 

''^:r,.  °'r?..  t-"t,  ".•;  V?."?  ''J^V-  (imperative)  and 
similar  instances,  owing  to  a  retarded  luoniincia- 

tion  of  o  which  is  thtis  mised  to  n.  Similarly, 
the  secondary  accent  will  fall  upon  the  syllable  iire- 
ceding  the  main  accent  when  it  is  long  (open  with 
a  long  vowel,  opened  with  a  short  vowel)  and  the 
sjilablc  bearing  the  main  accent  is  a  conipoimd 
one,  that  is,  consists  of  an  ordinary  (simple)  sylla- 
ble preceded  by  a  consonant  and  an  incompletely 
reduced  vowel  (a  1!?C:  ',  .  '  ,  7).  or  by  a  consonant 
and  a  completely  reduced  vowel  (a  vocal  •*'.¥'  :  7) 
at  the  beginning  of  a  word;  neither  combination 
is  capable  of  forming  a  .syllable  by  itself  nor  may 
it  be  joined  in  speech  to  the  preceding  syllable: 
v-"?,^!.  ^^X .  "ii  7-  When  a  word  is  long  enough, 
another  subsidiary  accent  may  become  necessary;  it 
is  placed  at  the  same  distance  from  the  second- 
ary accent  as  the  latter  from  the  main  accent, 
and  upon  the  same  conditions  (the  one  to  the  right 
being  the  stronger) :  r^Vi'pq?'! ,   i^'Jnnnnp.  _  -l^s-D'fin  _ 

■7??,?-^!,  'i1^s>;?.!.  When  the  second  syllable  from  the 
main  accent  is  closed  (with  a  short  vowel)  and  the 
syllable  next  iireceding  is  fipen,  the  secondary  ac- 
cent is  place(l  upon  the  latter,  the  interval  be- 
tween the  two  accents  thus  exceeding  the  limit  of 
one  syllable :  cv:?-)(<n  '-ici-d-id  (observe  that  -1  pre- 
fixed never  takes  a  .secondary  accent). 

Distinct  from  the  '\l^.  in  the  cases  just  mentioned 
(also  in  all  forms  of  the  verbs  •"'',7  and  ^\^,  in  which 
the  guttural  closes  a  syllable  with  a  short  vowel,  for 

instance,  ^'"?,  ,  n'T .  ^~"'?.^).  which  the  Hebrew 
grammarians  term  "light  •'v'r."  is  the  .so-called 
"heavy  J"""  which  is  found,  on  certain  condition.s, 
with  closed  sj'llables  containing  a  short  vowel  {''^''^^p, 

^.r'^^.  "'VT?- .  etc.),  or  (in  Psalms.  Proverbs,  Job)  with 
reduced  vowels  (vocal  Nir,  i?;n  .  nj)  >}2 ,  NJ-N717,, 
^7??  V^.  and  so  on).  A  third  kind  which  does  not 
concern  us  here  at  all  is  the  so  called  "euphonic 


151 


THE  JEWISH  E>X'YCLOPEDIA 


Accents  in  Hebrew 


JP?."  Sw  Gi'scuitis-Kautzsch,  "Hebrew  Gram- 
mar" (C'larciiddii  I'rcss  edition).  ^16,  2;  Htaile, 
" llebralselie  Graiiiiiiatik,"  ^^  53-o0;  botli  rest  upon 
S.  Uaer.  "Die  Meiliegsel/.uiig,"  in  Merx's  "  Areliiv 
fllr  Wissens<liaftliche  Erforscliung  des  A.  T.." 
ISIiT.  pp.  •")()  tt  m/. :  llstiS.  pp.  194  ct  kc/.,  also  in  Latin 
in  his  edition  of  Proverbs.  The  accent  is  often  an 
aid  to  sense,  especially  in  words  similar  in  sound, 
but  different  in  meaning,  as  "J'?  "he  drank,"  ","';' 
"she  put";  ",«?  ^,0-;  "Rachel  is  coming,"  "«?i?0? 
"Hachel  came."  Similarly,  the  -T";  compare ''f?,' , 
"they  will  fear"  and,'"!"'."  "they  will  see,"  etc. 
.  Small  words  of  freijuent  occurrence,  as  the  mono- 
syllabic i>reposition3  and  conjunctions  (-^?,  -■"'?,  ■"'2, 

-''?,  -OJ;  -°}.  -'^,  -15),  the  words  -?T-, 
Use  of  -x^,  -'^-„  also  "^^f,.  arc.  as  a  rule,  joined 
Hyphen,      to   the   following   (long)  word.     Not 

only  two,  but  three,  and  even  four, 
■words  may  be  liyphenated  thus:  ^P^r'^-r'!*,  -^^ 
^-"'"'J-'',-.  On  the  other  hand,  a  long  word  will  oc- 
casionally be  joined   to  a   following  small   word: 

3^-'??f  J,  nj-n.>r'?\' .     There  is  always  a  close  syntac- 


sense.  Frequently,  liowever,  the  logical  pause  is 
.sacrificed  to  rhetorical  effect.  A  characteristic  de-. 
viation  from  the  accepted  method  of  punctuation 
consists  in  passing  over  introductory  clauses  or 
l)hrases  which  are  treated  as  a  sul>ordinale  part  of 
what  follows;  for  example,  "And  <!uil  miid.  Let 
there  lie  a  tirmament  in  the  midst  of  the  waters,  and 
let  it  divide  the  waters  from  the  waters"  (Gen.  i.  6). 
The  lesser  pauses  obey  the  laws  of  syntactical  con 
stniction,  which  arc  obviously  various  in  different 
languages.  The  English  sentence  "And  the  earth 
was  wa.ste  and  void "  properly  reads  in  Hebrew: 
"And  the  earth — it  was  waste  and  void";  hence 
there  will  be  a  pause  in  Hebrew  after  "and  the 
earth."  The  order  of  words  differs  also.  Compare 
the  very  opening  of  the  Bible  in  Helirew  and  in 
Englisli.  Khetorical  effect  makes  itself  felt  in  con- 
nection with  the  smaller  no  less  than  in  the  ca.se  of 
the  greater  pauses.  Thus,  for  the  sake  of  empha- 
sis, the  pause  may  be  shifted  from  one  place  to  an- 
other; or  it  may  be  introduced  within  a  group  of 
words  which  is  properly  indivisible.  In  general, 
greater  latitude  is  i)ermissible  in  dealing  with  the 
slighter  pauses.     Individual  taste  will  there  play  an 


B 


j5 

35 


;;i 


388 


6     5.11   12       5     10  10    9. II  12 


Variants: 


.19  19,  19 

t 


•*  I    •>     J     I  •   III    •  ■^  I  '  I   ■•    -■     II  •     ^  I     "     ^  II   •'        —*.—  i 

rli-T|-||-    II   r  r -rr-T  ||- r|  i-r||-7rli- 2 

c 

4       3      14  -I3->1  y  20    19  19    21   21 

f  -|  -  -|  '-etc.(as  above)or^|  -   ^j  -  etc.  ^^  i  j  :i  ^-  ||  :!  -  - 


tical  relation  between  the  hyphenated  words.  In- 
deed, in  every  union  of  words,  sense  and  rhythm 
are  equal  determining  factors. 

4.  The  verse  (r"B?)  is  adopted  as  sense-unit.    It  is 
certainly  the  natural  unit  in  the  poetical  portions 
of   the    Bible  in  accordance  with  the 
Place  of     UiivTii.M  OK  P.\n.\i.i,Ei.is.M.    It  is  there 
Sentence-    equally   natural   to  divide   the  verse 
Accent.      into  two  lialves.     Accordingly,  in   a 
part  of  the  recently  discovered  frag- 
ments (if  the   Hebrew  text  of  Ecclesiasticus.  each 
verse  occupies  t  wo  short  lines  (stichs)  running  across 
the  page ;  for  example : 

The  Song  of  Mos»'s(Deut.  xxxii.)  is  still  arranged 
In  this  fasjiion  in  the  SruoLLS  and  in  the  ordinary 
editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 

Klsewhcr<-   the  Vk.hsk-divisio.v   is  an   arbitrary, 
tliiiugh  convenient,  innovation  which  was  not  jier- 
mitled  to   penetrate  into  the   Scrolls 
Setermina-  (the  sign,  marking  the  end  of  a  verse, 
tion  of        must  tie  kept  out  of  them;   see  Sofe- 
Accent.       rim.   iii.  ~\.     The  whole  of  the   Bible 
was  to  be  read  according  to  a  rhytli- 
mieal  swing  which  even  in  the  poetical  composi- 
tions is  largely  determined  by  st-nse.      The  tradi- 
tional verse,  as  a  glance  at  the  English  Bible  will 
show,  does  not  always  coincide  with  our   iieriod ; 
nor  is  it  always  of  the  sami'  length.     For  purposes 
of  necentualion  each  verse  nuist  be  dealt  with  sepa- 
rntelv.    The  problem  is  invariably  ;  givi^n  a  verse,  de- 
termine the  accentuation.     The  leading  priiiiiple  of 
the  system  is  halving  (ex  I  endiil  from  the  poetical  por- 
tions to  the  rest  of  ilii'  Bible).     Each  verse  is  divided 
Into  two   parts   not   neees.sarily  equal;    these   parts 
I    are  each  dividicl  into  two  other  parts;    this  jiroeess 
I    is  continued  until  an  indivisible  complex  of  words 
I    Is  reached.     The   greater   pauses  arc  regidated   by 


important  part.  Rhythm  is  another  factor.  A  group 
must  consist  of  more  than  two  words  to  admit  of  a 
marked  pause  within  it.  When  thus  the  stops  have 
been  properly  distributed  in  a  verse,  our  next  task 
is  to  indicate  both  the  presence  and  the  absence  of  a 
pause  by  the  corresponding  signs  (accents).  The 
accents  are  either  pausal  (^T'o??  "stops")  or  non- 
pausal  (°'.^7i;^  "servants,"  «em).  The  notation 
differs  in  Job,   Proverbs,  Psalms  (3'Vnn  'IrfP  3^'K; 

hence,  ^"i<*,  ^'Jf^^  '?£?.)  from  that  employed  in  the 
other  (twenty-one)  books  (^'')^°  "-3  ^cyj:).  The  two 
sj'stems  must   be   treated  separatel.v,    that   of  the 


three  books  first. 


A.  r''?.?  'PP-,0 


Pausal:  -  (r'i''P  "cessation  ").  ;  (^y\  1^7  "ascend- 
ing   and    descending ").    -    ("J""*    "  rest ").    :  (>:^  ? 

"rhomb").  ■-'(•-"•\P,  r?"?,  "t'?!  gerexha- 
Liet  of       t'liii   [see  below]'),    T  C''-?    "water- 
Accents,      channel"),  jiost/ioftitite,  -  ("'HI  "thrust 

back"),  prepovitiff,  I  P'J>,  "  shake  "  or 
"trill"),  ,!  (great  '"^rS"  "chain"),  ,:and ':  («i7U 
""■JJ':  and  ''?^^'^  I???  ;  '''y^,  "I'V  Itself"),  tlmt  Is. 
pausal  (for  tlic  meaning  of  x.v.'J  and  ^?^^^  see  below). 
yon  jHi until  :  7  (•<?';['*]i5  "  lengthening  ").  ■; 
(<":y.  "laboring,  heavy,  slow").  1  (wt",'?  "going  on." 
thai  is,  not  pausing),  -("<'=  "settled,"  that  is,  un- 
varying in  its  tone).  .'  C^'.  "  placed  above  "),  -  (1??? 
"turned  round";  the  older  form  was  ;),;('' J,.' 
"wheel";  the  older  form  was;,  ;),  !.  (little  "^'T^,'?), 
-  (T'-i'jr),  pretonif.  'V\w  names,  it  will  be  obs<'rved 
are  derived  from  the  musical  value  or  from  the  form 
of  the  accents.  Other  names  are  met  with;  but 
those  given  are  the  most  conunon.  Tlii'  diagram 
printed  above  will  be  employed  to  illustrate  the  use 
of  the  various  signs. 


Accents  in  Hebrew 


TIIK   .ir.WISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


152 


EXPLANATOHY   N0TE8. 

1.  The  proper  measure  of  a  poetical  verse  is  two 

sliort  lines  (a  (lislicli  or  ciuiiilct).  Sueli  is  the  form 
of  an  ordinary  vcrsr  in  I'roverbs.  The  main  ccsura 
is  then  mark("(l  hv  ". .  liut  frciiiicntly.  as  in  I'salms, 
a  verse  will  conlain  three  short  lines  (a  tristieh  or 
triplet;  that  is.  rliytlini  is  saciilieed  to  sense);  or  a 
verse  may  contain  four  short  lines  (a  tetrastich  or 
quatniiu;"  that  is,  two  rhythmical  verses  making 
one  sense-verse);  or  a  verse,  not  necessjirily  long, 
may  be  trisected  purely  for  reasons  of  sense  or  for  the 
sake  of  oratorical  emphasis.  The  main  ccsura  will 
then  be  marke<l  by  7  (a  stronger  -).  while  -.  will  be 
reserved  for  the  secondary  ccsura  (that  is,  the  one 

between  ;  and  -  ).  In  the  diagram  the  three  by 
no  means  coordinate  sections  of  the  verse  are  des- 
ignated by  the  letters  A,  15.  and  C.  In  a  .short 
verse,  therefore,  drop  A,  and  retain  B  and  C.  In  a 
still  shorter  verse  (one  consisting  of  but  one  short 
line),  drop  A  and  15,  and  retain  C.  Thin  principle 
applii'K  I't/iKiUi/  to  the  xnmller  nertioita  on  the  diagram 
{that  in.  thoM  Uiniteil  lii/  11  paiisal  accent),  the  begin- 
ning of  which  may  be  lopped  offtosiiit  ruri/inghngthn. 

There  will  be  found  ;  in  the  .si.\th  word  from  - 
and  farther;  it  will  be  replaced  by  7  occasionally 
in  the  liflh,  and  almost  always  in  the  fourth  word; 

7  is  never  used  farther  to  the  left:  7  is  replaced  by 
.'  always  in  the  first,  occasionally  also  in  the  second, 
word  (see  note  19), 

2.  2'>;y?  ,   ''Sfn_    NS"?,    (""i    ^N    (for   pn-'^N)^    D'C  i:ni'_^ 

3.  The  main  ccsura  in  section  A  is  marked  by  1; 
when  a  second  cesura  becomes  necessary,  1  is  re- 
peated. Obncrce,  in  general,  that  wlif  never  an  accent 
is  repeated,  the  one  farther  to  the  left  is  the  weaker. 

Between  .  and  7  there  must  be  no  word  (in  which 
case  1  is  called  little  .)  or  at  least  two  words  (then 
we  have  great  _).  Two  .  s  must  equally  be  sepa- 
rated by  at  least  two  words.  When  -  becomes  im- 
possible. 1  takes  its  place.  The  shortest  measure 
of  section  A  is  two  words;  a  cesura  is  always 
required. 

4.  The  servus  of  7  is-  (or  7,  when  properly  the 
hyphen  should  be  employed;  or  ';,  that  i.s,  with  a 

n??).     This  :  may  occur  in  the  same  word   with  ; 
(in  place  of  the  light  KT). 
Here   fP? ,  "cutting  off,"  "separating,"  is  a  line 

similar  to  the  one  used  with  "^V.," ■!■  and  "^-■;-!..  It 
occurs  (a)  before  or  after  the  divine  name  "to 
prevent  its  being  joined,  in  the  reading,  to  a  word 
which — in  the  opinion  of  the  accentuators^t  was 
not  seemly  to  bring  into  contact  with  it " ;  (b)  be- 
tween two  words  of  which  the  first  ends  in  the 
same  letter  with  which  the  second  begins;  (c)  el.se- 
where.  to  mark  an  emphatic  intonation.  In  all  these 
eases,  r??  introduces  a  slight  pause  after  a  non- 
pausal  accent. 

5.  In  the  section  limited  by  great  .  (great  .'s  sec- 
tion), the  main  ccsura  is  marked  by  1  (rarely  by  ':) 
and  the  secondary  cesura  by  '7.     When  only  one 

cesura  is  required,  it  is  marked  by  ':  (that  is,  the  1 
section  is  cut  off);  but  1  is  found  in  exceptional 
cases,  and  neces.sarily,  when  two  servi  are  intro- 
duced (see  note  12).  Sections  of  two  words  may 
and  may  not  have  a  cesura.     If  required,  it  will,  of 

course,  be  marked  by  '; .  The  shortest  measure  is 
one  word. 


6.  Great  1  never  has  more  tlian  one  servus,  wliich  ja 
-.  (exceptionally  7  ;  particularly  when  another  :.]ire- 

cedes).     When  a  pausal  accent  (1  or  '-. )  precedes,  it 

is  '.,  but  7  when  an  open  syllable  directly  (that  is, 
no  'l'?r' intervening)  precedes  the  tone-syllable;  tlicse 
accents  may  appear  in  the  sjime  word  with  great 
J  (:  taking  "the  place  of  light  •'"'?). 

7.  Sections  of  two  words  will  occasionally  have 
a  ccsura;  it  is  omitted  in  the  case  of  small  words 
standing  at  the  beginning  of  the  section  and  ac- 
cented on  the  first  syllable,  iniless  emijhasis  is  de- 
sired.    The  cesura  in  little's  section  is  marked  by 

':.  The  shortest  measure  of  little  .'s  section  is  one 
word. 

8.  Little  1  may  have  two  servi,  -  r  (or  7  17);  or 
one  servus,  7.  The  two  servi  (7  7)  apiiear  occasion- 
ally in  the  same  word  (when  the  syllal>le  inuncdi- 
ately  preceding  the  tone  is  open) ;  but  this  rule  is 
not  always  obeyed. 

9.  The  ccsura  in  I's  section  is  marked  by  the  same 
accent,  and  is  dependent  upon  the  same  conditions 
as  the  cesura  in  little  I's  section  (see  note  7).  A 
secondary  cesura  is  seldom  rciiuired;  the  accent 
marking  the  main  ccsura  will  then  be  repealed. 
The  shortest  measure  of  I's  section  is  one  word. 

10.  '  may  have  two  servi,  7  :  {i.e.,  -  when  the 
tone  falls  on  the  second  letter  and  farther;  7  when 
on  the  first) ;  or  one  servus,  7  (it  may  api)ear  in- 
stead of  light  ■'v't-  in  the  same  word  with  1)  (or  '7). 
In  a  few  instances  three  servi  are  foimd :  ;  '  ■■ 

11.  \1  ,  when  a  servus  precedes;  or  when  the  tone 
falls  on  the  third  syllable  or  farther;  in  all  other 
ca.ses,  '7  (the  latter  always  between  1'  and  7), 

12.  There  is  nocesura  in  i^'s  section.  Its  shortest 
measure  is  one  word.  E.xccpt  in  two  instances,  ,1 
has  never  more  than  one  .servus,  7,  when  the  tone  is 
on  the  first  syllable  (but  in  two  instances  in  the 
place  of  the  hy])hcn);  or  on  the  second  when  it  is 
simple  and  the  first  syllabic  is  a  simple  clo.sed  one 

without  heavy  ■•■";  7  when  the  condition  mentioned 
in  note  0  is  fulfilled;  .'  in  all  other  cases  (but  7  in  a 
few  instances  where  the  1?'7  or  "??  preceding  the 
tone-syllable  is  abnonnal).  Two  servi :  7  7  ;  7  in  the 
place  of  a  hyphen. 

13.  The  rules  for  the  division  of  ~'s  .section  are 
the  same  as  those  laid  down  for  great  j  (see  note  5). 

14.  r  has  pro]ierly  only  one  servus,  -  ,  when  the 
tone  is  on  tlic  first  syllable;  7  when  on  any  other 
syllable  (but  '7;  also  7  exceptionally  in  tw-o  places; 
in  one  of  them  two  consecutive  T's  are  found);  al- 
ways 7  when  imdcr  a  dagcshcd  letter.  exc('])t  in 
three  places,  where  7  is  found  again.  Excejilion- 
ally  two  servi  are  found;  7  7  ;  the  first  is  properly 
in  the  |)lace  of  a  hyjihen;  once  we  find  7  7,  where 
again  the  first  is  in  the  place  of  a  hyphen. 

15.  The  main  cesura  in  section  15  is  marked  by  j; 
for  a  seeon<l  cestira.  j  will  be  repeated;  and  so  on. 
The  1  s  may  follow  each  other  closely.  Properly, 
between  j  and  7  at  least  two  words  should  inter- 
vene. This  must  alw"ays  l)e  the  ease  when  1  marks 
a  subordinate  ccsura ;  otherwise  an  interval  of  one 
word  is  frequently  .sufiicient.  When  1  becomes 
impossible  or  undesirable,  7  takes  its  place.  The 
interval  between  7  and  7  must  never  exceed  one 
word.  7  is  freqvicntly  found  in  the  second  word 
from  7 .  It  is  found  in  the  first  only  when  7's  word 
is  long;  that  is.  when  the  tone-syllable  therein  is 
preceded  by  at  least  two  syllables,  or  by  one  .syl- 
lable, provided  it  is  the  bearer  of  a  .secondary  accent 
(see  ^  3);  otherwise  7  gives  way  to  a  servus.     The 

shortest  measure  of  B  is  two  words  (except  after  7 , 


153 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Accents  in  Hebrew 


n'"'j';>^  D^T    n\i>N  n'ji'i<--ij.;    'J."?',,  ^j;    "i^**)^    '^\^'  onj  ij  -I'cit  i   ^;^^  x 


90      I     II 


•  nj!??''^  ^g    ^^' 


:  r'.??,-'?^?  'r"'3?~'"s 


wlien  one  word  is  sufficient).  Sections  of  two  words 
may  and  niav  not  have  a  cesiira. 

Itj.  ■;  should  properly  never  have  more  than  one 
servus.  In  all  cases  where  two  or  more  servi  are 
found  tlie  servus  itnmedialcly  preceding- is  a  sub- 
stitute for -,  (see  note  lo).    Three  servi:  |.  .    ~  (hut 

:  7,  i.e.,  -  when  the  lone  is  on  the  third  syllable: 
or  on  the  second  syllable  when  the  first   syllal)le 

isoverlong;  :  when  the  condition  mentioned  in  note 
6  is  fulfilled:  .-  in  all  other  cases).  In  three  in- 
stances L  takes  the  ])laee  of  the  middle  servus;  it  is 
preceded  by  :  and  followed  by.'  (when  the  tone  is 

due  on  tlic  first  syllable)  or  by  ;  (when  the  tisual 
condition  is  fulfilled).  Two  servi:  r  -  (but  '-  -). 
One  servus  :  ;  after  ;  (but  '-)  ;  ;  iu  all  other  ca.ses, 
More  than  three  servi  are  found  iu  three  instances: 
in  one  1  oecui)ies  the  second  place  before  -;  iu  the 
others  the  nudti- 
plication  of  servi 
is  due  to  the  reso- 
lution of  hyi)hcn- 
atcd  words. 

17.  Theoretic- 
ally, 1  marks  the 

main,  and  '-.  the 
secondary  cesura 
in  ;'s  section ; 
but  ;'8  section  is 
usually  too  .short 
to  require  two 
cesuras.  One  ex- 
pects '-.  to  be  the 
accent  where  only 
one   cesura  is  re 

?uired.  Such  is 
req  uen  t  ly  the 
case.  But  I  is  em- 
ployed when  the 
section  in  front  of 
the  cesura  must  it- 
self be  bisected,  or 
when  the  pausjil 
accent  requires 
two  servi  l)efore 
it  (in  either  ca.'^e 
|2  is  out  of  (he 
question  :  see 
note    12);     some-  First  Four  V 

times     (in     three  , 

instances)  for  no  apparent  rca.son  (1  and  ':  arc  so 
nearly  alike  in  pausjd  force  that  occasionally  one  is 

placed  for  the  other).    Between '- and  ■;  there  must 

be  at  least  one  word.  Otherwise  '-  gives  way  to 
a  servus.  The  shortest  mea.sure  of  -'s  section  is  one 
word.  Sections  of  two  words,  of  course,  have  no 
cesura.  The  cesura  fiiils  likewise  in  the  ease  of  small 
words  standing  at  the  beginning  of  the  section  and 
accented  on  the  lirsl  syllable,  uidess  emphasis  is  de- 
sired. The  foregoing  rules  remain  in  force,  even 
wlien  -  gives  way  to  a  servus  (see  note  l.">). 

18.  ■;  should   prop<'rly  never  have  more  than  one 
I    servus:  .-(il  may  be  found,  instead  of  light  Jr",  in 

the  siune  word  with  ;  only  when  the  .syllable  pre- 

j    cetling  the  tone  syllabic  is  overlong  and  has  a  or 
^    d  for  its  vowel).     When  two  servi  appear,  the  one 

I    adjoining  ;  (:)  is  a  substitute  for  ';  (see  note  17). 
I    while  the  one  farther  to  the  left  is  il's  servus  (see 

I    note  l'.J):  ;  r.     Once  three  servi  are  found:  :  :  :; 

I    ;  takes  the  place  of  a  hyphen. 

I        19.  The  main  cesuni  in  section  C  is  marked  bv  -  ; 


I       I     IS        18     II     i&      < 


1        i«      I  IS 


I.  I.        4 


riV  qcr    3 


I  1«  I      IS        6      .     5.  n         19 


The  foregoing  verses  as  emended  by  Duhm  In  his  Psalm.s : 

(the  rest  of  the  verse  as  above:)  nin<   on;   ^ictp  lii''    1 
I      19        21      91     I     1      I     IS       18    II    IS         t 


the  secondary  cesura  by  '-.  When  only  one  cesura 
is  required,  '-  should  luoperly  mark  it.  However, 
■-  is  employed  (the  two  accents  are  presumably  re- 
garded as  of  equal  force:  see,  for  a  similar  substitu- 
tion, note  17).     Between  '-  and  ;  there  mu.st  be  at 

least  one  word.  When  1-  is  due  in  the  word  imme- 
diately preceding  -  ,  it  is  replaced  by  a  servus,  r . 
Another  servus,  -.  may  be  placed  in  the  next  pre- 
ceding word.  This  necessitates  a  further  change: 
1  (marking  the  main  cesura),  which  does  not  per- 
mit -  immediately  after  it,  and  is  transformed 
into  |J  .  ■.;  may  be  found  in  the  word  adjoining  , 
only  when  Vs  word  is  long:  otherwise  .'  gives  waj' 
to  a  servus.  This  may  neces.sitate  a  further  change : 
when  the  word  udjoiniiig  7  is  itself  short  (that  is, 
with  only  one  syllabic,  which  is  not  the  bearer  of 
a  secondary  accent,  before  the  accented  syllable): 

: ,  when  due    on 

the  next  preced- 
ing word,  is  re- 
placed by  1' .  The 
shortest  measure 
of  C  is  one  word. 
But  7  does  not  per- 
mit T  immediately 
before  it;  the  lat- 
ter accent  will 
then  be  replaced 
by  .,  the  other  ac- 
cents remaining 
the  same  as  before 
r.  Sections  of 
two  words  have  a 
cesura,  provided 
the  last  word  is  of 
sulficient  length 
to  permit  .'  before 
it  (see  above). 

20.  -  should 
properly  never 
have  more  than 
one  servus.  In  all 
cases  where  two 
or  more  servi  are 
found,  the  servus 

immediately    pre- 

^^^^"""■"^^  ^^"^    ceding  7  is  a  sub- 

of  Psalm  ex.  stitute  for  J  (see 

note  19).  Three 
servi:  7  i  ~,  that  is,  7  and  7  upon  the  same  condi 
tions  as  before  7  (see  note  l(i) :  where  1  is  u.scd  be- 
fore 7-  will  be  employed  here.  Two  servi:  77: 
but  1;  7:  7  may  take  the  place  of  lights.??  in  the 
Sfime  word  with  :  (provided  that  .  docs  not  precede: 
see  note  19):  in  a  few  places  the  servi  are  alto- 
gether irregular.  One  servus:  7  (when  the  tone  is 
on  the  first  syllable;  but  ';) ,  ;  (when  on  any  other 

syllable),  or  _■  (after '7).  In  a  few  instances  four 
servi  are  found. 

21.  There  is  nocesura  in  -."s  section.  Its  shortest 
measure  is  one  wonl.  Except  in  a  few  instano's, 
.'  has  never  more   than  two  servi.      Three  s«'rvi: 

,■  7. -.  (■.  or:  according  to  the  usual  rule);  in  three 

pa.s,sages:  7-7  and  r  "  r.  Two  servi:  7-.  One 
servus:  7.     The  servi  of  |1  are  the  same  as  those 

of :. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  application  of  the  above 
diagnim  and  rules  to  concrete  ca.ses.  the  lirsl  four 
verses  of  I'.milm  ex.  are  given  above.  The  cesunis 
are  indicated  as  in  the  diagnim:  the  figures  refer  to 
the  notes. 


I        i« 


1. 5.    4     I 
r\^;n  B"3    njij  npy. 


J    3 


IS  18        18 


:  'P'j3n-''y    oSy^  t^b'-inN    onj?  »*;?    T^I'^n  'V^"  ya-Lri    4 


Accents  in  Hebrew 


THE   JEWISH    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


154 


The  verso  fiom  Ecdcsiasticus cjuotcd  above  would 
be  accented  as  follows: 


It 


1  16      I 


IS 


■<p. 


Pautal  :  -,-,-  (T'TV?  •'cliistpr  of  grapes  ").  ;»*/• 

poHtire,  il,  -,  and  -'  (great  and  little  IP.!,  ••upright"). 

;  (Np03  "Imiulbreadth,"  or  "CIS),  -,  - 

List   of    (Xi'^'ii;.  "scattercr").  ;)o»^yw«7!re,  -  ("??*?• 

Accents,    "stretching    out"),     ]iostj)osilice,     -. 

(^'P]    "resting"),  jtrepoditire,    -    P'?"? 

"broken"),  :  i^")>,  "expulsion"),  ".  (=;^::^.  "double 

<5?D,   :,   ".''  (great  "!.'?).  :    (great  xs^'S?  "drawing 

out"),  ':  (^=7-^'!'— that  is  ^^?.^^  '^}'^).—Kon-paximl:  7. 

.-,  r.  :  (double;),  t  («J,?7,  "trill  ").  1,  t  (little  «i:''%?),  -. 

ExPLANATonv  Notes. 

1.  The  verse  may  be  of  varj'ing  length.  In  a  long 
verse  -  marks  the  main  cesura.  Tlie  two  sections 
are  designated  in  tlu'  diagram  by  the  letters  A  and  B. 
In  a  short  veree  drop  A  and  retain  B.  The  shortest 
measure  of  a  verse  is  two  words.  The  cesura  never 
fails. 

-'s  proper  place  is  in  the  fifth  word  from  7  and 


B 


'■•i'^     11-''     in-' 


word  or  the  one  adjoining  is  long.  1  is  admissible  in 
the  second  word, but  isnol  necessary.  When  .■  becomes 
impossible  or  uudcsiniblc.  ~  takes  its  place.  Z  is  coni- 
paralively  rare  in  llic  third  word;  this  is  its  utin<«t 
limit  III  the  right.  The  shnrtist  measure  of  is  sec- 
tion is  two  words.  The  lesiini  never  fails.  When 
only  OIK'  word  is  available  ii  takes  the  place  of  t. 

5.  Between  twit  .'s  there  nuist  be  at  least  thR-e 
words.  When  the  interval  is  shorter  the  one  to  the 
left  is  transformed  into  1;  the  change  does  not  af- 
fect the.  ne.xt  to  the  left,  wJiich  always  maintains 
its  position,  there  being  a  sulliciently  long  intiTval 
betweiii  it  and  the  .  preceding  it.  Between  1  and  7 
or  r  there  must  be  at  least  two  words;  otherwise  1 
is  tnuisfornied  into  Z  or  ;.  But  1  may  precede  an- 
other 1 ;  this  is  the  only  case  in  which  two  I's  may 
come  together. 

6.  i  may  have  one  or  two  servi.  both  ;  's. 

7.  The  main  cesura  in  :'s  section  is  marked  by  .', 
which  is  repeated  for  every  following  cesura  until  a 
point  is  reached  when  I  is  inadmissible  or  undesirable 
(see  below);  then  it  gives  way  to  !;  the  nixt  cesura 
is  marked  by  . ;  then  comes  '7  which  may  be  repeated. 
Between  1  and  j  there  must  be  at  least  four  words. 
It  is  rarely  found  in  the  fourth  word.  It  necessarily 
replaces  there  f  when  the  next  cesura  is  due  immedi- 
ately before  ■. ;  '7  then  becomes  unavailable  (see  be- 
low"), and  .'  takes  its  place  (that  is,  '7's  section  is  ob- 
liti-rated);  the  interval  between  1  and  !  must  never 

A 
16.     17 


I T  r  r  It  5- 1?  ;;  4  «-  -  "'•- 1~  ll-^  '■'  ^ '"  1  -"=  +  rr  1  -^  r  i'""  "'<"  ~l  -"- '"  B  -'"  H 


\\^tt\-t^(-t^ 


I  I7    tits.  U  bffOTt    ■■  II  ^  t 


|ii-%i^- 


II- 


7-     9- 

.cmbii'^-  t 


farther;  when  due  in  the  fourth  and  farther  to  the 
left,  it  may  be  replaced  by  :  or  7  (in  accordance  with 
the  rules  laid  down  for  the  position  of  those  accents  in 
note  2);  the  substitution  is  common  in  short  verses; 
it  necessarily  takes  place  in  verses  of  three  or  two 
words;  in  the  tirst  word  before  7  (even  in  a  long 
verse),  7  is  rarely  used  (except  in  cases  of  a  marked 
logical  pause). 

•2.  The  main  cesura  in  A  Is  marked  by  i ;  the  second 
by  : ;  for  evcrv  following  cesura  1  is  repeated  imtil 
the  last  is  rcac"lied,  which  is  marked  l)y7  •  Between 
i  and  7  at  least  three  words  must  intervene:  but  the 
proper  place  is  at  a  considerable  distance  from  :. 
Between  1  and  7  there  nmst  be  at  least  one  word. 
When  r's  word  and  the  one  adjoining  it  are  both 
short  the  distance  between  1  and  r  must  amount  to 
two  words.  When  1  becomes  imjxwsible  7  takes  its 
place.  In  a  few  instances  where  the  two  words  im- 
mediately preceding  7  are  very  short,  that  is.  mono- 
syllables, and  properly  subject  to  hyphenation.  7  is 
found  in  the  third  word;  this  is  its  utmost  limit  to 
the  right.  The  shortest  measure  of  A  is  one  word. 
Sections  of  two  words  always  have  a  cesura. 

3.  7's  servus  is  7  (which  is  repeated  in  the  few  in- 
stances which  call  for  a  second  servus;  see  note  2). 
In  a  few  instances  7  is  found  in  the  same  word  with 

7:  grammarians  incorrectly  call  it  a  servus  (''i'>'*S 
"inclined  "). 

4.  The  main  cesura  in  i  's  section  is  marked  by  _  , 
which  is  repeated  for  every  following  cesura  until 
the  last  is  reached,  which  is  marked  by  T.  Between 
7  and  ;  there  must  be  at  least  one  word.     When  i  's 


exceed  one  word:  otherwise  t  and  "(the  servus  due 
in  the  second  word  before  _  ;  see  note  13)  would  come 
together,  and.  on  nnisical  grounds,  the  two  accents 
can  not  come  together  without  a  pausal  accent  be- 
tween them.  In  a  few  instances  1  takes  the  place 
of  f  in  the  fourth  or  third  word  for  no  apparent  rea- 
son. Between  !  and  j  there  must  be  at  least  two 
words;  it  is  found  in  the  second  only  when  the  two 
next  following  words  are  both  long:  its  utmost  limit 
appears  to  be  thefifth  orsixth  word  (where  it  replaces 
i  for  the  main  cesura).  Whin  !  becomes  unavailable 
it  gives  way  to  1.  Between  the  latter  and  1  there 
need  be  no  interval;  its  utmost  limit  is  the  fourth 
word.  Between  '7  and  :.  there  must  be  at  least  one 
word:  it  is  found  in  the  first  only  in  the  place  of  1 
(that  is.  P?,-)  when  the  latter  sigii  is  due  before  i 
(strangely  enough,  the  notation  remains  the  same); 
its  utmost  limit  api)ears  to  be  the  third  word.  In  a 
section  consisting  of  only  three  words  ';  may  take 
the  place  of  1  in  the  second  word.  The  shortest 
measure  of  .'s  section  is  one  word.  Sections  of  two 
words  may  or  may  not  have  a  cesura:  the  cesura  is 
likely  to  occur  when  the  last  word  is  long,  but  it  is 
not  uecessjirv  even  then.  The  ces\ira  may  be  left  out 
also  in  sections  of  three  words  provided  it  is  due  im- 
mediately before  _. 

In  the  t  wenty  one  books  P??  is  especially  employed 
to  mark  a  stop  in  long  sections  limited  by  1,  t,  or  1. 
for  the  sulxlivision  of  which  by  means  of  pausal  ac- 
cents there  exists  no  provision  in  the  accentual  sys- 
tem ;  or  to  mark  a  stop  immediately  before  7,  1,  or  ~, 
neither  ';  nor  _'  being  available  (see  note  15). 


155 


TIIK  .JEWISH   ENCYCLOI'KDIA 


Accents  in  Hebrew 


y.  .  may  liave  one  or  two  servi.  Two  servi :  -  7. 
Oiiusorvus:  :.  The  IiiIUt  is  occasio'"i"y  found  in 
the  same  wunl  with  ..  especially  in  order  In  indicate 
a.  compound  word  ('"'',''<,  Eccl.  iv.  10.  for  example). 

1).  There  is  no  cesura  in  I's  section.  Its  sliortest 
measure  is  one  word.  1  may  have  from  one  to  si.\ 
servi.  all  -'8.  "S  is  found  in  si.xteen  instances;  in 
every  instance  I  niisht  have  been  used.  "J  never 
standsalone;  it  may  huveas  many  as  six  servi:  -  :  .- 
etc. 

10.  There  is  no  cesura  in  fs  section.  Its  .short- 
est measure  is  one  word.  !  may  have  from  one  to 
five  servi.  all  r's.  !  and  ;  are  constantly  intcr- 
chun.ired.  particularly  where  the  former  is  subor- 
dinated to  .  (see  note  11)  or  to  the  servus  that  takes 
the  place  of  .'  (see  note  lo). 

11.  I's  section  shoidd  properly  l)e  indivisible. 
But  very  often  a  division  is  introduced.  The  main 
Cesura  is  then  marked  l)y  1.  and  the  second  by  !. 
lietween  1  and  _  at  least  I  wo  Words  shoidd  properly 
inliTvene;  the  former  is  lurcly  foiuiii  in  the  second 
woril.  iSomeliines,  when  there  arc  only  two  woids 
in  .'s  section,  a  cesura  is  introduced.  Similarly, 
in  a  few  very  rare  instjuices,  f  s  section  is  bisected; 
1  then  marks  the  cesura.  The  reason  for  the  phe- 
nomena .just  mentioned  is  apparently  the  sli.irht  and 
almost  impereeptilile  dilTerencc  in  pausal  force  be 
tweeii  the  three  accents:  :,  !,  and  _ .  The  shortest 
nieasin'e  of  _'s  section  is  one  word. 

\'i.  .'  when  the  accent  is  on  the  penidtimate,  <if 
when  1  precedes;  :'  when  the  accent  is  (ju  the  ulti 
mate,  and  1  does  not  precede. 

13.  1  may  have  from  one  to  five  servi,  but  :'  can 
have  only  one.  Three  or  more  servi:  It  --,  etc. 
Two  servi:  It.  Oneservus:  :  (when  the  accent  is 
on  the  (ii'st  letter  of  (he  word,  this  is  the  only  servus 
■  can  take),  or  1  (when  on  any  other  letter).  1 
may  take  the  place  of  lijiht  J""  in  the  same  word 
wiih.'wlKii  no  other  servus  precedes  (except  when 
the  J"  divides  if:  or  .--.or  when  .  follows,  unless 
at  the  Slime  time  f  precedes). 

14.  There  is  no  cesura  in  ':'s  section.  Its  short 
est  measure  is  one  word.  7  may  have  one  or  two 
servi:  ;  1,  7. 

l.'i.  The  rides  for  the  division  of  7's,  I's.  and  fs 
sections  ar<' nearly  the  same  as  thfise  governin.ir  the 
division  of  .'s  seelion  (sec  note  T).  The  follow 
ill);  dllVerenees  should  be  noted:  '-,'s  .section  is  .sel- 
<loni  available  (only  three  instances  are  recoiiled). 
1  may  be  found  in  the  second  word  before  7,  etc., 
thoU);h  not  fre(|ueiilly,  even  when  the  two  words 
iie.\t  followinir  are  liolh  short:  its  utmost  limit  ap- 
pears to  be  the  liftli  word  (where  it  replaces  .'  for 
the  main  cesura).  In  live  passiifjes  1  and  .  are 
found  ill  the  same  word  (secoiiil  from  7,  etc.):  there 
was  evidently  a  diirerence  of  opiiiiim  anions;  the  ac 
centuators;  liolh  accents  are  now  dianted.  .  first. 
Hetwei-n  .'  and  7  there  must  be  at  least  one  word 
(but  see  below);  its  rei;iilar  utmost  limit  is  the  third 
Word;  it  is  found  in  the  fourth  only  when  the  next 
followini;  cesura  is  marked  by  ':  (see  above),  or  when 
it  and  !  ehaniie  places,  as  in  fJeii.  i.  12 ;  only  in  the 
latter  (ase  .  may  be  found  in  the  fifth  wiird  (sec> 
Deiil.  xvii.  ,"1);  !  iind  .  may  also  chanire  places 
when  the  latti'r  accent  is  <liie  in  the  third  word. 
When  .  becomes  unavailable  it  gives  way  to  a 
servus,  its  own  .servi  remaining:  .  may  remain 
when  tlie  last  word  is  loiii;.  The  .section  limited  by 
7.  etc..  may  eonlain  no  more  than  one  word.  Sec 
tionsof  two  words  may  and  may  not  have  a  cesura; 
a  eesiini  is  admissible"  when  the  latter  of  the  two 
Wolds  is  loiii;  and  the  interval  between  the  lone 
syllables  considerable;  but  iveii  then  it  is  rarely  in 
tioduced;  ili(.  accent  markiug  the  cesura  is.'.     The 


cesiii-a  may  be  left  out  occasionally  also  in  sections 
of  three  words  even  when  it  is  due  al  a  sullicieutly 
hin'j:  distance  (that  is.  after  the  first  word  of  the  sec- 
tion) to  make  .  available. 

Ui.  When  .  is  due  on  the  first  U4ter  of  the  word 
and  no  servus  juccedes,  it  is  replaced  by  7. 

17,  7,  etc,  may  Lave  as  many  as  si.x  servi.  Four 
or  more  servi:  -.-.  1^77.  Three  servi:  -z  1  t. 
Two  servi:  7-,  7— that  is,  7  when  on  the  first  letter, 
anil  1  when  el.scwhere;  the  two  servi  may  oc- 
casionally appear  in  the  same  word,  the  first  re- 
plaein.i;-  the  liirlit  ^7?  or  indicating  the  eiiil  of  the 
first  jiart  in  a  compound  word;  7  may  take  the  place 
of  7  between  1  and  ':  when  J?"  occurs  in  the  hit- 
ter's word,  or  « hen  TP?  precedes.  One  servus: 
before  7:7,,  that  is,  -, ,  when  two  or  more  syllables 
intervene  between  the  servus  and  7,  ^'I'f  at  the  be- 
.irinning  of  a  word  and  furtive  "~-  couniins;  as 
syllables;  7  when  only  one  syllable  (even  an  over- 
lon.s  .syllable)  or  none  at  all  intervenes:  7  always 
remains  before  r?R;  7,  provided  no  oilier  .servus 
precedes,  may  replace  ^I^P  (in  the  same  word  with 
7)  when  the  latter  is  due  in  an  overlong  syllable 
(immediately  before  7);  but  not  in  an  ojien  .syllable 
•separated  from  7  by  aiiollier  open  syllable  or  by  an 
incompletely  reduced  vowel  (I^C  )";  liefore  1:  7., 
thai  is,  7  ,  when  one  or  more  syllables  intervene  be- 
tween the  servus  and  the  tone-syllable  of  I's  word, 
"V"-'  al  the  beirinniiii;  of  a  word  and  furtive  "C? 
eountini;  as  above;  in  a  few  compound  words  7  ap- 
pears in  the  sjime  word  withl;  7  when  no  sylla- 
lile  intervenes;  7  always  remains  before  r°?;  be- 
fore -:  :. 

18.  .  when  a  servus  precedes:  otherwise  1  is 
used. 

U).  The  rules  for  the  division  of  .  's  section  are 
the  siime  as  those  jioverniu.i;  the  division  of  i's  sec- 
tion except  that  for  r  there  is  used  here  1.  The 
shortest  measure  of  Is  section  is  two  words.  Sec- 
tions of  two  words  may  or  may  not  liave  a  cesura. 
The  cesura  always  fails  when  the  second  word  is 
short ;  when  it  is  loni;  a  <esura"must  lie  introduced, 
unless  the  first  word  is  very  short,  or  is  a  word  of 
frequent  occurrence. 

'.3(1.  1  may  have  one  or  two  servi,  both  7  s.  7  may 
appear  in  the  same  word  with  1,  provided  thai  no 
second  7  precedes,  in  place  of  light  J?"  (it  must 
not  divide  --.  or  7-;  sec  note  13),  but  not  on  the 
first  letter:  when  7  is  inadmissible  and  the  jiausal 
accent  preceding  is  not  '.,  1  (calleil  here  ^r"",  or 
a  kind  of  'T:')  is  introduced  in  the  jilacc  of  the 
heavy  'u^;  when  neither  7  nor  i  is  admis.sible  " 
is  necessarily  employed. 

21.  The  rules  for  the  divisicm  of  7's  section  are 
the  Siune  as  those  governing  the  division  of  I's  sec- 
lion  exce])t  that  for  1  there  is  \ised  here  .-.  The 
shortest  measure  of  7's  section  is  one  woixl. 
Sections  of  two  words  may  or  may  not  liave  n 
cesura  (a  cesura  may  be  introduced  only  wlien  7*8 
word  is  long). 

'2".i.  7  has  usually  only  one  servus:  -.  It  occii- 
sionally  appears  in  the  place  of  light  '"•.,  or  in 
compound  words,  in  the  sjime  place  with  7.  In 
fourteen  instances  7  is  preceded  by  two  servi:  ;- 
(:  is  properly  a  weakened  7 ;  7  is  7's  servus). 

23.  The  rules  for  the  divi.slon  of  sectiim  R  are 
the  siune  as  those  governiii.g  A  except  that  '.  is 
not  available  here.  The  shortest  measure  of  B  is 
one  word.  Seclions  of  two  words  always  have  a 
cesura. 

2-1.  -'s  .servus  is  -.  In  a  few  instances  7  is  found 
in  the  same  word  with  7  ('*t",'*";  see  note  3). 

Fnr    ihi'    sike   (if   illM..ir  iii..ii    the   Second   Com- 


Accents  in  Hebrew 


THE   .IKWISII    ];N(V(  l.ol'KDIA 


156 


mitDdmcnt  (Ex.  xx   3-6)  is  liere  subjuinc-d  (accord- 
ing to  the  l"":V.7,o;i?;  see  below): 


IJP9  D'cca  irK 


I  Sod.  r|S  nirj;^.  t<^_       <J9- 

1.19      1.1       11 
rnns  y^M  '^?'?'- 

10  S.IS      90  I) 

I  »  «s 


:.I9         I2.1S       13         IS      13 


."wnn-^31 


4.5  a  !  14 

1»in'^  pnnc  1 0'OD   isyNi 

19  IT  1.19     13  9 

91  17       j' 

0>J3-''i'    .■'3N    IV, 


24 


5.? 


:>riixp  '■^rr'l'i  o^n'^        O'P'^n'^        •'pn  ni;;ji 

The  use  of  a  separate  system  for  the  three  books 
requires  nn  rxplanatinn.  i,uzj;attf)(in  liis  "  Prnlego- 
mc'iii  ad  Una  (Truinnialica  Kagionala  dclla  r.iiiirua 
Ebraica,"  pp.  IT?  it  kkj.  ;  letter  lo  Bacr  apiicndcrl  to 
the  latter's  treatise,  ""S.??  ~y^,  p.  55)  writes  that  the 
different  method  of  chaiiling  in  vo^ue  for  tliose 
books  called  for  a  different  notation.  Haer  (■'^?i'"' 
f^"?? ,  p.  3).  and  before  him  Elias  l.,evita,  believed 
that  the  shorter  measure  of  the  poetical  verses  is 
responsible  for  th<>  change  of  the  accentual  system. 
AVickes  ("  Poetical  Accentuation,"  pp.  7  ct  srr/.)  seems 
to  combine  both  views  when  he  .SJtys  that  the  system 
of  accentuation  found  in  'T?<  involves  "a  retine- 
ment  of  a  purely  musical  character,"  and  that  "the 
idea  seems  to  have  been  to  compensate  for  the  short- 
ness of  the  verses  by  a  finer  and  fuller,  more  arliti- 
cial  and  impressive  melody."  It  would  seem  that 
Baer's  opinion  needs  but  a  .slight  modification  to  be 
accepted  as  an  ade(|uatee.vi)lanation.  The  accentu- 
ation of  the  three  books  may  be  said  to  be  design- 
edly adjusted  lo  the  stichic  form  of  the  poetical 
texts  {sec  lieginning  of  this  section;  also  ^'M,  '"?P  . 
note  1).  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  distich  was 
found  to  cover  the  sense-verse.  7  was  the  natural 
sign ;  it  is  the  sign  of  bisection  in  a  verse  in  the 
other  books  of  the  Bible.  Bui  occasionally  the  sense 
re(|uired  a  sense-ver.se  of  three  stichs.  Had  i  been 
used  to  mark  the  main  eesura,  the  rhythmical  Irisec- 
tion  would  have  been  entirely  obliterated.     With 

the  introduction  of  ,- ,  r  was  kept  in  its  place  and 
the  rhythmical  division  left  recognizable.  Mono- 
stichs  were  not  infre(iuently  found  in  th<'  texts.  It 
was  thought  desiralile  to  mark  them  as  such  accentu- 
ally by  avoiding  ;.  The  jioetical  accentuation  (the 
name  will  now  be  found  appropriate),  while  pri- 
marily serving  the  requirements  of  sense,  aims  at 
the  same  time  to  do  justice,  as  far  as  it  can,  to 
rhythm.  It  could  safely  be  employed  in  books  like 
Job,  Proverbs,  and  Psalms,  which  were  not  read  in 
public  ser\'ice,  and  for  which  therefore  no  established 
method  of  chanting  existed  (as  is  the  case  with  Can- 
ticles and  Lamentations);  there  was.  of  course,  no  room 
for  it  in  the  ca.se  of  Ps.  xviii.  and  cv.  1-15,  which 
are  repeated  in  II  Sam.  xxii.  and  I  Chron.  xvi.  8-22 
in  non-poetical  surroundings.  We  subjoin  here  Ps. 
xviii.  1(5  =  II  Sam.  xxii.  17,  Ileb.  1(5,  which  will  illus- 
trate the  transposition  of  one  sj'stem  into  the  other: 


'•an  nno'iD?'J>i 

I  "    •-  At  I  T    - 

nin>  n—;vip. 


•  -  -  '  :   I        vT   • 

rl^Tyy  r"i;^i3 
.  IBM  m-i  r::ir:D 


A  double  accentuation  is  found  in  Gen.  xxxv.  22 
(one  is  intended  for  the  verse  ending  at  the  Maso- 


retic  section;  the  other  extends  farth<T  so  as  lo  slur 
over  the  uncomplimenlary  story  concerning  the  mis- 
conduct of  IJciilx'ii,  i?'*<7  ^'^-'^  :  or  in  order  to 
iniiily  the  fanciful  idia  that,  in  spile  of  his  inis- 
condiict.  Hiulxn  was  still  cnunled  with  the  other 
sons  of  .lacob;  see  liashi,  ml  liii-iiiii,  and  sources)  and 
in  the  Decalogue,  Ex.  xx.  'S  it  ivf/.  and  Dent.  v.  '  (t 
seq.  (one  divides  the  Decalogue  into  ordinary  verses, 
neither  too  long  nor  loo  short :  the  other  divides  it 
into  ten  verses,  one  for  each  t'onimandmentV  Ac- 
cording to  the  predominance  of  the  lower  (; ,  r  ,  ;) 
or  upper  (.',!,;)  signs,  one  accentuation  is  spoken 
of  as  the  "lower"  r''"?'''^  =>",  and  the  other  as  the 

"  upper "  ?"':?::  =>■'?. 

AVith  the  snjierlinear  vocaliz.ition  goes  a  ,system 
of  superlinearaccentnalion.  The  signs  furthe  pausal 
Accents  dilfer;  someof  them  represent  the  actual  or 
modified  initial  lettersof  their  names;  they  are  placed 
invaiiably  above  the  line.  The  signs  for  the  non- 
pausal  Accents  are  the  same  as  in  the  onlinary  sys- 
tem, and  are  infralini'ar.  The  system  also  aims  at 
simplicity.  Anibiguous  signs  are  avoided;  ;  is  used 
in  the  [dace  (d'  1  and  !  which  are  wanting,  also  in  the 
place  of  :  repeated,  and  in  other  cases.  There  is  110 
■separate  notation  for  I  he  three  books.  \Vickes("  Prose 
Accents."  pp.  1 42  </ .vi '/. )  proves  conclusively  that  the 
superliiiear  system  is  derived  from  the  ordinar}'  one. 
Facsimiles  may  be  founil  in  Oinsburg's  "XV.  Fac- 
similes of  JIanuscripts  of  the  Hebrew  Bible."  plate 
ii.,  London,  1897,  and  in  Stade's  "  Ilelirilische  Gram- 
matik";  see  also  the  reproduction  in  Baer's  edition 
of  .lob.    Comjiarealso  theliteratuieciuoted  in  article 

VoCAI.IZ.VTION. 

5.  The  general  belief  of  the  Jews  in  the  Middle 
Ages  was  that  both  the  vocalization  and  accentua- 
tion oiiirinated  with  Ezra  and  the  mvthical  GiiE.\T 
SvN.\<ioorE.  Thus  Ben  Asni;ii  ('i"'."i';''. 
Accentua-    °''?>,^i',  ^5  IG  and  elsewhere)  speaks  of 

tion  Sup-  the  Acccntsasintidduced  by  thei>roph- 
posed  to  be  etsand  princes  of  the  diaspora  (the  ex- 

of  Divine  iled  Jews  in  Hiibylon),  to  whom  the  in- 
Origin.  teriiretatinn  of  every  woril  (Scriptural 
])as.sage)  was  revealed;  the  accenlua- 
tion  which  bears  the  .seal  of  the  prophets  is  therefore 
inspired.  Some  even  maintained  that  the  Torah  Pen- 
tateuch wliieh  Moses  received  on  Sinai  and  delivered 
lo  Israel  was  furnished  with  vowel  pointsand accent- 
signs,  both  (if  which  were  indeed  as  old  as  the  alpha- 
bet and  the  language  (((immunicated  to  Adam  in 
paradise).  TheSinaitic  oiit;in  of  the  imnctuation  was 
emphatically  denied  by  Mar  Xat.ninai  II.  (H.IO-SOfl), 
who  accordinglv  pnihitiited  its  introduction  into  the 
Scrolls  (see"  Mall  zor  Vitrv."  p.  ttl,  Berlin.  18!I3,  and 
Griltz,  "Gesch.  der  Jnden","  2d  ed.,  v.  5(33). 

Ben  Asher's  Dpinion  of  the  sjicredne.ss  of  the  Ac- 
cents was  shared  by  the  contemporaries  of  Saadia 
(892-942).  This  gaon  was  accused  liy  his  detractors 
of  ascribing  to  himself  the  gift  of  prophecy  because 
he  had  written  a  treatise  in  I5iblical  style  with  vowel- 
points  and  Accents.  In  his  defense  Saadia  pointed 
to  extracanonical  writings  (such  as  Siracli,  Scroll  of 
the  Ilasnioneans,  and  others)  which  were  jioinfed 
and  accented.  While  Saadia  evidently  does  not  as- 
sign to  the  accentuation  special  sacredness,  he  is  nev- 
ertheless far  from  suspecting  its  recent  origin;  for, 
sjieaking  of  Sirach's  book,  lii^  says  that  he  (Siracli) 
furnished  it  with  points  and  Accents (wj'alahu  nuis- 
ammanau  mut'aman).  See  Saadia's  '''J^  "!??,  ed. 
Ilarkavy,  St.  Petersburg,  1801,  NOf:  also  ncp,  note 
2:  2:.  note*.  The  recently  found  fragments  of 
Sirach  have  traces  of  points  and  Accents  (see  "Rev. 
fit.  Juives,"  xl.  i.  et  neq.):  on  a  text  of  the  Scroll  of 
the  Hasmoneans  with  points  and  Accents  (among 
the  Cambridge  manuscripts  brought  from  Cairo),  see 


157 


THK  .JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Accents  in  Hebrevr 


Abralmms,  "Jewish  Qimrtt-rly  Review,"  1890,  xi. 
291  ft  »eq. 

0.  The  aeceiilimlion.  like  the  voealizatioii,  is  eer- 

taiiily   a   pdslTalimiilic   iiiiiovation.      The  treatise 

Sdferiiii,  in  which  for  the  lirsl  time  referenei-  is  made 

to  points  inarUinir  tlie  heLrimiiii];  (or, 

Post-Tal-     as  it  may  In-  called,  the  end)  of  a  verse 

mudic        (iii.     7).    and    i)ossibly  also    to    signs 

Origin.       (points)  hy  which  the  siil)divisi(ins  of 

a   verse   are    indicated,    is    post-Tal- 

miidic.     i^°",    (Soferiin,  iii.  7)  apparently  means  "  to 

cut  up  a  verse";  compare  Me.!:.  22r/ ;  r'D?''  '"^  i"''""'-'*'', 
'■  I  wius  not  permitted  to  break  up  a  verse";  iu  .\iii. 
1.  rifereiK-e  is  made  to  the  stichic  form  of  the  texts 
of  I'.salnis,  .lol),  and  Proverbs  in  which  a  verse 
(that  is.  a  long  verse)  is  .s;iid  to  be  broken  up  into 
three  parts  by  u  blaidv  left  after  t he oi)ening  portion 
^nn<.7B^  "r?" ;  corresponding  to  ,-'s  section),  at  the 
fiJ"'*  (this  is  apparentiv  the  correct  reading;  see 
the  edition  of  .Miiller,"  T.eipsic,  1«7H)  and  at  the 
end  (1'°).  Observe  that  the  terminology  is  far  from 
li.ved.  In  the  Talnuiil  itself  reference  is  niaile  to 
the  practise  of  reciting  the  text  in  a  mann<'r  accord- 
ing with  the  logical  ])anses  (Meg.  3((  =  Ned.  37i; 
Hag.  ()// ;  in  I5er.  (12  mention  is  made  of  a  system 
of  liand  movements  used  by  teachers  in  training 
their  pujiils  to  i>ause  in  the  proper  places),  and  ap- 
parently also  to  the  habit  of  chanting  (Meg.  'A'lll^. 
but  not  to  wriltiTi  signs  by  which  jmusesare  marked. 
The  beginnings  of  our  system  of  accentuation  may 
therefore  safely  be  placed  in  the  sixth  c<'ntury.  The 
first  to  prove  the  iiost-Tulmuilic  date  of  the  points 
and  Accents  was  Ei.i.vs  I,i;vit.\  (■'".7°?^  f^.?"?,  1538). 
See  Vdc.m.iz.M'Kin. 

7.  One  is  led  to  the  same  conclusion  by  an  exam- 
ination of  the  Syriae  system  of  accentuation  intro- 
duced at  the  enil  of  the  tifth  century  by  the  grain 
niarian  .loseph  Ilu/aya  (Wright,  "A  i^bort  History 
of  Syriae  l.ileraturc,"  |ip.  1 1.-)(  /.vr/.,  London,  18!M).  to 
which  till'  Hebrew  system  bears  a  striking  resem- 
blanceand  from  which  it  isapi)arently  derived.  The 
Syrians,  apt  disciples  of  the  Greeks,  adopted  from 
the  latter  their  m<'thod  of  reading,  and  ac<'ordingly 
nlso  their  system  of  p\inctuation.  The  Greeks  dis- 
tinguished three  kin<ls  of  reading  {avayvunir^  :  oni 
torical  or  dramatic  delivery  implying  declamation 
and  gesliodalion  (mi"'  I'mi/c/j/iro) ;  reacling  in  accord 
anee  with  the  tone,  that  is,  word-aceeiil  {hnrii  tt/w 
flwiUar),  and  reading  in  accordance  with  pauses  re- 
(piired  by  the  sense  (narti  ihaaro'/i/v).  A  single  Jioint 
{"'i}/"'/).  place<l  above  or  below  or  in  the  middle  of 
the  line,  indicated  the  pauses;  tlie  upper  point  {rO-ela 
a-riy/ii/)  at  the  end  of  a  period  complete  in  itself 
(nirort? //<;),  llie  lower  point  (i-nnnyiii/)  between  prot- 
asis and  apodosis.  and  the  middle  point  (ni'ai/  n7i)/ii/) 
in  a  long  seMlene<-  in  iMiler  to  pirmit  I  he  reader  to  take 
breath.  I  pon  this  modest  .system,  which  is  found 
in  our  oldest  Syriae  manuscripts,  ilu/.aya  founded  a 
more  elaborate  one  to  mark  th<'  subordinate  divi- 
sions in  a  more  regidar  and  careful  namner.  The 
following  diagram  will  illustrate  the  .system (A  nicuus 
protasis,  anil  15  apodosis): 


Compare  with  this  the  Hebrew  (prose)  system  in  its 
es-seiiiial  parts 


The   point  employed   at   tJlo  end  the  Sj  rians  call 

piMikii,  that  is.  "sector"  ;  r"B»  (corrupted  into  P'OS) 
was  apparently  [\w  name  which  in  the  Hebrew  sys- 


tem belongs  to  the  double  point  (:)  marking  the  end 
of  a  verse.  The  Greek.s  also  hatl  a  sign  called  v^v 
(from  which  our  "hy])hen  "  is  derived)  to  mark  the 
coalescing  of  two  syllables  intoone  (synalepha).  The 
Syrians  employed  the  same  sign  to  join  together  two 
Syriacwords  used  in  translation  of  one  Greek  word; 
hence  the  Hebrew  liy]ihen  (sec  ^  ;i).  In  the  Hebrew 
system  the  rhetorical  Accents  (they  were  the  signs  of 
interrogation,  exclamation,  etc.)  are  wanting.  How- 
ever, in  distributing  the  jiauses  the.Iewish  accentuu- 
tors  fre(|iiently  jiay  attention  to  the  reqidrements 
of  rhetorical  declamation  (see  the  quotation  from  the 
"Manuel  du  Lccteur."  in  Slerx,  p.  G!),  note  2;  also 
Kalonymus  ben  David  at  the  end  of  the  Hebrew 
.grammar  of  Abraham  de  Halniis.  Venice.  VfiZ).  Sec 
Merx,  "  Historia  ArtisGranuiiatica-  a  pud  Syros, "  pj). 
(i2<  ^«(7. .  I.eipsic.  iss'.t.  On  the  origin  (anil  function) 
of  the  minor  pausal  Accents  sec  Buchler."  L'ntersueh- 
ungen  zur  Entstehung  unil  Entwickelung  der  He- 
brilischen  Aecente,"  Vienna,  1891  (see  also  GrUtz, 
"iMouatsschrift,"  1HM2,  pp.  38.")-409). 

8.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  vocalization  and  ac- 
centuation were  introduced  simultaneously.  Per- 
haps the  latter  followed  the  former.  ]5oth"  became 
an  olgect  of  care  to  the  Masoretcs,  who,  in  addition 
to  the  task  of  preserving  the  traditional  con.sonautal 
text  intact,  undertook  to  watch  over  the  traditional 
vowel-points  and  accent -signs.  Compare,  for  ex- 
ample, the  Masoretic  note    to   Jer.    i.    7:    ojoa  •■\ 

^'r?"??,  that  is,  the  words  '^TW^";"",  i".«:]  occur  four 
times  (i.  7,  iii.  11,  xi.  6,  xv.  1;  contra.st  iii.  (i  and 
xi.  9)  in  .leremiah  thus  accented.  On  the  accentual 
variations  of  the  Orientals  ('f^r?)  i"'l  Occidentals 
('?<?■;>'")  see  M.vsouMi.  Even  more  minute  are  the 
dilTcniices  between  Bl'.N  AsiiKK  and  Hkn  N.\I'II- 
T.M.i.  Our  editions  usually  follow  the  former,  who 
is  the  authority  of  the  West. 

9.  The  iiccentuatioii  olTersan  invaluable  aid  to  the 
understanding  of  the  liililical  text.  One  must,  how- 
ever, constantly  bear  in  mind  its  limitations,  which 
are  of  a  twofold  character.  On  the  one  hand,  in  at- 
tempting to  accomidish  too  much,  the  sj-stem  fails 
in  imjxirtant  points.  In  short  verses  its  pauses  are 
luuiecessary  ;  in  long  verses  there  are  not  enough  of 
them.  Sense  is  not  infrei|Uently  sacrificed  to  rhetor- 
ical elTect.  The  imperfection  of  the  system  is  jiar- 
ticularly  noticeable  in  the  awkwardness  with  which 
a  parenthesis  is  indicated  (compare,  for  example,  Jer. 
XX.  1).  Nor  is  it  always  easy  to  tell  just  what  the 
accentuators  had  in  mind  in  choosing  a  certain  mode 
of  accentual  ion.  While,  for  the  finer  points  of  IJib- 
lical  exegesis,  aknowledgeof  the  Accent  sis  indispen- 
sable, the  beginner  in  Ihestudy  of  the  Hi  lile  should  not 
be  buidened  with  learning  mori'  than  a  few  of  the 
important  pausjds.  which  are  quite  sullicicnt  forordi- 
naiy  purposes.  ( in  the  other  hand,  the  accentuation 
represents  the  interpretation  current  in  the  Jewish 
seliools  at  a  <-omparatively  late  period.  While,  on 
the  whole,  the  accentuation  cnileavo|-s  to  be  true  to 

the  natund  meaning  (iHnhnt;    which 
Value       see)  of  the  I5iblic.ll  documents,  it  does 
in  Bible     not    altogether  keep  itself  free  from 
Interpreta-  dogmatic  ]>rejudic<s  (see   I   Sam.   iii. 
tion.         :i),  which   it    indeed    shares   with    tile 
ancient  versions.      .\t   best   the  neccn- 
liialion  is  representative  of  traditional  Jewish  ex- 
egesis, which  the  student  of  the  liilile  is  frequently 
foreeil  to  overrule.     The  nde  laid  down  by  .\iiii.\- 
ii.vM  iiiN  E/.ii.v:  "3«~-!<^  0'-:>;ai  riis-''j  i:)-Nr  r'-<o-'<r 
,.sj,  r-^.p.xS  ,s  ..  ,„,  iiiicrpreialiim  of  a  Biblical  pas- 
sage which  does  not  follow  the  accentuation  shoidd 
be  accepted,"  was  sinned  against  liv  every  Jewish 
commentator  of   importance,   iueluiling    Ibn    Ezni 


Accents  in  Hebrew- 
Accident 


TIIK   .IKWISII   ENCYCLorKDIA 


158 


himsi'lf.  It  should,  of  courso,  he  roiiu'iubcird  llmt  the 
deviations  from  tlic  acccntiml  iiitcrpR-trttiim  wliicli 
lire  mt-t  in  riibl)inical  (oninuiilariis  were  not  always 
conscious  transgressions.  Tlic  niinutiic  of  the  ac- 
centuation were  not  always  present  to  the  mind  of 
the  commentators.  Kut  there  are  cases  wliere  the  Ac- 
cents arc  avowedly  disregarded  (see  Kimhi  on  IIo- 
sea,  xii.  12:  ""V^^  '"?^.  '?n«  s<r';'ti  s-j-nsn  >^;-y_  -^2  i<« 
■•  in  interprctin.:;  Scripture  we  are  not  always  bound 
bv  the  accents";  see  also  Lu/.zatto,  "  Prolegomeni," 
pp.  187  et  fcq.). 
In  Isa.  xl.  3  there  is  a  famous  case  where  the  ac- 

cent\iation  CJP??  ''^'P  ^^i".)  is  unciuestionably  right. 
Accordingly  tlic  Revised  Version  (text)  tninslates: 
"  The  voice  of  one  that  crietli.  'In  the  wilderness, '  "etc. 
The  quotation  of  the  verse  in  Mark.  i.  ;i  connects  "in 
the  wilderness  "  with  "  the  voice  of  one  crying  "  (im- 
plying the  accentuation  ■'?■;??  ^yp  ^^P).  The  New 
Testament  accentuation  (hardly  invented  forthe  oc- 
casion ;  the  liuucluation  in  the  Septuagint  is  due  to 
New  Testament  inlluence)  is  ])roliiilily  nothing  more 
than  a  haggadie  interpretation  of  the  kind  so  often 
met  with  in  midrashic  works.  A  puzzling  accentu- 
ation which  goes  with  the  rendering  of  the  Septu- 
agint  and  Vulgate  may  be  found  in  Isa.  vii.  3: 
r?^  ^^'';"'  "'!*,''■'''  (et  (J'li  (ki'iiifliiti  ext,  Ltsuh  fiUns  tnua; 
see  Baer's  edition,  "  Additamenta,"  p.  67). 

The  Accents  in  the  ordinary  editions  of  the  Bible 
are  frecpieiitly  inu-eliable.  Baer's  and  Ginsburg's 
Bible  editions  (where  also  important  variants  are 
noted)  are  indispensable  to  one  interested  in  Biblical 
accentuation. 

IJIBLIOORAPHY :  Tlu^  oldest  rules  on  llie  sut^ject  of  the  Bil>- 
Ueal  Acpents  miiy  \w.  found  in  Ben  Asher's  treatise,  "CT,''. 
0'";;9^,  edited  by  liaer  nnd  strack,  g§  lii-SS.  30-3.5,  41,  42,  47, 
Leipslo,  1S79.  A  treatise  falsely  ascribed  to  Judali  ben 
BH'am  (s-^iiT  P'lin,  ed.  Men'erus,  Paris,  \'*\'i)  deals  with  the 

subject  at  irreater  length  (the  same  treatise  in  Arabic  may  ho 
found  in  Wickes,  I'nctkul  Aecmtunlian.pf.  KB  i(  .scr;.).  In 
HayyuJ's  ■'^■'^C  ''.?'?  (ed.  Null,  pp  Wi-IUtt,  London,  ISTOi  there 
is  found  a  chapter  on  the  Accents,  which,  however,  was  not 
written  by  the  famous  ^raumuirlan  liiiiisetf.  Mauut'l  du 
Lectcur  Is  the  name  driven  by  .1.  Derenbourj?  to  a  treatise  on 
points  of  prannnar  and  Ma.sora,  edited  by  him  (Paris,  1871) 
from  a  Yemen  tnanu.script ;  it  <-oi)tains  rules  on  the  Accents. 
A  useful  compilation  from  the  works  of  early  Jewish  writers 
on  the  prose  Accents  is  Wolf  Heidenheim's  work,  'P?!?'!^ 
D'::;^Oi.  Hcuielheim,  I80.S.  A  few  other  treatises  are  men- 
tioneij  in  Wickes.  'I'o  Christian  writers  of  the  si'venleenlh 
and  ei^'hteenth  ceutuiies  (Huhlius,  Wasmuth.  spUztn-i-.  and 
others)  belonps  the  merit  of  fnrmulaiiiit:  the  in-itictple  of 
halvlmi  <seeg4i.  The  paratrniplis  dcv.  ricil  i.iilii'siilijeit  in  the 
current  Hebrew  irnuumars  are  more  or  less  su|H-tllchil  'be- 
(rinnerswill  (Ind  the  chapter  on  A<-cems  in  Di-iver's  Ihlnrir 
Tcnsf.",  Oxford,  ls!e,  very  scrviccai)lei.  An  eialxmite  dis- 
cussion is  foimd  only  in  tiie  t'rannnai^i  of  Luzzatto  (S>  i;!i  1(V4  ; 
compare  also  his  Prulfoonuiii^  177-llUi.  Kwald  (SS  D-'i-UXI; 
Ewald  re.]ects  the  principle  of  haUintr,  in  the  place  of  which 
be  puts  ills  own  principle  of  Iripartltlon  ;  the  discussion  is 
quite  abstruse)  and  (_)lshausen  (S^  4t-r);J:  einnpare  the  dia- 
gram for  the  prose  Accents  on  pp.  98  and  Ittt,  which  resembles 
the  diagram  ffiven  above,  g  4).  Baer's  treatise,  ""t-^  r"!\'i. 
Ri'Kletheim,  IS-'^J,  desen"es  notice  (compare  alsJo  Baer  In  De- 
Mtzsch,  ('<n»nu:.nf(tr]i  nn  Ihi-  I'snlnn*^  ls«Mii.  The  most  thor- 
ough works  on  Biblical  accentuation  (from  which  nnich  of 
the  material  avallal)le  for  S  4  has  Iteen  taken,  with  the  neces- 
sary simplillcation)  are  the  ones  l>y  William  Wickes.  I'orthnl 
Acccntiintinn,  t)xford,  l-SHl ;  idem,  l'ri}se  Avccutuatinth 
O.\ford,  1SH7.  Compare  also  .laphet,  stir'"'  ^'^y't-  Oir  Accoite 
der  IIciU{ten  Schrift^  Fninkfort-on-tlie-Main,  ls11«5;  Konig, 
fjcdankf.  LauU  uu<l  Arcftil  ala  die  Itrri  Fftctitrcii  dfr 
Sprncliliiltlinni.  Weiuiar,  1874 :  (Jrimiue,  Ahriss  tlir  liibliAdi- 
Hel>ri/i.-<rlirn  ihlrik.inZ.D.  .\f.<i.  n.r,\X)  rt  seii..  im  rt  m/.; 
idem,  (innnlzilttr  drr  l^rlm'tisrhin  Accrut-  }tnn  VnkdUrhyr^ 
Freil)urg  (Switzerland),  isltti;  idem.  CnJU  rlmini  Frilntrndi- 
ffi((,  fa>c.  v.;  l*netorius.  rthirihn  I:i}rl,iri  i(}if}idi  n  Acceui 
im  Ili'Iniliftrhi'ti,  lialle-ou-lhe-Saale.  lSi(7;  Ackermnini,  /3((ii 
Htnne  It'  ulist  )tt  l-'.h  lift  lit  iltr  BihU.sfhi'u  Acrcntuntiou, 
Berlin,  isia;  Xathim.  Dir  Toiizi  irhrn  in  drr  BO'cl.  in  Prii- 
gramni  di  r  T<iitimd-T<nYi-lii-ahrhulr^  Haml)urp,  IsiW:  Fried- 
lander,  Die  Bcideti  Sif^teme  drr  Hihrdisehcn  Vnlail-  und 


Accentzcichcn,  in  Monatsiclirift,  xxxviii,  311  et  xcij 


M 


seri. 
.  L.  M. 


ACCENTS,    MUSICAL    VALUE    OF.      See 

C'ANI  111    \1  li'N 

ACCEPTANCE:  In  law,  the  assent  by  ono 
paily  111  an  nlVi-r  made  by  another,  or  to  any  act 
which  becomes  opeiative  only  by  such  assent ;  in 
conmierce.  the  (|Uestion  whether  the  as.seut  has  beeu 
given  before  the  withdrawal  of  the  olTcr  or  incom- 
plete act  aiises  most  fre(|in'nlly  over  "time  con- 
tracts," wlicii  two  parties  seek  to  agree  upon  buy- 
ing, by  cpiality  or  ijuanlily  oidy.  at  a  futui'e  time 
goods  or  elTecIs  mil  identilied;  as.  so  many  bushels 
of  red  wlieat,  so  many  imunds  of  iiu'ss  beef.  This 
class  of  contracts  is  voi<l  according  ti>  Talmiidie  law: 
no  one  may  sell  what  he  does  not  own  at  llie  lime, 
for  instance,  a  lisherman  may  not  sell  bis  next  haul, 
nor  a  son  his  share  in  a  dying  father's  succession, 
nor  may  one  who  is  still  bargaining  for  the  purchase 
of  a  field  sell  the  lield  to  a  third  person  (B.M.  16(r,  /.). 
Exceptions  to  the  rule  an'  allowed  only  on  the  score 
of  a  pressing  emergency. 

The  Mcihamnicdan  law  annids  all  such  Sides  or 
contracts  as  a  species  of  gambling;  but  the  Talmud 
seems  to  jn'oceed  only  on  the  technical  ground  that 
the  ownership  can  not  be  transferred  in  the  way 
which  the  law  points  out  for  each  sjiecies  of  pro|ierty. 
But  however  helpless  to  enforce  agreements  of  this 
kind  human  law  might  have  been  deemed  by  the  old 
sages,  they  assure  ti.s  that 

"  He  who  pmiislieri  tlie  genenillon  of  the  Flood  and  the  genera- 
tion of  the  l>j>|.erNj. .11  will  punish  the  man  who  does  not  stand 
liy  his  Word  "  ( Mlslmah  B.  M.  iv.  2). 

Even  where  a  specific  thing,  whether  lanil  or 
chattel,  is  the  subject  of  a  bargain,  the  Talmudic 
law  does  not  seem  to  distinguish  between  a  sale  and 
an  "executory  contract,"  that  is.  an  agreement  to 
sell  and  to  buy,  tlnnigh  there  are  "purchases  on  con- 
dition." Tlie  question  as  to  when  the  minds  of  buyer 
and  seller  have  so  far  met  that  neither  of  Ihem  "can 
go  back  "  <'an  be  treated  under  the  head  of  Ai.ikna- 
TION  only;  for  it  is  merely  ii  question  of  change  of 
title  (KixvAX),  that  is,  as  to  what  precise  -nonient  the 
title  in  the  thing  sold  or  exchanged  vests  in  the  buyer. 
The  older  Roman  law  similarly  did  not  recognize 
executory  sales ;  (or eiiiptin  rt  mtdili'o  was  a  real  not  a 
consensual  contract :  thatis,  it  became  binding  not  by 
consent  of  the  jiarlies  alone,  but  by  the  bodily  do- 
livery  of  I  he  thing  sold  according  to  piescribed  forms. 

The  <|uestion  of  the  acceptance  by  the  wife  of  a 
bill  of  divorce  written  by  the  husband  is  extensively 
discussed  in  the  Tjilmutl.  Stiictly,  delivery  only  is 
necessary.  Scripture  says,  and  h<:  shall  "give  it  in 
her  hand"  (l)eut.  xxiv.  1).  which,  according  to  the 
oldest  authorities,  is  comiilied  with  by  putting  it 
"on  her  roof,  in  her  yard,  or  on  her  shed."  even  with- 
out her  consent.  Kor  the  reipiisites  of  delivery,  and 
how  the  wife  Ciiii  hasten  it  by  a  volimtary  accept- 
ance through  h<'r  agent,  see  lirvoncK. 

A  discussion  very  inucli  like  that  about  the  bill  of 
divorce  is  found  in  the  Talmud,  concerning  the 
moment  at  which  a  deed  of  manumission  becomes 
final;  bul  the  rules  in  thi'  twocases  dilTer  somewhat, 
because  the  iirinci]ile  adopted  in  the  Ilalakah  as- 
sumes ihat  the  deed  of  manumission  is  in  its  nature 
wholly  beneficial  to  the  slave;  while  the  dilivery  of 
a  bill  of  divorce  is  in  its  iiatui'c  an  imfrieudly  act 
(Git.  I'-V*). 

This  <|ucstion  of  Acceptance  or  finality  is  often 
complicated  with  thelaw  of  Aoencv;  for  when  doc- 
uments are  sent  by  "messengers,"  that  is,  agents, 
or  when  the  party  who  is  to  receive  a  document 
empowei's  another  to  receive  it,  there  is  more  room 
for  dispute  as  to  the  moment  of  finality  than  when 
the  two  parties  deal  with  each  otlicr  in  person. 

L.  N.  D. 


159 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Accents  in  Hebrew- 
Accident 


ACCESSORIES  :  In  English  and  Anu-rican  law 

an  iicci'-isoiy  is  a  person  who,  without  coMiniittina;  a 
criniiniU  acl  with  liis  own  himds.  or  witlioiit  oven 
being  l)rescnt.  aiding  and  alietling  the  eriniiniil, 
nevertheless  shares  in  the  guilt  of  tlie  aet,  in  one  of 
two  ways:  either  liy  counseling,  advising,  or  pro- 
curing the  act  to  he  done,  in  which  case  he  is  called 
" an acce.s.sory  before  the  fact,"  and  isconsiden'd  fully 
as  guilty  as  the  i>rineipal  oll'ender, 
Definition,  or  by  shielding  such  olTender  from 
l>unishiuent,  after  the  act  is  com- 
mitted, when  till'  person  so  shielding  becomes  an 
accessory  after  the  fact,  whose  degree  of  guilt  is 
lower  than  that  of  tlie  principal.  The  Hibli' treats 
very  fully  of  Acce.s.s(jries  to  oneolTen.se,  that  of  idol- 
atry. An  individual  who  advise.s  anotlicr  to  wor- 
ship false  gods  is  guilty  of  a  substantive  olTensc, 
and  is  known  asn''DO=seducer  (Deiit.  xiii.  7-12:  see 
AiiiCTMKXT).  Such  sedticer  is  to  be  put  to  death 
by  stoning,  because  "he  has  sought  to  mislead  thee  " 
(l)eut.  .\iii.  10,  llih.  11).  It  is,  therefore,  not  neces- 
.sary  that  any  one  should  have  been  a<tually  mis- 
led, as  the  very  attempt  at  seduction  is  punishable 
with  death.  The  verses  Dent.  . xiii.  1:5-1!*  begin  by 
asstnning  that  a  few  worthles-s  men  may  mislead  the 
inhabitants  of  ii  city  into  idol-worshii>and  command 
that  the  city  be  dislioyed,  but  say  nothing  about 
any  special  punishment' for  the  instigators.  "  lleiicis 
neither  the  lirsl  nor  the  second  pas.s)ig(,'  deals  with 
the  case  of  u  true  "accessory  befon,' the  fad":  that 
is,  with  the  one  who  is  punished,  because  he  has 
eoun.seh'd  the  conunission  of  a  ciime  wliicli  has  been 
committed  by  others. 

The  .Mishimh  (Sanli.  vii.  10)  delines  the  offense  of 
a  Jirivate  per.son  (not  a  jirophet)  who  seduces  indi- 
viduals (not  a  whole  city)  and  sets  forth  the  manner 
of  |irocedure  against  hiin.     In  Deut.  xiii.  8,  Jleh.  9, 
the    person    sought    to    be  seduced   is   commanded: 
"Neither  shall  tliine  eye  pity  liijii,  neither  shall  thou 
spare,  neither  shall  tliou  coiiceal  him."     Here,  then, 
is   a    law    declaring    that    to    shield 
Biblical       this  class  of  olTenders  from  puinsh- 
and  ment    is  sinful.     IJut  one  who   thus 

Talmudic  becomes  an  acces,sory  after  the  fad  to 
View.  the  olTense  of  shiilding  cannot  be 
punished;  for  the  Torah  proceeds  in 
the  ne.xt  verse  to  lay  upon  the  person  sought  to  be 
seduced  thedutycjf  bringing  the  tempter  to  justice: 
and  according  to  the  established  rule  (Mak.  iii.  4) 
wherever  a  i)rohibilion  in  the  Tonih  is  followed  by 
the  coniinan<l  to  do  an  opposite  act.  the  prohibition 
carrii's  no  |)unishment  w  ith  it.  For  Accessories  be- 
fore the  fad  to  other  olTenses  than  idolatry  the 
written  law  pronounces  no  penalty;  nor  docs  it 
anywhere  say  ill  set  terms:  Do  not  coun.sel  or  pro- 
cure forbidden  acts  to  be  done  by  others.  Hence, 
the  Scriptural  ])Unislunent  of  death"  or  of  forty  stripes 
save  one,  can  not  be  adjudired  cviri  against  him  who 
employs  11  murderer  to  take  a  man's  life;  for  it  is 
the  foremost  principle  of  Ihi'  Talmudic  criminal  law 
that  sentence  of  death  or  .stripes  must  not  be  awarded 
for  any  olTens<'  not  expressly  dinounced  in  the  writ- 
ten law.  but  derived  from  it  only  by  cr)nslructioii  or 
by  "searching."  Mow  this  and  soini'olher  principles 
uiKluly  favoring  the  accused  wmild.  if  faithfully 
followed  in  practise,  lead  to  the  inMiiunitv  of  the 
guilty,  and  how  the  rabbis  of  .Mishnaie  iind  Tal- 
mudic limes  were  compelled  to  contrive  a  iii-w  sys- 
tem of  procedure  and  of  punishment  by  the  sidi^of 
tlial  which  they  taught  as  the  truly  Scriplunil 
.lystem,  are  shown  under  C'iiiminai,  L.uv  and  Cimm 
IX  \r.  I'liocKiMiii;. 

However,  in  a  discussion  on  the  law  of  agency 
We  tind  a  .saying  of  the  old  sages  (Kill,  \A,i): 


\\  here  one  nays  to  bl.s  agent :  Go  and  UW  such  a  person,  tlie 

stiiycr  !.<  puntsliMt>le  and  lie  who  sends  bliii  goi-s  freu;  liut 
Sliiiiiiiii;il  tiiNcht  under  u  tradition  (rnni  Hiiiifal.  ihe  propliet 
Iliiilli.-\vli..si-nd>hini  Ls  punl.sliiiljle;  for  In  II  sani.  xll.9  (iif/j  1 
David  l.-i  inid  :  '  li  Ls  iliou  who  hast  lillled  hiui,  by  the  sword  of 
the  children  of  .Annnon.'  " 

It  is  admitted  by  all  that  he  who  directs  a  mur- 
der is  punishable  iii  the  sight  of  (iod;  but  the  dis- 
tinction between  Shammai  and  the  other  sages  is 
that  Shammai  would  iiiHict  the  heavy  punishment 
of  death,  and  the  others  a  lighter  one.  thouu-h  this  is 
not  iiamed.  L.   N.   1). 

ACCHO  (called  also  Acco,  Acre,  Ptolemais, 
St.  Jean  d'Acre).     See  Ache. 

ACCIDENT  :  Term  used  in  philosophy  to  express 
a  characteristic  of  an  object  or  notion  which  does  not 
necessarily  follow  from  its  nature  and  is  not  essential 
to  its  concept,  but  is  connected  with  the  object  as  an 
unessential,  seemingly,  by  chance  or  Accident,    The 
opposite  notion  is  thai  of  ihe  essential,  that  is,  aneces- 
saiily  contained  characteristic,  without  which  the  ob- 
ject would  lose  its  identity.     That  a 
Philo-       human  being  is  mortal  or  "a  biped  is 
sophic       necessarily  contained  in  the  notion"  hu- 
Notion.      man  being, "  but  to  be  white  is  only  the 
chance  or  accidental  characteristic  of 
any  particular  human  being,  for  negroes  are  also 
human  beings. 

Among  the  Arabic  and  .Tcwish  iihilosophers  the 
doctrine  of  accidents  =  nitnino  or  D'Cnn.  also 
D'IpD.  assumes  special  importance,  i>articularlv  as 
a  proof  of  the  existence  of  God  (compare  Munk, 
"Guide  des  Egares,"  i,  385,  3il8,  424;  Kaufmann, 
"Gesch,  der  .Vtlributenlehre,"  p.  281).  Descartes! 
Ilobbes,  and  Locke  substitute  for  the  term  "Acci- 
dent," which  had  been  universally  used  in  the  Mid- 
dle .\ges,  the  term  "modus"  (=  temporary  condition), 
and  this  change  was  adopted  by  Spino/'a  ("  Kthics," 
part  i,,  detiniiion  '>).  The  logical  relation  is  that  of 
subject  and  predicate,  the  metaphysical  relation  that 
of  substance  and  .Vecidcnt  (Hipoi  DVy  in  Arabic- 
.Jewish  iihilo.sophic  phra.seology ).  Tli<.  relation  of 
Accident,  as  a  chance  quality,"  to  attribute,  as  a 
permanent  characteristic  of  'the  substance  (miVil 
D'VSUn)  has  been  clearly  explained  by  Maimonides, 
".Moreh  \ebukim,"ii.  lt».  .Maimonide"s  distinguishes 
between  separable  and  inseparable  accidents,  mpo 
mSJ  and  D'p  mpO. 

I!nu.ior;RAriiv  :  .Mnlnionldfti,  Morcli.  1.73,  II.  19;  Idem,  Yesnde 
fm-7Vir(i/i.  Iv.  S;  Idem,  .UiHot  ha-Hiaoauon,t9;  Sehnilcdel, 
In  Mnmitivchrifl.  xlll.  IN!.  IS 

— — In  Law  :  In  daily  life,  .\ccident  means  unfore- 
seen harm  that  comes  to  persons  or  things,  presuma- 
bly through  lack  of  care.  When  the  contributor  to 
an  Accident  is  another  than  thi'  jierson  injured,  oris 
the  owner  of  the  things  destroyed  id"  depreciated, 
there  is  room  for  litigation,  w  liieli.  in  every  system 
of  jurisprudence,  is  govirned  by  special  laws. 

The  Torah  treats  of  the  law  of  negligence  in  Ex. 
xxi.  28-;i(i  and  xxii.  4,  .'i,  the  leading  cases  being 
those  of  an  o.x  goring  a  man  or  beast ;  an  open,  un- 
protected pit;  lire  spreading  to  a  neighbor's  pmp- 
erly  ;  also,  to  acerlain  extent,  trespassing  cat  lie.  F'or 
the  rules  of  Ex.  xxii.  (S-14.  concerning  the  liability 
of  a  person  lawfully  posse.s.sed  of  anothir's  gooils  for 
loss  or  desirudioii,  see  H.mi.mknts  In  the  language 
of  Ihe  Mislinah  the  chiif  instaniis  given  in  Ihe  Torah 
for  a  more  broadly  iip]ilicable  law.  such  as  those 
relating  to  the  (ioitiM)  Ox  or  those  relating  to  any 
animal  that  iiiMicIs  unusual  harm,  or  to  the  open 
pit  or  any  similar  inanimate  thing,  arc  called  m3K 
("fathers");  other  instances  deriveil  from  these  are 

known  as  nn!>in  ("descendants").  The  latter  may 
be  called  "derivatives." 


Accident 
Accommodation 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


160 


The  Mislmah  and  the  Tosefta  tri'iit  the  law  of  com- 

pensatiun  for  resiihsof  nejriijjciice  in  niil)a  Kainnia. 

i.-vi,,  lomnienli'il  i>n  in  llic  Baliylciiiiaii 

The  Four    Talnuid,  '2-H'ifi,  and  in  llic  .Iiriisjdcin 

"Fathers,"  Tulnuid.    2-.V-,     .MaiiuoniiUs,     in    his 

or  Lead-  "  Vail  liaHazakah."  trc'ats  tht-  suhjcct 
ing  Cases,  under  the  heading  "Nizlfe  Mnmon " 
(Daniasje  to  Property). 

The  '"goring  ox  "  with  its  derivatives  is  put  aside, 
because  full  ronipensjition  for  its  acts  eau  be  de- 
manded only  when  the  master  has  been  forewarned, 
and  the  treatise  opens  with  the  followins^  four 
"fathers "for  full  compensation,  under  the  technical 
names  of  "ox."  "pit,"  "chewer,''  and  "kindling." 
Here  the  "ox  "  means  an  animal  allowed  to  trespass 
on  a  stranger's  land  and  do  injury  with  its  foot; 
the  "chewer."  a  like  animal  thai  does  harm  with  its 
teeth.  Both  examples  are  derived  from  Ex.  xxii.  4. 
The  damage  done  may  far  surpass  the  gain  to  the 
owner  of  I  he  animal.  The  "  pit"  refers  to  Ex.  xxi.  33. 
the  "kindling"  to  Ex.  xxii.  5.  It  maybe  remarked 
that  Abba  Arika.  the  eminent  Babylonian  a\ithority, 
undei-stands  the  "ox"  among  the  "  fathers  "  to  em- 
brace both  the  foot  and  tooth,  and  regards  the  word 
here  rendered  "chewer"  as  standing  for  man;  for 
when  a  man  himself  commits  an  injury  he  is  always 
mulcted  in  full  damages  (H.  K.  3/)). 

Any  tame  animal  permitted  wilfully  or  carelessly 
to  go  on  a  neighbor's  land,  and  which  does  mis- 
chief by  knocking  things  over  with  its 
Derivative    body,  or  by  drag.uing  them  along  by 

Cases.  means  of  its  hair.  tail,  harness,  bridle, 
or  yoke,  or  by  the  burden  which  it  car- 
ries, or  by  rubbing  against  a  post  or  wall,  is  a  de- 
rivative of  the  "ox,"  while  an  animal  breaking  down 
a  post  or  wall  by  rubbing  against  it.  or  detiliug  grain 
or  grass  with  its  excrements,  is  a  derivative  of  the 
"chewer."  But  striking  with  the  body,  or  malig- 
nantly biting,  or  cniucliing  on  something,  or  kick- 
ing, is  treated  on  the  same  principle  as  "goring." 
Chickens,  dogs,  cjits,  and  even  hogs  are  named 
among  the  animals  for  which  the  owner  is  made 
liable.  Derivatives  of  the  "pit"  are  a  stone,  knife, 
burden,  or  a  mound  ;  in  short,  anything  over  which 
one  can  stumble  or  from  which  one  can  receive  injury 
if  left  in  D'Qin  nicn  (public  domain);  that  is,  on 
the  highway  or  on  conunon  lands.  Derivatives  of 
the  "kindling  "  are  articles  which  the  owner  has  left 
on  his  roof,  whence  the  wind  carries  them  off  to  the 
injury  of  person  or  projierty.  For  whatever  dam- 
age arises  indirectly,  the  ultimate  author  is  liable  to 
the  extent  of  only  half  compensation.  Thus,  when 
the  foot,  in  striking  the  ground,  kicks  up  jiebbles, 
and  these  cause  an  injury,  or  when  the  animal  upsets 
any  implements,  which  in  turn  fall  upon  other  im- 
plements and  break  them,  the  damage  is  considered 
remote,  and  only  half  comjiensjilion  is  given.  These 
remote  damages,  when  caused  by  animals,  are  known 
generally  as  the  "case  of  pebbles." 

Herein  the  .Jewish  law  ditTcrs  very  widely  from 
the  English  common  law,  as  laid  down  in  the  lead- 
ing case  of  .Scott  ivrsiis  Shepherd  (the 
Placing'  the  "  Squib  case  "),  well  known  to  lawyers. 

Liability.  The  four  "fathers"  and  their  d<'riv- 
alives  have  this  in  conunon;  The  en- 
tire estate  of  the  owner  of  the  guilty  beast  or  thing 
is  liable  for  the  full  damage,  to  be  paid  from  "the 
best";  for  Scripture  (Ex.  xxii.  4)  says.  "Of  the  best 
of  his  own  field  and  of  the  best  of  his  own  vine- 
yard shall  he  make  restitution."  For  the  explana- 
tion of  "  the  best  "  sec  Ai'I'u.msemf.nt.  The  ground 
of  liability  is  based  upon  the  natural  tendency  of 
animals  to  do  harm,  and  the  owner  is  bound  to  watch 
them.    The  general  principle  is  thus  stated :  "  I  am 


considered  to  have  caused  the  injury  done  by  any- 
thing I  am  bound  to  watch;  and  if  I  have  actu- 
ally caused  the  injury  in  part.  I  am  bound  to  make 
gooil  the  whole  injury"  (B.  K.  1.  i) .  This  latter 
point  is  thus  illustrated:  "If  a  pit  be  nine  palms  in 
depth  and  I  dig  it  ilown  a  tenth  ])alm,  so  as  to  make 
it  deep  enough  to  kill  a  beast  that  falls  into  it,  I  am 
as  liable  as  it  I  had  dug  the  whole  pit  "  (B.  K.  \0a). 
While  in  the  case  of  the  "ox  "  and  the  "chewer"  the 
owner  is  bound  only  for  damage  done  on  the  land 
of  the  injured  party,  the  "pit"  is  su|iposed  to  be  on 
the  ptddic  dninain;  the  lire  may  start  from  that,  or 
on  the  guilty  jiarty's  own  ground,  presumably  from 
the  latter,  and  he  is  liable.  The  "ox"  and  the 
"chewer"  make  their  owner  liable  for  harm  done  to 
man  or  beast,  to  buildings  or  goods  ;  the  "pit."  ac- 
cording to  the  words  of  Scripture,  shoidd  "an  ox  or 
ass  fall  therein"  (Ex.  xxi.  33),  only  for  the  killing 
or  maiming  of  animals — as  ox  or  ass  is  supposed  to 
exclude  human  beings  and  goods  (Dv3,  literally 
"imiilements")  ;  though  H.  .ludah.  one  of  the  older 
.sages,  who  is  mentioned  as  dissenting  on  this  ])oint 
of  law,  held  that  sjitisfaclion  nnist  be  made  for 
goods.  The  law,  however,  remainssuch  that  there  is 
no  lialiility  for  loss  or  destruction  of  goods,  otherthaa 
the  falling  animal,  by  the  "pit"  or  by  any  of  its 
derivatives,  even  when  man  and  goods  or  beast  and 
goods  fall  in  together.  But  wliili'  no  redress  is  given 
for  persons  that  fall  into  a  ])it  and  die. 
Contingent  there  is  redress  for  inj\iries  not  fatal 
Results.  (B.  K. '.JWo.  For  the  death  of  abeast, 
only  thcownerof  the  ]iit  is  liable,  when 
it  hajipens  at  night  or  wlu'U  the  beast,  by  reason  of 
youth,  lilindness.  or  deafness,  is  not  able  to  take  care 
of  itself;  but  it  is  otherwise  when  the  beast  is  injured, 
but  not  killed.  Thediggerof  a  ])iton  liisown  ground 
may  become  liable  if  he  open  the  ]iroperty  to  public 
useand  an  injury  ensile  from  the  pit.  Onlheother 
hand,  where  then'  are  ipulilic  ]ilaees  in  which  it  is 
customary  to  deposit  certain  articles — for  instance, 
jars  of  winearoun<la  winepres.s — the  ownerof  these 
utensils  is  not  liable  if  man  or  beast  stundilc  over 
them.  Again,  whoever  thi'ows  water  from  his  house, 
or  cellar,  or  yard,  into  the  highway,  is  liable  for  any 
damage  to  man  or  beast,  from  sliding  and  falling, 
b>it  not  for  damage  to  goods;  for  such  water  on  the 
highway  is  legally  considered  in  the  nature  of  a 
"l)it."  As  to  derivatives  of  the  "jiit."  the  Jlishnah 
teacrhes ;  I  f  a  jar  be  left  upon  the  highway,  and  a  trav- 
eler stumble  over  it  and  break  it.  the  traveler  is  not 
liable  for  the  hiss,  but,  on  the  contrary,  thcownerof 
the  jar  is  liable  if  the  traveler  is  hurt  by  the  water 
or  the  potsherds  (ilishuah  B.  K.  ill.  1).  A  distinction 
is  attempted  by  some  who  .say  that  when  the  article 
thus  left  on  the  highway  or  pidilic  domain  has  been 
abandoned  by  its  owner  he  is  no  lunger  res|)on.sible 
for  the  injuries  caused  by  it  ;  but  this  is  disallowed 
bv  most  authorities  (Maimonides,  ">;izlj;e  Mamon," 
.\"iii.  -Z). 

If  any  one  start  a  fire  on  the  field  of  another,  he  is 
of  course  liable  for  the  result;  if  he  start  it  on  his  own 
ground,  and  there  is  either  a  stone  fence  of  sufficient 
height  to  check  the  flames,  or  a  stream,  or  a  public 
road  (sixteen  cubits  in  width),  between  the  place  and 
a  neighbor's  ground,  the  crossing  over  of  the  flames 
or  the  sparks  is  regarded  as  the  result  of  unusual 
forces,  against  which  human  foresight  can  not  avail. 
But  in  case  of  a  fire  that  passes  from  point  to  jioint, 
wl'.oever  starts  it  is  liable  for  whatever  damage  it 
may  do  at  any  distance.  The  starter  of  a  fire  is  re- 
sponsible for  injuries  to  anything  except  things  hid- 
den, as  in  the  Scriptures  (Ex.  xxii.  .'))  mention  is 
made  only  of  "stacks  of  corn,  or  the  standing  corn,  or 
the  field."     Goods  hidden  in  a  field  or  among  the 


161 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Accident 
Accommodation 


hayricks  need  not  be  paid  for  by  one  that  starts  a  tire ; 
but  sucli  a  one  is  linbh'  for  the  fiirnituro  in  a  Iious(^ 
and,  it  would  seem,  for  I  lie  i:oods  in  a  shop;  for 
things  of  value  are  expected  to  be  deposited  in  a 
house,  but  not  inn  tield  (.Maiinonides,  /.<•.,  xiv.  12). 

Wlieu  a  sparU  is  <Miitleil  from  a  hammer  and  does 

damage  the  striker  is  liable.     "When  a  camel  la(h-n 

with  lla.\  passesalongthehighway.and 

Indirect     the  tlax,  liein.g  pres.sed  into  tlie  shop, 

Liability,  catches  tire  from  a  lamp  of  the  shop- 
keeper, and  the  house  is  burnt,  the 
owner  (h/t'ul)  of  the  camel  is  liable"  (15.  K.  vi.  (>), 
Here  is  shown  the  kindling  of  a  tire  treated  as  dam- 
age arising  from  the  ordinary  walk  of  an  animal  ;  for 
it  is  not  the  driver,  but  the  owner,  of  a  <'anu'l  on 
whom  the  blame  is  laid,  .Maimonides  declares  him 
liabh'  because  the  camel  was  too  heavily  laden.  But 
when  the  shopkee]ier  leaves  his  lamp  on  thecnitside, 
he  is  liable  to  the  owner  of  the  tla.x.  The  above- 
mentioned  l)assage<d'  the  Mishnali  is  remarkable  foi- 
the  closing  words  (which  are,  however,  not  good 
law):  ••  |{.  .ludah  says,  when  il  is  the  Hanid<kah 
lamp,  he  is  not  liable."  for  I  his  happens  to  be  the  only 
mention  made  of  the  IJanukkab  lamp  in  the  whole 
compilation  known  as  the  Mishnali. 

Other  ea.ses  are  discussed  in  the  Mislmah,  such  as 
thea.g.irravalion  of  "pit  "  and  "  tire,"  when  occurring 
on  tlie  ground  of  the  injured  parly  or  on  the  com- 
mon grounil  of  injurcr  and  injured. 

From  ihcScriplur.d  phrase  "  I  he  ox  of  his  neighbor" 
the  priniiple  is  drawn  that  damages  for  negligence 
can  not  lieexacte<l  when'  the  thing  injured  belongs  to 
a  heathen,  or  is  cfinseeratcd  |ud]ierty,  or  res  inillins, 
such  as  the  estate  of  a  convert  dying  without  is,sue. 
The  term  j/(»V((f  ("  witnessed  against"  or  "  fcn'e- 
warned")  is  derived  from  the  case  of  the  goring 
ox  in  Scripture  (Ex,  xxi,  2i)),  extended  by  the 
Mishnali  to  those  agents  who,  without  any  proof 
of  former  viciousness,  are  held  rcN]ionsible  for  any 
damage  that  they  inllicl.  Thus,  as  ain-ady  slated,  a 
human  being  is  mu'ad  wlieiher  acting  wilfully  or 
unwillingly,  w  lielher  awake  or  asleep:  if  he  blind 
his  neiglibor's  eye  or  break  his  implements,  he 
must  pay  the  full  damage.  But  the  word  »(•^M■  for 
damage  must  be  here  taken  in  the  narrow  sense 
of  depreciation:  for  the  one  that  unwittingly  or 
unwillingly  intlicis  a  personal  injury  is  liable  for 
the  lasting  injury  only,  not  for  the  four  olliir 
causes  of  daniagi — pain,  loss  of  lime,  cost  of  cure, 
and  disgrac<' — for  which  the  wilful  assailant  must  an- 
swer(.^taimonides,/.c,xliii,  l-."):  "  Hobel,"i.  II  iIkk/.). 

Such  animals  as  a  wolf,  a  lion,  a  bear,  a  panther, 
a  h'opard,  and  a  serjient  arc  held  to  be  always 
vicious,  and  their  owner  is  consequently  "fore 
warned  "  :  tin-  exception  sought  to  be  made  in  favor 
of  such  animals,  when  lamed,  is  disallowed  by  the 
majority  i  li.  K.  i.  4). 

With   the    exception   of  the   nmsom   which    the 

owner  of  the  "  forewarned  "  ox  has  to  pay  in  certain 

cases  for  a  man  or  woman  killed  by 

Value  of  a    the   beast — this   being   denian<lcd   by 

Human  the  very  words  of  Scriplnn — no  con- 
Life,  pensalion  is  ever  paid  for  causing  tin' 
death  of  a  h n man  being  :  for  the  idea  of 
atfuiing  by  niiuiey  for  the  lossof  human  life  was  ab 
horrent  lollii'  llibrew  mind.  This  rule  was  applied 
evi'ii  when  a  slave  was  killed  by  an  .Vcciileiil  ;  wherein 
the  Talmud  dilTers  from  the  Hoinan  law,  which  says 
only  li/ii  r  luniiti  initlinii  ml  jirrlii  (a  freeman  can  have 
no  valuation  put  upon  him).  Il  is  onlv  siiK-c  I.oni 
(^anipbells  .\cl,  in  is  Hi  (it  and  10  Vic.  c'  !•:!).  that  the 
English  common  law  has  allowed  coinpeiisaliiai  for 
the  death  of  persons  by  negligeini'.  The  master  of 
a  slave  is  not  liable  tor  the  torts  done  bv  him,  cvcmi 

i.-n 


to  the  extent  of  giving  him  u])  in  compen.satioii  for 
them:  nor  is  the  husband  bound  for  the  torts  of  his 
wife.  But  should  the  .slave  be  manumitte<l,  or 
the  woman  be  divorced  or  become  a  w  idow.  he  or 
she  may  be  sued  for  the  damage  done  during  sla- 
very (M-  coverture.  Deaf  mutes,  insane  jiersons, 
and  minors  (boys  not  over  thirteen)  are  not  liable 
for  their  own  torts,  while  other  jiersons  are  liable 
to  them  or  to  their  representatives  (Mishnali  B,  K. 
viii.  4), 

The  maxim  of  the  Roman  and  the  English  law,  (jui 

facit  jur  iiHinn  furit  ptr  -v  (he  who  acts  through 

anotheractsof  himself),  has  its  eiiuiva- 

Legal        lent  in  the  ]>hrase  of  tli<'  Talmud,  "A 

Status  of    mau'sagent  |  literally,"  messenger  "]  is 
Agent.       like  himself";  and  this  should  lead  to 
the  master's  liability  for  the  acts  of  his 
agentsand  servants  (not  slaves),  which  in  modern  law- 
is  the  most  ini|)ortant  point  in  the  law  of  ne.gligence. 

On  the  contrary,  the  .Mishnali  says,  when  one  de- 
livers his  callle  to  an  indeiieiidcnl  herdsman,  the  lia- 
bility devolves  on  the  latter.  15ut  where  Iheolfend- 
ing  beast  has  been  entrusted  to  a  person  untit  to 
care  for  it,  such  as  a  deaf-mute,  an  insane  person, 
or  a  minor,  the  owner  is  liable  forall  mishaiis,  as  if  he 
had  retained  personal  control  (B.K.  vi.  2).  While  full 
damages  are  held  a  personal  debt  of  the  owner,  half 
damages  are  to  be  i)aid  onlv  "  from  the  body  "  of  the 
olTending animal.  The  law  in  Exodus  Siiys:  "They 
shall  sell  the  live  ox.  and  ilivide  the  money  of  it ;  and 
the  dead  o.\  also  they  shall  divide"  (Ex.  xxi.  li.")). 
The  old  sages  showed  how  this  law,  when  literally 
enforced,  might  oft<'n  work  hardship,  as  when  a 
worthless  steeror  he-goat  should  kill  a  valuable  cow. 
worth  more  as  a  carcass  than  her  living  slayer; 
hence  they  deduced  their  own  rule.  The  owner  in 
such  cases  i)ays  half  the  dama.ire,  but  only  as  far  as 
the  animal  causing  the  injury  will  sjilisfy  it.  This 
corresponds  to  jjiiiijh  ii'ik  o{  Uonian  law,  by  which. 
however,  slaves  as  well  as  animals  can  be  surren- 
dered in  satisfaction  forany  harm  done  by  them  ;  and 
it  tindsan  analogue  in  modern  niarilime  law,  in  which 
the  liability  of  the  ship-owner  is  in  most  cases  nar- 
rowed down  to  what  can  be  realized  upon  the  ship. 
The  rule  that  half  damages  are  always  jniid  "from 
the  body"  only,  has  one  cxceiition,  known  as  that 
of  "the  pebbles"  and  referred  to  above. 

Full  damages  are  deemed  to  lie  of  the  nature  of 
a  debt,  and  may  tlK'i'efore  be  adjudged  upon  the 
wrongdoer's  admission;  half  damages  are  regarded 
in  the  light  of  a  penalty,  and  can  only  he  adjudged 
on  the  testimony  of  witnesses,  as  in  ])rosecutions  for 
crime.  But  all  appraisement  of  either  full  or  half 
damagi'S  must  be  made  by  a  court  of  experts;  that 
is,  oil  till' judgment  of  ordained  juilges,  not  of  pri- 
vate men  chosen  by  the  parties.  Hence,  when  all 
semlilame  of  ordination  had  come  loan  end  the  .Tew- 
isli  rabbis  could  no  longer  adjudge  these'  damagi' 
cases  ex<-epl  by  way  of  arbitration,  concilialion,  ami 
religious  advice;  c<insc(pienlly  the  later  practical 
codes,  like  the  "Shulhan  Anik,"  are  silent  uu  the 
whole  subject. 

For  I  he  rules  by  which  a  tami'  animal  becomes  "  fore- 
warned," together  with  the  liability  of  its  owner  for 
the  diiilli  of  human  beings,  .see  CioUINU  Ox, 

L.  N.  D. 

ACCO.  ISAAC.  See  IsA.\r  hen  Samitel  op 
Ac  ni 

ACCOMMODATION   OF   THE    LA'W :     An 

adaplalii'ii  nl  l:iu  ^  i..  i  in  um-taiicis :  the  miligation 
of  tlie  riiror  of  a  law  in  order  lo  reconcile  it  with  the 
exigencies  of  life  under  changing  circumstances. 
Cases  of  aicommodaling  the  law  to  existing  condi- 


Accommodation 
Aceldama 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


162 


tions  arc  mentioned  in  the  Bible  ns  well  as  in  tlie  rab- 
biniciil  literature.  Aeeonliiij;  to  K.\.  xii.  is.  and  xiii,, 
the  Passover  was  1<>  be  kept  annually  on  the  four- 
teenth day  of  the  first  nionth,  at  even;  but  aeeordinjr 
to  Niun.   ix.   1-14.   wlun  I  he  sreoud  Passover  was 

eelebralril   in  the    wilderness,    cerlaiu 

Passover     men  were  prevented  from  keeping  it, 

in  Du-        owing  to  llieir  bein,i;detile(l  by  eontaet 

plicate.       with  the   dead.     l)n   inquiring  what 

they  should  do,  a  later  Pas-sover  was 
instituted  for  the  bencHt  of  any  one  who  liad  been 
))revenl('d  from  keeping  it  al  the  ordinary  time  in  the 
lirst  month,  and  Ihiswastolie  observed  on  the  four- 
ticiilh  day  of  the  second  month.  In  eonfcirmily 
with  this  Aeeoniniodalion  of  the  Law  in  iteeuliar  eir- 
eumstanees.  King  Ile/.ekiali,  at  the  beginning  of  his 
reign,  eelebrated  the  great  Passover  in  the  second 
month,  being  unable  to  eomi)lete  the  sanetilieation 
of  the  Temple  at  the  regular  season  of  the  feast  (II 
t'hroii.  x.\x.). 

Another  instance  is  that  of  Prosbul  (deiived  from 
the  words  T^'of  i^w'/i/v,  "before  the  court  I  herewith 
deposit"),  instituted  by  llillel   the  Elder  (see  Aiiito- 

Ci.vTiu.N  oi-'  L.\ws).   Finding,  tinder  the 

Debts ;      changed   circumstances  of   his   time, 

'Agunot.    that  the  Mosaic  law,  which  canceled 

all  debts  in  the  Sabbatical  year,  had 
proved disiidvantageous  rather  than  benelicial  to  the 
poor  (since  no  one  would  lend  them  money  lest  the 
claim  might  be  repudiated  at  the  approach  of  the  Sab- 
batical year),  Hillel  moditied  the  law  .so  that  the  Sab- 
bathyearshouldnotaunul  the  indebtedness,  provided 
the  creditor  transferred  it  to  the  court  by  a  document 
termed  Prosbid.  Another  example  of  Accoininoda- 
tiou  of  the  Law  concerns  the  evidence  of  an  absent 
husband's  death,  intended  to  permit  the  wife  to  re- 
marry, and  thus  avoid  the  stigma  of  being  an  'Agu- 
N.\H  or  deserted  wife.  In  all  civil  and  criminal  casi's, 
and  in  all  matrimonial  alfairs.  it  was  an  cslablisbed 
rule  of  the  law  that  everything  must  lie  proved  by 
two  witnesses  (Deut.  .xix.  15),  but  in  this  instance  the 
testimony  of  a  single  witness  was  considered  siitli- 
cient ;  even  the  testimony  of  near  relatives,  and  of  per- 
sons otherwise  regarded  as  incompetent  witnesses  by 
the  rabbinical  law,  might  be  admitted  to  establish  the 
death  of  the  absent  husband.  Tlie  Accommodation 
of  the  Law  in  this  case  is  justitied  by  the  rabbis  for 
the  reason  that  "some  allowance  is  to  be  made  in 
favor  of  the  deserted  woman,  who,  otherwise,  would 
have  to  remain  forever  in  unhappy  widowhood" 
(Yeb.  m,i.  Git.  Za). 

The  following  example  will  ilbistrate  the  mitiga- 
tion of  the  rigor  of  a  traditional  law  in  order  to 

adjust  it  to  jiractical  life.     From  the 

IiOcomotion  inpniction    to    the   manna-gatherers, 

on  the       "  Abide  ye  every  man  in  his  place,  let 

Sabbath,     no  man  go  out  of  his   ]daee  on  the 

seventh  day"  (Ex.  xvi.  2tt).  rabbinic 
tradition  derived  for  all  future  generations  the  two 
following  prohibitions:  (1)  No  Israelite  shall  on 
the  Sabbath  day  go  farther  than  2.000  ctdiils  from 
the  place  of  his  abode,  the  so-called  Sabbath  jour- 
ney. (2)  No  Israelite  shall  carry  any  object  froiu 
private  to  jiublic  premises,  or  vice  versa,  on  the 
Sabbath.  These  two  restrictive  laws  led.  of  course, 
to  great  inconvenience  in  practical  life,  for.  through 
their  operation,  almost  all  freedom  of  locomotion 
on  the  Sabbath  was  prohibited.  In  order  to  lessen 
the  inconvenience  caused  by  these  two  injunctions, 
the  ral>bis  introduced  certain  legal  formalities  termed 
'eriihi-  tchntnin,  'eriihe  hazerot.  and  'rrnbe.  »/«*"»< (con- 
nection of  boundaries,  premises,  and  approaches), 
by  which  a  Sabbath  journey  could  be  extended  to 
4,000  cubits,  and  certain  public  premises  be  consid- 


ered as  having  been  changed  into  private  conmiou 
premises,  from  which  it  was  permitted  to  carry  ob- 
jects to  adjoining  private  houses  and  vice  versa 
(Mishnah   Er.  i.-iv.). 

Again,  in  fixing  the  .Ikwisii  C.M.KND.vn  care  was 
taken  to  arrange  it  in  such  a  manner  that  the  tenth 
of  the  month  of  Tishri  slKmld  never  fall  either  on  a 
Friday  or  on  a  Sunday,  because  it  would,  in  some 
respects,  be  very  inconvenient  to  eelebnite  the  Day 
of  Atonement  either  immedialelv  before  or  inuue- 
diately  afler  the  weekly  Sabbath  (H,  11.  SOk).  To  pre- 
vent such  an  inconvenient  occurrence,  it  was  detcr- 
mineil  that  in  .some  years  ei  I  her  a  day  should  be  added 
to  the  regular  nundier  of  (lays  (if  the  preceding  month 
of  Uesliwan,  or  a  day  taken  from  the  regular  num- 
ber in  the  month  of  Kislew. 

Although  the  ancient  rabbis  were  in  general  very 
stri<'t  where  ritual  and  ceremonial  laws  were  con- 
cerned, they  did  not  hesitate  to  accommodate  these 
laws  to  times  and  circuinslances.  The  following 
are  .some  of  t he  priucijiles  they  established:  Hefer- 
ring  to  the  passage  in  Lev.  xviii.  .">,  "  Ye  shall  there- 
fore keep  my  statutes,  and  my  judgments;  which 
if  a  man  do,  he  shall  live  in  them."  they  say,  "man 
shall  lire  in  the  laws  of  God,  but  not  (//<•  by  means  of 
them"  (Sanh.  74rt :  Yonia,  H'tlj).  "  Where 
Sabbath  for  human  life  is  in  danger,  any  laws  may 
Man,  not     be  set  aside,  except  those  concerning 

Man  for       idolatry,  incest,  and  murder"  (Yoma, 

Sabbath.  V^in).  In  easi'sof  illnessand  inany,  even 
the  remotest,  danger,  a  deviation  from 
the  strict  observance  of  the  precepts  relating  to  the 
Sabbath  is  permitt<'d  (Mishnah  Yoma,  viii.  0).  "The 
Sabbath  is  delivered  into  your  hand,  not  you  into  the 
hand  of  the  Sabbath"  (Mek.  to  Ki  Tissa",  p.  110,  ed. 
Weiss;  Yoma.  8o/<).  "  Y'ou  may  desecrate  one  Sabbath 
in  order  to  be  able  to  keep  many  Sabbaths"  (Jlek., 
/.-•. :  Shall.  1.^)14). 

Likewise,  concerning  the  fast  of  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, though  it  was  regarded  as  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance and  consequently  observed  with  extreme  strict- 
ness, the  rabbinical  law  easily  accommodated  itself 
to  circumstances.     If,  for  instance,  on  that  day  an 

Israelite  bi^  attacked  by  the  disease  of  D1D713  (cra- 
ving hunger),  he  is  allowed  to  eat  even  that  food 
which  isotherwisestrictly  forbidden  (Mishnah  Yoma, 
viii.  6).  In  case  of  illness,  too,  the  patient  may  break 
the  fast  of  that  day,  cither  when  he  himself  or  his 
physician  finds  it  neccs.siiry  (Yoma,  83((). 

The  priiiei|ile  of  acconnnodalion  is  applied  also 
in  modern  .ludaism  by  the  advocates  of  moderate  re- 
form. Under  the  protection  of  rabbinical  authority 
they  seek  by  various  modifications  to  accommodate 
the  ritual  and  liturgical  laws  to  present  condificms 
and  circumstances.  This  endeavor  is,  however,  dis- 
aiiproved  by  Ww  advocates  of  strict  orthodoxy,  who 
rigorously  and  tenaciously  adhere  to  every  inherited 
religious  form  and  custom,  even  though  it  be  incom- 
patible with  modern  thought  and  modern  needs  and 
conditions.  Neither  docs  the  princijile  of  accommo- 
dation satisfy  those  who  advocate  a  radical  reform  of 
religious  laws  and  institutions.  The  advocates  of 
moderate  reform  hold  that  the  principle  of  accommo- 
dation helps  to  reconcile  the  present  with  the  past, 
to  harmonize  ancestral  laws  and  institutions  with  the 
changed  conditions  of  our  time:  that  it  prevents  a 
breach  of  the  vuiity  in  Israid;  and  that  slowly,  but 
surel.v,  it  introduces  manv  essential  improvements 
into.tewish  religious  lite  and  institutions,  thus  exer- 
cising a  wholesome  iuduence  upon  the  development 
of  Judaism. 

BiBLiotiRAPHY :  LOW,  GesammelU  Schriften,  \.  17  et  gcq. 

M.  M. 


163 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Acconunodation 
Aceldama 


ACCUSATORY  AND  INftUISITORIAX 
PROCEDURE  :  Two  nictluxls  by  wliicli  iiersons 
suspcitcil  111  I  riiiii-  may  1k'  tried.  In  tlio  Iiuniisitorial 
met  hod  the  judiies  or  other  oflicials  seek  to  (Ira  \v  from 
the  suspected  person  an  aekiiou  led^ment  of  fjiiilt  by 
examiniiis  him  reirardinir  all  t  lie  einiimstanees  of  the 
crime  and  aliout  liisown  past  life,  TheyeomiK-lhiniiii 
many  eases  to  jrivc  siieli  answers  as  they  wish  to  hear. 
Formerly  they  resorted  to  the  raek  or  thiimbserew; 
in  some  countries  even  to-day  inlliction  of  blows  or 
close  conlinemeut  is  not  imcommon.  In  the  Accusji- 
tory  method,  a  representative  of  the  commonwealth, 
perhaps  of  the  injured  party,  frames  a  written  accu- 
sation, in  which  it  is  set  forth  that  the  aecu.sed,  ata 
specified  time  and  place,  committed  a  certain  olTense. 
Thisaceiisjilion  tiein;; denied  1)V  the  accused,  orstand- 
ing  controvertecl  by  ojieration  of  the  law,  the  pros- 
ecutor brinirs  his  witnesses  and  other  proofs  as  a 
plaintiff  would  do  in  a  civil  s\iit  lor  the  recovery 
of  propcrtj':  and  if  the  guilt  of  the  accused  is  not 
established  by  the  witnesses  and  proofs  (evidence 
being  also  adduced  in  defense)  to  the  sjitisfaction  of 
the  judges  or  jurors,  an  acquittal  follows  and  the 
accused  goes  free. 

Among  those  nations  that  pay  little  or  no  regard 
to  the  freedom  or  rights  of  the  individual,  the  Inquis- 
itorial method  is  in  vogue  even  at  the  present  day, 
at  least  during  the  preliminary  stagi'S  of  a  prosecu- 
tion; and  the  admissions  of  guilt  that  have  been 
wheedled  or  extorted  from  the  accvised  are  brought 
out  against  him  on  the  final  trial,  which,  in  conces- 
sion to  th<^  spirit  of  the  times,  is  cast  into  the  Ac- 
cusatory form.  XeitherOreat  Britain,  with  her  colo- 
nies, nor  the  I'nited  States  of  America,  recognize  the 
Inquisitorial  m<thod  at  any  stage ;  and  under  the  laws 
that  govern  the  trial  of  criminals  in  these  countries 
all  confessions  or  admissions  that  have  been  elicited 
by  phiying  u|)on  the  hojjes  or  fears  of  the  criminal 
are  ruled  out. 

The  system  that   the  .lewish  sages  worked  out 

from  the  written  law  is  altogether  Accusjxtory,  like 

the  Anglo  American  method.    It  goes 

Status  even  farther,  for  it  makes  no  use  what- 
of  ever  of  admissions  or  of  confessions  of 

Witnesses,  guilt,  either  in  or  out  of  court;  the 
Scriptural  command,  "At  the  mouth 
of  two  witnes,ses  or  at  the  mouth  of  three  witnesses 
shall  the  matter  be  established  "  (Deut.  xix.  1.5),  is 
understood  as  excluding  flic  mouth  of  the  accused; 
and  the  principle  is  laid  down.  "  No  one  can  make 
hims<'lf  out  guilty  "  (or  "  wicked  "),  and  it  appears 
often  throughout  the  Talmud, 

The  witnesses  can  testify  only  to  what  they  have 
seen;  or,  when  the  offensi!  consists  of  spoken  words, 
as  to  what  they  have  heard.  T<'Stiniony  as  to  the 
admissions  of  the  accused  is  inadmissible;  for  even 
if  they  were  made  in  open  court,  the  judges  would 
not  listen  to  them,  nor  be  iutluenced  by  them  in 
their  decision. 

The  treatise  Sanhedrin  (chaps,  iii,-vi,)  deals  with 
criminal  procedure  in  cases  in  which  the  punish- 
ment is  (leath  or  exile  to  the  cities  of  refuge,  and 
incidentally  in  those  ca-ses  in  which  the  inlliction  of 
forty  stripes  niiglil  be  adjudged.  The  first  chapter 
of  the  treatise  .Makkot  deals  with  the  proceedings 
against  false  witiieswes  (se<'  Deut.  xix.  1(>-'.21). 

The  form  in  w  hich  the  accusation  should  be  drawn 
is  not  touch<(l  upon  either  in  the  Mislmab  or  in 
the  Oemani;  it  is  not  even  (dear  that  the  accusation 
was  reduced  to  writing:  although  probably  it  was, 
since  writing  entered  into  other  parts  of  the  pro- 
cedure, and  two  or  three  secretaries  were  employed 
by  the  court  to  retord  the  views  of  thi-  judges, 
and  heralds  were  sent  forth  at  the  execution  to  read 


the  sentence.  At  any  rate,  as  the  constitution,  of 
the  court  varied  according  to  the  seriousness  of  the 
crime  (it  being  in  some  cases  constituted  of  three, 
in  other  cases  of  twenty-threu,  judges),  a  definite 
charge  nuist  have  been  made  before  the  trial  coidd 
begin. 

We  find  nothing  in  the  Talmud  as  to  discrepancy 
or  "  variance  "  between  the  accusation  anti  proof,  by 
reason  of  which  so  many  criminals  escape  under  the 
English  American  methods;  but  a  discrepancy  be- 
tween the  w  itncsses  on  a  material  i)oint  woulil  leail 
to  an  acipiittal,  whenever  two  witnesses  do  not  tes- 
tify to  the  same  criminal  act. 

C'ross-examination  (dcri«tiiih  wa-hnkirnh)  is  the 
same  in  criminal  as  in  civil  cases;  the  judge  who 
carries  it  the  farthest  is  praised;  of 
Cross-  course,  the  witnesses  are  confronted 
examina-  with  the  accused  in  open  court ;  "dis- 
tion  of  ciples  of  the  wise,"  who  might  be  con- 
Witnesses,  sidered  as  theologians,  but  are  also 
lawyers,  sit  in  three  rows  in  front  of 
the  judges,  and  practically  form  the  bar.  Any  one 
of  these  disci|)les  is  permitted  to  raise  and  argue  a 
point  on  behalf  of  the  accused,  and  the  latter  also 
may  argue  on  his  own  behalf;  arguments  in  favor 
of  ac(juitlal  may  be  rai.sed  even  after  sentence,  up 
toihe  very  moment  of  execution.  Only  when  all 
doubt  is  at  an  end  the  condenmed  criminal  is  ex- 
horted to  confess,  in  order  that  he  may  find  for- 
giveness in  another  world;  but  his  confes,si(>n  never 
can  be  used  against  him  to  assure  his  punishment 
on  earth. 

Curiously  enough,  this  ctistom  of  exhorting  the 
condemned  man  to  confess  his  guilt  in  his  last  mo- 
ments is  based  on  the  example  of 
Confession   Joshua  (.losh.  vii.   19),  who  besought 

of  Crime.  Achan,  when  he  had  been  pointed 
out  l)y  an  ordeal  as  the  guilty  man 
who  took  for  his  own  use  part  of  the  spoil  of  .lericho, 
that  he  should  glorify  the  God  of  Israel  by  confess- 
ing his  sin  before  his  execution. 

This  short  method  of  dealing  with  a  man  who  has 
by  his  misdeed  brought  (iod's  wrath  <lown  ujion  his 
l>eopl(;  was  deemed  "ailccision  for  the  hour"  (ImnuU 
f/iii'ii/i).  not  to  be  taken  as  a  i)recedent  in  the  affairs 
of  life  in  later  days.  The  sages  whose  institutions 
are  discussed  in  the  Mishnah  never  asked  a  culprit 
to  confess,  except  at  the  last  moment,  and  then  only 
for  the  good  of  his  soul  (see  Mishnah  Sanh.  iv.  1,  3, 
V.  2,  4,  vi.  1,2).  L.  X.  D. 

ACELDAMA  (R.  V.,  Akeldama,  NtoT  ^pn= 
"Field  of  IJIoud  "):  An  ancient  ossuary  on  the  south- 
eni  extremity  of  .lerusidem.  near  the  ravine  of  Hin- 
noni.  The  field  once  contained  lich  clay  deposits 
which  were  worked  by  potters.  A  red  clay  is  still 
dug  in  its  neighborhood.  The  "  i)otter's  bouse  "  men- 
tioned in  .ler,  xviii,  l-(i  is  thought  to  have  stood 
there;  not  far  from  it  was  the  gale  I.larsit  and  "the 
valley  of  the  son  of  llinnom  "  (sic  .ler.  xix.  2),  Later 
it  was  used  as  a  cemetery  for  non-.lews.  Christian 
tradition  connects  itwitli  thedeathof  .ludas  Iscariot, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  bought  it.  or  agreed  to  buy 
it.  with  the  mon<'V  be  received  for  betraying  Jesus 
(.Matt,  xxvii.  ti-S;  Acts.  i.  li»).  The  .Vceldamadlakl- 
eddanun)of  today  presents  a  large,  square  s<-pul- 
cher,  of  which  the  so\ithern  half  is  excavated  in  the 
rock,  the  remainder  biing  built  of  nui.ssive  masonrv. 
In  thecentir  standsa  liugi'  jiillar.  eonslrucled  partly 
of  rough  blocks  ami  partiv  of  |iolish<il  stones.  The 
lloor  is  covered  with  moidering  bones,  this  reposi- 
tory having  been  in  vise  as  late  as  the  first  tpiartiT 
of  the  nineteenth  cenlurv.  Much  of  its  clay  was 
taken  away  by  Empress  Helena  and  other  prominent 


Achan 
Achish 


THE  JEWISH  E>X'YCLOPEI)IA 


164 


Christians,  for  sarcophagi.     There  may  be  some  con- 
nection in  name  between  Aceldama  and  D'OT  DSN 


of  expiation  for  siicrilcpious  theft  appears somewliat 
Imrsh  anil  inlniniaiii-,   partiiularly  su  if  we  under- 


Traditional  Site  ok  ackldama  in  the  Vallev  or  Hi.v.nom. 

(From  R  photograph  by  Boofila.) 


(I  Sam.  xvii.  1).  which  is  translated  in  Yer.  Sanh.  ii. 
2i»'.,  Until  H.  iv.  (on  ii.  3)  ii.  9,  Midr.  Sam.  x.\.  by 

NnpoiD  bpn. 

BiiiuofiRAPHT:  Sepp,  Jfrtixalem  U7t<1  iln«  HeiUae  Laii'l,  I. 
^C:  Eiicu-  Bihl.  s.v.:  t'.  Srliick,  in  Pal.  Explnr.  h^tml 
yiKirt.  StalementA^i.  pp.  3Si-289;  H.  Melander,  in  Zeil. 
Dcut!'Ch.  Falitxt.  Vcr.  xvli.  2.5-35.  ..r    ,, 

ACHAN  (in  I  Chron.  ii.  7.  Achar,  probably 
from  Aclicir,  tli<-  valley  mentioned  in  Josh.  vii.  2()). — 
Biblical  Data:  The  son  of  Canni.  son  of  Zabdi, 
son  of  Zerali.  of  the  tribe  of  .Tnilah.  who  committed 
Siurih'ge  durins  the  capture  of  the  city  of  .Jericho 
by  the  people  of  Isnii'l  in  taking  a  iiortion  of  the 
spoil  devoted  to  the  Lord.  Since  tlie  war  was  a 
holy  war  (see  B.\n  and  Hkhkm),  he  involved  the 
whole  nation  in  guilt,  and  caused  its  defeat  in 
the  battle  of  Ai,  in  which  thirty-six  men  of  Israel 
were  killed.  To  assiia.ce  the  wratli  of  the  Lord 
kindled  against  the  people,  the  twelve  tribes  were 
assembled  according  to  their  clans  and  houseliolds, 
and  the  Siicred  lot  was  cast  in  order  to  discover  the 
guilty  family  that  had  come  under  the  ban.  Achan 
was  singled  out.  and  confessed  that  he  had  stolen 
silver  and  gold  and  a  costly  Babylonian  mantle,  and 
had  ludden  them  in  his  tent.  The  stolen  tilings 
were  inmiediately  sent  for  and  laid  before  the  Lord, 
and  Achan  and  his  family,  his  cattle,  his  asses,  his 
slieep,  and  all  his  belongings  were  brought  to  tlie 
valley  afterward  called  the  "Valley  of  Achor" 
ClIDJ?  ■■  Trouble  ").  Joshua  said  to  him  there :  '•  \\'hy 
irnst  thou  troubled  us?  The  Lord  shall  trouble  thee 
tliis  day."  Achan  and  all  that  belonged  to  him  were 
stoned  to  death  and.  with  tlie  whole  of  his  posses- 
sions, burned,  and  "a  great  heap  of  stones"  was 
raised  over  the  ashes  (Josh.  vii.  24-26).     This  mode 


stand  the  words,  "And  all  Israel  stoned  him  with 
stones;  and  they  burned  them  with  fire  and  stoned 
them  with  stones"  (Josh.  vii.  2.')).  to  refer  not  only 
to  Achan,  Ids  goods,  and  his  lieasts,  Imt  also  to  "his 
sons  and  daughters"  mentioned  in  the  ])receding 
verse  (see  W.  Robertson  Smith,  "Ueligion  of  the 
Semites,"  2d  ed.,  p.  162). 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :    The  .Jewish  exe- 

getes,  Haslii,  (Jersdiiidis.  and  others,  maintain  that 
the  stoning  (Jiish.  vii.  2."))  was  intlieled  only  on  the 
beasts,  and  that  llie  suns  and  daughters  were  bnmght 
there  merely  to  witness  and  be  warned.  This  seems 
to  be  the  opinion  also  of  the  rabbis  in  the  Talmud 
(see  I{ashi  on  Sanh.  44(().  although  they  say  that 
the  wife  and  the  children  were  accessories  to  the 
crime,  in  so  far  as  they  knew  of  it  and  kejit  silent. 
According  to  another  and  apparently  much  older 
rabbinical  tradition.  Achan's  crime  had  many  aggra- 
vating features,  lie  had  seen  in  Jeri(ho  an  idol 
endowed  with  magic  powers,  with  a  tongue  of  gold, 
the  costly  mantle  spread  upon  it,  the  silver  presents 
before  it.  By  taking  this  idol  he  caused  tlie  death, 
Ix'fore  the  city  of  Ai,  of  thirty-six  righteous  men  of 
Israel,  members  of  the  high  court.  When  Joshua, 
through  tlie  twelve  precious  stones  of  the  high 
priest's  breastplate,  learned  who  was  the  culprit,  he 
resorted  to  the  severest  measures  of  imni.shment,  in- 
flictingdcatli  by  stoning  and  by  tire  both  on  liim  and 
his  children,  in  sjute  of  Dent.  .\xiv.  16;  for  these 
had  known  of  the  crime  and  had  not  at  once  told 
the  chiefs  of  the  hidden  idol.  They  thus  brought 
death  upon  more  than  half  the  members  of  the  high 
court  (see  Pirke  R.  El.  xxxviii. ;  Tan.,  Wa-yesheb, 
ed.  1863,  p.  43).  Another  view  expressed  by  the 
rabbis  is  that  Achan  committed  incest,  or  violated 


165 


TlIK  JEWISH  EXCVCLOPEDIA 


Achan 
Achish 


tlio  Sablmtli,  or  was  othenvisc  iiuilly  nf  a  livo- 
f(>l(i  criini'.  Tliis  view  is  hascil  upon  the  livcfold 
use  of  llic  word  DJ  ("also."  "even")  in  Josh, 
vii.  11  ("Tlicy  liavi'  also  Iransgresscd  my  fov- 
t'naiit."  etc.),  as  well  as  upon  his  own  confession: 
"Thus  and  thus  have  I  done"  (Josh.  vii.  20). 
Achan  is  held  uj)  by  the  nihliis  as  a  model  of  the 
penitent  sinner;  hecause  liis  pulilic  coiife.s.sion  and 
subsequent  punishment  saved  him  from  eternal 
doom  in  Geheima.  "Every  culprit  before  lu!  is  to 
meet  his  penalty  of  death."  says  the  iMishnah  Sanli. 
vi.  2,  "  is  told  to  make  a  jiublic  confession,  in  order  to 
he  saved  frfmi  (ichemia's  doom."  Thus  .\ehan  con- 
fessed to  all  his  sins  wIk'U  ho  .said;  "Of  a  truth  I 
have  sinned  apiinst  the  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel,  and 
thus  and  thus  I  have  done."  That  hisavowal  saved 
him  from  eternal  doom  may  bo  learned  from  Joshua's 
words  to  Achan;  ""Why  hast  thou  troubled  us?  So 
may  tlie  L.'.rd  trouble  you  this  day,"  which  are 
taken  to  mean  "in  tlie  life  that  now  is,  so  that  thou 
mayest  be  released  in  the  life  to  come"  (Sanh.  4'M- 
44;  see  also  Kindii  on  Josh.  v.  2')). 

Critical  View:   IJible  critics  are  inclined  to 

ascribe  the  slory  of  Achan  to  two  dilferent  writers, 
since  the  woids  in  the  lirst  jiart  of  Josh,  vii.  25, 
"All  Israel  stoned  /tini  with  stones"  (1DJTV.  show  a 
different  style  and  tradition  fiom  those  at  the  end  of 
the  verse;  "tliey  stoned  l/ifiii  with  stones"  (l^pD'1 
DnX*.  See  Dillmanu'scommentarv  adloc,  and  lien- 
net  on  Joshua  in  "  S.  IJ.  O.  T."  p.  66.  K. 

ACHAWA:  1.  Gcrmanannunl  publishedat  T.eip- 
sic(('  1..  I'ritzsche)  under  the  title.  "  .\<liawa,  Jahr- 
buch  fi'ir  lNti."i  -  ".02,"),"  from  is(i."i  to  lsr>s  by  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Help  of  Needj'  Jewish  Teachers,  their 
Widows  and  Orplians.  Theamuial  treated  specially 
of  peda<ro)^ical  (luestions,  with  here  and  there  liter- 
ary »;iw;r.y/i/xand  articles  by  "SX.  Wiener  on  the  history 
of  the  Jews  in  ({ermany.  2.  A  monthly  journal 
pilblisheil  at  Amsterdam  and  rounde<l  about  isss  by 
II  society  of  teachers  bearing  the  Siinie  name.  It  is 
devotccf  exclusively  to  pedagogy.  I.  Bit. 

ACHBOR  ("  Mouse  "I:  1.  Father  of  Haal-hanan 
|(iini|i.  llaiiiiilKil).  king  of  Edoiu  (Gen.    x.wvi.  lis, 

lill,  and  in  the  corre- 
spnndiiii;  list  of  I 
Chron.  i.  411).  It  has 
been  suggested  tliat 
the  name  implies 
a  species  of  totem- 
ism  (W.  H.  Smith. 
"Kinship  and  Mar- 
riage in  Early  Ara- 
Ilia."  )>.  :ill2),  and  the 
discovery  of  .sjicrili- 
ci;d  mice  by  the  I'al- 
istine  Exploration 
Eun<l("(Jiiart.  State- 
ment," lHii:i,  p.  2!J(i; 
see  illustration  in 
next  cohinm)  gives 
the  theorv  simii-  in- 
terest. Yhe  name 
Itaal  hanan  ben  A(  li 
Ixir  linds  an  exact  parallel  in  the  inscription  on  the 
necompanying  seal,  Ilananyahu  bar  .\<hbor. 

Z.  One  of  the  men  sent  by  King  Josiah  to  consult 
the  proplieless  Iliddah  conceniing  the  lindingof  the 
"book  of  the  law"  (U  Kings,  xxii.  12,  14);  son  of 
Miehaiah.  In  II  Chron.  xxxiv.  2(this  nanii'  is  given 
as  Ahdon.  but  the  existeiK-e  of  the  nana-  Achbor  on 
an  archaic  Hebrew  seal  found  at  Jerusalem  (si'c  il- 
luslmlion  above)  jiroves  this  to  bo   u   misreading. 


Hnnnnyiiliu  Imr  .Arlilx 

(Kroiii  BriiiliiicTT.) 


Saerlllcliil  Mouse  (see  ACfiBOR). 

<I->oiii  ••  (jujirl.  Sutifiiiriil,"  P.il.  Exfl.  FuDd.) 


Achbor  is  referred  to  again  only  as  the  father  of 
Elnathan  (Jer.  xxvi.  22,  xxxvi.  12).       G.  B.  L.— J. 

ACHERON,  or  ACHERUSIAN  LAKE  : 

The  tiery  river  of  Hades  in  (Iicik  mythology,  men- 
tioned in  Plato's  "  Pluedo,"  li;i.\.  which  figures  also 
in  Jewish  eschalology.  In  the  Siliyllines,  i.  301  (also 
in  Enoch,  xvii.  (i).  the  souls  of  the  dead  traverse  Ach- 
eron to  enter  the  realms  of  bliss.  In  the  Book  of  Adam 
and  Eve(Apocalypsis  !Mosis.  ed.  Tischendorf.  ]).  37) 
one  of  the  six-winged  seraphim  takes  the  body  i>f  the 
dead  Adam,  casts  it  into  the  Acherusian  Lake,  and 
washes  it  in  the  iires- 
ence  of  God,  who, 
after  three  hours, 
raises  it  and  hands 
it  over  to  Michael  the 
archangel,  to  take  it 
into  the  third  heaven. 
In  the  Christian 
Apocalypse  of  Paul 
(written  after  som<> 
Jewish  model),  Paul 
is  shown  a  river  with 
waters  white  as  milk, 
and  told  that  it  is  the 
Acherusian  Lake  (the 
Syrian  version  has 
changed  it  into  the 
Sea  of  the  Eucharist), 
within  which  there  was  the  city  of  God.  Into  this 
lake  those  who  repent  of  t  heir  sinsare  cast  by  ^lichael 
the  archangel,  after  which  they  are  brought  by  him 
into  the  city  of  (!od.  where  the  righteous  dwell  (see 
Apoc.  Paul,  ed.  Teschendorf,  iii.  22).  The  Acheru- 
sian Lake  is  probably  the  same  as  the  iiclidr  (/i-inir, 
the  river  of  t\w  (Enoch,  xvii.  '>).  in  which  the  souls 
must  bathe,  according  to  Jellinek's  "  B.  H."iii.  31 
and  13!).  v.  ls;i,  to  receive  their  baptism  of  purifica- 
tion before  entering  ])aradise,  but  at  times  they 
bathe  in  streams  of  bal«im  ("  B.  II."  ii.  2!l). 

Bim.H)<;u.\i'nv :  Ilc».sehpr.  IlialJfrilnni  thr  Vi-tv^dchfmUn 
Miilfiiili>{iii .  ii.w;  Djeierirh.  .Vi  A  j/id,  pp.  ™18  f  (  si:q,\  S.  Beer 
(»n  p»s.sajre  ot  Kunrlt  ami  Kurhs  on  Aihk'.  Miisis,  xxxvll.  in 
Kautzsiii, />((•  .lix)/.rj/p/iiii  iiail  Pscudcpiaraphcn  ties  A. 
T.  p[>.  :M8,  ,5;J5.  »»■ 

ACHISH.^Biblical  Data  :  King  of  Gatli  in  the 
lime  of  Davitlanil  Solomon  (1  Sam.  xxi.-xxix.  1;  I 
Kings,  ii.).  David,  when  fleeing  from  Saul,  twice 
sought  asylum  with  Achish.  the  first  time  incognito. 
He  was,  however,  recognized,  wliereupon  he  feigned 
mailness,  and  escaiicd  (I  Sam,  xxi.  10-1.").  xxii.  1). 
The  second  time  he  was  also  recognized,  but  was  well 
treated  as  a  supposed  enemy  <it  Saul  (I  Sam.  xxvii.). 
Achish  led  the  Philistine  attack  on  Isrjiel  which  re- 
sulted in  the  death  (pf  Said  and  his  sons.  He  was 
also  at  the  battle  of  (Jillioa  (I  Sam.  xxviii.-xxxi.). 
Two  .servants  of  Shimi'i  fied  to  Achish  (I  Kings,  ii. 
311-40).  The  superscri|)lion  to  Ps.  xxxiv.  reads 
"Abimelech,"  apparentlv  bv  error  for  Adiisli, 

D.  G.  L, 

In  Rabbinical   Literature:   The  Ilaggadah 

elaborates  Davids  insanity  as  follows;  An\ong 
.\chisli  s  body  guard  were  ilie  brothers  of  Goliath, 
who  immediately  sought  to  slay  their  brother's  <dn- 
ipieror.  Achish  forbade  Ibis,  pointing  out  that  the 
i-ombal  had  been  a  fair  one.  The  brothers  retorted 
that  then,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  agreement 
(I  Sam.  xvii.  9),  Achish  must  relimiuish  his  throne  to 
Daviil,  The  only  way  out  of  this  coin]>lication  was 
for  David  to  feign  madness,  but  just  at  that  time  a 
daughter  of  Achish  beinme  riiiUy  insane,  and  her 
mania  wasaugmenled  by  Da\  id's  actions;  Ihereforo 
he  was  driven  awav(Mid"r.  Teh.  xxxiv.).         L.  G. 


Achmetha 
Acosta,  Uriel 


TIIK  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


166 


ACHHETHA  :  Xiimo  i;i  vcn  in  tin-  Old  Testament 
(E/.rii.  vi.  2)  to  the  Pci-siau  city  ealleil  by  tlie  Greeks 
Eebiitaiiii  or  Ajjbatana.  In  Old  Persian  it  is  called 
Hajrniatana:  in  Habylonian.  Airaniatanvi:  while  in 
the  works  of  Arabic  iiistoiians  it  appears  as  llama- 
dan.  the  modern  form  of  the  name.  When  the  Median 
kinsidom  aro.sc,  in  the  sevenlli  century  li.c  Ecba- 
tana  was  the  chief  city.  At  a  later  period  it  was  the 
summer  residence  of  the  Persian  kinf;s.  According 
to  Herodotus  (i.  9S).  the  city  was  surrounded  by  hisrh 
and  stronir  walls,  the  turrets  of  which  had  ditTerent 
colors.  The  inner  wall  suiroimd<(l  the  palace  and 
treasury.  The  royal  archive  mentioned  in  Ezra,  vi. 
2.  was  probably  found  within  the  imier  wall.  A 
jrreatly  e.xag^rerated  description  of  the  walls  occurs 
in  Judith,  i.  2,  where  Arphaxad  (Gen.  .\.  22-2-1.  xi. 
13)  is  .said  to  have  been  the  builder  of  the  city.  It  is 
also  mentioned  in  the  Talmud  (Kid.  'i'ia;  Yeb.  \~a: 
see  Xeuba\ier,  "G.  T."  p.  3T6).  F.  Bl'. 

ACHOR  :  A  valley  near  Jericho.  From  Josh.  xv. 
7  it  would  appear  that  it  was  situated  ujion  the 
northern  boundary  of  Judah.  Itsexact  position  has 
not.  however,  been  ascertained.  Eusebius  ("Ono- 
niasticon."  ed.  Lagarde.  p.  lOo)  and  Jerome  ("  Liber 
deSitu  et  Nominibus  Locorum  Heliraicorum,"  xxiii. 
868)  allude  to  it  as  a  valley  north  of  Jericho ;  whereas 
some  modern  writers  identify  it  with  Wadi  elKelt, 
a  deep  ravine  south  of  Jericho.  According  to  Josh, 
vii.  2-1-26,  Achan  was  stoned  there ;  and.  in  view  of 
the  trouble  that  he  brought  upon  his  people  and 
upon  himself,  the  place  assumed  a  typical  character, 
symbolizing  an  accursed  desolation  that  will  only 
lie  redeemed  in  the  times  of  the  Messiah  (Hosea.  ii. 
1".;  Isa.  Ixv.  10).  M.  B. 

ACHSA  or  ACHSAH  (•'  Anklet ") :  Daughter  of 

Caleb  (I  C'hrou.  ii.  40).  who  was  promised  by  her 
father  to  the  man  who  should  capture  Kirjath-se- 
pher.  (Dthuiel,  the  son  of  Kenaz  and  nejihew  of  Ca- 
\vb,  took  it  and  married  Achsah  (Josh.  xv.  16,  IT). 
In  Judges,  i.  12,  13,  the  story  is  repeated,  but  here 
Achsjih  asks  springs  of  water  in  addition  to  the 
"south  land,"  and  both  the  upper  and  the  lower 
springs  are  granfcil  licr.  G.  B.  L. 

ACHSELRAD,  BENEDICT  (Bendet  ben  Jo- 
seph ha-Levi) :  A  ilarshan,  or  preacher,  of  Lem- 
berg  in  the  tirst  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  liomiletical  works,  of 
which  the  following  have  been  published:  "Ben 
Da'at"  (The  Son  of  Knowledge).  Ilanau.  1616,  con- 
taining one  hundred  and  tifty  homiletic  discourses 
on  the  Psalms:  "Derush  'al  'Aseret  ha-Dibl)erot," 
an  Interpretation  of  the  Decalogue,  Hanau,  1616. 
containing  homilies  on  the  Ten  Commandments;  and 
'"Abodat^ha-Levi"  (The  Office  of  the  Levile),  Cra- 
cow, 1)etwecn  1632  and  1648,  containing  sermons  and 
homiletic  Interpretations  on  Genesis.  The  last  is 
merely  a  fragment  of  a  work  which  treated  the  whole 
Pentateuch  in  the  same  manner:  it  has  not  been  pnl)- 
lished.  There  must  also  have  existed  a  homiletic 
commentary  by  him  on  Proverbs,  which  is  men- 
tioned several  times  by  Achselrad  himself,  and  the 
existence  of  which  is  also  confirmed  by  Aaron  Sam- 
uel, nibbi  of  Fulda,  ia  his  introduction  to  Achselrad 's 
"Ben  Da'at." 

BlBLIOGRAPiiv:   Steinsohneider,  Cat.  Bod/,  col.  78.T :  Miotiael, 
Or  ha-IIaiiiiim.  No.  'il\  ;    Zedner,  Cat.  Hebr.  U<Kili.i  Brit. 

Mtlit.  s.V.  lifll'hf. 

L.  G. 

ACHSHAPH:  Town  menlioned  in  Josh.  xi.  1 
and  xii.  2U  as  the  seat  of  a  north  Canaanitish  king. 
Robinson  ("'Biblical  Researches,"  iii.  55,  London, 
1856)  identifies  it  with  the  ruins  at  Kesaf,  or  Iksaf, 


a  village  northwest  of  Hunin  and  south  of  a  branch 
of  the  \ahr  elKasimiye  (Guerin.  "Galilee."  ii.  269). 
This  woidd  agree  with  Josh.  xi.  1,  but  not  with  xix. 
25.  as  in  the  latter  passjige  this  town  must  be  looked 
for  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  coast.  The  idenlilica- 
tiou  of  Achshaph  with  the  Aksap  of  the  Egyptian 
list  of  Thol limes  is  imcertain. 

HiBI.uiGR.vpilv  :  W.  Max  Mflller,  -lufeii  Hiirf  Enropu,  p.  IIH. 

F.  Br. 

ACHZIB  (called  also  Chezib,  Chozeba):    1.  A 

ton  n  ot  .ludah.  in  the  southern  Shcphelah  or  lowland 
(Josh.  XV.  44).  coupled  with  Mareshah  in  .Micah,  i. 
14,  where  it  appears  as  paronoma.stic  with  deceit. 
In  Gen.  xxxviii.  5.  it  reads  Chezib,  and  in  I  Chron. 
iv.  22,  it  appears  as  Chozeba,  and  is  there  connected 
with  the  Judeau  clan  of  Shelah.  Comparisons  with 
the  names  of  modern  places,  such  as  "Ain  Kus(s)aV)e 
(Hobinson,  "Sociu-Ba<leker ''),  six  miles  southeast  of 
Tell  el  Ilesv,  or  a  doubtful  'Ain  el-Kezbeh  near  Bet 
Nettif  (G.  A.  Smith),  have  little  probability. 

2.  Phenician  city,  claimed  by  the  Asherites  (Josh, 
xix.  29),  but  not  conquered  (Judges,  i.  31).  The 
Greeks  called  it  Ecdijipon  (compare  Josejihus,  "B. 
J."  i.  13,  55  4;  uhm.  "Ant."  v.  1,  S  22,  where  the  form 
Arce  occuis).  Akzibi  is  mentioned  in  a  cuneiform  iu- 
scrii)tion  of  Sennacherib.  It  is  the  small  village,  now 
Ez-Zib,  nine  miles  north  of  Acre  (A<co).  on  the  sea- 
shore. On  the  importance  of  this  place  in  the  Tal- 
mud, as  determining  the  southern  limits  of  Pales- 
tine for  certain  ritual  purposes,  see  Neubauer,  "La 
Geographic  du  Talmud,"  under  "Kezib,"  p.  233. 

W.  M.  M. 

ACME  {'Akiii/):  Jewish  slave  of  Livia.wife  of  the 
Kniperor  Augustus.  During  the  family  troubles 
which  cloudeil  the  last  nine  years  of  Herod's  life,  she 
came  under  the  intluence  of  his  son  Antipater,  while 
he  lived  at  Rome.  Induced  by  large  presents  and 
specious  ]iromises,  she  forged  a  compromising  letter 
from  Herod's  sister  Salome  to  her  mistress,  the  em- 
press Livia,  which  she  forwarded  to  Herod  through 
the  agency  of  Anti|)hilus,  a  friend  of  Antipater  in 
Egypt.  Acme's  guilt  was  discovered  by  an  inter- 
cepted letter  to  Antipater.  in  which  she  speaks  of 
having  forged  the  letter  at  Anlipater's  request. 
Herod  reported  the  matter  to  Augustu.s,  and  Acme 
was  put  to  death  in  the  year  5  n.c. 

Bibliogr-vpuy:  Joseplius,  B.  J.  I.  32.  S  6;  idem.  Ant.  xvll. 

3.  ST. 

G. 

ACOSTA,  CRISTOVAL:  Spanish  physician 
and  botanisl  of  the  sixleiiuh  century.  He  was 
born  in  Africa,  whither  his  parents  fled  when  exiled 
from  Spain.  He  studicil  medicine,  and  for  several 
years  traveled  through  Africa  and  Asia,  particularly 
through  China.  AVhile  on  his  travels  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  most  important  physicians  in 
Arabia.  Persia.  China.  Turkey,  and  other  lands.  On 
his  return  he  established  himself  at  Burgos,  Spain, 
anil  published  a  work  entitled,  "Tratado  de  las  Dro- 
gas  i  .Medicinas  de  las  Indias  Orientalescon  susPlan- 
tasDebujadasal  Vivo"  (1578)  (Treatise  on  the  Drugs 
and  Medicines  of  the  Indies  with  their  Plants  Illus- 
trated from  Xatiire);  which  was  translated  into 
Italian  (Venice,  1.585).  and  into  French  by  Antoine 
Collin.  Death  prevented  him  from  completing  a 
work  he  had  projected  on  the  flora  and  fauna  of 
India.  Acosta  was  baptized,  but  at  what  time  is 
uncertain. 

BiRLioGR.vPHV  :  De  Castro.  Histnria  de  los  Ju(tioi*cn  Eitpaila, 
pp.  2W  ct  neq. 

'Si.    K. 


167 


THE  .lEWISI!   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Achmetha 
Acosta,  TJriel 


ACOSTA,  DUARTE  NTJNES  D' :  Jrcn  liaiit 
at  Haiiihuri;  duriiiv'  llic  liisl  liall  nl  tin-  stvcntiMMitli 
<cutuiy;  <1(-S(cti(lanl  cif  a  |iniiiiiMciit  .Maraiio  faiiiilv 
fnim  Portugal.  AVlicn,  alKiut  KitO,  King  .Iciliii  I\'. 
<if  Portugal  estatilishwl  liis  agi-iicy  at  llainhurg,  ho 
iiiadf  Acosta  the  first  incumbent  of  tlu;  otlice,  with 
the  title  of  "  noble  of  the  house,"  in  sjiite  of  local 
prejudice  against  the  Jews  due  to  the  propaganda 
against  them  led  by  .loitx  Mti.i.Ei;.  Throughout 
tlie  existence  of  theagency.  to  the  year  ITKo,  other 
members  of  the  Acosta  fainily  held  "the  oltice. 
BiBLiouRAPiiv:  Gratz.  (IcmIi.  d.  Ju(kii,  x.  ai;  Kavserlliisr. 
(Jench.  d.  Juden  in  Fortuyal,  p.  3ia;  Idem,  StiilKiriliiii,  p.  iJa. 

AV.   M. 

ACOSTA.    GERONIMO   NUiJeZ   D'   (called 

also  Moses  Curiel).     See  L'l  kill,  Mosios. 

ACOSTA,  JOAN  D' :  Jester  at  the  court  of 
Peiir  the  (ircal  of  Itussia  in  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Originally  he  was  a  broker  at 
Humburg.  but  met  with  such  small  success  that  he 
removed  to  Russia,  and  received  an  ajipointment  as 
jester.  Ills  ujipearance  was  droll;  lie  isdescribed  as 
liaving  been  very  clever  and  witty,  and  niasterof  al- 
most all  Eurojiean  languages.  According  to  Doran 
("History  of  Court  Fools"),  Peter  met  him  among 
the  patients  at  the  "U'aler  Cure"  at  Alonait/  in 
1719.  Ivostomarov  calls  him  Lyacosta.  It  is  sjjid 
that  Czar  Peter  enjoyed  discussing  tlieological  ques- 
tions with  him,  and  that  these  discussions  often  led 
to  heated  arguments.  As  a  reward  for  his  services 
the  c/.ar  gave  him  the  sandy  and  iminhabited  island 
of  Sanuner,  in  the  Gulf  of  i'itdand.  lie  retained  his 
position  as  court  jester  under  Empress  Anne. 

Buu.KMiii.M'HV:  ShuliliLskl.  M..ri(/i.  >7,n  (hliniii.p.'t;  Slern- 
UTn.iliM-li.d.  Jtiiliii  ill  I'liliii.  p.  Il'.l;  Kiwtoiimruv,  Iliisx- 
Imiih  W.i/Ki.  M  ed.  p.  14:i.  St.  Petersburg.  IsiB;  Derail, 
lHnlurii  III'  Ciiuii  Fmih,  ]>.  :m,  L<iiidim,  1*58. 

II.  R. 

ACOSTA,    LTJIS    D'  :    Alarano  of  VillaFlor, 
Portugal;    born   in  l.'iST.     At   llieageof  forty-five. 
he  was  condemned  to  the  galleys  liecause  lie  liad 
been  secretly  following  the  law  of  Moses. 
Bnii  TiKMMiMrv:  KMvsiilinir.  .Stj)/i«nJi;H,  p.  att.       -i.-    -\r 

ACOSTA,  URIEL  (originally,  Gabriel  da 
Costa*):  Noted  writer  and  rationalist;  born  at 
()|)orto.  l.")i)(l:  died  at  Amsterdam,  April.  ItUT.  Horn 
and  reare<l  in  a  Marano  family,  all  of  whose  mem- 
bers had  liecome  strict  Catholics— his  father  held 
an  ecclesiastical  position — young  Gabriel  seems  lo 
have  pondered  secretly  on  ilie  nice  and  failh  of  his 
fttlheis.lo  which  he  fell  himself  powcrfullv  attracted. 
When  apprenticed  lo  the  IcLral  prolVssioii  he  fnund 
time  lo  study  the  l,aw  and  tlie  I'rophels.  anil  he  e.\- 
porienced  the  inllui'iK-e  of  their  broad  humanitarian 
views  and  of  Iheir  noble  coneeplions  of  the  Deilv. 
pisisatisfaclion  with  the  formal  routine  of  Cathol- 
icism was  proliiibly  responsible  for  his  spiritual 
uneasiness,  as  suggested  liv  (triltz 
Religious  ("(iesch.  d.  .ludeii,"  x.  l*!).  "  In  I(il."> 
Scruples,  force  of  circumstaiM'es  compelled  him 
lo  accept  the  semi  legal.  .Mini  clerical 
olllce  of  treasurer  of  an  endowed  church  in  Oporto; 
Ills  father  being  dead,  Ihe  support  of  his  motherand 
young  sister  and  brothers  dcvolvi'd  upon  him.  Cau- 
tiously revealing  lot  hese  rilali  ves  Ids  liearl  's  longinir 
for.Iudaism,  hv  found  them  ai(|uiescent ;  anil  in  KilT 
or  Kiis,  after  running  great  danger  of  detection  and 
punishment,  Ihe  family  emii.'rated  from  I'orlugal  lo 
.\msterdam,  where  they  coidil  openly  live  as  .lews, 

^_  "Tlio  Ijiiln  and  iiinn'   rninllliir  fiirm   of  iho  siinimiii'   N 
.\nwln,"  iiHi'd  l)y  (Jiiizkmv  In  Mit  well  known  dniniii  di'voled 
I"  Ihe  Miihjwi  i.f  ihlMiinlile:  rrlel  lilin.-«'lf  idirneil  "ilii  Ciwtii." 


In  Amsterdam  they  abjured  Christianity;  and  Ga- 
briel and  his  four  brothers  (Ivayserling,'"Gesch.  d. 
.luilin  in  Portugal,"  p.  '.i^iT)  entered  tlie  Abrahamic 
covenant,  Galiriel  discarding  his  name  for  Uriel. 

Full  of  enthusiasm  for  .ludaism — an  enthusiasm 
that  had  fed  upon  his  dreams  and  fancies  of  Ihe  un- 
known faith  and  the  bygone  history  of  his  people 
— it  was  almost  in  the  nature  of  things  that  Acosta 
should  be  doomed  to  suffer  severe  disenchantmout 
through  the  realities  he  encountered.  The  days  of 
.Moses  and  Isaiah  uo  longer  existed;  in  place  of  their 
broad  i)rinci|)les  and  declarations  he  found  in  the 
Judaism  of  Amsterdam  a  rigid,  cumbersome,  and 


prosaic  accumulation  of  ritual  and  observance,  "line 
upon   line,   and    precept  upon   prece|it."     This  was 
very  dillerent  from  the  free  and  liberal  religion  which 
his  inexjierienced  fancy  had  iiictured  to  him  in  his 
native  laud.      Feeling  the  inspiration  of  his  high 
ideals,  he  was  frank  enough  to  express  outspokenlv 
his   disgust    with   the  formal  Judaism  of  the  dav. 
Something   of   his  Christian   Irainiiig 
Disaji-        may    have     shaped    his    i>liniseology 
pointment    when   he   openly  spoke  against  "the 
at  Amstor-  Pharisees"  of  the   Amsterdam    syna- 
dam.  gogue:  but  he  naturally  knew  noth- 

ing of  the  fierce  heat  of  sufTering 
which  had  fused  the  faith  of  Isaiah,  and  welded 
it  into  the  rigid  forms  he  found  extant.  On  their 
side  the  Amsterdam  Jews,  who  had  known  jiersc- 
culion  and  were  grateful  even  for  the  tacit  toler- 
ance of  the  Netherlands,  were  not  dispo.sed  calmly 
to  see  an  impetuous  and  ill-informed  young  eii- 
thusiast  openly  assail  the  ancestral  faith.  By  his 
criticisms  against  Judaism,  Acosta  thus  condemned 
himself  to  a  life  of  severe  isolation  almost  from  the 
hour  of  his  arrival  in  Anisterdam.  When  it  got 
abroad  that  he  was  preparing  a  book  which  should 
set  forth  his  grave  doubts  as  to  the  immorlalily  iif  the 
soul  and  the  reality  of  future  reward  or  punishment, 
and  should.  moreo\ir.  point  out  Iheilisiiepaucies  be- 
tween the  Bible  and  rabbinical  Judaism— soundly  ra- 
ting the  latter  foritsaccumulation  of  mechanical  cere- 
monies and  ]diysical  observances  in  lieu  of  spiritual 
maxims  anil  jihilosophic  conieptions — he  was  an- 
swered I'ven  before  he  had  spoken,  as  It  were,  by  the 
]iubliiation  of  a  work  in  Portuguese,  written  bv  a 
certain  physician,  Samuel  da  Silva.  in  HiOU.  "I'ni 
tado  da  Immortalidade  da  Alma.  Composlo  pelo 
Doutor!  .  .  .  em  i|Ue  Tambem  se  .Mosira  a  Igno 
rancia  de  Cerlo  Conlniriador,"  etc.  But  this  onlv 
served  lo  expedite  Acostas  work,  which  appeared  in 
lli34,  also  in  Portuguese,  under  the  title  "Kxamen 
dos  Tradicoens  Phariseas  Conferidas  con  a  Ley  Ks 
crita  por  I'riel.  .lurista  Ilebreo.  com  Reposia  a  hum 
Semuel  da  Silva.  sen  Falso  Caluiuniador. "  Acosta's 
lack  of  eliarness,  either  of  expression  or  of  I  hough  I, 
or  of  both,  is  shown  by  the  fact  thai  in  this  work  he 
reiterates  thai  the  soul  of  man  is  not  jinmortal — the 
verv  heresy  of  which  Da  Silva  had  accused  him. 

'I  he  mailer  had  now  become  .so  public  that  the 
ollicials  of  the  .\msterdam  Jewish  coinmiinily  could 
not  but  take  notice  of  it.  Accordingly,  .\costa  was 
indicted  befon'  the  magistracy  for  Ihe  iiltenince  of 
views  subversivB  of  Ihe  foundations  not  only  u{ 
Jewish,  but  of  Clirisliaii,  failh;  and  judgment  was 


Acosta,  Uriel 
Acquittal 


THE  JEWISH  EJ^CYCLOPEDIA 


168 


asked  afrainst  him  as  a  public  enemy  to  religion. 
He  was  lunsted.  thrown  into  prison,  and  tined  ;S()0 
L'ulden  (§!-(•) :  and  his  book  was  condemned  to  bo 
pul>licly  liurned.  Acosta  seems  to  have  tle<l  to  llam- 
t)ur!5aflerlhis(sepPerlcs,  in  "Monatssclirift."  1HT7.]>. 
SOH),  but  he  eventually  returned;  for  doubt  less  he  felt 

liimself  completely  ostracized  there  too 
Abjures      by  Jew  and  Clirislian  alike.  .Moreover, 
His  he  was  iirnorant  of  the  Gennan  Ian- 

Errors,        iruaire.     Me  niurned  to  .Vmstcrdam  in 

bitter  resentment.  He  found  he  could 
not  live  in  seclusion;  he  yearned  for  companion- 
ship; he  desired  to  marry  ajridn — he  seems  to  have 
lost  his  wife  in  the  interim  (see  Perles,  I.e.,  p.  209) 
— and  as  the  guardian  of  his  younij;er  brothers  he 
feared  their  tiuancial  interests  would  sutfer  through 
liis  disjrnice.  Accordingly,  he  resolved  to  swallow 
the  bitter  draft.  He  volunteered,  as  he  says,  "lobe- 
come  an  ape  among  the  apes."  liud  in  ll):i3  he  offered 
his  formal  submissicm  to  tlieollici-rsof  the. synagogue; 
he  wiiuld  be  a  dissenter  and  a  sinner  no  mor<'. 

Though  outwardly  obedient.  Acostu's  enthusias- 
tic religious  bent  had  evolved  a  new  tendency  away 
from  .Judaism.  "I  doubted  whether  Moses'  law^ 
was  in  reality  God's  law,  and  decided  that  it  w'as 
of  human  origin,  as  many  others  in  the  world 
have  been."  One  step  led  to  another.  A  species  of 
natural  religion,  free  from  fcu'm  or  fonuula,  bereft 
of  all  ceremony  and  ritual,  seemed  to  him  to  be  the 
true  religion  for  man.  He  became  a  Deist.  God  is 
in  nature  the  ruler  of  the  external  world:  He  has 
no  concern  with  doctrines  or  modes  of  worship,  all 
of  which  are  eiiually  vain  in  His  sight.  Nature 
teaches  peace  and  harmony:  religion  uses  the  sword 
(U-  the  stake,  or  else  the  ban  of  exconununication. 
All  the  religion  he  would  ap|irove  is  contained  in 
the  seven  Xoahidic  conuuandments  ("Exemplar  Hu- 
manie  Vitiv."  ed.  Limborcli,  p.  666). 

Unfortunately  for  himself,  Acosta  could  not  be  a 
))erfeet  hypocrite:  in  his  mode  of  life  hecontinnally 
transgressed  Mosjucand  rabbinical  regulations,  such 
as  those  totiching  the  Sabbaths  and  festivals,  the 
dietary  laws,  etc. ;  and  people  soon  knew  of  it.  His 
own  relatives  severely  cond<'nuied  him  for  this  lui- 
faithfidness,  but  to  no  purjiose.  Finally  it  was 
learned  that  he  had  dissuaded  two  Christians — a 
Spaniard  and  an  Italian — from  carrying  out  their 
avowed  intention  of  endiracing  the  religion  of  Israel ; 

and  this  ti'eachcrv,  as  it  seemed,  once 

Second  Ex-  more   broughl   the    lightnings  of  aii- 

commxini-     tlioritative  Judaism  about   his   head. 

cation  and    Summoned  again  before  the  officials  of 

Suicide.      the  congregation,  he  was  reiiuired  to 

renounce  the  errors  of  his  way  under 
penalty  of  the  "  greater  ban."  He  would  not  submit ; 
and  again  he  was  excomnnuiieated.  This  further 
stroke  of  1)igotry,  as  he  considered  it,  was  borne  by 
him  in  sullen  silence  for  seven  y<'ars.  during  which 
time  he  sultered  the  indignity  of  being  avoided  by 
all.  even  by  his  nearest  relatives.  At  the  end  of  that 
period  he  succumbed  and  once  more  gave  in  hissuli- 
missiou  to  authority,  and  was  made  to  testify  to  it  by 
the  most  degradin.s  penances.  Before  the  assembled 
himdreds  in  the  synagogue — men  and  women — he 
recited  a  public  confession  of  his  sin  and  a  recanta- 
tion; this  was  followed  by  a  public  scourging  then 
and  there,  to  the  extent  of  the  Biblical  "  forty  stripes 
siive  one  "  ;  and  as  the  crowning  act  he  was  laid  jiros- 
trate  upon  the  threshold  of  the  holy  iilace,  to  be 
stepped  over  or  trample<l  on  by  the  gathered  crowds. 
A  proud  and  indomitable  spirit  like  Acosta's  might 
submit  outwardly  to  such  terrible  formalities;  i)ut 
it  could  not  brook  them  tamely.  He  went  home,  and 
shortly  after  ended  his  stormy  career  by  shooting 


himself,  having  used  the  interval  to  write  a  few  pages 
of  what,  he  (idled  "Exi'mplar  Humana'  Vita'"  (A 
Specimen  of  Huni.an  Life),  a  sketch  of  hisown  career. 
It  is  almost  the  only  source  of  information  respecting 
the  life  of  this  eccentric  ami  unfortunate  thinker, 
and  was  pulilished  witii  a  refutation  by  Philip  Lim- 
borcli, a  Dutch  theologian,  as  an  appi'Uilix  to  his  own 
work,  entitled  ".Vmiea  Collatio  ciimErudito  Jutlivo," 
Gouda,  16ST;  republished  1H47. 

Th<'  "  Kxemplar  Humana'  Vit;e,"  even  making  al- 
lowance for  the  intense  mental  stress  under  which  it 
was  written,  and  for  the  natural  temptation  to  leave 
behind  as  crushing  an  imlictnient  of  his  opponents 
as  he  could  frame,  shows  Acosta  to 
His  "Ex-    have  been  an  ill-balanced  thinker,  im- 

emplar."  pul.sive  to  a  degree,  impatient,  and 
l)resumptuousiii  the  faei' of  grave  dis- 
abilities. Had  careful  religious  tniining  in  Judaism 
been  joined  to  more  wisely  directed  energies,  the  un- 
common intellectual  endowments  he  undoubtedly 
possessed  unght  have  made  of  him  a  powerful  cham- 
pion of  the  ancestral  faith,  a  "  Pharisee  of  the  Phari- 
sees." He  had  all  the  superabundant  zeal  necessary 
for  the  e(|uipmeut  of  sucli  a  defeniler  of  the  faith. 

-Vn  interesting  reference  to  .Vcosia  was  discovered 
(see  Perles,  in  "  Monalsschrift,"  ISTT,  xxvi.  W.i)  in 
a  letter  printed  in  a  volume  of  responsa  by  a  certain 
learned  Venetian  merchaut,  Jacob  b,  Isra<'l  ha-Levi 
(id  eil.,  Venice,  WM,  art.  40).  In  this  letter,  a<lvice 
is  asked  of  Ha-Levi  as  to  the  jiropriety  of  interring 
in  the  cimgregational  cemetery  the  mother  of  an  un- 
named renegade,  who  had  herself  shared  in  her  son's 
apostasy.  The  description  given  of  the  unnamed 
apostate's  acts  and  writings,  as  well  as  the  date  of 
the  letter  and  the  known  literary  corresiiondence  of 
the  Amsterdam  <'c<lesiastieal  authorities  with  Ha- 
Levi,  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  Acosta  was  the 
excouHuunieate  in  iiuestion. 

The  tragic  life  of  .\costa  has  furnished  material 
for  the  dramatist  and  the  novelist.  The  most  im- 
l)ortant  dramatic  production  is  Gutzkow's  tragedy, 
entitietl  "  Triel  .Vcosia"  (Leipsic.  l.'^47),  translated 
into  Hebrew  by  Solomon  Kubin,  Vienna,  1S,")(;.  The 
novelist  Zangwill  has  also  \ised  the  material  for  a 
skelrli  in  his  "  Dreamers  of  the  Ghetto  "(pp.  68-114, 
Philadelphia,  1»9S). 

Bmi.iocH.ipnv:  nnvle.  DM.  Ilislnriquc  rt  Critiiiue,  l.iiT:  Bar- 
bosii  .MiicliHclii,  liililiiithcca  Lusitnua.  il.  ;ill-:il;i:  Whls- 
tim.  Till  Urminkiihlc  Life  nf  I'ricl  Acnsta.  nii  Kmiuent 
Frrr-thinkfi\  L/>n<ttin,  1740;  Peipnot,  IXrt.  Critiiriir  (hs 
I'riuciiKiujr  Livrot  t'nniUtmui-s  mt  Fc k.  etc.,  ii.  :WH.  Paris, 
1S(»; ;  (iratz.  (Irxcli.  d.  Jwliii,  x.  i:!2  r(  ««/.;  Ka.vsprllnc, 
(Jisi-}i.  <t.  JitiUu  in  PinimiitU  pp.  ;><»  I't  .■*('/.:  J,  df  Costa, 
Isytict  I  It  ill  Viilhen,  2tl  wl..  p.  :JT4  :  Van  (Ut  Au,  Biii{tl(ti)hich 
^Vniiriii'tihiiik  iit:r  ycdcrlandcu^  s.\'.\  H.  Jellinek,  Aensta^s 
LclH'n  H.  Lcltre,  1S74.  p    pg  »^    ^r 

ACQ,TJI  :  .V  city  on  the  Bormida,  in  the  ]irovince 
of  .Vlessauilria,  Italy,  famous  f<ir  its  h<it  springs  and 
its  ancient  Uomaii  nuns.  .Vceording  lo  its  ar- 
chives, Jews  have  lived  there  since  14(111.  In  the 
first  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Jews 
at  Acipii  a.2grc,gated  about  7(MI;  in  189!)  they  uum- 
bered  but  2'2()  individuals,  many  having  emigrated 
to  the  mcu'c  important  cities  of  Ttuin  and  Milan. 
The  congreu'ation  of  Acijui  ]>ossess('S  many  chari- 
table institutions.  In  l.S,si  the  old  syna.aogue.  to- 
gether with  the  ghetto,  was  demolished;  an<l  anew 
one  has  been  constructed  in  the  Via  Joua  Ottoleughi, 
owing  to  the  nnuiiticence  of  the  man  after  whom 
the  street  is  named.     See  OTTOi.KN(iiii,  VlT.v. 

In  1S99  the  rabbi  of  the  congregation  was 
.\dolfo  .Vncona,  a  pui)il  of  Prof.  Eude  Lolli. 

F.   S. 

ACatriSITION  (  LA'W  ),  TALMTTDICAL. 
Sec  Alien,\tion  and  Acquisition. 


169 


TllK  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Acosta,  Uriel 
Acquittal 


ACauiTTAL  IN  TALMTTDIC   LAW:   The 

Ji-wi^li  couit  I'nr  licariiii.'  c.iiiil:!!  cilliiisi-s  was  com- 
posed of  tuciuy-tlirci-  jud^'cs.  ami  ac- 

Composi-  corilinir  to  the  opinion  of  many  sages, 
tion  of  Jew-  even  olfenses  of  a  lower  defrree,  sueh 
ish  Court,  as  were  punishable  l)y  stripes  only, 
must  be  tried  by  a  like  number  of 
judges.  Still  it  must  not  be  tliousrht  that  lh<'  Jew- 
ish court  corresponded  in  any  way  to  an  Enfilish 
or  American  jury.  Modern  jurors  are  supposed  to 
render  a  verdict  upon  the  fails  adiluced  l)y  Ihe  evi- 
<lence.  while  the  presidinf;  jud.ire  instrucis  them  on 
Ihe  law  in  the  case.  But  Ihe  twenty-three  judges  of 
the  Jewish  Criminal  Court  were  all  supposed  lobe 
versed  in  the  law.  According  to  the  i>harisaic  idea, 
it  was  requisite  that  they  be  "disciples  of  the  wise," 
that  is,  learned  in  the  trailitions.  Ii  was  not  sonuicli 
their  business  to  weigh  conllicling  evidence  as  to 
decide  upon  the  couipetency  and  the  sulliciency  of 
the  testiniciiiy  given  by  the  witnesses  according  to 
certain  hard  and  last  rides.  Hut  it  was  deemeil  the 
highest  duty  of  the  judges  to  see  that  no  imiocent 
man  be  condemned;  in  fact,  that  no  one  should  be 
convicted  wlio  was  not  guilty  both  morally  and 
legally,  and  whose  guilt  was  not  established  in  a 
strictly  legal  way  :  and  for  this  imrpose  they  were  to 
carry  on  a  most  searching  cro.ss examination  of  the 
liroseculing  wilnes.ses. 

The  Talmud  speaks  in  the  main  of  Acipiiltal  from 
lack  of  sulticieni  evidence.  As  there  must  be  two  eye- 
witnesses to  a  criminal  act  in  order  to  convict,  or  two 
ear-witnessesin  the  few  eases  in  which 
Agree-       the  otTense  consists  of  spioken  words 

ment  of  (for  example,  incitement  to  idol  wor- 
Witnesses.  ship),  if  one  of  the  two.  having  been 
examined  separately,  breaks  down,  or 
if  ihe  two  contradict  each  oilier  in  any  material  point, 
an  Aci|uillal  must  follow.  Ilereadill'erenee comes  in 
bi'tween  the  failure  to  answer  under  the  general  cross- 
ijuestioning  on  the  lime  and  place  of  a  criminal  act, 
which  is  know  II  as  hnkinili  (searching),  and  the 
free  and  rambling  cross-examination  known  as  IihU- 
kii/i.  As  to  the  former,  the  answer  "  I  don't  know  " 
by  <-ither  of  Ihe  witnesses  destroys  Ihe  teslimony  of 
both  :  for  sueh  an  answer  makes  it  impossible  eventu- 
ally to  fulfil  the  Sciiptural  law  as  to  "  plotting  wit- 
nesses" (see  Ai.ini)  by  proving  that  tlie  witnesses 
were,  at  Ihe  exact  time  named  by  them,  at  other 
l)laces.  Hut  cither  w  itnessor  both  witnesses  may  fail 
loanswer  sonieof  the  (piestions  put  to  them  relative 
to  surrounding  circumstances,  without  destroying 
llicilTect  of  their  testimoTiy.  Of  course,  if  two  wit- 
nesses answer  concerning  Ihecirciimslancesof  an  of- 
fense in  suih  a  way  lliat  ime  plainly  contradicts  the 
other,  the  Icslimony  of  linth  falls  to  llu'  ground; 
whereof  Ihe  best  known  example  is  given  ill  I  he  story 
of  Sn.sjinnah.  told  in  Ihe  Apocryi)lial  additions  to  the 
Hook  of  Daniel.  Hut  within  certain  limits  contra- 
dictions, even  as  to  time  and  place,  are  not  fatal. 
Thus,  considering  the  uncertainly  of  the  lunarcalen- 
ilar,  one  witness  might  place  the  crime  on  the  second 
day  of  tile  monlli,  the  olhir  on  the  third;  bicause 
oiii' might  know  whether  the  piei-eding  nionlli  bad 
tweiily  nincdaysor  lliirly  days,  w  hilc  the  other  w  it- 
iiess  did  not.  However,  if  upon  cross  I'xaminiit ion 
it  should  a])pear  that  both  knew  the  right  lime  of 
tile  new  moon,  and  lliat  they  iiicant  diltercnt  days, 
tlieir  testiiniiiiy  is  really  coiitradiclory,  and  fails  in 
elTecl.  If  Ihiy  dilTerby  I  wo  days— say  the  I  bird  and 
the  llflli — the  iliscrepancy  can  not  be  reconciled, 
and  there  must  be  an  Acipiiltal.  As  to  the  hour 
«  hen  the  deed  was  ilmie.  a  diirerencc  of  one  hour  is 
immalerial ;  when  the  w  ilnessi'S  ililTer  by  two  hours, 
both,  however,  naming  an  liour  in  the  forenoon,  or 


both  an  hour  in  the  afternoon,  the  oldest  authorities 
(1{.  Meirand  U  Jiidaln  are  divided  in  opinion,  and 
most  of  the  modern  coditiers  hold  with  the  latter  Siige, 
that  a  diirerencc  of  even  two  hours  might  be  charged 
toan  innocent  mistake  on  the  part  of  one  or  both.  Hut 
if  one  says  at  the  fifth  hour,  and  the  other  sjiys  at 
the  .seventh  hour  (from  dawn),  the  variance  is  fatal; 
for  forenoon  and  afternoon  are  easily  distinguished 
by  the  position  of  the  sun  in  the;  east  or  in  the  west 
(8anh.  v.  3).  "  If  the  judges  find  a  iioint  in  favor  of 
the  accused,  they  acipiit  him  immediately"  (Sanli. 
v.o);  while,  if  there  is  an  inclination  to  convict,  there 
must  be  an  adjournment  to  the  next  day.  In  the  dis- 
cussions before  Ihe  final  session,  those  who  have  once 
declared  for  Acquittal  must  not  argue  on  the  side 
of  conviction,  but  they  may  vote  for  it,  if  brought 
overtoil  by  the  arguments  of  the  other  side.  Such  at 
least  is  the  underslaiiiling  expressed  by  Maimonides 
and  by  ()l)adiali  de  Hertinoro  in  their  commentaries 
on  the  Mishiiah. 

Unanimity  of  the  judges  was  not  required  either 
to  convict  or  to  acquit.     Hut   the  majority  of  one 
for  Acquittal  was  deemeil  sullicieiit  by  ail,  while  if  the 
majority  among  the  judges  for  con- 
Majority      viction  was  no  greater  than  one,  new 
Necessary    judges  had  to  be  added  to  Ihe  court 
for  a  until  a  result  was  reached;  eitheracon- 

Decision.  viction  by  a  greater  majority  than  one 
or  an  Acqiiillal.  In  the  highly  improb- 
able event  of  the  court  havin.sr  come  to  no  decision 
after  being  incria.sed  to  its  utmost  limit,  that  is 
seventy-one,  or  for  the  rare  cases  triable  before  the 
great  Sanhedrin  (also  of  seventy  one  judges),  it  was 
provided  that  u))on  a  division  of  thirty -six  for  con- 
viction and  thirty-five  for  Acquittal,  the  judges 
should  discuss  the  matter  in  secret  session  until  one 
was  brought  over  to  the  side  of  the  defense  (Sanh. 
v.  .')).  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  until  juiig- 
mc'it  was  rendered,  any  one  of  the  judges  was  free  to 
change  his  mind  either  way.  If  less  than  twenty- 
three  judges  gave  an  ojiinion  one  way  or  the  other, 
that  is,  if  one  or  more  of  the  bench  of  judges  sjtid 
that  they  did  not  know  which  way  to  decide,  it 
was  the  sjime  as  if  the  full  number  of  twenty- 
thne  had  not  been  emiianeled.  and  there  could  not 
be  an  Acquittal  any  more  than  a  conviction.  New 
judges  had  to  be  added  to  the  bench,  two  by  two, 
till  there  were  twenty  three  ready  to  give  their  opin- 
ion one  way  or  the  other.  An  Acquittal  once  i)ro- 
nounced  was  irrevocable;  the  judg- 
An  Acquit-  ment  could  never  be  reopened,  nor  the 
tal  Was  trial  resumed,  though  the  clearest 
Final.  evidences  of  guilt  might  thereafter 
come  to  light,  or  though  the  court 
had  erred  most  grievously  in  applying  the  law.  The 
principle  that  "no  one  must  be  twice  put  in  jeop- 
ardy of  life  and  limb,"  so  highly  valued  in  Knglish 
law.  anil  wliicli  is  imbedded,  as  a  part  of  the  Hill  of 
Rights,  in  every  American  Constitution,  was  derived 
from  the  words  of  the  Scripture  (Ex.  xxiii.  7):  ".Vnd 
the  innocent  and  righteous  slay  thou  not:  for  I  will 
not  justify  the  wicked."  The  principle  is  expressed 
in  the  Mishnah  (Sanh.  iv.  1)  thus;  rf\2lb  |'TfnO, 
"in  ca.ses  iuMilving  property,  they  turn  back' 
(that  is,  go  to  a  new  trbil)  as  iiiiich  to  acquit  the 
accused  as  to  condemn  him;  in  capital  ca.ses  (or 
criminal  cases  in  geiiend).  however,  they  '  turn 
back,'  only  to  acquit,  but  not  to  condemn." 

A  new  poini  calculated  to  bring  about  .\cquittal 
may  be  adduced  even  while  the  convicted  man  is  on 
the  way  to  execution. 

Taking  into  account  that  all  eirciinistantinl  evi- 
dence of  guilt  anil  also  the  testimony  of  women,  of 
slaves,  and  of  Uentiles  were  e.xcludeti;  considering 


Acquittal 
Acrostics 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


170 


also   the   many  chances,  as   shown  above,   of  tlie 
breaking  down   of  a  witness,  or  contradiction  be- 
tween the  necessary  two  witness<'s.  and.  histly.  the 
re(|iiireiiient   of  a   warnini;  (Imtrnah), 
Rarity  of    without  wliieh  no  capital  sentence  (ex- 
Condemna-  cept  fur  iiuiteminl   to  idol   worship) 
tion.         could   lie   pronounced  (Mak.  i.  S.  !)) — 
a  RMiuirenieut  which  must,  however, 
have  crept  into  the  law  at  a  very  late  day — it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  death-sentences  were  rare. 

A  Sanhedrin  which  puts  one  i)erson  to  death  in 
seven  years  is  called  bloody — Kabbi  Eleazer  ben 
Azariali  .Sfiys.  if  it  i)Uts  one  person  to  death  in  .sev- 
enty years;  K.  Tart'on  and  ]{.  Akiba  both  claim  if 
they  had  been  on  the  Saiilirdriri  noliody  would  ever 


of  the  Temple  mount  toward  the  .south,  where  he 
placeii  a  garrison,  stored  provisions,  and  kept  armor. 
The  Greek  (I  Mace.  i.  33)  rea<ls  "  Acra."  which  has 
been  translated  as  if  it  were  not  a  proper  name. 

BiBi.iooRAPnv:    .lospptius,  B.  J.v.4,8  1:  vl.  (!,«:!;  xll.  .'>.  «  1: 
S<-IiiiriT.  Ui'Hch.  i.  IM.  ^,     ty     , 

\^.    J5.     1*. 

ACRE  (called  also,  at  different  times.  Acca, 
Akka,  Accho,  Acco,  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  ami  Ptole- 
mais) :  t'ily  and  scaporl  of  I'henicia,  situated  on  a 
I>romoutoryat  the  foot  of  !Monnt  C'armel  (compare. bi- 
sephus.  "  Ant."  ii.  10.  ij  2).  haviiiir  (lUin)a  population 
of  about  it.iSOO,  anionj^  whom  there  are  a  few  Jews. 
Acre  is  mentioned  in  hierosrlypliic  inscriptions  about 
bllH)  11. c.   under  the   fnrni   of  .l/.w  and   in    llie    Kl- 


The  Modern  Citt  of  Acre. 

(From  A  photograph  b^  Bonfils.) 


have  been  put  to  death;  whereupon  TJabban  Simon, 
son  of  Gamaliel,  retorts:  "The  men  who  talk  in  this 
wavnnilliplv  the  shedders  of  blood  in  Israel "  (Mish- 
nah  >Iak.  i.  10). 

It  may  be  stated  that  the  rules  herein  jriv(>n  favor- 
ing acquittals  did  not  apply  to  prosecutions  for  theft. 
As  the  only  i>nnishment  for  this  crime  was  compensa- 
tion in  double  (in  some  cases  four  times  or  live  times) 
the  value  of  the  thing  stolen,  the  prosecution  was 
deemed  to  be  in  the  nature  of  a  civil  suit  for  the  re- 
covery of  money  or  property  (though  non-payment 
might  bring  about  the  temporary  enslavement  of  the 
accused).  See  Acccsatokv  .\xd  Lnqiisitouiai.  Puo- 
CEDURE,  Criminal  Laws.  Chimixal  PnocEnrnR. 

L.  X.  D. 

ACBA  :  Fortress  built  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
in  the  year  173  B.C.  at  Jerusalem,  on  an  outlying  spur 


Amarna  Tablets  (Winckler's  ed.,  Kos.  11,  65,  157,  et 
sri/.)  as  Ah-l-'i,  the  seat  of  a  rapacious  prince.  On 
Phenieian  coins  its  name  is  "|y.  The  tribe  of  Asher 
claimed  it  (Josh.  xix.  30.  where  the  name  is  distorted 
into  l'm)iiii/i,  but  is  still  correctly  read  'Akku  in  the 
better  manuscriptsof  the  Septuagint;  see  Dillmann. 
"Commentary."  and  Hollenberg,  in  Stade's  "Zeit- 
schrift."  i.  tOO).  but  the  tribe  was  unable  to  conquer  it 
(.Tu<lges.  i,  31.  where  llienameis  written^lcc/w).  Sen- 
nacherib conquered  A/./.i''  in  701  li.c,  and  gave  it 
as  a  tief  to  Tubaalu(Ethobalos)  of  Sidon.  Josephus 
("  Ant."  ix.  14. 5=  2)  refers  this  (after  Mcnandcr)  to  the 
time  of  Shalmanescr  (IV.).  Asurbanipal,  returning 
from  his  ex  pedition  again.st  the  Arabs  (about  645  B.C. ), 
suppressed  a  revolt  of  Akkil  and  UsIiO  (Schrader, 
"C.  I.  O.  T."161;  Delitzsch,  "Paradies,"  p.  2S4: 
Winckler.  "Gcsehichte,"  pp.252.  2S8).  In  Greek 
times  the  old  name  A/ie  (Strabo,  75S)  was  little  used ; 


171 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Acquittal 
Acrostics 


which  of  the  PtoU'nican  kings  of  Egypt  gave  the 
new  nanio  J^nlemain  to  the  city  is  doubtful  (usually 
Ptolemy  I..  Soter,  is  assumefl). 

Tlie  !;rcat  importance  of  tlic  city  as  a  port  on  the 
liailioiicss coast  of  Palestine  was  manifest,  especially 
in  t  he  wars  of  the  JIaecabees,  when  it  was  repeatedl_v 
the  basis  of  operations  against  Palestine  (I  Mace.  v. 
15-22.  .\i.  22.  xiii.  12).  Demetrius  could  offer  no 
greater  induecnient  in  order  to  win  I  lie  Jews  than  to 
])romi.se  I'loliniaisas  a  gift  to  the  Temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem (compare  1  Mace.  x.  3!)).  The  jiopvilation  showed 
a  specially  intense  liatred  toward  the  Jews  (II  Mace. 
-\iii.  2.")).  Jonathan  the  Maccalne  was  treacherously 
murdered  there  b_v  Try  phon  ( I  Mace.  xii.  41^).  Alex- 
ander Jannaus  vainly  attempteil  to  concpier  it 
(Josephus,  ".Vnt."  xiii.  12,  ^  2).  Ptolemy  X.  and 
Ins  mother.  Cleopatra  111..  disp\ited  its  |)ossession 
with  each  other  until  ChMijialra  handed  it  over  to 
tlie  iSyrian  king  as  the  dowry  of  her  daughter  Seleue. 
Tigrancs  plundered  it  70  B.C.  Under  tlie  emperor 
Claudius,  Acco  "received  the  lights  of  a  Homan 
colony  "  (Pliny,  5,  IT).  Comiuered  by  the  Arabs  in 
CC8,  the  city  reached  its  Ingliest  importance  during 
the  Crusades  as  a  base  of  operations  for  the  Christians. 
It  was.  for  a  time,  tlui  seat  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of 
JiTUsalem  and,  until  12!)I,  of  tin'  Knights  of  St. 
John,  who  transformed  its  name  to  St.  Jean  d'Acre. 
In  modern  limes  its  successful  defense  by  the  Turks 
and  Knglish  against  Honaparte  in  ITili),  itseon(iuest 
by  the  Egyptians  under  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1H;{2.  and 
its  recapture  with  European  aid  in  1840  are  the  most 
notable  events.  W.  il.   M. 

ACROSTICS:  Compositions,  usually  rhyth- 
mical, in  uliicli  certain  letters  (generally  the  first  or 
last  of  each  line),  taken  consecutively,  form  a  name, 
phrase,  orsentence.  Several  instancesof  alphabetical 
Acrostics  occur  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  According  to 
Pcsikta  Habbati.  i;  4().  ed.  Friedmann.  p.  187,  the  first 
verse  of  Ps.  xcii.  is  an  acrostic  on  the  name  Jloses. 
Acrostics  are  usually  held  to  be  of  late  dale,  but  if 
Bickelland  (iunkel  have  rightly  detected  traeesof  an 
alphabetical  arrangement  in  Nalium,  i.  ii.  and  iii..  it 
follows  that  th(^  Hebrew  acrostic  is  at  least  as  old  as 
the  seventh  <entury  li.c.  On  the  other  hand,  the  at- 
tempt to  discover  nominal  Acrostics  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible  has  not  been  successful.  Much  ingenuity  has 
been  expended  on  the  endeavor  to  lind  tlie  name  of 
Oodacrostically  in  the  Book  of  Ksther.  Two  sugges- 
tions, maile  by  Lagardeand  Luz/.atto. 

Biblical.  have,  however,  some  jdausiliility ; 
namely,  "  Pedahel  "  (end  <d'  Ps.  x.w.) 
and  "Simon"  (Ps.  ex.  1-4).  The  Simon  referred  to 
might  be  Simon  the  ^laccabee  (142-i:ir>  ii.c).  See 
Lagarde,  "Symmicta."  i.  107;  Guiikel.  in  Stade's 
"Zeitschrift.''  xiii.  224:  Clievne,  "Origin  and  Helig- 
ioiisContentsof  tliePsidter."|).  228,  New  York,  lst»l; 
compare  "  Theologisehe  Literaturzeituug,"  lbU2,  No. 
2C,  col.  <):i7. 

The  alphabetical  .Vcrostics  of  the  Bible  (on  which 
see  Driver,  "  Introiluclion,"  ]k  :!:!7)  are  contined  to 
the  Psjilms,  Proverbs,  and  I.amenlation.s.  They 
include  Psalms  ix.-x.  (incomplete):  xxv.  (extni 
verseatend.  1  line  missing);  xxxiv.  (res<>mbles  xxv.. 
hut  luTc  llie  EJ  verse  s<M'ms  originally  to  have  pre- 
reih'd  the  j;  verse;  otherwise  there  is  no  subject  to 
IpyV  in  verse  18,  unless  il  refers  to  "the  doers  of 
evil"  in  verse  17:  Duhm  thinks  that  mn'  in  verse  2!} 
belongs  to  the  author's  name):  xv.w  ii.  ty  verse  miss- 
ing, but  Jierhaps  to  be  resloird  from  the  long  verse 
28):  cxi.  and  cxii.  (a  half-verse  to  each  leiur);  cxix. 
(eight  verses  to  eacli  letter);  and  cxlv.  (3  line  mis.s- 
Ing.  but  supplieil  in  thi'  Si'plimginl).  In  all  these 
P-ialms  the  alphabetical  arrangement  seems  to  have 


been  cliosen  as  an  artificial  link  between  verses  not 
logically  connected. 

Besides  the  Psalms,  the  two  other  books  above 
mentioned  contain  passages  alphabetically  arranged. 
Prov.  xxxi.  10-31  is  alphabetical  (in  the  Septuagint 
the  S  luececles  the  J(),  and  if.  as  Bickell  assumes, chap. 
Ii.  of  Kcelus.  (Sirach)  contained  an  alphabet,  this 
woidd  liedue  to  imitation  of  Provciiis.  The  Cairene 
f  ragmen  I  of  Sirach  discovered  by  PiofessorSchecliler 
does  not  present  a  complete  alphabet  (see  Seliecliter 
and  Taylor.  "The  Wisdom  of  Ben  Sira,"  pp.  Ixxvi. 
et  aeq.).  Lam.  i.-iv.  are  alphabelical;  chap.  iii.  is  a 
triple  acrostic.  In  ii.-iv.  the  3  line  prececles  the  j;. 
Chap.  v.  is  not  al]ihal)etical.  but  it  contains  twenty- 
two  verses.  In  Lamentations  tlie  alphabetical  order 
is  associated  with  a  detineil  elegiac  measure.  It 
should  lie  ad<led,  finally,  that  11.  P.  Cliajes  has 
lately  advanced  the  very  improbable  view  tliat  in 
their  original  form  chaps,  x.-xxii.  IG  of  the  Bib- 
lical Book  of  Proverbs  were  arranged  alphabetically 
("Proveriiia-Studicn."  Beriin,  18i)'J). 

Beginning  with  the  gaonic  age.  Acrostics,  either  (1) 
alphabetical,  (2)  nominal  (giving  the  author's  name), 
or  (3)  textual  (giving  a  Biblical  quotation),  are 
frei|Uently  found  in  Hebrew  literature.  The  Jlid- 
rasli  (Cant.  K.,  beginning)  ascribes  to  King  Solomon 
the  composition  of  Acrostics;  but  elsewhere  the 
Midrasli  alludes  to  Greek  Acrostics 
Post-Bib-  {a7.(pajiipapm)  (Eccl.  R.  to  vii.  8). 
lical.  These  Greek  Acrostics  were  probably 
used  in  the  ancient  oracles,  and  were 
afterward  adopted  by  the  Christian  Greek  writers 
(Krunibachcr.  "Geschichte  der  Bymintinischcn  Lit- 
leratur,"  ])p.  (i97<? .«'/.).  Acrostics  were  also  |io]iular 
in  e.arly  Syriac  literature.  Eiihraini  of  Ede.>isa(3tlT- 
373)  wroli' alphabetical  [loems;  and  ataliout  the  s;ime 
)ieriod  Aphraates  arranged  his  homilies  under  the 
twenty-two  letters  of  the  Syriac  alphabet.  Tliis  may 
be  comiiared  with  the  method  of  the  Karaite  Jiidali 
Iladassi,  whose"Eslikol  ha-Kofer"  (written  in  1148) 
is  arranged  in  an  cl:iborate  series  of  alphabets.  The 
medieval  Church  was  fond  of  alphabetical  hymns 
(.lulian.  "  Hyninology,"  pp.  3,  4  it  .«"/.).  These 
"abeccdaria"  were  sometimes  compo.scd  for  dog- 
matic purposes  (Bingham,  "Works,"  v.  17). 

Acrostics  obtaincil  a  linn  hold  on  Hebrew  winters 
in  the  gaonic  peri<id.  The  letters  of  that  age  often 
open  with  Acrostics  on  tlie  writer's  name;  and  later 
the  same  fact  may  la^  noted  in  luefaees  to  treatises. 
The  liturgy  was  soon  embellished  with  acrostic  pas- 
s:iges,  and  this  independently  of  the  introduction  of 
rime.  Tln'  earliest  acrostic  prayers  are  collected 
in  Zunz.  "(Jottesdleiislliche  Vortrilge,"  2d  ed.,  p. 
391.  Sometimes  iiatriarchal  names  are  thus  intni- 
duced.  as  Abraham  in  n3nC":  Isaacand  Bebekali  in 
Q'lj;"  »33.  The  order  of  the  lines  in  "En  Kclohenu" 
(originally  im^XD  'D)  was  inireniously  disarranged 
to  iiilrodiice  the  acrostic  riDS  "jnapX;  the  words 
JONJ  I^O  ^X  inserted  before  the  Sheina'  also  form  the 
acrostic  "Amen." 

The  extent  to  which  Acrostics  were  used  by  medie- 
val Hebrew  liturgical  Jiocts  (.see  PlVfT)  is  not  easily 
determined.  Kalir.  the  tii-sl  great  name  among 
them,  was  followed  in  Ibis,  as  in  other  iioints.  by  his 
imitators;  but  the  Spanish  ]ioels.  ciiually  willi  ihe 
Kalirian,  were  victims  to  the  fancy.  A  large  num- 
ber of  Jiidah  liaLevi's  hymns  and  secular  verses 
are  Acroslics  on  his  name;  most  fre(|uenlly  he  tisi-s 
minv  1ml  ^ometimes  the  fuller  form  'l^in  rm,T  ':s 
PK  ptn  ^KIDL"  13  -Vbnihani  ilin  E/ra  wrote  m:iiiy 
Acrostics  on  his  name  Dm3N:  ocensioiially.  like 
oilier  p4>ets.  he  introduced  into  his  letters  llie  name 
of  Ills  corix'spomleut. 


Acs&dy 
Adam 


THE  JEWISH    ENCYCLuri'.DlA 


172 


Some  writors  wovi-  into  tlicir  vt-rst-s  Acrostics  con- 
sisting not  only  of  their  own  niinu'S.  but  of  long, 
continuous  piissiiges  from  Scripture  introduced 
word  by  word  (these  are  referred  toaboveiis  textual 
Acrostics).  A  very  elabomie  instance  is  Simon  b. 
Isjiae's  piyut  ms  'Jt-'IL"  JJCTI  ('"'"'  "'t'  seventh  day 
of  Passover).  A  special  kind  of  acrostic  was  the 
repetition  of  the  same  initial  throuirlioiit  the  com- 
position. The  "Thousiuid  Alephs"  of  Abraham  b. 
Israel  Bedcrsi.  of  Joseph  ibn  Latiini.  and  of  J.  Cohen 
Zcdek  are  cases  in  i)oiut.  The  alphabetical  Jlid- 
nishim.  such  as  the  Alphabet  of  Sirach  (pseudony- 
mous), do  not  beh>ng  to  Acrostics  proper. 

Acrostics  were  also  employed  for  JInemonics  and 
for  charms.  JIauy  of  these  are  AuiiUKVi.vTioNS  rather 
than  Acrostics.  "  The  oft  used  cabalistic  formula 
jot."  V"lp  i-''.  however,  a  genuine  acrostic;  the  phrase 
has  a  meaning,  and  the  letters  forming  it  are.  accord- 
ing to  some,  the  initial  letters  of  the  second  line  of 
the  early  morning  prayer  begiiming  n33  N3X 
Acrostics  were  very  little  used  in  Hebrew  as  Riddi.ks. 
As  an  example,  however,  of  what  may  be  done  in 
this  way,  witness  the  following  iiuadrujile  Hebrew 
acrostic,  attributed  to  Abraham  ibn  Ezra.  It  is  a 
resjionse  to  a  question  in  ritual  law.  an<l  reads  iden- 
tically forward  and  backward,  upward  and  down- 
ward. 

1  J  L"  -I  D 
1  n  3  V  T 

-I  V  3  n  J 

^1  -I  L"  :  1  I-  A. 

ACSADY,  IGNATZ  (IGNATIUS):  Hungarian 

hislorian;  lioiii  al  Nagy  Ivamly,  Septemlii-r.  !).  lS4r). 
He  was  educated  at  liebrcczin  and  Budajiest,  and  he 

began     his     journalistic 

career  in  f8()'J  as  con- 
t  ributor  to  "  Szazadunk," 
a  political  journal.  In 
INTO  he  joined  the  staff 
I  if  the  "Pesti  Kaplo " 
and  remained  a  regu- 
lar contributor.  In  ac- 
knowledgment of  his 
merits  as  a  historian  he 
was  elected  correspond- 
ing member  of  the  Hun- 
garian Academy  of  Sci- 
ences in  ISS.S.  Ilis  re- 
searches deal  chietiy  with 
the  economic  life  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  in  Hun- 
.    ,     ,.  irarv.     He  has  also  tried 

his  hand  at  writmg  nov- 
els and  dramas.  Since  1894  he  has  taken  an  active 
part  in  the  work  of  the  Hungarian  Jewish  Literary 
Society  as  chairman  of  the  eomnnttee  on  documents. 
His  more  imjioriant  works  are:  "  Az  Altalanos  Al- 
lamjog  es  a  Politika  Torlenete  "  (The  Common  State 
Law  and  the  History  of  Polities),  Budapest,  1875-76, 
published  by  the  Hungarian  Academy;  "Zsido  es 
Kem  Zsido  Magyarok  az  Emanczipaczio  utan  "  (Jew- 
ish and  Non-.iewish  Hungarians  after  the  Eman- 
cipation), 1883;  "Az  Osztriik  Csaszari  Czim  es 
>Iagvarorszag "  (The  Austrian  Imperial  Title  and 
Hungary),  Budapest,  1877:  -'Szecliy  Maria  "  (188")); 
"  Magyarorszag  Budavar  Visszafoglalasji  Korilban  " 
(Hungary  at  the  Time  of  the  Reoecupation  of  Biida), 
prize  essay,  1880;  "  Magyarorszag  Penzugyei  I. 
Ferdinand  Alatt  "  (The  Financial  Affairs  of  Hun- 
gary under  Ferdinand  I).  18HS,  and  "  Kozgardaszegi 
a  Lapolsunk  XVI.  es  XVII.  Szazadban  "  (Our  Eco- 


nomic Conditions  in  the  Sixti-entli  and  Seventeenth 
Couturies),  1889. 

In  1891  he  edited  the  "  Kis  Cyclopedia  "  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Alhiiiaum  Society.  \\v  wrote  the  tifth 
and  si.vth  volumes  of  S/.ilagyi's  "National  History 
of  Hungary,"  pulilished  in  189.')-98,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  thousandlli  anniversjuy  of  the  existence  of 
Hungary.  The  lifth  volume  of  this  work  deals  with 
the  conditions  ])revailing  in  Hungary  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Mohacs.  l.")-,'(i,  and  the  sixth  with  the  reignsof 
Leopold  I.  and  Joseph  I. 

He  has  been  a  prolitie  contributor  to  Hungarian 
journals,  such  as  "Magyar  Tanllgy,"  "Budapest! 
Szemle,"  "Szazadunk,"  "  .Magyar  Zsido  S/.emlc,"  etc. 

Bnu.MXiRAPnv  :    I>alla.s,  Mainiar  Lexicim,  1.  TO;   Szlnnyel, 
.U(1(;h(1|-  ^■<■./v  Ttim.  1.  ."lO :  Mimmr  SzaUm,  1S8:,  p.  4f^l. 

M.    W. 

ACTS  OF  PARLIAMENT  RELATING  TO 
THE  JEWS  OF  ENGLAND:  The  l(ui>lalure 
of  England  expresses  ils  will  in  formal  documents 
known  as  Acts,  and  thus  the  recor<l  of  the  legis- 
lative enactments  concerning  the  Jews  of  England 
is  to  be  fotuid  in  the  collected  Acts  known  as  the 
"Statutes  i>f  the  Hi'alm."  As  Parliament,  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  term,  had  scarcely  begun  to 
exist  before  the  Jews  were  exjielled  from  England 
in  1290,  there  are  only  a  few  reteicnees  to  the  Jews 
in  the  statutes  of  the  fourteenth  century.  A  refer- 
ence to  them  in  the  Statutes  "  I)e  Mercatoribus  " 
(Statutes,  i.  100),  "  I)e  Pistoribus"  (ib.  \^\  2(l2.  203), 
and  the  Statute  1  Ed.  III.,  st.  2,  c.  3,  exhaust  the 
list.  But  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  to  England 
many  Acts  relate  to  their  position  with  regard  to 
marriage  laws,  etc.,  and  especially  to  their  legal  di.s- 
abililies.  The  most  interesting  of  these  are  the  two 
Acts  removing  and  replacing  these  disabilities  during 
the  "Xo  Jewsl"  agitation  of  I7.53.  The  following 
is  a  list  of  the  chief  Acts  of  the  English  Parliament 
(including  some  Acts  of  the  Colonial  Parliaments) 
relating  to  the  Jews: 

IOiM.-«  A  7  Will.  III.,  rap.  6.  sec.  n3. 

Jews  i-(itiiihitint'  as  man  ami  wife  t<>  pay  ttie  duty  imposed 
iiy  tills  statute  on  iiiarriHires. 
1703.— 1  Anne.  cap.  ;«!  (n-peiiled  In  1S4«). 

An  Aft  tji  (itiliiie  the  .lews  U>  maintain  and  provide  for  their 
I*rot**stant  children. 
17tO.— 1:3  (ieo.  II.,  call.  7. 

An  Act  fiiriialiirali/inir  such  rnrciirn  rniti-staiii.s  and  nthers 
therein  iiifnti'-nci  ijiiclu'lmi:  .lews)  iis  jirc  scillc.l  i.r  shall 
settle  in  aiiv  iif  Ilis  Miijcslv's  cilunies  111  .\niiTica. 
17.53.— 36  (ieu.  II..  cap.  31. 

An  Actto  pcnnit  jiersHns  pnifessing  the  Jewish  religion  to 
he  naturalized  hv  Parliament,  etc. 
175.3.-2«  (iei).  II.,  cap.  Si. 

Ixird  Hardnicke's  Act  fur  prevention  of  clandestine  iiiar- 
riapes.    iSeo.  18  e.\eini>ls  Jewish  marriages.) 
n.M.— 37  Geo.  II.,  cap.  I. 

An  Act  to  repeal  an  Act  of  the  twent.y-slxth  year  of  His 
Majesty's  reiirii.  intituled.  An  Act  to  permit  iiersons  pro- 
fessing the  Jewish  religion  to  be  naturalized  by  I'arlia- 
ment,  etc. 
IS20.— Barbados— An  Art  efinceming  the  vestry  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  resident  within  the  island.  (For  electing  live  rep- 
resentatives to  settle  taxation.) 
1823.- (ieo.  IV..  cap.  7«. 

Repealing  Lord  Hardwicke's  Act.     (Sec.  31  exeni]iis  .I.ws.) 
1830.— Oipv  of  a  liill  which  has  recenUy  passed  the  H..iise  ..f  As- 
sembly In  .lamalca.    (Repealing  the  clauses  disalililig  .lews 
from  iH-lng  elected  raeni be rsof  the  Corporation  of  Kingston.) 
1836.-()  4  7  Wm.  IV..  cap.  M. 

An  Act  for  marriages  in  England.     (Sec.  2.    Jews  may  con- 
tract marriage  according  to  Jewish  usages,  provided  that 
both  parties  are  of  the  Jewish  religion,  and  that  the  reg- 
istrar's certificate  has  tieen  obtained.) 
183«.— li  i  7  Wm.  IV..  cap.  86. 

An  Act  for  registering  births,  deaths,  and  marriages  In  Eng- 
land. (Sec.  :io.  The  president  of  the  London  Committee 
of  Deputies  of  the  British  Jews  is  to  certify  to  the  regis- 
trar-general the  appointment  of  secretaries  of  synagogues 
to  act  as  marriage  registrars. ) 
1840.-3  &  4  Vic.  cap.  72. 

An  Act  to  provide  for  the  solemnization  of  marriages  in  the 
districts  in  or  near  which  thi-  parties  reside.  (Sec.  5. 
Jews  exempted  from  operation  of  the  Act.) 


173 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ac8&dy 
Adam 


1844.-7  4  8  Vic,  c-ap.m. 

An  Act  for  miiiTia^'fi  in  Ireland.  (Sfc.  12.  Jews  may  con - 
Iract  niurrlapes  iiccnrdinj^'  to  their  usages.  pn>vltle<i  tliey 
Klve  notice  to  the  reKlslrar  and  oljtain  his  certlllcale. 
S**c.  l:j.  Jewish  re»;lstrars  U)  be  eerlltted  by  the  president 
of  Jewish  Iloaid  of  Deputies.) 

IM.i.-  J*  .V  H  Vic.  cap.  ."C. 

An  .\it  for  the  relief  of  persons  of  the  Jewish  religion  elected 
to  municipal  oltlces. 

l»4«.-ilt  10  Vic,  cap.  .111. 

An  Act  to  relieve  Her  Majesty's  subjects  from  certain  iienal- 
lles  and  dLsabllltles  with  re^rd  to  their  religious  opin- 
liphs.  (Se*-. -.  Jews  are  to  be  subject  to  the  .same  laws  as 
Protestant  dls-senlere  with  regard  Ut  their  schixjls.  places 
of  relifzlous  worship,  education,  and  charitable  purjKises, 
and  the  pn»perty  held  therewith.) 

ltn".-luj£  11  Vic,  lap.  5.S. 

An  Act  to  remove  doubts  as  to  Quakers'  and  Jews'  inar- 
rlat'es.  sttlemnized  before  certain  [leriods.  ( Declares  all 
marrlai^es  anions  Jews  solemnlzetl  in  En^IaiKl  beftn'e 
April  I.  If*;!:,  or  In  livland  before  April  1.  1S4.').  according 
to  their  usages,  are  good  in  law.  if  both  parties  were 
Jews.  ( 

ISM.-IHJt  19  Vic,  cap.  81. 

All  Act  to  amend  the  law  concerning  the  certifying  and 
rettlsIerlnK  of  places  of  religious  worship  In  England. 
isec  2.  .synagogues  may  Ih'  cerlllled  as  such  to  the  reg- 
istmr-genenil,  and  to  he  exempt  fr<'m  the  pnivlslotis  of 
the  t'haritable  TriLsts  Act,  IK>1,  with  certain  exceptions.) 

1855.- is  ,t  111  Vic.  cap.  Nl. 

An  Act  lor  .securing  the  liberty  of  religious  worship.  (Sec 
-  provides  that  l»  A  Hi  Vic,  cap.  .59,  vide  ttnpra^  is  to  be 
construed  with  ivference  to  this  Act.) 

1M6.-HI  Jc  M  Vic,  cap.  lilt. 

An  Afi  to  amend  the  provisions  of  the  marriage  and  regis- 
tration Acts.  (Se*\  ™1.  Marriages  of  Jews  may  be  s«ileui- 
ni/.ed  by  license.  Se<'.  22.  Twenty  members  of  the  West 
London  synagogues  of  British  Jews,  or  of  any  synagogue 
In  coiiniM-iion  therewith,  nuiy  certify  a  secretary  to  the 
regisirar-genemi.  as  a  registrar  of  marriages.) 

IKW.-il  A  22  Vic,  cap.  4!». 

An  Alt  to  pi-ovlde  for  the  relief  of  Her  Majesty's  subjects 
professing  the  Jewish  religion.  (Sec  1  eniiKiwers  either 
Mouse  of  Parliament  to  modify  the  form  of  oath,  so  as  to 
enable  a  Jew  to  sit  and  vote.  Ity  Si'C  \i,  Jews  are  pre- 
dudeil  from  holding  certain  olllces.  By  Sec  4.  the  right 
of  presenting  to  any  ei-ciesiasticai  beneflce  possessed  by 
Jews  is  to  devolve  on  the  ,\rchblshop  of  Canterbury.) 

l»ti(i.-2:t  ,t  24  Vic.  cap.  to. 

An  Act  to  amend  the  Act  of  the  twenty-Orst  and  tvienty- 
sei'ond  years  of  Victoria,  chapter  forty-nine,  to  pnivide 
for  the  relief  of  Her  .Majesty's  subJei'Ls  professing  the 
Jewish  religion.  (Kepealeil  by  2y  ,V  :WI  Vic,  cap.  Ill, 
which  removi'd  the  words  "on  the  true  faith  of  a  Chris- 
tian "  from  the  oath.i 

1870.- :t2  ,t  Si  Vic  Workshop  Act  penults  Jews  to  work  on 
Sunday. 

l»71.-:£Kv;iJ  Vic,  cap.  IKS. 

An  Act  for  conllrmlng  a  scheme  of  the  Charity  Commis- 
sioners for  the  Jewish  I'nlteil  Synagogues. 

1872.-  :r>  A  :Hi  vie,  cap.  ;c;.  The  Ballot  Act.  (Schedule  I.,  sec. 
2il.  If  a  Parliamentary  elei^tion  takes  placv  on  Saturday, 
the  iiresldliig  olllcer  may  mark  a  Jewish  elector's  ballot- 
pajH-r  fur  him.) 

1878.-11  ,V  12  Vic,  cap.  Ki. 

An  Act  to  coiisolldub*  and  amend  the  law  ridatlng  to  fac- 
tories and  Workshops.  (Sec.  .'ill  pnivldes  means  by  which 
Jewish  mantifactuivrs  closing  on  their  Sabbath  may  em- 
ploy young  pi'rsons  and  women  In  such  a  way  as  to  "make 
up  the  lost  time.  Sis',  .'il.  Jewish  eliiployei>s  in  factories 
or  workshoiis  are  |H'niiltted  to  be  employed  on  Sunday, 
subject  to  certain  ri-slrlctlons.)  j 

[For  slntiilis  alTcttiiij^  tlic.Ttwsiii  otUiT  couutries 
8CC'  iiriii  !•  s  on  rcspwlive  countries.] 

ADAFINA.     See  .\N[. 

ADAH.— Biblical  Data:  Ono  of  liiimpdi's  two 

«iM  >  i(ii  II.  iv.  r.),  Jill.     'I'lir  immc  is  nientiuucil  in 
I  lie  |iiieii>  ill  verses  'i'.i  iiiiil  "24. 

'I'lie  imiiics  of  Ijiiiircirs  wives  liavp  bppii  variously 
('X|iliiiiii'(l  "Oniiimciil  "  mill  "Sliiiilnw  "  arc  the 
iiii-aiiJTiirs  tiiiisl  often  driven.  Imt  Hi'iltiliiT  siii;j;csls 
"Mi^tniiil"  anil  "  I'rnlrclir.ss."  Kwalil  iinil  others 
""  Aiiroia  "  (;ir  ■■  IJtrlit  "l  ami  "  Simile" — lliat  is,  "  Day" 
anil  "Niglit  "  :  w  liiiice  (Jolilziiierainl  I.rimriimnt  liinl 
a  liasis  fur  a  inytliiriil  uriuin  (riini|inri'  Dillniaiin. 
"(Jrnesis."  anil  Linipriimnl,  "  <  )riiriiirs.  "  i.  lKi,t  kh/.). 
Clicyiii!  rcfrarils  Hie  iiaiiu'S  as  rpitlirls  of  old  cliief- 
lainisses.  In  Hie  |i(ieni  frnni  wliirli  llio  names  arc 
taken  Liiiiurli  sl;inils  fur  llic  lypioil  warrinr.  wlmse 
power  to  aviiiijc  liinisi-lf  is  rninplclc.  ".\iliirii 
nieiil  "  anil  "Simile" — tliat  ;s.  "Protection" — coiilil 


easily  have  been  poetically  conceivetl  as  his  wives, 
.111(1  Xaaniah  (noyj),  or  "Pleasure,"  as  the  daughter 
of  Zilhili  (ver.  2\l).  The  possibility  of  a  personal 
origin  of  the  names,  as  Cheyne conceives  it,  can  not, 
however,  lie  denied.  G.  A.  B. 
In  Rabbinical  Literature :  The  ilidnish  in- 
terprets Adah,  the  name  of  (Uie  of  the  wives  of  La- 
mech.  as  the  "deposed  one"  (Animaie  Kiy ).  and 
the  name  of  the  other,  Zillah,  as  signifying  that 
"slie  sliaded  herself"  (Hebrew  ^Vl  at  the  side  of  her 
hiishaiid.  It  slates  in  explanation  that  the  immoral 
generation  before  the  Deluge  was  in  the  habit  of 
marrying  two  wives:  one  for  the  perpetuation  of  the 
race,  the  other  for  indulgence  in  sensual  pleasure 
In  Ijimech's  case  the  former  was  Adah,  who  was  the 
slave  tyrannized  over  by  her  liusband ;  the  latter  was 
Zillah,  the  mistress  who  commanded  him  (Gen.  R. 
.\.\iii.  2).  L.  G. 

ADAH  :  AVife  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  '2-16). 
Iliiiiiglit  by  modern  writers  to  be  added  by  the  final 
redactiir  (H)  of  the  Pentateuch.  Adah  is  said  (verse 
•J)  to  be  the  daughter  of  Elon  the  Hit  tile.  The  priestly 
narrator  (P)  (Gen.  xxvi.  ;i4)  Iias.Iudith.  thedaughtt'r 
of  Hecri  the  llittile.  as  the  corresponding  wife. 
Diilmaun  is  no  doubt  right  in  the  opiniim  that  the 
redactor  had  before  him  another  .souice  in  which  the 
names  of  Esjiu's  wives  dillered  from  those  given  in 
the  source  employed  by  the  priestly  writer,  and  that 
his  modification  (Gen.  xx.xvi.)  is  due  to  this.  The 
Keuites  and  Ednmites  were  contiguous  clans,  and 
this  Adah  and  that  of  the  Iveuile  Eamech  may  have 
a  common  origin  (compare  llalevy,  "  Recherches 
Bibliques,"  in  "Rev.  fit.  Juives,"  ix.  219). 

G.  A.  B. 

ADAIAH  ("  The  Lord  has  Adorned  ") :  1.  A  man 
of  Hiisiatii,  father  of  .Tedidah,  the  mother  of  King 
.Iiisialidl  Kings,  xxii,  1).  2.  Two  members  of  the 
Hani  familv  who  had  taken  foniirn  wives  (Ezni.  x. 
•,>il.  :i!l).  3'.  The  snn  of  .loiarib  of  the  tribe  of  .ludah. 
residing  in  Jerusalem  (Xeh.  xi.  5).  4.  A  Levite  of 
the  family  of  Gershon  (I  C'hron.  vi.  2C).  In  the 
chronological  list  in  I  Chron,  xi,  0  he  is  called  Iddo. 
5.  Son  of  .leroham.  a  priest  holding  office  in  .leru 
salem  (I  Chron.  ix.  I'J;  Xeh.  xi.  12),  6.  Son  of 
Sliimei.  mentioned  in  the  genealogical  list  of  Ben- 
jamin (1  ('hrim,  viii,  21).  7.  Father  of  Maaselah. 
who  helped  .Telioiada  in  the  religious  reformation, 
in  dethroning  Alhaliali,  and  in  crowning  .loash  (II 
Chron,  xxiii,  1,  wlure  the  Hebrew  has  "Adaiahu"). 

G.  B.  L. 

ADALBERG,  SAMUEL:  Poli.sh  author:  born 
at  \Varsaw  in  istls.  He  published  "  Lilier  Prover- 
biorum  Polonicorum  cum  Adagiis  ac  Tritioribus 
Dirtis  ad  instar  Pioverbioruni  I'sitalis, "  Warsjiw. 
1889-94,  This  work,  containing  forty  thousand 
proverbs,  is  the  largest  collection  of  its  kinil,  Ad- 
alhcrg,  besides,  made  valuable  conlrHiutions  to  Po- 
lish and  til  .lewish  proverb  literature  ("  Wisla."  iv. 
18911;  the  latter  was  issued  as  a  book  of  98.5  Jiages). 

nnii.ioi;ii,\piiv  :  Kiici/Uo|i(.lj<i  roiinjcrd mi,  I.  Warsaw,  1898; 
Igniic  llenisleln,  Kiitiil'ti  liziil  Trritri  I'lzyflowiouij Shlatl- 
(ijiici/c/i  IlililjiiUlif.  I.  .■>,  li,  Warsaw,  IIWI. 

H.  R. 

ADAM,— Biblical  Data  :  The  Hebrew  and  Bib- 
lical name  fur  man.  and  alsn  fur  the  ]iriigciiitor  of 
the  human  race.  In  the  accnunt  of  the  Creation 
given  in  Gen.  i.  man  was  brought  into  iHJng  at  the 
close  of  the  sixth  creative  day.  "made  in  the  image 
of  (lod.  "  and  invested  with  dominion  over  the  rest 
iif  the  animate  world.  Man  was  thus  created,  male 
and  female,  charged  to  replenish  the  earth  with  his 
ow  n  kind  and  to  suliduc  it  tn  his  own  uses.     In  Geu. 


Adam 


THE  JKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


174 


ii.  a  more  particular  account  of  man's  creation 
is  given.  Tlia  scene  is  in  Baliylnnia.  near  the  con- 
Hueiicc  of  the  Euphrates  and  'rij.'ris  rivers,  in  the 
country  of  Eden.  After  the  soil  had  been  preiiared 
liy  nKiistiire  "God  formed  man  of  the  dust  of  the 
{iroumi,  and  breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath  of 
life;  and  man  became  a  living  soul"  (Gen.  ii.  7). 


ReceiviuK  tbe  Breath  of  Life  through  the  Ni>strils. 

(From  Nitvtllc'a  Eiryplisin  "  Bo.k  of  ibc  Dead.") 

He  was  then  placed  in  a  franlcn  ]ilaiitcd  for  him  in 
Eden,  to  "  till  and  tend  it."  Of  all  that  grew  in  the 
garden  lie  was  permitted  to  eat  freely,  except  "  the 
fruit  of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil." 
Man  ne.xt  made  the  acquaintance  of  all  the  lower 
animals,  learning  their  (pialities,  and  giving  them 
names.  But  among  these  he  found  no  lit  Compan- 
ion. Hence  God,  by  express  creative  act,  made  for 
him  a  mate,  by  taking  a  rib  from  his  side  and  con- 
structing it  into  a  woman. 

In  Gen.  iii.  the  first  chapter  in  the  moral  history 

of  mankind  is  given.    The  woman  was 
Curse  of     tempted  liy  the  serpent,  who  told  her 
Dis-  that  if  she  and  her  husband  would  par- 

obedience,   take  of  the  forbidden  fruit  their  eyes 

would  be  opened,  and  they  "  would  be 
as  gods,  knowing  good  and  evil  "  (Gen.  iii.  S) .  She 
ate  of  the  fruit,  and  gave  to  her  husband,  W'ho  also 
ate  of  it.  This  act  of  disobedience  was  followed  by 
a  divine  judgment.  The  serpent  was  cursed  be- 
caus(!  he  had  tempted  the  woman,  and  between  his 
and  her  descendants  there  was  to  be  per]ietual  en- 
mity. The  woman  was  condemned  to  tlie  pangs  of 
child  bearing  and  to  subjection  to  her  husband.  As 
a  punishment  for  the  man  the  ground  was  cursed: 
thorns  and  thistles  were  to  siiring  up;  hard  labor 
would  be  needed  to  instire  the  production  of  human 
food;  and  toil  would  be  the  lot  of  man  from  child- 
hood to  the  grave.  Finally,  the  man  and  his  wife 
were  expelled  from  the  garden  "to  till  the  ground 
from  which  he  wius  taken."  Of  Adam  and  his  wife, 
now  called  "  Eve  "  (mn)  because  she  was  the  mother 


of  all  living  ('n)  it  is  only  known  that  af ttr  th?ir  exile 
from  the  garden  they  had  children  born  to  them 
(see  Gen.  v.  3,  4).  .1.  F.  McC. 
In  Apocr3rphal  and  Rabbinical  Litera- 
ture:  While  th<'  geneiic  characlir  ihal  the  name 
of  Adam  has  in  the  ohler  jiarts  of  .Sciiplure. where  it 
appears  with  the  article  ("the  man"),  was  gnidually 
lost  sight  of,  his  typical  character  as  the  represent- 
ative of  the  unity  of  mankind  was  constantly  em- 
l)liasized  (comi)are  Sanh.  iv.  .5;  the  correct  reading 
in  Tosef.,  Sanh.  viii.  4-9); 

"  Why  was  only  u  sinkMe  specimen  of  man  ereatwl  flret?    To 

Icnrli  us  tlint  lie  who  ilratroys  a  single  soul  destroys  a  whole 
wnrtfi  aii'I  tliiit  he  who  saves  a  single  8oul  savesu  w'ht.tle  w\»rld; 
ruiIlHTiiior>>.  In  order  that  no  rare  or  elans  may  elalm  a  n<ibler 
aiice>tiT.  siiyiiiff.  Miiir  father  was  born  first';  and,  finally,  to 
irivi-  tvstiuiony  to  the  greatness  of  the  Uird,  win)  caused  the 
woiHlerful  diversity  of  mankind  to  emanate  frxiiu  one  lyi>e. 
And  why  WHS  Adam  created  last  of  all  helntra?  To  teach  him 
hinrdllly:  for  If  he  tie  overlK-arlng,  let  him  remember  that  the 
Utile  Uy  preceded  hlui  In  the  order  of  creation." 

In  a  dispute,  therefore,  as  to  which  Biblical  verse 
expresses  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Law,  Si- 
mon ben  'A/.kai  niiiinlained  against  R.  Akiba — wlio, 
following  llillel.  h:id  singlecl  out  the  (Joldcn  Rule 
(I>ev.  xix.  IS) — that  the  luinciple  of  love  must  have 
as  its  basis  Gen.  v.  1,  which  teaches  that  all  men  are 
the  olfspring  of  him  who  was  made  in  the  image 
of  God  (Sifra,  Kedoshiin,  iv. ;  Yer.  Xed.  ix.  41c  ; 
Gen.  R.  24).  This  idea,  expressed  also  by  Paul  in 
his  speech  at  Athens,  "  [God]  hath  made  of  one 
bliKid  all  nations  of  men  for  to  dwell  on  all  the 
face  of  the  earth"  (Acts.  xvii.  26).  foimd  expression 
in  many  characteristic  forms.  According  to  Tar,i:. 
Ycr.  to  Gen.  ii.  7.  God  took  dust  from  the  holy 
jilace  (as  "  the  center  of  the  earth  " ;  compaie  Pirke 
R.  Kliezerxi.,  xx.)  and  the  four  parts  of  the  world, 
mingling  it  with  the  water  of  all  the  seas,  and 
madC  him  red,  black,  and  white  (probably  more  cor- 
rectly Pirke  R.  K\.  xi.  and  Chronicle  of  Jerahmeel, 
vi.  7;  "White,  black,  red,  and  green — bones  and 
sinews  white;  intestines  black;  lilood  red;  skin  of 
body  or  liver  green");  coinpiire  Pliilo,  "Creation  of 
the  "World."  xlvii. ;  Abulfcda.  "  llistoria  Ante-Isla- 
mica."  The  Sibylline  Oracles  (iii.  24-2(i)and,  follow- 
ing the  .same,  the  Slavonian  Book  of  Enoch  find  the 
cosmopolitan  nature  of  Ailam,  his  ori.i;in  from  the 
four  regions  of  theearth.  exjiressed  in  the  four  letters 
of  his  name:  Analole  (East),  Dysis  (West),  Arktos 


Supposed  Assyrian  ilepiv mentation  of  the  Teiiiptall<m. 

(From  the  Britbh  Museum.) 

(Xortli).  and  Mesembria  (South).  R.  .Toliaiian  inter- 
prets DTX  as  being  an  acrostic  of  IBX  (ashes),  QT 
(blood),  an<l  niD  (.sail;  see  Sotah.  5<().  But  this 
interpretation  seems  to  have  originated  in  other 
circles;  for  we  lind  Isidor  of  Seville  ("De  Natura 
Rerum."  ix.)  declare  that  Adam  was  made  of  blood 
(sanf/uis),  gall  (chole),  black  gall  (iMlanr/wlia),  and 
phlegm:  the  four  parts  constituting  the  tempera- 
ments, which  correspond  to  the  four  elements  of  na- 
ture, as  does  the  microcosm  to  the  macrocosm  (see 


ADAU  AM>  LVK. 
(Froa  llt«  8v»ja*o  H&|cpKUb  of  iht  foartMntb  MBtwy  J 


Adam 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


176 


Piper,  "Symbolik  iler  C'liristliclu'ii  Kirclie,"  90,  4()9). 
H.  Mi'ir  (second  cciitury)  liiis  the  tnidition  tliat  God 
made  Aduiu  of  the  dust  jfiithered  from  the  whole 
world;  iiiid  Uuli  (third  century)  says:  "His  head 
was  made  of  earth  from  the  Holy  Land;  his  main 
body,  from  Babylonia;  and  the  various  members 
froui  dilTcreut  lamls "  (ISanh.  3Hi(  el  seq. ,  compare 
Gen.  li.  viii.  ;  Midr.  Teh.  cx.\.\i.\.  .j;  and  Tun.,  Pe- 
kude,  3.  end). 

There  are,  however,  two  points  of  view  regarding 
man's  nature  presented  in  the  two  Biblical  stories 
of  man's  creation ;  and  they  are  Ijrought  out  more 
forcibly  in  the  llag.iradah,  and  still  more  so  in  the 
older  Hellenistic  literature.  "Both  worhls,  heaven 
and  earth,  were  to  have  a  share  in  man's  creation; 
lience  the  host   of  an.gels  were  consulted   by   the 

Lord   when   He   sjiid,  "  Let  us   make 
Two  man  '  "  (Gen.  i.  26.  Gen.  K.  viii.).    But 

Natures  in    Ihe   old   ha.iriradists   loved    especially 
Adam.        to  dwell  on  the  irlory  of  God's   tirsi 

created  before  his  fall.  He  was  "like 
one  of  the  angels  "  (Slavonic  Book  trf  Enoch,  xx.\. 
11 ;  compare  Christian  Book  of  Adam,  i.  10;  also  Fa 
pias  in  Geu.  H.  xxi. ;  I'irke  H.  El.  xii. ;  Ex.  H.  xxxii.  ; 
Targ.  Ycr.  Gen.  iii.  22).  "His  body  reached  from 
earth  to  heaven  [or  from  one  end  of  the  world  to 
the  other]  before  .sin  caused  him  to  sink"  (Hag. 
12i(.  Sanh.  38/',  compare  also  Philo.  "Creation  of 
the  WorUl,"  ed.  ^Mangey.  i.  33,  47).  "He  was  of 
extreme  beauty  and  sunlike  brightness "(15.  B.  HHn). 
"His  skin  was  a  bright  garment,  shining  like  liis 
nails ;  when  he  sinned  this  brightness  vanished,  and  he 
appeared  naked  "  (Tarer.  Yer.  Gen.  iii.  7;  Gen.  T{.  xi. ; 
Adam  and  Eve,  xxxvii.).  When  God  said:  "Let  us 
make  man  in  our  image,"  the  angels  in  heaven. 
Idled  with  iealousy.  said:  "What  is  man  that  Thou 
Ihiukest  of  him'?  A  creature  full  of  falsehood,  luitreil, 
and  strife!  "  But  Love  pleaded  in  his  favor;  and 
the  Lord  spoke:  "Let  truth  spring  forth  from 
the  eaith!"  (Gen.  H.  viii.;  Midr.  Tell.  viii.).  Far 
older,  and  blended  with  Babylonian  mytholo.gy  (Isa. 
xiv.  12),  is  the  story  preserved  in  Adam  and  Eve, 
the  Slavonic  Book  of  Enoch,  xxxi.  3-t>  (com])arc 
Bereshit  Habbati,  ed.  Epstein,  p.  17;  Pirkc  1{.  El. 
xiii. ;  Chronicle  of  .lerahmeel.  xxii. ;  and  Koran, 
sura  ii.  34;  xv.  30).  according  to  which  all  the 
angels  were  conuiianded  by  Jlichael  the  archangel 
to  pay  homage  to  the  image  of  God;  whereupon  all 
bowed  before  Adam  except  Satan,  who,  in  ])uuish- 
nient  for  his  rebelliousness,  was  hurled  from  his 
heavenly  heights  to  the  depth  of  the  abyss,  w  hile  liis 
vacant  throne  was  reserved  for  Adam,  to  be  given  to 
him  at  the  time  of  the  future  resurrection.  Hence- 
forth. Satan  became  the  enemy  of  man,  ap]iearing  to 
him  in  the  guise  of  an  angel  of  light  to  seduce  liim 
(compare  II  Cor.  xi.  14).  A  somewhat  modified  mid- 
rashic  legend  (Gen  U.  viii.)  relates  that  the  angels 
were  .so  tilled  with  wonder  and  awe  at  the  sight  of 
Adam,  the  image  of  God.  that  they  wanted  to  pay 
homage  to  him  and  cry  "  Holy  !  "  But  the  Ijord  caused 
sleep  to  fall  u])on  him  so  tliat  he  l;iy  like  a  coqise. 
and  the  Lord  said:  "Cease  ye  from  man.  whose  breath 
is  in  his  nostrils;  for  wherein  is  he  to  In;  accounted 
of?"  (Isa.  ii.  22).  Another  version  (Pirke  H.  El.  xi.  ; 
Tan.,  Pckude,  3)  is  that  all  other  creatures,  mar- 
veling at  Adam's  greatness,  prostrated  themselves 
before  him,  taking  him  to  be  their  creator:  whereon 
he  pointed  upward  to  God,  exclaiming:  "The  Lord 
rcigneth.  He  is  clothed  with  majesty!"  (Ps.  xciii. 
1).  Still,  the  Book  of  Wisdom  (ii.'23,  24)  seems 
to  allude  to  the  older  Icirend  when  saying.  "God 
createil  man  for  immortality,  but  through  the  envy 
of  Satan  death  entered  the  world"  (compare  Jose- 
phus,    "Ant."   i.   1.    ^   4:   Ab.    R.  N.  i. ;  Gen.  R. 


xviii.,  where  the  serpent  is  reprcsciitcd us  moved  by 

jealousy). 

Adam  in  paradise  had  angels  (agathoda-mons  or 
serpents)  to  wait  upon  and  dunce  before  him  (Sauli. 
r,i)h.  B.  B.  7")./.  Pirke  K.  El.  xii.).  He  ute  "angel's 
bread  "  (compare  Ps.  Ixxiii.  20;  Yoma,  T.W;  Vita  Adie 
et  Evie,  t;  4).  All  creation  bowed  before  him  iii 
awe.  He  was  the  light  of  the  world  (Yer.  Sliab.  ii. 
5//);  but  sin  depriveil  hint  of  all  glory.  The  earth 
and  the  heavenly  bodies  lost  tlair  brightness,  which 
will  <-ome  buck  only  in  the  Messianic  lime  (Gen.  U. 
xii. ;  Vita  Ada'  ct  Evie,  j;  21 ;  Philo,  "Creation  of  the 
World."  p.  (!0;  Zohar,  iii.  K'.ilj).  Death  came  upon 
.\dam  and  all  creution.  God's  day  being  a  thousiuid 
years  (Ps.  xc.  4).  Adam  was  pennitted  to  live  930 
years — threescore  and  ten  less  than  one  thou.sand 
(Book  of  Jubilees,  iv.  28,  and  Gen.  R.  xix.),  .so  that 
the  statement  "in  the  day  that  tli<iu  eatesi  thereof, 
thou  shall  surely  die  "  might  be  fu  Hi  lied.  The  brutes 
no  longer  stood  in  awe  of  man  as  their  ruler;  instead, 

they  attacked  him.    But  while  sin  was 
The  Fall,     of  fatal  consei|iience,  and  the  elTect  of 

the  poison  of  the  seriient  is  still  felt  by 
all  following  generati(ms,  unless  they  slKUild  be  re- 
leased from  it  by  the  covenunt  of  Sinai  ('Ab.  Zarah, 
22i;  IV  Book  of  Esdras;  Apoc.  Mosis,  .xx. ;  see  arti- 
cles Six  and  F.m.i.).  the  Jewish  haggadists  empli;i- 
.size  one  point  not  mentioned  in  tlie  Bilile.  but  of 
great  doctrinal  importance  in  comparison  with  the 
teachiu.ns  of  Paul  and  his  followers.  The  deadly 
cfTcet  of  sin  can  be  removed  by  repentance.  Ilcnci", 
Adam  is  represented  as  a  type  of  a  penitent  sinner. 
Thus,  he  is  described  in  Vitu  Ad;e  et  Ev.e,  as  well  as 
by  the  rabliis  of  the  .second  century  ('Er.  18//;  'Ab. 
Zarah,  8'( ;  Ab.  R.  N.  i. ;  Pirke  H.  El),  as  undergoing 
a  terrible  ordeal  while  fasting,  praying,  and  bathing 
in  tlie  river  for  seven  and  forty  <lays  (.seven  weeks, 
Pirke  R.  El.),  or  twice  seven  weeks — the  .shortening 
of  the  days  after  Tishri  being  taken  by  Adam  as  a 
sign  of  God's  wrath,  until  after  the  w  inter  .solstice 
the  days  again  gicw  longer,  when  he  brought  n  .sac- 
ritice  of  thanksgivin.ir.  Another  view  is  that  when 
Ihe  sun  rose  Ihe  following  morning  he  olTered  his 
thanksgiving,  in  which  Ihe  angels  joined  him.  sing- 
ing the  Sabbath  Psalm  (Ps.  xcii.).  About  Adam  and 
Ihe  one-horned  ox  (the  Persian  r/niirmurt/i),  see  Ko- 
hul,  in  "Z.  I).  M.  G."  xxv   78.  n.  6. 

On  account  of  the  Sabbath  the  sun  retained  its 
brightness  for  the  day  ;  but  as  darkness  set  in  Adam 
was  seized  w  ith  fear,  thinking  of  his  sin.  Then  the 
Lord  taught  him  how  to  make  tire  by  striking  stones 
together.  Thenceforth  Ihe  tire  is  greete<l  with  a 
blessing  at  the  close  of  each  Salibalh  day  (Pesik.  R. 
xxiii.  ;  Pirke  R.  El.  xx. ;  similarly.  Pes.  .")4(/). 

When  Adam  heard  thecur.se,  "Thou  shalt  eat  of 
the  herbs  of  the  earth."  he  staggered,  saying-  "O 
Lord,  must  I  and  my  ass  eat  out  of  the  same  man- 
ger?" Then  the  voice  of  God  came  reassuringly: 
"  With  the  sweat  of  thy  brow  shalt  thou  eat  bread !  " 
There  is  comfort  in  work.  The  angels  taught  Adam 
the  work  of  agriculture,  all  the  trades,  ami  also  how- 
to  work  in  iron  (Book  of  .Jubilees,  iii.  12;  Gen.  R. 
xxiv. ;  Pes.  '>-lii).  The  invention  of  writing  was 
ascribed  to  Adam. 

On  the  day  Adam  covered  his  naked  body  for  the 
first  time,  he  behehl  in  clothing  a  mark  of  human 

dignity,  and  olTered  God  a  thanksgiv- 

Adam  in      ing  f)f  incense  (Book  of  .Jubilees,  iii. 

the  Future   22).   The  irarments  made  bv  God  were 

■World.        not  of  skin,  but  of  light  (Gen.  R.  xx.), 

and  robes  of  glory  were  made  of  the 
serpent's  skin  (Targ.  Yer.  Gen.  iii.  21). 

Adam,  "the  first  to  enter  Hades"  (Sibylline  Ora- 
cles, i.  81),  was  also  the  first  to  receive  the  promise  of 


177 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adam 


resurrection  (Gen.  R.  xxi.  7,  after  Ps.  xvii.  15).  Ac- 
eording  to  the  Testament  of  Abraluun.  Adam  sits  at 
tlie  gates, watehing  witli  tears  llie  nuiltitudc  (if  souls 
passing  througli  the  wide  gate  to  meet  tlieir  punisli- 
meiit.  and  with  joy  the  few  entering  tlie  narrow 
gate  to  receive  tlieii'  reward. 

The  Jewisli  view  concerning  Adam's  sin  is  best 
e.\i)rcs.-ii>d  by  Amnn  (Shab.  oox,  based  upon  Ezck. 
.wiii.  "20):  "No  man  dies  williout  a  sin  nf  Ids  own. 
Accorilingly.  all  the  jiious,  being  |)erniitte(l  to  be- 
h<ild  the  Shckinah  (glory  of  God)  before  their  death, 
reproach  Adam  (as  they  pass  him  by  at  the  gate)  for 
liaving  brought  (hiilh  upon  them;  to  whicli  he  re- 
plies: ■  I  died  with  but  one  sin.  but  you  have  com- 
nnlted  many;  on  account  of  these  you  have  died; 
not  on  my  account  '"  (Tan.,  Ilukkat,  16). 

To  Adam  are  ascribed  Ps.  v.,  xix.,  xxiv.,  and  xcii. 
(.Midr.  Teh.v.;i;<;en.U.xxii.,  end;  Pesik.  K.  xlvi.;see 
IJacher,  "Ag.  Pal.  Amor."  ii.  :W7  ct  kci/.).  Ilisliody, 
made  an  object  of  worship  by  some  S(  lui-pagau  Mel 
<hisedician  sect,  according  to  the  Christian  Hook  of 
Adam,  was  shown  in  Talmudic  times  at  Hebron,  in 
the  cave  of  Machpclah  (B.  I!.  '>H<i,  Oen.  H.  Iviii.), 
whih'  Christian  tradilion  placed  il  in  Golgotha  near 
Jerusalem  (Origen,  tract  Ii.")  in  Malt..  aii<l  article 
(iiu.ooTii.v).  Itisa  beautiful  and  certainly  an  orig- 
inal idea  of  the  ralibis  that  "  Adiun  was  created 
from  the  dust  of  th<>  place  where  the  sanctuary  was 
to  ri-^e  for  the  atonement  of  all  human  sin,"  .so  that 
sin  sliould  never  be  a  permanent  or  inherent  part  of 
mans  nature  ((Jen.  H.  xiv..  Yer.  Naz.  vii.  '>()/i).  The 
corres])onding  Chrislian  legend  of  Golgotha  was 
forineil  after  the  Jewish  one. 

Biiu.inMt.vPHV:  (iinzt)i'n.'.  /'iV  llntniailn  hei  dcii  Kirelieii- 
viil,  III.  Ill  M'miilxsilirUt.  IsW:  Kuliut,  In  Z.  I).  M.  (1.  xxv. 
.'>(»-!t4;  (irunliiiurii,  Stue  ]i<  iliiiiic  ziir  Siiiiili-teln  ii  Smi'  "- 
friOiWf.pp.  JVI.TH:  UHUniin. Tuts  tltrintlk-hi'  A'l<inihiirh:  Miikiii, 
HiHik  iif  Atlam  and  Krc  .ISW ;  Bezold.  i>it  S(lianii<',liti.  Iks:), 
IHW:  Slftrfrlol.  Pliihi  nm  Alijramlrieii.  Fnr  further  bibllu- 
(rraphlcal  refen-iuessee  Si'hflrer,  (Jtxch klite,  M ed.  ill.  2S,s-Ss!). 

K. 

In  H ohammedan  Literature :    Xo  mention 

is  made  of  .\dain  in  the  early  suras  of  the  Koran. 
Thoui.'li  .Mohaiumid  speaks  of  the  creation  of  man 
in  general  from  a  "clol  of  blood"  or  a  "droji  of 
water"  (suras  Ixxv.  S4,  Ixxvii.  20.  xcvi.  1),  it  is 
only  in  the  later  Meccan  sums  that  the  original 
<reatioii  of  man  is  <(mnected  with  a  i)artieular  indi- 
vidual. But  in  these  suras  the  theory  is  already 
developed  that  Satan's  designs  against  man  are  con- 
sequent upon  the  exiiulsion  of  ihi'  former  from  ])ar- 
adise  at  the  lime  of  man's  creation.  Geiger  has 
incorreclly  remarkcdi"  Was  Hat  Mohammed  ausilem 
Jmlenlliume  AufgciiommenV  "  p.  lOll)  that  this  is  not 
a  Ji'wish  idea  (sie  Vila  Ad.-e  el  V.viv.  S;  10).  It  be- 
lonirsalsolo  lliecvileof  thi'Chrisliaii-Svriac  Midrash 
(sei-  Budge.  "The  Book  of  the  Bee,"  "p.  21,  trans.; 
Be/old.  "  Die  Sch.il/hohle."  ]>]i.  ■>.  (i.  trans.).  In  Ihe 
earliest  account  Ihe  nanu'  Adam  does  not  occur;  nor 
<|iies  Iblis  vow  vengeaiKM'  upon  a  single  individual, 
bill  rather  U]ion  Ihe  whole  race  of  mankind: 

"When  thy  Lord  said  lo  the  angels.  '  Verily,  I  am 

aboiil   to  creale  a  mortal  out  of  <'lay;  and  when  I 

have  fashioneil  liini.  and  brealhed  into 

Iblis,  the     him  of  My  spiril,  llieii  fall  ye  down 
Devil,        befori' him  adoring. '     Ami  Ihe  angels 

Respited,  adored,  all  of  ihem  save  Iblis,  who 
was  loo  big  with  pride,  and  was  of 
the  nuslH'lievers,  Saiil  Me.  (»  Iblis!  what  prevenls 
Ihee  from  a<lorin!;  what  I  have  crealed  willi  My  two 
haiiilsV  An  thou  loo  bii:  willi  [iridiV  or  art  llinu 
ainon:;si  the  exalted?'  Said  he.  I  am  belter  than 
lie;  Thou  hasi  crealed  lue  from  tire,  and  him  Thou 
hast  created  from  clay.'  Said  He.  'Then  go  forth 
therefrom;  for  verilv  lliou  arl  pelted,  and  verilv 
I. -12 


upon  thee  is  My  curse  unto  the  da3'  of  judgment." 
Said  he,  'Mj'Lordl  then  respite  me  until  the  day 
when  they  "are  raised.'  Said  He,  'Then  thou  art 
amongst  the  respited  until  the  day  of  the  stated 
time. '  Said  he, '  Then,  by  Thy  might.  I  will  surely  se- 
duce them  all  logelher,  except  Thy  servants  amongst 
them  who  are  sincere!'  Said  He,  '  It  is  the  truth, 
and  the  tnilh  I  speak.  I  will  surely  till  hell  with 
thee  and  with  those  who  folhiw  thee  amongst  them 
all  together'"  (sum  xxxviii.  70-85). 

At  a  later  period  .^lohammed  develops  the  personal 
character  of  the  tirst  man  and  his  direct  relationshiji 
to  God,  whose  vicegerent  (khdlifdh,  calif)  he  is  to  be 
on  earth.  At  the  sjime  time  Satan  is  represented  as 
being  the  one  who  drove  Adam  from  paradise: 

"And  when  thy  Lord  sjiid  unto  the  angels,  '  I  am 

aboul  to  place  a  vicegerent  in  the  earth,'  they  SiUil, 

'  Wilt    Thiui   place   therein   one   w  ho 

Adam  as     will  do  evil  therein  and  shed  blood':' 

Vicegerent   We   celebrate   Thy    praise    and    hal- 

of  God.  low  Thee."  Said  fthe  Lord].  '  I  know 
what  ye  kn<iw  not.'  And  He  taught 
Adam  the  names,  all  of  them;  then  He  pro|ioundcd 
them  to  the  angels  and  sidd,  '  Declare  to  Me  the 
nanus  of  these,  if  ye  are  truthful.'  They  said, 
'  Glory  be  to  Thee!  no  knowledire  is  ours  but  what 
Thou  "Thyself  hast  taught  us;  venly.  Thou  art  the 
knowing,  the  wise.'  Said  the  Lord.  'O  Adam,  de- 
clare to  them  their  names  ' ;  and  when  he  had  declared 
to  them  their  names  lie  said,  '  Did  I  not  say  to  you, 
I  know  the  secrets  of  the  heavens  and  of  the  earth,  and 
I  know  what  ye  show  and  what  ye  are  hiding"; '  And 
when  He  said  to  the  angils.  '  .Vdore  Adam.'  they 
adored  him  save  only  llilis,  who  refused  and  was 
too  prouil.  and  became  one  of  the  misbelievers. 

"And  llesaid.'O  Adam,  dwell,  thou  and  thy  wife, 
in  paradise,  and  eat  therefrom  amply  as  you  wish; 
but  do  not  draw  near  this  tree  or  ye  will  be  of  the 
transgressors."  And  Satan  made  them  backslide 
therefrom,  and  drove  them  out  from  what  they  were 
in,  and  He  said,  '  Go  down,  one  of  you  the  enemy 
of  the  other:  and  in  the  earth  there  are  an  abode  and 
a  provision  for  a  time.'  And  .\dam  caught  certain 
w<irds  from  his  Loril,  and  He  turned  toward  him; 
for  He  is  the  Compassionate  One  easily  turned.  He 
said,  '  Go  down  therefrom  altogether,  and  hajdy 
there  may  come  from  Me  a  guidance,  and  whoso  fol- 
lows My  guidance  no  fear  is  theirs,  nor  shall  they 
grieve  '  "  (sura  ii.  29-36). 

In  sura  vii.  10  et  Kiq.  the  same  story  is  repeated, 
though  with  several  additions.  In  particular,  ilo- 
hammed  has  now  learned  the  manner  in  which  Sa- 
lan  tempted  Adam ; 

"Bui  .Silan  whisp<red  lo  them  lo  display  to  them 

what  was  kept  back  from  Ihem  of  thi'ir  shame,  and 

he  .siud,  ■  Your  Lord  has  only  forbid- 

Satan        den  you    this  tree  lest   ye  sliould  be 

Beg-uiles      twain  angels  or  should  become  of  the 

Adam.  immorlals';  and  he  swore  lo  ihem 
both,  ■  Verily.  I  am  unto  you  a  sincere 
adviser';  and  he  beguiled  Ihem  by  deceit,  and  when 
lliey  twain  tasled  of  the  Iree  llieir  shame  was  shown 
Ihem,  and  they  began  to  .stilch  upon  them.selves  the 
leaves  of  the  garden.  And  llieir  Lord  called  unto 
Ihem,  '  Did  I  not  forbid  you  from  that  tree  there, 
and  sjiy  lo  you.  Verily,  Saiaii  is  lo  you  an  open  foe?  ' 
They  .said.  '  <  >oiir  Lord,  we  have  wronged  ourselves 
— and  if  Thou  dosi  not  forgive  us  and  liavi>  mercy 
on  us.  we  shall  surely  be  of  tliosi-  who  are  lost!' 
lie  said,  '  Go  yv  down,  one  of  you  lo  Ihe  oilier  a  foo; 
bill  for  you  in  iln-  earlh  then'  are  an  abode  and  a 
provision  for  a  season.'  lie  said.  '  Thi-ri'in  shall  ve 
live  and  therein  shall  ye  die;  from  it  sluill  ye  bo 
brought  forth'  "  (sum  vii.  lt>-24). 


Adam 

Adam,  Book  of 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


178 


In  suras  xvii.  63,  xviii.  48,  rcferciici's  are  also  made 
to  the  refusal  of  Il)lis  to  worship  Adam.  The  hitter 
was  created  from  earth  (iii.  .51)or  from  clay  (xxxii.  o). 
Thai  Adam  is  the  tirst  of  the  prophets  is  only 
hinted  at  in  the  K(iraii.  In  tlie  jiassjij^e  (ii.  ;!.">)  cited 
above,  "And  Adam  cuughl  certain  words  li-(iliiii,il\ 
from  his  Lord."  the  reference  may  be  to  a  supiio.secl 
revelation  to  Adam.  For  this  reason,  in  iii.  :{(»,  .Mo- 
hammed says.  "Verily,  God  has  chosen  Adam,  and 
Xoah.  and  Ahraham's  people,  and  Imram's  people 
[the  Christians]  ";  making  Adam  the  representative 
of  the  antediluvian  period. 

To  these  somewhat  ineafrer  accounts  later  Arahic 
writers  and  CDinini-ntalors  have  added  various  details 
which  lind  tlu'ir  parallel  in  the  .lewisli  and  I'hrislian 
Midrash.  llani/ali  al-Ispahani  expressly  says  that 
a  .Jewish  rablii  in  liaijdad.  Zedekiah  by  name,  told 
him,  ainoni^  other  things,  that  Adam  was  created 
in  the  third  hour  of  the  sixth  day,  and  Eve  in  the 
sixth  hour:  that  they  were  made  to  dwell  in  Gan- 
Eden  {pjf  JJ),  from  which  they  were  expelled  after 
tlie  uinth  hour;  that  (iodsent  an  angel  to  them,  who 
taught  Adam  how  to  sow  and  to  per- 
Adam's  form  all  the  other  work  connecteil 
Creation,  with  agricultiire.  The  same  ang<'l  in- 
structed Eve  how  to  perform  all  man- 
ner of  household  duties.  The  historians  Tabari. 
Masmli,  Al-Athir,  etc.,  have  evidently  culled  from 
similar  sources.  They  tell  ustlmtwlu-n  (Joil  wished 
to  form  Adam  He  sent  first  Gabriel,  then  Jlichael. 
to  fetch  soil  for  that  purpose.  The  earth,  hiiwever, 
refused  to  give  the  soil,  and  yielded  only  to  the 
Angel  of  Death,  who  brought  "three  kinds  of  soil, 
black,  white,  and  red.  Adam's  descendants,  there- 
fore, belong  either  to  the  white,  the  black,  or  the 
red  race. 

The  soul  of  Adam  Iiad  been  created  thousands  of 
years  previously,  and  at  first  refused  to  enter  the  bodv 
of  clay.  God  forced  it  violently  through  Adam's 
nose,  which  caused  him  to  sneeze.  As  it  de.sccndecl 
into  his  mouth,  he  commenced  to  utter  the  ju'ai.sesof 
God.  He  tried  to  rise;  but  the  soul  Imd  not  yet  de- 
scended into  his  feet.  "U'lien  he  did  stand  \ipright. 
he  reached  from  earth  up  to  the  throne  of  God.  ami 
had  to  shade  his  eyes  with  his  hand  because  of  the 
brilliancy  of  God's  throne.  His  height  was  grad- 
ually diminished,  partly  as  a  punishment  for  his  sin, 
and  partly  through  grii'ving  at  the  death  of  Abel. 

Adam  wished  to  see  the  generations  which  were  to 

come  from  him.     God  drew  them  all  from  out  of  his 

back;  they  stood  in  two  rows— one  of 

The  Future  the  righteous,  the  other  of  the  sinners. 

Unveiled     When  God  told  Adam  the  span  of  life 

to  Him.      given  to  each,  he  was  surprised  to  find 

that  only  a  small  nundier  of  years  had 

been  allotti'd  to  David,  and  made  him  a  i)resent  of 

forty  years;    of   which   jirescnt,  .says   the   Jlohani- 

medau  ilidrash,  a  formal  document  was  drawn  uji 

and  signed. 

When  Adam  was  driven  from  paradise,  lie  first 
aliglitc<l  on  the  island  of  Sarandib  (Ceylon).  Here 
his  footprint  (seventy  ells  long)  is  still  to  be  .seen,  as 
is  that  of  Abraham  in  Mecca.  From  Ceylon  Adam 
journeyed  to  the  holy  city  in  Arabia,  where  he  built 
the  Kaaba,  having  through  fasting  and  .silence  gained 
the  partial  forgiveness  of  God. 

Another  legend  connects  the  building  of  the  Kajilia 
with  Aiiu.\nA>t.  When  the  time  came  for  Adam 
to  die,  he  had  forgotten  the  gift  of  forty  years  to 
David,  and  had  to  he  reminded  of  it  bytlie  Angel 
of  Death.  He  is  said  to  have  been  buried  in  the 
"Cave  of  Treasures" — a  Christian,  rather  than  a 
.Jewish,  idea.  Several  of  these  peculijir  features  are 
found  again  in  the  Pirke  de-Rabbi  Eliezer.  a  work 


that  was  compiled  under  Arabic  influence  (Zunz, 
"G.  V."  2d  ed.,  pp.  289  tt  «,•</.). 

DiHi.ioiiKAruY:  Ki>mn.  sunis  xxxvlli.  71-(«i,  II.  2S-;C  vii. 
lo-is.  XV.  SS-44,  xvll.  (BHIS,  xvlll.  4S,  XX.  Ur>,  and  tlic  coin- 
iiientarli's  on  tliesie  |ius.sufre!i ;  liiillwulilt,  llamztg  /.vjnifmiii  ii- 
Ki»  .1 11  mi/ii(ili  J^iliii  .r.  |)|i.  H4 1  (  Kcii.:  Tahiiri,  A  u  »<l(t,v,  II.  115c( 
.•<'*;.;  Ilin  iil-.\11ilr,  ('hrn)iivini^  ed.  Tomberg,  I.  ISJ  et  sni.;  Al- 
Nawuwl,  Iliiiiiniiiliiitil  Dicl.iif  ltUixlrUiuiiMeii.nl.  Wusten- 
fi'Id,  Pit.  \'£\  it  st'i/.:  Yiikiit.  (ifitfirttptiisc1it\^  Wnrti-r-tnicti, 
eel.  Wilsl<-ii(rl(l,  vl.  iV)  (Inilcxi.  CiMiiiiun- ili'lir.T,  Il'd^  Ihil 
M'lttiimiiiid  nnx  item  Juttuitliutni  .luliii  mtinutt  tt  f  pp.  lUJ 
it  yi  I/.;  Well.  liittltm-ltf  Li\ii  ttitt  tt  <li  r  Mti.-*iltniltitltt'.  pp.  12 
ft  mil.;  tiriiiiliiiuiii,  .Vi  "<•  i<ii7ri7|/f  zur  Siitiilmlitii  Snuiii- 
l{ttttili.  )iii.  ;M  ((  .M i;.,  whiTf  u  laiw  uuuiImt  <it  nibblnlcal 
parallels  will  !«■  fimiul. 

G. 

Critical 'View  :   According  to  nuMleni  critics, 

the  story  of  the  creation  of  man  is  ])re.sented  in  two 
sources.  One  of  these  forms  the  begiiming  of  the 
document  known  as  the  Pkiksti.y  Code  (P),  and 
theotheris  writ  ten  liy  the  so-called. I  .\n  VIST  (.1).  The 
former  makes  the  Creation  to  be  the  tirst  of  a  series 
of  stages  in  the  develojiment  of  the  history  of  Israel 
and  tlie  theocracy,  which  is  the  great  end  of  the  di- 
vine government.  Each  event  is  to  man  a  grada- 
tion leading  up  to  a  tinal  act  of  Providence.  This 
first  stage  fitly  ends  with  the  making  of  man  in  the 
image  of  God.  which  follows  tipon  the  creation  of 
light,  the  sky,  the  earth,  and  the  sea;  of  plants,  and 
of  animals  of  the  water,  the  air,  and  the  land.  This 
narrative  as  found  in  the  final  form  of  the  HexateucU 
is  interrupted  in  Gen.  ii.  4  by  the  second  narrator,  and 
is  not  resumed  till  Gen.  v.  I,  where  the  second  .stage 
begins  with  the  "generations  [tn/edot]  of  Adam." 

The  second  narrative  (Gen.  ii.  4-iv.)  is  the  be- 
ginning of  a  history  written  much  earlier  than  the 
[uiestly  document.  Its  interest  centers  in  Adam  not 
as  the  first  link  in  the  chain  of  the  history  of  Israel, 
hut  as  the  founder  of  the  human  race.  The  descrip- 
tions are  naive  and  authro]iomorphic,  telling  of 
man's  home  in  Eden,  his  divinely  given  mate,  his 
progress  in  knowledge,  his  sin,  his  banishment  from 
paradi.se,  and  the  fate  of  his  children. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  "Adam"  is  of  im- 
portance. The  writer  of  Gen.  ii.  7  gives  his  own 
explanation  when  he  says;  "God 
Etymology  I'onned  man  of  dust  of  the  ground." 
of  "Adam."  That  is  to  say,  the  man  was  called 
"  .Man  "  or  "  .Vdam  "  because  he  was 
formed  from  the  ground  (iii!(iiiiii/i).  Compare  Gen. 
iii.  1!).  This  association  of  ideas  is  more  than  an 
explanation  of  the  word;  it  is  also  suggestive  of 
the  primitive  conception  of  human  life.  Accord- 
ing to  the  oldest  Semitic  notions,  all  nature  was  in- 
stinct with  life;  so  that  men  not  only  came  from 
and  returned  to  the  earth,  but  actually  partook  of 
its  substance.  The  same  notion  declares  itself  in 
the  Ljitin  /iomo  and  hiitiiantin,  as  compared  with  htt- 
iiiii.t  and  the  Greek  ,v"/'"'.  in  the  German  f/ttm  (in 
Bratitir/tiiii),  and  the  English  (/to</?«  ;  also  in  the  Greek 
e-ixHuvmc  and  similar  exjiressions.  ^lodern  critics 
are  the  less  inclined  to  ridicule  this  as  a  mere  bar- 
baric fancy  now  that  the  doctrine  of  evolution  has 
made  them  familiar  with  the  unity  of  n.ilure.  This 
vi<'W  of  the  word  implies  that  it  was  originally  not 
a  ]u-oper  name;  for  names  of  ]iersons  (for  which 
fanciful  etymologies  are  often  given  by  the  sacred 
writers)  are  not  made  up  after  such  a  fashion. 

A  clo.ser  examination  of  the  narrative  will  show 
that  the  word  is  primarily  iised  in  a  .generic  sense, 
and  not  as  the  name  of  an  individual.  In  Gen.  i. 
its  use  is  wholly  generic.  In  Gen.  ii.  and  iii.  the 
writer  weaves  together  the  generic  and  the  personal 
.senses  of  the  word.  In  all  that  pertains  to  the  first 
man  as  the  jmssive  subject  of  creative  and  provi- 
dential action  the  reference  is  exclusively  generic. 


179 


THE  .JEWISH   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Adam 

Adam,  Book  of 


Indeed,  it  is  ilouhtfiil  wliethi-r  "Adam  "as  a  ]ir(i|MT 
name  is  used  at  all  liefurc-  Gen.  iv.  '^.">(.I)  and  v.  3 
(P).  Here  the  same  iLsagc  is  manifest :  for  in  the  two 
opening  verses  of  cliap.  v.  the  word  is  used  gener- 
ically.  It  may  also  he  observ<(l  that  the  writer  in 
Gen.  ii.,  iii.  always  Siiys  "the  man"  instead  of 
"Adam,"  even  when  the  personal  reference  is  in- 
tended, except  after  a  preposition,  wliere,  liowever, 
a  vowel  lias  probably  been  drop])ed  from  the  text. 
Tlieex|)lanalion  of  the  variation  of  nsa.ireapiiarently 
is  that,  as  in  tlu'  case  of  most  of  the  early  stories  of 
Genesis,  the  material  of  popular  tradition,  which 
started  with  the  forminfr  of  man  out  of  the  earth. 
was  Ijiken  up  and  worked  over  for  hijrher  religious 
uses  by  thinkers  of  the  prophetic  school.  Adam  is 
not  referred  to  in  the  later  Old  Testament  books,  ex- 
cept in  the  genealoj^y  of  I  Chron.  J.  F.  ilcC. 

ADAH,  BOOK  OF:  The  Talmud  says  nothing 
about  the  existcMce  of  a  Hook  of  .Vdam,  and  Znn/'s 
widely  accepted  a.ssertion  to  the  contrary  ("G.  V." 
■2d  C(l..  p.  i;iti)  is  erroneous,  as  appears  upon  an 
inspection  of  the  pa.ssage  in  "Ab.  Zandi,  .'>'(,  and 
(ten.  1{.  xxiv.  2.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however, 
tliat  there  existed  at  an  early  date,  i)erhaps  even 
before  the  destruction  of  the  Second  Ti'mple.  a 
collection  of  legends  of  Adam  and  Eve  which  have 
been  partially  preserved,  not  in  their  original  lan- 
guage, but  somewhat  changed.  It  is  jiossilile  to 
|irove  that  the  api>cryphas,  Ajiocalypsis  jMosis — 
as  Tischendorf.  following  a  coinist's  erroneous  in- 
soription.  called  the  Ijook — and  Vita  Ada'  et  Ev;e, 
and  to  a  certain  degree  even  their  Slavonic,  Syriac, 
Klhiopic,  and  Arabic  olfslioots,  are  of  identical  Jew- 
ish origin.  According  to  these  apocryjihal  works 
and  to  the  Eastern  and  Western  forms  of  the  Apoca- 
lypsis.  the  .lewisli  portion  of  the  Book  of  .idam 
must  liave  read  somewhat  as  follows  (the  jiarallels 
in  apocryphal  and  rabbinical  litciature  are  placed  in 
parentheses) : 

Adam,  the   handiwork  of  the   Lord   (.\li.  H.   X. 

i.,  end),  lived   with   Eve   in   the  (iaidcn  of  Eden, 

which  was  situated  in  the  East  (Hook 

Adam  in  of  Enoch,  xxxii. :  Ii.  IJ.  Xin).  Their 
the    Garden  food,  which  tbi'valsodistributed  to  the 

of  Eden.  |fiw<r  animals  (Gen.  I{.  xix.  ."i).  con- 
sisted of  the  fruit  of  the  trees  in  the 
garden,  the  only  nourishment  then  allowed  to 
living  beings  (Sanh.  5ili).  For  their  ])rotection  two 
angels  were  set  ajiart  (Hag.  Hi<(),  know  n  (Her.  (1(1//)  as 
m313D  or  the  (lartakers  of  the  nnijesty  (1133) 
{liiihiiil),  called  in  Latin  rii-tuten,  from  rirtiis,  corre- 
sponding to  /.■.//»«/.  Hut  one  day  when  the  guarding 
angels  hail  as<iiid(il  to  heaven  to  sing  their  livnm 
im'L")  to  the  Lord  (Hul.  !»l/-).  Satan  thougln'  the 
lime  opportune  to  carry  out  his  c'vil  designs  against 
Adam.  Satan  haled  Adam,  for  he  regarded  him 
a.H  the  cause  of  his  fall.  After  (iod  hadcrealcil  unin. 
He  ordered  all  the  angi'ls  lo  prostrate  themselves 
before  .'\dam.  Iiut  Satan  rebelled  against  God's  eom- 
nnind,  despite  the  ilirect  liiilding  of  Michael  "  lo  wor- 
ship the  iunigi'  of  VHW"  ( in' 1.  and  answered 
proudly:  "  If  God  be  angry  against  me.  I  will  exalt 
my  throne  above  I  he  stars  of  (iod"  (<-ompare  Isa.  xiv. 
lit).  Whereupon  (iod  "cast  him  out  from  heaven  w  ith 
all  his  liost  of  reliellious  angels"  (.Slavonic  Hook  of 
Enoch,  xxxi.lH.  and  .Mek..  Shirah.;- 2).  And  Sal  an  the 
Adversary  (Suk.  .VJojsclectcd  the  serpent  for  his  tool, 
as  it  was  not  only  the  most  subtle  of  all  animals,  but 
also  very  similar  toman,  for  it  hail  been  em  lowed  w  ith 
liands  and  leirs  like  him  |(ien.  |{.  \i\.  I).  .\ial  Satan 
spoke  to  I  hi' serpent  :  '  I  ti-  my  i  list  rumen  I.  and  through 
thy  mouth  will  I  utter  a  word  which  shall  enable 
thee  to  seduce  niau  "  (I'irki'  H.  El.  xiii.).    Aflersonie 


jileading  the  serpent  succeeded  in  persuailing  Eve 
to  eat  of  the  forbidden  fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowl- 
edge— a  tig-tree  ((ieu.  K.  xv.  7) — which  the  serpent 
hail  shaken  for  her  (Ali.  K.  N.  i.  4,  ed.  Schechter). 
But  the  serjient  had  infused  lust  into  llie  Iruit.  and 
when  Eve  had  eaten  of  it  the  sexual  desire  awoke 
in  her  (Slavonic  Book  of  Baruch.  xcvii. ;  Ai)oc.  Abra- 
ham, xxjii..  and  I'irke  1{.  El.  xxi.).  and  at  the  same 
moment  she  became  aware  that  she  had  been  undone 
and  "  had  lost  the  garment  of  righteousness  in  w  hicli 
she  had  been  clotiied  "  ((Jen.  U'.  xix.  (i.  I'irke  K.  El. 
xiv. ).  Adam,  too,  after  lie  had  eaten  of  the  forbidden 
fruit,  ex]ierienced  a.senseof  lossand  cried  out :"  \Vhat 
hast  thou  done'/  Thou  hast  removed  me  from  the 
glory  of  the   Lord"'  (.\b.  K.  N.  i.  (i.  ed.  Schechter). 

Soon  after  they  had  sinned  thev  heard  the  trum- 
pet-blast {xhnfir)  of  .Michael  ("  B.  II."  ed.  .lellinek.  ii. 
(jl)  calling  the  angels:  "Thussaith 
The  Divine  the    Lord.    'Come  with   me   into  the 

■Verdict.  Garden  of  Eden  and  hear  the  sen- 
tence which  I  will  pass  on  Adam'" 
(Gen.  H.  xix.  8).  And  the  Lonl  then  spoke  to 
Adam,  saying:  "Where  art  thou  hidden'/  Dost 
thou  think  I  can  not  find  thee  '/  Can  a  house 
hide  itself  fnmi  its  builder?  [Targ.  Yer.  to  Gen. 
iii.  9J.  Because  thou  hast  broken  my  command- 
ment I  will  intlict  seventy-two  ailments  upon  thy 
body  "(Mishnah  Neg.  i.  4).  .\nil  to  the  woman  He 
said:  "Befause  thou  didst  not  hearken  to  my  com- 
mandment I  shall  multiply  thy  labor-]iains,  and 
vainly  [ir  /inraimr  of  the  (Jreck  l)y  a  mistake  in 
reading  Dv3n  (habalim)  for  D'73n(habalim)in  the 
Hebrew]  thou  wilt  then  confess  and  cry:  'Lord, 
save  me,  and  I  will  not  turn  any  more  to  carnal  sin.' 
But  thy  desire  shall  be  again  to  thy  husband"  (a 
niidrashic  explanation  of  Gen.  iii.  1(>,  basid  on  the 
henneiieutic  rule  of  siiiiiknt — |.\planation  by  con- 
text— and  tube  found  word  for  word  in  Gen.K.  xx.  7). 
Nor  did  the  serjient  escape  punishment,  for  it  lost  its 
hands  and  legs  (Gen.  I{.  xx.  .^),  and  a  spirit  of  enmity 
was  establislied  between  it  and  man  unto  the  day  of 
judgment:  acconling  to  Targ.  Yer.  Gen.  iii.  1.5, 
"  until  the  time  of  Messiah  "  (see  Sotah.  4(W).  How- 
ever, the  heaviest  punishment  for  Adam  was  his  ex- 
pulsion fiom  thcGardeii  of  Eden.  .\ll  his  supplica- 
tions, as  well  as  tho.se  of  the  angels,  to  mitigate  the 
.scuteuce  only  induced  God  to  promise  him.  saying: 
"If  after  having  left  the  Garden  of 
Adam  Ex-  Eden  thou  will  guard  againstevil  \mtil 

iled  from  thou  diest"  ["be  |)re|>arcd  to  die"  is 
the  Garden  not   correct,  being  based  on  the  con- 

of  Eden,  fusion  of  the  Hebrew  niO?  TDJ?  (wilt 
die)  wit  lit  be  AramaicTnjJ  (!"''■  pa'cil)]. 
"Iwill  iiiisetheeat  Iheljmeof  resurrection  "  (an  old 
haggadic  Targuni  to  Gen.  iii.  17.  'i'i.  which  is  also 
found  in  Targ.  Yer.  i.  and  Gen.  H.  xx,  10:  comjiare 
the  benediction  iiii/iiii/i/e  /niiiiitim  (He  raises  the 
dead),  in  Apost.  Const,  vii.  chap,  xxxiv).  In  the 
future  world  (iod  will  be  among  men  (Tan.,  ^'iiin. 
14."),  ed.  Buber).  and  the  Evil  .Spirit  will  he  uo  more 
(Gen.  K.  xlviii.  11). 

The  seiileiiceof  (iod  was  carried  intoefTect.  Ban- 
ished from  the  garden,  wliieli  was  henceforward 
surrounded  by  a  sea  of  ice  (Book  of  Enoch,  Hebrew 
version:  "  B.  II."  iv.  \'.i'2).  .\dam  and  Eve  settled  in 
I  he  neighborhood  of  Eden  ill  I  he  East  ((ien.  H.  xxi.  9). 
Thiv  were  no  sooner  out  of  their  blissful  abiHli-  than  a 
paralv/iiig  terror  befell  them.  I'naeeustomed  to  the 
earthly  life  and  unfamiliar  with  the  changes  of  the 
day  and  of  the  weather — in  paradise  an  eternal  light 
had  surrouudeil  them  ((ien.  I{.  xi.  2) — they  were 
terrilicd  when  the  darkness  of  night  began  to  fall 
upon  the  earth  c.Mi.  /anili,  Ni).  and  the  interces- 
sion of  God's  wonl  ({<1D'D)  was  necessnry  to  explain 


Adam,  Book  of 
Adam  ^admon 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


180 


to  them  the  new  order  of  Ihitifrs.  From  this  moment 
tlie  sutTerinjrs  of  life  beiriin ;  for  A<liiiii  ami  Eve  were 
afraid  to  partake  of  earthly  food,  and  fasted  for  the 
first  seven  days  after  their  expulsion  from  jjamdise, 
as  is  prescribed  in  Talnuulic  law  before  an  imminent 
famine  (Mishnali  Taanit.  i.  6). 

Humiliated  and  weakened  by  hunger  and  suffer- 
ini;.  Adam  became  eonseious  of  th(^  gravity  of  his 

sin.  for  which  he  was  now   ])repaied 

Repentance  to  alone  (Er.   \xh.  Gen.   K.  xxii,  i:i). 

of  Adam.    He.  therefore,  like  Moses,  Elijah,  and 

Abraham  (Apoe.  Abraham.  V2).  fasted 
for  forty  days,  durinj;  which  he  stood  up  to  his 
neck  in  (he  waters  of  the  river  Gihon  (pn'3).  the 
name  of  which  is  etymologieally  comicctcd  by  the 
writer  with  the  roots  jn3  "to  stoop"  and  'nj  "to 
jiray  aloud"  (Pirke  U.  El.  xx.).  Accordiui:  to  the 
Vita  Ad;e  et  Kviv.  Adam  stood  in  the  .Ionian — a 
versicm  which  may  be  ascribed  to  the  Christian  copy- 
ists, who,  for  obviuus  reasons,  wished  to  represent 
Adam  as  having  had  his  baptism  in  the  .Jordan,  for- 
getting that  since  Eve.  as  they  themselves  stated, 
bathed  in  the  Tigris,  Adam  would  have  selected  an- 
other of  the  rivers  of  |)aradisc  for  that  purpose. 

The  days  of  repentance  having  passed,  the  twins 
Cain  and  Abel  were  liorn  to  Adam  and  Eve  (Gen.  \i. 
xxii.  2).  And  soon  Cain  rose,  ran  away,  and  lirought 
a  reed  to  his  mother  (njp  =  J'p;  compare  Gen.  K, 
xxii.  8):  "Cain  killed  his  brother  with  a  reed  (njp)"; 
for,  according  to  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the  Ilag- 
gadah,  the  children  of  Adam  and  Eve  were  born 
fully  developed  (Gen.  R.  xxii.  2).  Eve  siiw  in  a 
dream  that  Cain  had  assji.ssinated  his  brother,  an<l 
Abel  was  found  slain  with  a  stone  (Gen.  H.  xxii.  8; 
Book  of  .lubilees,  iv.31);  but  the  earth  refused  to  re- 
ceive his  blood  (Git.  .JT/'),  As  a  compensation  for 
the  Tuurdered  Abel,  God  promised  Adam  a  son  who 
should  "make  known  everything  that  thou  doest." 
Adam,  at  the  age  of  nine  hundred  and  thirty  years, 
became   very   ill;    for  God   had   cursed   him   with 

seventy -two  ailments.      He  sent   his 

Illness   and  son   Setii,  with  Eve,  to  the  Garden 

Death  of     of   Eden    for    the   oil   of   healing,   to 

Adam.        restore  him  to   health   (Pirke   R   El. 

XXX v).  On  his  way  to  paradise  Seth 
was  attacked  by  a  wild  animal.  l'|»on  Eve's  de- 
manding how  an  animal  could  dare  to  attack  an 
image  of  God,  the  animal  repHed  that  she  herself, 
through  her  sin,  had  forfeited  the  right  to  rule  over 
the  animal  kingdom  (Pesik.  v,  4-t/i,  ed.  Bubcr.  and 
Sanh.  llKii'*).  Not  until  Seth  exclaimed:  "Wait  until 
the  day  of  judgment  !  "  or.  "Stop!  If  not.  thou  wilt 
be  brought  to  judgment  before  God  "  (both  readings 
based  on  •[]})  did  the  animal  let  him  go.  How- 
ever, the  mission  of  Seth  was  in  vain,  for  the  angel 
Michael,  to  whom  God  had  given  the  control  over 
the  human  body — for  he  it  was  who  had  gathered 
the  dust  for  Adam's  creaticm  (Midr.  IConen,  in  "B. 
H."  ii.  2T).  told  him  that  his  father's  life  was  at  an 
end.  and  his  soul  would  depart  from  him  within 
the  cfinrse  of  a  week. 

Three  days  after  the  death  of  Adam  (Gen.  R.  vii), 
which  took  place,  as  in  the  case  of  Moses  and  Aaron, 

in  the  presence  of  many  angels  and 
Funeral  even  in  the  jirescnce  of  the  Lord,  his 
of  Adam,     .soul  was  handed  over  by  God  to  Jli- 

chael,  who  assigned  it  an  abode  in  the 
third  lieaven  (Hag.  12A)  until  the  day  of  resurrec- 
tion. The  body  was  interred  with  exceptional  hon- 
ors; the  four  archangels,  Jlichael,  Gabriel,  Uriel. 
and  Rapiiael  (in  the  exact  order  of  enumeration 
given  by  the  Haggadah;  see  Kohut.  "  Angelologie." 
p.  25),  buried  it  in  the  neighborhood  of  paradise, 
the  precise  spot  being  (Pirke  R.  El.  xii,  and  xx.) 


Hebron  near  .lerusaleni;  for  the  site  of  tlie  altar  in 
till'  Temple,  whence  the  dust  of  Adam  was  taken,  is 
the  gate  to  paradise. 

A  few  days  after  the  interment  of  Adam  by  the 
rirtiitiD,  Eve  felt  that  her  end  was  approaching. 
She  called  lur  children  together  and  ordered  them  to 
write  down  th<'  naniesof  the  first  two  human  beings 
on  two  slalis  of  clay  and  stone,  for  she  had  learned 
from  .Michael  that  (iod  had  decided  to  bring  a  flood 
and  a  destructive  lire  over  the  earth  and  that  only 
these  slabs  would  escape  destruction  (.losephus. 
"Ant."  i.  2.  §3).  Evepas.sedaway  after  a  lapse  of  six 
days — that  is,  after  the  mourning  week  of  Adam — as 
the  nV3!;*  (»/"'''"/')  niay  consist,  according  to  Tal- 
mudie  law.  of  six  days  only  and  a  few  moments  of 
theseveiith  day  (  M.  K.  lil/<).  Eve  was  buried  by  the 
angels  at  the  side  of  Adam,  and  theangelsinstructed 
Seth  not  to  mourn  mole  than  six  days,  and  to  rest 
and  rejoice  on  the  seventh  day.  for  on  that  sjuneday 
Goil  and  the  angels  would  receive  in  gladness  the 
soul  which  is  lifted  above  all  earthly  matter  (Sanh. 
^~>l>).  and,  moreover,  rest  upon  the  seventh  day  was 
to  be  the  svmbol  of  the  resurrection  in  future  ages 

nac  "i7nt;' bv  (Sanh.  !):</). 

The  reconstruction  of  the  Jewish  Book  of  Adam 
here  attenipled  may  tie  hypothetical  in  some  points, 
for  neither  the  Api>c,  Mosis  nor  the  Vita  <an  be  con- 
sidered to  represent  a  true  eojiy  of  the  original.  But 
it  makes  clear  that  the.se  two  apocryphas  are  based 
on  the  Hebrew  or  Aramaic  Book  of  Adam  and  that 
the  latter  belongs  to  the  midrashic  literature,  as  many 
of  its  allusions  can  only  be  cxjilained  by  the  Midrash. 
The  legendsof  Adam  with  which  rabbinical  literature 
abounds  seem  to  |ioint  to  the  s;une  source.  Thus  the 
statement  in  Abot  de-Hablii  Nathan  (i,  6.  ed.  Shech- 
ter)  that  Eve  always  addressed  Adam  as  "  lord  "  is 
apparently  not  intelligible,  until  compared  with 
the  Vita  and  the  Slavonic  Book  of  Adam,  both  of 
which  contain  similar  statements,  which,  therefore, 
nuist  have  existed  in  the  original,  from  which  they 
both  drew  independently  of  each  other.  With  re- 
.iiard  to  the  alleged  Christian  elements  and  remi- 
niscences of  the  New  Ti'siiunent  in  the  Apoc.  Mosis 
and  Vita  they  will  be  sulliciently  eharacteri/.ed  by 
the  followingexamples:  Apoe,  Hlosis.  iii,.  "Child  of 
Wrath,"  is  based  on  a  haggadic  etymology  of  the 
name  Cain,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  Eph.  ii,  3 ;  and 
Ajioe.  Mosis.  xix,,  "  Lust  is  the  Ijcginning  of  all  sin," 
is  thoroughly  Jewish  (seeabove),  and  need  not  there- 
fore have  been  taken  from  such  a  source  as  James, 
i,  1"),  This,  moreover,  is  the  case  willi  all  the  other 
alleged  Christian  passjiges  in  the  Apoe,  .Mo.sis.  which 
would  prove  nothing,  even  if  they  were  of  Christian 
origin  ;  for  it  can  not  be  surprising  to  find  Christian 
allusions  in  the  langua,!re  of  a  book  so  widely  read 
among  Christians  as  the  Apocrypha.  Even  jiassages 
where  one  would  expect  that  a  Christian  editor  or 
compiler  would  interject  Christological  notions  are 
(juile  free  from  tliini;  all  of  which  tends  to  show 
that  neither  the  Apoc.  Mosis  nor  the  Vita  nas  in  any 
way  tampered  with  by  Christian  writers. 

Bini.IOGR.vpnv  :  Schiirpr.  flrsrh.  M  prt..  iff.,  2SS  rt  srq.:  Fuclis, 
in  Ijie  Atnihrifphfu  uml  Psi  tnh  I'iijraiihi  it  ilis  Alli  n  Ttstii- 
mrtits  (tnins.  aiut  e<l.  by  K.  K;iiitzs»-lu.  ii.  ."lOt*-.')™".*;  (;iiiziM*rp, 
Dir  HaotjO'Ja  hei  ikti  Kirchcuviili  ru.  la  Mioutttiscltrifl, 
l.sw.  pp.  tvi  rf  ,vi-(/.  Ttie  most  iinporlant  editions  of  ttie  lionhtt 
<if  Aihiin  are:  AiKtc.  Mitsis,  inAj>(>at!!fpxi!<Atmcrujjhfr^i?^. 
Ti-ilien.lorf.  im;-.  Vita  A<lir  el  t:rir.  ed.  H.  Meyer,  in  .•tl>- 
hiiniUinuii  It  ilrr  Tinjiri.^c}tnt  AUadi  iiiU'tU'r  M'issi  nucha  fteui 
l>liiU,si,pltisi]i.phihitinimhe  Klitxsr.  xiv.  (ISTS);  llieold  Sla- 
vonic IttHtk  iif  Aiiaiit :  Jaine.  in  I>fitlu'<c}iriftfn  ilrr  JVlener 
AiiiKii'tiiii:  ilir  yVissntarliiifli  It,  Phihisophisrh-HisfiiriKchc 
Khissi  (isicij,  i.  ct -•<*■«/.,  xlii.;  Mulan.  Ittmli  nf  Aitaiit  ami  F.vCf 
tnmslated  from  the  Ethiopic,  Ix)ndon,  18Si.  j     q 

ADASI  ( ■■  Red  ") :  City  near  the  Jordan.    In  Josh, 
iii.  16,  Adam  is  describee!  as  the  city  "  that  is  beside 


181 


THE  JKWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adam,  Book  of 
Adam  ^admon 


Zaretan,"  on  the  Jordan,  near  tlic  spot  where  the 
Israelites  crossed  tlw  river  on  dry  f.'round.  It  is 
proliablv  to  he  idcntitied  willi  the  modern  Tel 
Daniiih!  O.  B.  L. 

ADAM  KADMON  (more  correetly.  ?AD- 
MONI  * — Ai/'iiii.  llihrcw  fur  "man";  Kudiidiii  nr 
lyuiiiKiiii .  '■  lirsl  "  or  "ciriiiinal  "):  The  various  phil- 
osophieal  (Gnostie)  views  eoncerniufr  the  original 
man  are,  in  spite  of  their  ditrerenees.  intimately  re- 
lated, beiiij;  a  compound  of  Oriental  mythology. 
Greek  pliilosophy.  and  rabbinical  theology.  The 
first  to  use  theexpression  "original  man,"  or  "lieav- 
enly  man,"  is  Philo,  in  whose  view  the  ymK/x;,  or 
ui'imviuq  ar*'/"''~"C,"as  being  born  in  the  image  of  God, 
has  no  participation  in  any  ccirruptible  or  earlblikc^ 
essence:  whereas  the  earthly  man  is  made  of  liio.se 
material,  called  a  lump  of  clay  "  ("  I)e  Allegoriis  Le- 
gum,"  I.  xii.).  The  heavenly  man.  as  the  perfeit  im- 
age of  the  Logos,  is  neither  man  nor  woman,  but  an 
incorporeal  intelligence  purely  an  idea;  while  the 
earthly  man.  who  was  created  by  God  later,  is  per 
ceptible  to  the  senses  and  partakes  of  earthly  ([ualities 
("I)e  .Miin<li  Opitiein."  i.  ■)(!).  Philo  is  evidently 
ciimbining  Midrash  and  iihilnsuphy. 
Philo.  Plato   and    the    rabliis.      Setting    out 

from  the  duplicate  Biblical  account  of 
Adam,  who  was  formed  in  the  image  of  God  (Gen.  i. 
27),  and  of  the  first  man,  who.se  body  God  formed 
from  the  earth  (Gen.  ii.  7).  he  combines  with  it  the 
Plali>nic  doctrine  of  ideas;  taking  the  ]irimcn-dial 
Adam  as  the  idea,  and  the  created  man  of  llesh  and 
bh)od  as  the  "image,"  Th.-il  Philo's  philosophic 
views  are  grounded  on  the  Midrash,  and  not  vice 
versji,  is  evident  from  his  seemingly  senseless  state- 
ment that  the  "heavenly  man,"  theoi'vmiwf  SvCpuTof 
(who  is  merely  an  idea),  is  "neither  man  nor  woman." 
This  (loci  rine,  however,  Ijeeomes  quite  intelligible  in 
view  of  the  following  ancient  Midrash,  The  remark- 
able contradiction  between  the  two  above-quoted 
pa.s.sages  of  (Jenesis  could  not  escape  the  attention  of 
the  Pharisees,  to  whom  the  Hibh-  was  a  subject  of 
clos<'  study.  In  explaining  the  various  views  con- 
cerning Eve's  erealion,  they  taught  (Er.  \Xii,  Gen. 
R.  viii.)  that  Adam  was  created  as  a  man-woman 
(iindroi/i/ii/ix),  explaining  napJl  ^^t  (Gen.  i.  27)  as 
"male  and  female"  instead  of  "  man  and  woman." 
and  that  the  separation  <d"  the  sexes  arose  from  the 
8iibse(|uent  operation  ujion  Adam's  body,  as  related 
in  the  Scripture.  This  explains  Philo's  statement 
that  the  original  man  was  neither  man  nor  woman. 

This  doctrine  concerning  the  Logos,  as  also  that  of 
man  made  "in  the  likeness"  ("  I)i'  Confiisione  Lin- 
giiarum,"  xxviii.),  Ihough  tinged  with  true  Philonic 
coloring,  is  also  based  on  liii'  theology  of  the  Phari- 
sees. Kor  in  an  old  Midiash  (Gen.  R.  viii.  1)  it  is  re- 
marked :  "  '  Thou  hast  formed  me  behind  and  Ixfore  ' 
ll'^.  cxxxix.  ."))  is  to  be  explained^  before  the  first  and 
after  the  l.isl  day  of  Creation.'    For  it 

Midrash.  is  sind.  'And  the  spirit  of  Gml  moveil 
upon  till' face  of  the  waters,'  meaning 
the  spirit  of  the  .Messiah  I  "the  spirit  ot.Vdam  "in  the 
pandlel  passage,  .Midr.  'I eh.  to  cxxxix. .');  both  read- 
ings are  essentially  thcsjinie],  of  whom  it  issjiid  (Isa. 
xi.  2l.  '.\nd  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  shall  rest  upon 
iiim.'"  This  contains  the  kernel  of  Philo's  philo- 
sophieiil  doctrine  of  the  creation  of  the  original  man. 
He  calls  him  the  icha  of  the  larlhly  .Xdani,  while 
with  the  rabbis  the  mi  (spirit  of  .\dam)  not  only 
existed  before  the  creation  of  the  earthly  Adam,  but 

•TtifnlOeslnititilnlf'ftl  wnm-efortln'tenn  ".\(l>iiiitin-Ktiilnii>iit" 
Ik  Num.  It.  x,  uliiri'  .\iliiii>  Ix  Mtylnl.  imi  us  ii-iuiillyi  "  Ilii-Itl- 
«hnn"  (the  Ilrsti,  lull  "  llii-l>niliiiiiia  "  (tlieertKliiHl).  ('oiiiimr*- 
lh(i  viT>'  iini'leiii ('.xprfKHlun  "iialuult  ha-kadmimi "  (tlivurlglniil 
avnx'iiUlliuiU'vIl). 


was  preexistent  to  the  whole  of  creation.  From  the 
jireexisting  Adam,  or  Jlessiah,  to  the  Logos  is  merely 
a  step. 

The  above-<iuoted  Midrash  is  even  of  greater  im- 
portance for  the  understanding  of  the  Pauline  Chris- 

tology,  as  affording  the  key  to  Paul's 
Paul.        doctrine  of  the  first  and  second  Adam. 

The  main  i)assagein  Pauline  Christol- 
ogy  is  I  Cor.  xv.  4")-r)0.  According  to  this  there  is 
a  double  form  of  man's  existence;  forGod  created  a 
heavenly  Adam  in  the  siiiritual  world  and  an  earthly 


Adnm  ^adinon— Dlnifniin  llliistnilliiif  llio  Sellmt  (Divine 
.Mtrlliules). 

(From  (;iiul.uTK,"Thr  Kalit'kUh.") 

one  of  clay  for  the  material  world.  The  earthly  Adam 
came  first  into  view,  although  created  last.  The  first 
.\dani  was  of  tlesh  and  blood  and  therefore  subject 
to  death — merely  "a  living  sold  "  :  the  second  Ailam 
was  "a  life  giving  spirit " — a  spirit  whose  body,  like 
the  heavenly  beings  in  genenil.  was  only  of  a  spiri- 
tual nature.  Tlie  apparently  insupenible  diflicnlty 
of  the  Pauline  Chrislology  which  confronts  the  ex- 
pounders of  tin'  New  Testament  (see,  for  instance, 
lloll/mann,  "  Lehrbuch  <Kr  Neu  Teslamentlicheii 
Tlieologie,"  ii.  75  it  /»(/.)  di.sappeurs  entirely  when 
refereuec  is  inudu  to  tlic  Midnisli.     As  a  pupil  of 


Adam  ]^adinou 
Artamantiua 


TIIK  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


182 


Gamaliel,  Paul  simply  operates  with  coiiecptions  fa- 
miliar to  the  Palesliniiiii  llicdliiiriuns.  Messiah,  as  the 
Midnish  remarks,  is.  ou  the  one  haiiil.  tlie  liist  Adam, 
the  orifrinal  man  who  e.xistcd  before  Creation,  his 
spirit  heins  already  present.  On  Iheotlierliaud.  he  is 
also  the  seeond  Adam  in  so  far  as  his  bodily  appea ranee 
followed  the  Creation,  and  iiiasmueh  as,  aeconlini; 
to  the  flesh,  he  is  of  the  posterity  of  Adam,  Paul, 
therefore,  is  not  dependent  upon  Philo  for  his  Chris- 
tolo^iy ,  as  most  seholars  hold  ;  indeed,  he  dilVers  from 
him  on  most  essential  points.  With  Philo  the  origi- 
nal man  is  an  idea:  with  Paul  he  is  the  iiersonality  of 
.lesus,  AVith  Pliilo  the  tirst  man  i,s  the  orij^inal  man ; 
Paul  identities  the  orijiinal  man  with  the  seeond 
Adam,  The  Christian  apostle  evidently  drew  upon 
the  Palestinian  theology  of  his  day  :  but  it  can  not  be 
denied  that  in  aneient  times  this  theology  was  in- 
debted to  the  Alexandrians  for  many  of  its  ideas,  and 
probably  among  them  for  that  of  preexistenee.  The 
^lidrash  thus  considered  alfords  a  suitable  transition 
to  the  Gnostic  theories  of  the  original  man. 

It  has  been  sjiid  that  the  Midrash  already  speaks  of 
the  spirit  (;n'fe/m)  of  the  tirst  Adam  or  of  the  Messiah 
without,  however,  absolutely  identifying  Adam  and 
Messiah,  This  identitication  could  only  be  made  liy 
persons  who  regarded  only  the  spirit  of  the  Seri|)tur<' 
(meaning,  of  course,  their  conee])tiou  of  it)  and  not 

the  li'tter  as  bindin.g;  who  lived  in  a 
The  Clem-  medium  more  exjio.sed  to  the  heathen 
entines.      mythology  than  that  of  the  rabbinical 

schools.  In  such  circles  originated 
the  Clementine  "Homilies"  and  "  Recognitions, "  in 
whieli  the  doctrine  of  the  original  man  (called  also 
in  the  Clementine  writings  "the  true  jirophet'')  is  of 
prime  importance.  It  is  quite  certain  that  this  doc- 
trine is  of  Jud.-eo-Christian  origin.  The  ideiuity  of 
A<lam  and  .Icsus  seems  to  have  been  taught  in  the 
original  form  of  the  Clementine  writings.  The 
"liomilies"  distinctly  assert: 

"  If  any  one  do  not  allow  the  man  fashioned  liy  the  hands  of 
(iod  to  liave  the  holy  spirit  of  Christ,  is  lie  not  guilty  of  tho 
l^rv!il4'st  impiety  in  allowing  another,  iMirii  of  an  impure  stock, 
to  have  it?  But  he  would  art  nio?,t  piously  if  he  should  .say 
timi  He  alone  has  it  who  lias  chani^M.'d  Mis  form  and  His  name 
fr-om  the  heginning  of  the  world,  and  so  apiieared  ngain  and 
again  in  the  world  until,  coming  to  his  own  times.  ...  tie 
shall  enjoy  rest  forever  "  C'  tlom,"  iii.  2<)j. 

The  "  Recognitions  "  also  lay  stress  upon  the  iden- 
tity of  Adam  and  .lesus:  for  in  the  passage  (i,  45) 
wherein  it  is  mysteriously  hinted  that  Adam  was 
anointed  with  the  eternal  oil,  the  meaning  can  only  be 
that  Adam  is  theanointeil  (n'titD).  If  other  passages 
in  the  "Recognitions"  seem  to  conti"a<lict  this  iden- 
titication they  only  serve  to  show  how  vacillating 
the  work  is  in  reference  to  the  doctrine  of  the  orig- 
inal man.  This  conception  is  expressed  in  true  Phi- 
Ionic  and  Platonic  fashion  in  i,  18,  where  it  is  declared 
that  the  "interna  species"  (i'Sfo)  of  man  had  its  ex- 
istence earlier.  The  original  man  of  the  Clemen- 
tines is,  therefore,  ,simply  a  pi'oduct  of  three  clc- 
nu'iits,  namely,  Jewi.sh  theology,  Platonie-Philonic 
philosophy,  and  Oriental  theosojihy ;  and  this  fact 
,serves  to  explain  their  obscurity  of  expression  on 
the  subject. 

In  close  relationship  to  the  Clementine  writings 
stand  the  Bible  translator  Symmachus  and  the  .lew- 
ish-Christian  sect  to  which  he  belonged,  Victo- 
rinus  Rhetor  ("Ad  Gal."  i.  19:  Mignc,  "Patr,  Lat." 
viii.  col.  11.1.5)  states  that  "The  Symmachiani  teach 
'  Kum — Christum — Adam  esse  et  esse  animam  gen- 
eralcm.'"  The  .lewish-Chinstian  sect  of  the  Elce- 
saites  also  taught  (about  the  year  100)  that  Jesus  ap- 
peared on  earth  in  changing  human  forms,  and  that 
He  will  reappear  (Hippolytus,  "Philosophoumena," 
X.  25).    Tliat  by  these  "  changing  human  forms  "  are 


to  be  understood  the  appearances  of  Adam  and  the 
patriarchs  is  |ioinled  out  by  Epiphanius  ("Adver- 

sus  Ilierescs,"  xxx,  3),  according  to 

Other         whom   the  Jewish-Christian  sects  of 

Gnostic      Sampsjeans,  Ossenes,  Xazarcnes,  and 

Systems.     Ebioniles    adopted    the    doctrine    of 

the  Elcesjiites  that  Jesus  and  Adaui 
are  identical. 

A  portion  of  these  Gnostic  teachings,  when  com- 
bined with  Persian  and  old  Babylonian  mythology, 
furnished  Mams,  nr  .Mani,  with  his  inirticnlar  (toe- 
trine  of  the  oiiglnal  man.  He  even  retains  the 
Jewish  designations  "  Insan  Kadim  "(  =  pDTp  DIK) 
and  "  Iblis  Kailim  "  ( =  pOTip  L'TIJ  >,  as  may  \k  seen  iu 

the  Filirist.  But,  according  to  Manes, 
Mani-  the  original  man  is  fumlamentally 
cheism.       distinct  from   the  first  father  of  the 

hmnaii  ra<c.  He  is  a  creation  of  the 
King  of  Light,  and  is  therefore  endowed  with  five 
elements  of  the  kingdom  of  light:  whereas  Adam 
really  owes  his  existence  to  the  kingdom  of  dark- 
ness, and  only  escapes  belonging  altogether  to  the 
number  of  demons  through  th(r  fact  that  he  bears 
the  likeness  of  the  original  man  in  the  elements  of 
light  concentered  in  him.  Tln>  Gnostic  doctrine  of 
tile  identity  of  Ailam,  as  the  <ii'iginal  man,  with  the 
Messiah  appears  in  Manes  in  liis  teaching  of  the 
"  Redeeming  Christ,"  who  has  His  abode  iu  the  sun 
anil  moon,  but  is  (as  Kessler,  in  Herzog's  "Rcalen- 
cyclo])ildie  flir  Protestant.  Theologie,"  2  ed,  ix.  247. 
has  pointed  out)  identical  with  the  original  man. 
It  also  appeal's  in  this  theoi-y  that  Adam  was  tho 
first  of  the  si'Vcnfold  series  of  true  pi'ophets,  com- 
prising Adam.  Seth,  Xoah.  Abmham.  Zoroaster, 
iiuddha.  and  .Jesus,  The  ste]iping-stciue  fi'om  the 
(inostic  original  man  to  Manicheism  w.is  pixibably 
the  older  .MainUean  conception,  whicli  may  have  ex- 
ercised great  influence.  Of  this  conception,  how- 
ever, there  remains  in  the  later  Mandaim  writings 
little  more  than  the  exjiression  "Gabra  I^admaya" 
(  =  Adam  Kadmon;  Kolasta,  i.  11). 

The  relation  of  the  ^lohammedan  sects  to  Jewish 
Gnosticism  in  their  teachings  concerning  the  incar- 
nation of   the   Divine  Being   is  very 
Mohammed- uncertain.      It  is   only   known    that 
an  Sects,     their   theories  contain   moie   Cinostio 

than  Buddhist  elements;  an<I  in  this 
connection  it  was  probably  not  by  mere  accident  that 
the  founder  of  one  of  their  sects,  Ami.\i.i..Ml  iiix 
Saba  (052),  was  a  Jcwisli  apostate.  Their  Gnostic 
character  plainly  ajipeared  a  century  later  (Tti.'i). 
when  Abdallali's  views  were  systematized  by  the 
Ismailians.  Their  doctrine  was  then  .stated  as  fol- 
lows: "God  has  clTccted  seven  successive  incarna- 
tions of  His  being,  in  the  shape  of  prophets  whom 
He  sent  into  the  world ;  and  these  were  Adam,  Noah. 
Abraham.  J[<ises,  Jesus,  Jlohammcd.  and  the  ]Mahdi " 
(Augu.st  Miiller,  "  Der  Islam,"  i,  .588),  It  is  not  dif- 
ficult to  discern  heiein  the  Clementine  theory  of  the 
sevenfold  prophetic  chain  beginning  with  Adam 
and  ending  with  the  Messiah  (  Maliili). 

A  further  development  of  llu-  Mohammedan  doc- 
trine is  that  of  Darosi,  wliosc  adherents,  imder  the 
name  of  Druses,  form  at  the  present  day  an  inde- 
pendent community,  religiously  as  well  as  politically. 

Darosi  in  1017  iiublicly  preached  in 

The  the   mosques  that  Adam's  soul  had 

Druses.       passed   into  Ali,   his  son-in-law,  and 

from  him  to  the  Fatimides  (.Midler. 
Hi.  i.  (5152).  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  identi- 
fication, partial  or  complete,  of  Adam  (the  original 
man)  with  the  Savior  of  man  is  universal,  how- 
ever varying  the  conception  of  the  Messiah-JIahdi 
may  be. 


183 


THE  JEWISH   ENCVCLUPEDIA 


Adam  ^admon 
Adamantius 


For  practical  reasons  the  consideration  of  the  sub- 
ject of  Adam  Kadiiion  in  the  Cabala  has  been  re- 
served for  the  end  of  this  article.  Hefore  discussing 
the  subject  it  will  be  well  to  revert  to  the  ancient 
rabbinical  sources  already  referred  to.  There  is  a 
fundamental  the<]sci|iliical  statement  by  Akiba  in  the 
Talmud  relative  to  this  topic  to  which  no  reference 
lias  yet  been  tnade.  He  sjiys.  in  Abot,  iii.  14.  '■  How 
favored  is  man,  seeing  that  he  was  created  in  the 
image!  as  it  is  said.  '  For  in  the  image.  D'npX  made 
man  '  "  (Gen.  ix.  6).    That  ""  in  the  im- 

Akiba.  age"  does  not  mean  "in  the  image  of 
God"  needs  no  proof;  for  in  no  lan- 
guage can  "image"  be  substituted  for  "iimigc  of 
God."  There  is,  moreover,  annther  ditliculty  in  this 
pus.S)ige:  the  verse  quoted  is  not  that  of  Gen.  i.  27, 
wherein  the  creation  of  man  in  the  image  of  God  is 
primarily  stated.  Gen.  i.\.  (i  treats  oidy  secondarily 
of  man's  creation.  The  selection  of  a  s<'c(mdary 
quotation  in  support  is  not  a  little  surprising  to 
those  familiar  with  the  usual  rabbinical  mode  of 
(juotation.  In  point  of  fact  Akiba  does  not  speak 
onl}'  of  the  image  (DPV>  acconling  to  which  man 
was  created,  but  also  of  the  likeness  (moT;  Gen. 
R.  x.wiv.  14).  D?V3  really  has  no  other  signitication 
than  "after  the  image."  Akiba,  who  steadfastly 
denies  any  resemblance  between  Goil  and  other 
beings — even  the  highest  type  of  angels — teaches 
that  man  was  created  after  an  image — that  is,  an 
archetypi — or,  in  philosophical  phrase, afteran  ideal, 
and  thus  interprets  Gen.  i.\.  (i,  "after  an  image  God 
created  man,"  an  interi)retation  (piile  impossible  in 
Gen.   i.   27.     C'omparo  the  beiieiliction  in  Ket.  8rt, 

W33n  nrai  n^Vn  lO^Vn.  wherein  God  is  blessed 
because  "lie  made  man  in  His  image  [107V3].  in 
the  image  of  a  furm  created  by  Him."  The  con- 
cluding explanatory  wonls  <if  this  benediction  inti- 
mate, in  Akiba's  style,  that  Adam  was  created  after 
the  image  of  a  (!od  created  type  (n'J3n). 

Closely  related  t"  the  I'hilonic  <li)ctrine  of  the 
heavenly  Adam  is  the  Adam  Kadmon  (called  also 
Adam  'Ilaya,  the  "  High  Man."  the  "  Heavenly  Man") 
of  the  Znhar,  whose  conception  of  the  original 
man  can  be  deduced  from  the  following  two  pas- 
sages: "The  form  of  man  is  the  image  of  everything 
that  is  above  |in  heavenl  ancl  below  [upon  earth]: 
therefore  <lid  the  Holy  Ancient  [God]  sileet  it  for 
His  own  form"  (IdraR.  141/0.  As  with  Philo  the 
Logos  is  the  oriirinal  image  of  man,  or  the  original 
man,  so  in  the  Zohar  the  heavenly  man  is  the  embodi- 
ment of  all  divine  manifestations;  the  Ten  Selirot, 
the  original  image  of  man.  The  heaveidy  Adam,  step- 
ping forth  out  of  the  highest  original 
Zohar.  darkness,  created  the  earthly  Adam 
iZi>liar,  ii.  70/<).  In  other  words,  the 
activity  of  tin'  Original  Essence  manifisted  itself 
in  the  creation  of  man.  who  at  the  sam<>  time  is  the 
image  of  the  Heaveidy  Man  and  of  the  imiverse 
(Zohar,  ii.  4t^),  just  as  witii  Plato  and  Philo  the 
idea  of  man,  as  microcosm,  embraces  the  idea  of 
the  universe  or  macrocosm. 

The  con<-eption  of  Adam  Kadmon  becomes  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  later  Cabala  of  I.uria.     Adam 
Kadmon   is   with   him  no  longer  the  ci>ncentnited 
manifestation   of   the  Silirot.  but    a   mediator   b<- 
tween  the  En  Sof  ("  Iritinile  ")  and  tUe  Selirot.     The 
En  Sof.  according   to    Euria.  is  so   utterly  incom- 
prehensible that   the   oldiT  cabalistic 
Luria.         doctrine   of  the  numifeslalion   ^f  the 
EnSof  in  the  Si'tlrot  must    be  alian- 
doiied.     Hence  he  leaches  that  oidy  the  .\dam  Kad- 
mon. who  arost"  In  the  way  of  self  limitation  by  the 
En-Sof,  can  be  sjiid  to  manifest  himself  in  the  Selirot. 


This  theory  of  Luna's,  which  is  treated  by  Hayj'im 
Vital  in  "  'Ez  Hayyim;  Derush  'Agulim  we-Yosher  " 
(Treatise  on  Circles  and  the  Straight  Line),  leads,  if 
consistently  carried  out,  to  the  Philonic  Logos. 

Bnu.iOGR.ipnv:  Huii.sratb.  .V.  T.  Zcityewh.  II.  163  ft  wfj..  111. 
KS-mj;  sieiffrled.  I'liiln  vim  Alfxiindricn  (sfe  Index)  ;  Hil- 
KenfelJ,  Climfiilininclif  ItiummitiDiien  und  Huniitkn  (set; 
IndM),  Jena.  1M«:  thihom.  Die  Uomilkn  xtiiil  Hicogiii- 
li'itieii  iset-  Index);  Franek,  Sustane  de  la  Kahhak.tmus. 
by  Jelllnek,  pp.  im  d  seii.,  IBB. 

L.  G. 

ADAMAH  ("Red  Land''):  Fortified  city  of 
Xaphtali,  northwest  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (.josh, 
xi.x.  ;i6);  identitied  byConder  with  modem  'Admah, 
north  of  Belli  sbean."  G.  B.  L. 

ADAMANT  :  This  ternt  occurs  three  times  in 
the  Old  Testament  (Ezek.  iii.  il.Zech.  vi.  12,  .Jer.  xvii. 
1),  and  is  used  as  a  translation  {or  >i/i/imir.  Although 
no  detiuile  idea  can  be  gathered  concerning  the  iden- 
tity of  the  substance  inteiideil  from  these  passages, 
it  is  possible  to  determine  its  nature  and  the  uses 
to  which  it  was  i)Ut.  A  very  hard  substance  is 
clearlj'  iiKliealed  in  all  the  passiige.s,  and  in  .ler.  xvii. 
1  it  is  compared  with  the  engraver's  tool  of  iron.  In 
the  two  other  jiassages  it  is  used  figuratively  to  ex- 
press au  unyielding,  stubborn,  and  detiant  spirit. 
The  diamond  can  not  be  meant  by  Jer.  xvii.  1,  for 
the  diamond  was  not  used  for  engraving  by  the  an- 
cients, and  indeed  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  dia- 
mond in  its  polished  form  was  known  to  them.  The 
substance  used  for  engraving  was  corundum  (Pet- 
rie,  "Pyramids  and  Temples  of  Gizeh."  p.  173),  and 
this  is  |irobably  intended  by  the  "adamant  "  of  the 
Bible.  The  reading  "adamant"  in  Ecdus.  xvi.  Iti 
is  evidently  wrong.  It  does  not  give  any  intelligi- 
ble meaning,  and  in  the  manuscript  discovered  by 
Schechter,  the  Hebrew  reads  "  for  the  sons  of  man  " 
("Wisdom  of  Ben  Sira,"  ed.  Schechter  and  Taylor, 
1809,  p.  1(1,  text  I.  The  Talmud,  explains  Sii.wiiR  as 
a  minicidous  worm  that  was  used  in  engraving  the 
stones  on  the  lirea.stphile  of  the  high  i)riest,"  and 
according  to  a  widespread  legend  which  became 
known  to  the  Arabs,  Solomon  was  a.ssisted  by  this 
worm  in  the  building  of  the  Temple  (Sotah,  24/i"  4^). 

G.  B.  L. 

ADAMANTIUS :  Jewish  physician,  author, 
ami  Maliiralist  \iii7iiikuv  hiyuv  aoipiari/c  see  Socrates, 
"Hist.  Eccl."  vii.  13);  lived  in  Alexandria  in  the 
founh  century.  He  prepared  an  abridgment,  in 
two  volumes,  of  the  'tnwdijTu/i/Mi,  a  work  on  physiog- 
nomy, written  by  Polemcm  the  rhetor,  who  is  sup- 
po.sed  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Hadrian.  Of  this 
work  an  Arabic  version  in  manuscript  I'xists  in  the 
rniversity  Library  at  Leyden.  He  didicated  his 
abridgment  to  the  emperor  Constanlius.  The  va- 
rious editions  of  this  work  are  "  .\damantii  Sophistie 
Physiognomica,"  in  Greek,  Paris,  l.")40;  "  Adamantii 
Sophista-  Physiogiumiicon.  id  e.st  de  Nalune  Indiciis 
Cognoscendis  Liliri  Duo."  in  Greek  and  Latin,  Ba.sel. 
I.>i4;  in  (treek.  logelher  with  the  works  of  .Elian. 
Polemon.  and  others,  Rome.  l.VI.I.  An  uncritical  edi- 
tion in  (Jreek  and  Latin  w  as  published  by  I.  (J.  Franz 
nndir  the  title  "Seriptores  Physiognomia-  Veleres." 
.Mlinbiirg.  17MII.  .Vnother  work  by  Adamanlius. 
"On  the  Winds"  (Ilff)i '.VifMui),  was  publislu'd  by 
V.  Rose,  in  ".Vnecdota  Gneca,"  i.  2!t.  Two  <|Uotii- 
lions  from  this  are  known,  one  cileil  bv  -Etius.  a 
physician  of  .\mida  (see  Pliotius,  "  BibliotWca,  "  cod. 
221,  iii.  ll»3).  Ur/H 'At'Htuf, 'Ai^nuayriiw  ^i^tffToi\  vt].  I. 
Hirsrhberg.  Leipsie.  \>*W).  and  one  in  the  late  Byzan 
tine  period  by  .loannes  Diaconus  Galenns.  .Vdaman- 
tins  himself  dei  lares  thai  in  this  wurk  he  followed 
more  the  method  of  the  "  Phvsiognomica"  of  Aristotle 


Adam-Salomon 
Adda  b.  Ababah 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


184 


than  any  othf-r.  an  important  fart  for  tlio  textual 
criticism  of  the  works  liolli  of  Aristotle  ami  of  Ada- 
mantius.  Aiiamantius  was  also  a  naUiralist ;  mud- 
itamcnts  iiilrodurcd  l)y  liim  arc  mentioned  by  Ori- 
basius,  who  compiled  a  medical  work  during  the  reign 
of  tlie  emperor  Julian. 

Bibliography:  M.  Wi-llniann,  In Pauly  and  Wlssowa'8  Rcal- 
iiirilliliniililic  iltr  ( '(i(,-wij«7i( /I  Altiiihunu'wistfniicliafl,  I. 
Wl;  KcHTstvr.  In  Ilirmen.x.W:;  Idem, /'/lifolut/"".  xhi.avt- 
27.');  Ulfui,  (»ri),ii.«iii.-.  v.  Kiit-ll-'.  1I4.:«").  ."iW. 

S.   Kii. 

ADAM-SALOMON,     ANTONY  SAMUEL : 

French  si  ulptor;  Imrn  at  I,a  I'Vrte  sons -Jouarre.  in 
till'  department  of  Seine ctMarne.  France,  181S; 
died  in  Paris,  April  2'.K  IXSI.  Adam  Salomon  was 
intended  for  a  mercantile  career,  which  he  followed 
for  some  time  at  Fontaini'bleau ;  hut  he  afterward 
ent<'red  the  factory  of  Jacob  Petit  as  modeler,  a  call- 
inj;'  for  whicli  he  had  shown  talent  in  his  youth,  lie 
was  sent  by  the  authorities  of  his  departmeiil  with 
a  .scholarship  to  Paris,  where  he  studied  sculpture 
thoroufihly ;  and  then,  to  perfect  himself  in  his  art, 
he  traveled  in  Sw  itzerlaiul  and  England.  The  bust 
of  IJeranger  whicli  he  produced  at  once  established 
his  reputation,  ami  was  repeatedly  cojiied.  It  is  said 
that,  as  the  poet  declined  to  sit  for  liim.  he  modeled 
the  features  from  memory.  Adam-Salomon  exhib- 
ited twice  in  the  Salon,  under  the  pseudonym  of 
"Adania"  (IS.)4and  1S4S). 

His  other  productions  included  medallions  of  Co- 
pernicus ami  of  Amyot,  busts  of  Hossini,  Delphine 
Gay,  George  Sand,  Lamartine,  Ilalevy,  Garnier- 
Pagfis.  and  others.     Lamartine  had  a  special  esteem 

for  Adam  -  Salomon  ; 
and  the  sculptor,after 
the  death  of  the  poet, 
took  a  cast  of  his 
head.  lie  also  made 
a  medallion  of  Jlar- 
chand  Ennery,  chief 
rabbi  of  France.  Be- 
siiles  these  works  his 
bas-relief  of  Charlotte 
Conlay  and  the  tomb 
of  the  duke  of  Padua 
are  worthy  of  mention. 
Towarii  the  end  of 
his  career.  Adam  .Sal- 
omon devoted  himself 
to  photograiihy,  and 
assisted  in  the  devel- 
opment of  this  art. 
In  1850  he  married 
.Mlam-Salomon.  Mile.    Georgine    Cor- 

nelie  Coutellier.  a  fel- 
low artist,  of  Christian  birth,  who  embraced  the  He- 
brew faith  and  remained  true  to  it  till  her  death  in 
1HT8.  The  remains  of  Adam  Salomon  rest  in  Fon- 
tainebleau. 

BlBLinoRAPiiY:  Aiinreau  LarnxiMC  Ilhixtrr,  1.  77;  Vapereau, 
Diit.  Univ.  (let  Co)ilemi>.,s.v.  j    yy 

ADAMS,  HANNAH:  American  author  of  a 
Jewish  hislory:  born  al  Medtield.  near  Boston,  in 
17o5  or  n.'tG;  died  at  Hrookline,  Mass.,  November  1.5, 
1833;  one  of  the  earliest  women  writers  of  America. 
She  accpiired  the  rudiments  of  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Hebrew  from  some  university  students  boarding 
with  her  father  who  encouraged  her  religions  aii<l 
historical  stmlies.  She  wrote  extensively  on  topics 
connected  with  her  favorite  studies,  and  though  her 
writings  brought  her  little  pecuniary  profit,  they 
secured  her  many  distinguished  friends,  among  them 
the  Abbe  Gregoire,  with  whom  she  carried  on  a  cor- 


respondence that  formed  the  nucleus  for  lier  "  His- 
tory of  the  Jews.  "  Among  her  various  works  are 
"A  View  of  I{<ligious  Opinions"  (1784),  of  which 
several  American  and  English  editions  ai)peared, 
the  fourth  edition  under  tlie  title  "  IJictionary  of 
Keligions";  "Ili.story  of  New  England"  (1799); 
"Evidences  of  Christianity  "  (1801);  an  "Autobiog- 
raphy," and  the  "History  of  the  Jews  from  tho 
Destruction  of  .Icrusiilem  to  the  Present  Time  "  (Bos- 
ton. ISli;  London,  1818),  The  hist  work  became  jiop- 
ular  in  Europe  and  America,  anil  a  German  edition 
was  jirinted  in  two  volumes  at  Leipsic  in  181!(-'.>0. 
This  history  of  the  Jews  after  Bililical  times  was  the 
tirst  issued  in  America,  and  it  contains,  among  other 
interesting  features,  a  great  deal  of  in  format  ion  about 
the  Jews  of  America  that  was  reproduced  by  Jost. 
It  is  based  chielly  oil  the  works  of  Gregoire,  Basuage, 
Buchanan,  and  others.  G.  A.  K. 

ADAMS,  JOHN  :  Second  president  of  the  Uni- 
ted Slates;  born  at  Biaintree,  Mass.,  Oct.  19  (old 
style),  17;i5:  died  at  Ciiiincy,  Mass.,  July  4,  1836.  In 
the  later  years  of  his  life  he  devoted  much  time 
and  thought  to  the  consideration  of  the  history  of 
religions.  I'poii  this  subject  he  carried  on  an  ex- 
tensive corresiiondence  with  .Tefferson,  in  which  he 
exhibited  an  intimate  knowledge  of  Jewish  historv 
and  of  the  contributions  of  the  Jews  to  the  civili- 
zation of  the  world.  In  expressing  his  opinion  iu 
Februarv,  1809,  he  wrote  ("  Works  of  John  Adams," 
ix.  009,  ijlO): 

■' .  .  .  In  spite  of  BiillnghnikP  ami  Voltaire,  I  will  Insist"  that 
the  Hebrew.s  have  done  more  to  t-ivlllze  men  than  any  other 
nation.  If  I  wen'  an  atheist,  and  lielieved  in  blind  eUTrial  fate, 
I  should  still  believe  that  fale  had  ordainwl  the  Jews  to  Ik' llie 
most  essential  Instrimieiu  for  elvlllzlnp  nations.  If  I  were  an 
atheist  of  the  orher  seel,  who  Itelleve,  or  jut^tend  to  iM'lieve, 
that  all  is  ordered  by  cliani-e,  I  should  Ijelieve  that  chance  had 
ordered  the  Jews  to  Ilrl■^erve  and  propagate  to  alt  iiiankiiid  the 
doctrine  of  a  supreme,  intelligent,  wise,  ainiluhtv  sovereign  of 
the  universe,  which  I  tn'Ileve  U)  lie  the  great  es.setitial  principle 
of  all  inonUity,  and  consequently  of  all  civilization.  I  can  not 
say  that  I  love  tin-  .(cw>  \-cr-y  much,  nor  the  FYench,  nor  the  Eng- 
listi,  nor  the  Komans,  iioi-  itie  lini-ks.  We  must  loveall  nations 
as  well  as  we  can,  but  it  is  very  hard  to  love  most  of  them." 

In  1818  he  expressed  himself  similarly  in  a  letter  to 
Jlordecai  JI.  Noah  (see  No.Mi.  "Travels  in  England, 
France,  .Spain,"  etc.,  appendix,  p.  xxvi.). 

H.  Fh. 

ADAR  (K.  \'..  ADDABi:  1.  A  Benjamite.  son 
of  Bela  (I  Chron.  viii.  ;!).  2.  A  border  town  of  Ju- 
dah  (Josh.  xv.  8).  G.  B.  L. 

ADAK  (Assyrian,  Ad-da-ru) :  The  twelfth  ec- 
clesiastical and  sixth  civil  month  (Esth.  iii.  7.  ix.  1 ; 
Ezra.  vi.  1.5).  It  has  usually  twenty -nine  days,  of 
which  the  follow  ing  have  been  set  apart  for  com- 
memoration: The  seventh  day  is  observed  as  the 
anniversary  of  the  death  of  Moses.  The  ninth  of 
Adar  was  made  a  fast-day,  because,  says  the  Megil- 
lat  Ta'anit,  the  Ilillelites  and  Shammaitcs  strongly 
oi>posed  ciicli  other  on  the  seventh  of  Adar  (com- 
pare Shab.  I'll)-  The  thirteenth  day  was  originally 
a  festival,  called  Nicanor  Day,  commemorating  the 
death  of  Nicanor  (see  Adaus.v),  the  Syrian  general 
in  the  Maccabean  war,  who  aroused  the  indignation 
of  the  people  by  his  insulting  language  concerning 
the  sanctuary  (II  Mace.  xv.  3();  Ta'anit,  18';;  Megil- 
lat  Ta'anit).  Subseijuently  the  thirteenth  of  the 
month  was  made  a  day  of  fasting  in  memory  of 
Esther's  fast  (Esth.  iv.  10),  and  it  was  called  the 
Fast  of  Esther.  It  was  the  preparatory  day  to  the 
festival  of  Purim.  celebrateii  on  the  fourteenth  day, 
and  in  .Shushan  also  on  the  fifteenth  day.  At  pres- 
ent Adar  coincides  approximately  with  March. 


185 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDLV 


Adam-Salomon 
Adda  b.  Ahaban 


ACAB,  THE  SEVENTH  OF:  According  to 
Inulitioii  or  ciikuUition  (<(iniiiiirc  Dent.  .wxiv.  8  and 
Josh.  i.  11,  iii.  2.  iv.  19).  the  annivfrsjiryof  tlif  death 
of  Moses  (Megillat  Taauit,  last  chapter).  Josephiis 
("Ant."  iv.  8,  §49)  gives  the  liist  day  of  Adar  as 
tlieday  of -Mo.ses'  death.  Tlie  day  is  mentioned  with 
Ilic  rest  of  the  ancient  fast-days  "in  "Tiir  Oral.i  Hay- 
yim,"  §  580,  and  "Kol  Ho,"  but  Josejili  Cam  in  liis 
commentary  states  tliat  he  lias  no  liiiowUdge  of  any 
of  them  being  observed  by  the  people.  In  the  seveii- 
tcentli  century  in  Turkey  and  Italy,  and  later  in 
nortlicrn  Europe  as  well," it  became"  customary  for 
pious  Jews  to  observe  the  day  as  a  fast-day  and  to 
read  portions  from  the  Midnish  relating  to  the  life 
and  death  of  Mo.ses,  arranged  iu  u  special  tikkun  by 
Samuel  Aboab.  rabbi  of  Venice.  K. 

ADAR  SHENI  (WEADAR) :  The  Second,  or 
intenuhirv.  Ad;ii-,  the  thiilcrnth  month  of  a  Jewish 
embolisiiiie  year;  it  lias  twenty  nine  days  and  the 
first  Adar  has  then  thirty.  Piiriiii  is  cciebrated  on 
the  fouiteeiith  of  this  later  month  of  Adar  in  em- 
bolisniic  years.  An  auuiversjiry  of  a  death  [Julirziit) 
that  has  occurred  in  Adar  Sheiii  is  observed  in  that 
month  in  an  emliolismic  year,  but  otherwise  in  the 
first  Adar.     See  C'.\r.F.Nn.\K.  K. 

ADARBI,  ISAAC  BEN  SAMUEL :  A  casuist 
and  prc.iclii-r  of  liie  Sliahun  (.'oiigirgation  of  Salo- 
niea ;  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  the  pupil 
of  JosKi'ii  T.MT.vz.vK  and  the  schoolmate  of  Samuel 
di  Medina  (D'ncnno).  A<larbi  wrote:  (1)  "  Dibre 
Hibot"  (Polemics),  consisting  of  four  hundred  and 
thirty  respoiisa.  which  are  interspersed  with  keen  dis- 
cussions on  halakic  iiroblems  occurring  in  the  Tal- 
mud and  its  coiiimeiilariis  (.sSalouica,  \'-iX\  :  Venice. 
l.WT;  Sudilkdv.  l,s;!:iK  (-.J)  "  Dlhre  Shalom"  (Wordsof 
Peaco.coiitainiiig  thirty  sermons  jireached  on  various 
occasions,  as  well  as  homiletic  commentaries  on  the 
weekly  lessons  of  the  Pentateuch  (Salonica,  158.5). 
In  these  sermons  he  often  reproduces  observations 
made  by  his  teacher  Taitazak.  A  second  edition  was 
published  by  Klie/er  ben  Shabbethai,  who  added  an 
index  of  the  Biblical  passages  dealt  with  and  some 
notes  (Venice,  l.")8(>;  i/jid.  l.JST), 

Bnil.lo(iR.(riiv  :  CVinforte.  A'lirc  /i(i-Di.rt)(,  ed.CasscI,  p.  38  (see 
liidvxi;  SlelnwliiiclUer,  Cat.  BikH.  col.  1U»3;  lieiilacob,  Ozar 
ha-Se/arim,  p.  IK). 

M.   15. 

ADARSA  (called  also  Adasa)  :  A  village  in 
Jiidia.  thirty  furlongs  from  Hktii-iiokox,  and  a 
three  days'  march  from  Gazera.  Kusebius  ("Ono- 
maslicon."  «.  c  )  describes  it  as  being  near  Ouplina. 
Vnder  the  name  of  Adasa  it  is  meiilioiied  in  I  .Mace, 
vii.  40,  itixl  ill  .losi  |i|iiis,  "Ant."  xii.  IK,  ^  ."i,  as  the 
scene  of  the  decisive  baltlebetween  Judas  .Maccabeus 
and  the  Syrian  genend  Nicanor,  which  took  place 
on  Adar  l:!,  KiO  n.c,  an<l  in  which  the  latter  was 
vamiuisiied.  Although  the  former  had  only  3.(1110 
men  (I  Mace),  or  according  to  Josi-phus  (/.(•.)  only 
1.000.  while  his  <'neniy  conimandid  9.000.  Nicanor. 
who  fell  in  the  battle,  was  vanc|uishid.  Ills  defeat 
occ'urred  on  the  day  before  Mardocheus'  (Moide- 
cai's)  Hay.  that  is.  the  Thirteenth  of  Adar.  the  day 
liefore  I'liiiM.  In  commemoration  an  tuuiual  fes- 
tival calhd  Nicanor's  Dav  was  instituted  (I  Mace, 
vii.  49:  II  Mace.  xv.  3li).  "AccordiMg  t.i  theTaliiiud 
(Ver.  Meg.  ii.  (I(v(  and  Megillal  Ta'anil,  xii.)  it  was 
u  semi  festival.  K.   m.;  S.   X. 

ADAVI,  MOSES    BEN   SAMUEL:    A   Tal 

miidic  seholnr  und  uiitlnii-.  «  ho  iloiirished  in  Tunis 
ulMillt  the  inidille  of  the  eii;hleelllli  century  He 
WHsii  pupil  of  Isiuic  l.iimbroso  and  Abmhan/llayal. 
Adavi  was  the  author  of  novellie  and  collcctaneii  li> 


sevend  treatises  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  and  to 
the  "  Vad  ha-Hazakah  "  of  Maimouides.  which  were 
published  in  book  form  at  the  expense  of  the  sons 
of  Samuel  Xataf  at  Leghorn  (17.59).  and  which  for 
that  reason  bear  the  title  "Bene  Shemmd  "  (Sons  of 
Samuel).  This  was  the  first  work  published  by  a 
Tunisian  Jew. 

BiBLKKiRAPHV  :   Zcdner,  Cat.  Hehr.  Brnhn  Brit.  Mm.  p.  38; 
(azis,  A(i(t»  mr  (ts  Israilitcs  Tunisieiui,  p.  152. 

M.  K. 

ADBEEL  :  A  name  found  in  the  genealogical 
list  of  till'  sons  of  Ishmael,  in  Gen.  xxv.  13,  and  in 
the  corresponding  list  of  I  Chron.  i.  29. 

G.  B.  L. 

ADDA:  The  name  of  two  amoraim,  neither  of 
whom  had  a  distinguishing  patronymic  or  cognomen. 
The  elder  was  a  Palestinian,  and"  lived  in  "the  tirst 
generation  (third  century).  He  was  a  colleague  of 
H.  Joniilhaii  (Ver.  Ter.  .\.  47i).  The  younger  was 
a  disciple  of  Kaba,  and  a  contemporary  of  R.  Ashi 
(Men.  4*^  ',%}.  s.  M. 

ADDA  B.  ABIMI  (BIMI) :   A  Palestinian  am- 

ora  (.1  ihe  fouiih  L'liierali. iii.  disciple  of  K.  Hanina 
li.  Pap]ii.aiid  coiueiupoiary  of  K.  Ilezekiah.  '  It  is 
surmised  that  his  iiatrouymic  Aliimi  was  changed 
iiito  I'kiiii  or  Ikkuma,  that  is,  "the  Dark,"  because 
his  memory  was  not  retentive  enough  to  guard  him 
against  the  misquoting  of  traditions  (Ver.  Ber.  i.\. 
l-hi;  Yer.  Ta'anit,  iii.  64*;  'Er.  94,  12</;  Bezah  20A) 

S.  M. 

ADDA  B.  AHABAH  (AHWAH)  :  1.  A  Baby- 
Ionian  aiuoia  of  tlie  .sciniid  geiiinilion  (third  arid 
fourth  centuries).  frei|ii(ntly  iiuoted  in  both  the  Jeru- 
Siileiu  and  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  He  is  siud  to 
have  been  born  on  the  day  that  IJabbi  (Judah  I.)  died 
(KidT2(/,  /i;  Gen.  B.  Iviii";  sec  Aiin.\  Hosii.vv.\).  lie 
was  one  of  t  he  d  isci  pies  of  Abba  Arika  ( Hall),  at  whose 
funeral  ho  rent  his  garments  twice  in  token  of  his 
mourning  for  the  great  scholar  (Ver.  B.  K.  ii.  Ai;  Ber. 
42/<  it  Kcij.).  In  I'limbedita  R.  .\dda  gathered  about 
him  a  great  many  pupils,  whom  he  taui;ht  sometimes 
in  the  public  tlmroughfares  (Veb.  1104).  He  lived 
to  a  very  old  age.  and  when  interrogated  on  the  mer- 
its that  entitled  him  to  be  so  favored  of  heaven,  he 
gave  the  following  sketch  of  his  life  and  character: 

"  No  one  has  ever  preceded  me  to  the  svnaffoptie.  nor  has 
any  one  ever  remained  In  the  synatrogiie  after  niv  tle|>arlure. 
I  never  walked  as  iniiili  iw  foui-  culilLs  u'ltlii<nt  nieditntlne  on 
the  Ijiw,  and  never  thcuirlit  uf  Its  eonlents  at  plaei's  not  scnipu- 
Iciiisly  (lean.  .Nor  did  I  invpare  a  IhhI  for  mvself  to  enjoy  rvifu- 
lar  sleep,  nor  dlil  I  iltsiiirli  my  colleaKiies  hv  walkiiiR  to  iliy  seat 
III  college  aiiioia;  iliein.  I  never  nliknamed  my  nelKhlKir  nor 
rejoiced  at  his  tall,  .\iicer  ai.'aln.st  my  neli;hlH>r  never  went  to 
bed  with  iTie,  and  I  never  piLs^'d  ttie  stri'et  near  when'  my 
ilelilur  lived  :  and  while  at  home  I  never  l>elniveil  impallenre, 
in  iinler  loDhserve  what  is  said  IPs.  el.  L'l,  "  I  will  walk  wlihin 
my  housi-  with  a  i>erf«a  heart '  "  (Yer.  Ta'anil,  III.  liTii :  some- 
what dllTen'nt  In  Habit,  i/iiil.  aVj). 

Vet  where  sjinclity  of  life  and  the  glory  of  heaven 
were  concerned,  he  lost  his  patience  and  risked 
much.  Thus,  on  one  occasion,  when  he  observed  ou 
the  .street  a  woman  named  Matun  dressed  in  a  nitm- 
IKT  unbecoming  a  miHlest  .lewess,  he  violently  re- 
buked her.  Vnfortunately  for  him  the  woman  was 
a  Samaritan,  anil  for  the  attack  on  her  he  was  con- 
demned lo  pay  a  tine  of  4iK)  /uz  (about  $<!0  actual 
value,  or  hiVi),  and  thereupon  he  repeated  a  l>opular 
saving,  "  .Mutiin,  miilun  |wailin!r.  lialieiice]  is  worth 
400  zuz!"  (Ber.  20.(). 

Such  a  clmracter  is  generallv  surrounded  by  a  halo 
of  legend,  and  later  ages  supplied  this.  It  is  .said  that 
I{.  .Vdda's  piety  was  so  higldy  valued  in  the  sight  of 
heaven  thai  no fuvorasketl  by  him  wasuver  refused. 


Adda  of  Caesaroa 
Addir  Hu 


THE  JEW  ISII   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


186 


In  times  of  drought,  for  c-xiuuple,  when  ho  puUi-il  off 
but  one  shoe  (preparatory  to  ollcriiij;  pniyer) .  an 
abundance  <>f  rain  descended;  but  if 
Legends  he  pulled  oil  the  other,  the  world  was 
as  to  His  tliioded  (Yer.  Taiuiit.  /.'•.).  Even 
Sanctity,  his  teacher,  the  famous  Hah.  realized 
Adda's  protective  iiilluence.  On  one 
occasion  when  he  and  Samuel,  accompanied  by 
Adda,  came  to  a  totterinjr  ruin,  and  Samuel  pro- 
posed to  avoid  it  by  takini;  a  circuitous  route.  Hab 
observed  that  just  "then  there  was  no  occasion  for 
fear,  since  H.  Adda  b.  Ahabah,  whose  merits  were 
very  preat.  was  with  them;  conscciuently  no  acei- 
den"t  would  befall  them.  Samuel's  j.'reat  colleague  R. 
Iluna  I.  also  believed  in  and  availed  himself  of  K. 
Adda's  supposed  miraculous  intiueiice  with  heaven. 
This  rabbi  had  a  lot  of  wine  stored  in  a  building 
that  threatened  to  collapse.  He  was  anxious  to  save 
his  property,  but  there  was  danger  of  accident  to 
the  laborers.  Therefore  he  invited  Hab  A<lda  into 
the  building,  and  there  engaged  him  in  lialakic  dis- 
cussions until  the  tfisk  of  removing  its  contents 
was  safely  accomplished;  hardly  had  the  rabbis 
vacated  tlio  premises  when  the  tottering  walls  fell 
(Ta'anit.  20//). 

Of  Hab  Adda's  numerous  noteworthy  observations 
on  Diblical  texts,  the  following  may  be  quoted :  "  The 
man  who  is  conscious  of  sin  and  confesses  it.  but  does 
not  turn  away  from  it.  is  like  the  man  who  holds  a  de- 
tiling  reptilein  liis  hand;  were  he  to  bathe  in  all  the 
watersof  the  world,  the  bath  would  not  restore  him  to 
cleanness.  Only  when  he  drops  it  from  his  hand,  and 
bathes  in  l)ut  forty  seahs  (=  aliout  100  gallons)  of 
water  he  is  clean,"  This  follows  from  the  Biblical 
saying  (Prov.  xxviii.  13),  "  Whoso confe.sset hand  for- 
saketii  them  shall  have  mercy  ";  and  elsewhere  it  is 
said  (Lam.  iii.  41),  "  Let  us  lift  up  our  heart  as  well  as 
our  hands  unto  God  in  the  heavens"  (Ta'anit,  16a  ; 
compare  Tosef.  ihid.  i.  8). 

2.  A  disciple  of  Raba,  addressed  by  tlie  latter  as 
"my  son."  In  a  discussion  the  elder  ral)bi  once  re- 
buked him  as  devoid  of  understanding  (Ta'anit,  !<// ; 
Yeb.  61'/;  Sanh.  81(7,  b).  Subsequently  he  studied 
imder  R.  Papa  ana  waited  on  R.  Xahmau  b.  Isaac 
(B.  B.  2'2«  :  see  version  in  Rabbinowicz.  "Dikduke 
Soferim."m??"C..  note6:  Hul.  Vi'ili.  where  some  man 
useripts  read  "liar  liana  "  or  "  Ilanali  ").         S.  M. 

ADDA  OF  CiESAREA  (KISRIN)  :  A  disciple 
of  R.  Johanan.  and  a  teacher  in  the  third  amoraic 
generation.  Because  of  his  cognomen  he  is  errone- 
ously sujiposcd  to  have  been  the  son  of  R.  Abbahu 
of  C'ssarea  (Abbahu  II. ;  Y'cr.  Ber.  4,  8c  ;  Yer.  JI.  K. 
iii   82'- :  Bab.  ihid  20',).  S.  M. 

ADDA,  CALENDAR  OF.     See  C.\lend.\r. 

ADDA  B.  HTJNYA:  The  homiletic  observa- 
tion on  Eccl.  i.  4  ("One  generation  passelh  awaj'. 
and  another  generation  Cometh :  biU  the  earth  abideth 
forever")  has  thus  been  transmitted  by  Inm:  "Con- 
sider the  present  generation  as  good  as  the  genera- 
tion that  is  passed  and  gone.  Say  not.'  Were  H.  Akiba 
living,  I  would  study  the  Bible  under  him;  were  R. 
Zerah  and  R.  Johanan  living.  I  would  read  ^lishnah 
before  them, '  But  consider  the  generation  that  has 
arisen  in  thy  days,  and  the  wise  men  of  thy  time,  as 
good  as  the  previous  generations  and  as  the  earlier 
wise  men  that  have  been  before  thee  "  (Eccl.  R.  ad 
he. :  compare  ilidr.  Sam.  §  15).  S.  M. 

ADDA  B.  MATNA:  A  Babylonian  amora  of 
the  fourth  century,  disciple  of  Abaye  and  of  Raba. 
He  appears  to  have  obtained  some  balakic  informa- 
tion from  Rabina  I.,  and  in  his  later  years  to  have 
associated  wilh  Rabina  II.     To  satisfy  his  thirst  for 


knowledge,  he  felt  obliged  to  leave  his  home,  and 
when  his  wife  a.sked.  "What  will  thy  little  ones 
do?"  he  laconically  replied.  "Are  the  water-plants 
in  the  marshes  all  gone'?"  (Shab.  48<i  :  Ket.  28<(, 
"I,.  8.')<i  ;  Shebu.  18<i  ;  Meg.  284;  'Er.  22fl). 

S.  M. 

ADDA,  MESH09AAH  (nNnifO  "  Surveyor")  • 
.V  disciple  of  H.  Judiili  b.  Ezekiel.  who  instructed 
Raba  how  to  measure  citv  limits  for  the  regulation 
of  Saliluilh  walks  (Kr.  :>>\l:  \i.  yi.  107i).  S.  M. 

ADDA  B.  MINYOMI :  A  Babylonian  amora 
of  the  third  century,  junior  contemporary  of  Rji- 
bina  I.  and  of  Huna"  JIar  b.  Iddi.  He  is  sometimes 
(luoted  anonvmonsly  as  "The  Court  of  Xchardea  " 
(B.  K.  31/-.  liid.  4S)<(",  Sanh.  17A).  S.  Jl. 

ADDA  B.  SIMON:  A  Palestinian  amora.  who 
is  known  cliirtly  for  iijiieal  rules  quoted  in  the  name 
of  his  predecessors  (Yer.  Ber.  ii.  4(/  ;  Yer.  Meg.  1. 
71c  ;  Eccl.  R.  iv.  17).  S.  M. 

ADDAN :  A  city  of  Babylonia,  some  of  the  in- 
habitants of  which"  migrated  with  the  Jews  under 
Zerubbabel.  but  were  uimble  to  prove  their  Israelitish 
descent  (Ezra.  ii.  oO).  In  the  corresponding  list  of 
Xeh.  vii.  (il,  the  jdace  is  called  Addon.  I  Esd.  v. 
36  has  Charaatbalan  which  is  jirobably  due  to  a 
ruuninsT  tuL'ether  of  the  words  Cherub  and  Addan. 

G.  B,  L. 

ADDER  (pD'SC) :  Reptile  mentioned  only  in  Gen. 
xlix.  17.  It  is  the  modern  Arabic  n/ii/i/ioii,  a  horned 
sand-snake,  or  OrrmttK  Ittisc/r/uiKtii  (Hart,  "Animals 
of  the  Bible,"  i>p.  13.  14).  This  viper,  which  is  only 
about  a  foot  long  and  of  a  grayish  tint,  lurks  in  ruts 
and  footprints,  and  bites  with  deadly  effect  man  or 
beast  that  ]ias.ses  by.  It  is  found  in  Africa,  where 
it  appears  in  great  vaiiety  and  in  large  numbers. 
See  Sekpkxt.  "  I.  31.  P- 

ADDIR  HTJ  (xin  TIN):  A  hymn  in  the  Se- 
der, llic  lioinc  service  for  Pa.ssover  eve.  and  so  called 
from  its  iiMtial  words,  but  also  known  bj'  its  re- 
frain of  "Bimherah"  (Speedily).  It  is  one  of  the 
latest  constituents  of  the  HAOG.\D.\n.  in  which  it 
does  not  appear  much  before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  Originally,  according  to  the  Avignon 
.Mahzor.  it  was  a  hymn  for  the  festivals  generally. 
But  a  little  later  it  was  adopted  as  a  pendant  to 
the  hymn  "Aildir  bindukah "  or  "Ki  i.o  N.\F.n." 
which  was  chanted  on  the  tirsi  evening  of  Pa.s.sover. 
Each  liynm  has  a  thought  to  the  promised  redemp- 
tion of  Israel.  But  while  "Addir  bimlukah "  is 
rather  a  hymn  in  praise  of  the  Omnipotence  which 
alone  can  bring  on  the  redemption  of  Israel.  "Addir 
Hu  "  is  more  strictly  a  jiraycr  to  that  Onunpotence 
to  hasten  il  by  the  restoration  of  the  ancient  center 
of  Israel's  religious  organization.  Originally,  there- 
fore, the  former  was  chanted  on  the  opening  night 
of  the  Passover,  and  the  latter  on  the  second.  But 
with  the  accretive  tendency  often  evident  in  the 
develo])ment  of  the  Jewish"  liturgy,  it  became  the 
custom,  about  two  centuries  ago,  to  chant  both 
hymns  on  each  occasion. 

"  The  verses  of  these  hymns  differ  in  the  first  words 
oidy,  these  being  a  series  of  adjectives  bearing  an 
alphabetical  acrostic.  After  the  initial  letter  K  they 
are  usually  grouped  three  together,  thus  forming 
the  second  to  eighth  stanzas.  A  quaint  Ju(LTy- 
Gernian  version  once  had  great  vogue,  and  it  is  still 
in  use.  It  runs.  ".Vllmiichtiger (Barmherziger.  etc.) 
Gott.  nun  ban  dein'  Tempel  schiere."  and  so  on. 
This  German  version  appears  even  in  a  Haggadah 
of  the  Spanish  rite  (Amsterdam.  1612). 


187 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adda  of  Caesarea 
Addir  Hu 


The  tunc  st'Cins  to  be  the  successful  iuspimtion  of 
a  Jewish  siuger  of  the  curly  jmrt  of  tlic  seventeenth 
century.     It    has    suceeeiled    beyond 
Suitability  any  other  Ilelirew  melody  in  nuiintaiii- 
of  the        ing  its  ])osition  airainst  all  other  airs 
Tune.         for  the  words  witji  wliich  it  is  tradi- 
tionally associated.     The  tune  is  first 
met  with  in  the  Hebrew,  Latin,  and  German  Hag- 
padah  published  by  J.  8.  Hitlangel,  electoral  jiro- 
fcssor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Konigsberg,  in  1044. 
He  gives  it,  with  a  lia.ss  part  to  both  Hebrew  and 
German  te.xts,  as  illustrated  below  (A).    The  melody 
was  then  of  conipanitively  recent  origin,  and  took 
a  form  which,  translated  into  moderu  notation,  is  as 
follows 


Selig's  "Der  Jude,"  of  1769,  just  midway  between 
Hittangel's  days  and  oui-s,  the  melody  is  given  al- 
most precisely  as  it  is  now  sung  in  Xortli  Germany. 
In  this  it  illustrates  the  history  of  most  Hebrew 
melodies,  which  thus  gradually  crystallized  into  a 
tuneful  and  definite  shape,  altogether  congenial  to 
the  earsof  the  Jews  who  sang  them,  and  transmitted 
them  modified  by  the  "  i)ersonal  eiiuation"  of  each 
depositary  of  the  traditii>n.  The  present  melody  (B), 
having  become  familiar  to  Jews  accustomed  in  their 
every -day  life  to  the  (Jermanic  folk  song,  was  easily 
reproduced  by  them  in  the  family  circle,  where  the 
ability  would  be  wanting — among  the  children  neces- 
sarily— to  reproduce  the  more  ditlicidt  intervals  and 
ornaments  of  the  synagogue  plaiusoDg.    Heuce  it 


A 


ADDIR   HU 


It 


:tr 


:t= 


a*     p~ 


Ad   -   dir        hu       yib   -  nth      be   .    to         be    -    ka        -         rob, 
Allmiichtiijer  Gott,     nun       hau     ddn     Tern  -   pel        bal         -         de. 


bim  -  he  -  rah      be  - 

Ach       bal  -  de!       In 


i 


:]= 


-m-^- 


I 


s5^ 


It 


itz 


neh, 

h'tlt 


be    - 

(loch 


neh, 


be 
■and 


neh 
hau 


bet 
dein' 


ka 

Tern 


be 

pel 


ka 

bal 


rob. 
de. 


Here,  it  will  be  scon,  the  melody  is  very  simi)le, 
and  little  beyond  s])eeclisong  suggested  by  the 
rhythm  of  the  words  (obviously  according  to  I  he  old 
German  disregard  of  the  stress-syllables)  anil  their 
phnising.  The  cailence  itself  is  likewise  but  a  c<in 
veiitional  ending  of  familiar  cliamclir.  The  modii 
lation  with  the  sharpened  fimrth  is  perhaps  due  nut 

B 


develoi)ed  but    little   further;   and   although  three 

or  four  variants  e.\ist  of  some  of  its 

Adapted      phrases,  they  arc  not  of  es.sential  im- 

for  Family    portance,    and,   indeed,  are  often  iu- 

Song.         terchanged   by   the   singer.     Perhaps 

the   version   most   widely   followed   is 

the  following  (set  to  the  concluding  stanza): 


-I 


=1= 


^^ 


Ra  -  ham     Ha,  Shad  -  dai      Hn, 


Tok  -  kif      Hn,        yib -neh      be 


to 


be  - 


$ 


T -■  4 


-^ — r 


:t 


It: 


■^ 


ka 


rob. 


bim  -   he  -    rah; bim  -  he 


rah, 


be  -  ya 


me  -   nu      be 


I 


ka 


:^— 1    *  — ■ ■ 1 1^-" 1 ^— 

rob,  £1,    be-nch,         El,    be-neh,    bo  -  neh   bot-ka.. 


-!»-»- 


_«_^_=r 


be   •  ka    -     rob. 


so  nmcli  to  the  vocalist  as  to  the  Ininscriber.  Alto- 
gether, the  melody  of  |li.||  has  the  characlerof  a  dro- 
ning in  tonal  ion  rather  than  of  a  set  rmloily.  If  taken 
by  the  father  or  other  precentor  of  the  fannly  circle 
nt  an  extrenu'  pitch,  as  in  Hillangel's  tnuiscriplion, 
the  liasses  at  the  lalili'  would  be  tempted  to  sing 
"seconds."  and  woulil  soon  arrive^  at  musical  plini,m'S 
nearer  to  some  of  the  forms  now  cu.stomary.  And 
this  is,  indeed,  what  happened:    for   in   (Gottfried 


The  tmiform  employment  of  this  melcxly.  in  con- 
trast with  the  divergence  of  the  tunes  in  use  for 
each  of  Ihe  othir  Seller  liynms.  is  also  due  to  its 
selection  as  the  "  repri>s<'ntalivc  ihc^me"  (niggiin)  for 
the  festival  of  l*assover,  inasmuch  as  it  is  an  olil 
custom  to  chant  the  responses  in  Ps  c.wiii  to  it. 
The  custom,  however.  diK-s  not  dali'  back  to  Hit- 
tangel's day,  since  he  tells  us  that  these  verses  of 
the  IL\Ll.t.i.  then   had   their  own  "very  beautiful 


Addison 
Adelkind 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


188 


and  delightful  melody,"  ■which,  unfortunately,  he 
omitted  to  tmnsoribe. 

The  old   German   tune  spread  rapidly  east  and 
west,  being  still  modified  to  suit  tlic  local  ear  at 

emli  stage  of  its  joiirneyinj;.     It  even 

Its  Wide      riaelud  Asia  and  Afrira,  wlure  it  came 

Popularity,  into  tlic  rcirion  nf  a  musical  system 

widely  dilTering  from  that  of  its  north- 
ern fatherland.  Thus  tliis  melody  was  affected  by 
the  peculiarities  of  tlie  Pcrso-Arab  music,  with  its 
plaintive  sadness,  its  frequent  repetition  of  l)ricf 
phnuses,  its  tendency  to  ornamentation,  anil  its  im- 
diatonic  tonality.  When,  therefore,  the  orientalized 
form  was  chanted  to  E.  Lubhirt  in  Egypt  about  forty 
years  ago,  he  did  not  reatlily  recognize  its  descent 
from  the  "  Addir  llu  "  of  the  north  ;  l)ut  transmitted  it 
to  Fetis,  the  historian  of  music,  simply  as  a  melody 


tention  needs  be  given  here  is  an  essay  that  appeared 
in  tlie"  Spectator,"  No.  ■lil.'),  September 27, 1712,  which 
is  devoted  wholly  to  the  sulijcct  of  the  Jews.  The 
other  essjiys  show  his  recognition  of  the  debt  that 
the  English  language  owes  to  the  Hebrew  tongue 
for  the  idioms  it  has  absorbed,  the  intlucnce  upon 
English  custom  and  law  of  Jewish  vencnition  for 
tlie  name  of  God.  and  the  iirevaleuce  of  patriotism 
and  love  of  country  among  the  ancient  Jews  while 
they  still  had  a  country.  Xo.  49.5  of  the  "Specta- 
tor" contains  an  interesting  characterization  of  the 
Jews,  and  deals  with  their  (liss<Mninatiou  throughout 
the  trading  world,  their  numbirs.  their  adherence 
to  their  religion,  and  the  natural  and  providen- 
tial rea.sons  that  may  be  assigned  for  these  fact.s. 
The  most  interesting  and  signilieant  jiassages  in  tliis 
essay  are  those  dailing  with  the  economic  value  of 


»  E. 


:^^t= 


Hu, 


yib  -    uch 


be     -      to. 


be    -     ka 


rob. 


-« — 


^tmz 


Es£ 


bim  -   he    -    rah,. 


-[-- 


iW=*: 


:=t=d= 


bim  -  he  -  rah. 


be    -    ya    -    nie 


be 


ka    -    rob. 


I — I — I— ^ — ^ 


^ 


El,     be 


neb,...       El,    be 


neh. 


"  traditional  in  the  synagogue  at  Alexandria. "  When, 
however,  the  version  which  is  given  above  (C)  is 
divested  of  the  local  coloring  of  the  melody  and 
shifting  of  the  accent  which  would  inevitably  sug- 
gest themselves  in  the  mouth  of  a  .Jewish  cantor  in 
Egypt,  very  little  variatiim  in  essentials  remains  from 
the  version  either  of  old  Konigsberg  or  of  modern 
New  York. 

Bibliography:  Rlttangel,  Lihcr Ititmim  Paxchnliutn,  Konlps- 
t)erp.  HH-t:  N'auiiihurg,  Rtu-uril  ik  Chant:*  tics  Tsnu'iitis^ 
Paris.  1S74;  Marksohn  and  Wiilf.  AiixtmM  Alti  r  Siiiiit'h'iial- 
Mitniliin,  I,t'ii»if.  IsT.i;  Japhet.  JlaniiwlaJi  ff'tr  l'rs<ir)i^ 
Fralikfcirt^cin-lhe-Main.  18S4 ;  Schoenfplil.  Ilctitativr  iiml 
Gcsilmic  zum  Vtn-tnmi'  otn  Ersttit  xnul  Ziriitin  Ahinde 
th»  Vclicrttchrfititintstr  stts^  IViscn.  1S44:  Paut-r  and  ('(then, 
Traditiontil  Hehnir  Mrhnlirs,  Ijnidon,  Is'.W;  .\.  A.  Green, 
ITie  Revised  Haggo'lah.  London.  Is'.iT. 

F.   L.   C. 

ADDISON,  JOSEPH  :  English  essayist ;  born 
at  Jlilston,  in  England,  May  1,1672;  died  June  17, 
1719.  He  has  been  tittingiy  characterized  as  "the 
chief  architect  of  English  public  opinion  in  the  eight- 
eenth century."  For  this  reason  his  attitude  toward 
Jews  and  Judaism  is  of  importance. 

By  his  writings  he  greatly  influenced  the  ptiblic  es- 
timate of  the  Jews  in  resjtect  to  their  social  and  eco- 
nomic status;  and  for  a  century  after 

Attitude  he  wrote,  legislation  and  judge-made 
Toward     law  both  emanated  from  the  classes 

the  Je'ws.  who  read  and  enjoyed  the  writings  of 
the  chief  author  of  the  "Spectator." 
An  examination  of  .\ddison's  writings  discloses  at 
least  five  distinct  references  to  .Tews  anil  Judaisin, 
in  all  of  which  he  shows  a  sympathetic  attitude  and 
a  comparatively  intimate  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
considerinff  the  circumstances  of  the  dav.  (See  the 
"Spectator,"  Xos.  405.  49.5,  531;  "The  Freeholder." 
No.  5,  and  passages  in  his  "Dialogue  on  Medals.") 
The  only  one  of  these  references  to  which  special  at- 


:^ 


titz 


^^ 


be  -  neh        bet    -  ka 


be 


kn 


rob. 


the  .Tews,  resulting  from  their  dispersion  through- 
out the  world.     As  to  this  fact,  he  says: 

"  They  are.  Indeed,  so  disseminated  thnnieti  all  the  trading 
parts  of  the  world,  that  they  are  bt-coine  the  Instruments  liy 
whleh  the  most  distant  nations  ronverse  wltli  on.'  annlh.T,  and 
liy  which  mankind  are  knit  loiielher  Inagenenil  ninesponileiice. 
They  are  like  the  pet's  and  nails  in  a  great  building,  which, 
ttioiigh  they  are  but  little  valueil  in  themselves,  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  keep  the  whole  frame  together." 

It  would  be  a  serious  error  to  regard  Addison  as 
merely  echoing  prevailing  popular  views  of  his  time 
in  these  titterances.  On  the  contrary,  much  stress 
must  be  laid  here  on  Addison's  kindly  interest  and 
sympathy,  his  knowledge  of  his  subject,  his  curiosity 
concerniiig  Jews  and  Judaism,  his  acquaintanceship 
with  Jews,  formed  both  at  home  and  abroad,  his  in- 
formation gained  through  theoHicial  channels  of  the 
state  and  colonial  dciiarlments.  and  his 

Addison  indebtedness  to  his  father,  L.vncki.ot 
and  Addison,  who  published  an  apprecia- 

Shake-  five  volume  on  the  Jews,  a  few  years 
speare.  after  his  son's  birth.  When  Addi.son's 
attitude  toward  the  Jew  is  cfimjiared 
with  that  of  Shakespeare  in  his"  .Merchant  of  Venice," 
one  becomes  impressed  with  the  former's  broad,  as 
contrasted  with  the  latter's  seemingly  narrow,  point 
of  view.  That  this  liberal  attitude  was  largely  pecul- 
iar to  Addison  himself,  even  though  it  may  have  in- 
fluenced English  gentlefolk  to  the  present  day,  he- 
comes  still  more  apparent  from  the  fact  that  no  such 
sympathetic  treatment  of  the  .Jew  as  his  appeared  in 
l^nglish  literature  for  approximately  a  century  after 
Addison  wrote. 

Addison's  reference  to  the  Jews  and  international 
commerce  is  especially  important,  because  it  was  a 
contemporary  recognition  of  the  great  contribution  to 
general  civilization  made  by  the  Jews  In  the  English 
possessions  at  that  time. 

[.\ddison's   "Ode  on   Gratitude"  was   translated 


189 


TIIK  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Addison 
Adelkind 


into  Hebrew  by  Shalom  ben  Jacob  Cohen  of  Mcseritz, 
iiniler  tlie  title  "  Miznior  le-Todah."  and  |)ublislieil  in 
"IJikkure  ha'Ittini,"  i.  104  (Steinselmeider.  "Cat. 
Bndl."col.  2.")!:)).  o.] 

Dini.ior.K.uMiv:  run .rif  National  BUiqraiiliy.s.v.;  fii»:rlat<ir. 
.No.  -WJ;  Mu.x  .1.  Kolilcr,  In  Mennrah  MmiDiln,  Januar.v,  ISiiit. 

M.  J.'  K. 
ADDISON,  LANCELOT  :  Kiiirlisli  .Icrirynian 
and  aiilhnr;  failirr  ol'  .luscpli  .\di|isnii;  lidni  al  .Mea- 
buin  Town  llcail,  in  llic  parish  oT  ('ni.sl)v  Itivcns- 
worth.  Wcslinoicland.  U>:i-';  <lied  A|inl -.30."  ITIKJ.  He 
was  educated  al  Cinecn's  CoUcire.O.x ford,  and  served 
seven  years  (Ififi'i-TU)  as  chaplain  of  the  jrarrison 
at  Taniriers.  While  in  that  city  he  became  sulii- 
ciently  inleresled  in  the  condition  of  the  Jews  to 
Study  their  habits  and  customs,  and  snbsei|nentlv 
published  a  book  upon  them,  llissojourn  in  the  l!ai- 
bary  stales  allordi-d  hiiu  exceptional  oppoil unities 
for  the  stuily  of  alien  customs. riles, and  ndvernnient, 
and  his  iu(iuirin,!r  and  .sympathetic  beni  of  mind  in- 
duced him  to  investiLjate  these  carefully.  The  I'e- 
sulls  of  his  iuvestii;ations  appeared  in  several  works 
which  he  wrote  and  published  after  his  return  home; 
these  Were  entitled  "  Life  and  Death  of  MuliaUK'd," 
"  West  Harbary,"  "The  First  ."state  of  .'\Iuliamelism," 
and  a  work  entitled  "The  Present  Stall'  of  the  Jews 
(more  particularly  relatiim' to  ihoseof  Harbary)."  The 
last  work  was  published  at  London  in  l(i7.-)(a  .second 
edition  in  KiTli.  and  a  third  in  1(!SJ).  There  were  very 
few  Jews  in  Enirland  at  this  time,  and  that  country 
scarcely  alTorded  opportunities  for  such  a  study  (if 
Jewish  conditicais  as  Addison  made  in  the  Moorish 
states;  in  view  of  these  facts,  the  success  of  his  work 
is  noteworthy.  The  book  bears  the  supplenienlary 
titU>,"  wherein  is  contained  an  i-xaci  a<'count  of  their 
customs,  secular  and  religious,  to  which  is  annexed 
a  summary  discourse  of  the  .Mishnah,  Talmud,  and 
Gemara."  The  title  L'ives  a  fair  idea  of  the  work; 
this  may  be  suppliimnted  by  the  followin.ir  suiijres- 
tive  pas.sa(j;e  from  the  ])reface; 

"  .\s  to  ttic  nceouiit  It  (rives  of  the  Jews.  I  roru'oivo  there  Is  not 
any  so  inoilerii.  nor  In  niun.v  Ihlnirs  so  pai'ili'ulur  ami  ime.  tills 
U'lntr  the  I'esult  of  Coiivei-siiUoti.  anil  not  of  Itepor't." 

AVliile  Addison  nalurally  manifests  a  stron.i;  bias  in 
liis  view  of  a  dilVeiciit  creed,  it  must  be  conceded 
that  his  work  exhibiteil  a  liberality  of  view  anil  a 
keenness  of  perception  not  often  encountered  at  that 
time.  These  (pndilies  and  the  marked  fearlessness 
which  evidently  cliaracleri/ed  this  ecclesiastic  of  the 
dissolute  days  of  Charles  II.  are  indicated  in  the  fol- 
lowinir  I)as.saire  from  his  work: 

*' For.  settlia;  tisliie  the  .Vfllllres  of  I'onimeri'e  anil  Collllstons 

of  Tniile.  they  [(he  naiiniry  Jews]  ran  not  lie  ehar^riHl  with  any 
of  those  ilehalli'hes  whteh  are  (frown  Inlo  repiltjition  with  whole 
Nallons  of  (hrlsllans.  to  the  wamlal  anil  lontmilletlon  of  Iheir 
name  ami  I'rofes,slon." 

Hiiu.iniiii.M'iiv  :  DM.  ii/  XalUinat  Diiiuraphii,  s.v. 

M.   J.    K. 
ADDO.      See  Il)IH>. 

ADDON.     Sec  AniMX. 

ADELAIDE:  Capllal  city  of  Soulh  Auslndia. 
The  liisii.iy  lit  llie  .lewish  eomiuunilv  of  this  cily  is 
closely  coimecled  w  illi  a  pioneer  seltier,  Jacob  .Mon- 
tetiore.  who  look  a  pionunenl  part  in  the  foundallon 
of  both  the  colony  and  (he  community.  The  con 
preiialion.  which  now  numbers  about  live  humlied 
]>ersons.  dales  fioni  ls|ii  The  synairoirueon  Uuiidle 
street  was  consriradd  in  1S7|  n(iil  s(aiiils  upon  (he 
site  of  a  small  hall  thai  was  used  by  lhecongre,i,'alion 
ill  its  early  days. 

The  Jews  of  Adelaide  liave  borne  an  hononible 
shale  ill  (he  service  of  Hie  H(ale.  Ill  the  lA'j[;lslalive 
Council,  Maurice  Salem  sat  for  iiiiii'  years.  In  the 
Leirislative  .\ssembly,  four  Jews  hav ■cupieil  seals 


at  various  times:  Judali  Moss  Solomon  (ISoS-fifi), 
Emmanuel  Solomon,  Lewis  Cohen  (18«T-98),  and  V.' 
L.  Solomon,  who  was  elected  in  l^^HO  and  who  is  still 
a  member.  The  last  named,  who  was  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal pioneers  of  (he  northern  territory,  has  tilled  (he 
hifrhest  ollice  attainable  by  a  citizen,  having  been 
chosen  premier  of  the  colony  in  Xoveinber,  18!)!). 
though,  owin.g  to  political  combinaliims,  he  was  in 
ollice  only  seven  days.  The  higliesi  civic  ollice.  that 
of  mayor,  has  been  held  by  thiee  Jews;  namely, 
J.  Lazar  (185.>-.-)8),  J.  M.  SVilomon  (IstiO-Tl).  aiid 
Lewis  Cohen  (188H-S4).  In  trade  also  the  Jews  have 
received  honors.  M.  Lazarus  liavini.''  been  elected 
president  of  the  Adelaide  Chamberof  .Manufaclures. 
Since  the  communi(y  was  establislied.  Adelaide  has 
known  only  one  Jewish  minister,  (he  Hev.  ,V.  T.  Boa.s, 
who  has  been  associalcd  wi(h  (he  congregalion  since 
1871,  Attached  (o  the  synagogue  is  a  congregational 
.school,  which  is  attended  by  sixty  children.  There 
are  four  Jewish  societies.ofwhieh  the  Hebrew  Hene- 
tit  and  Medical  Society  is  the  most  noteworthy.  It 
was  founded  in  1877  by  S.  Saunders,  a  justice  of  the 
peace,  and  its  assets  now  amount  to  over  nine  hun- 
dred pounds  slerling  (about  §4. •")()()).  1.  Aslier  has 
been  its  president  for  over  tifleeii  years.  The  other 
three  societies  are  (he  Jewish  l'liil,iiilhro|iic,  (he  La- 
dies'Benevolent,  and  the  Hebrew  Literary  mid  Social 
Society.  Most  of  the  Jewish  public  men  have  been 
connected,  in  one  capacity  or  another,  with  the  syna- 
gogue and  these  societies.  D.   1.   j". 

ADELKIND:  .\  pra'nomen:  also  a  family  name 
among  (he  Ji  us.  .\s  the  former  it  is  found  in  a  list 
of  martyrs  in  Nuremberg  in  the  year  12i)8.  and  also 
occurs  in  a  similar  list  for  Wei.s.sensee  of  (he  year 
13()3.  As  a  family  name  it  is  tirst  met  with  in  the 
ca.seof  Haruch  Adelkiiiil  of  Padua  (but  evidently  of 
German  origin),  one  of  who.se  sons.  Cornelius." be- 
came a  well  known  iirintcrand  publisher.  The  name 
is  juirely  (Jerman.  and  occurs  very  early  in  (Jerinan 
literature;  the  (wo  words  (hat  foriu  it,  '.UM  {nr  Kdcl 
=  "noble")  and  h'inil  (or  K/'nt.  <7iiiit=  "origin," 
"  family  "),  aic  met  very  often  in  names  for  both  men 
and  women  among  the  Jews  of  Germany. 

miu.iouKAPiiv:  Salfelil.  I^ik  M<irtiirnU>aiitm(laiKUrnberQer 
MiiiiiirliurlitH.  pp.  IT'.l,  iltl,  asu. 

W.  M. 

Cornelius  B.  Baruch  Adelkind  :  Printer  and 
publisher;  lived  in  Italy  during  (he  lirs(  half  of  the 
sixteenth  centuiy  ;  he  wasof  (Jcriuaii  des<-eiit.  l-'ioin 
150.1  to  l.")-l  I  he  was  in  ihe  employ  of  (he  Vcnedaii 
publisher  Daniel  liomberg.  by  HJiom  were  issued, 
with  Adelkimrs  aid,  (e.\(sof  (he  Bible  entire  anil  in 
part,  coniinintaries  on  Ihe  Bible,  and  |uiiyer  books 
according  to  the  German.  Spanish,  and  Kamile  rites. 
In  iri41  lie  worked  for  another  N'enelian  publisher. 
Giovanni  ili  Gara.  who.  during  tha(  year,  published 
edidons  of  Baliya  b.  Asher's  famous  coiiimenlary 
and  of  (he  pseudo-hisdiiical  work.  "  Yosippoii."  In 
the  followingyear  .Vdilkind's  name  appeared  on  the 
title  page  of  tlie  .Midrash  on  (he  Pen(a(eucli  and  Iho 
Jlegillot  published  ill  \inice  by  Giiisliiiiani.  From 
|.'">4ti  (o  iri.");t  he  seems  to  liave  combined  the  fuiio- 
I  ions  of  prinleranil  publisher;  for  an  edition  of  Solo- 
mon ibn  Gabirols  "  Mibliar  ha  Peninim  "  (Veiiiie, 
IVHi)  and  a  repriiil  of  a  prayer  book  of  the  German 
rile  I  Venice,  lot!))  bear  his  name  alone.  In  I.m;!  he 
changed  his  resilience  fi'oiu  Venice  to  Sabbioiietla. 
where  he  w  as  eniployed  by  T.  Foil,  an  editioii  of  llie 
Pentaleiich,  Megilloi.  and' Haftanit  (I.V)^55)  liein;; 
published  widi  his  aid. 

The  plinise  "  from  the  stem  of  Isniel,"  that  .\del 
kind  and  his  brother  (or  brothers?)  employ  upon 
sevenil  ocea.sioiis,   has  sugg:esteil  to  Steiiischneider 


Adelsohn 
Adiabene 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


190 


the  possibility  tlmt  he  niijiht  Imvc  lu'cn  a  convert  to 
C'liristianitv.  Bat  in  tlie  poem  on  a  certain  apostate 
Slarano  of  Venice,  whicli  tlie  pulilislicr  Soncinoadtls 
to  his  edition  of  Vidal  ninvinistes  "  Melizat  "Efer 
weDiuah  "  (Tlie  Poem  of  'Efer  anil  Dinah),  he  calls 
Adelkind  "Cornelius  the  Israelite,"  as  does  Elias  Lc- 
vita  in  one  of  the  poems  addressed  by  him  to  Levi 
b.  Gerson. 

BiBLIoiiRAPHY:  SlelnsohneidiT.  Jlhl.  TmxHtraithlf,  in  Erseh 
and  tf ruber,  EncjikhtjH'titit\  xxvlii.  44;  idem.  Cat.  Bodl.  No. 

W.  M. 

Daniel  Adelkind:  Printer  and  publisher:  son 
of  Conicliiis  li.  I'.anuli  Adelkind.  Little  is  known 
of  him  except  for  tlie  years  ir).50-o2;  and  even  for 
that  short  period  the  only  data  are  to  be  gleaned 
from  the  mention  of  his  name  on  the  title-pages  of 
books.  In  l.wO  he  was  engaged  with  Giusliniani  of 
Venice,  whom  he  assisted  in  publishing  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  translation,  by  Moses  iliii  Tibbon, 
of  Maimonides'  iihilosophical  work.  ".Millot  lia-llig- 
gayon."  In  I-Vil  and  1"m'J  he  seems  to  have  had.  in 
Venice,  aprintiiig-olliee  of  his  own  :  for  the  following 
four  books,  which  bear  his  name  as  printer,  mention 
no  other  as  editor  or  publisher :  Jacob  Weil's  "  Bedi- 
kot."  with  a  short  glossary  (Venice,  1551);  Samuel 
Archivolti's  ethical  work.  "  Degel  Ahabah  "  (Venice, 
1551):  "Megillat  Sefer  "  (Venici',  1.552):  and,  linally, 
the  German  "PnTcepta  JIulierum,"  or  "Frauen- 
biichlein,"  in  a  short  epilogue  to  which  he  begs  his 
father  to  accept  this  "booklet  "  as  a  gift  from  his  son 
(1st  ed..  Venice,  1552). 

BIBI.IOGIIAPIIT :  Steinschnelder.  Cat.  Bodl.  Nos.  371.5,  3949, 
S631  (3),  6513  (41),  7004  (1),  7708. 

w.  ai. 

ADELSOHN,  WOLF  :  Russian-Hebre\v  scholar 
and  ti'acher;  bora  in  Lithuania  about  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century;  die<I  in  Odessa,  August 
13.1866.  Of  his  parentage  nothing  is  known.  Adel- 
sohn was  a  disciple  of  Rabbi  ilauasseh  ben  Porath. 
called  also  Manasseh  Ilier.  While  still  a  young  man 
he  obtained  the  position  of  teacher  in  the  house  of 
Lippe  Ettinger  in  Brest-Litovsk.  In  1833  he  set- 
tled in  Dubno.  where  he  exercised  great  influence 
upon  the  rising  generation  of  the  Maskilim  ("  Pro- 
gressists "),  and  where  at  the  same  time  he  was 
pei-secuted  by  the  Hasidim  for  his  rationalism.  Later, 
for  two  years,  he  was  a  teacher  in  the  house  of 
Leon  Chaii  in  ileseritz,  from  which  place  he  went 
to  Odessa,  where  he  had  to  struggle  hard  for  sub- 
sistence. He  died  in  extreme  poverty  from  starva- 
tion ;  most  of  his  papers  were  burnt  to  disinfect  his 
lodgings. 

Among  Adelsohn's  pupils  were  the  grammarian 
Hayyim  Zebi  Lemer  and  the  Russian  censor  Vladimir 
Feodorov  (Z.  H.  Griinberg).  Because  of  his  philo- 
sophic character  and  contempt  of  conventionality  he 
was  called  the  "Diogenes"  among  the  Maskilim. 
He  wrote  a  critical  treatise  on  "Esther."  against  the 
views  of  Isaac  Samuel  Reggio.  and  essays  on  Hebrew 
literature,  which,  after  his  death,  came  into  the  hands 
of  L.  Chan  and  Joel  Baer  Falkovich. 

Bibliography:  Gottlober,  in  Ha-Bakcr  Or,  1879.  iv.  No.  4; 
Sachs,  in  Kat)fe  Ymiiih.  Berlin,  1S4.S';  Cliari,  in  an  article  on 
KccU-'^Uistcji,  Odessii,  1S7:3. 

D.  G. 

ADEN  :  Port  in  western  Arabia  on  the  shores 
of  the  Red  Sea,  near  the  sti-ait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb :  a 
British  possession  since  1839.  In  1891  its  population 
was  41,910.  In  1881  there  were  in  Aden  2, 121  Jews, 
including  125  Beni  Israel  from  Bombay.  More  re- 
cently the  .Tewish  community  has  received  an  acces- 
sion of  250  families  from  Yemen.  Their  occupations 
are  those  of  mat-  and  reed-workers,  masons,  porters, 


bookbindere,  money-changers,  and  jewelers;  while 
the  bunilioatmen.  also,  who  serve  the  mail-packets 
that  stop  at  Aden,  are  mainly  Jews.  The  ti-.ide  in  os- 
trich feathers  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Jews.  Their 
dress  consists  of  kilt,  shirt,  (irlm'  kiiuful,  waistcoat, 
and  gabardine;  and  duiing  prayer  tliey  wear  over 
the  head  a  tallit  known  as  ;«</»(/// (the  Arabic  word 
for  han<lkerchief  orshawll,  with  green  silk  corners, 
two  of  which  are  held  in  each  hand.  They  use  this 
also  to  carry  home  vegetables,  etc.,  from  market. 
The  Jewesses  wear  trousers  and  shirt,  and  a  sort  of 
wig  known  as  a  »««»;•;  also  a  veil  like  the  Jloslem 
women.  The  Jews  shave  the  head,  except  tlie/>c«< 
(side-locks),  every  Fri<lay.  Their  food  is  veiretables 
and  lish;  but  they  are  .said  to  be  much  addicted  to 
date  wine  i)repared  by  themselves. 

There  ajipcars  to  be  some  trace  of  animal  sacrifice 
among  them,  possibly  borrowed  from  the  neighbor- 
ing Arabs.  When  a  child  is  born,  a  goat  is  slaugh- 
tered and  placed  under  the  bed  of  the  mother.  On 
the  tirst  day  of  marriage  a  heifer  Ls  slaughtered  ;  but 
in  this  latterca.se  it  niay  be  rather  for  purposes  of 
hospitality. 

It  is  not  known  when  Jews  first  settled  in  Aden, 
which  in  antiiiuity  was  an  important  mart,  and  con- 
tinued so  as  late  as  JIarco  Polo  (12.5-1-1324).  Some 
of  the  earlier  rabbis  arc  known  as  "Adeni,"  which 
would  imply  a  congregation  of  some  size  Aden  has 
become  important  since  the  British  occupation  in 
1839,  at  which  date  the  Jews  numbere<l  but  250. 

BlBLiOGRAPnv:  Hunter,  Stntintirnl  Acroutit  nf  the  liritinh 
Sflthnuitt  iif  Adrii,  pp.  :i(i.  4.j.  47,  .t2,  London,  1877:  Itaint^ 
JVr.v|/(^•*  in  tlie  Prejikicticy  of  Jftimlxtjt,  IS-SI,  11. 0;  I'liiv.  Inr, 
I'.KKi.  pp.  498  ft  w</.,  .'135:  .sapliir,  t:i)cn  .S'ni/ir,  part  II.  cli.  xl.; 
Aituh>-Jeu^:*hA!<sociatioit,  An)ntal  Ucintrtti,  1S75,  ISTti. 

J. 
ADENI,  SOLOMON  BEN  JOSHUA:  Ara- 
bian author  ami  TaliM ui list,  win i  lived  during  the  first 
half  of  the  .seven  teen  111  century  at  Sanaa  and  Aden  in 
southern  Arabia,  from  which  town  he  received  the 
name  "Adeni"  or  "  the  Adenite."  He  was  a  pupil 
of  the  Talniudisl  Bezalel  .Vshkena/.i  and  of  the  cab- 
alist  Hayyim  Vital.  In  11)24,  or,  according  to  other 
authorities,  in  1022.  he  wrote  a  commentary  on  the 
Mishnah,  entitled  "  ;Meleket  Shelomoh  "  (The"  Work  of 
Solomon ).  Only  a  few  fragments  of  this  have  l)een 
published,  but  they  arc  quite  sullicient  to  indicate 
the  value  of  the  whole  work.  In  this  commentary, 
Adeni  exhibits  considerable  critical  ability.  He  an- 
alyzes the  Jlishnah  in  a  manner  that  is  ciuite  modem, 
and  which  is  accompanied  by  a  strictly  scientific  pen- 
etration that  enables  him  to  enter  intotlie  most  minute 
det;iilsof  themishnaic  text,  its  punctuation  and  spell- 
ing. The  great  value  of  Adeni 's  work  was  recog- 
nized by  Manasseh  ben  Israel,  who  made  use  of  its 
critical  conclusions  in  his  edition  of  the  Jlishnah  of 
1632.  Adeni  incorporated  in. his  work  Josejili  Ash- 
kenazi's  valuable  amendments  to  the  Mishnah.  In 
addition  to  his  commentary  he  wrote  "  Dibre  Kmet" 
(Words  of  Truth),  which,  according  to  Azulai.  con- 
tains critical  notes  on  theMasorah.  In  1854  the  manu- 
scrijit  of  "  Meleket  Shelomoh,"  his  first  work,  was  in 
the  hands  of  Xathan  Coronel  of  Jerusalem,  whereas 
that  of  his  second  work, "Dibre  Emet,"  seems  to  have 
been  lost. 

BIBUOGBAPIIV:  Azulal,  .*i(ieni  lia-(lediilim.  I.  letter  .SViiH,  No. 
57;  II.  letter  Dn/if/(.  No.  7:  Samhar}!.  *^\.  Neubauer.  in  3/ed, 
Jew.  airim.  I.  IX;  Stelnschneider.  Cat.  Dmll.  .No.  tlM)();ldem, 
Hilir.  mill.  xvll.  .>«;  Jcic.  Quart.  Hex:  18n8-99.  xi.  339; 
Polak.  Pent.-<h  nrrtinoni,  Amsterdam,  1856;  Kaufmann,  In 
.V"»o(.«r)iritt,  isiis,  p.  40. 

L.  G. 

ADEBSBACH,  G.  A.:  (German  poet;  died  in 
1823.  He  belonged  to  the  generation  that,  in  the 
first   quarter   of  the   nineteenth   century,   took  an 


191 


THE  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adelsohn 
Adiabene 


active  part  in  tlie  struggle  for  Jewish  emancipation. 

In  liis  contributions  to  the  "Sulaniitli "  (vol.  v.)  he 
manifests  some  poetical  ability,  f^pecial  mention 
may  be  made  of  his  odes  on  the  Jewish  soldiers  who 
fell  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and  on  William  Wil- 
berforce,  tlie  Engli.sh  abolitionist. 


Bini.iooRAPiiT :  Jost,  A'fuerc  Gcschu)itc,  lU.  3.'>. 


M.  B. 


ADHAN  :  A  family  of  northern  Africa,  several 
members  of  which  figure  in  Jewish  literature.  The 
family  name  was  originally  Aldahlian.  In  Old  Ara- 
bic this  signifies  "an  oil  merchant";  in  the  modern 
Arabic  of  jMoroceo  it  means  "a  painter"  or  "deco- 
rator" ("Z.  I).  M.  G."  xli.\.  r)7;!;  compare  Stein- 
s(  hneider,  in  "Jew.  Quart.  Kev."  .\.  130).  1.  Hoses 
Adhau  is  known  from  a  rabl)inical  decision  that  lie 
publislied  in  Iyyar,173'.i  (printed  in  "Kiicm  Hemed," 
the  "Responsa  of  Abraliani  Alnaiiua,"  ii.  -lOif,  Leg- 
liorn,  18(1'.*  and  IsTl).  A  manuscri]ilin  tlie  collect  ion 
of  David  Kaufiiiaiin  contains  a"  laiuentatioii  "  for  the 
Ninth  Day  of  Ali,  with  the  acrostic  "Moses  Adlinii." 
The  style  of  this  hymn  (Stade's  "Zeilsi  liril't."  ii.  1, 
xii.  2()1,  etc.)  shows  that  he  was  a  writer  of  some 
merit  ("Z.D.M.O."  1.  2:W).  2.  Jacob  Adhan  was 
the  author  of  a  eombini'd  Hebrew  and  Arabic  pii/i't, 
in  which  the  community  of  Israel  (Keneset  Yisrael) 
is  represented  as  pouring  out  its  feelings  to  God,  its 
beloved,  and  asking  for  renewed  assistance  (J.  K. 
Zenner,  "Z.D.  JI.CJ."  .\li.\.  573;  Kaufmann.  ih.  1.238). 
Though  evidently  written  in  ^Inroem,  the  manu- 
script in  which  tlii'<  i)iyut  is  fmmd  came  from 
Tampa,  in  the  state  of  liio  (iiiiiidi-  do  8ul,  in  Brazil. 

G. 

ADHAN,  SOLOMON  BEN  MASUD  :  Trans- 
lator iiml  author,  wild  livid  ill  ihr  lirsi  half  of  the 
eighteeiilh  <iiiluiT.  Hewnil  from  Talilct,  .Morocco. 
to  Amsterdam  so  as  to  obtain  tlie  necessjiry  means 
for  the  ransom  of  bis  family  and  of  his  synagogue 
from  the  hands  of  the  Moors.  He  publisheil  a  trans- 
lation of  Solomon  Sasportas'  "Zeker  Hab  "  under  the 
title  "  .Memoria  de  los  (!13  Preceptos"  (An  Account 
of  the  013  Precepts),  Amsterdam.  1727 ;  also  "  Hi-Ncot 
Deslie  "  (In  Green  Pastures),  conlaining  ritualistic 
and  ethical  exhortations,  as  well  as  legends  of  Moses 
and  .\aron(.Vmster(lam,173.');  2iled.,  in  Russia, IHil!)). 

BnuiOGRAriiv:  KnysiTllnK./Ji'i'.  £.■<;'. -/'nr'.  Ji"l.  p. 8;  Fiir-st, 
Ilihl.  .Iwl.  I.  IS;  Ili-ujacoli,  lifar  /i<i-.sV/«nm,  \t.  Hi. 

M.    B. 

ADIABENE  :  A  district  in  Jlesopotamia  between 
the  I  ppir  Z.ib  ( I.yeus)  and  the  Lower  Zab  (C'aprusl, 
tliougli  Aiiiriiiaiius  ("Ilisl."  xviii.,  vii.  1)  speaks  of 
Nineveh.  Kcbatana,  and  (iaiigamelaasalso  belonging 
to  it.  For  some  centuries,  begiiming  with  the  first 
century  li.c,  it  was  semi  independent.  In  tlicTal- 
muilic  writings  the  name  occurs  as  3"Tn.  3"Tn. 
and  e\"Tn.  which  is  p.irallil  to  its  Syriae  form 
"  Hiidyab  "  or  "  llcdayab."  Its  chief  city  was  Arbela 
(.Vrbailu),  when'  Mar  Tkba  had  a  school,  or  the 
neighboring  Ilazzali,  by  which  name  the  Arabs  also 
called  .\rbela  (Yakiif,  "Gcoirraphisclies  AViirter- 
biicli."  ii.  2113;  Payne-Smilli,  "TliesaiirUH  Syriaeiis," 
under  "  lladyab  "  ;  HolTmaiin,  ".Viiszilge  aus  Syri- 
wlieii  Akien"."  pp.  211,  2I3».  In  Kid.  72./  the  Bibli- 
cal Habor  is  iiliiililied  with  .\<liabi'ni'(com)>are  Yeb. 
Will  HI/..  Yalk.  Dan.  IdCili,  but  in  Yer.  Meg.  i.  7I/' 
with  Riphalli  ((!iii.  x.  3;  compare  also  (Jen.  R. 
x.vxvii).  In  tlieTargiim  to  Jer.  Ii.  27,  .\ninil.  Mini, 
Hiiil  .\sliketm/.  are  punipbnisrd  by  nip.  '3'Otn. 
3"lnV  (■'..  Kurdistan.  .\rnn'niii.  and  .Vdiabinc;  whih' 
i  in  Kzek.  xxvii.  23  nyi.  ri33V  pD  are  interpreted  by 
file  .Vrainaic  tnuisiator  a>  "  Marwan,  Nisibis,  and 
AtlialK-nc. " 


Under  the  Persian  kings  Adiabene  seems  for  a 
time  to  have  been  a  vassal  state  of  the  Persian  em- 
pire. Ardasliir  111.  (361-338  n.c),  before  he  came  to 
the  throne,  had  the  title  "King  of  lladyab"  (Niil- 
deke,"Ge.sehichtederPerser,"  p.  70).  The  little  king- 
dom attained  a  certain  prominence 
Relation  to  on  account  of  its  kings  during  the  first 
Neig-hbor-  century.  Iz.\TF.s  became  a  .tew.  His 
ing-  King-  conversion  took  place  b<'l'ore  he  as- 
doms.  cinded  tli<'  throni'  and  while  he  lived 
in  C'lmnix  Spasinii.  At  about  the  same 
time  liis  mother,  Helena,  was  also  converted.  The 
times  were  troublous  ones;  for  Parthian  kings  and 
counter-kings  followed  each  other  in  (luick  succes- 
sion. Artaban  III.  was  king  of  Atropatene.  He 
had  succeeded  Yonones,  who,  having  been  educated 
entirely  at  Rome,  was  unsyiu])atlietic  toward  the 
Parlhians,  Arlalian  soon  bad  to  flee  to  Ilyrcania  to 
escape  from  the  rival  king,  Tiridates  III.  He  re- 
turned, however,  in  36,  and,  being  afraid  of  a  con- 
spiracy, took  refuge  at  the  court  of  Izates,  who  was 
liowerful  enough  to  induce  the  Parthians  to  rein- 
state Artaban.  For  this  service  certain  kingly 
honors  were  granted  Izates,  and  the  city  of  Nisibis 
was  added  to  his  dominions.  However,  in  45,  Got- 
arzes,  an  adopted  son  of  Artaban,  was  raised  lo  the 
throne  by  the  nobles,  in  )ireference  to  Yardanes,  his 
half-brol'ber.  In  4'.»  .Meherdates  (Mitliridates  Y.), 
a  son  of  Yonones,  was  sent  from  Rome  by  Claudius 
to  take  possession  of  the  throne  of  Parthia.  Izates 
jilayed  a  double  game,  though  he  secretly  sided  with 
(Jotarzes.  A  few  years  later,  Yologeses  1.  set  out 
with  the  intention  of  invading  .Vdiabene  and  of 
luinisliing  Izates;  but  a  forceof  Daeiaiis  and  Scylli- 
ians  bad  just  entered  Parthia,  and  Yologeses  had  to 
return  home. 

Izates  was  followed  on  the  throne  by  his  elder 
brother,  Monobaz  II.  It  is  related  that  in  the  year 
61  he  .sent  a  contingent  of  soldiers  to  Armenia  to 
assist  the  Parthian  candidate,  Tiridates.  against  Ti- 
granes,  who  had  maile  an  incursion  into  the  terri- 
tory of  Adiabene.  The  troops  of  Jlonobaz.  how- 
ever, were  beaten  back  at  Tignuiocerta.  .Monobaz 
was  present  wlii'U  ])eacc  was  concluded  at  Rhandea 
belween  Parthia  and  Rome  in  the  year  63.  The 
chief  o|)ponent  of  Trajan  in  .Mesopotamia  during 
the  year  IIT)  was  the  last  king  of  independent  Adia- 
bene, Miliaraspes.  He  had  made  common  cause 
Willi  JIa'iiu  (Manniis)  of  Singiir  (SinganO.  Tnijan 
invaded  Adiabene,  and  made  it  ]mrl  of  the  Roman 
judvince  of  .\ssyria;  under  Hadrian  in  117,  however, 
Rome  gave  up  jios.sessioii  of  Assyria.  Mesopotamia, 
and  Armenia.  In  (he  suininer  of  111.")  Siverus  was 
again  warring  in  Mesopoiainia,  and  in  ISUi  three 
divisions  of  the  Roman  army  fell  upon  Adiabene. 
.\ecording  to  Dio  Cas-sius,  Antoninus  took  Arbela 
in  the  year  216,  and  searched  all  the  graves  there, 
wishing  lo  ascertain  whether  the  .Vrsacide  kings  weri" 
buri<(l  there.  In  later  times  Adiabiiie  became  an 
arclibisbopric,  with  the  seal  of  the  melropolitan  at 
.\rbila  illoirnmiin.  ".Vklcii."  pp.  '2V.I  ,1  .s,,/.). 

11  is  imiiossible  to  tell  how  far  the  inhabitants  of 

.Vdiabene  had  followed  the  examtile  of  their  king 

and  become  J  udaized.    Jos<'plius("  B. 

Conversion  J."  preface,  5;  2)  refers  lo  the  "Adia- 

of  Some  of   beiioi  "  as  Jews.      Uoth  Queen  Helena 

Izates'       and    Izates  showered    presents    upon 

Subjects.    Jerusalem,   anil   the   (pieeii  look   llie 

king's    .Mills    llieri'    lo    be    ediK'ated. 

The   remains  of    Helena   and    Izates  were   sent    by 

.Monobaz  II.  to  Jerusidiin  for  burial.     Then' seems 

to  be  no  doubt  that  there  wen-  a  number  of  .Vdiabene 

Jews  in  Jeru.siilem,  who  probably  belonged  lo  the 

princely  household,     Joseplius  knew  several,  and  in 


Adibe,  Jacob 
Adler,  Dankmar 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


192 


"  B.  J."  ii.  19,  §  3  mentions  a  Kenedeus  and  a 
Monobaz  as  aiiliiif;  l)nivoly  in  tlio  defense  of  Jerusa- 
lem against  tlie  Homaus,  and  "the  sons  and  breth- 
ren of  Izates  the  king  .  .  .  were  l)oiind  .  .  .  and 
led  to  Home,  in  order  to  make  them  hostages  for 
their  coimtry's  fidelity  to  the  IJomans"  ("R,  J." 
vi.  6,  §  4).  A  certnin  Jacob  Hadyalja  is  mentioned 
in  n.  B.  2f)A:  and  also  Ziiga  of  Hadvab.  or  Zawa 
(Heilprin.  "Seder  ha-Uorot,"  ed.  \m.'ii.  115).  The 
Tahnml  mentions  a  certain  kind  of  scorpion  in 
Adiabene  (Hab.  Sliab.  l'21/»;  in  Yer.  Shab.  .\iv.  14/<, 
the  reading  n'^nji."  is  incorrect)  lliat  might  be  killed 
on  the  Sabbathdavbecauscof  its  venomous  character. 
It  also  states  (Bai).  Jlen.  32//)  tliat  llie  followera  of 
Monobaz  (Yer.  ileg.  iv..  en<l.  pipD  n'3')  were  accus- 
tomed to  tix  the  )iitzii:iih  upon  a  slalf,  and  to  set 
the  stall  upright  in  anj-  inu  in  which  they  happened 
to  pass  the  night  (Tosef.,  Meg.  iv.  [iii.]  30;  Yer. 
Meg.  iv.  75c). 

All  manner  of  false  traditions  have  gathered 
around  these  statements.      The  Armenian  liistorian 

Jloses  of  Chorene.  who  wrote  in  the 
Traditions,    fourth    or    tiflh    century,    has   tnms- 

ferred  the  story  of  Izates'  intervention 
in  Parthia  to  Abgar.  one  of  the  kings  of  Edessa. 
making  Helena  the  wife  of  Abgar,  t'kkama  (Von 
Gutschmid.  "Kleine  Schriften."  iii.  45),  probably 
because  Abgar  VII.  was  the  son  of  Izates  (Duval, 
"Histoire  d'Edesse,"  p.  51).  In  later  Jewish  tradi- 
tion .Monobaz  is  made  out  to  be  a  son  of  Agrippa 
II.  (Ibn  Daud.  "Sefer  ha-Kabbalah."  in  Xeubauer, 
"Med.  Jew.  Chron."  i.  51;  compare  also  "Seder 
'01am."  lb.  170;  and  "Seder  'Olam  Zutta."  in  one 
recension,  ib.  71.  which  in  another  recension  (ib.  75), 
however,  is  sjiid  to  be  impossible.  The  same  is  to 
be  found  in  Zaeuto's  "  Yuhasin."  ed.  Pilipowski.93). 
Accordin.g  to  Zemah  Gaon,  he  was  a  son  of  Herod 
("Yuhasin,"  93,  2,  below). 

BlBLKXiR.vPUT:  rhiel  authority  i.s  .losephus  (.lii(.  x.t.  2,  g  4  ; 
li.J.  ii.  l'J,6-':  iv.».i  II;  v.S,  82;  :!,  B  .5;  4.S-';  li,81),who 
probal)ly  got  his  infoniiation  fnun  Atliabene  Jews  in  Jerusa- 
lem iVo'n  (iutschinid,  Klfittc  Schriften,  iii.  4).  Notices  may 
also  lie  (rather^  from  IMiny,  HixtitrUx  Xatnralis,  v.  66,  vi. 
44  ct  scq. :  .\iiimianus,  Hi,sN>n/.  XNiii.  7,  §  I ;  x.xlii.  6,  S  21 : 
Strabo,  GeonrapUu,  xvl.  Tin  cf  ttc.q.x  Briill,  Atliahene.  in 
Jahrlt.  1..tS  ct  sc<i.;  Griitz,  In  .Voiin/«.<(hn'/MS77, xxvl.  241 
et  «cg.,  289  ct  scq.;  Von  Gutsehmid,  Gc»ch.  Iratis,  pp.  140 
et  esq. ;  Sehurer,  Uesch.  il.  5B3. 

G. 

ADIBE,  JACOB  :  A  Jew,  exiled  from  Portugal 
in  14!itl.  Willi  (hvclt  at  Azamor  in  the  jirovinee  of 
Duccala,  Morocco.  In  1512  the  niUrof  Azamor  had 
surrendered  to  the  sovereignty  of  Portugal,  but  soon 
renoimced  his  allegiance.  King  JIanuel  thereupon 
oidered  a  fleet  to  the  rebellious  city,  entrusting  his 
nephew.  Don  Jaime,  duke  of  I5raganf;a,  with  the  su- 
preme command.  There  ensued  a  fierce  battle  be- 
tween the  floors  and  the  Portuguese,  which  raged 
all  day  without  apparent  result.  At  dawn  on  the 
following  morning,  however,  Adibe  appeared  before 
Don  Jaime  and  amioiineed  to  him  the  evacuation  of 
the  city.  At  the  same  time  he  asked  for  protection  for 
his  family  and  his  coreli.irionists.  The  duke  com- 
|)lied  with  this  request;  and  luider  the  ]iroteetion  of 
a  military  force,  the  Jews,  numbering  several  thou- 
sands, were  escorted  out  of  the  city  and  settled  at 
SafTee  and  Fez.  Adibe  himself  returned  later  to 
Azamor. 

BiBi.iocjRArnT  :  Dam  do  Goes,  Clinm.  *i  TJci  D.  Manuel,  pp. 
:i72f  f  .sc(;.;  A.  C.  de  Ronsa,  HiVf.  (ieneral  ila  Ca.'<a  Itcal  tie 
Pnrtuiiuezet,  v.  ."i22;  D.  L.  de  Barrios,  Hu<tnrta  Vnicerxal 
Jwlaaca,  p.  13;  ilonatsichrift,  vii.  445  ct  s«o. 

M.  K. 

ADIDO.     See  Hadido. 


ASIEIj  :  1.  A  prince  of  the  family  of  Simeon, 
who  captured  Gedor  in  the  days  fif  Ilezekiah 
( I  Chron.  iv,  3(J).  2.  A  priest,  son  of  Jahzerah 
(I  Chron.  i.\.  12).  3.  The  father  of  Azmaveth.  who 
was  "  over  the  king's  [David's]  treasures  "  (I  (^hron. 

G.  H.   L. 


ras  "  ov 
xxvii,  25) 


ADINO  THE  EZNITE.— Biblical  Data :   In 

II  Sam,  xxiii,  8  it  seij.,  in  which  the  names  of  David's 
heroes  are  recorded,  occur  two  mysterious  words, 
'JVVn  13'iy  (according  to  the  /.rri),  which  came  to 
be  regarded  !is  the  designati(m  of  one  of  the  heroes. 
They  are  thus  interjueted  in  the  Septiiagint.  which 
was  followed  by  numerous  other  versions.  The  two 
words  clearly  reitresent  a  textual  corru])ti(m  for 
in'jn  ns  Illy — that  is.  "brandishing  his  spear,"  as 
the  parallel  passage  (I  Chron.  xi.  ll)correctly  reads — 
and  instead  <if  being  a  projier  naiue.  are  merely  de- 
.seriptivc  of  Yosheb  Bashslieliet  (a  I'uphemism  for 
Esh-liaal)  the  Tachmouite,  mentioned  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  verse. 

BiBl.I0(iRAriiV:  Wellhausen.  Text  tier  liUchcr  Samuelis.  p. 
212;  liudde  in  his  edition  of  Samuel-,  ad  loc.  In  S.  B.  O.  T. 

J.  Ju. 

In   Rabbinical   Literature:    According  to  a 

Haggadah.  this  name  is  oidy  a  designation  of  David 
to  denote  two  of  his  piincipal  virtues.  On  account 
of  his  modesty  he  is  called  'Adino  ("  pliant  like  a 
worm  ")  because  he  bowed  down  and  crawled  in  the 
dust  before  pious  men  and  scholars.  For  his  heroic 
deeds  and  his  strength  in  battle  he  is  called  Ha- 
'Ezni  I"  the  man  as  strongasa  tri'e  [vj;]";  M.  K.  Wi). 
The  Vulgate  translation,  "tenerrninis  liyni  rerrni- 
ciibi.1  "  (the  most  tender  woodworm),  is  liased  upon 
a  somewhat  dilTereut  lla.ir.sadah.  The  Targum,  on 
the  other  hand,  also  aiiplies  the  name  to  David,  but 
translates  it  as  the  one  "adorned"  with  "weapons" 
(nj?  and  pri,  L.   G. 

ADIYA.     See  Sa.miei.  rnx  Adita. 
ADJIMAN  :  Jewish  family  in  Turkey,  several 

memlieis  of  which  were  treasurers  and  inlendants- 
general  of  the  ianizaiies.  Meir  Adjiman,  who  lived 
under  Selim  HI.,  posses.sed  such  inlluenee  that  he 
was  able  to  promote  a  simple  janizary  private  to 
the  rank  of  a  snkit-hrtrlii.  The  same  janizary  had  him 
strangled  a  few  years  later.  A  similar  fate  over- 
took his  successors,  the  brothers  Baruch  and  Jacob, 
and  also  Isaiah  Adjiman.  the  last  of  whom  met  his 
death  under  Mohamiued  II.  M.  K. 

ADJtTRATION,  TALMtTDICAL  MODE  OF. 

See  I  )AI  II 

ADLER:  A  family  that  came  originally  from 
Fiunkfort,  but  which  has  been  connected  for  more 
than  a  century  with  the  chief  rabbinate  of  England. 
Tebele  Schiff,  who  was  chief  ndibi  of  London,  was. 
it  is  true,  only  connected  by  marriage  with  Baer 
Adler.  the  two  havin,!i  married  sisters.  But  there 
is  little  doubt  that  the  family  associations  thus 
created  with  England  had  something  to  do  with  the 
candidature  of  X.  31.  Adler  for  the  chief  rabbinate 
of  England  in  1S44.  Though  a  Fi'ankfort  family — 
and  thus  related,  directly  or  indirectly,  with  the 
Worms  and  Koth.schilds — they  have  been,  this  cen- 
tury, moie  closely  connected  with  Hanover,  espe- 
cially while  it  was  under  Biitish  sovereignty — an- 
other point  of  connection  with  England.  The  name 
has  been  deii  ved  from  the  eagle  on  the  sign-board  in 
the  Frankfort  ghetto,  or  from  the  outstretched  hands 
in  the  priest's  blessing,  reseiubling  the  wings  of  an 
ea.ule.  the  Adlers  being  of  priestly  stock. 

Tradition  traces  it  back  to  Simon,  the  author  of  the 
"Yalkut  Shimeoni";   but  the  actual  pedigree,  the 


103 


THE  JEWISH    KN(  VCl.ol'EDIA 


Adibe,  Jacob 
Adler,  Dankmar 


main   fcutuns  of  which  are  contained   in  the  fol- 

lowini;  sketcli,  ijoes  back  only  to  tlie  begiuuiug  of 

the  eiglitcenlh  century: 

Nathan  Adler 

I 
Lelzer;  d.  1746 


Simeon ;  d.  l~i)-'> 


Marcus :  d.  1758 


Nathan  Adler 

the  Iliuld ; 

d.  1«00 


David 
Tet)ele    I 
Srhltr=dr. 
d.  17iK, 
chief  rahb! 
of  London 
HIrseh  Worms 

I 

I 


dr.  =  Baer;  d.  1767 


Marcus;  d.  1S:»4 


Baron  Solomon 
Benedict  Worms 


dr.  =  Nathan  Marcus, 

chief  rahhl  of  Euk- 

land ;  d.  18«0 

I 

[ \ 1 

Marcus,  Hermann,  Elkan 

chief  ralilil 

of  tiriilsh  rinpire 


Gabriel. 

rahbl  of  ( Iber- 

dorf,  teacher  of 

Berthold  .\uer- 

bach 


J. 


ADLER,  ABRAHAM  JACOB  ("Koppel"): 

Gernian  rabbi,  educator;  born  in  1.S1H ;  died  at  Worms 
inl8.")().  lie  was  the  son  of  Isaac  Adler.associate  rabbi 
in  Worms,  and  l>rother  of  Ralil)i  Samuel  Adler.  He 
studic<i  at  the  universities  of  lioiin  and  Giessen,  and 
afterward  went  to  Franl;forl-on-tlie-Maiii,  where  he 
became  teaclierat  the  Huchliolz  School, and  to  Gross- 
Kanizsa,  Iliiiifrary,  iu  l^'.i',>,  where  he  was  engafred  as 
tutor  in  a  jirivate  family.  He  was  elected  rabl)i  of 
Worms  in  ls-12,  but  gave  up  his  rabbinical  career 
ill  the  same  year,  and,  assisted  by  his  wife,  founded 
a  Jirivate  school  for  young  girls.  At  the  rabbinical 
confluences  at  Fraid<i'ort-on-tlic-Main,  in  is-l.'),  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  great  Talmudical  scholar  and 
radical  reformer,  si<ling  with  Iloldheini,  (Jcigir,  and 
Einhorn.  and  wrote  "Die  77  Sogcnaimten  Habl)iiicr 
tmd  die  Uabbincsvi-rsammlung,"  I'Mannhciiu,  IS-i'i,  a 
]inni|ildet  which  created  some  stir.  Iu  1S48  he  es- 
tablished a  jiolitical  paper,  and  became  a  contribu- 
tor to  Nowack's  "  Kirchiiizcitung."  Iu  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  of  1.H48  Adler  espoused  the  cause 
of  political  freedom  with  all  the  ardor  and  elo(|Ucucc 
of  his  enthusiastic  nature.  He  did  noteonuuit  any 
overt  act  which  cotdd  be  justly  brought  up  airaiust 
him,  but  after  tlic  scatli'ring  of  the  revolutionary 
forces  bv  the  Prussian  arms  he  was  seized  iu  his  study 
by  genilarmcs,  on  the  eve  of  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
and  hurried  away  to  the  Iron  Towit  at  Mayeucc. 
There  he  languished  for  many  monllis,  his  wife  lying 
at  the  sanw!  time  at  tlie  point  of  death.  At  last  he 
was  uctjuitted  bv  a  jury,  and  was  released  from  his 
pri.son,  Thr  |iositiou  of  rabbi  at  thi^  New  York  Tem 
pie  Emaini  El  was  first  olfcrcd  to  him  iu  ls,>t,  but 
liis  poor  licallh  |ircvciitcd  him  accepting  the  call, 
whidi  his  brother  Samuel  entered  upon  three  years 
later,  Hroken  in  heallb  by  the  trials  llunugli  wlii(h 
lie  had  pn.ssed,  hedied  iu  the  winterof  is.'id.  Among 
hiaworksure:  "(ieschichte  der  .ludeii  in  Eraidvfurt- 
am-Main,"  and  "  Ueform  des  .ludenlhuins,"  written 
with  the  aid  of  his  friend  Wagner  of  JIaunheim,  lS4ti. 

'    IlIIU.io(HiAriiv  :  Seniion  by  L.  U^wysohn  (of  Worms)  and  an- 

[       ether  l>y  Iir.  Steln  (<>f   Kninkfort-on-tht^-Maln).  iu  Archirti 

limu'Htii,  lK"i)i.  j^ 

I  ABLER,    CYRUS:     I.ilirariau   of   llio    Smith- 

i  snniun  Instilulion  .   fionidcrof  the  American  .lewish 

I  Historical  Sociely.     He  was  l)orn  at  Van  Uureu.  Ar- 

I  kansas,  Sept.  18,  iHO;i,  ami  was  educnted  at  the  Phil- 


adelphia  High  School,  University  of  Pennsylvania 
(B.A..  ISHIJ;  M.A..  188fi),  and  .Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
ver.sity  (Ph.D.,  1887),  He  was  fellow  iu  .Semitic  lan- 
guages at  Johns  Hopkins  Uuiversity,  188.)-87,  was 
appointed  instructor  iu  Seuutic  languages,  1887,  and 
associate.  1892.  Adli-r  became  a.ssistant  curator  in 
the  department  of  Oriental  antiqinties  in  the  United 
States  National  Museum,  in  Washington,  in  1887, 
and  custodian  of  the  section  of  historic  religious 
ceremonials  in  ls8f(. 

He  Weill  to  the  Orient  for  fifteen  months  as  spe- 
cial commissioner  for  the  World's  Columbian  E.xhi- 
bitiou  at  Chicago,  at  which  the  Orientjd  exhibits  were 
obtained  mainly  tli'rough  his  efforts;  he  also  partici- 
pated in  the  organization  of  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment exhibits  at  the  expositions  at  Ciucinnati. 
18H8.  at  Cliicago,  1^98,  and  at  Atlanta,  189,5;  of  the 
last  named  he,  together  with  Dr.  I.  M.  Casanowicz, 
published  an  illustrated  catalogue  in  the  "  Heport  of 
the  Uuili'd  Slates  National  Museum  for  1890"  (pp. 
94:S-102;i,  with  46  plates).  Adler  may  justly  be  re- 
garded as  the  originator  of  the  American  Jewish 
Historical  Society,  which  was  the  outcome  of  an  ap- 
peal issued  by  him  early  in  1892.  After  acting  as  its 
secretary  from  that  date  he  became  its  president  iu 
1898,  Of  the  many  learned  societies  of  which  he  is 
member  be  has  acted  as  vice-iiresidcnt  of  the  An- 
thropological Society  of  Washington,  as  member  of 
council  of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Washing- 
ton, and  as  trustee  of  the  American  Jewish  Publica- 
tion Societj-  and  of  Gratz  College.  In  1899  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society.  He  has  played  an  important  part  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  international  catalogue  of  scientific 
literatiu'c.  and  represented  the  United  States  at  the 
conrercuce  on  this  suliject  held  in  London  in  189S. 
Besides  tlie  catalogue  of  Biblical  antiquities  at  the 
Atlanta  Exposition  and  otiicr  pa|iers  iu  the  reports 
and  proceedings  of  tlie  United  .States  National  Mu- 
seum and  in  the  journals  of  the  learned  societies 
of  which  he  is  a  member,  Adler  has  published,  with 
Allan  Kamsiiy,  "Told  iu  the  Colfec  House  "(New 
York,  1898),  a  series  of  folk-talcs  collected  in  Con- 
stantinople; and  has  edited  the  "American  Jewish 
Year  Book"  since  1899. 

BiHi.iooK.vi'ilv  :  U.S.  Monils,  The  Jftfsnf  Pliilaikhihia  Prior 
(o  ;m«,  rhlladelphla,  lS,s;):  AppMon'g  Cliclnpalin  :  If/io's 
Il'fio  in  Amcriva.  s.v.;  FifUl  Yenrs'  H'ork  ufthc  Hebrew 
Kiluratioual  Sm-ii-tii  of  l')tihnlclphiay  p.  62.  j 

ADLER,  DANKMAR:  German- American  ar- 
chitect and  engineer;  born  in  Stadt-Lengsfeld.Sa.xe- 
Weimar- Eisenach,  July  8,1844;  died  iu  Chicago,  Ajiril 
1."),  191)11.  He  was  a  sou  of  Kabbi  Eicbman  and  Sara 
Eliel  Adler.  who  emigrated  to  .Vmerica  in  18.54.  Edu- 
cated at  the  pulilic  schools  of  Detroit  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Miihigan,  he  settled  in  Chicago  in  18(il, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  and  almost  iiii- 
mediately  enlisted  iu  the  artillery. 

Adler  was  president  of  the  Western  As.sociat ion  of 
Architects,  secretary  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects,  and  president  of  the  Illinois  State  Board 
of  Examiners  of  Architects.  He  designed  many  im- 
portant ])ublic  buildings  in  Chicago,  sucliaslhcsyna- 
gogucsof  the  Sinai,  Zion,  Anslie  .Maarabh,  ami  Isaiah 
congregations,  Grace  Methodist  Episc(vpal  and  Unity 
churches,  McVickcr's  Theater,  the  Central  Music 
Hall,. Vudiloriuiu. and  .Stock  Exchange.  Among  those 
that  he  designed  anil  planned  in  St.  Louis  ari'  the 
Wain  Wright.  Union  Trust. and  St.  Nicholas  buildings; 
in  New  Orleans,  the  Union  Station;  iu  Pueblo,  Col., 
the  Opera  House.  In  New  York  he  wasassociate  ar 
chilect  of  Carnegie  Music  Hall.  Ailler  was  trustee  of 
the  United  Hebrew  Charities  iu  Chicago,  and  waa 
its  secretary  from  1873  to  1877.  J.  Sto. 


Adler,  David  Barucb 
Adler,  Hermann 


THE  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


194 


ADLER,  DAVID  BABUCH :  Diitiish  bunker 
niul  |Miliii(iaM.  liorii  .M:i_v  Mi.  l^i-Jli.  at  ('opciiliiiju'n ; 
liiid  tlicrc  Dfcembir  4.  1'<7m.  In  IMt!  lu-  hccanic 
a  partner  in  a  eoinmissimi  lionse  (.Martin  Levin  iV 
Adler)  in  Loiulmi.  where,  in  IS-49,  lie  married  .leniiy 
Hapliael.  dauirliter  of  the  danker.  .Inhn  Kapliael.  In 
1S.")(I  he  returned  In  Copenlia.iren  and  lieianie  a  part- 
ncr  in  the  banking;  house  nf  I).  B.  Adler  iV  I'onipany. 
in  which  iiosilimi  liisopenitions  were  directed  toward 
the  tnuisfer  of  the  linan<ial  centerof  Jutland's  mone- 
tary atTairs  from  llamburij;  to  Copcnluifren.  Thi.s 
circumstance  placed  him  in  a  very  dilticull  position 
durinir  the  tinancial  crisis  of  ISoT.  hi  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  support  iriveii  him  diiriiij;  this  |)eriod 
of  tinancial  stress  he  established,  in  ISW.  u  fuiul  of 
2d,nOO  kroner  for  widows  and  daughters  of  impov- 
erished merchants.  He  wasan  outspoken  frce-tmder 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  FreeTrade  Society. 

Adler  was  a  menilier  of  the  administration  of  the 
Copenhagen  Privatliarik.lHoT  ;  of  the  llandelsbanken, 
ISTG.  and  of  several  tinancial  inslitulionsin.Iutland. 
After  the  war  of  IS(!-f  he  contracti'd  for  the  Danish 
public  loan  through  KajdiaeLV:  Son  in  London. and.  in 
IstiH,  for  a  Swedish  |iublic  loan.  As  a  politician. 
Adler  lielonged  to  the  left  wing  of  the  National  Lib- 
eral party,  and  occupied  an  inlluential  position.  As 
a  member  of  the  Danish  jiarliament  he  had  a  seat  in 
the  Folketliing.  18()-t-()i).  serving  on  the  finance  com- 
mittee, on  one  occasion,  as  president.  From  istii)  he 
was  member  of  the  Landsthing.  Among  other  ptiblic 
ottices.  he  held  the  position  of  town  councilor  in 
Copenhagen.  lS5H-(i4  and  1869-72;  was  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce  {GroKnerer-Societetet).  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  founders,  1875-78;  member 
of  the  JIaritime  and  Commercial  Court. 18C2-78.and 
member  of  the  Board  of  Kepreseutatives  of  the  Jew- 
ish congregation  in  Copenhagen. 

Adler's  great  interest  in  Danish  art  and  industry 
made  him  a  very  active  member  of  the  committee 
for  the  decoration  of  the  National  Theater  in  Copen- 
hagen and  of  that  for  Denmark's  participation  in  the 
Paris  Expo.sition.  1878.  His  activity  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  charity  organization  of  Copenhagen 
was  also  of  great  importance. 

Bibliooraphy  :  Hrickn.  Danxh  nii^raiisk  Lcxihotv,  s.v.;  /!- 
(ii.ifrir.  t  Till'  niti ,  IH'i-.  l.'>,  isrx.  ,     -. 

ADLER,  ELKAN  NATHAN  :  Lawyer,  and 
collector  of  Hebrew  manuscripts;  born  at  London, 
1861;  son  of  Chief  Rabbi  Nathan  Adler.  His  early 
training  was  obtained  successively  in  the  City  of 
London  School  and  at  University  College.  London. 
Mr.  Adler  spent  several  years  in  travel  throughout 
the  East,  visiting  all  the  countries  containing  small 
Jewish  colonies.'  From  1888  to  1898  he  made  three 
journeys  specially  to  Egypt  and  Palestine,  In  1892 
and  1894  he  traveled  from  Spain  to  itorocco,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  1^94  and  at  the  beginning  of  189.") 
visited  Algiers  and  Tunis.  During  these  journeys 
he  made  it  a  practise  to  seek  Hebiew  manuscripts, 
and  in  this  way  accumulated  one  of  the  largest  pri- 
vate collections  in  the  world.  Among  the  positions 
held  li.v  Mr.  Adler  was  that  of  honorary  secretary  of 
the  Jewish  Association  for  the  Dilfusion  of  Religious 
Knowledge,  He  was  vice-president  of  the  Interna- 
tional Conference  on  the  Russo-Jewish  question  at 
Berlin,  1891,  He  is  joint  secretary  of  the  Jewish  Con- 
valescent Home,  a  member  of  the  committee  of  the 
Stepney  Jewish  schools  and  Chovevi  Zion  As-socia- 
tion,  and  superintendent  of  Sabbath-classes.  Articles 
on  the  Egyptian  and  Persian  Jews  have  been  con- 
tributed by  him  to  the  "  Jewi.sh  Quarterly  Review  " 
and  other  journals. 
Bibliography  :  Jacobs,  Jewisli  Year  Bools,  1899.       G,  L. 


ADLER,  FELIX  :  Founder  of  the  Society  for 
Etliiial  t'uliuie,  educator,  and  author;  ,second  son 
of  Rabbi  Samuel  Adler;  was  born  at  Al/.ey,  Ger- 
many. -Vug.  i;i,  IN,"")!.  In  l,S,-)7,  when  his  father  re- 
ceived a  call  to  the  ministry  of  Temple  Eiiianu-El  at 
New  York,  the  family  came  to  that  city,  .Vdler's 
|ircliminary  education  was  obtained  in  public  and 
jirivate  schools  in  New  Y'ork  city.  He  afterward 
entered  Columbia  College,  whence  he  was  gradu- 
ated in  1870, 

With  the  view  of  preparing  himself  for  the  Jewish 
ministry,  he  went  to  Germany,  where  he  pursued 
theological,  philosophical,  and  linguistic  studies  at 
the  Iloclisehule  fUr  die  AVis.si'nschaft  des  Juden- 
thums  at  Berlin,  together  with  studies  in  ]ihilosoi>hy 
and  economies  at  the  University,  He  later  entered 
the  University  of  Heidelberg,  where  he  obtained  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  i)hilosoi)hv  in  1873. 

Finding  upon  his  return  to  \ew  Y'ork  that  the  at- 
titude he  had  reached  with  re,L'ard  to  Jewish  relig- 
ious beliefs  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  enter  the 
active  ministry,  he  accepted  the  chair  of  Hebrew 
and  Oriental  literature  estiiblished  for  him  by  .some 
of  his  friends  at  Cornell  University,  and  held  this 
position  from  1874  to  1876.  In  the  latter  year  he 
returned  to  New  York  and  organized  a  society  for 
ethical  culture  ba.scd  upon  the  ]irinciple  of  the  pro- 
motion of  riirht  living  independent  of  religious, 
dogmatic,  or  sectarian  views(see  Etiikai,  Cvi.tvre, 
SociiiTY  KoiO,  As  a  lecturer  in  connection  with  the 
Society  for  Ethical  Culture  Adler  lias  shown  great 
activity,  and  has  made  a  mark  on  religious  thought 
in  the  United  States. 

As  a  corollary  to  this  work,  and  as  an  outgrowth 
of  his  own  stiuiies  in  pedagogics  and  didactics  and 
social  science.  Dr.  Adler  has  been  instrumental  in 
organizing  in  New  York  a  sy.stem  of  district  nursing 
in  connection  with  the  dispensaries  (1878),  a  free 
kindergarten (l.'^8()),  a  workingmen's  school,  a  move- 
ment for  improving  the  dwellings  of  the  poor,  and 
a  number  of  other  institutions  and  movements.  He 
has  e.xerted  great  inHuenee  toward  the  introduction 
of  manual  training,  science,  and  art  teaching  in  the 
jiublic  schools. 

His  chief  literary  works  are"  Creed  and  Deed"(New 
York,  1877)  and  "  The  Moral  Instruction  of  Children  " 
(New  Y'ork,  1S98).  He  wrote  the  articles  on  .lews, 
Jewish  History,  and  Jewish  Literature  in  Johnson's 
••  Universal  Cyclopedia  "  of  1876,  G.  H. 

ADLER,  GEORGE  :  German  economist  and 
author;  born  at  J'o.scii,  .May  28,  1863.  His  thesis  for 
the  doctor's  degree  (1883)  was  on  Rodliertus-Jaget- 
zow,  the  well-known  Prussian  state  socialist.  He  is 
a  remarkably  prolific  writer  on  economic  and  soci- 
ological ijucstions,  publishing  many  treatises,  and 
contributing  numerous  articles  to  German  reviews. 
He  lectured  as  extraordinary  profes.sor  on  sociology 
in  the  University  of  Basel,  Switzerland,  and  later  be- 
came professor  of  political  economy  in  the  University 
of  Freiburg,  Germany.  Adlerhasadvocated  a  moder- 
ate social  ])olicy  and  bitterly  opposed  revolutionary 
socialism.  Of  his  books  may  Ix!  mentioned:  "Karl 
Mar.x'sche  Kritik  "  (1886) ;  "  Internationaler  Arbeiter- 
sehutz  "(18.88);  "Social  Reformund  Theater"  (1891); 
"Staiit  uud  .Vrbeitslosigkeit  "  (1894);  "Die  Impcrial- 
istisehe  Social politik"  (1897);  "Die  Socialrcform  im 
Alterthum  "  (1898) ;  "  Ge-scliichte  des  Socialismus  und 
Conmiunismus,"  i,  (1900),  In  the  last  two  works 
he  dealt  also  with  the  social  ideas  of  the  ancient 
Hebrews, 

BIBLIOGRAPUV  :  Kurseliner,  LHcratur-Kalcyidcr,  1898. 

M,  B, 


195 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adler,  David  Baruch 
Adler,  Hermann 


ADLEB,  GOTTLIEB:  Austrian  physicist  and 
matlii-inutii  i;in  ;  Imni  Miiicli  7,  IWOH;  ilii-il  Dec.  15, 
1MU3,  at  SU'ckcii.  Biiliciiiia.  After  icft'ivinj;  liis  early 
tdueatidiiat  the  frymiiasiuin  (if  I.i,'hui.  Moravia,  being 
gniduated  in  1M7T,  lie  entered  llie  L'niversity  of  Vi- 
enna, and  reeeived  the  degree  of  I'li.D.  in  1882.  He 
th<-n  devoted  liiniself  jirineiiially  totliestudvof  nuitli- 
eniatieal  physies,  and  in  18,s,")  wasajipoiuteil  "privat- 
docent  "  (inslruetorl  at  tlie  university.  Shortly  be- 
fore his  death  he  \vas  proumted  to  the  position  of 
professor  extraordinary  at  the  same  university. 

The  seieiilitic  papers  of  Adler  relate  almost  en- 
tirely to  researches  in  the  domains  of  electricity  and 
nia.gnetisni,  and,  witli  a  few  exceptions,  were  piib- 
lisiied  in  the  "  Sitzungsberichte  der  Kaiserlichen 
Akadeniie  der  Wissenschaflen  zu  Wien,  "covering  a 
period  of  nine  years  (18S4-93).  Brief  notices  of  these 
investigations  may  be  found  in  the  "  Fort.schritte  der 
Phvsik,"  .\l.-xli.\.,  Brunswick. 

A.  S.  C. 

ADLER,  GTJIDO :  Austrian  writcronnuisic;  liorn 
al  Eilicnschut/.,  .Moravia,  Xov,  1,  18.5.5.  His  father, 
Joachim,  a  physician,  died  in  1857,  whereupon  liis 
mother  removed  to  Iglau.  He  was  educated  in  Vien- 
na,wlierc  he  st\idied  nuisicat  the  conservatory  undir 
lirucknirand  Desolf.  In  1878  he  was  graduated  from 
the  Vienna  L'nivci-sily  as  doctor  of  jurisprudence,  and 
in  1880asdoctorof  [)hilo.sophy.  Ilisdisscrtation,"  Die 
Grundklas.sen  der  C'hristlich-Abeudlilndischen  Musik 
bis  KiOO"  (The  Chief  Divisions  of  Western  Church 
Music  up  to  IGOO),  was  reprinted  in  "Allg.  Musik- 
zeilung."  1.8.S().  In  188^!  Adler  became  lecturer  on  mu- 
sical science  at  Vienna  University,  on  which  occasion 
he  wrote  "EineStudie  zur  Oeschichte  der  Harmonic" 
(.\ji  Essay  on  the  History  of  Harmony),  iiublished 
in  the  "Sitzungsberichte  der  I'hilosophiseli  Histo- 
rischen  Klas.sc  der  Wiener  Academic  der  Wissen- 
Rclmften."  1881.  In  1884  he  founded  with  Friedrich 
Chrysiuider  and  Pliilij)  Spilta  the  "  Vierleljahres- 
schrift  fUr  Musikwis.senschaft."  In  1885  he  was 
called  to  the  (icrman  l'niversity  of  Prague.  Bohe 
laia,  as  ordinary  professor  of  the  history  and  theory 
of  music,  and  in  1 8U8,  in  the  same  cai)acily,to  the 
l'niversity  of  Vieiuia.  In  18S(i  be  ]iublislie<l  "Die 
Wiederhohmg  und  Nachahmung  in  der  Mehrslim- 
niigkcit";  in  1.S88.  "  Ein  Satz  eines  Unbekannlen 
H(ithovenis<hen  Klavierkoncerts. "  In  I81l'2-!tlJ  he 
edited  a  selection  of  musical  compositions  of  the 
emperors  Ferdinand  HI.,  Leopold  I.,  and  Josejih 
1.  (two  vols.).  Since  1.81)4  he  has  been  the  editor  of 
■*  Denkmiller  der  Tonkiuist  ftlr  Osterreich,"  an  im- 
portant publication  for  the  history  of  mu.sic. 

BiBLiooRAPiiT :  RIt-mann,  Mugtk-Lerihon.,  1891),  s.T. 

M.  B. 

ADLER,  HELENE  :  Cerman  teacher  and  wri- 
ter: born  at  Frankfort  on  IheMain  in  lH4i),  in  the 
same  house  in  which  Lu<lwig  Hiirne  was  born,  and 
which  was  the  [iroperty  of  her  father,  who  was  one 
of  the  minor  ollicers  of  the  Jewish  community  of 
Frankfort.  She  was  graduali'd  from  the  Wiesbaden 
Women's  College  in  1807,  and  for  lifliin  years  was 
t<acliir  in  the  school  of  the  Frankfort  Orphan  Asy- 
lum, ^liss  Adler,  who  since  l88i  has  devoted  herself 
entirely  to  literature,  is  tin-  author  of  the  following 
works":  (1)  "  Beim  Kuckuk"  (poems),  1883;  (•>)  ••  |{e- 
llgion  und  Moral  "  (a  treatise  on  education),  1882;  (8) 
"  Waiseiierziehting  "  (an  essav  on  llie  education  of 
orphans),  1S85;  (4)  "Vorredi'ii  und  Bruchstilcke " 
(poems).  18U7. 

Bini.Kxiit.tPiiY :  LfxUiiin  Ikutfchtr  Fraucn  ilcr  Feihr.  1808, 

H     l{ 


Chief  Rabbi  Hermann  .\itler. 


ADLER,  HERMANN:  Chief  rabbi  of  the 
I'liitcd  llebreu  (dngiegations  of  the  British  cni]iire; 
born  in  the  city  of  Hanover,  May,  1839;  second  son 
of  X.\Tii.\x  M.vucrs  Adi.ku;  eclucated  at  University 
College  School  and  University  College,  London. 
He  studied  at  Prague  and  Leijjsic  between  1.860  and 
18G3,  devoting  especial  attention  to  theology  and 
the  Talmud.  In  December,  1802,  lie  received  llie  de- 
gree of  Ph.D.  at  Leipsic,  and  next  year  Chief  Uabbi 
uapoiiort  of  Prague 
conferrc'd  upon  him  the 
hdlliiriit  liordith  (rab- 
binical diploma). 

In  I8(j:j  Dr.  Adler 
became  principal  of 
Jews'  College,  an  in- 
stitution for  which, 
like  his  father,  he 
always  entertained  a 
special  regard.  Though 
he  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  the  Bayswater 
Synago.gue,  London,  in 
18H4,  he  remained  the 
tutor  of  theology  in 
Jews'  College  until 
187i),  when  he  reliii- 
(luislied  his  active  du- 
ties there.  However, 
he  did  not  entirely 
sever  his  connection 
with  the  college;  for  when  Sir  Barrow  Ellis  died  in 
1887  he  was  unanimously  elected  chairman  of  the 
council,  and  at  his  election  as  chief  rabbi  in  1891 
he  became  president  of  the  institution. 

Wh(  n  in  187()  advancing  age  compelled  his  father, 
the  chief  rabbi,  to  ihlegate  to  another  some  of  his  most 
onerous  duties.  Dr.  Adler  became  his  deputy,  and 
when  his  father  died  in  1890  he  was  unanimously 
electeil  to  succeed  him  (June,  1891). 

Dr.  Adler's  inlluence  has  been  very  wide-spread, 
covering  the  whole  e.xtcnt  of  the  British  empire  and 
even  reaching  beyoml.     He  is  socially 
Extent  of   the  recognized  representative  of  Eng- 
Influence.    lish  Jewry,  and  he  is  one  of  the  most 
prominent  tiguresin  philanthropic  cir- 
cles.   He  is  the  minister  of  the  Cathedral  Synagogue 
in  Duke's  Place,  as  well  as  president  of  the  London 
bet  din. 

Dr.  Adler  holds  many  lionorary  offices  in  the  com- 
munity, and  in  addition  to  being  president  of  Jews' 
College,  he  is  ]iresiilent  of  Aria  College.  For  a  time 
he  was  jiresidiiit  of  the  Jewish  Historical  Society  of 
Englaiul.  and  lie  has  luld  the  vice-iiresidency  of 
the  Jewish  IJeligious  Educational  Board  and  of  the 
Anglo-Jewish  Association.  He  also  takes  an  active 
jiart  in  the  Hus.so-Jcwisli  Conimitlic.  which  he  repre- 
sented atBerlinin  1889andal  Parisin  18!»t).  Outside 
the  community,  too,  he  holds  important  offices,  and 
is  vice-president  of  the  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Cruelty  to  Children  and  of  the  Mansion  House 
Associatiiui  for  improving  the  dwellings  of  the 
poor. 

He  is  the  author  of  a  volume  of  "Sermons  on  the 
Biblical  Pa.ssages  Adduced  bv  Christian  Theologians 
in  Su|>port  of  the  Dogmas  of  Their 
His 'Works.  Faith";  "Ibn  (iabirol  ami  His  Hi'- 
lation  to  Scholastic  I'hilosophy."  in 
"University  College Es,says."  18m  ;  ".lewisli  l{ei>ly  to 
Bishop  Coleiiso";  and  various  Sabbath  readings  pub 
lished  by  the  Jewish  Association  for  the  Promotion 
of  Heligious  Knowledge.  Dr.  Adler  has  lontribu 
ted  numerous  artiiles  to  reviews,  among  them  an 
article  in   reply  to  Prof,  Goldwiii  Smith,  entitled 


Adler,  Isaac 
Adler,  Nathan 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDLV 


196 


"Can  Jews  bo  Patriots?"  ("Ninctceuth  Century," 
1878)  which  uttnutcd  much  attention. 

BiBLKxiRAPHV:  JfU".  Clinm.  aoii  Jew.  World,  June.  18B1; 
Juootw,  JiwMi  Year  Book,  1899;  UTio'nIl'/iof  1899;  roimo 

G.  L. 

ADLER,  ISAAC  :  Son  of  Rabbi  Samuel  Adler. 
Auuiicmi  physician  and  professoi'  of  clinical  medi- 
<-in('  in  the  Xcw  York  Polydhiic  .Medical  School  and 
Hospital;  born  at  Al/ey.  Germany,  in  is4il;  cmi- 
j^ralcd  to  America  in  185T.  He  was  jinidualed  from 
Columbia  College  in  lS(i8,  studied  medicine  in  the 
universities  of  lleidelberj;,  Vienna.  I'ia>rue.  and  Ber- 
lin; and  received  his  degree  of  Ml),  from  lliidelbirj; 
in  IHTl.  From  the  year  187.")  Adler  held  the  position 
of  visitinir  i>hysieian  to  the  German  Hospital  in  New 
York  city.  In  1890  he  l)ecame  professor  of  clin- 
ical patholoi^y  at  the  New  York  Polyclinic  Medical 
School.  Adler  wa.s  elected  in  18tl8  consulting  phy- 
sician to  the  Monteliore  Home.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  number  of  scientific  monographs  on  medical  sub- 
jects, one  of  which,  "Observations  on  Cardiac  Syph- 
ilis {"New  York  Medical  Journal."  lx.\iii.  .577).  has 
had  the  distinction  of  being  translated  into  French 
in"Kevue  GeneraledeCliniiiue  et  de  Tlierapie."  xii. 
818-824.  Paris.  18!I8.  W.  S. 

ADIiEK,  JACOB:  Judito-German  actor;  born 
at  Odcssji.  Russia.  January  1.  18.«.  Inllueuced  by 
a  Jewish  troupe  which  came  from  Uumania  to 
Odessa  in  187.5.  he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  a 
theatrical  career.  He  made  his  first  aiijiearance  in 
1878  at  the  theater  in  Kherson.  IJussia.  and  from 
the  outset  proved  himself  a  skilful  interpreter  of 
the  sentiment  and  thought  of  the  Russian  ghetto. 
In  1.88:i.  when  the  Russian  goverameut  prohibited 
all  Jewish  plays,  Adler  emigrated  to  L<indon.  In 
February,  1888,  lie  removed  to  New  York,  where 
he  became  one  of  the  leading  actors  on  the  Jewish 
stage.     See  I)k.\.ma. 

Bibliography  :  M.  Selfert,  in  Die  Iilisclic BUhnc  (Jud:vo-Ger- 
nmn),  New  York,  1897;  H.  Ilapgijod.  in  Evening  Post,  New 
York,  October,  1900. 

M.  B. 

ADLER,  KARL  FRIEDRICH :  Austrian 
jurist;  b<irn  at  Prague,  Boliemia.  .March  31.  1865. 
He  is  the  son  of  Moritz  Adler.  aulhor  of  "Der  Krieg. 
die  Congressideen,  und  die  Allgemcine  Wehrptlicht  " 
(1868).  Karl  Adler  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Prague  and  Vienna,  was  professor  extraordinary  of 
commercial  law  in  the  University-  of  Vienna  from 
1893  to  1898.  and  in  19(10  was  professor  of  ei\il  law 
at  the  University  of  Czernowitz,  Bukowina.  In  1898 
he  embraced  Catholicism.  Adler  is  the  author  of  "  Das 
Oesterreichische  Lagerhausrecht "  (1892).  a  treatise 
on  the  Austrian  law  concerning  the  regulation  of 
storehouses;  "  Realcontract  und  Vorvertrag  "  (1892), 
a  work  dealing  with  contracts  and  first  drafts; 
"Zur  Entwickhingslehre  und  nogmatik  des  Gcsell- 
schaftsrechts  "  (1895),  an  examination  into  the  evo- 
lution and  dogmatics  of  social  law.  He  has  con- 
tributed miscellaneous  papers  to  "Zeitsehrift  flir 
Handelsreeht "  (vol.  xxxv.).  "Archiv  fi'ir  Biirger- 
liches  Recht  "  (vol.  iii.).  "Conrad's  Handwi'irlerlnich 
der  Staatswissenschaften,"  "Zeitsehrift  filr  Prival- 
und  Oeffentliches  Recht,"  "Monatsschrift  fur  Han- 
delsreeht," etc.  S. 

ADLER,  LAZARUS  (LEVI) :  German  rabbi. 
of  the  period  of  Iiansition;  born  at  Unsleben.  Ba- 
varia, Nov.  10.  1810;  died  at  Wiesbaden,  Jan.  5, 
1886.  He  studied  Hebrew  literature  at  an  early  age, 
and.  under  his  father's  tuition,  read  both  the  Bible 
and  the  Talmud.  lu  accordance  with  the  system 
of  education  then  prevailing,  he  was  placed  in  the 


yenhihah  (mbliinieal  academy)  of  Rabbi  Ilirsch  Kun- 
reulcr.  at  Gelnhausen.  where  for  five  years  he  as,sid- 
vmusly  applied  himself  to  Tidmudicstudii-s.  Thence 
he  went  to  WUr/.burg.  Bavaria,  partly  to  attend  the 
lectures  on  the  Talmud  by  Chief  Ualilii  Abraham  Bing 
an<l  partly  to  prepare  himself  for  academic  .studies. 
In  1830  he  was  matriculated  at  the  University  of 
WHrzburg.  From  his  intercourse  here  with  Einhorn 
and  Dukes  he  received  many  spiritual  suggestions. 
These  were  not  wasted  ;  and,  under  the  advice  of  his 
teacher.  Professor  Wagner,  he  read  Herder's  wri- 
tings, which  definitely  shaped  his  conception  of  the 
clerical  calling  in  relation  to  |)reaehing  and  ])ractise. 

In  1832,  accompanied  by  friends,  he  journeyed  to 
Miniich,  an<l  in  the  winter  of  1833  received  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  i)hilosophy  at  Eilangen.  Return- 
ing home,  he  prepared  for.  and  passed  with  honors, 
the  Theological  State  Board  examination,  prescribed 
bv  law  forteachers.  Wilhothersof  congenial  views, 
Adler  founded  (WlUzburg,  1837-38;  Munich,  1839- 
4.5)  "  Die  Synagoge,"  a  uon-partizan  Jewish  religious 
journal,  wlio.se.sole  aim  was  to  instruct  and  to  edify. 
At  an  assembly  of  representatives  of  Jewish  congre- 
gations, convened  at  Wi'irzburg  bv  order  of  the  Ba- 
varian government,  and  which  Adler  attended  as  the 
representative  of  his  native  congregation,  he  showed 
(he  siime  moilerate  policy  that  he  pursued  through- 
out his  life. 

In  1840  Adler  was  elected  district  rabbi  of  Kis- 
singen,  a  section  of  the  country  comprising  twenty- 
four  congregations.  A  memorandum  on  the  civic 
position  of  the  Jews  in  Bavaria,  published  by  Adler 
in  184()  at  Munich;  a  circular  letter,  addressed  to  the 
deputy  .Vllioli.  and  entitled  "Emancipation  and  Re- 
ligion of  the  Jews,  or  the  Jewish  Race  and  its  Ad- 
versaries" (Fiirth.  18.50):  and  an  "Ojien  Letter" 
(18.52).  addressed  to  the  deputies  Ruland,  Sepp,  and 
Allioli.  were  all  well  received. 

In  18.52  Adler  received  a  call  toJIayence;  but,  hav- 
ing also  been  ofTered  the  chief  rabbinate  of  the  elec- 
torate of  Hesse,  at  Cassel.  as  successor  to  Philip 
Roman,  who  died  1842.  he  decided  to  accept  the 
latter  appointment.  While  at  Cassel.  in  addition  to 
his  increasing  ministerial  duties,  he  contributed  occa- 
sionally to  the  literature  of  his  day.  "Talmudische 
Welt-  und  Leliensweisheit  "  was  the  title  of  a  work  in 
which  he  int<'nded  to  treat  the  Pirke  Abot;  but  only 
the  first  volume  appeared.  A  large  number  of  ex- 
cellent sermons  that  he  published  testify  to  his  liom- 
ilelic  gifts.  In  the  field  of  pedagogies  he  was  also 
active,  editing  school-books,  especially  a  reader  for 
Jewish  schools  containing  numerous  translations  (in 
German)  from  rabbinical  literature.  He  also  pub- 
lished "  Discourses  for  the  Promotion  of  Humanity" 
(in  German,  3  vols.,  I860,  1870,  1876).  The  Bavarian 
government  would  not  permit  him  to  attend  the  con- 
gresses of  rabbis  at  ]5runswick.  Frankfort,  and  Bres- 
lau  ;  but  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  congress  at  Cassel,  over  which  he  jiresided, 
and  in  those  of  the  synods  at  Eeipsic  and  Augsburg. 
An  earnest  speaker,  he  strenuously  advocated  mod- 
eration, pleading  for  union  and  jieaee.  His  last 
work,  favoring  wise  reforms,  bore  the  title  "Hillel 
and  Shamniai,  or  conservative  Reform  and  stable 
Conservatism;  a  message  of  peace  to  the  congrega- 
tion of  Israel  and  its  leaders,"  Strasburg,  1878. 

BiBLioGRAPUT:  KayserlinK,  BiliUothck  Jlhlischer Kanzelred- 

ue)\  ii.  2:ii. 

M.  Si. 

ADLER,  LIEBMANN :  American  rabbi :  born 
at  Lengsfeld.  near  Kiseiiach.  Saxe-Weimar,  Germany, 
January  9.1812:  died  in  Chicago.  111..  January  29, 
1892.  He  was  educat*'(l  in  Bililical  and  rabbinical 
literature  bv  Isaac  Hess,  rabbi  of  Lengsfeld;  and. 


197 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adler,  Isaac 
Adier,  Nathan 


uiuler  Rabbi  Kunreutlier.  afterward  continued  his 
Hebrew  studies  in  Gelnbiuisen.  as  well  as  at  the  Tal- 
mudic  College  in  Frankfurt,  where,  amonir  others. 
Habbi  Solomon  Trier  and  Habbi  Aaron  Fwld  were 
his  teacliers.  On  leavini;  the  college,  he  pursued  a 
course  of  pedagogical  studies  at  the  Teachers'  Sem- 
inary at  Weimar,  and.  after  graduatiou  there,  ac- 
cepted the  position  of  teacher  in  his  native  town, 
I.engsfeld.  In  18.5-t  Adler  emigrated  to  America, 
and  soon  after  his  arrival  was  elected  teacher  aiiii 
l)reacher  of  the  .lewish  congregation  at  Detroit.  In 
IHIil  he  received  a  call  from  the  Keliillath  Anslie 
!Ma'arabh  ("  Congregation  of  the  Men  of  the  West  "). 
of  Chicago;  with  which  he  remained  conneete<l  until 
his  death.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  his 
congregation  relieved  him  from  tlie  duties  of  his 
ofTicial  position,  and  thus  contributed  to  his  ease 
and  comfort  in  his  declining  years. 

Adler  was  an  exceedingly  modest  and  unassuming 
man.  He  abhorred  every  kind  of  polemic,  every 
expression  of  unkindness.  In  his  religious  views  ho 
was  conservative;  yet  his  con.servatism  did  not  pre- 
vent him  from  feeling 
the  necessity  for  in- 
troducing, to  a  mod- 
erate extent,  some  re- 
form in  the  liturgy 
of  his  congregation 
and  in  the  ceremonial 
life  of  his  peo])le.  In 
IsOl)  Adler  iiublished 
three  volumes  of  ser- 
mons :  "  IJelrachtun- 
gen  liber  Texte  aus 
den  Fnnf  BUchern 
Mosis, "  2  vols.,  and 
"57  Vortrilge  Hber 
Texte  aus  di'ii  Xach- 
mosaischen  liililisclien 
15l\chern."  A  selection 
from  Adler's  sermons. 
in  an  English  tnmsla- 
tion,was  put)lishe(l  by 
the  Jewish  Publication 
Society  of  America  (Philadelphia,  1893),  under  the 
title  of  "Sabbath  Hours." 

nini.KifiRAPHV;   Felscnlhnl,  Llflinmnii  Aillcr.  eliic  Oe<lctik- 
n./..   (  hkuB",  IHIC:    Fi-i.«mUIiu1    luiil    Elloasof,  lliftory  nf 

Iy,hill,llll  AllHhr  M<l\ir(ll,h,  CtlllllK",  ISU;. 

15.  F. 

ADLEK,  MARCUS  NATHAN  :  Born  at  Han 
over,  .luric  17.  is:!7:  the  eldest  son  of  Chief  IJabbi 
Nathan  .Marcus  Adler;  conspicuous  for  his  labors 
in  connection  with  e<lncaIion;  communal  worker. 
lie  entered  University  College,  London,  whence  he 
was  graduated  as  master  of  arts.  He  was  a  memlier 
of  the  council  of  Jews'  College  and  of  the  Jewish 
High  School  for  girls;  also  president  of  the  Stepney 
Jewish  .schools. 

Adler  became  a  fellow  of  I'niversily  College,  Lon- 
don, and  a  fellow  of  the  Hoyal  Statistical  Society,  and 
ho  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  the  London 
Mathematical  Socii'ly.  He  is  a  vice  president  of  the 
Institute  of  AcHniril's  and  the  a<luary  of  the  Alli- 
ance  Assurance  Company.  He  was  at  one  time  con- 
fldenlial  .secretary  of  Sir  Moses  Montefiore.     lie  has 

fxiblislied  numerous  papers  on  life  a.ssuranec,  polit 
cal  economy,  archeology,  and  Jewish  Idslory, 
Buu.iodinpiiv:  Jucotw,  Ji'ieWi  IViir  /»(«*.  !««». 

F.   S.   W. 

ADLER,  MICHAEL  :  English  rabbi ;  born  July 
27,  isc.s  II,.  ^vii-,  iducated  at  Jews'  Frii'  School, 
Jews'  College,  anil  Lnivcrsily  College.  Lonilon.  and 


Uebmann  Adler. 


was  graduated  from  the  London  University  with  the 
degree  B.A.  Adler  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
Hammersmith  and  West  Kensington  Synagogue,  Lon- 
don.in  is'io.  He  became  honorary  chaplain  at  Worm- 
wood Scrubs  Prison,  and  senior  master  of  Hebrew  at 
Jews'  Free  School,  in  isn3.  He  is  the  author  of  "  Ele- 
ments of  Hebrew  (Jranuuar "  (1st  ed.  1H!)7.  2d  ed. 
18'J9).  and  "Students'  Hebrew  Grammar  "(IH99).  He 
has  contributed  various  articlesto  the  ".lewish  Quar- 
terly Review"  and  the  "Transactions  of  the  Jewish 
Historical  Society." 

UlBLi(i<:R.\eiiv  :  .Iiircilw.  J,  Irish  Year  Book,  1900. 

S. 

ADLER,  NATHAN  :  German  cabalisi ;  born  at 
Frankfort  nnthcMain.  Dec.  n;,  1741;  died  there 
Sept.  17,  ixm).  Asa  precocious  child  he  won  the  ad- 
miration of  Hayyim  Joseph  David  A/.ulai,  who.  in 
1752,  came  to  Frankfort  to  solicit  contributions  for 
the  poor  of  Palestine.  Adler  attended  the  rabbinical 
schoolof  Jacob  Joshua,  authorof  "  Pene  'i'ehoshua"," 
who  was  at  that  time  rabbi  at  Frankfort;  but  his 
lirincipal  teacher  was  David  Tebele  SchifT,  afterward 
rabbi  in  London.  In  1701  heestalilished  ni/ci/n'/xifi  him- 
self, in  which  several  prominent  rabbis  received  their 
early  teachings,  notable  among  whom  were  Abraham 
Auerbach.  Abraham  Ring,  rabbi  in  Wi'irzburg.  and 
especially  Moses  Sofer(.Sclireiber).  rabbi  in  Presburg. 
Nathan  Adler  was  mystically  inclined.  He  had  de- 
voted himself  to  the  siudy  of  the  Cabala,  and  adopted 
the  liturgical  system  of  I.s:iacLuria,  assembling  about 
liimself  a  select  conununity  of  cabalistic  adepts. 
He  prayed  according  to  the  Sephardic  ritual,  pro- 
nounced the  priestly  blessing  every  day,  and  in 
other  ways  approached  the  school  of  the  H.\sidim, 
who  had  at  that  lime  jirovoked  the  strongest  cen- 
sures on  the  part  of  the  Talmudistsof  the  old  school. 
His  followers  claimed  that  he  had  performed  mira- 
cles (Moses  Sofer,  "  Halain  Sofer,  Orali  Hayyim," 
197),  and  turned  visionaries  themselves,  frightening 
many  persons  with  preilictionsof  misfortunes  which 
would  befall  them.  Finally,  the  rabbis  and  con- 
gregational leaders  intervened  in  1779  and  ])ri>hib- 
ited,  under  penalty  of  excommunication,  the  assem- 
blies in  Nathan  Adler's  house. 

R.  Nathan,  however,  jiaid  no  attention  to  these 
orders,  but  continued  in  his  ecstatic  piety.  He  even 
excomnuinieated  a  man  who  had  disregariled  his 
orders,  although  this  was  contrary  to  the  laws  of 
the  congregation.  His  doors  remained  open  day 
and  night,  and  he  diclared  all  his  pos.se.ssions  to 
be  connnon  property,  that  thus  he  might  prevent 
the  punishment  of  those  who  might  carry  away  by 
mistake  anything  with  tluMii.  jloreover,  he  com- 
manded Jloses  Sofer,  who  had  (pnirreled  with  his 
father,  never  to  spiak  to  his  parent  again.  When 
the  .same  disciple  re]iorted  to  him  that  he  had  gone 
through  the  wholi'  Talmud,  he  advised  him  to  cele- 
brate that  event  by  a  fast  of  three  days.  In  spite 
of  the  ontiiMied  conlliet  with  the  congngalional 
authorities,  the  fame  of  R.  Natiian's  piety  and 
scholarship  grew,  and  in  1782  he  was  elected  rabbi 
of  Boskowil/.  ill  Moravia.  But  hisi'xce.ssiveand  mys- 
tical jiiety  having  made  enenues  for  him,  he  wasforcinl 
to  leave  his  congregation,  and  in  17S,')  returned  to 
Frankfort.  As  he  still  persisted  in  his  former  ways, 
the  threat  of  excoininunication  was  renewed  in  17S9, 
which  act  was  not  repealed  until  slmrllv  bi'fori'  his 
death.  His  wife.  Kachel.  daughtir  of  i'eist  Cohen 
of  (!ies,sen,  survived  him.  He  left  no  children, 
though  Nathan  .\iller.  ihief  mbbi  of  London,  was 
named  after  him.  Hismystiiisin  seems  to  have  In-en 
the  cause  of  his  repugnance  to  literary  publications. 
The  cabalists  claimed    that    real   esoteric   theology 


Adler,  Nathan  Uarcus 
Admissions  in  Evidence 


THE  JEWISH   ENXYCLOPEDIA 


198 


should  never  bo  pulilishcii.  l)ut  should  only  be 
onilly  Iniiisniilled  to  worthy  discipUs.  In  his  copy 
of  tile  -Mishnah  he  wrote'  brief  insirginiil  notes, 
mostly  eross-referenees.  Some  of  them  were  eol- 
lecteil  and  explained  with  admind)le  ingenuity  by 
H.  n.  Ailerbaeh  under  tlie  title  "  ^lish'nat  Kabbi 
Natan."  One  responsiun  is  found  among  those  of 
Moses  Sofer  on  "  Yoreh  Deah,"  2til. 

Bnu.iiiuKAi'iiY  :  Auerlwcl).  prffnoe  to  "MIslinut  Rabl)l  Natun," 
FraiikforlMiii-ilii'-Miiln,  IsiS:  M.  llonivitz.  t'niiihfurlcr  Hah- 
(linen,  tv.  ;)K  it  «i;.,  FninkfurtH.n-iln-Maln,  lS.s.-i;  s.  Si-lirel- 
Ix^r,  Hut  Ihi-MixIiuI(I.'<U  nil"(,'nil>lil''S  I't  Mosfs  Siifcr,  Akilm 
Eeer,  aiiil  Abmliain  Suinni-I  lit'iijauLlii  Sofer),  pp.  2/i  f(  «</. 
(full  of  leitenda).  Pecs,  1887;  L.  Low,  Gcmmmelte  Sclirif If  ii, 
11. 91-»J,  Szegfdin,  IKWI. 

ADLEB,  NATHAN  MARCUS  :  Chief  rabbi 
of  the  Biilisli  empire;  burn  in  the  city  of  Hanover, 
Germany,  .lanuary  l.j,  181)3;  died  at  Brighton,  Eng 
land,  on"  .lanuary  21,  18i«).  n<'  was  the  tliird  sou 
of  Marcus  Baer  Adler,  chief  rabbi  of  Hanover.  He 
Civmu  from  a  Jewish  family  of  Friinkfort,  which,  for 

several  centuries,  sup- 
plied theologians  to 
the'  nibbiiueal  chairs 
of  the  Continental 
ghettos.  Born  when 
Hanover  was  an  ap- 
I)anuge  of  the  English 
crown  under  George 
IH..  lie  was  a  British 
subject,  and  was  edu- 
cated on  the  broadest 
lines.  In  addition  to 
Hebrew  and  theolog- 
ical learning  under 
his  father's  supervi- 
sion, he  received  a  lib- 
eral education  in  the 
classical  and  modem  languages,  atteixling  succes- 
sively the  univcrsitiesof  Giittingen,  Erlangen.  Wiirz- 
burg,  and  Heidelberg.  After  obtaining  his  degree  at 
Erlangen  he  was  appointed,  in  1830,  chief  rabbi  of 
Oldenburg,  and  w  ithin  a  year  he  became  chief  rabbi 
of  the  city  of  Hanover. 

In  1842  the  chief  rabbi  of  London.  Soi.omox 
Heksciiei.i,,  died.  At  this  juncture  a  very  critical 
subject  agitated  Anglo-Jewish  communal  life,  be- 
ing nothing  less  than  a  schism,  which 
rcsulteil  in  the  formation,  in  Burton 
street,  of  a  reform  congregation,  quite 
independent  of  the  English  rabbinate. 
Thus  the  election  of  a  successor  to  the 
chief  rabbi  was  naturally  fraught  with  more  than 
ordinary  importance.  There  were  fifteen  candidates 
for  the  position.  The  final  election  resulted  in  the 
choice  of  Dr.  Adler,  who  on  July  9,  184.1,  was  in- 
stalled as  chief  rabbi  in  London. 

Dr.  Adler's  earliest  elTorts  were  directed  to  the  im- 
provement of  Jewish  education  in  England,  and  he 
foresaw  the  necessity  of  planning  for  the  systematic 
training  of  future  teachers.  With  this  object  in 
view  he  propoundeil  a  siheme  for  the  training  of 
Jewish  ministers  and  teachers,  with  wliieh  a  jiublic 
day-school  for  the  sons  of  the  Jewish  middh' clas.ses 
was  to  be  connected.  ]Many  obstacles  stood  in  the 
way  of  its  realization,  especially  the  iiuestion  of  en- 
dowments; l)Ut  through  Dr.  Adler's  perseverance 
these  were  overcome,  and.  on  Noveiid)er  11.  18.")."). 
Jews'  College  was  inaugurated,  he  liimself  be- 
ing elected  its  first  president.  After  this.  Dr.  Ad- 
ler turned  Ids  attention  to  synagogal  administra- 
tion, and.  on  solicitation,  consented  to  some  slight 
modifications  in  the  ritual.  Nor  did  he  neglect  the 
provincial  synagogues;   undertaking  occasional  pas- 


Natban  Marcus  Adler. 


Election 
as  Chief 
Babbi. 


toml  visits  to  them,  he  succeeded  iu  bringing  theni 
more  directly  luider  his  inllueuce.  To  uuit«  the 
various  metropolitan  synagogues  under  a  central 
adndnistralion  was  the  next  ol)ject  of  his  endeavors, 
and  it  was  partly  at  his  itdtiative  that  the  foundation 
of  the  L'nited  Synagogue  was  imder- 
The  TJnited  taken.     A  clause  was  inserted  in  the 

Syna-        scheme  providing  that  the  forms  of 

gogue.  worship,  religious  observances,  and  all 
other  matterscoimeeted  with  the  spiri- 
tual administration  of  the  l'nited  Synagogue  should 
be  imder  the  superintendence  and  control  of  the  chief 
rabbi.  This  clause,  however,  was  rejected  by  the 
House  of  Lords.  He  drew  up  a  code  of  regulations 
and  ])reseribed  forms  of  service  for  special  ociasious. 
He  received  appeals  from  all  over  the  world,  and 
worked  with  the  Board  of  Deputies  and  the  Anglo 
Jewish  As.s(i(iation  for  the  emancipation  of  the 
Jews  in  Uumania  and  their  relief  in  the  Holy  Land. 
In  180()  he  gave  evidence  before  the  .Marriage  Law 
Comnussion.  and  prepared  an  imjiortant  memonui 
dum  on  the  operation  of  the  inarriag<'  lawsas  affect 
ing  Jews  in  England.  Dr.  Adler  may  be  considered 
the  virtual  founder  of  the  Hospital  Sabbath  movi' 
nient  among  Jews,  the  object  of  which  was  an 
animal  collection  for  the  hospitals,  taken  uji  in  all 
British  synagogites.  In  connection  with  this  he 
compiled  a  service  for  the  celebration  of  Hospital 
Sabbath  in  the  synagogues.  The  organization  of 
the  London  and  provincial  charities  was  undertaken 
at  his  suggestion,  and  a  more  discrimiiialiiig  and 
systematic  method  for  dealing  with  the  ]ioor  was 
adopted.  Dr.  Adler  gave  imiietus  to  the  system 
of  free  religious  education,  and  siqiervised  its  prog- 
ress in  the  comniuuily.  In  18811  a  conference  of 
delegates  of  the  various  synagogues  was  held  to 
consider  the  question  of  a  revision  of  the  ritual. 
Thereupon  a  report  was  submitted  to  Dr.  Adler.  who 
conceded  many  of  the  more  important  recommenda- 
tions of  the  delegates. 

In  the  same  year  the  United  Synagogue,  finding 
that  the  pressure  of  his  otticial  duties  was  increasing, 
appointed  a  deputy  delegate  chief  rabbi;  but,  not- 
withstanding this.  Dr.  Adierconlinued  to  takeactive 
interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  Jewish  community. 

The  keynote  of  Dr.  Adler's  life  is  to  be  found  in 

his  unflinc'hing  orthodoxy.      His  sincerity  wasevery- 

where  admitted,  and  his  love  for  Jnda- 

Ortho-       ism  and   his    loyalty    to  its  ortlmdox 

doxy.        presiiilalion  w<Te  acknowledged  to  be 

genuine  and  real.     Great  zeal  for  the 

cause  of  education,  a  benevolent  disposition,  and  a 

union  of  Talmudic  scholarship  and  general  culture 

unusual  among  the  rabbis  of  his  generation  were  his 

most  prominent  characteristics. 

He  was  the  author  of:  (1)  Hebrew  prayers,  recited 
during  critical  episodes  in  English  history;  (2)  a  vol- 
ume of  "  Sermons"  in  German  and  Eng- 
His  lish.  including  his  installation  address 

■Writings,  in  London,  "TIk'  Jewish  Faith,"  and 
"The  Bonds  of  Brotherhood  ";  (3)  sev- 
eral volumes  of  "  Dirashot"  (Disqui.sitions),  delivered 
by  him  semiannually  to  those  interested  in  the  study  of 
the  Talmud;  (4)  "Hespon.sa.". several  having  reference 
to  ritualistic  (piestions  in  the  Anglo  Jewish  commu- 
nity (manuscript);  (.">)  "  Hiildushini  "  (Xovelhe).  con- 
sisting of  short  notes  on  the  Talmud  and  Posekim. 
especially  the  Tiirim.  with  .some  annotations  on  Hai 
Gaon's  conunentary,  "Seder  Teharot,"  Berlin,  18.56; 
(B)  German  translation  of  Judah  ha-Levi's  "Ciizari." 
with  cojiions  explanatory  notes  (manuscript);  (7) 
cominentarv  on  the  Targum  of  Onkelos  entitled 
"Xetinah  I'aGer"  (A  Gift  to  the  Proselyte),  pub 
lished  with  an  edition  of  the  Pentateuch,  Wilna.  187.") 


199 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adler,  Nathan  Marcus 
Admissious  iu  Evidence 


(ill  connection  witli  tliis  comnicnlaiy  he  cditeil  the 
''ScfiT  Yaer."  or  "  I'atslicgcn."  ami  a  Masonili  on  tlie 
Tarj;iiiri);  (H)  "  Aliabat  Youatan  "  (Tlie  Love  of  .lona- 
than),  a  work  in  the  sjune  styh'  as  the  "Netiiiali" 
on  liie  soeaHed  Tari;iim  of  Jonathan,  consisting  of 
Ihrei-  parts. 

1!iiii.i(ii:rai'11V  :  Jiir.  Quart.  lUv.  II.  :i«l-3St;  Jiw.  Chran. 
aiiiljiic.  ll'i.WiJ,  .lull.  :.'4.  IWKI. 

G.    L. 

ADLER,  SAIVIUEL  :  (iirnian  American  ral)lii, 
Talniiidisl,  anil  author;  liorn  at  Worms,  (ierinanv, 
Dec.  3,  IMllil:  ilicd  ill  Xew  York,  June  it,  1H!)1.  Kroni 
his  fallicr,  Isaac  Adlcr,  who  luid  lieeii  one  of  the 
dayyanim,  oras.sociate  rnlibis.  in  Worms,  young  Ad- 
ler received  his  lirsl  instruction  iu  llelirew  an<l  in 
tlic'  liihlical  and  post  Bililieal  literature  of  the  Jews. 
Whiii  Halilii  Isaac  Adlcr  died  (Dec.  ■,>3.  1H22)  he  left 
his  widow  and  five  young  children  in  straitened  cir- 
cumstances. Samuel,  though  then  but  thirteen,  in 
sjiite  of  iniiunieralile  diltieultics  and  e.xtreine  ])riva- 
tion.  continued  his  studies  at  \\w  i/is/iihut  (Taluuid- 
ical  college's)  in  his  native  city  ami  in  Frankfort-on- 
the Main.  |iursuing  at  the  same  time  regular  classical 
and  g<'neral  studies  at  the  high  schoolsof  those  cities. 
After  gra<luating  from  the  Kraiikfoit  (iymnasiuiii, 
Adler  entered,  in  is:31,  the  Iniversity  of  Bonn  ami 
later  that  of  (iiesscn,  where,  in  1M8(),  lie  received  tlu' 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy.  His  first  ollieial  po- 
sition was  that  of  preacher  and  assistant  ralibi  in 
Worms.  In  1«4'J  he  was  elected  rabbi  of  the  Jewish 
congregations  iu  Alzey  and  its  neighborhood,  and  he 
remained  in  this  position  until  ls.")T.  Aliout  the  be- 
ginning of  that  year  he  received  a  call  from  tin' con- 
gregation Emanii  El  in  New  York,  as  successor  to 
Dr,  L.  Mcrzliaeher.  who  had  died  a  few  monlhs  pre- 
viously. Adieraccepled  the  call,  and  in  March,  18.57, 
enlered  on  the  duties  of  his  otlice.  He  remained  active 
as  the  siiiritual  licail  of  this  congregation  until  1H74, 
in  which  year  he  was  made  rabbi  emeritus  and  re- 
lieve<l  from  active  work  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  G. 
Gotthcil  was  his  succes.sor. 

Samuel  Adler  was  not  merely  a  thorough  Talmud 
ical  scholar;  he  was  also  a  master  of  the  entire  lield 
of  knowledge  coiici'rning  the  Jews.  Whatever  hail 
any  relation  to  his  coreligionists — their  history,  relig- 
ion, literature,  etc.— interested  him  and  was  studied 
by  him.  He  was  not  only  a  scholar,  but  also  a  man 
of  vigorous  action.  During  the  twenty-one  years  of 
his  enri'cr  iu  Germany  he  took  part  eiiergeticallv  in 
the  effort  sal  that  time  being  made  to  remove  the  civil 
disabilities  of  the  Jews,  especially  the  oath  iiii/rc 
,/iifliiifii.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  teaching  of  thc>  .b  wish  religion  in  the 
lower  and  higher  schools  of  Worms  on  eipial  tcriiis 
with  ProlcstanI  ami  Catholic  leaching.  He  labored 
earnestly  to  secure  the  recognition  of  the  ei|Uality  of 
llie  si'xes  in  mattiTs  of  religion.  It  was  through  his 
intluence  that  the  barrier  was  leveled  which  had 
separated  the  womc-u's  synagogue  from  that  of  the 
nun  in  the  aniiint  synagogue  of  Worms.  He  gave 
his  special  aIN'ntion  to  the  improvement  of  the  re 
ligious  instruction  of  the  young,  both  in  the  city  and 
in  the  rural  schools  of  which  he  hail  the  supervision. 
He  made  it  his  aim  to  enhance  Hie  order,  the  solem 
nily.  ami  the  dignity  of  the  public  worship.  He 
was  instrumental  in  founding  a  number  of  new 
(  haritable  inslliulions.  Above  all,  lie  labored  with 
palieni  zeal  to  instruct  the  coni;legaliiiiis  under  his 
charge  in  their  ancestral  religion,  lo  liberate  them 
from  the  deadening  inllueiiee  of  literalism,  anil  to 
ipiicken  in  Ihem  tlie  spirit  of  Jmlaism.  In  this  pn 
ileavor  he  fric|Uently  drew  upon  liie  storehouse  of 
his  great  Taliuudie  learning  for  Iheargumcnts  which 
he  used  in  his  struggle  for  proga-.ss,  seeking  always 


to  rest  the  reformation  of  manners  upon  a  basis  of  in- 
ward conviction,  and  favoring  a  gradual  transforma- 
tion rather  than  an  abrujit  transition  from  the  old  to 
the  new.  Ileatlenihil  thethree  great  nibbinieal  coii- 
fereiices  held  ill  lirunswiek  (1S44).  Frankfort -on-lhe- 
Jlain  (1M4.J),  and  Hreslau  (b'^Hi).  respectively,  and 
took  a  notable  purl  in  their  proceedings.  In  ls.")4  he 
was  elected  rabl)i  and  preacher  by  the  Jewish  reform 
congregation  in  l,eniberg,  (Jalicia.  but  he  declined 
the  call.  Throughout  his  life  Adler  was  an  untiring 
student,  and  his  haiipiest  hours  were  those  spent  in 
his  library.  He  belonged  to  what  may  be  called  the 
histoiico-critical  .school  in  the  science  of  Judaism. 
He  conlributed  scholarlv  arlieles  lo  several  learned 
periodicals;  for  example,  "  Coiilributions  to  the  His- 
tory of  Sailduceeism,"  "Jewish  Conference  Papers" 
(New  York,  ISHO),"  Benedictions"  (Xi'W  York,  1SS2). 
Some  of  these  tlie  author  collected  and  published 
under  the  Hebrew  title,  "  Kobez  'al  Yad  "  (Collec- 
tions), New  York,  1MH(),  mainly  as  a  .souvenir  for  his 
friends.  His  extensive  library  of  rabbinica  was  ])re- 
sented  by  his  family  to  the  Hebrew  Union  College, 
Cincinnati. 

liuu.iimii.UMiv:  S::iiiit(i\ii<liUitt  del-  New  Ytirkei-  Slaatszeit- 

mill,  June  :i[.  l.siu. 

B.  F. 

ADLER,  VICTOR:  Austrian  physician,  journal- 
isl.  and  Iradir  ot  I  In-  .\ustrian  labor  movement  ;  born 
at  Prague,  June  ",'4,  IS.VJ.  Having  been  graduated 
as  M.  D.,  he  settled  in  Vienna,  where  his  professional 
practise  brought  him  in  contact  with  the  Vienna 
poor.  Adlerbegan  tostudy  theireconomic conditions. 
which  led  him  to  an  examination  of  the  whole  social 
problem.  So  intense  became  his  interest  in  Ihissiib- 
jcct,  that  he  gave  up  his  practi.se  and  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  socialism.  When  he  joined  the  so- 
cialistic movement,  the  working  ela.sscs  of  Austria 
were  disorganized  and  wasted  their  energies  in  fiic- 
tional  tights  and  anarchistic  ]ilots.  Owing  to  his 
uncommon  knowledge  of  economics,  his  keen  wit, 
and  oi-ganizing  ability  Adler  beiame  aiioweramong 
them,  and  in  IMilO.  after  several  years  of  educational 
work  carried  on  as  speaker  and  editor  of  the  "Gleicli- 
heit,"  he  united  them  into  a  strong  |)olitical  party. 
Under  his  leadershiii  the  chief  elTorts  of  the  party 
were  now  diiected  toward  .securing  universal  suf- 
frage. During  this  perioil  of  great  agitation  Adler 
was  one  of  the  most  prominent  figures  in  .\ustria. 
The  government  made  concessions,  and  on  March  9, 
IHilT,  for  the  lirst  time  in  their  history,  the  working 
men  of  Vienna  went  to  the  iiolls  ami  elected  four- 
teen of  their  candidates.  Adler,  who  had  been 
nominated  in  one  of  the  parliamentary  districts  in 
Vienna,  w  as  defeated,  owing  to  a  combination  of  all 
the  Antisemitic  forces  against  him.  He  has  pub 
lislicd  numerous  pamphlets  on  giolitical  and  eco- 
nomic i|uestions  and  lianslated  Stepniiik's  "Pea- 
sants" from  Hussian  into  ticrman.  Since  1S!)4  lie 
has  been  editor  in  chief  of  the  "Wiener  Arbeiter- 
Zcitung"  and  a  lontribulor  to  sevenil  politico  eco- 
nomic reviews. 

Hini.iiKiRiiMiv  :  I.udwto  F.I»i>nt)erK,  Dnn  (leMiye  II'fcM,  I.  2 ; 
lllls-H.  Kuim>"i'><li<i<<.l  Siicial  Ktfiirm,».\.  »r    „ 

ADMAH  ("Heil"  or  "Hed  Liiml").  A  lown 
named  in  the  gemaloi;ical  list  of  Canaiin  (lien  .x 
111),  whose  king  was  Sliinab  ((ien.  xiv.  2.  8)  It  was 
ileslroycil  together  with  Sodom  and  (iomornih.  It 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  narrative  of  (he  destruction 
of  those  two  cilii'S,  but  hiler  accounts  ivfer  lo  it 
(IVut.  .x.xi.x,  2;t;  Hosen.  .\i.  S).  G   B   L 

ADMISSIONS  IN  EVIDENCE  :  The  b.st  evi 
deuce  in  .b  uisji  l:iu  must  be  atti  slid  by  al  lea.st  two 
witnesses,  and  be  of  a  disinterested  ami   iinparlial 


Admissions  in  Evidence 
Adonai 


TlIK  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


200 


chamctcr;  Iience  sclfiulniission.  or  voluntary  con- 
fession, is  not  gooti  (.■vidcucc.  and  is  not  admissible 
except  ill  the  cas<'S  mentioned  below. 

In   Criminal   Cases  :    Admission  in  criminal 

cases  is  eiiliielv  ixrliidcd.  and  is  not  even  considered 
in  evidence.     Applying  the  Talniudic  ma.xims  DIX 

1DVV  h'iii  2^^^p  ("Each  man  is  his  own  near  rela- 
tive ") — relatives  can  not  bear  witness  against  one  an- 
other—and yen  ipvy  D'CTS  Onx  I'X  ("  One  can  not  in- 
criminate hiniscll  ").  the  Jewish  legislators  probably 
thought  by  this  means  to  prevent  the  methods  pre- 
vailing in  their  times  of  extorting  confessions  by  tor- 
ture. The  Talmud,  endeavoring  to  give  a  legal  aspect 
to  the  conviction  of  Achan  on  his  own  confession 
(Josh.  vii.  10-24),  has  the  following  haggadic  explana- 
tion :  "  Joshua  pleaded  before  the  Almighty :  '  O  Lord 
of  the  universe,  tell  me  who  is  the  man?  '  God  an- 
swered :  '  I  do  not  divulge  the  secret  of  any  person ; 
furthermore,  I  am  no  informer.  But  go  and  make 
investigation  among  the  tribes  and  families.'  When 
Achan,  the  son  of  ('arnii,  was  'taken  '  he  protested 
against  such  a  method  of  conviction:  '  lias  not  Moses 
our  master  taught  us,  "at  the  mouth  of  two  wit- 
nesses, or  three  witnesses,  shall  he  that  is  worthy 
of  death  be  put  to  death  "?  '  (Deut.  xvii.  G).  Joshua 
then  spoke  persuasively  to  Achan:  '  .My  son,  I  pray 
thee,  make  confession.'  Achan  finally  confessed, 
'  Thus  and  thus  have  I  done  ' ;  and  when  his  confes- 
sion was  substantiated  by  the  finding  of  the  property 
concealed  'in  his  tent  and  the  silver  under  it,'  this 
made  the  conviction  legal "  (Yer.  Sanh.  vi.  23i). 

Regarding  admission  in  perjury,  the  Rosh  (Asher 
ben  Jehiel)  wrote  the  following  responsum : 

"  Replying  to  your  Inquiry :  AoeordlnR  to  our  laws,  one  who 
has  sworn  tliat  he  will  do  a  certain  Ihinff  and  afterward  admits, 
*  I  have  broken  my  oath  and  not  done  as  I  have  sworn ' — which 
fact  could  not  be  established  by  witnesses,  but 
Zn  Perjury,  solely  by  his  own  admission— does  not  l)ecome 
thereby'a  disqualified  witness  for  future  cast^, 
as  the  rule  is,  'a  man  cannot  incriminate  himself.'  and  this  person 
who  took  an  oath  tocntcr  the  accounts  in  thelxxik  justly,  truth- 
fully, and  to  the  best  uf  Iiis  ability,  and  now  admits  false  and 
fraudulent  eutries.  is  not  to  he  reffarded  a  perjurer  by  law,  in- 
asmuch as  itcan  not  otherwise  be  proved  that  he  has  presumptu- 
ously broken  his  oath.  However,  should  you  think  it  advisable 
and  propertoinhicta  punishment  on  him  for  contempt  and  bare- 
facedness  for  sayinp  that  he  has  broken  his  oath,  you  may  act  in 
accordance  with  your  discretion. 
"Attested  by  the  writer, 

"  AsHKR,  son  of  Jehiel  of  blessed  memory." 
(Rosh,  "Responsa"  No.  5,  nile  ii.) 

Admission  involving  the  guilt  of  another  person  is 
valid,  though  not  operative  against  the  person  ma- 
king it,  as  in  the  case  of  unnatural  offenses  (>Saidi. 

96  ct  seg.).  Rjiba's  rule  in  this  case  is  NIUT  p'J^S 
("We  split  the  testimony"),  the  first  pait  Ixing  ex- 
cluded; otherwise  the  maxim  is  HDVpO  ^i^D3C'  nnj? 

ni'13  n^Da  ("  Testimony  partly  annulled  is  all  an- 
ntilled  "). 

In  Civil  Cases:  Admission  effecting  one's  own 

loss  is  regarded  as  good  evidence,  the  maxims  con- 
cerning ciiminal  cases  being  reversed:  anp  DTK  I'N 

131DO  SvX  ("One  is  iiof  related  to  one's  money": 
Sanh.  lUii  c^^nmni),  and  therefore  man  may  testify 

against  himself  in  civil  cases  and  jn  pya  nXlin 
'D1  W"1V  nSD3  ("The  admission  of  the  defendant  is 
as  good  as  a  hundred  witnes.ses";  Tosef.  B.  Jt.  i. 
10  ct  pasuhii).  The  only  benefit  one  can  derive  liy 
one's  admission  is  to  save  an  extra  fine:  as  in  the 
case  of  a  person  admitting  seduction,  who  must  pay 
damages  for  degradation  and  impairment,  but  need 
not  pay  as  a  tine  the  amount  of  the  legal  dowry  (Ex. 
xxii.  16,  Shebu.  v.  4,  Ket.  i2n).  Similarly,  "in  the 
case  of  a  thief;  if  he  admits  his  guilt,  he  must  make 


restitution  for  the  stolen  property,  but  need  not  pay 
the  fine  of  double,  four,  or  five  times  the  amount  of 
the  theft,  as  the  case  might  otherwise  re(|uire  (Ex. 
xxi.  37,  xxii.  3):  provided,  however,  that  the  admis- 
si(m  was  made  before  the  bet  din,  or  court,  and  be- 
fore he  was  sued  and  evidence  was  ]>ro(luced  against 
him;  otherwise  his  subse<iuent  admission  is  of  no 
avail  to  release  him  fnmi  the  fine(Maimouides,"IIil- 
kot  Genebah,"  iii.  8.  il). 

Admission  of  a  debt  must  be  made  before  two  men 
expressly  requested  to  serve  as  witnesses  on  this  par- 
ticular point;  otherwise,  if  slated  in  the  absi'nce  of 
the  creditor,  the  debtor  can  claim  that  the  statement 
was  made  for  the  purpose  of  making  ])eiiple  believe 
he  was  poor.  Then,  again,  if  the  creditor  was  pres- 
ent, the  debtor  can  claim  that  Ihe  statement  was 
made  in  fun,  'n"n  nCK'D  ("  I  have  been  joking").  In 
fact,  the  debtor's  silence  to  the  creditor's  demand, 
before  witnesses,  is  a  better  indication 
Of  a  Debt,  of  hisconsent  than  his  admis.sion  tinder 
these  circumstances.  The  best  safe- 
guard for  the  creditor  is  to  have  the  debtor  admit  his 
indebtedness  after  due  demand  in  court,  when  the 
debtor  can  not  have  recourse  to  any  such  excuses 
(Sanh.  iii.  6,  29rt;  "  Shulhan  'Aruk,  Ho.shen  Mishpat," 
§  32). 

Admission  of  a  debt  by  a  person  on  the  point  of 
death,  however,  is  valid  in  any  event,  as  IJ'X  DIX 
nn-D  nVL'O  nDL"?3  ("  One  is  not  likel  v  to  joke  on  his 
death-bed  ' ;  B.  B.  ITrw/ ;  "  Hoshen  Mishpat,"  5-  81,  2). 

Admission  in  writing  must  be  made  bj'  the  debtor 
dictating  the  contents,  apiiointing  the  witnes.ses  (DHX 
ny).  and  fullering  them  to  write  and  sign  Ihe  note 
(lonm  13)13  >.  which  makes  it  a  recordeil  document 
pledged  liy  the  debtor's  landed  property,  which  can  be 
seized  for  the  payment  of  the  note  even  from  subse- 
quent purchasers;  otherwise  the  note  has  no  more 
value  than  an  unsecured  debt,  and  his  property  subse- 
quently sold  can  not  be  held  for  the  payment  of  the 
note.  Hence  the  witne,s.ses  must  not  act  without 
special  instruction  from  the  debtor  (Maimonides, 
"Ililkot  Malweh."  xi.  S  1). 

If  there  are  two  partners,  A  and  I>,  in  a  firm,  ad- 
mission made  by  partner  A  of  the  iiayment  of  a  debt 
from  (',  a  debtor  of  the  firm,  due  the  i)arlnership,  .1 
claiming  to  have  received  the  money  and  put  it  in 
the  partnership  treasury  is  not  binding  on  partner 
B,  who  disputes  the  fact.  However,  Cis  relea.sed  of 
his  debt  by  the  admission  of  -1,  who  must  prove 
his  statement  or  reimburse  B  (Maimonides,"  Ililkot 
Sheluhin,"  x.  6). 

Admission  by  a  debtor  of  part  payment,  if  made 
after  stiit  has  begun,  subjects  the  debtor  to  an  oath; 
whereas  a  ilebtor,  Ijy  general  denial,  is  legally  ex- 
empt from  the  oath.  'The  Talmud  reasons  thr.t  in 
Ihe  latter  case  a  man  having  the  elfrontery  to  deny 
outright  will  not  shrink  from  swear- 

Of  Part  ing  falsely.  In  case  witnesses  testify 
Payment  to  the  full  payment  the  oath  is  ad- 
ministered to  the  debtor  who  admits 
only  part  payment;  but  purchasers  of  his  property 
can  claim  that  they  rely  on  the  testimony  of  the  wit- 
nesses as  to  the  full  payment  of  the  note  (Mishnah 
Shebu.  vii.  1;  Maimonides,  "Ililkot  To'cn,"  iii.  §  1, 
iv.  §  1  ct  stq.). 

BiDLiOGRAPnT:  Hal  Gaon,  .Virfipffc  Sdfbu'of,  pp.  1-3,  Ham- 
bure.  17SS;  Sigmund  Mayer,  FAnlcilvnfi  in  i)ie  tjc»etz{ichini(i 
itufi  ^[f^ltwin  (hti  Talnui'lfi  (translated  from  the  French  of 
J.  .M.  Itabhinowltzl.  'lYeve.s.  lss;i:  Fninkel,  Dcr  GerichtUche 
BcHcis.  pp.  331>-:m,  Berlin,  ISttJ:  Ulumenstein,  Die  Vrr- 
.^chifdt'nfii  Eiiif^artcti  uach  Mofnisr}!  -  Talmudischfm 
i?cf)i(c,  p.8,  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  iwi;  M.  Bloch, />iV  Ca-fi- 
Proccff-Onlnuny  narh  Mosaiscli-Iidhljinuicheiii  liccMe, 
pp.  41-tt,  Budapest,  li««:  J.  Klein,  Da»  OerielitliclK  Be- 
ucificrfahniu  p.  IJ,  Halle,  WHa. 

J.  D.  E. 


201 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Admissions  in  Evidence 
Adonai 


ADMON  B.  GADDAI :  <  )nc  of  three  police 
court  jiiil^ci-s  ill  .Icriisjilcin  mciilioneil  in  the  Tiihmid 
— tlie  olliers  liciiijr  Haxa.n  ii.  Aiiisii.vi.oM  (l.Iaiiaii  the 
Egyptiiiii)  aii(i  Xahim  thk  MKni.vN.  AltoL'ether 
there  were  nearly  four  luindrefl  such  jikIltcs  in  Jeru- 
salem: but  only  ihe  most  prominent  anionic  them  are 
mentionecl  by  name,  and  of  these  Admon  is  the  chief. 
These  judu-es  formed  an  exception  to  the  rule  forbid- 
din;;  judf;es  to  receive  remuneration  {.Mishnah  Hek. 
iv.  (i),  their  sjUaries  lieinjr  Jiaid  from  tlu'  funds  of  the 
Ti'Miple  treasury.  Each  of  them  was  allowed  aiinu- 
ully  ninety  nine  iiiauah  (see  Coins);  but  where  family 
circiimstanees  riMpiired  it  the  judge  was  allowed  to 
draw  a  larger  amount  (Ket.  lorx;).  At  what  jiarticu- 
lar  age  they  (lourislicd  can  not  be  ascertained  with 
precision;  tint  fnim  the  fact  that  Itobban  .lohanan  b. 
Zakkaiand  l{;iblian  (Jamaliel  expressly  siinction  some 
of  Admon's  and  llanan's  decisions  (Ket  xiii.  1  -il)  it 
nece.s.sarilv  follows  that  their  terms  of  office  preceded 
the  fall  of  Jerusidein.  S.  xM. 

ADMONI.     See  TiUFVB. 

ADOI :  Name  of  the  father  of  Ilananiah,  a  reak 
ffiilnlii  (]irince  of  thecaiitivity),  whotlonrishedabo\it 
700.  It  is  interesting  as  exhibiting  the  Persian  form 
of  a  Semitic  name,  which  is  none  other  than  tlie 
familiar  I(hi,  or  Ada  (Adda),  known  from  Jewish 
and  I'alniyrene  sources,  to  which  has  been  added 
the  Persian  sufli.x  oi,  as  a  term  of  endearment. 

BlBLIociRAPiiY  :  Lazarus,  In  N.  BrOll's  JiilirhUchcr,  1800,  x. 
171. 

1,.    G. 

ADOLESCENTOLI,  DEGLI,  or  DEI,  FAN- 
CIULLI  (D'lVJn)-  One  i.r  Ihe  I'liur  or  live  iiolih' 
families  which,  .•iccordiiiglo  li'geiiil,  were  transported 
by  Titus  (TO-Xl)  from  Jerusalem  to  Kome.  The  his- 
tory of  this  family,  however,  can  only  be  traced  to 
the  fourteenth  century.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
the  family  seat  was  at  Bologna.  A  notable  repre- 
sentative of  this  family  was  Mosks  hi;n  Juhaii 
N.m;aki.  In  the  fourleenth  and  tifteenth  centuries 
there  were  in  Spain  and  in  southern  France  families 
named  Dels  Infan/,  and  Dils  Fils,  disliiiguislii<l  for 
wealth  and  learning.  Il  is  probable  that  they  were 
connected  with  the  Italian  family  Degli  Adolescen- 
toli. 

Bini.IocRAPMY:  Vngplstcln  ami  Rli'Rer,  (Icseh.  d.  Juilen  in 
Hum,  pp.  24,  2!lll,  444;  .Seutauer,  In  Xunz's  JuheUchrift,  p. 
13SI;  Zunz,  in  Kcrein  Ikmed,  V.  132. 

M.   R. 

ADOLPHTJS,  SIR  JOHN  :  English  lawyer,  his- 
torical and  polilical  wrilir.  Imrn  at  I,(ind(in  in  ITtW; 
died  there  July  Ki,  |s|.").  His  gmndfalher.  a  Jew  of 
(iermaii  cxtraclion.  was  physician  in  ordinary  to 
Frederick  Ihe  (iicat  of  Prussia,  and  wrote  a  French 
romance,  "llistoire  des  Diables  Modernes."  Adol- 
)ihus'  father  was  not  in  easy  ciniimslances,  and  only 
through  the  liberality  of  an  uncle  was  Adolpluis  en- 
abled to  live  in  London.  To  this  relative  he  owed  his 
education,  as  will  as  his  imleiiturc  to  an  altorncv  in 
ITWi.  (•urompleiing  his  arlicli  s  in  IT'.HI  he  was  (inly 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  17113  Adolpluis  marrie<l  a  Miss 
Leyccsler.  of  While  Place.  15crkshiri,"a  lady  of  good 
family  and  small  forlune."  For  several  years  lu' 
continued  to  negle<'t  law  for  literature.  At  first 
he  ns,sisted  Archdeacon  Coxe  with  his  "  Memoirs  of 
Sir  Hobert  Walpole."  and  then  ]niblislicd  his  own 
"Biographical  Mi'inoirs  of  the  Flinch  Hevohilion  " 
(ITillli;  "The  British  Cabinel.  conlaining  I'orlnulsof 
lllnslrious  Personages,  with  Biographical  Memoirs." 
and  "History  of  Fngland  fnim  the  Acces.sion  of 
(teorge  111  to  Ihe  Concbision  of  Peace  in  17S:i" 
(ISO.).     The  lastinenliniied   work  i  \liibils  consid- 


erable learning  and  independent  research,  and  was 
cf>mmcnded  by  the  "  Edinburgh  Ueview  "  (1802,  No. 
2)  "for  its  perfect  impartiality  in  narrating  events 
and  in  cfillecting  information." 

Through  the  success  of  his  work  and  the  kind 
offices  of  Archdeacon  Coxe,  Adolpluis  was  brought 
into  contact  with  Addington,  the  ])rime  minister,  who 
engaged  him  for  political  work  which  included  pam- 
l>hletec'ring  and  electioneering.  In  1803  he  pub- 
lished a  "llislory  of  France  from  1790  to  Ihe  Abor- 
tive Peace  of  Amiens,"  and  a  pamphlet,  "  Uetlcctions 
on  the  Causes  of  the  Present  Ku])ture  with  France." 
Shortly  afterward  Adolphus  resolved  to  return  to 
the  i)rofes.sion  of  law.  He  entered  himself  at  the 
Inner  Temple  in  1803,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1807.  He  took  up  criminal  law  as  a  specialty,  and 
became  one  of  the  leading  members  of  the  p^nglish 
bar.  Among  his  more  notaWe  forensic  successes  is 
his  ingenious  defen.se  of  Thistlewood  and  Ihe  other 
Call)  street  conspirators  in  1820.  His  legal  career 
being  now  lirmly  established,  he  again  devoted  a 
part  of  his  lime  to  literature,  and  published  "The 
Political  State  of  the  English  Empire"  (four  volumes, 
1S18),  "Observations  on  the  Vagrant  Act"  (1824), 
and  "  Memoirs  of  John  Bannister  "  (1839).  Bannister 
was  a  comedian  with  whom  he  was  intimately  ac- 
(luainled.  In  1840  he  resolved  to  continue  his 
"  Hislory  of  England,"  and  reissued  the  first  volume, 
which  had  gone  through  four  editions.  By  1845  he 
had  issued  sevc'u  volumes,  and  was  at  work  on  the 
eighth  when  he  died.  Apart  from  these  elaborate 
works, he  wrote  several  essays  for  the  "  British  Critic  " 
and  I  he  "Annual  Register." 

Bini.ioiiRAPnv :  Gentlemen's  Magazine,  IHii;  Diet,  of  Na- 
tiunul  liidoraphii,  s.v. 

M.  B. 

ADOMIM   BEN   TAMIM.     See  Dcnash  ben 

Tamim 

ADONAI  (T?! ,  literally  "my  Lord."  the  plural 
form  I  if  .\ilon,  that  is,  "Lord  "or  "Lordship  "):  This 
word  occurs  in  the  Masoretic  text  31.5  times  by  the 
side  of  the  Tetnigram  YHWH  (310  times  jireceding 
and  live  times  succeeding  it)  and  134  times  without 
it.  Originally  an  ajipellalion  of  God,  the  word  be- 
came a  delinile  title,  and  when  the  Tetragram  became 
too  holy  for  utterance  Adonai  was  subsliluted  for 
it,  so  that,  as  a  rule,  the  name  wrillen  YHWH  re- 
ceives the  points  of  Adonai  and  is  read  Adonai,  ex- 
cept in  cases  where  Adonai  precedes  or  succeeds  it  in 
the  text,  when  it  is  read  Elohim.  The  vowel-signs 
c,  o.  (I.  given  to  the  Tetnigrammaton  in  Ihe  wrillen 
text,  therefore,  indicate  this  pronunciation,  Aedonai. 
while  Ihe  form  Jehovah,  introduced  by  a  Christian 
wrileraliout  1520.  rests  on  a  niisunderslanding.  The 
Iranslalion  of  YlIWll  by  the  wonl  Li^rd  in  the  King 
James's  and  in  other  versions  is  due  to  the  tradi- 
tional reading  of  the  Tetragranunalon  as  Adonai,  and 
this  can  be  traced  to  the  oldest  translation  of  Ihe 
Bible,  the  Septuagint.  About  the  pronunciation  of 
Ihe  Shem  haMeforash,  the  "  dislinclivi'  niuiie  " 
YHWH,  there  is  no  authentic  information.  In  the 
early  jieriod  of  the  Se<-ond  Temple  Ihe  Name  wa.s 
slill  in  common  use,  as  may  be  learned  from  such 
proper  names  as  Jehohanan,  or  from  lilurgical  for- 
mulas, such  as  Halelu-Yah.  At  the 
Pronun-  I>eginning  of  Ihe  Hellenistic  era,  liow- 
ciation.  ever,  the  use  of  the  Name  was  reserved 
for  Ihe  Temple.  From  Sifre  to  Num. 
vi.  27.  Mishnah  Tamid,  vii.  2,  and  Sotali,  vii.  fl  it 
appears  that  Ihe  priests  were  allowed  to  pronounce 
Ihe  Name  at  the  benediction  only  in  the  Temple; 
ilsewhere  I  hey  were  obliged  to  use  the  appellative 
name  (<■'»" ly.v)  ".\donai."  Philo,  too.  in  referring 
to  it  says  ("  Life  of  Mosi's,"  iii.  1  n  ;  "The  four  letters 


Adonai 
Adonai  Uelek 


TIIK  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


SOS 


uia}'  be  meutioiK'd  or  heard  ouly  by  Uolj-  men  whose 
ears  ami  tongues  are  puritieil  by  wisdom,  and  by  no 
other  in  any  plaee  whatsoever."  Aceording  to  Jose- 
phus  ("Aui."  ii.  12,  ^  4): 

"  Moses  l>esoui;ht  God  to  Impart  tci  blin  tlie  knowledge  of  His 
name  and  lt.s  pninunriatlon  so  that  tie  inlirbt  t>e  able  to  Invoice 
lltm  l>y  name  ut  tlie  siu-ivd  arts,  wtiereupon  (io<l  eoinmiintcated 
His  name.  hltlifrt^>  unknown  to  any  muu  ;  and  It  would  be  a  sin 
for  uie  to  niintliin  it." 

Prouuneiation  of  the  Name  by  the  Temple  priests 


correct  pronunciation  became  a  secret,  entrusted 
only  to  the  kanherini  (worthy  ones)  or  the  zemi'im 
(Essenes  =  "  the  humble  or  cha.ste  ones '"),  but  with- 
held from  tlie  frivolous,  the  Hellenists  (jKruzim); 
and  even  the  former  were  taught  it  ouly  once  every 
seven  years,  and  then  oidy  after  due  |)urification  and 
.sanetilieation  (see  Kid.  Tbi;  Yer.  Yoma,  I.e.,  and 
compare  Tosef. ,  Ytulayim.  at  the  close,  in  Simson 
of  Sens'  commentary).  "  Wo  upon  you,  ye  Phar- 
isees, who  pronounce  the  Holy  Mame  each  morning 


ADONAI,   ADONAI 


i 


Leiito.  p 


^ 


— 1^ 


^ gnzr 


Ado 

nai, 

Ado  - 

nai, 

El 

The 

Lord, 

E     - 

ter      . 

nai 

ra     -    hum      we  -  han         -         nun, 
the         merciful  and  gra  -    cious       God, 


f> 


'^ 


KJ 


^ 


e 
slow. 


=t= 


r*.^    rJ 


rek 


ap 

to 


pa     -      vim,    we    -  rab      he  -    sed      we    -    e      -      met, 

an      -      (jer      anl    a    -    hound  •  ing  in  kittd  -  ness  and  truth ; 


DO    ■ 

pre  ■ 


i 


pinngendn. 


zer  he    -    Bed         la  -  a  -  la 

serving       loving  -  kind   -  Ties.'*  v.n  -  to 


fim,. 

no 

se 

'a 

■    won. 

wa 

thou 

sands. 

for 

giving 

in  • 

iquity, 

tran 

fe    -      sha',  we-  hat  -  ta  -    ah,. 
gres  -    sion     and sin,. 


we  -  nak  -  keh,  wesa  -  lah  -  ta        la   -  'a  -  wo  ■ 

. . .     and       clear  -  ing .'    For  -  give     Tliou    us     our    in  • 


i 


-I- 


^^ 


1 — i- 


aUargando. 
P  . 


^^=§3:= 


H 


-• -0 iT-J 

ne     -     nn  ul 

iqui  -    ties        and 


al  -  so 


to 
our 


te    ■ 
sin*  ; 


also  gradually  fell  into  disuse.  Tosef. ,  Sotah.  xiii.  8, 
quoted  Menahot,  109A.  and  Yoma,  3!)/),  relates  that 
"from  the  time  Simon  the  .lust  died  [this  is  the 
traditional  e.xpression  for  the  beginning  of  the  Hel- 
lenistic period],  the  priests  refrained  from  blessing 
the  people  with  the  Name" — in  other  words,  they 
pronounced  it  indistinctly,  or  they  mouthed  or  muni- 
bled  it.  Thus  .says  Tosef.,  Ber.  vi.  23:  Formerly 
they  used  to  greet  each  other  with  the  Ineffable 
Name-  when  the  time  of  the  decline  of  the  studj" 
of  the  Law  came,  the  elders  mumbled  the  Name. 
Subseiiuently  also  the  solemn  utterance  of  the  Name 
by  the  high  priest  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  that 
ought  to  have  been  heard  by  the  priests  and  the 
people,  accoiYling  to  the  Mishnah  Yoma,  vi.  2,  be- 
came inaudible  or  indistinct. 

R.  Tnrl'on  (or  Tryphon)  relates  (Y'er.  Yoma,  Hi. 
40(f):  "I  was  st.onding  in  the  row  of  young  priests, 
and  I  heard  the  high  priest  raimibling  the  Name, 
while  the  reft  of  the  priests  were  chanting. "  Thus  the 


nn,         u    -    n    -  lial  -    ta       -        nn. 
and        tnke  us  for  Thine  in-herit    •      ance.' 

without  due  purification!"  said  the  Hemerobaptists; 
whereupon  the  Phari.sees  sarcastically  replied  :    "  Wo 

ujion  you   who    pronounce  the  Holy 

The  Use     Name  with  an  organ  of  the  body,  while 

of  the       yourbody  itself  isunlioly  !  "  However, 

Name.       it  appears  from  Ta'anit,  19(7  and  'Ah. 

Zarah.  1S(/.  that  the  E.s.sene  saints  made 
use  of  the  Name  in  their  invocations  and  miraculous 
cures,  which  was  afterward  declared  to  be  a  griev- 
ous sin  (Sanli.  x.  1;  compare  also  Rook  of  Wisdom, 
xiv.  21).  But  while  even  among  these  the  right  pro- 
nunciation was  forgotten  in  the  course  of  time,  and 
the  hope  was  expressed  by  Phinehas  b.  .Jair,  "the 
Saint,"  that  the  knowledge  and  the  correct  use  of  the 
Name,  so  Wf)ndrously  etlieaeious  in  the  blessed  days 
long  gone  bj'.  woidd  again  be  restored  in  the  Messi- 
anic age  (see  Pes.  .5l)(/.  Midr.  Teh.  to  Ps.  .xxxvi.  and 
to  Ps.  xci.),  according  to  K.  JIana  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury (Yer.  Sanh.  x.  28?<).  the  Samaritans  then  used 
the  Ineffable  Name  in  their  oath,  and  Theodoret,  the 


ao8 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adonai 
Adonal  Melek 


Chiircli  father,  in  the  fifth  century,  tells  us  that  he 
heard  it  pronounced  by  them  as  Vabe,  which  is  the 
equivalent  of  Yahweh.  Even  in  the  writing  of  the 
Kame  scrupulous  care  had  to  be  taken  by  the  scribes 
(see  Soferini,  v.  G). 

The  day  on  which  the  Pharisees  succeeded  in 
abnifrating  the  ancient  Sadducean  custom  of  hav- 
injij  the  Sacred  Name  written  in  public  documents 
was  celebrated  as  a  gn^at  day  of  thanksgiving 
(explained  correctly  by  Dalman,  against  li.  II.  IWr, 
<'ompar(^  with  Yadayim.  iv.  H,  "Wo  upon  you,  yt) 
Sadilucees,  who  write  the  name  of  the  temporary 
ruler  alongside  of  the  Sacred  Name!  ").  No  wonder, 
thi-ii.  that  tlic  Greek  translators  of  the  Hible,  even 
though  some  scribe  might  now  and  then  write  the 
Tetragranunaton  in  tin-  archaic  Hebrew  form  on 
the  margin,  mill,  as  found  by  Origen  (see  facsimile 
attached  to  article  A*iiii..\),  took  great  care  to  render 
the  name  nini  regularly  Kivjiuf,  Lord,  as  if  they 
knew  of  no  other  reading  but  Adonai.  Transla- 
tions dependent  upon  the  Septuagint  have  the  same 


teen  attributes  of  God  (E.v.  xxxiv.  6,  7,  according 
to  Hosh  haShanah,  174,  and  the  tinal  clause  of  ver. 
9  of  the  same  chapter);  being  the  propitiatory  ver- 
sicle  running  through  the  whole  system  of  seli- 
hot.  This  pizmon  is  usually  associated  with  the 
beautiful  melody  given  on  the  ]>revious  page,  a 
characleristically  Polish  utilization  of  the  plaintive 
Oriental  chromatic  .scale.  The  melody  is  not  of 
great  age.  F.   L.  C. 

ADONAI  BE^OL  SHOFAR  (lait"  ^ip3  ")  : 
A  siKirt  iiiziii"ii  of  lour  stanzas,  raili  eliding  and 
conmieneing  with  llie  respective  halves  of  Ps.  xlvii. 
0.  It  is  chanted  in  the  Sephardic  liturgy  before  the 
lirst  sounding  of  the  sholar  on  the  Day  of  Memo- 
rial, or  New -year  festival.  The  traditional  mel- 
ody,which  is  repeated  after  the  second  sounding  of 
the  shofar  in  the  mumf  ])rayer,  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  olii  tunes  of  Provence  and  Navarre,  and 
may  be  fairly  regarded  as  a  folk-song  from  the 
Pyreueau  region,  adapted  for  use  in  worship  by  the 


$ 


Allegretto. 


ADONAI    BEKOL  SHOFAR 


do 


be 


It 


eS^^ 


kol. 


sho  -     far, 


vash 


fzrd 


"*— jf-^ 


^x^^ir 


shu  -  'uh. 


le 


-lf=fr. 


kab  -   bez       seh 


-1 


^f-=^ 


pe  -   zu   •    rah, 


Be  -   bo. 


hez-yon       te  - 


$ 


:*^±i^. 


^^=^ 


shn  -  'ah: 


'a   -    lah 


lo. 


him 


bi 


trn 


•ah. 


roadingof  the  Name.  Not  from  "superstitious  fear  " 
or  niisjipplication  of  the  third  connnand  of  the  Dec- 
alogue or  of  Lev.  xxiv.  11.  l>ut  from  a  reverential 
feeling  that  the  Name  ought  not  to  lie  iironouiiced 
except  with  coMsecnilecl  lips  and  to  consecrated  ears. 
the  subslilule  "  Lord  "came  into  use.  Yet  this  simple 
measure,  introduced  to  guard  the  Name  against  pro 
fane  use.  formed  one  of  the  most  iiowerful  means  of 
securing  to  the  Biblical  Ood  the  imivcrsal  cliaracter 
with  which  He  is  invesled  as  the  Lord  of  Hosts  anil 
the  Kuler  of  nii'ii  and  iialions.  YIIWII,  as  the  fiod 
of  Israel,  might  still  be  taken  as  a  tribal  (iod;  'I'lic 
Lord  is  no  longer  the  (iod  of  one  people;  He  is  fjord 
(if  all  the  world,  the  Only  One.  Compare  Namk 
OK  God,  Sukm  ii.v-Mi:kou.\sii,  and  TKrn.\(iK.\.MM.\- 

TON. 

DlIiLin<;R.(riiv  :  CiiKlar  II.  Iiiiliniin.  Fhr  nnll,xii,iinr  .l>t'>ii<i( 
unit  xritif  (ii-srhti-hit  ;  IliiiiihuTViT,  li.  It.  T.  1.  unil  II.;  ('. 
Ta.vlnr,  Siiii\im»it<  llti-  .Ii  Irish  I'ttlhcm.  1SII7,  |i|i.  l.'jtlcl  hi'/. 

K. 

AJDONAI,  ADONAI  :  The  phmon  (hymii>  on 
the  thirtien  .Vtthiiutks  ok  Ood  in  the  mlilint 
(propitiatory  prayers)  for  the  liflli  intermediate  day 
of  the  Tkn  D.ws  ok  Pk.mtknck.  ai-cordinir  to  the 
northern  liturgies.  It  is  repeated  in  full  in  the 
"Ne'ilah"  service  of  the  Day  of  .\tonemenl.  There 
are  live  verses  bearing  iUr  acrostic  Anullai.  the  au 
thor's  name,  with  a  refiain  compounded  of  the  thir- 


Spanish  Jews  of  the  fourteenth  century,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  practise  alreaily  familiar  in  the  day  of 
Abraham  ibn  Ezra  and  .ludah  ha-Levi.  and  continu- 
ing down  lo  the  period  of  the  Exiiulsioti.  The  secu- 
lar names  of  sucli  melodies  are  given  in  the  rubrics 
of  many  editions  of  the  Sephardic  Mahzor,  the 
hymns  '{ piijutiiii)  included  in  which,  while  com])am- 
tively  few  in  number,  more  closely  reiiroducc  the 
meter  imd  rhythm  of  the  Gentile  secular  verse  than 
the  "rimed  jirose  "  which  occurs  so  frciiueiitly  in 
the  northern  liluriry.  These  hymns  thus  li'iit  them- 
selves re.adily  to  secular  melodies.  F.  L.  C. 

ADONAI  MELEK  (-|^D  ") :  A  refrain  of  fre- 
((Uent  occurrence,  particularly  during  the  servicesof 
thedavsof  peniti'iice.  Imilt  u|)of  the  following  Scrip- 
tural phrases:  "The  Lord  reignelh  "  (P.s.  x.  1«.  Ihh.): 
"The  Lord  reignelh  "  (Ps.  xciii.  1);  and  "The  Lonl 
shall  reit'ii  for  ever  and  ever  "  (Ex.  xv.  ISl.  lieing  in- 
troduced into  till'  peidleiilial  servicesof  both  the  A.sh- 
kcinizic  and  Sephardic  liturgies  ns  a  refrain,  phrase 
by  phrasi',  to  poems  in  stanzas  of  three  verses,  the 
two  traditional  melodies  M\ay  be  (pioted  in  contrast, 
since  they  are  characterislic  of  th<' individinil  dilTer- 
ences  between  the  traditional  music  of  the  northern 
and  that  of  the  sonllnrn  Jews  of  Europe.  In  the 
Sephardic  liturgy  (alonir.  at  least,  the  Dutch,  which 
isalsothe  Hritishand  Coloinal,  line  of  transmission: 


Adonai  Melek 
Adon  'Olam 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


204 


for  tho  Italians  have  perhaps  approximated  to  the 
Ashkcna/iin  in  tliis  rcspict)  tlic  mclddics  arc  in 
tended  more  forcongrejralidnal  siiiginj;  tlian  for  tlie 
cantor's  elat)oration.  Thus  they  usually  present  a 
detiuite  rhythmic  form,  with  the  simple  outline  of 
a  folk-song,  from  which,  indeed,  many  were  first 
adapted;  and  their  tonality  rarely  is  other  than  the 
minor  or  the  major  mode.  TheSe])hurdim  have  more 
traditional  strains  suited  for  rendciinjr  by  a  coiijrre- 
gational  unison,  and  as  a  result  tliese  melodies  have 
varied  but  little  in  local  tradition. 

In  the  Ashkena/.ic  lituriry,  however,  the  cantor 
was,  from  ancient  times,  not  so  much  the  leader  of 


the  Middle  Aces  are  largely  "modal" — constructed, 
that  is.  in  scales  such  as  those  of  the  Callinlic  plain- 
song,  whcr<>  the  "tonic"  is  some  note  other  than  tho 
do  or  Id  of  the  modern  modes,  and  the  semitones 
in  consequence  fall  into  a  dilTerent  position  in  the 
octave  from  those  which  chanicterize  the  major  and 
minor  scales. 

Finally,  the  old  northern  intonations  often  differ 
in  the  phrase  with  wliicb  tiny  ilnsr.  alike  fnim  the 
Bcphardic  and  from  modern  melodies,  since  the  ca- 
dence rarely  rises  to  the  keynote,  but  falls  to  it,  or 
often  to  the  dominant,  as  in  the  "  plagal  cadence," 
a  frequent  form  of  which  is  given  in  the  e.\anii)le 


pi 


ADONAI    MELEK 

A..    Of  tlie  gSepliai-aiMi. 

Mnestoso. 

==^ — M— .       I       !==  I        I 


=1= 


"^1 


:t= 


A    -    do    -    nai. 


lek, 


A    -    do  •    nai 


ma    •     Ink, 


i 


I 


do 


lok 


^=§^= 


le 


lam. 


wa   -     'ed. 


B.    Of  the  A.«>ilil£Ciiazim. 

Lento. 


^E^ 


do 


me    -    lek,      A    -    do 


ma    -    lak, 


P 


itz 


h      1^- 


W: 


do 


yim 


lok. 


-*-^ 


=az 


le 


lam 


■ed. 


i 


C.    Anotlioi*  ■\'Ci'sio»i 

Lento. 


A  -    do    - 


yim 


the  congregational  song  as  the  practised  vocalist  who 
musically  interpreted  the  te.\t  to  the  listening  con- 
gregation. Jlore  fiirely,  in  consequence,  were  tho 
melodies  foimded  on,  or  imitated  from,  the  secular 
music  of  the  land  and  time;  but  they  were  devel- 
oped from  snatches  of  tune  of  earlier  origin  or  from 
brief  quotations  from  parts  of  the  service-music  of 
cognate  intention.  Thus  the  northern  intonations  for 
]iaral!el  i)assagcs  arc.  generally,  nearer  to  cantilla- 
tion  than  to  tune,  of  irregular  and  unrhythmic  form, 
and  the  original  lines  are  well  overlaid  with  melis- 
matic  adornment,  ill-adapted  for  congregational  ren- 
dering, and  frequently  varying  in  non-essential  de- 
tails, according  to  the" particular  line  of  tradition. 
Moreover,  the  northern  melodies  handed  down  from 


above,  Bourgault-Ducoudray  has  drawn  attention 
to  the  frequent  occurrence  of  this  interval  in  the 
melodies  of  the  Levant.  F.   L.   ('. 

ADONI-BEZEK.— Biblical  Data :  Canaanitish 
kin.i:  (-ludges.  i..")-7),  in  the  town  of  Ik'Zek.  He  w-as 
routed  by  .Tudah  and  fled,  but  was  caught.  His 
thumbs  and  great  toes  were  cut  off.  as  a  divine  retri- 
bution— as  he  himself  acknowledged — for  the  same 
mutilation  visited  by  him  upon  .seventy  kings.  Such 
treatment  rendered  the  captives  practically  harmless 
in  case  of  war,  as  they  could  neither  run  nor  handle 
the  bow.     See  Adoxi-zf.dkk.  I.  M.  P. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature :  The  Midrash  sug- 
gests that  the  purport  of  the  Biblical  account  of 


205 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adonai  Melek 
Adon  'Olam 


Adoni-bezck's  former  greatness  was  to  show  liow 
verv  powerful  anil  wealthy  were  the  Canaanites 
whom  Israel  conciuereil  by  the  jrrace  of  God.  For 
even  Adonihezek,  compared  with  oIIkis  anioni; 
them,  must  liave  been  only  an  unimportant  chief- 
tain; since  bis  name  is  lacliinj;  in  lli<-  list  of  kinj;s 
in  Josh.  .\ii.  il-'.'4.  and  tliis  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
lie  had  subjugated  seventy  other  kinijs  (Yalk.  on 
Judges,  §  37,  quoted  from  Sifre,  but  not  found 
there).  L-   G. 

ADONIJAH  ("Yah  is  Lord  ").  — Biblical 
Data:  1.  Fourth  son  of  David,  by  Haggitb.  Aflcr 
Alisiilom's  death  he  claimed  to  be  the  rightful  heir 
to  the  throne,  by  sinnmoning  the  court  otlicials  to  a 
solemn  sacrilice"(I  Kings,  i.  5).  Adonijah  was  suit- 
planted  by  Solomon  through  the  iutiuence  of  Bath- 
sheba,  tlu'  mother  of  the  latter,  and  through  the  di- 
plomacy of  the  prophet  Xathan.  After  his  retirement 
he  was  put  to  death  by  Solomon  for  seeking  in  mar- 
riage Abishag,  Davi<rs  concubine.  This  was  re- 
garded as  an  act  of  constructive  treason  (I  Kings,  ii. 
25  [A.V.  2«]).  J.  F.  McC. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:  According  to  the 

rabbis,  the  cNpression  "and  his  mother  bare  him  afler 
Ah.salom  "  (I  Kings,  i.  (i)  is  used  to  indicali-  thai  bolh 
these  sons  of  David  were  of  the  same  tyi)e  and  that 
their  actions  were  similar  (B.  B.  W%.  Midr.  Teh.  on 
ii.  7),  as  is  .shown  by  the  fact  that  both  were  itretend- 
ers  to  the  throne,  an<l  that  each  kejtt  ti^ty  runners. 
These  were  not  ordinary  footmen,  but  were  men 
whose  spleens  had  been  cut  out  and  the  tlesliy  soles 
of  whose  feel  ba<l  been  cut  away,  both  of  which  op- 
erations were  held  to  make  runnin.gcasy  (Sanh.  21/;: 
"Ab  Zarah,  •I4i()-  AH  this,  however,  was  of  no  avail 
to  Adonijaii.  His  inca|)acity  for  the  throne  was  rc- 
viali'd  liy  the  fact  that  the  crown  of  David  ilid  not  tit 
him;  this  crown  miraculously  titteil  the  legitimate 
kings  of  the  house  of  David  only  (Sanh.,  I.e.).  The 
rabi)is  ascribe  Adonijali'sdealh  at  the  handsof  Solo- 
mon to  his  an.xiety  to  usurj)  the  throne,  in  conse- 
(pience  of  whirli  Solomon  seized  the  first  prete.vt 
olferecl  to  put  his  ludtbcrout  of  the  way  (I  Kings,  ii. 
V^rl  ",1/.;  Yer.  I'eah,  i.  Ui.O.  "  L-  «• 

2.  A  Levite  of  thetime  of  .lehoshaphat  (11  Chron, 
.wii.  S).  3.  One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  people  at  the 
time  of  the  restoration  (Xeli.  .\.  16).  In  Ezra,  ii,  13; 
viii.  i:i,  and  Xeh.  vii.  IH  he  ajtpears  under  the  name 
of  Adonikam.     The  latter  form  is  probablv  correct. 

J.  F.  McC, 

ADONIM  HA-LEVI,  S.  i  Din  \sii  iun  Laiuiat. 

ADONIKAM  (:ils.i  ADORAM,  HADORAM  ; 

"The  Lord  is  Hxalled");  Superintendent  of  thecol- 
h-elion  of  taxes  in  the  reigns  of  David.  Solomon,  and 
HeliolioariM"  Adoram,"  liSam.  x.\.24;  "  lladonim," 
II  Chron.  X,  IH).  In  liolh  cases,  the  Septtiagint  gives 
"Adoniram."  He  was  stoned  to  death  liy  Ihesece- 
■ding  Israelites  in  the  reign  of  Ui-hobonni.  by  whom  he 
lia<l  been  sent  to  collect  the  tax  in  the  north  (I  Kings, 
iv.  (1;  V.  14;  xii.  IH).  (J.  B.  L." 

ADONIS  (BAAL  OF  THE  PHENICIANS). 

See    T  WlMl   / 

ADONIS  PLANT.     See  Naam.\n, 

ADONI-ZEDEK  ("Zedek  is  Lord"):  King  of 
Jerusalem  a(  the  lime  of  the  Hebrew  invasion  of  I'al 
esline  (.losh  x.  I.  :i).  \lr  led  a  coalition  of  live  of 
the  neighboring  Amorile  cities  to  resist  the  inva- 
sion.but  the  allies  were  defi'alcil  at  Gibi'on.  and  suf- 
fered at  Helh-horon,  not  only  from  Ihcir  pursuers, 
but  also  from  u  great  luul  siorm.  The  live  allied 
kings  took  refuge  in  a  cave  at  Makkcchih  and  were 


imprisoned  there  until  after  the  battle,  when  Joshua 
commanded  that  they  be  brought  before  him ;  where- 
upon they  were  brought  out,  humiliated,  and  put  to 
death.  The  name  Adoni-zedek  seems  to  be  cor- 
rupted into  Adonibezek  in  Judges,  i.  5-7. 

BIBI.IOORAPIIV:  Q.  F.  Mcwre,  Juilgi:',  In   International  Crit- 
ical Ciimmentary,  p.  115. 

D.  G.  L, 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:  According  to  the 

Midrash,  the  name  Adoni-zedek  means  "Master  of 
Zedek'" — that  is,  "of  Jerusalem,"  the  city  of  right- 
eousness (?«/cA-;  Gen.  K.  xliii.  6).  L.  G. 

ADON  'OLAM  (Q^lj;  ]nx)  Music  :  One  of  the 
few  slrietly  nu-trieal  by  nil  is  in  the  Jewish  liturgy,  the 
nobility  of  the  did  ion  of  which  and  the  smoothness  of 
whose  vcrsiticat  ion  have  given  it  unusual  im])ortance. 
According  to  the  custom  of  the  Seiiliardim  and  in 
British  synagogues  generally,  it  is  congregationally 
sung  at  the  close  of  the  Sabbath  and  festival  morn- 
ing services,  and  among  the  Ashkenazim  also  it 
often  takes  the  place  of  the  hymn  Yiodai.  at  the 
close  of  the  evening  service  on  these  occasions,  while 
both  hymns  are  almost  uuiversjUly  chanted  on  the 
Eve  of  Atonement.  Because  of  this  solemn  associa- 
tion, and  on  accomit  of  its  o|M-ning  and  closing 
sentiments,  the  hymn  has  also  been  selected  for  read- 
ing in  the  chamlicr  of  the  dying.  It  is  likewise 
printed  at  the  commencement  of  the  daily  morning 
prayer,  that  its  utterance  may  help  to  attune  the 
mind  of  the  worshiper  to  reverential  awe.  In  the 
Sephardic  version  the  hymn  comprises  six  stanzas 
of  two  verses  each,  but  the  fourtli  {which  is  but  an 
amplilication  of  the  third)  is  omitted  by  the  Ashke- 
nazim. For  so  wide-spread  and  beloved  a  hymn, 
the  traditional  tunes  are  singularly  few.  Onlv  four 
or  five  of  them  deserve  to  be  called  traditional.  Of 
these  the  oldest  appears  to  be  a  short  melody  of 
Spanish  origin  (.see  A  below). 

Of  similar  construction  is  a  melody  of  northern 
origin  associated  by  English  Jews  with  the  peniten- 
tial season  (see  15  below). 

This  melody  is  often  .sung  antiphonally,  between 
]irecentor  and  congregation,  allhongli  it  was  obvi- 
ously intended  for  congregational  rendering  only, 
like  the  Spanish  tune  given  above  it.  The  best 
known  of  the  other  traditional  antiphoual  settings 
exists  in  two  or  three  forms,  the  oldest  of  which  ap- 
pears to  be  the  one  given  below  (C). 

Every  one  of  the  synagogal  composers  of  the 
nineteenth  century  has  written  several  settings 
for  "Adon  'Olam."  Most  of  them — following  the 
earlier  jiractise  of  the  continental  synagogues  dur- 
ing the  moilern  period  (see  Cnont) — have  attempted 
more  or  less  elaborately  poly]>honic  com]msilions. 
But  the  absurdity  of  treating  an  essentially  congre- 
gational hymn  so  as  to  render  congregational  sing- 
ing of  it  iiiipossible  is  latterly  becoming  recognized, 
and  many  tunes  in  true  hymn  form  have  bein  more 
receiitlv  comiiosed.  Special  mention  should  be  made 
of  the  si'tting  written  by  Simon  \V.  Waley  (IHiT-TIi) 
for  the  West  London  Synagogue,  which  has  become 
a  classic  among  the  British  Jews,  having  iK'cn  long 
ago  adopted  from  the  "reform"  into  the  "ortho- 
dox "  conirregations  of  England  and  her  colonies. 
It  is  here  excerpted  from  the  music-book  of  that 
synagogue  bv  the  wardens'  kind  pennission  (see  D 
bVlow).'  ■  F.  L.  C, 

I  The  Adon  'Olam  is  one  of  the  most  familiar 
hymns  in  the  whole  range  of  the  Jewish  liturgy, 
einployed  in  the  various  rituals  all  over  the  world, 
thouirii  not  always  at  Ihcsiime  period  of  the  service 
or  on  llw  same  occasions;  thus  in  the  Uoman  Mahzor 
it   is  placed  at  tti.    .  nd  of  Ihi'  Sabbath   service  and 


Adon  '01am 
Adoption 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


206 


sung  togotluT  with  Yipdal  (Zunz,  "Ritus,"  p.  80). 
In  the  Scplmrdic  liturgy  it  lias  twelve  strophes;  in 
the  Gemian.  nnlv  ten.  "  Raer.  in  his  eommentnry  on 
the  "  Pniycrbook  "  (HikUllieini,  ISCH),  sjiys  that  the 
hymn  seems  to  have  been  intended  to  he  reeited  he- 
fore  retiring,  a.s  it  eloses  with  the  words;  "IntoIIis 
hand  I  connnit  my  spirit  when  I  fall  asleep  and  when 


Wben  thts  our  world  shall  be  no  more. 
In  iiiiijesty  He  still  shiill  rclirn. 

Willi  »iis,  who  Is,  who  will  for  iiye 
In  endless  (ficiry  sllll  renialu. 

Alone  Is  Ho,  beyond  compare, 

Wlthoui  division  or  ally : 
Wlihi>ui  inlllHl  dati'  or  end. 

I  >iiinl|K>U'nt  He  rules  on  high. 


ADON    'OLAM 


A  Allegretto, 
3- 


lam, 


eber 


lak 


=t::: 


Be 


te 


kol 


ye 


nib    -     ra. 


Last  verse. 


rijr 


-i.a — ^- 


10.    We    -     im. 


ra    •    hi 


ge 


$ 


ya 


ti; 


do 


=i=i 


Us 


we    -    lo 


=F= 


H 


B  Quasi  lento. 

Tt'-^ ^ 

1             1  ■ 

— 1 f — 

H — \ ,— 



— ! ! — I 

^ 

\^—s— 

1 1 

-^ 4— 

-■•^^ 1 — 

^ 

— ^ 

— d- 

-1 

VI 

~ 

m 

-s>- 

-#- 

p 


1.  A     -     don 


-g?- 


'o    -     lam, 


sber 


ma    •    lak 
Last  verse. 


Be 


te 


:32i 


kol 


ye 


nib    -    ra. 


10.  We    -    'im 


hi 


ge 


t 


i 


1?^^ 


rz^ 


ya 


ti; 


do 


lo. 


P 


C   Andante. 


3^^^^=^: 


^1      Is 


^ 


=P 


iSt 


t*= 


Cantor.  1.  A  -  don    'o    -     lam,      a  -  sher   ma  -    lak      Be  -  te  -  rem      kol       ye  -  zir     nib  -   ra. 


e:^ 


i 


:SE 


itnt 


Con3rega(ion.Le -'et      na'a  -Bah      be-  Ijef  -  zo      kol,       A-  zay     me  -   lek      sh6  -  mo     nik  -  ra. 


I  awake."  It  may  be,  however,  that  the  beauty  and 
grandeur  of  the  hymn  recommeudi-d  its  use  in  the 
liturgy,  and  that  it  was  ehanted  indiseriminately  at 
the  beginning  or  the  elose  of  the  .service.  The  date 
and  the  name  of  the  author  are  unknown. 

The  following  translation  of  the  hymn,  in  which 
the  meter  of  the  original  has  been  preserved,  is  by 
F.  de  Sola  Meades: 

ADON  'OI-AM. 
The  Lord  of  all.  who  reigned  supreme 

Ere  first  Creation's  form  was  framed; 
When  all  was  finished  by  His  will 

His  Name  Almighty  was  proclaimed. 


He  is  my  (Jod  and  Savior  too, 
Tu  whom  I  turn  in  sorrow's  hoiir — 

Mv  hanniT  proud,  my  refuse  sun?— 
Whii  hears  and  answers  with  His  power. 

Then  in  His  hand  myself  I  lay. 
And  trusting,  sleep:  and  wake  with  cheer; 

My  soul  and  Ixxly  are  His  care; 
The  l/)rd  doth  guard,  I  have  no  fear ! 

Bibliography  :  Ijindshuth's  note  in  SuWur  Henyon  Lch.  p. 
5.  Koiilgsl)erg,  1(^.5. 

K.J 

ADOPTION  :  The  adrogatio  of  the  older  Roman 
law — a  legal  process  by  which  a  man  can  create  be- 


207 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adon  '01am 
Adoption 


t  wc'cn  himself  and  a  person  not  his  cliild  relations  tliat 
properly  lielonir  only  to  fallierand  ehild — is  unknown 
to  both  Hihlical  anil  TaliMiulie  law.  But  the  feel- 
ing' that  the  man  and  wiiinan  who  brini;  up  a  ( liild. 
and  niiire  I'Spieially  those  wlm  teach  the  ehild  virtue 
and  the  fear  of  God,  should  be  liouored  as  parents  is 


Merab  hore  them,  anil  MIrhal  reared  them:  to  t«aoh  lis  that 
whoever  rears  an  oqihan  In  his  own  house  Is,  Jn  the  words  of 
Scripture,  (lei'ineil  Its  parent.  It.  Hanlna  drew  thi-  same  doc- 
trine from  Ilulli.  iv.  17.  'And  the  \vomen  her  iielirhlHirs  j«ive  It 
a  name,  .saytiiir.  Tliere  Is  a  son  lM)rn  to  Naomi.'  Now,  did 
Naomi  iK'ar  liim  V  Did  not  Uuth  bear  him  V  Itutli  l)ore  him 
and  .Naomi  reared  liim;  Ilier**fore  he  is  called  Naomi's  cliild. 
"  li,  Kleazar,  quutluc  Ps.  IxxvU.  15,  Unds  the  doctrine  in  these 


ADON    'OLAM 


0  Poco  lento. 


ffi 


^ — r 


mp 


=i? 


^^^ 


:is 


--^ 


^ — ^— ^ 


itr 


-9:= 

~i-~^ — f    1    ji    _i 

}               -'T 1 i f— 

-^-. 

>H *^ m — 

w- 

— * S — ^ — S — '^ 

—m ''     m     %     0 

___^_                 ores. 

-^. 

J.. 

— ^— f — *— 

dim. 

pE 

— — ^' '^ — 1 -^ — • — 

L*^ m   -  m-    ...-. 

__*_^ zs;m — 

1*!!! ^J — 1 

t=^ 1 — ' — r- 

— m m — 

•-r — r- 

[_ . ]^ 

stroniily  ox])rc,s.sed  in  the  Talmud  (Sanh.  19A),  which, 
in  the  usual  way,  slreiii;lhens  the  views  of  llic>sai;es 
with  1 1  not  at  ions  from  .'Scripture.  CoiiecTninj:  I  he  sons 
of  Michal.  dauiihtcrof  King  Saul,  mentioned  iu  II 
Sam.  \xi.  H.  Kaiilii  .loshua  b.  ^or^n.  one  of  'liu  suges 
of  Mishiiaie  tiiiies,  asks: 
"Uld  MIclial  U-ar  them  V    Did  not  rather  Merab  beor  them  ? 


words:  "Thou  hiist  with  thine  nnn  redi'emni  Iby  p«siple,  the 
sons  of  Jacob  and  .1i»sepli.  Selali!'  .And  wits  not  Jaci'tt  ttielr 
fiillier';'  Yes:  Jacob  iH'Kal  Ibem,  but  JunciiIi  nourlMhi^t  tliem  ; 
Ibcrefon-  tiley  tJike  ills  name.  II.  Siniiiiel  b.  Nabmunl  sa\-s,  on 
Ibeaiilborlly  of  It.  Ji'nntlmii :  Wboi'ver  leucbeM  ilie  win  of  Ida 
itimiMinion  the  Ijtw,  has  the  rlulit.  In  the  M'nw  of  STlbtnre,  to 
Im>  difineil  that  iMT-Mtn's  fattier:  for  It  Is  Mild  (Num.  lit.  I,  L'l : 
"I'hi'si'  iin*  the  Kenenitlons  of  .Aiinm  and  Miwu-s,'  and  farther 
on  :  '  And  theAO  an*  the  names  of  the  soiiit  of  Aunm ' ;  thij*  Is  to 


Adoption 
Adoration 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


208 


t«ll  tbw  tbat  Aaron  liOKnt  tlieni.  and  Mnsra  taugbl  Ibem :  beoce 
tbey  an?  set  d^iwn  under  Moses'  name." 

By  a  similar  cxejictiral  process  Moses  is  called  the 
son  of  Bithiali.  tlic  ilaiit'lilir  of  Plianioh  (I  C'luon.  iv. 
IH),  whom  IcjrciKl  idcniiliis  wiih  tlic  E{:\  i)lian  prin- 
cess who  saved  and  reared  Moses  (lleg.  Viti)-  As  a 
matter  of  fact  tlie  Scriptures  sliow  how  Pliaraoh's 
daiitrhter  broufrlit  uji  Closes, as  if  slie  were  liis  mother: 
and  liow  Mordceai.  after  llie  death  of 
Adoptionin  Esthers  father  and  motlier.  "toolclur 

Female  unto  liimself  for  a  daufrliter"  (Estli. 
Iiine.  ii.  7) ,  and  Estlier  treated  liim  with  the 
implicit  obedience  due  to  a  fatlier.  But 
it  is  not  likely  lliat,  in  case  of  his  death,  she  would 
liave  inlierited  liis  estate  in  jucferenee  to  nearer  hlood 
relations;  neither  does  it  ap])ear  that  a  inetliod  for 
creatinjTsuch  a  relation  hclueeu  lliemas  would  make 
lier  his  lieiress  was  ever  known  to  I  lie  laws  of  Israel. 

Tliere  is,  however,  one  ))a^<sa.i;e  in  8erijiture  (Gen. 
xlviii.  5),  "Epliraim  and  Manasseh  .  .  .  arc  mine; 
as  Hevdjcn  and  Simeon,  they  shall  bo  mine,"  which 
indicates  that  tlie  writer  was  probably  acquainted 
Willi  Adoption  in  the  lejral  sense,  such  as  wo\dil 
fi'we  to  tlie  chosen  children  the  riirht  of  inheriting' 
from  tlie  person  adopting  tliem;  for  the  obvious 
intent  of  tlie  passajje  is  to  account  for  the  establish- 
ment of  two  tribes.  Ephraim  and  Mauasseh.  with  dis- 
tinct territories,  on  an  equality  with  the  tribes  claim- 
ing descent  from  Jacob's  sons.  L.  X.  D. 

Adojition  in  a  les^al  sense  is  practically  unUiiowu 
in  lands  and  conditions  in  which  in  case  of  childless- 
ness a  man  may  marry  another  wife  in  order  to  beu'ct 
a  son  for  his  heir  (sec  Koran,  sura  xxxiii.  3.  and 
Ilufihes,  "Dictionary  of  Islam."  .v./'.  "Adoption''). 
In  fact,  the  iMosaie  institution  of  the  Levir.vte,  liy 
which  the  survivini;  brother  is  enjoined  to  marry  his 
deceased  brother's  wife  in  order  to  ,cive  him  a  male 
heir,  shows  that  Adoption  in  the  Koinan  sense  did 
not  exist  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  (see  Dent.  xxv. 
.5-6;  compare,  however,  Sifre.  ii.  280;  Yer.  Yeb.  ii. 
lOf);  Bab.  Yeb.  24('.  where  this  primitive  view  is  no 
longer  accepteil).  The  Adojition  of  the  slave  as  .son 
and  heir,  as  indicated  in  the  Bible  in  the  words  of 
Abraham,  "One  born  in  my  house  is  mine  heir" 
(Gen.  XV.  3).  was  pnjbably  practised  frequently  in 
the  manner  described  in  I  Chrou.  ii.  34  et  neq..  where 
Sheshan  is  mentioned  as  having  given  his  daugh- 
ter as  wife  to  his  servant  and  adopted  their  sons  as 
his  own. 

Yet  some  form  of  Adoption  was  in  use  in  Biblical 
times.  At  first,  barren  wives  are  found  giving  to 
their  husbands  their  female  slaves  with  the  view  of 
adopting  any  children  borne  by  the  latter  (Gen.  xvi. 
2,  x.\x.  3),  the  mode  of  Adoption  being  that  the 
handmaid  brought  forth  her  child  upon  the  knees  of 
the  adoptive  mother  (Gen.  xxx.  3;  compare  Gen.  1. 
28).  According  to  Joseplius("  Ant."  i.  7,  i;  1).  Abra- 
liam,  being  at  first  childless,  adopted  Lot  as  his  son. 
According  to  Philo  ("  Vita  Mosis."  i.  5)  and  Josephus 
("Ant."  ii.  9,  §  7),  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  formally 
adopted  Moses  as  her  son  (Ex.  ii.  10).  So  Kuth,  iv. 
1<>  and  E.sth.  ii.  7  are  understood  by  many  (see  Vul- 
gate to  Esther)  as  referring  to  Adoption ;  the  placing 
of  the  child  upon  the  knee  or  bosom  (Ruth.  iv.  K!) 
resembling  the  old  Teutonic  mode  of  Adojition 
(Grimm,  "  Deutsche  Rechts-Alterthiimer,"  \<.  4(i4). 
According  to  Ewald  ("  Alterthumer."  p.  101 ).  the  mode 
of  Adoption  was  the  casting  of  a  garment  ujion  the 
person  to  be  adopted:  the  term  "Mantelkind."  in 
German,  points  to  the  same  origin.  Elijah  cast  his 
mantle  upon  Elisha  to  indicate  that  he  had  adopted 
him  as  his  sjuritual  heir  (I  Kings,  xix.  19-21):  and 
so.  Ewald  thinks,  should  the  words  be  exjilained 
which  Ruth  uses  to  Boaz:    "Spread  thy  skirt  over 


thy  handnuiid.  for  thou  art  the  redeemer"  {r/nel) 
(Ruth,  iii.  9).  When  the  I/ord  linds  Israil  as  a  waif 
in  the  wilderness.  He  is  described  as  iierforming  the 
:<\mv  symbolical  rite:  "I  spread  my  skirt  over  thee, 
and  covered  thy  nake<Ine.ss,  and  entered  into  a  cove- 
nant with  thee"  (E/.ek.  .\vi.  H).  Now,  while  the 
former  s<.nteiie<'  was  rather  to  denote  a  nuptial  rela- 
tionship (see  W.  Rotwrt.son  Smith,  "Kinship  and 
Marriage  in  Early  Arabia."  i>.  S7).  it  is  probable  ilial 
this  was  the  original  mode  of  recognizing  paternal 
relations  to  a  child  with  the  duty  of  luotcelion  im- 
plied thereby.  It  is  possible  that  spreading  of  the 
garment  over  a  woman  was  a  more  primitive  form 
of  marriage;  while  the  spreading  of  the  mantle  as 
in  the  ease  of  Elisha  was  a  mode  of  installation  or 
investiture  as  prophet.  Accordingly,  the  stranger 
who  enters  into  new  religious  relation  with  the  Deity 
of  his  adopted  land  is  .said  to  come  under  the  wings 
of  the  Deity  whose  protection  lie  seeks.  Thus  Boaz 
sjiys  to  Ruth:  "A  full  reward  be  given  thee  of  the 
Lord,  God  of  Israel,  under  whose  wings  thou  art 
come  to  seek  refuge"  (Ruth,  ii.  12).  This  became 
the  standing  expression  for  conversion  to  the  .Jewish 
religion  in  rabbinical  limes;  for  example.  Abraham 
brought  many  Gentiles  under  the  wings  of  the  Slie- 
kinaii  (Ab.  R.  N.  ed.  Sliechter.  text  J},  xxvi..  and 
elsewhere).  God  is  in  this  manner  reiu'esente<l  as  ex- 
tending His  Fatherly  protection  to  the  proselyte  who 
recognizes  Him  as  his  God  and  Father.  From  this 
point  of  view  Paul  always  sjicaks  of  conversion  as 
"adoption"  (vlotlcaia),  literally,  accejitance  as  God's 
children:  Rom.  viii.  1."),  "  Ye  have  received  the  Spirit 
of  adoption  [being  accepted  as  children],  whereby 
we  cry.  Abba.  Father";  Rom.  ix.  4,  "Israelites,  to 
whom  pertaineth  the  adoption"  f=  the  acce]>tance 
as  God's  children]:  Gal.  iv.  .").  Eph.  i.  5.  Comjiare 
"  A  post.  Const."  ii.  26  and  32,  "The  bishop,  your 
father,  leads  you  to  a  new  birth  for  adojition." 

Hini.KKiRAi'iiv:  Bill  rhiitiaiijii,  1S.W.  1. 391  <■(  sci;.;  Fa.s.sel.  Dii» 
M'miixch-ltalili.  I'iril-Iiccht.iUi^:  Ma.ver.  Die  Hcchte  dif 


I^raiJliUn,  .-tf/icat'i*.  uiitl  i^n■»uT.  U.  i^ft  s€(j. 


K. 


ADORAIM:  F<irtified  city  built  by  Rehoboam 
in  .Iiiilali;  now  called  Dura  (II  C'hron.  xi.  'j/taet/.). 

G.  B.  L. 
ADORAM.     See  Adoniram. 

ADORATION,  FORMS  OF  :  The  various  ges- 
tures and  postures  exjiressive  of  homage.  Ill  re- 
ligious adorations  these  gestures  and  jiostures  were 
originally  innate  and  natural  expressions  of  re- 
ligious feeling,  but  in  the  course  of  religious  de- 
velopment they  became  merely  external,  without 
conscious  regard  to  what  they  were  suiijxised  to 
express.  From  the  time  that  man  conceived  his 
god  in  accordance  with  the  aualo.sies  of  the  jihys- 
ical  world  around  him  (see  ANTHUoroMoni'iiisM), 
the  relationship  of  man  to  God  expressed  itself  also 
in  accordance  with  the  cliaracteristics  of  the  two 
factors — man  and  God.  Thus,  with  the'  ancient 
Hebrews,  kissin.s  and  stroking  the  idol  was  one  of 
the  oldest  characteristics  of  worshi]);  so.  too,  their 
kinsmen,  the  Arabs,  manifested  reverence  toward 
their  stone  images  mainly  by  these  two  methods  of 
caress  (Welllmuscn,  "Reste  d.  Arabischen  Ileidcn- 
tliums."  p.  109).  The  Jews,  in  prophetic  times, 
jiractised  the  kissing  of  Baal  (I  Kings.  .\ix.  18)  and 
also  of  the  golden  calves  (Hosea.  xiii.  2).  Where  the 
idol  was  inaccessible,  it  was  considered  sufficient  to 
throw  a  kiss  with  the  hand — a  form  of  adoration 
widely  prevalent  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  of 
antiquity  (sec  Job.  xxxi.  27).  The  Latin  nditrnt ii>  n\\i\ 
the  Greek  -imaKviuv,  which  are  the  terms  generally 
used  for  adoration,  .signified,  originally,  this  kiss  from 
the  hand.     The  sisuificauce  of  stroking  the  idol  in 


209 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Adoption 
Adoration 


iiiiciint  Israel  is  shown  l)y  tlie  expression  nX  H^Jn 
n  'JD  ("to  implore  God's  irracc"),  wliicli.  aecording 
to  Marti  ("(icsLliiclite  dcr  JUdisehcn  Ui-lijiion."  p. 
34),  originally  meant  "to  propitiate  the  god"  by 
stroking  the  face  of  the  idol  (eorn[iare  Ps.  xlv.  13; 
Prov.  xix.  G,  llili. ).  Toa])pear  barefooted  in  tliesime- 
tiiary  wasanotheraneient  Semitic  mode  of  ailoration, 
as  may  be  seen  from  Ev.  iii  5aud  .losh.  v.  lo  ;  md  also 
from  the  fact  that  tlie  heathen  Arabs  ])erfornied  their 
sacred   pilgrimage   barefoot  (Wcllhausen,    l.r.    110). 


form  of  the  root  ^^p  ("to  bend  tlie  knee");  for  the 
full  n'lnncn  ("  prostration  ")  was  preceded  by  a  bend- 
ing of  tlic  knee.  The  Old  Testament  mentions  the 
Semitic  practise  of  setting  one's  foot  upon  the  neck 
of  the  coni|iiered  foe  (Josh.  X.  '^4.  Ps.  ex.  1),  a  custom 
also  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  (see  the 
plate  in  Kiehm,  "  Haiulbuch  d.  liiblischeii  Alter- 
tlnims,"  p.  SH!t).  It  was  a  sign  of  complete  subjuga- 
tion, and  was  expressed  syndiolically  by  the  cere- 
mony of  prunA-yiiinis  ("lying  down"),  as  shown,  for 


WORSHIPEKS  OY  THE  STARS. 
(From  Mfiiiiiil,  "  Ulyptlquu  Ortental.-.") 


The  underlying  idea  seems  to  have  been  to  avoid 
polluting  the  deity  residing  in  the  shrine  by  bring- 
ing into  that  shrine  the  dust  of  the  street. 

With  the  spiritual  developnient  of  Jewish  worship 
— in  other  words,  with  the  triumph  of  the  prophetic 
idea — the  ancient  Forms  of  Adoration 
In  could  nipt  remain  unchanged,  and  were 

Prophetical  therefore,  liki'  so  many  other  ancient 
Times.  customs,  adapteil  to  the  newer  relig- 
ious views.  Thus. the  various  gestures 
and  positions  of  the  body  at  jirayer — especially  in 
the  preexilic  ])eriod — betray  (piite  distinctly  their 
origin  in  the  old  places  of  worship.  The  spreading 
of  the  hands  at  pniyer.  fn^quently  mentioned  in  the 
older  portions  of  Scripture  (Isa.  i.  I.').  Ex.  ix.  2!l).  is, 
as  the  Assyrian  bas-relief  of  Jews  before  Scmiaclierib 
indicates,  the  gesture  of  one  staniling  before  a  su- 
perior and  spreading  his  hanils  in  petitii>n  toward 
liiin  (liabelon,  "Manual  of  Oriental  Anliciuities," 
p.  KKi,  i)late  1).  Hipresenting,  as  this  As.syrian  pic- 
ture does,  aclmdly  theattiludi-  of  entreaty  toward 
a  human  king,  ther<'  is  no  doubt  that  the  nligious 
mode  of  this  same  gesture  was  originally  identical 
with  it;  hence  the  represenlal  ions  liy  Stade,  \ovv- 
iick,  liinzingir,  and  most  mode  rns.  which  depict  it 
lis  similar  to  that  of  tin'  Kgyplian  priests,  with  hands 
extended  towanl  an  altar,  must  he  rejected.  The 
ndoratioii  proper  of  the  IJible,  namely,  lying  prone 
with  the  face  touching  the  ground,  is  a  survival  from 
tln'  older  saniluaries.  The  Hebrew  word  for  this 
gesture  is  mnnL'TI  ("to  prosliate  oneself"),  usually 
coinbiniil  with  ^23  ("  to  fall  down  in  surpris(>  ";  Josh. 
V,  II;  Job.  i.  '.'»)(;  at  other  times  preccdeil  by  some 
I.-I4 


instance,  by  the  tribute-bearing  legates  on  the  Assyr- 
ian bas-reliefs,  and  was  commonly  jiractised  among 
the  Hebrews  toward  jieojile  of  rank,  or  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  idol  to  whom  one  wished  to  express  com- 
jilete  subjection.  That  the  prophets  have  no  words 
of  reproach  for  this  fiprm  of  adoration — so  inappro- 
priate to  the  invisible  (lod  whom  no  jilace  could 
contain — shows  oidy  how  deeply  this  religious  form 
of  reverence  had  taken  root  in  the  habits  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  standing  posture  at  prayer  was  alsi>  not 
reproved  by  them,  although  this  was.  as  the  Talmud 
(h'clares  it,"  the  attitude  of  the  slave  before  his  mas- 
ter "(.Sliab.  KV/). 

It  is  (liflic\ilt  to  interpret  the  posture  described  iu 
I  Kings,  xviii.  42,  where  Elijah  at  i)rayer  is  reprt^- 
sente<l  as  having  "cast  himself  ilown  upon  t hi' earth, 
and  i)Ut  his  face  bet  ween  his  knees  "  (com|)are  Ta'an. 
iii.  H).  This  probably  refers  to  the  custom  prevail- 
ing among  the  Arabs  of  sitting  solemnly,  during  a 
portion  of  the  prayer,  in  an  atlitudi'  in  which  the 
iiea<l  can  easily  touch  the  ground.  That  this  was  no 
\inusual  postureat  prayer  may  be  seen  from  the  fact 
thatit  was  pnicliscd  among  the  Jews  about  the  year 
(10  of  the  common  era  (Her.  'MI'^i.  Proliably  tln'  pas- 
sjiire.  II  Sam  vii.  IS — where  it  is  statiil  that  King 
I)a\  id  went  into  the  house  of  the  Lord  and  sjit  thea' 
— is  to  be  similarly  explained  as  referring  to  ii  pe- 
culiar and  solemn  mode  of  sitting. 

Intlueiiced  by  the  As,syrians.  among  whom  the 
act  of  kneeling  in  token  of  submission  was  inutc 
geni'ral — as  shown  in  the  Assyrian  delineations 
of  the  kneeling  envoys  from  tributary  nations — 
the  Jews  adopted  this  form  of  religious  adoration 


Adoration 
Adraxumelecb 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


210 


(I  Kiniis,  viii.  54;  Ezm.  ix.  C,  and  other  passijjri'S). 
But  tliL-  passiigf  in  I  Kings,  xix.  18,  referring  to  kneel- 
ing down  before  Baal,  must  be  understood  as  ap- 
plying to  prostrate  adoration,  wliieli 
Exilian  and  was  preceded,  as  already  slated,  by  a 
Postex-        bending  of  the  knee.    Alxnil  lliis  time. 
ilian  Times,  loo.  tlie  pra<lise  of  spreading  tlie  lianils 
wide  at  pniyer  was  modilied  in  consid- 
eration of  the  conception  of  tlie  heavenly  {toil,  toward 
whom  the  hands  were  to  be  iidsed  in  the  direction 
of  heaven    whither  the  seat  of  God  had  been  trans 


K^>|itiun  Muilt^of  Aduiuduii. 

(From  WiUtioson,  "  Ancient  EgyIili«n8."J 

ferrcd  (I  Kings,  viii.  23,  54;  Lam.  iii.  41).  A  prac 
tise  originating  in  the  period  of  exile  was  that  of 
turning  the  face  during  prayer  toward  the  Holy 
Land,  as  the  i)lace  favored  by  God  (I  Kings,  viii. 
4H;  Dan.  vi.  11  [A.  V.  10]). 

The  scanty  literary  remains  of  the  last  three  pre- 
Christian  centuries  contain  so  little  concerning  the 
Forms  of  Adoration  that  it  is  probable  no  essential 
nioditications  were  made  in  them.  The  old  luKldn- 
hatrdjidli  Form  of  Adoration  was  the  favorite  one  in 
the  Second  Temiile.  and  in  accordance  with  the 
pharisjuc  love  of  minulia'  the  nund)er  of  bows  in 
the  Temjile  was  exactly  fixed.  F,verv  visitor  to  the 
Siinctuary  had  thirteen  nVinnC'n  to  [lerfonn,  with 
the  lianils  and  feel  spi'ead  nut  and  the  face  touching 
the  ground  (Jlishnah  Sliek.  vi.  1,  ;i;  Tosef.  ih.  ii.  IT). 
Other  optional  forms  are  mentioned,  such  as  m'p 
(Ber.  346)  bending  the  knee  with  the  face  touching 
the  ground,  and  np'C'J  kissing  the  floor  of  the  Tem|i!e 
(Suk.  nSrt,).  When  blessing  the  peo]dein  tlicTemple 
the  priests  rai.sed  their  hanils  toward  heaven;  this 
practise,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  postexilian  fashion 
of  spreading  the  hands.  But  when  the  priestly  bene- 
diction was  pronounced  in  the  synagogue,  where  it 
very  early  became  an  essential  portion  of  the  piiblic 
service  (see  DrK.\N),  the  older  fashion  of  spreading 
the  hands  horizontally  was  em])loyed  (Mishnah  So- 
tah.  vii.  G).  After  every  sacrifice  the  jiriests  had  to 
make  the  full  prostration  (.Mishnah  Tamid,  vi.  1,  2). 
A  further  f<irm  of  the  rT'inncn  is  the  D'SS  H^'SJ 
the  sudden  and  ccimplcle  |irostration  with  the  face 
to  the  ground,  which  took  place  fmly  once  a  year,  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement,  when  the  liigh  priest  pro- 
nounced the  Ineffable  Name,  on  hearing  which  all 
present  threw  themselves  on  the  ground(Yer.  Yoma, 
iii.  40rf.  The  Mishnah  in  Bali.  Yoma,  fl6</,  is  a  later 
insertion  ;  see  "  Dikdnke  Soferim  "  on  the  passage). 

It  is  highly  probable,  in  view  of  the  great  impor- 
tance attached  by  the  Pharisees  to  prayers,  and  of 
their  love  for  rule  and  regulation,  that  those  Forms 
of  Adoration  described  in  the  oldest  portions  of  the 
Mishnah  date  from  the  pre-Christian  time.  About 
the  time  of  Jesus  there  was  a  dispute  between  the  Hil- 
lelites  and  the  Shammaites  concerning  the  proper 


attitude  in  which  to  recite  the  Shema'.    The  latter, 

in  opposition  to  the   former,  who  were  indilTerent 

as  to  postiu'e,  insisted  that  this  pniyer 

Curing       nmst  be  sjiid  standing  in  the  morning; 

Shema'  but  that,  in  the  evening,  the  afore- 
and  She-      mentioned  posture  of  .solenm  inelina- 

moneh-       lion  was  Iheappropriateone.   Thisdis- 

Esreh.  pule  lasted  until  nearly  the  end  of  the 
lirst  Christian  century  (.^lishnali  Ber.  i. 
3).  The  chief  jirayer,  the  Eighteen  Bi  ludiclions, 
was,  however,  alwayssjnd  standing  (.Mishnah  Ber.  v. 
1;  Gem.  30(().  Hence  the  name  "  Aniidab  "  (Stand- 
ing) for  the  Eighteen  Benedictions.  Thus,  in  the 
New  Testament  it  is  said,  "The  Pharisee  stood  and 
prayed"  (Luke,  xviii.  11);  and  "they  love  to  pray 
standing"  (.Matt.  vi.  5).  Prostration  also  occurred  in 
the  daily  jirayers,  but  not  (in  festival  days  (B.  .M.  .">!•//, 
where  it  is  mentioned  with  reference  to  Eliezer  b. 
Hyrcanus,  a  younger  contemporary  of  theapostles). 

Asaresultof  theadojiiion  by  theCluistian  Church 
of  most  of  the  Jewish  Forms  of  Adoration,  it  came 
about  that  in  PaU'sline,  w  beret  he  opjiosil  ion  between 
Synagogue  and  Church  grew  constantly  stronger  and 
more  hostile,  the  old  Forms  of  Adoration  came  to  be 
looked  upon  with  disfavor.  Towaril  the  end  of  the 
second  century,  the  Palestinian  teachers,  relying  on 
Lev.  xxvi.  1,  took  ri'inncn  as  meaidng  to  siiread 
oneself,  and  taught  that  il  was  forbidden  outside  of 
the  Temiile  to  prostrate  oneself  upon  stone  pave- 
ment, which  was  the  usual  flooring  of  synagogues, 
churches,  and  heathen  tenijiles  (Sifra,  Beliar,  end; 
Meg.  22/;).  Thus  it  came  about,  some  decades  later, 
that  when  Bab,  the  founder  of  rabbinical  learning 
in  Babylonia,  returned  to  his  home  from  Palestine,  he 
ostentatinuslv  remained  standing  in  the  svnagogue 


Moliammedan  Form  of  Adoration. 

(Frotn  n  photograpfa  by  Boofils.) 

when  all  others  threw  themselves  prostrate  on  the 
ground.  Since,  however,  opposition  to  Clirislianily 
was  no  factor  of  religious  life  in  Babylonia,  as  it 
was  in  Palestine,  and  there  was,  therefore,  no  neces- 
sity for  UKidifying  ancient  religious  customs  in  obe- 
dience to  it,  the  Palestinian  prohibition  of  jirostration 
was  modified  in  Babylonia  to  the  extent  that  the 
complete  proskynesi.s,  with  extended  hands  and  feet, 


211 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adoration 
Adranunelech 


was  forbidden  outside  of  the  Temple;  other  Forms 
of  Adoration  wore  pcnnittcd  (Meg.  l.<:). 

Relative  to  other  forms  of  gesture  at  prayer,  the 
followiiii;  may  he  mentioned;  tlie  liowinir  or  1h  iid 
ing  of  llie  upper  part  of  the  body  at  tlie  heirin 
ning  an<l  tlic  end  of  the  Eiirlileen  Heuedielions — a 
relic  of  tlic  old  nj;'-i3  ('"heniiing  of  the  knee");  the 
raising  of  the  eyes  (Veb.  105/j  ;  in  Luke,  xviii.  Ki,  it 
was  tlie  jxior  sinner,  the  publican,  who  would  not 
raise  his  eyes  to  heaven,  indicating 
Various  that  it  was  the  Jewish  custom  to  do 
Forms.  .so);  the  jilacing  of  the  feet  close  to 
getlier  dining  the  recital  of  the  jirin- 
cipal  prayer  (i{er.  Uhi);  and  the  placing  the  liand 
over  the  eves  while  siving  the  Shema'  (Her.  KiA). 
Of  historical  int<Test  ist'he  liabit  of  Kabba  (H.  Abba 
h.  Joseph)  to  fold  (he  hands  at  i)rayer  (Shab.  lO'O. 
which  rather  controverts  the  usual  .supposition  that 
this  gesture  is  of  Germanic  origin  (see  especially 
Vierordt,  in  "Studieii  tuid  Kritiken."  18o3,  p.  Hit). 
It  is  by  no  means  impossible  that  this  gesture  was 
borrowed  from  Semites,  jiarticularly  as  it  .seems  to 
have  Ix'cii  a  conunon  custom  among  the  Assyrians, 
as  shown  by  the  Assyrian  representations  of  peti- 
tioners fohling  their  hands  (Vigourou.x,  "Diction- 
naire  de  la  Hilile."  i.  2;W). 

The   Talmud    regulated   religious  ceremonies   to 

such   minute  details   that  not  much  remained   for 

later  times  to  do  in  this  particular;   hence  we  lind 

that  the  medieval   Forms  of  Adoration  are  identical 

with  those  of  the  Talmud.      lu  i)ost  Talmudi<'  times. 

the  full  i)rostralion  (proskynesis)  took  place  oidy  on 

the  Day  of  Atonement,  and  then  four 

Post-         times,  and  on  New-year's  Day  once; 

Talmudic     while    the    D'QX    n^'QJ.   originally  a 

Adora-        full  prostration,  had  been  moditied  as 

tions.         early  as  the  time  of  thi'  Oeonim  into 

a  mere  bowing  the  head  forward  upon 

the  arm.     Possibly  the  habit  of  swaying  at  prayers, 

mentioned  by  Ju<lah  ha-Le\  i  in  the  "Cuzari"  (ii.  T!(. 

HI)),  was  known  in  the  acadenuis.  and  trans]ilaiited 

thence  into  the  synagogue;  for  not  alone  does  Samuel 

ha-Nagid  (eleventh  cc-ntury)  spi'ak  of  the  practiseof 

swaying  while  studying  (ed.  llarkavy,  p.  1(11).  but. 

as  Dukes  remarks.  Sloli.'innnc'd  was  aci|Uainled  with 

the  habit,  and  the  Talmudic  C'ST  IMDl  (Shab.  1(14'/) 

must  mean   the  .sjime,  for  the  Arabic  lexicographers 

(see  Fikh  al  luglia.  Paris  edition.  xi.\.  $;:{.  p.  !t7.  I.  14) 

explain  iKiirniliin  (=  Hebrew  110)as  "  to  shake."  ap 

plied  only  to  the  Jewisli  mode  of  shaking  the  person 

ut  prayer  or  study  ("  Lit   IJIatt.  d.  Orients."  v.  707). 

In   their  endeavors  to   i)urify  Jtidaism  from  all 

rabbinical   statutes,  the    Kanutes  rejected  all  rali 

binical    Forms  of  Adoration,  and  returned   to   the 

luicient  Biblical  usages.     According  to  the  Karaites. 

the  indispensable  Foiins  of  Adoration 

The  at    prayer    are  the    following   eight : 

Karaites.     (")    n'lnn'J'n    bending   of   the    head. 

wliicb    is   lliclr   iMterpr'etatioli   of    this 

word;  (A)  ri3'13  beii<liiig  of  the  upper  part  of  the 

b(Mly  until  it  touches  the  knees;  (r)  nV'ia  kneeling; 

(<l)  m'';>  a  violent  bowing  of  tlu'  head:    (< )  nf''S3 

complete  prostration  (proskynesis);  (/)  Q'T  DS't'O 

raising  the  hands;    (i/)  HTOV  standing;    (A)  nN'L"3 

D'J'V   rinsing  the  eyes  to  lieaven  (Elijah  liashiatsi. 

"Aileret    Eliyahu."    l(M/<.    Odessji,    1870;    eompure 

E.  Deinard."  Massji  Krim."  p.  M(>). 

The  three  principal  posturesof  the  body  at  prayer 
prevalent  among  .liws  in  the  time  of  Jesus — stand 
insr.  kneeling,  and  prostration  —  were  adopted  by  the 
Christians,  al  times  to  the  minutest  details.  Among 
the  early  Christians  the  most  oustonniry  of  all  the 
Forms  of  Adoralion  was  stamling.  adopted  from  the 
Jewish  attiludeduring  the  "  Eiu'hleeii  Heuedielions" 


— the  prayer  of  prayers.     This  may  be  seen  from 
Ihc'  numerous  illustrations  of  that  time  in  Aringhi"s 
"  Homa  Subterranca."  Home.  l(i.Jl-59. 
Christian     Their  outspread  hands  and  their  faces 
Forms        turned  eastward  correspond    exactly 
of  Jewish     with    the    Jewish     customs    already 
Origin.       mentioned,  namely,  with  the  ancient 
piaclise    of    turning    toward     Pales- 
tine,  which  for  Jews  in  Europe  is  eastward,  and 
with  the   ]iraclise  prevalent  in  all  synagogues,  of 
lilacing  the  ark  in  the  eastern  wall.     The  custom  of 
kneeling,  especially  in  private  prayer,  was  likewi.sc 
ailopted  by  the  earliest  Christians  (Luke,  .x.xii.  41; 
Acts,  vii.  ()();  ix.  40;  xxi.  5;  Eph.   iii.  14.  etc.)  and 
became  general  (see  "  Hcrmie  Pastor."  i.  1  ;  Clemens 
Uomaiuis.  i.  4S;  Tertullian.  "Ad  Seapulam."  iv. ;  Or- 
i.ireii.  ••  l)e  Oralione."  xxxi).      Less  prevident  in  the 
early  days  of  Christianity  was  the  prostration  to  the 
.irroimd,  employed  only  on  special  occasions  (Socra- 
tes, "llistoria  Ecclesiastica,"  iii.  13.17),      How  com- 
jiletely  the  t'liurcli  ritual  of  early  times  was  doni- 
inaleil    by    the   Syna.iro.srue  is  shown  by  the  usiigc 
prevalent   in  the  Christian  Cliurcli,  and  mentioned 
by  Tertullian  ("  D<'  Corona  Jlilitis."  iii. ).  that  on  Sun- 
day, and  during  the  whole  week  of  Pentecost,  jtraycr 
was  not  to  be  said  kneeling.     Thcsynagogal  custom 
(mii)h(i;i),  as  old  as  the  first  Christian  century,  omits 
the  prostration  on  all  festivals  and  semi  festivals  (B. 
M.  5%). 

Hut  Islam,  even  more  than  Christianity,  wasinflu- 
cneed  by  the  .lewisli  Forms  of  Adoration.      At  first 
.Mohainmeil  conunandeil  that  the  faces  of  thi'  faith- 
ful should,  during  player,  be  turned   toward  Jeru- 
salem ;    and  be  only  recalled  this  ordi- 
Moham-      nance  when  he  found  that  Jews  were 
medan        not  to  be  captured  by  any  such  de- 
Forms.       vice.     The  very  com|iiicated  postures 
adopted   by  Jloslems  at    prayer  (see 
Lane's   pictures  in  "Modern  Egyptians."  \.  75)  are 
probably  borroweil  from  the  Jews  of  Arabia,  who, 
being  far  removeil  from  Jewish  lore,  have  preserved 
many  archaic  customs.     These  illustrations  show  all 
the  Forms  of  Adoration  above  describcil  as  being  ex- 
istent among  .lews,  and  especially  that  unusual  form 
of  sitting  solemnly  with  the  head  upon  the  knees. 
Hiiu.iouinriiv  ;   Wellliausen,   HrMf  ilis  Amhisclnii  lleidni- 
Ihums.  pii.  ln"i  rl  .s, .,.;    Slaile,  fir.'<ch.  il.  Viilkci  Ixtait.l.  ilW, 
4S1I:  .Nowuck.  l,tliilim)i<l.llrhrilii<chin  Arrhntnliiiiir.ii.'SiU- 
-'111:  Uiii/lin-'tr,  .lri(i.  |.p.  litl.  4tH  ;  Itleliin.  7M«i(i(v',i-(,  r/.iiWi 
ilis  Hihlisrlii  II  .llhrlliums.i.  4!<4  ,(  w.;.;  Auglisll.  Haiulb. 
il.  ClirMlii  In  II  Alilnliiiliiuii.n.lWil  ",11.  t      q 

ADRAMMELECH.— Biblical  Data:  1.  Men- 
tioned in  II  Kings,  xvii.  Ml.  asa  god  iif  Sepharvaim. 
which  unlil  icceiilly  was  supposed  to  be  the  Hebrew 
name  for  the  Babylonian  i  iiy  Sippar.  After  the 
inhabitanls  of  Sepharvaim  had  been  deported  to 
Samaria  (II  Kings,  xvii.  24:  Isa.  xxxvi.  10)  by 
Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  Ihcy  continued  to  wor- 
ship their  goils  Adranunelech  and  Anammeleeh, 
accompanying  their  riles  with  the  sacrilice  of  chil- 
dren by  lire.  'I'here  was.  however,  no  .\ssyrian  or 
Babylonian  .irod  bearing  Ihe  name  .Vdrammelecli, 
although.  ac<-ording  lo  .some scholars,  the  form  of  the 
word,  if  it  lie  regariled  as.Vssyrian,  points  to  a  sup- 
posed original  "  .\dar-miilik"  (see  2).  There  is  no 
reference  throughout  I  he  cuneiform  documcnislo  hu- 
man sacriliceby  tire  or  otherwise,  and  it  is  iiol  certain 
thai  the  sculptures  ainl  bus  reliefs  show  any  repre- 
sentation of  such  a  rile.  The  reference  in  Jer.  xxix. 
'i'i  lo  the  roasting  alive  of  the  false  prophets  Zi'd- 
ekiah  and  .\babby  the  king  of  Babylon  is  no  doubt 
historically  aicurate.  although  Ihe  pa.s.sage  is  not  re- 
garded by  the  liest  aiilhorilies  (as.  for  example.  Cor- 
iiill.  "Jeremiah."  in  "Sacml  Hooksof  IheOidTesta- 
inent,"  p.  til)  as  properly  belonging  to  the  text.     In 


Adrammelech 
Adriauople 


TIIK  JKWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


212 


any  case  it  would  nipri-ly  show  that  such  creinution 
was  not  unknown  in  Habylonia  as  a  |)unishnunl.  It 
could  soirirly  have  oxist'cd  as  a  nOijiious  observance, 
or  even  as  a  common  form  of  torture;  otherwise  it 
would  have  been  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions. 

The  ([Uestion  whether  Scidiarvaim  is  necessarily 
the  Habylonian  Sipjiaral  oneearises.  If  this  theory 
be  eorreel.  the  name  Adrammelech  would  have  to  be 
re'rar<led  as  the  secondary  title  of  the  sunjrod  Sha- 
mash, who  was  the  tutelary  deity  of  Sippar.  Hut,  as 
no  such  secondary  title  e.xists  in  the  inscriptions, 
there  is  no  evidence  to  support  such  a  view.  Many 
scholars  suggest  that  Sepharvaiin  (I,XX.  -f-iSu/jii, 
2err<pai>nu)  is  identical  with  "Sliabaraiii,"  a  city  men- 
tioned in  the  Babylonian  Chronicle  as  haviuL'  been 
destroved  by  Shalinaiu'ser  II.  As  Sepharvnim  is 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Hamatli  and  Ariiad 
(11  Kings,  xvii,  24,  .wiii.  34)  there  is  every  reason 
to  regard  it  asa  Syrian  city.  Sepharvaim  may  there- 
fore be  another  form  of  "Shabarain."  which  is  prob- 
ably the  Assyrian  form  of  Sibraim  (K/.ek.  xlvii.  10), 
a  city  near  Damascus,  If  this  be  so,  then  any  attempt 
at  seeking  an  Assyrian  etymology  for  the  god-names 
Adrammelech  and  Anammelcch  can  not,  of  course, 
succeed.  The  fact,  loo,  that  the  practise  of  sucriliee 
by  lire  was  well  known  in  Syria  and  is  mentioned 
oidy  once  in  connection  with  Raliylon  (compare 
Prince,  "Daniel,"  p.  75)  would  ajipear  to  confirm 
this  view.  It  is  quite  imiiossible  with  our  i)reseiit 
knowledge  to  arrives  at  any  SiJtisfactory  conclusion 
with  regard  to  the  exact  meaning  of  the  god-name 
Ailrammclcch.  The  utmost  that  can  be  said  is  that 
the  word  "  Adr"  occurs  in  Pheiiician  as  a  god-name 
in  the  form  ■nxjnv  "Itnadr"  (Baethgen,  "Bei- 
triige  zur  Semitiselicn  Keligioiisgeschichte,'"  p.  54), 
ami  that  "Adr"  apjiears  as  an  eiiithet  in  connection 
with  another  divine  name  in  the  piojier  name  Adar- 
baal  (Baudissin,  "  Studien  zur  Semitiselicn  Religions- 
geschielitc,"  i.  312).  There  is  no  essentially  Syrian 
god  Adar. 

In    Rabbinical    Literature :     The    Talmud 

teaches  (Saidi.  ()3/<)  that  Adrannnelech  was  an  idol 
of  the  Sci)harvaim  in  the  shape  of  an  ass.  This  is  to 
be  concluded  from  his  name,  which  is  compo\inded 
of  IIN  "to  carry"  (compare  SyriacmS),  and -jpo 
"a  king."  These  heathen  worshi]ied  asfiod  the  same 
animal  which  carried  their  burdens  (Sanli. /.c. ;  see 
also  Rashi's  explanation  of  this  passage  which  in- 
terprets niX  "  to  distinguish,"  by  "  carrying  ").  Still 
another  explanation  of  the  name  asiribes  to  the  god 
the  form  of  a  peacock  and  derives  the  name  from 
luldi-  ("magnificent")  and  melek  ("king");  Ycr, 
'Ab.  Zarah,  iii.  42(?.  L.  G. 

2.  Son  of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria  (II  Kings, 
xix.  37;  Isa.  xxxvii.  38),  who,  with  his"  brother  Shar- 
ez.er,  slew  their  father  while  he  was  praying  in  the 
temple  of  Nisroch  at  Nineveh,  and  afterward  th'd  to 
Armenia.  The  revolt  against  Sennacherib  is  clearly 
nientione<l  in  the  Babylonian  Chroinclc  (iii.  34-35) 
■which,  like  the  account  of  Berosus.  alludes  to  only 
one  .son,  without  giving  his  name.  The  narrative 
of  Abydenus  (Eusebius,  "Armenian  Chronicle,"  ed, 
Schoene,  i.  35),  however,  like  that  of  the  Scril>tures, 
mentions  two  sons — Nergilusanil  Adramelus — which 
Polyhistor  gives  in  the  form  "  Ardumusanus"  (p.  27). 
It  should  be  added,  however,  that  the  existence  in 
Assyro-Babyloinan  of  the  form  Adar  as  the  nameof  a 
god  is  not  altogether  certain,  although  it  is  juobable 
that  the  god-name  which  a|ipears  ideographically 
as  Ninib  should  be  read  Adar.  Adar  is  the  name 
of  the  last  month  of  the  year;  but  if  this  be  the 
name  of  a  god,  it  can  hardly  be  identical  with  the 
god  Ninib-Adar,  who  represents  the  sun  in  the  east  — 


probably  the  vernal  snn.  It  must  also  be  borne  in 
mind  that  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  word 
Adar  is  concealed  in  the  name  Adnimmclech. 

J.   I).   P 

ADRET :  A  prominent  Spanish-Jewish  family, 
members  of  whicli  are  known  from  the  thirteentli 
to  the  lifteenth  century.  In  Spanish  documents  the 
name  is  always  written  Adrel,  and  in  a  Hebrew 
manuscript  in  the  Bodleian  Library  (Xo.  2218  = 
Pococke,  p.  280/')  wc  have  the  punctuation  "^ 
J^?.'!'*  P  nr'-t:'  In  u  poem  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury in  favor  of  the  study  of  philosophy,  the  name 
is  punctuatcil  "■^?'*  (II.  Ilirschfeld,  ".lew.  Quart. 
Rev."  xii.  141).  The  form  "Adereth,"  given  by 
some  writers,  is  therefore  wrong.  The  family  very 
probably  obtained  ils  name  from  a  plac( — eillier  the 
village  of  Les  Adrcts.  department  of  Var,  France 
(compare  Francois  de  Beaiunont,  Baron  des  Adrets), 
or  from  some  town  in  Spain  ("  Rev.  fit.  .luives,"  xxi. 
148  ;  compare  below  Abuau.\m  de  Adueto,  and 
Solomon  T)E  Adhet). 

Following  arc  the  known  members  of  the  family: 

Abraham  Adret,  who.  after  his  conversion  at 
Barcelona  in  13',(1.  took  the  name  Bernardo  Lunez 
("Rev.  fit.  .luives."  iv.  fil.  \o,  123). 

Abraham  de  Adreto,  mcntioiKd  in  the  archives 
of  Aragon  as  having  received  a  panlonaftiT  he  had 
been  condemned  for  consorting  with  a  Christian 
woman,  May,  1272  (Jacobs,  "Sources,"  p.  38,  No. 
G32). 

Abraham  ben  Solomon  Adret.  Uncertain  ("  Cat. 

Bolll."  cnl.   22lil»l, 

Galvandarez  Adret,  who  was  a  victim  of  the 
Ini|uisiti(in  in  Valencia  in  1487  (Jacobs,  "Sotirces," 
p.  7.  Xo.  <,Mi, 

Nathan  Adret,  who,  after  his  conversion  at  Bar- 
celona ill  13!il.  look  the  name  Francisco  Bertram 
("Rev.   Kt.  .luives,"  iv.  60,  Xo,  108). 

Solomon  Adret,  who  is  mentioned  in  a  Barce- 
lona document  of  the  year  1202  (Jacobs,  "Sources," 
p.  16,  Xo.  215;  compare  p.  130);  supposed  to  be  the 
grandfather  of  Solomon  .Vdret  (Ludovicus  Guixar; 
see  Kayserling,  in  "Jew.  t^uart.  Ri'v."  viii.  4!«i).  Ik- 
is  also  menticmed  as  Solomon  de  Adret  (Jacobs, 
"Sources,"  p.  42,  Xo.  713).  See  Solomon  Auret, 
below. 

Solomon  Adret,  who,  after  liiscouversioii  at  Bar- 
celona ill  l:!i(l.  took  the  name  Ludovicus  Guixar 
("Rev.   fit.  .luives."  iv.  Oil.  No.  71), 

Solomon  Adret,  of  Tortosa,  who  was  punished 
by  the  Valencia  Ini|uisitioii,  October,  1490,  together 
with  Isabel,  his  wife — "  por  la  ley  de  Mozen  "  (Kay- 
serlinir.  "Clnistoplier  Columbus."  p.  !!()). 

Solomon  ben  Abraham  Adret,  of  Genoa,  lived 
toward  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

G. 

ADRET,  MOSES  :  Cabalist  of  the  eighteenth 
century ;  lived  and  died  in  Smyrna.  He  possessed 
an  extraordinary  memory  and  was  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  Talniudic  and  rabbinic  literature. 
He  composed  twelve  works,  among  which  were  com- 
mentaries on  the  "Mishneh  Torah  "  of  Maiinonides, 
the  "Ilalakot"  of  Aslier  ben  Jchiel,  and  the  ritual 
codes.  Adret  wrote  also  rabbinical  decisions  and 
novelhe  to  almost  all  of  the  treatises  of  the  Babylo- 
nian Talmud,  but  only  a  few  of  these  works  have 
appeared  in  print,  under  the  title  pitTO  "113  ("  Moses 
Blessed").  Salonica,  1802. 
Bibliography  :  Azulat,  Shem  Im-Gcdolim,  1. 130. 

M.  K. 

ADRET,  SOLOMON  BEN  ABRAHAM  (or 
RaSHBa) :  Siiaiiish  rabbi;  born  in  1235  at  Bar- 
celona ;  died  in  1310.     As  a  rabbinical  authority  his 


213 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adrammelech 
Adrianople 


fame  was  such  tliat  he  was  (icsijrnated  as  El  Rab 
d'Espana  ("The  Hahbi  of  Spain").  A  manuscript 
[lurpiirlinf;  to  lir  a  {ertilicatc  of  indclitcdncss.  dated 
1202,  in  favoiof  accrlain  Solomon  Adrct,  .Iiw  of  Bar- 
Cflona,  and  a  passjiort  for  I  he  same  Adrct.  dated  12()9, 
arc  still  extant  (.lacnlis,  "Sources."  jip.  Iti.  4:i,  No. 
i;iO).  Moses  l)en  Nahnian  (Nid.inuiMidcsl  and  .lonali  of 
Gcroiiii  were  his  teachers.  He  was  a  master  in  the 
study  of  Ihe  Tahnnd.  and  was  not  opposed  to  tlie 
('al)ala.  Adrct  was  very  active  as  a  rahlii  and  asan 
author.  Under  his  auspices  and  throujrii  hisrecom 
rnendatinn,  jiart  of  the  commentary  on  the  .Mishnah 
liy  Maimonidcs  was  translated  from  the  Araliic  into 
Hebrew.  His  Talmudic  lc<tures  were  attended  by 
thron;,'s  of  <lisciplcs.  many  of  wliom  came  from  dis- 
tant places.  (Jucstionsin  ^reat  numlier.  dcalini;-  with 
ritual,  witli  the  most  varied  topics  of  the  HalaUah, 
and  with  relifrious  philosophy,  wcic addressed  to  him 
from  Spain,  I'cjrlujial,  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and 
even  from  Asia  iMinor.  His  response  show  evi- 
jIcdcc  of  wide  reading,  keen  intelligence,  and  sys- 
tematic thought.  They  also  alTord  a  clear  insight 
into  the  communal  lifeof  llntimc,  portraying  Adrct  s 
contemiiorarics,  and  are  of  value  for  the  stu<ly  not 
oidy  of  rabbinical  procedure  but  also  of  the  intellec 
tual  dcvelopmeni  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Oidy 
half  of  these  responsa  have  been  published,  as  they 
number  three  thousand. 

Adrct  had  to  contend  with  thecxternal  cuendcsof 
Judaism  as  well  as  with  religious  dis.sensions  and 
excesses  within  its  own  ranks.  He 
Defense  of  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  charges  of 
Judaism.  Unyinund  Martini,  a  Dominican  monk 
of  iiarccliina,  u  ho.  in  his  work,"  I'ugio 
Fiilci."  had  colle<'leil  jias-sjigcs  from  theTulinu<l  and 
the  Midrash  and  iiUerpnted  them  in  a  manner  hos 
tile  to  Judaism.  These  charges  also  induced  Adrct 
to  write  a  commentary  on  the  Haggadot,  of  which 
only  a  fragment  is  now  extant.  He  refuted  also  the 
attacks  of  a  Mohammedan  who  asserted  that  the 
priests  had  falsilii-d  thi'  Bible.  M.  S('hreiner  ("Z.  I). 
SI.  O."  xlviii,  :!!b  has  shown  that  this  .Mohauunedan 
was  Ahmad  ilin  I.Ia/m.  and  the  bonk  referred  to 
was  "Al-Milal  wal  Xil.ial  "  (Religions  and  Sects). 
Adrct  opposed  also  the  increasing  extravagances  of 
the  Cabalists,  who  mtulf  griat  headway  in  Spain  and 
were  represented  by  Nissim  ben  Abraham  of  Avila, 
a  prcti'nded  worker  of  miracles,  and  by  Abraham 
Abulatia,  the  cabalistic  visionary.  He  combated 
these  with  vigor,  but  displayed  no  less  animosity 
toward  the  philosophic  rationalistic  conception  of 
Judaism  then  prevailing,  |iarticularly  in  France, 
which  was  represented  jiy  Levi  ben  Abraham  ben 
Hayyim,  who  treated  most  important  n'ligious  (pies 
tions  with  the  utmost  frec<lom.  and  who  was  joined 
by  the  Spaniard  Isaac  Albalag  and  others. 

Opposed  to  Ihesi'  was  another  tendency,  the  chief 

object  iif  which   was  Ihe  preservation  of  the  pure 

faith  of  Judaism.      At  the  head  of  this 

Adret        movement     stood    Aiin\     M.\iii    iikn 

and  Abba  Mosi.s  ii.v-Y.\uiii,  ealli'd  also  Kn  Du- 
Mari.  ran  Astruede  Lunel.  He  ajjpialcd  to 
Adrct  for  assistance.  An  extensive 
correspondence  cnsiU'd  between  the  authorities  of 
southern  France  and  northern  Spain,  Adret  taking 
n  most  important  part,  .\ftcrward  this  <-orrcspond 
ence  was  collect<(l  and  published  by  Ablia  Mari.  in 
n  scpanite  work,  entitled  "  Miidial  Kenaot"  (The 
OlTering  of  Jealousy),  I'resburg,  l.SMH  (sec  full 
nnalvsis  in  lU'nan "a  ""  Lcs  Knbbins  Fran^ais,"  pp. 
(HT-V.!)-!). 

.\dret.  whose  disposition  was  peaceable,  at  first 
endeavored  to  conciliate  the  opposing  spirits.  I'lti- 
nnitely  he  was  called  upon  to  deiidc  thcalTair,  aiul 


on  July  26,  1305,  togctlier  with  Iiis  colleagues  of 
the  rabbinate  of  Barcelona,  he  jironounced  the  ban 
of  exconununication  (Itfreiii)  over  all  who  studied 
phy.sics  or  metaphysics  before  the  comidetion  of 
their  thirtieth  year.  A  iirotest  against  this  ban  may 
be  found  in  a  poem  in  which  I'hilosophy  "calls 
f)\it  in  a  loud  voice  against  .  .  .  Solomon  ben  Adrct 
and  against  all  the  rabbis  of  France  .  .  .  who  have 
placed  under  the  ban  all  people  who  approach  her" 
(see  H.  llirscht'eld,  "Jew.  Quart.  Hev."  xii.  1411). 
Those  who  desired  to  study  medicine  as  a  profession 
were  cxemiited  from  the  ban.  A  special  ban  was 
pronounced  against  the  rationalistic  Bible  exegetes 
and  the  philosojihic  Haggadah  commentators,  their 
writings  and  their  adherents.  The  cnforcingof  these 
bans  caused  Adrct  much  trouble  and  embittered  the 
closing  years  of  his  life.  He  left  three  .sons,  Isaac, 
Judah,  and  Astruc  Solomon,  all  of  whom  were 
learned  in  the  Talnmd. 

Of  Ihe  works  of  Solomon  ben  Adrct  there  have  ap- 
peared in  print :  (1)  Responsa,  Rologna,  l.")3i(;  Venice, 
V)i^  :  Hanau,  Kill),  etc.     The  second 
His  part  apjieared  under  the  title  "Toledot 

Works.  Adam"  (The  Generalions  of  Man)  at 
i.i'ghorn  in  1G.57,  the  third  part  at  the 
sami"  placi'  in  177s,  the  fourth  part  at  Salonica  in 
l«l«.  and  the  liflli  jiart  at  LeglKirn  in  1825.  (2)  A 
manual  on  the  ceremonial  laws  to  l)c  observed  in  Ihe 
home,  ''Torat  ha-Uayit  ha-Aruk  "  (The  Complete 
Law  of  the  House),  jiublished  at  Venice  in  I(;()7,  at 
Berlin  in  17(i2,  at  Vienna  in  ISll,  etc.  (3)  The 
shorter  manual,  "Torat  ha  Bayit  ha-Kazir"  (The 
Shoit  Law  of  the  House),  published  at  Cremona 
in  I5(>5.  aiulat  Berlin  in  1S71.  A  number  of  his  com- 
mentaries and  novelhe  on  Talmudic  treatises  have 
been  printed.  (4)  Commentaries  upon  seven  treatises 
pulilished  at  Constantinople  in  1720,  and  at  Berlin 
in  1756.  (5)  Similar  discniisitions  upon  live  treatises 
were  published  at  Veincc  in  1523  and  at  Amsterdam 
in  1715.  He  wrote  besides  a  nuiidicr  of  dis(|uisi- 
tions  upon  single  treatises.  (B)  The  "Piskc  H""i'''  " 
(Decisions  on  llallah).  published  at  Constantino]ile 
in  151S,  and  at  .Jerusalem  in  lS7(i.  (7)  The  "  'AbiMlat 
ha  Kodesh  "  (The  Holy  Servic'e),  on  the  laws  of  Sab- 
bath and  festivals,  published  at  Venice  in  Ui(l2.  His 
polemical  work  against  Mohanmicdanism  was  edited 
i)y  I'erles,  as  an  appendix  to  the  hitter's  monograph 
on  Adret. 
IliHl.KiCRAPiiY:  Peril's,  n.  .>>ri(.)Mi(i  Ik- a  AiUreth.Krin  Lehax 

iok/  Kim   S(liriflt)i.  Iln-ahiii.   ISttt;    Sleliisiineliler,  Cut. 

Itndl.  col.  SMS ,  (  Ki/. :  Azului.  Shnn  ha-dnlnliin.  1.  liil .(  neq.; 

(iriltz,  Gcwh.  (I.  ./iiiliji,  vll.  1711  [■(  sf !(.,  i"iil  1 1  .vi;.,  ^*74  <■(  sra.; 

Mlchiiel,  Or  Im-llauilim.  N"-  11S«:  Ji  ic.  Qiidrt.  lifr.  vl.  taiO, 

vlll.  :!:2,  4ati,  ran.  xll.  no,  U4;  Her.  f:t.  Juifis.  Iv.  Ii7,  xxlx. 

•-M4 ;  Z.  D.  M.  a.  xlvlU.  3» ;  KnufmaDD,  Die  Siimc.  p.  11). 

M.   K. 


ADKIANOPLE  :  A  city  of  Turkey  in  Europe 
with  a  populalioii  of  TO.tlOII,  of  whom  about  H.IKIO 
are  J<'ws.  The  lirsl  trace  of  a  Jewish  settlement  in 
this  citv  (according  to  a  somewhat  dcuditful  source 
found  ill  E.  D<'inard's  "Mas.sa  Kriin"  (Biudcnof  the 
Crimea),  p.  13,  Warsjiw,  IS7S)  was  during  the  reign 
of  Thcodosius  I.  in  Ihe  vi'ar  3S!).  Here  they  dwelt 
for  a  long  time,  siitTering  the  oiipres-sion  of  the 
Byzantine  emperors,  <'liictly  inaugunitcil  by  the 
cikIcs  of  Thcodosius  11.  (43S)  anil  of  Justinian  I. 
(,527-51)5).  which  not  only  prohibited  them  from  cele- 
brating tin'  festival  of  the  1'as.sovcr  before  the  Chris- 
tian Ka.ster.  but  compellccl  them  also  to  make  use  of 
Ihe  Grei'k  and  Latin  Imnslalions  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tuns  in  tlnir  Salibalh  readings.  Both  Benjandn  of 
Tudela  (about  1171)  and  Judah  .Mhari/.i  (about  1225) 
visili'il  Conslnnlinople.  but  neither  of  lhein_  makes 
anv  mention  of  the  .lews  of  Ailrianople.     ThiTc  is 


Adrianople 
Adula 


Tin:  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


214 


no  (lovibt  thnt  surli  ii  colony  existed  about  this  lime, 
for  family  names  such  as  ('alio.  I'olicar.  Papo. 
Pilosophc.  Iliiursi.  ZaUini.  and  even  common  names 
such  as  jxipjxm  (grandfather),  miiiin  (mother).  ]>iij)<i» 
(priest),  tniiKliiJiiii  (rose),  xhiiiliintui  (earriuir).  etc. 
— plainly  of  Greek  orijriu — are  prevalent  to  this  day. 
Moreover,  there  exists  also  a  synajro!;\ie  of  the 
'■  Gregos."  or  Greek-speaking  .lews,  having  a  special 
ritual,  concerning  which  there  is  the  following 
legend  of  Uyzanlinc  limes;  The  sexlon  of  a  neigh 
boring  church  noticed  that  after  the  ceremony  of  the 
/iii/xlii/ii/i.  formerly  held  in  the  synagogue  itself,  the 
wincfiUcd  chalice  used  in  the  .service  was  secreted 
in  a  closet.  He.  therefore,  clandestinely  entered  the 
synagogue  and  substituted  blood  for 
Legendary  the  wine;  then  he  hastened  to  inform 
Blood  Ac-  the  judge  of  the  blood  tilled  chalice 
cusation.  and  to  accuse  the  .Ji'ws  of  ritual  mur- 
der. During  thcsame  night  the  beadle 
of  the  synagogue  had  a  dream  in  w  hich  the  scheme 
■was  revealed  to  him,  and  he  hurried  to  relill  the  chal- 
ice with  wint — llius  enabling  the  Jews  to  establish 
their  innocence. 

The  rich  Jews  of  Adrianople  and  other  cities  of  the 
interior,  wearied  with  the  exactionsof  the  governors 
of  the  province  am!  tlie  zealous  proselyting  of  the 
priests  of  the  GreeU  Orthodox  Church,  removed  to 
the  cities  of  the  coast,  w  here  they  could  live  in  com- 
parative quiet  anil  greater  comfort  and  security.  In 
1361,  when  Amurath  I.  ca|)tured  Adrianople.  he 
found  there  only  a  smnll  and  impoverished  Hebrew 
conununity,  which  hailed  as  tlieir  .s;iviora  coiupieror 
whose  religion  so  nearly  resembled  theirown.  They 
appealed  to  their  coreligionists  of  Brusji  to  come  and 
settle  in  tlie  new  Ottoman  cajiital  and 
Rabbinical  teach  them  the  language  of  tlieir  new- 
College,  masters.  The  rabbi — who  had  been  in- 
vested by  the  sultan  w  ith  administra- 
tive and  judicial  powers  over  the  connuiuiities  of 
Rumelia — established  in  Adrianojile  a  rabbinical  col- 
lege, to  the  facidty  of  which  all  religions  (luestions 
were  referred  by  the  Jews  of  Buda.  Jassy.  Galatz, 
and  elsewhere.  This  college  also  received  students 
from  Russia.  Poland,  and  Hungary.  A  group  of 
Jews,  expelled  from  Hungary  in  1376  by  I,ouis  I., 
took  refuge  there  under  the  protection  of  the  Cres- 
cent. To  this  Hungarian  influx  the  Synagogue  Bu- 
doun  (of  Buda)  owes  its  existence,  and  this  name,  like 
the  family  name  "Magyar"  still  existing,  shows  the 
origin  of  the  congregation.  The  Hebrew  soldiers 
who  began  to  serve  in  the  Turkish  army  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Ottoman  empire  were  enrolled  in 
the  ff/iiinibii  (non-Mussulmans,  or  strangers)  organ- 
ized by  Amurath  II.  (1421-.51).  As  a  conununity.  the 
Jews  took  DO  part  in  the  riots  of  the  dervishes  under 
Mohammed  I.  (1413-21)  fomented  by  Bedreddin,  a 
resident  of  Adrianople,  who  used  as  his  tool  Torlak- 
Kiamal.  a  converted  Jew.  The  Jews  of  Adrianople 
have  always  remained  loyal  to  the  sultans,  and  many 
of  tliem  have  become  distinguished  scientists,  so 
that  Mohanuued  II.  (U.53)  even  made  a  Jew,  Hakim 
Yaakub.  his  physician,  and  afterward  appointed 
him  minister  of  finance  (ihfterdar). 

The  Karaitic  community  of   Adrianople.  one  of 
whose  members.  Judah  Ij.  Elijah  (1363-90).  removed 
to  the  Crimea  (see  Oeinard.  "Massa   Krim.''  p.  66). 
throve  and.  by  additions  from  the  Cri- 
Karaitic      niea  and  the  south  of  Poland,  greatly 
Comtnu-      increased   in  numbers.     Through  the 
nity.  teachings  of  the  rabbis  and  constant 

contact  with  the  rabbinical  Jews  and 
their  professors,  such  as  H""ok  Sasporta  of  Cata- 
lonia, ami  more  especially  the  tolerant  Jlordecai  b. 
Eliezer  Comtiuo  (1460-90),  an  astronomer,  mathema- 


tician, and  logician,  the  community  was  aroused  front 
itssjiiritual  lethargy.  Sinirred  on  by  itslea<lingmen, 
Menahem  Bashyatzi  and  his  sons  Moses,  Jlenahem 
Maroli.  Miihael  the  Elder,  and  Michael's  son  Joseph, 
this  Karaitic  band  instituted  a  riform  in  their  ritual 
which  permitted  the  use  of  a  lighti-d  lamp  on  Friday 
evenings  and  a  tire  on  the  Sabbath — a  reform  which 
triumidied  over  all  the  objections  of  the  conserva- 
tives. After  thec(in(|Uest  of  Constantinople  in  U.IS, 
the  members  of  this  sect  nngratid  in  a  body  lo  that 
city,  leaving  behiiul  them  no  other  traces  of  their 
former  presence  than  the  ejiitaph  on  a  tombstone  of 
a  certain  Moses  Y<rushalmi,  Nnpo  'J3D  ("of  the 
Karaites"),  in  the  Rabbinitc  cemeterv,  dated  Tues- 
day, !tth  of  Heshwaii,  .")463  (17U2). 

The  Rabbinitc  community,  on  the  contrary,  re- 
mained at  Adriano])le  and  increased  in  ntnnbers 
and  in  influence.  Groaning  under  the  burden  of 
l)ersecntionsand  l)eing  attracted  by  the  glowing  ac- 
counts of  the  kindness  of  the  sultans  ami  (he  liber- 
ties and  favors  which  the  Jews  enjoyed  in  Turkey — 
graphically  describeil  in  letters  from  Isjiae  Zarfati 
in  14.")4 — the  Ashkenazim  flocked  to  Adrianople  from 
Bavaria,  Swabia,  Bohenda,  Silesia,  and  elsewhere, 
and  there  foundeil  an  Ashkenazie  synagogue.  Traces 
of  the  iiresence  of  German  Jews  ajipear  in  certain 
words  of  JmUeoGerman  origin,  like  roubisen  (rabbi's 
wife.  n'J3^).  bniiliKud  (housekeeper,  landlady,  n7V3 
n'3n).  imd  in  family  names  like  Ashkenazi.  as  well  as 
in  ritualistic  usages.  The  only  actual  jiroof.  how- 
ever, is  to  be  found  in  the  ei)ilaph  of  Moses  Levi 
Ashkenazi  Nasi  (Prince)  ben  Eliakim  (1466  or  1496). 
These  settlers,  together  with  a  contingent  which 
came  a  little  later  from  Italy  and  foiuidecl  the  three 
synagogues  of  Italy.  A|)ulia.  and  Sicily,  joined  forces 
with  the  Jews  banished  from  Sjiain  in  1492.  who 
founded  seven  other  .synagogues  under  the  names  of 
Aragon.  Catalonia.  Evora.  Gerush  ("Exiled"),  Ma- 
jorca, Portugal,  and  Toledo.  This  increased  the 
number  of  synagogues  to  thirteen. 

The  Sephardim  impo.sed  upon  the  native  and  Ger- 
man Jews  the  language,  manners,  and  customs  of 
Spain,  which  wcreadopteil  by  all  rcfu- 
Influence  gees  arriving  after  the  Spanish  Jews, 
of  the  especially  by  the  family  Alamano. 
Sephardim.  which,  on  account  of  the  loyalty  of  its 
head.  Joseph  b.  Solomon,  at  the  cap- 
ture of  the  city  of  Budapest  by  Solyman  II.  (the 
Magnificent)  in  i.")26,  obtained  special  exempt  ion  from 
imjiosts  and  service.  Descendants  of  this  family 
still  live  in  Adrianople.  Influenced  by  these  immi- 
grants, the  students  gradually  lost  interest  in  Tal- 
mudic  studies  and  were  thoroughly  captivated  by 
the  Cabala,  one  of  whose  representatives,  Abraham 
b.  Eliezer  ha-I.evi.  was  the  author  of  .several  mystic 
works.  The  ground  was  now  prepared  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  seed  of  the  Messianic  ideas  of  the 
dreamer  Solomon  Molko,  who.  in  l.")29,  came  to 
Adrianople  to  win  over  Joseph  Cam,  the  well-known 
casinst,  who  was  a  friend  of  Aaron  de  Trani,  the 
president  of  the  college,  and  pcrhajis  also  of  Yom-Tob 
Cohen  and  Abraham  Saba,  rabbis  of  that  time.  In 
1.522  Caro  began  his  commentary  ("Bet  Yosef  ")  on 
the  "  Turim  "  of  Jacob  ben  Asher.  which  was  finished 
later  at  Safed.  A  printing-press,  established  by  the 
brothers  Solomon  and  Jo.seph  Jabetz,  existed  at 
Adrianople  before  I.').").');  subsequently  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  Salonica.  on  account  of  a  plague  raging 
in  the  former  jilace.  No  other  printing  press  was 
established  there  till  1888.  when  "  Yosef^Da'at "  (EI 
Progreso).  a  periodical,  appeared. 

The  study  of  history  was  encouraged  at  Adria- 
nojjle  ;  for  ."loseph  ibuVerga,  a  Talmudist.  finished 
there  the   famcms   chronicle   ("Shebet    Yehudah") 


215 


THE   .IKWISll    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adrlanople 
Adula 


begun  l)y  bis  grarKifatlier.  .ludah,  and  continufd  by 
liis  futlii'r,  Si)l(ini(in.  Tliis  was  a  timely  work,  for 
the  iiiil'iK-diifi'  wliicli  it  recorded  wiTe  renewed  in 
Anconii.  in  1  ")■">(>.  and  aroused  the  indii,'nalion  of  tlie 
Jews  in  Turkey,  including  those  of  Adriano|ile,  wlio. 
in  order  to  take  revenge  on  I'ope  Paul  1\'..  Iliouglit 
of  adopting  Joseph  N'asi'ssuggestion  to  cease  ship- 
jiing  t  heir  niercliandise  to  the  port  of  Anemia  and  to 
transfer  their  tonimerce  to  Pesaro.  Neither  Jo.seiih 
Zarfati,  author  of  sermons  ("  Vad  Yosef."  KilT).  nor 
judah  liilhon  (LlflS-lKiil)  witnessed  the  Messianic 
agitulion  instigated  by  Shaiibethai  Zebi,  which  caiuc- 
loan  eiiil  at  Adrianople,  when  lioth  Zeliianil  his  wife 
emliraecd  Islam  (Srpt.  21.  IfiCiti)  in  tin;  presence  of 
Sultan  .Mohammed  IV.,  of  which  fact  legcud.s  are 
rife  to  this  day. 

Among  the"  rabbis  wlio  opposed  the  propaganda 
which  Shahbetliai  still  continued  in  favor  of  Islam, 
and  the  agitation  fomented  by  his  iiroidiet.  Nathan 
of  Gaza,  who  had  been  expelled  from  Ipsalaand  Com- 
argeiia,  were  Abraham  Amigo,  Klijali  and  Jacob 
Obadia.  Jucoli  Danon,  Israel  Adato.  Pliinehas  Cohen, 
and  Simeon  I'binehas.  Abraliam  >[agriss(i(dicd  ItlsO 
or  KiST)  ai>pears  to  liave  been  a  most  decided  aiili- 
Slnibbethaian  in  spite  of  the  presence  of  Samuel 
Primo,  e.\  secretary  to  the  false  Messiah,  who  died 
at  Adrianople  (ITOW). 

The  aimals  of  the  community  at  Adrianople,  spread 
over  many  years,  furnish  only  tlie  names  of  rabbis, 
viz.:  AbValiam  b.  Solomon  Katan.  ITl'.t;  Abra- 
liam Zarfati,  1722;  Eliezcr  Nalium,  100^-174:!.  an- 
llior  of  a  commentary  on  the  Mislinah.  Dinj  JITn. 
'I'lu'i-e  are.  moreover,  two  families,  who  for  nearly 
two  centuries  have  siip]ilied  two  iiarallel  lines  of 
rabbis.  To  the  Uehmoiras,  of  Polish  origin.  iHOonged 
Menahem  I.  ben  Is;iac  (l(iO(>-172.S);  .Mordeeai  1., 
author  of  'STlO  nOXO  (died  174:i  or  174S);  Mena- 
hem II.  (died  in  177ti  or  17S1);  Moidecai  II.  Chelibi 
(died  1.S21);  Paphael  1.  Moses  (died  1M7S).  and  Ha- 
|iliael  II.  (died  1WI7K  There  were  also  two  iion- 
ollicjaling  rabbis  of  this  family.  Salomon,  author  of 
nO^C:' Pti'n  (Constantinoiile.  17()7)  and  nrD^L"  3n3D 
(Salonica,  1H7(M.  and  Simeon,  autlmr  of  ;iyDL"  ilCD 
(Salnni<a,  ISl!)),  aiift  still  another  Menahem.  autlmr 
of  DnjD  '")3n.  The  family  Gueron  furnished  Ha- 
pliail  .laeub  Abraham  I.  ((lied  K.jl).  author  of  mtij; 
D'lElD  (Constantinople,  17.")6);  Eliakim  I.  (died  at 
Con-itanllnople  about  1800);  Yakir  I.  (Preciado 
.\st rue,  died  at  Jerusalem,  1^17^;  Jacob  .\braham  II. 
(Cornorte  or  MeiialKMii.  died  lN2(i),  autlior  of  -|'3S 
3PV'  (Salonica.  ls;!,S);  H<'kor  Eliakim  II.  (died  about 
!«;)."));  and  Vakir  II.  (PitF.ri.\i)o  ;  liorn  in  1^18; 
died  at  Jerusalem  after  a  distinguished  career,  in 
IH74);  Jacob  Abraham  III.  anil  Mordecai  (died  1SH9). 
Hesides  these  two  families,  which  for  nearly  two 
hundred  years  divided  betwei'ii  them  the  honors  of 
governing  the  commuiiily  of  Adrianople,  there  were 
also  some  able  seen 'laries  who  eHicieiilly  aided  in  this 
task.  Tlii'y  Were  Elijah  Perez  (dieil  17(i;i).  .Minihani 
Perez  Isaac  Alkabi'Z  (died  after  ls:il).and  Samuel 
ibn  Danon  (adviser  of  Yakir  II  Gueron)  who  in 
IS.'iO  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  fmindation  of  the 
whools,  which  wen>  at  first  under  the  management 
of  Joseph  llalevy,  now  professor  at  the  Sorbonne, 
I'aris.  and  were  afterwani  governed  by  directors 
Milt  there  by  the  Alliance  Israelite  t'niverselle. 
liesiiles  a  schiiiil  accomniodating  liiso  scholars,  there 
are  also  a  'I'alniiid  Toiaii  with  H.so  cjiildreii;  a 
private  .scliocil  iTil'eicl  Visraell  with  200  pupils;  a 
Jewish  Alliance  Sihool  with  470  girls;  a  .Jewish 
club,  a  small  hospital,  and  sevi'ral  Iienevohtil  and 
debating  scx^ielies.  Adrianople  has  liad  to  endure  its 
share  of  disjisle|-s:  a  lire  in  islii;  the  cholera  in  l^'tl"); 
and.  liiially,  the  calumny  of  ritual  murder  in  1H72. 


[The  Alliance  Israelite  also  maintains  at  Adria- 
nople a  school  for  boys  (founded  1867).  which  in 
isi)7  had  iiO'i  pupils.  A  theological  seminary  was 
founded  there  in  1X96  by  Mr.  Abraham  Danon  in 
conjunclion  with  the  Alliance,  but  was,  a  year  ater. 
transferred  to  Constantinople.  O.] 

Buii.KXiR.vDiv  :  Kninco.  Kxi^fii  >*urriTistinre  tit-i*  Ittrat'litrx  dc 
rUmiHie  0(((,iiifoi,pp.  3itt,  2n.M'arl.s.  IWIT;  lliilMiuiler Al- 
liance Israelite  UnivcfKellc,  1897,  series  11,  No.  Si,  p.  85. 

A.    D. 

ADRIANTJS,  MATTH.a:US  :  Hebraist  of  the 
si.MeeiJlh  (eiituiy.  lie  u as  a  .lew  of  Sjianish  de- 
scent, but  at  an  early  age  migrated  to  Gerniany, 
where  lie  embraced  Christianity.  Though  a  physi- 
cian by  professii>n.  he  achieved  eminence  mainly  as 
an  instructor  in  Hebrew.  Through  the  iutluence  of 
Heuchlin  and  Conrad  Pcllican.  the  latter  of  whom 
was  his  pupil,  he  secured  a  tutorship  ill  llu'  house 
of  Johann  Anierbach.  the  printer  of  Basel,  anil  be- 
came (he  instructor  of  Fabricius  Capito  at  Hruchsall. 
In  I.TIS  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Hebrew  at 
Heidelberg,  where,  among  others.  Johann  lireiiz  and 
Joannes (Ecolampadius  came  under  his  tuition.  On 
the  recommendation  of  Erasmus,  in  the  year  l.")17. 
he  was  given  a  professoreliip  in  the  newly  estab- 
lished Collegium  Trilingue  at  Louvain.  where  many 
hopes  were  centered  in  him.  These,  however,  were 
shattered  as  early  as  l.")iy.  when  Adriauus  publicly 
stated  in  one  of  his  lectures  that  Jerome  had  often 
bein  subject  to  human  errors.  This  assertion  of 
Jerome's' fallibility  cost  Adrianus  the  goodwill  of 
his  colleagues,  and  particularly  of  Latomus.  who 
siibse(|Uently  was  Luther's  antagonist.  Latomus 
attacked  Adrianus'  s|)eech  and  caused  his  depar- 
ture from  the  college.  Adrianus'  rash  frankness, 
in  fact,  combined  with  his  petulance  and  i|iiarrel- 
sonie  disposition,  precluded  his  lengthy  residence 
at  any  one  place.  In  1.521  he  was  expelled  from 
Wittenberg,  where,  upon  his  arrival,  he  had  been 
received  with  open  arms  by  Luther,  and  where  he 
had  instructed  in  Hebrew  a  number  of  noted  men. 
among  whom  was  Valentin  Trotzendorf.  Wlielher 
be  Willi  thence  to  Leipsic  or  Freiburg  is  iiiicerlain. 
as  are  also  the  jilace  and  date  of  his  death.  Among 
his  lilerary  productions  the  "  Introiluctio  in  Linguam 
llcbra'am"  and  his  translations  into  Hebrew  of  sev- 
eral Christian  prayers,  contained  in  his  "  Horn  pro 
Domino."  are  regarded  as  rarities.  But,  on  the 
whole.  Ills  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  noted 
Hebi-aists  of  his  day  rested  more  on  Ins  capacity 
as  an  instructor  than  on  his  writings. 

Uini.KiiouiMiv:  AUti.  DrutM-he  JJii^/rd/i/oV,  I.  124 ;  (iel(f*r, 
;<iw  Sluitiuiii  <l.  llihr.  Sjiraehe  in  Ihiilnchhiinl.  pp.  41-18. 
i:(4;  SleliituhnelcltT.  liil)lii>iirai>hbtcli>n  Hamlliucli.  \>.  2: 
mn,  Orieiitaliiiche  u.  Kxeuetinehc  Bihtiotlick.  vl.  IWI. 

H.  G.  E. 

ABRIEL:  The  Meholathite  to  whom  Merab 
(Saul's  daii!.'liler)  was  given  in  marriage  instead  of 
to  David  (I  Sam.  xviii.  19);  son  of  Barzillai  (II  Sam. 
xxi.  8).  As  to  the  meaning  i>f  the  name.  Adriel  ap 
pi'ars  to  b<'  an  Animaized  form  of  Azriel  ("God  is 
mv  Help";  IChron.  v.  24.  xxvii.  19:  Jer.  xxxvi.  26), 
with  whi<h  it  is  actually  idiMililied  by  the  Syriac 
version,  not  only  in  the"  pas.sage  I  Sam.  xviii.  10, 
where  Aramaisnis  might  be  expected,  but  also  in  H 
Sam.  xxi.  s.  J.   D.  P 

AD'ULA  OF  T'UNIS  :  A  Jiw  who.  to  avoid 
beiiiL'  baptizi  d.  cminiitted  suicide  in  the  house  of  llw 
catechumen  in  Home,  on  Mav  2,  1660,  at  the  moment 
he  was  about  to  undergo  the  rite. 

BliiLIoOBArnv:  VoKfUtfin  iiml  Iliiwer.  (Irwh.  d.  Jiiilrn  (n 
«<im.  II.  219;  -IHu. /<  i'.  Ni'.  autl,  MunUli,  ISiC. 


AduUam 
Adultery 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


816 


ADTJLLAM :  An  old  Canaanitish  capital  in 
western  Jiuluh  (Gen.  xxxviii.  1;  Josh.  xii.  15,  xv. 
35).  It  was  foititied  by  Uehoboain  {II  Chron.  xi. 
7).  ami  was  an  inliabitrd  city  till  the  end  of  Old 
Tcstanieni  times (.Miniii.  i.  1">":  Nell.  xi.  HO;  II  Maoc. 
xii.  38).  The  modern  Idcl-Miyeh  now  occupies  its 
site. 

The  famous  Cave  of  AduUam  was  a  resort  of 
David  when  an  outlaw  (I  Sam.  xxii.  1;  II  Sam. 
xxiii.  13).  Tradition  has  loealed  it  in  the  valley  of 
Kharaitim,  six  miles  southeast  of  Bethlehem.  How- 
ever, the  locality  mentioned  above  will  suit  the  early 


of  the  husband  than  tliat  of  the  wife,  modern  law 
has  ii^nored  the  distinction  between  the  two  erimes, 
and   technically   they   are  alike,     liut   the  ancient 
.lewish  law,  as  well  as  oilier  systems 
Woman's     nf  law  which  {jrew  out  of  a  imtriar- 
Bights        clial  state  of  society,  does  not  recoj;- 
Enforced.     nize   the  husband's  iiitidelily   lo  his 
marriajre  vows  as  a  crime,  and  it  was 
not  until  comparatively  recent  times  that  the  woman 
was  Icfially  entitled  to  enforei'  her  husband's  faith- 
fulness, and  was  given  the  ri'rht  lo  demand  a  bill  of 
divorce  for  his  sexual  immorality  (Isserles  on  "  Eben 


Site  of  the  a.vcient  citv  of  Adtlla-m. 

(By  permissioD  of  the  Palvatine  Ezploratioo  FuQd.) 


history  of  David  just  as  well,  especially  as  it  is  prob- 
able tliat  the  word  "'cave  "  rests  upon  a  false  reading 
of  the  original  and  should  be  replaced  by  "strong- 
hold." In  later  times  Judas  Maccabeus  visited  the 
city  of  Adullam  (II  Mace.  xii.  38). 

BiBLior.RAPnT:  Clermont-Ganneau,  PaJ.  KrpXor.  Fund, 
QuaH.  Statement,  1875,  p.  177:  Smith,  Historical  Genu- 
raplni  of  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  239  et  »c<j.;  Baedeker,  Pal.,  2d 
ed.,  p.  133. 

J.  F.  McC. 

AD'DXTERY  (riis:):  Sexual  intercourse  of  a 
married  woman  with  any  man  other  than  her  hus- 
band. The  crime  can  be  committed  only  by  and 
with  a  married  woman ;  for  the  unlawful  intercourse 
of  a  married  man  with  an  unmarried  woman  is  not 
technically  Adultery  in  the  Jewish  law.  Under  the 
Biblical  law,  the  detection  of  actual  sexual  inter- 
course was  necessarv  to  establish  the  crime  (F/CV. 
xviii.  20  [A.  V.  19] ;  Num.  v.  10.  13,  19) :  but  this  rule 
was  so  far  modified  by  the  Talmudie  law,  that  cir- 
cumstantial evidence  was  sufficient  to  justifv  legal 
procedure  if  the  wife  had  been  cautioned  by  her  hus- 
band against  intimate  association  with  the  suspected 
man  (Sotali,  i.  2).  When  the  Adultery  is  conmiitted 
with  a  married  woman  who  is  within  the  prohibited 
degrees  of  consanguinity  or  affinity,  the  crime  be- 
comes Incest.  Although  the  common  opinion  of 
mankind  is  more  inclined  to  condone  the  Adultery 


ha-'Ezer,"  §1.54,1).  The  sin  of  concubinage  is,  how- 
ever, already  severely  condeumed  in  Leviticus  Rab- 
bah,  XXV. 

Although  in  ancient  society  and  law  Adultery 
was  regarded  as  a  private  wrong  committed  against 
the  husband,  public  law  later  on  exercised  control 
of  its  investigation  and  punishment;  for  organized 
society  was  impossible  unless  it  punished  this  crime, 
which  sajis  the  very  root  of  the  social  life.  "Thou 
.«halt  not  commit  adultery  "  is  not  merely  a  command 
not  to  tamper  villi  the  domestic  affairs  of  another, 
but  a  warning  to  refrain  from  unsettling  the  founda- 
tions of  society. 

The  law,  therefore,  sought  to  guard  the  sacrcdness 
of  the  marriage  relation  by  moral  injunction  and  by 

legal  restraints.     In  patriarchal  times 

Sacredness  the  purity  of  marriage  was  pictured 

of  Marriag-e  as  jealously  guarded  (see  the  cases  of 

Relation.    Sarah  and  Rebekah ;  Gen.  xii.  18,  19, 

XX.  2-7,  xxvi.  10,  11).  The  Biblical 
and  Talmudical  idea!  of  marriage  had  a  strong  influ- 
ence in  controlling  those  who  were  susceptible  to 
purely  moral  influence  and  suasion.  "Therefore 
shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  his  mother  and  shall 
cleave  unto  his  wife,  and  they  shall  be  one  flesh" 
(Gen.  ii.  24).  The  woman  is  made  sacred  by  the  cere- 
mony of  l-irklnnhin,  aud  is  thereby  set  apart  for  her 
husband  alone  (Kid.    26).     Idolatry,  murder,  and 


217 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AduUam 
Adultery 


gillny  'anij/ot  (which  comprises  botlj  incest  and 
adulter)')  are  three  crimes  never  to  be  CDmmitted 
under  any  circumstances,  and  a  man  shouUl  sacri- 
fice liis  life  rather  than  commit  tliem  (t>anh.  74'/). 
This  was  tlie  decision  of  the  rahbis  at  the  meeting 
at  Lydda,  during  llie  Iladrianic  Hevolt  (see  Graet/, 
"  History  of  I  lie  Jews,"  ii.  4"22^ti4.)  Thus  law  and 
morality  went  hand  in  hand  to  prevent  the  commis- 
sion of  the  crime.  For  those,  however,  who  were 
deaf  to  warnings  of  law  and  reason,  the  punish- 
ment of  death  was  ordained.  ]5oth  the  guilty  wife 
and  her  paramour  were  put  to  death  (Deut.  xxii. 
23). 

Unlawful  intercourse  with  a  woman  betrothed  to 
a  man  was  adultery,  because  the  betrothed  woman 
was  deemed  as  inviolable  as  the  married  woman. 
The  punishment  for  this  crime  was  stoning  to  death 
at  the  place  of  public  execution  (Deut.  .\.\ii.  24). 
The  punishment  for  Adultery  according  to  the  Mish- 
nah  (Sanh.  .\i.  1)  was  strangulation;  the  rabbinical 
tlieory  being  that  wherever  the  death  penalty  was 
mentioned  in  the  IJible,  without  any  specific  state- 
ment of  the  manner  of  its  inlliction,  strangulation 
was  meant  (Sifra,  Kcdoshim.  4,  '.)). 

The  priest's  daughter  who  committed  Adultery 
was  burned  to  death,  according  to  the  rabbinical  in- 
terpretation of  the  text  in  I,ev.  .\.\i.  9  (Sanh.  (itii), 
and  her  paramour  was  strangled  (Maimonides,  "  Yad 
lia-Hazakah.  Issure  liiah,"  iii.  ii).  WUm  the  crime  is 
connnitted  with  a  bondmaid  betrothed  toaman,  it  is 
not  Adidtery  techiucally,  because  the  woman  is  not 
free,  and  the  death  penalty  is  not  inflicted,  but  as 
she  has  a  (|uasi-inarital  status,  she  anil  her  paramour 
are  scourged  ( I,cv.  .\ix.  20).  Ibn  Ezra  {nd  Itir. )  lakes 
the  view  that  this  case  refers  to  the  Hebrew  maiden 
who  has  been  sold  by  her  father  and  who  is  intended 
to  be  the  bride  of  her  master  or  of  his  son,  but  who  is 
not  yet  betrothed ;  for  the  bctrotlial  would  have  made 
her  free  ijm/  furto. 

Under  the  Talmudic  law  the  .severity  of  the  !Mos!UC 
co<le  was  in  many  instances  moditicd,  and  the  laws 
relating  to  Adultery  came  under  the  intluence  of  a 
milder  theory  of  the  relation  of  crime  and  punish- 
ment. Indeed,  the  rabbis  went  so 
Talmudic  far  as  to  declare  that  a  woman  could 
View.  not  be  convicted  of  Adultery  unless  it 
had  iH-en  atHrmatively  shown  that  she 
knew  the  law  relating  to  it — a  theory  that  res\ilted 
in  the  practical  impossibility  of  convicting  any  adul- 
teress. Noharm  wasdone  by  this  new  viiw,  because 
the  right  of  divorce  which  reniaineil  to  the  husband 
was  sullicicnt  to  free  him  from  the  woman,  who, 
although  guilty  of  the  crime,  was  not  punishable  by 
the  law.  Up(m  this  milil  view  followed  the  entire 
abolition  of  the  death  penalty,  in  the  year  40,  Ixfore 
the  destruction  of  the  Second  Temple  (Sanh.  4b(), 
when  the  Jewish  courts,  probably  under  pressure  of 
the  Roman  authorities,  relin(|uished  Iheirright  to  in- 
flict capital  punisluniiit.  Thireafter,  the  adullcrer 
Was  seourgi'd,  and  the  husband  of  the  adulteress  was 
not  allowed  to  condone  her  crime  (Sotah,  vi.  1),  but 
was  compelled  to  divorce  her,  and  she  lost  all  her 
properly  rights  under  her  marriage  contract  (Mai- 
monides, "Yad  ha  Hazakah,  Ishut,"  x.\iv.  C);  nor 
was  the  adulteress  pennitled  to  marry  her  panunour 
(8o(ah,v.  1);  and  if  she  married  him.  they  were  forced 
to  s<'paral<-. 

The  right  of  the  husband  to  divorce  his  wife  at 
his  i)leasure  was  a  sulllcienl  iirolection  for  him  in 
case  his  wife  was  guilly  of  the  crime  of  Adultery, 
oven  if  he  had  no  pnuvf  of  it.  but  merely  suspicion 
founded  on  eireumslantiid  facts.  If  the  wife  ha<l 
committed  unlawful  inlereourse  against  her  will,  or 
if  she  had  mistaken  the  adulterer  for  her  husband,  she 


was  not  guilty  of  Adulterj-,  because  she  did  not  act 
as  a  free  agent.      The  usual  punishmi-nts  are  not 

intlictetl  in  such  cases,  and  the  legal 
lExcep-  consequcncesof  Adultery  donot  follow 
tions.         (Ket.  oli).    Such  crime  is  no  cause  for 

divorce,  except  if  the  woman  be  the 
wife  of  a  priest.  The  priest  is  not  allowed  to  keep 
her  because  of  the  peculiar  sanctity  of  his  ollice, 
which  requires  the  liighest  degree  of  domestic  purity 
(Yeb.  5t)/)). 

As  "the  ej-c  of  the  adulterer  waiteth  for  twilight, 
saying.  No  eye  shall  see  me"  (Job,  xxiv.  15),  Adul- 
tery is  a  crime  usually  difficult  of  proof,  and  the 
Biblical  code  contained  provision  for  the  case  of  the 
woman  who  was  suspected  of  Adultery  by  her  hus- 
band. Moved  by  the  spirit  of  jealousy,  he  brought 
her  before  the  priest  in  the  sanctuary,  and  she  was 
there  obliged  to  undergo  the  severe  "ordeal  of  the 
bitter  waters."  A  full  accountof  the  detailsof  this 
ordeal  is  given  in  Num.  v.  11-31 ;  these  details  may 
al.so  be  found  ami)lilied  in  the  Mishnah.  The  sus- 
pected woman  was  taken  to  the  local  court  by  her 
husband  and  there  his  charge  was  made.  The  court 
assigned  two  doctors  of  the  law  to  escort  the  parties 
to  the  Great  Sanhiilrin  a!  JerusiUc'in.  The  purpose 
of  the  hearing  before  the  .Sanhedrin  was  to  evoke  a 
confession.  The  Sanhedrin  appealed  to  the  woman 
and  suggested  various  causes  that  nnght  have  in- 
duced her  to  go  astray,  and  finally  asked  her  to  con- 
fess. If  she  admitted  her  crime,  she  was  divorced 
from  her  husband  at  once  and  lost  her  property 
rights  under  her  Kkti  H.Mi.  But  if  she  denied  it,  she 
was  taken  to  the  Kast  (Jale  of  the  Temple,  in  front 
of  the  Nicanijr  Gale,  and  there  was  placed  in  charge 
of  a  priest,  who  |ierfornifd  the  ceremony  mentioned 

in  the  Book  of  Numbers.     He  rent  her 
Guilt         garment   so  that  her  breast  was  ex- 
Tested  by     ]ios(il,  and  loosened  her  hair:  she  was 
Ordeal.       draped  in  black ;   all  ornaments  were 

removed  from  her  i)erson,  and  a  rope 
was  tied  around  her  chest.  Thus  publicly  exposed 
(only  her  servants  being  ]U'evenled  from  seeing  her), 
the  jealousy-otTering  was  ])laeed  in  her  hands.  It 
was  a  humble  otlering  of  l>arley  meal,  without  oil  or 
incense  upon  it,  the  feed  of  beasts,  typifying  the 
meanness  of  the  crime  that  she  was  supposed  to  have 
committed.  The  priest  then  jilaced  sonic^  of  the  dust 
of  the  Tabernacle  in  an  earthen  vessel  full  of  water, 
and  charged  her  with  lh<'  solemn  oath  of  purgation 
(Num.  V.  l".(-22).  .\fter  this  the  prii'st  wrote  theoath 
on  parchment,  blolled  it  out  with  the  water,  which 
he  eaused  her  to  drink,  and  the  jealousy-otTering 
was  then  olTered  upon  the  altar  (Sojah,  i.  4-G;ii.  I-:}). 
If  the  woman  refused  to  submit  to  the  ordeal,  and 
there  was  circumstantial  evidenceof  her  criminality, 
she  was  obliged  to  separate  from  her  husband  (Sotah, 
i.  5).  Whatever  may  have  been  the  actual  signili- 
cance  of  this  ordeal  when  first  cstablishi'd.  wilhiii 
Talmudic  limes  il  had  merely  a  moral  m<aniiig.  It 
was  sim)ily  a  list  under  which  the  wonian,  if  guilty, 
was  likely  to sueeumb and  confess.  H.  .\kiba  s<iys: 
"(lidy  when  the  man  is  himself  free  from  guilt,  will 
the  waters  be  an  elTeclive  test  of  his  wife's  guilt  or 
innocence:  but  if  he  has  been  iruilly  of  illicit  inter- 
course, the  waters  will  have  noelTecl";  and  he  based 
his  opinion  on  a  text  in  Hosea.  iv.  14  (Sifre.  Naso. 
21:  Sntah,  47A1.  In  the  light  of  this  rabbiniial 
dictum,  the  saying  of  Jesus  in  I  he  ca.se  of  the  woman 
taken  in  .VdiilliTV  aci|uiresa  new  meaning.  To  those 
asking  for  her  punishment,  he  replied,  "He  that  is 
wilhout  sill  among  you,  let  him  llrst  cast  a  stone  at 
her"  (John.  viii.  7). 

This  mbbinieal  interpretation  of  the  law  relatinK 
to  the  ordeal  practically  aunidled  il,  and  it  st)ou  fell 


Adultery 
JEmilius 


THE  .JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


218 


into  disuse.      Durinj;  tlie  Roman  invasion  of  Pales- 
tine, and  the   liisl    iliiys  of  the  (dinnionwcaUh,  the 
Sanliidrin.     under    tlii'    jiresiik'nt  v    of 

Ordeal  Joiianan  ben  Zakkai.  abolished  tlic 
Annulled,  ordeal  entirely:  as  the  Mishuah  states, 
"  when  adulterers  becjune  numerous, 
tlie  'ordeal  of  the  bitter  waters'  ceased,  and  it  was 
R.  .lohanan  ben  Zakkai  who  abolished  it ;  as  it  is 
written  (llosea.  iv.  14),  '  1  will  not  ]iunish  your 
(laughters,  when  they  eomniit  whoredom,  nor  your 
spouses,  when  they  eommit  adultery  ;  for  themselves 
are  separated  with  whores,  and  they  saeritiee  with 
harlots'"  (Sotah.  ix,  9).  For  itapjiears  that  under 
the  Roman  rejiime.  immorality  sjiread  amoni;  the 
people,  the  judires  became  eorrujit,  the  sprinirs  of 
justice  were  defiled,  and  j;eneral  demoralization  re- 
sulted (Graet/,  "History  of  the  .Tews,"  ii.  -';!T,  2:i8). 
Probably  for  this  very  reason  CJu<'en  Helena  of  Adia- 
bene,  the  illustrious  and  niunitieent  proselyte  to. Juda- 
ism, favored  the  ordeal;  for  she  presented  a  golden 
tablet  to  the  Tiinple  with  the  chapter  from  the  Jjaw 
engraved  on  it,  to  be  used  for  the  rite  of  the  ordeal 
(To,sef.,Voma,  ii.  3;  Mishnali  Yoma,  iii.  10;  Gem.  Hi. 
376).  But  even  if  it  had  not  been  abolished,  the  rite 
would  have  simk  into  abeyance  with  the  fall  of  the 
Temple,  because,  according  to  the  Law,  the  cere- 
mony could  not  be  |ierformed  el.sewhere. 

In  the  patriarchal  days  the  Adidtery  of  the  wife 

rcfiuired   no   proof,  for  whenever  the  head  of  the 

family  suspected    her.   he   could  kill 

The  Law  in  her,   "Thus.Judah  ordered  his  daugli- 

Patriar-  ter-in-law,  Tamar,  to  be  burned  be- 
chal  Days,  cause  of  her  supposed  Adultery  (Gen. 
.\x.\viii.  24).  Her  crime  consisted  in 
unlawful  intcrcotirse  with  a  man  other  than  the 
brother  of  her  deceased  husband.  For  at  first  it  was 
the  custom,  and  afterward  it  became  the  law,  for 
the  widow  of  a  man  who  had  died  without  leaving 
issue,  to  marry  his  brother,  so  that  the  child  of  this 
union  might  be  of  the  blood  of  the  deceased  and 
bear  his  name  (Deut.  .\xv.  .5.  6;  sec  Levikati;).  In 
such  cases  the  widow  was  really  considered  the  be- 
trothed of  her  Ijrother-in-law,  and  her  intercourse 
with  another  than  himself  was  p\inishable  as  Adul 
tery.  When  the  |iunishnient  of  the  adulteress  and 
her  paramour  was  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
husband  and  assumed  by  the  civil  law,  this,  like 
every  other  crime,  had  to  be  proved  by  two  or  more 
witnesses,  before  a  conviction  and  sentence  coidd 
follow  (Deut.  xix.  1.5;  Maimonidcs.  "  Hilkot  Isliut." 
xxiv.  18). 

L'ndcr  the  theory  of  the  Talmudists,  which  still 
further  mitigated  the  severity  of  the  law,  the  woman 
could  not  be  convicted  of  Adulteiy  until  it  was 
proved  that  she  had  been  previously  cautioned,  in 
the  presence  of  two  witnesses,  not  to  have  any  com- 
munication with  the  suspected  man,  and  that,  in 
spite  of  such  caution,  she  had  met  him  secretly  un- 
der circumstances  that  would  make  the  commission 
of  the  crime  possible  (Mishnah  .Sotali.  i.  1,  2  ;  Gem. 
24).  This  caution  was  given  to  her  because  of  tlie 
general  tendency  of  the  rabbinical  law  toward  mercy, 
based  in  this  ca.se  on  a  technical  interpretation  of  the 
Biblical  text  (Num.  v.  13).  Practically,  it  worked 
an  acquittal  in  nearly  every  case.  If,  however,  the 
husband  was  not  satisfied  with  the  result,  the  right 
of  divorce  was  left  open  to  him,  although,  when 
divorced  under  such  circumstances,  the  wife  did  not 
lose  her  property  rights  under  the  ketubah.  If  ru- 
mors of  the  wife's  Adultery  werc^  circulated  during 
the  absence  of  the  husband',  the  court  had  the  riglit 
to  summon  and  caution  her  with  the  same  ell'ect  as 
though  it  had  been  done  by  her  husband  (Maimoni- 
dcs, "Hilkot  Sotah."  i.  11)." 


The  paramour  was  technically  the  adulterer  (nnef), 
and  under  the  Riblical  law  sutfered  death  together 
with  the  adidteress  (umfit).  His 
Status  of  crime  was  held  in  the  .greatest  nb- 
Adulterer,  horrcnce,  and  RjUia  and  l{jib  voiced 
the  genend  opinion  when  tln^y  said 
that  nothing  wotdd  excuse  the  wilfid  adulterer,  nor 
wouhl  all  his  virtues  save  him  from  Gehenna  (So- 
tah, ill).  Even  a  lustful  desin'  was  deemed  a  moral 
crime,  and  the  echo  of  "Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy 
neighbor's  wife"  rings  throughout  the  Talmud  and 
rabbinical  writings,  and  is  reechoed  in  the  New 
Testament  (Ex.  xx.  17;  Eben  ha-'E/.er.  21;  Matt, 
V.  27.  2S).  The  adulterer's  folly  is  condemned  and 
makes  him  liable  to  the  jealous  wrath  of  the  out- 
raged husband  (Prov,  vi,  32-34;  .Job,  xxxi,  9,  10). 
In  Talmudic  days,  long  after  the  abolition  of  the 
dealli  jienally,  theathdterer  was  punished  by  llagel- 
lation,  and  was  forliidilen  to  marry  the  faithless  wife 
after  she  had  been  divorced.  Even  the  mere  sus- 
picion of  th('  crime  was  sutlicient  to  i>revent  their 
marriage.  A  case,  however,  is  suggested  in  the  Tal- 
mud in  whi<h  this  restriction  .seems  to  have  been 
removed.  Here  the  woman  having  been  sus|iected 
of  Adulti'ry  wasdivorced,  and  liaving  remarried  was 
again  divorced,  and  then  married  the  man  who  had 
originally  been  susjiecled  of  havingcomniittecl  Adid- 
tery witii  her;  the  marriage  was  declared  lawful, 
because  it  seems  that  the  intervening  marriage  was 
considered  in  some  degree  a  refutation  of  that  sus- 
picion, and  acted  as  a  limitation  ujion  the  original 
interdict  (Veb.  24/-). 

Tlie  child  of  an  incestuous  or  adulterous  connec- 
tion was  known  as  a  .Ma.mzkii.  It  was  not  permitted 
(o  become  a  member  of  the  .Jewish  body  politic  (Deut. 
xxiii.  3  [A.  V.  2]),  and  could  not  intermarry  with  a 
.lew  or  .lewcss  (Kid.  iii.  12),  although  it  did  not  lose 
its  right  to  inherit  from  the  husband  of  its  mother, 
who,  while  not  the  legitimate  father,  was  for  this 
pur])o.sethe  putative  falher(Yeb.  ii.  .5;  JIaimonides, 
"Nahalut,"  i,  7). 

Bii!I,iO(;rapiiy:  .1.  Spklen.  V.rnr  llrhraira,  KUi!;  .1.  r.  Wnpren- 
seil  (translation  nf  tlieTalimidic  trt-atlse  .s'(t/<;/(.  wltlielatKirate 
aiinotiilloiis).  Altilcirt.  Ili74:  Micliaelis,  Mu.-'^n.-nlirs  h:)iiveclit. 
ITKi,  v.,  pa.s,vim  ;  SiUilsebiitz.  /)<i.--  .l/i/.-in.vc/i.  liulil.  |s,>!.  2<l 
I'd.,  il.  5:i>,57.5 ;  Z.  ¥mnkK\.  Ilrini^lliiiirn  ./,,«  Mn.ini.-^ch-Tal- 
itiudiKclie  Elu'm-ht,  IJre.'^lau.  lsr.(i;  M.  I)uschak,  liu.^  Mosa- 
Ud)-T(ilmuili.'<ihr  Klurirhl,  Vienna.  Isiii :  M.  Mlclziner.  ./iir- 
Uh  Liiiv  iif  .Miirriiiiir  •mil  ;>in);(  i  .  (  inciniiati.  ls.>4  ;  I).  W. 
Aniram. ./rii'Wi  Lmmf  Iiimrcr.  Is'.Hi;  lycupdlj  Low,  (iijtam- 
tndtf  Scln'i/Un,  iii,  13  c(  scq. 

D.  W.  A. 
ADinytMIM  ("The  Red"):  Steep  road  leading 
from  tlie  ]ilain  of  .Jericho  to  the  hilly  country  arouncl 
.JerusiUem.  It  was  a  part  of  the  boundary  between 
.Tudah  and  Benjamin  (.Tosh.  xv.  7,  xviii.  17).  The 
name  refers  to  the  redness  of  the  material  of  which 
the  road  is  made.     It  is  now  called  Tala'at  cd-Dam. 

BiBLiooRAPnv:  Buhl,  Geographic  dcs  AUcn  PaUistina,  pp. 
T.i.  9.S. 

/I       T>       T 

ADXJMMIM.     See  Corxs. 

ADVENT  OF  MESSIAH.     See  Messiah. 

ADVENTISTS:  A  Christian  sect.  Among  the 
chief  tenets  of  the  Adventist  faith  are:  (l)Thc  res- 
toration of  the  .Jews  to  the  Holy  Land  (see  Bengcl, 
"Gnomon  on  the  New  Testament"),  and  their  con- 
version, based  on  Rom,  xi.  2."),  2(5  (liitsehl,  "Gesch. 
des  Pietisnius. "  i.  .')6.')-.')K4).  Hence  the  interest 
shown  by  the  Advcntists  in  the  Zionist  movement, 
though  many  believe  that  the  return  will  not  take 
place  till  after  the  Resurrection,  basin.g  their  views 
on  the  passage  of  Ezekiel.  "Behold,  ()  my  people, 
I  will  open  your  graves,  and  cause  you  to  come  up  out 
of  your  graves,  and  bring  you  into  the  land  of  Israel " 


219 


THE   JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Adultery 
.S^zuillus 


(xxxvii.  13).  (2)  Literal  interpretation  of  the  whole 
Bible,  including  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Mosaic 
law. 

The  notion  of  waiting  for  the  Second  Advent  of 
Jesus,  calfulatcd  to  take  place  duiinjr  the  present 
generation,  originated  in  England  (E.  Irving), 
spread  over  Ireland  (A.  Darliv)  and  (icrniany  (I. 
A.  liengel),  and  became  especially  popvdar  iu  New 
England  under  the  inlhience  of  W.  .Miller  of  Pilts- 
tield.  Mass.,  the  prophet  wlio  predicted  tlie  coming  of 
the  .M<-ssiah  in  tlie  year  Vii'i.  basing  his  calculation 
principally  on  the  "seventy  weeks"  of  Daniel.  A 
<livision  oi  the  AdventistsaccentuatedtheSabbathof 
Creation,  and  tlie  consequence  was  the  formation 
of  tlie  SevkxtuD.w  Adventists.  Some  insisted 
also  on  abstinence  from  swine's  flesh,  in  accordance 
with  the  Mosaic  law. 

BIBI.IOGRAPIIT :  Carroll,  Religiinig  ForffS  of  the  United 
Stalm.  New  York.  IHiH;  Wlilte.  Sketehen  of  the  Life  of 
M'illiiim  Miller,  Itattlo  Creek,  Mli-hlmin.  IsTit;  LoughborouBh, 
i?uf  and  l*rnijrc»tt  of  SeventU-Uaii  iia])tiitts.  Battle  Creek. 

MicUlKsin,  IHUl. 

K. 

^GIDITTS  OF  VITERBO  or  iEGIDIUS  AN- 
TONIUS  CANISIUS):  Cardin.il  and  Cliristian 
<'alialist;  boiii  in  1 ITO  at  the  N'illa  Canapina.  in  the 
diocese  of  Viterbo.  of  rich  and  noble  ]iarents.  After 
a  course  of  studies  witli  the  .Vugusliniansat  Viterbo. 
he  was  made  doctor  of  theology,  and  in  l-jOS  became 
general  of  his  order.  He  died  November  12,  l.'i3"3.  In 
Jewish  history  the  name  of  /Egidius  (or  Egidio)  is 
coupled  tirst  with  the  grammarian  Elias  Levita. 
who  instructed  him  iu  Hebrew.  Wlii'n  the  turmoil 
of  war  drove  Levila  from  Pailua  In  Hume,  he  was 
welcomed  at  the  house  of  .Egidius,  where,  with  his 
family,  he  lived  for  more  tlian  ten  years,  all  his  wants 
being  supplied.  It  was  there  that  Levita's  career 
as  the  foremost  tutor  of  Christian  notables  in  He- 
brew lore  commenced.  The  tirst  edition  of  Levita's 
"Hahur"  (Home.  l-'dS)  is  dedicated  to  /Egidius.  In 
return  for  liis  Hi'brew  inslruction  -Egidius  quite 
willingly  introduced  Levila  into  the  profane  branches 
<if  learning  and  the  (; reek  language,  thus  enabling 
the  latter  somewhat  to  ulili/.e  (Jri'i'k  in  his  Hebrew 
lexicographic  labors — a  debt  freely  acknowledged 
by  Levita. who.  in  \'t'i\,  didicatedliis" Concordance" 
to  the  cardinal.  It  must  be  noted,  however,  that 
/Egidius' anxiety  to  master  the  sacred  tongue  sprang 
neither  from  philological  inclinatimi  nor  from  a  de 
sire  to  attain  a  better  mellaid  of  liiblical  e.\egesis: 
his  main  molivc  was  thus  to  be  eiiabli'd  to  penetrate 
Ibi'  mysteries  of  the  Cabala.  Asacabalist.  .Egidius 
belongi'il  to  the  interesting  group  (jf  sixleenlh-cen- 
tury  Christians,  among  whom  l{enchliii  and  Pico 
della  Mimndola  also  were  prominent,  who  believed 
that  Jewish  mysticism,  and  parlicularly  the  Zohar. 
contained  inconlrovertil)h'  testimony  to  the  truth  of 
the  Cliristian  relii;ion  (lonipare  Caiiai.ists.  Ciiuis 
TIAN).  No  wonder,  then,  that  in  the  eonrs<>  of 
l{<-uchlin's  conllici  with  the  obscurantists  (l.")OT-'.Jl). 
in  which  the  preservation  of  the  Jewish  linnks  was 
at  i.ssue.  the  <anlinal  wrote  (I.'ill!)  to  his  counigeous 
and  enlightened  friend:  "While  we  labor  on  thy 
behalf,  we  deliml  not  thee,  but  the  law,  not  the 
Talmud,  but  the  Church."  .Egidius  also  engaged 
another  Jewish  scholar.  IJarucli  di  Henevenio,  ici 
translate  for  him  the  Znhar  (the  inysli<-  Hook  of 
Splendor).  The  scholar  last  nanieil  may  also  have 
been  partly  rcspiinsibic  for  the  numerous  cabalistic 
Iranslalions  ami  Irealises  which  appiiired  uriilcr  the 
name  of  .i'.gidius.  The  cardinal  appears  to  have 
been  a  zealous  cDlleclor  of  llelirew  manuscripts,  of 
which  many  are  still  to  be  seen  at  the  Munich  Li- 
brary, bearing  both  faint  tnici'sof  his  signature  and 


brief  Latin  annotations.  In  the  Angelica  at  Rome 
an  exceedingly  valuable  old  Bible  manuscript  is  ex- 
tant, which  was  given  by  Leo  X.  to  .l^'gidius.  The 
British  JIuseum  contains  a  copy  of  Makiri  and  the 
Midrash  on  the  minor  Prophets,  written  for  the  cardi- 
nal at  Tivoli,  in  the  year  l.")14.  by  Johanan  b.  .Jacob 
Sarkuse.  The  study  of  .Jewish  literature  led  the 
cardinal  to  a  friemily  interest  in  the  Jews  them- 
selves, which  he  manifested  botli  in  his  energetic 
cncouragenK'nt  of  Heuchlin  in  the  struggle  referred 
to  above  and  in  a  vain  attempt  which  lie  made  in 
the  year  l,");jl,  in  conjunction  with  the  cardinal 
Geronimo  de  (iliinucci,  to  prevent  tlie  issue  of  the 
papal  edict  aulliori/ing  the  introduction  of  the  In- 
quisition against  the  Maranos. 

The  writings  commonly  attributed  to  .Egidius 
are  ntimerous.  Most  of  them  are  to  he  found  in 
manuscript  form  in  the  Bibliotheiiuc  Natiouale, 
Paris,  but  their  authenticity  is  still  to  be  estab- 
lished. Aside  from  minor  works  on  the  Hebrew 
language,  the  majority  by  far  arc  of  a  cabalistic 
nature.  There  is  scarcely  a  classic  of  Jewish  medi- 
eval mysticism  that  he  has  not  translated,  annotated, 
or  coinmeuted  upon.  Among  these  works  may  be 
mentioned  the  Zohar  (Splendor):  "Giiinat  Egoz'' 
(Nut-Garden);  "Sefer  Raziel"  (Book  of  Raziel); 
"Ma'areket  ha-Elohut"  (System  of  Theology): 
"  'Eser  Sefirot  "  (Ten  Sefirot). 

BIBLIOCRAPIIY:  Michi'r.Ockhrlen-Lrxikon.  supplement,  eii. 
Adeluntr,  I.  ools.  'Sii  <(  «■<(.;  Geiii'er,  Dait  Sludium  il. 
Ilelir.  Sinaelie  in  Dcutnehland.  p.  .'iti;  (iriilz,  llefcti.  d.  Ju- 
tlcn.  3d  ed,.  Ix,  iKi,  \M.  214,  ■X6;  Peril's,  neilrilyc  zur  (liscli. 
d.  llehr.  u.  Arnmdisilun  Studieu,  pp.  17(l,2(»if(  wi/.,  Munich. 
1S84;  Kraus,  ( IrieeliiKche  u.  Lateini.irhi-  Lilinirrirter.U'.m: 
Stelnschnelder,  I'liriKllirlie  Hiliraixlrn.  In  Xeit.  f.  Helir. 
DihI.  I.  Il:i;  Idem,  Oil.  lliidl.  col  2140;  |<leni.  Cat.  Monicli. 
pp.  it:!.  ITiI;  liulier.  Ydlh.  Mucliiri,  lulroductlon. 

H.  G.  E. 

.a;LIA  CAPITOLINA.     See  Jerisalkm. 

JEMILIXJS,  PAULUS  (called  also  da  Gin, 
('...  Grynseus)  :  Hebrew  bibliographer.  |)ublishcr. 
an<l  teacher;  born  at  Rodlsee.  Germimy,  i)robably  iu 
the  lirst  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century  ;  embRiccd 
Christianity  in  Home;  died  l.")?.").  He  was  employed 
in  copying  Hebn'W  uianuscripts,  and  fortius  purpose 
visited  the  lilirariis  of  Paris,  Jjnivain.  and  Home. 
In  l.')44  heedited  and  printed  at  .Vng.sburga  Jud.eo- 
Gcrnian  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Haf- 
taidt,  dedic:iting  il  to  Widmannstadl, custodian  of  the 
Hebrew  diparlmcnl  of  the  Jlunich  Libniiy.  GrUn- 
baum  ("JlUlisch  Deutsche  Chrcslomalhie,"  p,  14) 
thinks  that  .Emilius  copied  from  the  Cremona  edi- 
tion of  l.'j4(l.  The  translation  is.on  the  whole,  the  same 
which  is  used  at  the  present  time  (1901)  in  Poland. 
Perles  supjioses  that  -Emilius.  together  with  Isjiac 
of  (ihnzbnrg.  was  the  editor  of  the  Jnihvo-Gerinan 
"  Sefer  liaMusar"  (Book  of  Ethics),  published  at  Isny 
inl.'ilJ.  In  I.">IT  .Emilius  wasappoinud  professor  of 
Hebrew  al  Ingnlstadt ;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
published  an  ami  Jewish  paniphlel.  In  l.">t>'.2  heed- 
ited a  Juiheo  (ierman  Iranslalion  (in  German  chanic- 
lei-s)  of  the  Bonks  of  Samuel,  without,  however, 
making  know  n  that  it  was  a  copy  of  a  similar  trans- 
lation—  though  ill  Helirew  lettCrs  —  published  in 
.\ugsburg.  l.">4:i.  by  Hayyini  Si'hwarz.  In  l.">74  he 
was  engaged  for  forly-si.v  weeks  at  the  Munich  Li- 
brary in  niakiiu:  and  revising  the  catalogue  of  He- 
brew manuscripts  and  bonks.  Thus  Paidus  .Emilius 
was  the  tirst  Jew  isli  bibliographer. 

Iliiii.Kiint.M'llv  :  Sleliiwlinelder,  Silziiniii'lietieMf  iter  Brt|/r(- 
Ht'hi'ii  Ahodi  nlie  iler  M'iiwi  nsehnflen,  I'htliMojthtM-h-Pliiht' 
toifiHehe  I'ltiAH,,  11.,  IST.S;  (inlnlMiiim.  J1idi.srh'  lteut!*che 
l'lire:<lonuilhit',  pp,  14  tt  mii.i  I'erles,  In  M'tnalsKrhrift^ 
ISTil.  lip.  :>«;>«:  Idem.  Urilrflur  Jiir  (leivh.  drr  lit- 
hrdlfrhen  tniit  Animitifichen  Studieu,  pp.  I5.J,  ltl,\  ITtX 
Munleh.  ISt^, 

-M,  B. 


^shma 
^sop 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


220 


iESHMA  (ASMODEUS,  ASHMEDAI) :    In 

the  Miizdiiiii  nliixion  the  cliicf  of  the  dti'vas,  or  (le- 
mons. Though  tlie  oldest  sections  of  the  AvESTA — 
tlie  Gathiis — present  /Eslinin  mniuly  as  an  abstract 
conception,  still,  in  passages  here  and  there,  he  is 
represented  in  tlie  guise  of  a  personal  being  ninging 
among  the  evil  spirits  that  obey  Angromainyusli. 
In  the  later  portions  of  the  Avesta  llie  personal 
character  connoted  by  the  name  admits  of  no  doubt. 
yEshma  is  an  enemy  of  Snioseha,  )ne  of  the  good 
angels  that  serve  Ahurama/.da.  «Esh- 
His  Func-  ma's  design  is  directed  preeminently 
tion.  toward   imbuing   the   hearts  of   men 

with  anger  and  revenge.  Indeed,  all 
the  evil  in  the  world  is  occasioned  through  his 
agency;  he  fortifies  men  in  the  pursuit  of  evil  and 
seeks  to  keep  them  from  entering  the  path  of  right 
eousness. 

Whether  ^shma,  like  the  Jewish  Asmodeus  in 
the  Book  of  Tobit,  or  the  Asiimed.m  of  the  Talmud, 
was,  as  a  demon,  specially  characterized  by  carnal 
desire  can  not  be  determined.  Against  such  a  sup- 
]Kisition  the  fact  may  be  adduced  that  the  Mazdian 
religion  embruci's  another  demon,  Azi,  who,  as  ex- 
pressly staled,  is  the  demon  of  carnal  desire.  It  is. 
however,  conceivable  that  jEsluna  may  have  had 
the  .same  part  assigned  to  him  in  the  popular  beliefs 
of  the  Persians,  although  the  literary  .sources  con- 
lain  nothing  to  support  the  conjecture.  The  ety- 
mology of  the  word  "^Eshnia"  all'ords  no  jiossibility 
of  arriving  at  any  such  conclusion. 
Etymology  It  is  true  that  "  »Eshma"  is  connected 
of  with  the   verb  inh,  denoting  "to  de- 

the  Word,  sire,"  "to  lust  after'';  but  the  abstract 
sense,  "anger,"  that  lies  in  the  word 
"^Eshma"  in  the  Gathas,  would  seem  to  point  to 
the  necessity  of  referring  the  word  to  the  same  verb 
"  ish  "  in  its  sense  of  "  to  throw,"  "  to  put  in  motion  " 
(compare  Justi's  note  to  Baudissin's  article  "As- 
modi,"  in  Ilauck's  "Realcucyklopildie  "). 

Though  "  ^Eshma  "  does  not  occur  in  the  Avesta  in 
conjunction  with  "da'va,"it  is  probable  that  a  fuller 
form,  such  as  "  .Eshmo-da'us,"  has  existed,  .since  it  is 
paralleled  by  the  later  Pahlavi-form  "Khashm-dev  " 
("  Khashm  dev  "=  "  xEshma  dev  "),  written  with  the 
Aramaic  "sheda,"but  pronounced  "dev."  Corre- 
sponding to  this  form  are  Wniioi^am^  (Asmodeus)  of 
the  Bookof  Tobit,  and  'NnOfX  in  the  Talmud  :  for  the 
last-named  word  is  not  to  be  derived  from  "shemad." 
In  fine,  Asmodeus  (Ashmedai)  embodies  an  expres- 
sion of  the  iuHuence  that  the  Persian  religion  or  Per- 
sian popular  Ijeliefs  have  exercised  on  the  Jewish 
— an  inttuence  that  shows  itself  very  prominently  in 
the  domain  of  demonology.  Thus  'Aa/ia,  'Dt'X.  cor- 
responds to  "^Eshma,"  and  the  ending  rfaiof,  <XT,  to 
"dsBva,"  "dev." 

Apart  from  this  etj'mological  coincidence — which, 
as  is  now  generally  agreed,  has  its  basis  in  the  fact 
that  the  Jewish  word  is  borrowed  from  the  Persian 
— Asmodeus  of  the  Book  of  Tobit  and  Ashmedai  in 
the  Talmud  bear  no  very  great  similarity  to  their 
Persian  parallel,  as  Kohut,  for  instance,  has  sought  to 
render  plausible.  All  three  are  evil. 
Asmodeus  harmf\il  demons,  though  in  different 
in  the  Book  degrees;  the  worst  of  the  three  being 
of  undoubtedly  the  Persian  .Eshma.   The 

Tobit.  Asmodeus  of  the  Book  of  Tobit  is  at- 
tracted by  Sarah,  Haguel's  daughter, 
and  is  not  willing  to  let  any  luisband  possess  her 
(Tol)it.  vi.  13);  hence  he  slays  seven  successive  hus- 
Iiands  on  their  wedding-nights.  When  the  young 
Tobias  is  about  to  marry  her,  Asmodeus  purposes 
the  sjime  fate  for  him ;  but  Tobias  is  enabled,  through 
the  counsels  of  his  attendant  angel  Raphael,  to  ren- 


der liiin  innocuous.  By  placing  a  fish's  heart  and 
liver  on  red-hot  cinders,  'Tobias  ]>roduces  a  smoky 
vapor  which  causes  the  demon  to  lice  to  Egypt, 
whcr<'  Rai>hael  binds  him  (viii.  2,  ;S),  Asmodeus 
would  thus  seem  to  be  a  demon  characterized  by 
carnal  desire;  but  he  is  also  described  as  an  evil 
spirit  in  genenil :  'AG/iofialo^  to  rrox't/pov  ()at^6viov  or 
To  i)iufi6vtnv  —tiviif}M\  and  ~vtvfia  iiKtidapTov  (iii.  8,  17; 
vi.  13;  viii.  3).  It  is  possible,  moreover,  that  the 
statement  (vi.  14),  "Asmodeus  loved  Sarah,"  implies 
that  he  was  attracted  not  by  women  in  genend,  but 
by  Sarah  only. 

This  general  designation  of  an  evil  spirit  tallies 
with  the  ileseripti(m  of  yEshma  in  the  Bundchesh 
(xxviii.  1.5  ct  seq.):  "Seven  powers  are 
Special  given  .Eshm  that  he  may  utterly  de- 
Office  of  stroy  the  creatures  therewith:  with 
.ffishma.  those  seven  powers  he  will  destroy 
seven  of  the  Kayan  heroes  in  his  own 
time;  but  one  will  remain.  There  where  Mitokht 
["Falsehood  "J  arrives,  Arask  ["Malice"]  becomes 
welcome;  [and  there  where  Arask  is  welcome] 
.Eshm  lays  a  fmmdation;  ami  there  where /Eshm 
has  a  foiuidation  many  creatures  perish,  and  he  causes 
much  noM-Iranianism.  ..Eshm  mostly  contrives  all 
evil  for  the  creatures  of  .Vuhramazd,  and  the  evil 
deeds  of  those  Kayan  heroes  have  been  more  com- 
plete through  /Eshm,  as  it  says  that  ^Eshm.  the  im- 
petuous as.sailant,  causes  them  most"  (E.W.  West, 
"Sacred  Booksof  the  East, "by  F.  :MaxMiiller,v.  108). 
Less  harmful  incharaetertlian  .Kshnia  an<l  -Asmo- 
deus is  the  figure  of  Aslimedai  in  the  Talmuil:  he 
appears  there  re)>eatedly  in  the  light  of  a  good- 
natured  and  humorous  fellow.  But  bcsiiles  that, 
there  is  one  feature  in  which  he  parallels  .Vsmodens, 
inasmuch  as  his  desires  turn  upon  Solomon's  wives 
and  Bath-sheba.  Thu.s,  while  Asmodeus  resembles 
^Eshma-dicva  with  tolerable^  closeness,  Ashmedai, 
on  the  contrary,  woidd  .seem  to  come  into  direct 
comparison  with  a  (Jreek  satyr  rather  than  with  an 
evil  demon.  The  historieal  element,  however,  that 
identifies  him  with  Asmodi'Us  on  the  one  hand,  and 
both  with  their  Persian  parallels  on  the  other,  is  by 
no  means  to  l)e  ignored.  Besides,  if  the  .Jews  have 
merely  borrowed  the  name  from  the  ^Eshma-da'vaof 
Par.seeism,  and  have  developed,  independently,  the 
idea  of  a  demon  corresponding  to  the  name,  it  merely 
shows  that  the  .lews  shaped  on  lines  of  their  own  the 
materials  they  had  borrowed  from  their  neighbors. 

However,  it  is  not  impossible  that  /Eshma-cheva, 
too,  may  have  had  other  (jualities  analogous,  point 
for  point,  to  those  of  Asmodeus  and 
Influence  .\shmedai.  It  is  probable  that  the  be- 
of  Persian  lief  in  the  existence  of  a  number  of 
Beliefs  on  larnally  minded  and  lascivious  spir- 
Judaism.  its,  which  was  prevalent  among  the 
Parsees  as  among  other  peoples  with 
whom  the  people  of  Israel  came  in  contact,  exercised 
an  infiuence  not  merely  on  the  Hebrew  conceptions 
of  an  .Vsmodens  or  .Vshmeclai,  but  also  on  Jewish 
ideas  in  general  with  regard  to  the  qualities  of  evil 
spirits.  In  later  Judaism  there  may  be  observed  an 
extensive  evolution  of  the  conceptions  that  are  jires- 
ent  by  intimation  in  the  mythological  n'miniseence 
found  in  Gen.  vi.  1  et  xii/.  This  evolution  would 
seem,  in  any  case,  to  have  been  advanced  by  the 
views  spread  by  foreign  religions.  Xot  the  least 
was  the  influence  of  Parseeism.  To  what  extent 
this  influence  made  it.self  felt  among  the  Jews  of 
later  times,  it  is  of  course  impossible  to  determine 
from  the  more  presence  of  Asmodeus  in  the  Book 
of  Tobit  or  of  Ashmedai  in  the  Talmud.  But  this 
occurrence  indicates  one  of  the  channels  through 
which  the  influence  of  foreign  religions  found  its 


221 


THE  JEWISH   EN^CYCLOPEDIA 


.^shzna 
.Ssop 


way  among  tlic  Jews.  Just  as  several  of  the  apoc- 
alyptic works  seem  to  show  that  the  ideas  of  the 
Persian  religion  have  hail  a  bearing  >ipou  Jewish 
theological  modes  of  Ihoiighl.  so  do  the  conceptions 
of  the  Book  of  Tobit  with  regard  to  Asmodens.  and 
the  depiclion  of  Ashmedai  in  tlie  Talmud,  show 
that  the  jiopular  beliefs  of  tlie  Persians  have  like- 
wise had  a  bearing,  presumably  in  the  lirst  instance, 
on  popular  lieliefs,  and  later,  through  them,  on 
their  theological  modes  of  llKJUght. 

RiRi.iocR.vpHY  :  BaudLs.'iln.  vl.'*»Hn'/f.  in  Huuck's  lieakuciihlii- 
piidu-  /tlr  ThcnlinfU-  itnd  Kirthi\  11.  U2;  Slave.  EiHtluns  iU-tt 
I'dfuistnus  atif  (Um  JmUntitm^  isys;  Kubiu.  Pleum  Ariu-h, 
1.  ai.s. 

E.  St. 

^SOP'S   FABLES    AMONG    THE    JEWS: 

Keceul  research  lias  slinwii  an  intimate  nlulioii  be- 
tween the  fables  associated  with  the  name  of  ^Esop 
and  the  jatakas.  or  birth-stories  of  the  Buddha. 
Sakyamuin  is  represented  in  the  jatakas  as  record- 
ing the  varied  e.\l)erienees  of  his  previous  c.vistences, 
wiien  he  was  in  the  form  of  birds,  of  beasts,  and 
even  of  trees.  Such  legends  as  these  may  very  well 
be  tlie  natural  sources  of  tales  like  those  fif  .-Esop, 
which  represent  beasts  asacling  wilh  the  sentiments 
and  thoughts  of  human  beings.  The  jatakas  are 
now  e.\taut  in   Pali  versions,  derived  from  t'eylon. 

It  is  surmised  that  a  nunilier  of  Ihem 

India  the     were  introduced  into  the  Greek-speak- 

Probable      iiig  world  by  a  Cingalese  embassy  that 

Source.       visitc-d  Home  about  the  year  .50.  as  the 

fables  that  can  be  traced  in  classical 
literature  later  than  that  dale  resemble  the  Indian 
fables  much  more  closely  than  the  earlier  faljles  of 
^sop,  as  represented  by  Pli.'cdrus.  It  is  jirobable 
that  these  later  Indian  fables  were  connected  by  the 
Greeks  with  the  name  of  a  Libyan,  called  Kybises: 
Babrius,  a  writer  of  fables  in  the  third  century, 
couples  him  with  .Esop.  Thus,  in  the  lirst  cen- 
tury, there  were  two  sets  of  fables — one  associated 
with  the  name  of  .Esop.  and  the  other  with  that 
of  Kybises — while  in  the  second  centiirj'  these  two 
sets  wcR'  iiii'luded  in  oik-  compilation,  running  to 
three  hundred  fables,  by  a  rhetor  named  Xicostra- 
tus.  In  the  third  century  these  fables  were  turned 
into  Greek  verse  by  Babrius. 

It  would  appear,  from  references  in  the  Talnnnl, 
that  the  Talmudic  sages  knew  of  the  fables,  both  in 
their  .separate  and   in   their  collected   forms.     It  is 

said  of  .lohanan  ben  Zakkai  (about 
Known  to  the  year  HO),  •■  He  did  not  leave  out  of 
Tannaim.     I lu' circle  of  his  studies the 

s])ee<'h  of  angels,  of  demons,  and  of 
trees,  the  Mishlot  Sliiialini  and  the  Misldot  Kobsiin  " 
(Suk.  28</).  The  authorof  this  article  has  suggested 
that,  asthe  phrase  "  .Mishlot  Ivobsini"  has  no  meaning 
except  '■  fablesof  the  washermen."  tlu'  word  /uiIikiiii  * 
ia  a  misreading  for  KhIisik  iD'D313  for  D'D313);  and 
intcr])rels  the  passag(>  as  staling  that  Johaiian  was 
nciiuainled  with  .Esop's  Fables  and  w  itli  the  Fables 
of  Kyliises.  the  latter  of  which  had  just  been  in- 
troduced from  Ceylon  to  the  (ireik  speaking  world. 
In  the  iie.\t  century  it  is  slated  (Sanli.  3H/;)  that  "  15. 
;\Iiir  had  three  hundred  Fo.\  Fables."  which  stale 
inent  is  inlerprcted  as  a  reference  to  the  collection  of 
Nicostnttus.  The  latest  reference  to  fables  in  the 
Talmud  is  in  the  Mislinali  (.S)(ah.  ix.  I.")!.  "Willi  the 
death  of  U.  Meir|atinut  1!MI|  fabulisls  ceased  to  be." 
The  imporlaiici'  of  tbi'  Talmudic  references  in  the 
crilical  Idslory  of  Iju'  .Esopic  fables  is  the  evidence 
it  alTords  of  a  separate  colleciion  uridiT  the  name  of 
Kybises. 

•  Fer  II  <lilIvn>Dt  iDterprptatlon  of  tlio  wnril,  wh-  Faiilk. 


That  a  numlxT  of  the  rabbis  of  the  Talmud  were 
acquainted  with  fables  similar  to  those  of  Greece 
and  India  is  evidenced  by  the  list  of  Talmudic 
fables  collected  by  Dr.  Back  (in  "  Monatsschrift," 
IsTli-Sli).  The  following  list  will  indicate  the  num- 
ber of  Talmudic  fables  (or  sjtyings  implying  fables) 
that  are  dependent  on  the  Indian  and  classical  col- 
lections respectively : 


Title. 

Talmudic 

Indian 

Classical 

Keference. 

Reference. 

Reference. 

(Ixen     (  Asses  I 

F.slh.  It.  to  111.  1. 

Jatoka  30. 

Avian  38. 

and  Pigs. 

Halm  113. 
Pliii'dnis  v.  4. 

I'rnuil  Jai-kiil. 

B.  K.  117/1. 

VIrocana  Jata- 

Halm  41. 

ka ;      Jalaka 
■Mi. 
Mahabharata 

PbaM.l.  11. 

flak  ami  RikmI. 

Ta'anlt,  2n/j. 

Avian  19. 

xll.  41I)S. 

Babrius  64. 

Camel  and 

Sanh.  lUUfl. 

Mabalih.  xll. 

Halm  1S4. 

Horns. 

417.5. 

Avian  vll.  8. 

Pantehatantra 

Babr.  282. 

1.302. 

Ass's  Heart. 

Valk.  F.x.  8  1S2. 

Pant.  Iv.  11. 

Babr.  95. 

Two  Pots. 

Kslli.K.  on  111.0 

Pant.  11.  13.  14. 

Avian  ix.  11. 

liiikcs  liabb. 

Babr.  184. 

Uliiiiii-nlese  530 

I.lcin  (Wi)lt)aiiil 

(ifii.  U.  Ixlv. 

Javasakuna  Ja- 

PhiBd.  1.  8. 

Crane. 

laka. 

Babr.  94. 

Lean  Fnx. 

F.oel.  R.  to  V.  14 

Benfey  8  lit. 

Babr.  8Cc. 

.secirplim    (Hat) 

Ned.  41(1. 

Anvan  iSuhalll 

PhaKi.     App. 

and  Frog. 

133. 

Bunnaun, 
li. 
Babr.  182. 

Halm  29S. 

Man  and  WcHid. 

Ta'anlt,  7<i. 

Raju,  Ind.  Fab. 

Pha*d.     App. 

lien.  R.  V. 

p.  47. 

Burin.  5. 
Halm  12!). 
Balir.  2. 

Man   and    Two 

B.  S.  filJ''. 

Pant.  1.  602;  11. 

Pha>d.  11.  2. 

Wives. 

452. 
Avadanas.     11. 
138. 

Halm  M. 

Fox  and  Lion. 

R.  Melr.  In  Ra- 

Pant.  111.  14. 

Avian  24. 

shl  on  Sanli 

I'hied.     App. 
Biirm.  ;iO. 

:tUii. 

Balir.  liH. 

Plato.    Alc.b. 

1.  ■*». 

Bird  and  Waves. 

Esth.n.  tolli.fi 

Kaka     Jataka 

14li. 

Strife  of    Meni- 

Deut.  R.  V. 

Pant.  11.  300. 

LIvy  1.  30. 

liers. 

Tongue  and 

Mldr.  Teh.  Ps. 

Upanlshads. 

Meniliers. 

xxxlx.  1. 

Strong,  strong- 

(ien.lt.xxxvlii: 

Pant.  111.  12. 

er,  sinmgest. 

B.  B.  1(1(1. 

Fox  and  Fishes. 

Her.  lit).. 

Baka  Jataka. 

Keanlmated 

Lev.  R.  xxli. 

Pant.  v.  4. 

Lion. 

SanJIvaka  JaU- 
ka. 

Man's  'I'ears. 

MUlr.  Eeol.  1.  2 : 
Tan..  l>e^u- 
de  ;). 

Yalk.  Deut.  i«i. 

Babr.  74. 

Stiepliprd      and 

Halm  374. 

Young  Wolf. 

Babr.  Ixll. 

Crow  (SeriMMiti 

'Ab.Zarah.;!<H. 

Avian  XX. 

and  I'lt4-tier. 

Fir  and   Bram- 
ble. 

Ex.  R.  »7'.. 

Avian  XV. 

Daw     In     Pen- 

Esth.  R.  S.-V.. 

PhftHl.  1.  3. 

eix-k's   Featb- 

Babr.  72. 

ers. 

Si'or[)lon  and 

Yallf.  Ps.  97IM. 

ATlau  ZXlU. 

Camel. 

Chan.  SIniw. 

lien.  R.  Ixxxlll. 

anil  W'iK'al. 

Mldr.  Tib.  II. 

Cageil  Bird. 

Mldl.F..vl.  11 

W.ilf   anil   Two 

Slfre  Num.  157. 

Hounds. 

Wolf  at  Uio 

Eslh.  R.on  V..T 

W.-ll. 

Cook  and  Bill. 

Snnh.  iWi. 

Fox  as  Sliigt-r. 

Eslb.R.lo  111.1. 

Of  about  thirty  fables  found  in  the  Talmud  and 
in  iniilrashic  lileratiire.  twelve  resemble  those  that 
are  common  to  botli  (treek  and  Indian  fable;  six  are 
|>amllel  to  those  found  only  in  Indian  fable  ^Fables 


JEbop 
Afgrhanistan 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


222 


of  Kybiscs);  and  six  others  can  be  pamlleled   in 
Greek,  but  Imvc  not  bitlierto  been  traced  t(i  India. 

Wliere  similar  fables  exist  in  Greece, 

Talmudic,    India,  and  in  tlie   Talmud,    the   Tab 

Indian,       niudic  form  aiinrnaebes  more  nearly 

and  Greek    tlie  Indian,  wbcnever  this  ditlers  from 

Fables.       the    Greek.      Tbus.    the    well  known 

fable  of  ■■  The  AV'nlf  and  the  Crane  "  is 
told  in  India  of  a  lion  and  a  crane.  AVlieii  Joshua 
ben  Ilananiah  told  that  fable  to  the  Jews,  to  pre- 
vent their  rebellinj;  against  Home  and  once  more 
putting  their  heads  into  the  lion's  jaws  (Gen.  ]{. 
Ixiv.),  bespoke  of  the  lion  and  not  of  the  wolf, 
showing  that  he  was  familiar  with  some  form  de- 
rived from  India.  The  Talmudic  fables  are,  there- 
fore, of  crucial  importance  in  distinguishing  between 
the  later  ,Es<ip's  Fables — derived  directly  from  India 
— and  the  earlier  ones,  in  which  a  direct  Indian 
source  is  dillicult  to  i)rov('. 

It  is  absolutely  imjiossible  for  these  fables  to 
have  been  invented  by  the  Talmudic  s;iges,  inas- 
much as  they  were  extant  in  Greec(>  and  India  in 
their  time;  nevertheless  there  is,  in  the  Uible.  evi- 
dence of  fable  literature  among  the  early  Hebrews 
(see  Fable). 

Throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  ^Esop's  Fables  were 
known   mainly  from   the   Latin   prose   versions   of 

Pha'drus,  which   were  translated  into 

The  Old  French  and  other  languages.     A 

Medieval     number  of  additional  fables,  however, 

.2!sop.        are   found   among  those  of  JIarie  de 

France  (about  1200);  and  these  show 
traces  of  Oriental  origin.  Here  again  Jewish  lit- 
erature helps  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  sources 
of  these  new  fables.  There  is  extant  a  collection  of 
one  hundred  and  seven  fables,  with  the  Talmudic 
title  "  Jlishlc  Shu'alim,"  compiled  by  one  Berechiah 
ha-Nakdan,  containing  fifty-three  stories  found  in 
the  work  of  >Iarie  dc  France;  of  these,  fifteen  are 
peculiar  to  her  and  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  classical 
^Esop.  Hence,  there  can  be  no  dimlit  that  Berechiah 
derived  these  fables  from  the  same  source  as  Marie 
de  France;  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  this  com- 
mon source  was  an  English  translation  by  Alfred 
Anglicus  of  an  Arabic  version  of  the  fables.  He  is 
known,  from  Roger  Bacon's  reference  to  him,  to  have 
tmnslated  from  the  Arabic.  Marie  de  France  de- 
clares that  the  source  from  which  she  derived  her 
fables  was  an  English  versiim  of  ^Esoj)  made  by 
King  Alfred,  which  claim,  being  based  on  a  mistake 
that  could  easily  have  arisen  through  confusion  of 
the  two  Alfreds,  is  not  tenable.  Brrechiah,  as  has 
been  proved,  lived  in  Oxford  al)out  1190,  and 
was  known  there  as  Bcnedictus  le  Punctetn-.  A 
further  suggestion  has  been  made  that  Alfred  and 
Benedict  worked  together  ;  Alfred  producing  the 
English  version,  from  which  Marie  de  France  de- 
rived her  fables,  and  Benedict,  the  Hebrew  set.  A 
careful  collation  of  Benedict's  fables  with  those  of 
Marie  de  France  should  solve  this  problem  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  the  Talmudic  fables  decided  the 
question  of  the  provenience  of  the  classical  ones 
(see  Beheciiiah  nA-XAKDAN). 

Berechiah's  fables  seem  to  have  been  the  chief 
source  from  which  the  Jews  of  the  >Iiddle  Ages  de- 
rived their  knowledge  of  jEsop's  Fables;  and  ver- 
sions of  Berechiah's  faljles  exist  in  JudsBO-German 
(see  Abr.^ham  ben  Mattatiiias  and  !Moses  Wai.- 
Licn). 

The  only  version  of  ^Esop  in  Hebrew  was  first 
published  at  Constantinople  in  l.ilG,  together  with 
the  Midrash  on  the  death  of  Moses;  and  from  the 
title  it  appears  to  be  derived  from  one  of  the  French 
versions,  since  JEsop  is  there  called  Ysopet.     The 


Syriac  of  Pyntipas  is  found  written  in  Hebrew  cliar- 
aclers,  which  fact  gave  rise  to  Landsberger's  theory 
that  the  fable  was  invented  by  the  Hebrews. 

Bini.lO(:K.\pnv  :  LumUtiergiT,  PiV  FViJ<f/ii  ilcn  S<ii)li<w.  1RJ9; 
Ha.k,  In  M'-nalKschrift.  IsrO-Nl;  HainliunfiT. /{.  B.  T.  8.V. 
FoUl ;  jHiiilis.  The  FiOiUKiif  .Kmp,  Itifll,  I.  llO-il,  1((i*-;h. 

J. 

AFANASTEV  -  CHTJZHBINSKI,  ALEX- 
ANDER STEPANOVICH:  Christian  Russian 
author  and  ethnographer  (INIT-To);  he  was  an  en- 
lightened writer  w  ho  did  justice  to  the  Jews.  In  his 
"  Poyezdka  v  Yuzhnuyu  Rossiyu  "  (2  vols..  St. 
Petersburg.  is(il-ti:i)  he  gave  a  faithful  jiicture  of 
Jewish  life  in  South  Ru.ssia,  and  defended  the  Jiws 
against  the  accusations  of  the  prejudiced  masses. 

BlBLiOfiRAPHV  :  Sithrnnii:  i^itcliinrnt,  ed.  H.  Hoppe.  vols.  vlll. 
and  Ix.,  St.  Petersburif,  1S93;  EntziMoiKdichciiki  Slmar, 
vol.  11.,  St.  Petersburg,  188:). 

IT    R 

AFENDOPOLO,  CALEB  B.  ELIJAH  B. 
JUDAH:  I'olyhistor,  brother  of  Samuel  ha  Ramali, 
hakam  nt  the  Karaite  congregations  in  Constanti- 
nople ami  of  Jtidah  Bali,  brothcrin-law  and  di.sciple 
of  Elijah  Basliyat/.i :  born  at  Adiiaiiople  before  1430; 
lived  some  lime  at  lielgrade,  and  died  about  14Ui)  at 
Constantinople.  According  to  a  notice  found  in  a 
Paris  manuscript,  he  supported  himself  by  giving 
private  instruction;  but  this  is  (juestioned  by  Stein- 
schneider.  A  i>u])il  of  Mordecai  Comtino  at  Adri- 
anople,  Afendojiolo  attained  great  proficiency  in 
science,  and.  while  lacking  depth  and  originality  of 
thought,  distinguished  himself  by  prolific  literary 
production,  for  which  his  large  library,  that  included 
rare  manuscripts,  jiartly  bought,  jiartly  copied  liy 
himself,  offered  him  rare  o]iporliinities.  He  con- 
tinued "  Adderet  Eliyahu  "  (Elijah's  Mantle),  a  work 
on  Karaite  law  left  unfinished  in  his  charge  by  his 
teacher,  Elijah  Bashyat/.i,  in  1400.  The  wife  of  Ba- 
shyat/.i,  who  was  Afendopolo's  sister,  having  died 
before  her  husband,  Afendopolo  lui  longer  referred 
to  Basliyatzi  as  his  brother-in-law,  but  called  liim 
teacher.  Afendopolo  died  before  completing  Ba- 
shyatzi's  treatise. 

Afendopolo's  own  works  give  a  fair  insight  into 
the  eriulition  of  the  Karaites.  Fragments  only  of 
many  of  them  have  been  brought  to  light  by  Gur- 
land  in  his  "  Ginze  Yisrael  "  (L.vck,  1865),  ami  less 
exactly  by  A.  Fiikovitch.  His  writings  are:  (1)  An 
introductory  index  to  Aaron  ben  Elijah's  "Kz  ha- 
Hayyim  "  (1497).  giving  the  contents  of  each  chapter 
und<'rthe  title.  "  Derek  Ez  ha-Havvim."  published 
by  Delitzsch  in  his  edition  (1840)  of  this  work.     (2) 

A  similar  introductory  index  to  Judah 

His  Iladassi's   "Eshkol."  under  the  title 

■Writings.    "Nahal  Eshkol"  (Koslov.   1836).     (3) 

"Gan  ha-Mclek"  (Garden  of  the 
King),  his  princijial  work,  finished  in  140.5.  a  di- 
wan,  or  collection  of  poetical  essiiys  on  love,  medi- 
cine, and  the  active  intellect.  (4)"  'Asjirah-Mamarot" 
(Ten  Discourses),  containing  homilies  on  the  Pass- 
over les-son  (Ex.  xii.  14);  on  the  Song  of  Songs  as 
read  oit  the  seventh  Passover  Day ;  on  Psidm  cxix, 
read,  according  to  Karaite  custom,  on  the  seven 
Sabbaths  between  Passover  and  Pentecost;  and 
on  the  Pentecost  lesson  dealing  with  the  Sinaitic 
revelation.  The  introductory  chapter,  much  of 
which  is  reproduced  by  Mordecai  ben  Xissim  in  his 
"Dod  Mordecai."  dwells  on  the  origin  of  the  Ka- 
raite schism  and  the  main  questions  at  issue  be- 
tween the  Karaites  and  the  Rabbinites  (see  espe- 
cially Steinschneider,  "Leyden  Catalogue,"  pp.  127 
et  ser/.).  Afendopolo's  view  of  Jesus  given  therein 
is  remarkable  for  itsimpartial  tone.    He  places  him, 


223 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


-Ssop 
Afghanistan 


it  is  true,  a  century  before  the  common  era,  but 

adds: 

"  He  was,  accordinir  to  the  opinion  of  the  lovers  of  truth,  a 
wl!«  man,  pious,  rlcliteous.  GiKl-fearfng.  an<l  shunning  evil. 
Neillier  dill  he  ever  u-ach  any  law  of  practise  contrary  to  the 
written  law.  only  after  hi.s  death,  a  quarrel  an»se  U'tween 
his  fcillowers  and  tlio?.**  wlm  had  opimwimI  hliri  iK^-ause  of  his 
wImImiu,  wliich  was  nK>ted  in  the  law  and  not  in  their  nihbiiiical 
addittnns;  and  many  of  these  disciples  of  his.  sent  forth  in  his 
iiairii',  iiitroiiiiced  practises  ami  leachinps  altotretlier  foivipn  to 
hini.  reriioviiiir  iheit'liy  the  cnrntT-sioneof  the  I-aw.  though  win- 
ning; the  mult  it  teles.  'I'll  lis  tiM-N.'w  Testament  originated,  which 
separated  the  fliilstians  ffoiu  the  Jews." 

(o)  "Abner  ben  Xer"  (1488),  a  series  of  Hebrew 
mtihniKiK,  or  sliorl,  rinieil  narratives,  introdueiiig 
8aul.  Duvid.  aiiit  the  queen  of  iShcba  into  the  dia- 
logue. (())  I'lMhr  the  Siime  title,  an  alUgoi-y  on  tlie 
Song  of  Songs,  the  same  being  a])plled  to  the  rela- 
tion of  God  to  Israel.  (7)  "Iggeret  ha  Shehitah  " 
(1407),  a  work  on  the  rites  used  in  sliiughtering  ani- 
mals, in  the  form  of  lei t ers  addres,sed  to  liis  son  in- 
hiw,  .lacol)  b.  Jiiilali:  the  sjtmo  in  condensed  form 
written  at  Ki'tinmriti  near  ('(instantiiKiplc  (1497).  (X) 
".Seder  'Inyan  Sliel.iitiili."!i  similar  work  in  rime,  is 
extant  in  manns(ii|il  (I-'irkoviteh's  MS.  Xo.  .'iOO).  (9) 
On  the  use  of  ariiick  (in  which  the  passage  Deut. 
x.\.\li.  38is  applied  to  the  Moslems,  and  the  Christian 
sacrifice  is  alluded  to;  see  Steinschneider,  "Lcyden 
Catalogue,"  p.2:!;i;  "  Polemische  Literatur. "  p.374). 
(10)  "Iggeret  ha-Kimah"  (Letter  on  the  Pleiades), 
treating  of  forbidden  marriages,  and  directed  against 
Joshua's  work  on  the  sultject.  (II)  "Patshegen 
Ketab  ha-Dat"  (149G).  onthePentatcucli  lessonsand 
t  he  Haft^rol  and  other  IJible  select  ions.  (12)  A  rejoin- 
der to  Maimonides  in  defense  of  the  Karaite  calcu- 
lation of  the  Seven  weeks  (Stein.schneider,  "Ilebr. 
Hibl."  vii.  II).  (i;i)  A  defense  of  Aaron  beiiElijiili's 
"GanEden"  against  Moses  ben  Jacob  ha-.\slikcniizi 
(Steinschneider,  "  Hebr.  Bibl."  xx.  122).  (14)  A  ccm- 
mentary  on  thr'  Hebrew  translation  of  the  arilhmelic 
of  Nicomachtis  of  Gerasji  (lirst  or  second  century). 
made  from  the  Arabic  by  Kalonymus  ben  Kalonymus 
in  1317.  The  manuscript  is  in  the  Berlin  Royal  Library 
(.Stein.sclineider,  in  " Jlonatssclirift."  xxxviii.  7(1). 
Afen(h)polohasattiiched  to  this  commentary  a  sort  of 
general  cncychipedia  of  the  sciences.  He  commences 
with  an  analysis  of  the  eight  books  of  Aristotle's 
"  Logic."  Practical  science,  as  ho  cjills  it.  detds  with 
man  himself,  with  the  house  (family),  and  the  state. 
Spei'ulalive  science  comprises  physics,  geometry, 
and  metiiphysics.  In  the  Siime  mtinncr  he  runs 
through  the  other  sciences,  giving  their  various  stili- 
ilivisions.  The  liighest  science  is  theology,  which 
treats  of  the  soul,  of  prophecy,  and  of  esclialology. 
The  course  of  instruclion  which  Afendopolo  lays 
down  follows  that  of  Plato;  namely,  htgic,  arithme- 
tic, geomelry.  astronomy,  music,  the  science  of  as- 
pects (D'Oabn),  metnildgy.  physics,  and  metaphys- 
ics. Aftirdisctissing  fuliire  bliss.  h(^  deiilswiih  two 
other  sciences — law,  especially  as  regards  the  relii 
tion  of  failh  to  works,  and  controversy  ("  I loknuit 
lia  nebarim  ").  In  the  laller  ho  cites  freely  from 
Ratnlytisl,  without,  luiwever.  giving  Ins  authority 
(Steinschneider.  in  '"  .Mdnalsschinfl,"  xl.  90  (<  «<<y.). 
(l.l)  An  astroiKimical  treatise,  largely  mailc  up  ivf  a 
comnieiiltiry  on  lite  purlinn  {;ninn  tlTp  of  .Xtii'dn  ben 
Kli jail's  "  (iaii  Kileii  "  (  Neiibatler.  "('alalcigiii', "  Xii. 
20.VI1.  under  the  title  "  Miklal  Ycfi."  (Hi)  "  Iggerid 
liaMuspeki't,"  a  wnrk  on  asironiimical  terminology, 
and  on  tlie  ctuislruclion  of  sun-dials,  improving 
upon  the  meth(Hlof  his  teacher.  Comlino.  by  adiling 
the  odil  hours (Giirlanil.  "Gin/e  Yisrael,"iii.  IS.  19). 
(17)  "Tikkuu  Keli  IJi.b  Im  Sha'dl"  (14871.  which 
was  kiKiwn  also  to  Joseph  del  Meiligo.  Afiliiliipolo 
also  wroti' soiiu-  peniteiilial  hymns  wliiili  ari' lo  be 
found   in   the   Karaite   Muh/.or  (Xeubuucr,   "Cata- 


logue," Xo.  2369,  3;  Zunz,  "G.  V."  p.  42.5;  idem,  2d 
ed.,  p.  440);  liiit  most  of  these  hymns  were  taken 
from  Rabbinite  poets  (see  David  Kahana  in"()zar 
iiaSifrut,"  vol.  v.,  Cracow.  1896).  Afendopolo  had 
intended  to  translate  the  "Elements  of  Eticliii."  and 
to  write  commentaries  on  Jabir  ibn  AHal.i's  "Kitab 
al-Hiyyah"  (Compendium  on  Astronomj')  and  on 
Ptolemy 's  "  Almagest. " 

BiBLlOfiRAPilY:  Fflrst,  Gcxoh.  <(.  Karficrl.  il.  301-.tl6 ;  Jost, 
OcKch.  (I.  JiiiloitliiiniK  unit  sciiicr  Sckteii,  II.  'Mt7;  idem, 
Oem'h.  ii,  hnu  liti  lu  i.v.  appendix  p.  iW;  .Neuhauer.  Ana  (hr 
Pctcrnliiiriif  r  liildiuihik.  chap.  i. :  tiurland.  (iitizc  Yinrcul, 
Lyek,  1SI!.'>;  siiliischneicler,  In  Ersi'h  and  (iniber's  Eucuhln- 
liililie.  xxvll.;  idem,  Hclir.  irihtrs.  pp.  .508,  .^19.  roi,  Ut; 
Mniial^rhiift.  xxxviii.  7«;  Neuhauer,  Cat.  li'Ktl.  Hdtr.  MSS. 
hi<h:r,  col.  iris. 

K.-G. 

AFFINITY.     See  M.vum.voK  L.vws. 

AFFRAS  RACHMAELOVICH  (called  also 
Aphraschus  Kachmailcwicz) :  .V  Jewish  mer- 
chant of  .Mohilev  and  Riga,  wlio  lived  about  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  AiTras  figured  jiromi- 
neiitly  in  Lilhiianiu  as  an  importer  of  miscellaneous 
merchiitidisc,  and  in  While  Russia  as  a  farmer  of 
taxes  and  distllleiy  royalties.  The  records  of  Hrest- 
Litovsk,  for  March  3,  1.583,  show  thtit  nineteen 
■\vagon-loads  of  miscellaneous  goods,  including  clot  lis, 
pepper,  cinnanmn.  piunes,  and  Hungarian  leather, 
coming  from  Lublin,  were  passed  through  the  cus- 
tom-house in  the  name  of  jVffras  IJiichmaelovich  of 
Mohilev  ("  Regesty  i  Xadpisi."  p.  298). 

According  to  Sazonov  ("Matters  of  .Turispru- 
dence."  part  vii.  p.  404).  on  June  3.  1.5x9.  an  appeal 
was  made  by  Jim  Loveika.  city  marshal  and  I'oyal 
secretary,  to"the  bailiiT  of  Moliilev,  in  the  name"  of 
AtTiiis,  "farmer  of  taxes  and  distilleries  of  Mohilev, 
to  impose  a  fine  of  forty  copes  (1  Lilliuaiiiau  cope 
=3  rubles  22'5  kopecks)  on  Lukian  Pilka,  for  unlaw- 
fully dealing  in  licpiors  discovered  in  his  possession, 
by  Moslika  Julevich,  AiTras's  "servant."  in  com- 
pany with  the  "city  servants."  Atlnis  also  appears 
among  the  lirst  Jews  on  therecordsof  Riga.  Livonia, 
that  were  summoned  witli  others,  about  1.595,  before 
the  court  of  burgraves.  in  a  suit  concerning  some 
l)i'oduce  of  the  forest.  The  representative  of  Riga 
at  the  Polish  court  received  special  instructions  on 
his  account. 

I!uu.i"i;i!.Ki'iiv:  Iluihholz. '.'i.»r/i.  <lir./ie/.' 11  iu  liim.  ISiW.  p. 
1-:  litfin'til  I  .'\'"'//'im'  iu  C..11..CIII.I1  of  material  forthe  history 
of  the. lews  In  Russia  i.  juilillshed  by  the  S4Kiety  forthe  lYonio- 
tion  of  Kdiicatlon  among  (he  Jews  «if  Hiissla.  vol.  1.  tfroni  the 
year  «)  to  l«;ni,  Niw.  iHi.  «T2,  Ii70,  GTS,  St.  Telersburg.  IWW. 

H.  R. 

AFGHANISTAN :  Country  of  Asia,  lying  to 
the  northwest  of  India.  The  Afghans  themselves 
liavo  a  tradition  that  they  are  descendants  of  the 
lost  Ten  Tribis.  They  were  carried  away  by  Buk- 
tunasar  (Nebuchadne/zar)  lo  Hiizanih.  which  they 
identify  with  the  Ahsauktu  (R.  V.  Arzareth)  of  the 
Bible.  In  the  "Tabakati-Xasiri,"  a  native  work,  it  is 
slated  that  at  the  liineof  the  Shansjibi  <lynaslv  there 
was  IV  people  called  Bani  Israel,  who  tnided  with 
neighboring  countries;  they  had  set  tied  in  the  country 
of  Glior.  soulheasl  of  Herat,  and  about  the  year  (i'J2 
lliev  wi-re  convcrteil  to  Islam  by  a  person  called  Kais 
or  Kish  (see  Ti:n  ThiuksI.  This  throws  no  light, 
however,  upon  the  source  of  the  niiMlern  Jews  of 
Af.L'haiiistan.  siuil  to  number  40.000  in  idxiut  sixty 
congregalioiis.  who  arechietly  conciiilniled  at  Kabul 
(2.0(10  souls),  Herat.  Kandahar.  Giiazni.  and  Bidkh 
The  ruins  of  the  synagogue  a(  Kabtil  are  said  to 
dale  from  the  timeof  Xebuchadnez/ar.  biK  the  pres- 
ent Afghan  Jews  spi-ak  Persian,  and  all  their  relig- 
ious books  aiiil  leachers  come  from  Teheran  or  Mus- 
cat.    Thev  have  iu  each  of  the  above-ineutioueil  five 


Afla 
Africa 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


224 


towns n  spwiiil  <iimrtfr  callt'd  tlif  Mnlmll  i-Yeliudi- 
yeli,  wliicli  iscliiscil  at  suiisft  ami  openi'd  at  dawn. 
Tlit-y  dress  like  the  rest  of  the  Afjrliaiis.  except  tliat 
thej"  wear  a  lilaek  tiirlian,  saiil  to  lie  numrnini;  for 
tlie"  fall  of  .lerusideni,  but  prolialily  as  a  distinct- 
ive mark  (sec  Haihik).  Sevenil  of  them  arc  doctors. 
They  arc  exempt  from  military  service,  but  instead 
pay"  a  /mrhim/i.  or  war-tax.  'in  1880  Aynb  Khan 
ordered  the  Jews  of  Herat  to  supply  for  a  liarbicah 
30(1  laborers  and  'iWM  tomans  (ciiua'l  to  10.000  Atls- 
Irian  tlorins).  atwl  this  caused  many  to  tlee  back  to 
Persia.  See  Balkii,  Kauil,  K.\.ndauak,  Giiazni, 
and  Herat. 

Bibliography:  Bellew,  Rac«»  nf  AfahanMan,  1880,  p.  l.i; 
Allii-  Ziit.  <l.  Ju<l.  1878,  p.  810.  1880,  p.  271 ;  Benjamin  II.. 
M<i«'e  l'iVi<i<(,  chap.  rxxv.  Tt-T«  (only  vague  references); 
J(u:  Chniii.  (Kl.  4  and  11,  1878.  Auc  hi.  18»e. 

AFIA,  AARON :  A  physician,  philosopher, 
and  mathematician  of  Salonica.  who  lived  about 
1,")40.  He  was  the  teacher  of  Daniel  ben  Penihyah, 
whom  ho  assisted  in  the  translation  from  the  Span- 
ish into  Hebrew  of  Abraham  Zacuto's  "Almanac." 
He  was  also  helpfid  to  the  pieacher  Moses  Almos- 
uino  in  his  Hebrew  translation  of  Juan  Sacrobos- 
co's"El  Tratado  de  ia  Es|)hcia  "  (Treatise  on  the 
Sphere).  He  wrote  "Opiniones  Sacailas  dc  los 
mas  Autenticos  y  Antiguos  Philosophos  (jue  Sobre 
la  Alma  Esciivierou,  y  sus  Detiniciones"  (Selected 
Opinions  of  the  most  Authentic  and  Ancient  Philoso- 
phers on  the  Soul,  and  their  Delinitious),  Venice, 
1568. 

BiBLioGRAPnY :  Steinsohneliler,  Hchr.  Uchers.  p.  64.5;  Kay- 
serliuB.  Bilil.  EniK-l'dil.Jtul.  vp.  net  seq. 

M.  K. 

AFI?OMEN  (pip'SS)-  ■'^  piece  broken  off  the 
cake  of  unleavened  bread,  mazznh  (usually  from 
the  middle  one  of  the  three  cakes  called  Cohen.  Levi, 
and  Israel),  at  the  beginning  of  the  Sedku  service 
on  Passover  eve.  It  is  secreted  under  the  pillow  of 
the  head  of  the  family,  who  presides  at  the  seikr 
table,  and  it  is  eaten  at  the  conclusion  of  the  meal. 
The  word  is  of  Greek  derivation,  according  to  some 
authorities  from  i-l  Kuftov;  that  is,  a  call  for  the 
after-dinner  pastime  (ku/io^);  others  hold  that  it  is 
from  c-mcliiiiov  (festal  song).  The  Jewish  form  of 
it  occurs  in  iMislmah  Pes.  x.  8,  which  says:  "One 
should  not  break  olf  the  communion  meal  of  the 
paschal  lamb  by  starting  another  entertainment, 
calletl  either  eTriKuuinv  [festal  song],  or,  according 
to  others,  i^iKuiwv  [an  after-meal  dessert  or  pas- 
time]." This  rule  of  making  the  paschal  lamb  the 
last  thing  to  be  jmrtaken  of  in  company  was  ap- 
plied at  a  later  time  (see  Rab  and  Samuel  in  Pes. 
119i)  to  the  Passover  bread;  and  the  piece  eaten  at 
the  end  of  the  meal  received  the  name  Afikomen. 

In  order  to  awaken  the  curiosity  of  the  children 
the  Atikomen  was  broken  off  the  mazzah  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seder ;  the  custom  arising  perhaps 
from  a  misunderstanding  of  the  passage  in  Pes.  109(7, 
"They  hasten  [the  eating  of]  the  mazzahin  order  to 
keep  "the  children  awake/'  which  may  also  be  trans- 
lated, "They  snatch  away  the  mazzah  ":  and  soil 
became  customary  to  allow  the  children  to  abstract 
the  Atikomen  from  under  the  pillow  of  the  master 
of  the  iiouse,  and  to  keep  it  until  redeemed  by  him 
with  presents. 

Subseipiently  It  became  quite  common  among  the 
Jews,  by  way  of  witticism,  to  Siiy :  "To  eat  much 
Atikomen  is  to  live  long";  and  when  a  man  died  ad- 
vanced in  years  it  was  said.  "  He  ate  too  much  Atiko- 
men."  A  piece  of  the  Atikomen  used  to  be  jireserved 
in  every  house  from  year  to  year,  and  in  Eastern 


countries  it  was  supposi'd.  when  carried  in  a  comer 
of  the  arlxi'  hinful.  to  guard  agaiusl  the  evil  eye. 

IlinLiooRAPnv:  Jastrow.  Did.  s.  v.;  I,.  Luw.  Lflieniiallrr, 
p.:tl8;  Samuel  Krauss,  GriicliiKltc  mid  Latciiiinche  Lclin- 
wUrter,  11. 107. 

a.. 

*AFRICA :  The  Bible  ha.s  no  general  name  for 
Africa,  niiy  more  than  it  has  for  Eurojie  or  .\sia.  The 
word  "  Ham."  from  the  Hebri'W  root  DOn  (to  be  hot), 
which  is  appliitl  in  the  later  Psidms  (Ixxviii.  .'il ;  cv. 
23.  27;  cvi.  22)  to  Egypt,  is  the  nearest  approach 
to  a  general  name,  inasnuich  as  it  api)lies  directly 
to  the  hot  southern  countries  (Book  of  Jubilees, 
viii.).  Next  in  importance  is  the  term  "Cush."  cor- 
responding to  the  Greek  f'Uof  Kmaaalaf.  the  Cushite 
tribe,  in  I'lutiin  lis  "Lives"  ("Alexander."  Ixxii.), 
and  also  occurring  freiiucntly  in  the  works  of  other 
Greek  writers  in  the  form  KiKroaioi  (Knobel. "  Viilkerta- 
fel  der  Genesis."  p.  2.J0.  Giessen.  1850). 

Biblical  The  "  Kossaioi "  or  the  "  Kissia  Chora" 
Age.  of  the  ancients,  it  is  true,  are  to  be 
sought  in  Asia,  but  it  is  supposed  that 
a  migration  of  these  peoples  took  ])lace,  and  there  are 
many  ))hilological.  historical,  and  ethnological  proofs 
of  such  an  occurrence.  Since  I  wo  of  the  jieoples  men- 
tioned as  belonging  to  the  sons  of  Ham  (Gen.  x.  6), 
Mizraim  and  t'aiiaan,  are  perfectly  well  known,  it  is 
evident  that  the  enumeration  proceeds  from  south  to 
north;  and  (m  this  basis  Cush  must  be  the  southern- 
most of  I  he  Hamit  ic  peoples.  The  ancient  Greeks  and 
Komans  regarded  thes(i  peoples  collectively  as  Ethi- 
oi)ians  (Ivnobel,  "Volkertafel  der  Genesis"),  which 
goes  far  to  prove  that  the  terms  "Cush"  and  "Ethiojiia" 
are  nearly  e(|iiivalcnt.  Both  terms  w<-re  used  origi- 
nally to  designate  various  nations  in  Asia  and  .Vfrica, 
but  their  use  was  afterward  limited  to  the  countries 
south  of  Egypt.  Even  in  its  closer  application,  the 
Hebrew  terni "  Cush,"  as  used  in  Gen.  X. .  includes  peo- 
ples out.side  of  Africa.  ( )ne,  at  least,  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Ham,  Sheba  (Gen.  X.  7),  must  be  identified 
with  a  nation  in  southwest  Arabia  (I)illmann.  "  Die 
Genesis.".'ilhed..p.  isl.  Leipsic.  1880).  A  definitely 
bounded  African  continent,  as  known  to-day,  was  not 
thought  of  by  the  Bil)lical  writers.  On  the  contrary, 
the  territory  "on  both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea  formed  for 
them  an  etlinic  unit,  which  was  sharply  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  Africa. 

After  Ethiopia.  Egypt  and  Libya  are  the  two  most 
imijortant  lands  of  Africa.  Tin"  Hi'brcw  name  for 
Egypt  is  D'lVO  (compare  the  Plienician  Muzni,  for 
which  rea<l  Mnnni  in  Stephanus  Byzantinus  under 
the  word  Ai)i--or:  Babylonian,  Muzri.Mizir — (Schra- 
der,  "  K.A.T.,"  2d  ed,"  p.  89;  ancient  Persian,  Mud- 
rnja;  Septuaginta,  ^festn•m■,  South  Arabian,  Mizr; 
Arabic  ^fll^l•).  The  Hebrew  term  has  not  been  suffi- 
ciently explained,  but  it  certainly  shows  a  dual 
form  "which  can  best  be  interpreted  as  referring  to 
the  upper  and  lower  districts.  From  a  philological 
standpoint,  however,  the  form  may  be  dilferently 
explained,  and  the  seeming  sign  of  the  dual  may  be 
regarded  as  a  locative  ending  (Barth,  "Xominalbil- 
dimg  in  den  Semitischen  Sprachcn."  p.  319).  The  two 
uanu'S  Cush  and  .Mizraim.  therefore,  designate  the 
entire  eastern  portion  of  the  African  continent  known 
to  antiiiuity.  Several  of  the  countries  adjacent  to 
Egypt  are  "also  found  in  the  table  of  peoples  as  givea 
in  Genesis.  "Phut"  is  mentioned  as  of  equal  rank 
with  Egypt  (Gen.  x.  6;  compare  also  Nahum.  iii.  9; 
Jer.  xlvi!  9;  Ezek.  xxvii.  10,  xxx.  5,  xxxviii. .')).  The 
Septuagint,   a    recognized    authority  In   Egyptian 


•The  histfirv  of  the  Jews  in  the  various  subdivisions  of  the 
African  continent  is  treated  under  separate  headings.  Here 
only  a  genera!  survey  of  that  history  is  presented. 


226 


THE  JEWISH   ENC"YC'LOPEDIA 


Afia 
Africa 


matters,  Jost'plius.  uiid  Jerome,  nil  interpret  Phut  as 
referring  to  Liliya  (I)illnmnu,  "  Die  Genesis,"  p.  178), 
from  wliieli  it  may  be  assumed  that 
Extent  of  the  Bil)li(al  writers  included  in  their 
Africa.  perspective  also  that  j>;re!it  expanse  of 
territory  west  of  K.!,'ypt  called  Lil)ya. 
liy  which  name  ancient  writers  often  desii,niate  the 
whole  of  Africa.  Authors  like  Herodotus  were  im- 
ac(|uainted  with  any  African  countries  to  the  west  of 
Lilpya.  Slime,  indeed,  have  endeavored  to  explain 
the  Hiblical  Havilah  as  an  African  region;  and  Jose- 
phus  ("Ant."  i.  (i.  ^  1)  even  identities  it  with  the 
land  of  the  (ia-luli,  which  view  is  also  held  by  the 
medieval  chniniilcr  .leralimecl  ("Jew.  Quart.  Kev." 
.\i.  GT,");  (taster,  "Clironiclcs  of  Jcrahnied."  IISD'.I.  p. 
68).  Till'  lanil  of  tlie  (J.eluli  is  placed  by  the  ancients 
on  the  borders  of  the  Sahara  (Sallust,  "Belbmi  Jn- 
^nrtlnc,"  xix.  11 );  though  it  is  scarcely  probable  that 
writers  who  do  not  appear  to  have  known  even  the 
western  coast  of  North  Africa  should  have  been  ac- 
quainted with  an  interior  country  south  of  ancient 
Is'umidia,  now  Algeria.  The  Old  Testament  takes 
no  cognizance  of  the  negro  race,  though  Jer.  xiii.  215 
may  be  considered  a  (lassing  reference  to  a  dark- 
skiiHied  peol)le.  C'nsh  refers  only  to  Ethiojiia.  and 
then;  exists  no  ground  for  assuming  that  the  liiblical 
writers  had  a  more  extended  knowledge  of  the  Afri- 
can continent. 

All  other  Hiblical  names  that  have  been  supposed 
to  apply  to  individual  [larls  of  Africa  belong  to  the 
realm  of  myth. 

Tlie  term'  "  Sofala  "  for  the  east  coast  of  Africa  is 
of  tlie  same  origin  as  the  Hebrew  npQC  (xlicfdiih).  or 
coastland  (Winer,  "I!.  K."  :id  ed..  s.i\  "Opliir").  but 
the  assert  inn  that  the  liiblical  g(ild-produ<-ing  Ophir 
is  to  be  located  in  that  i-eginn  is  uilerly  without  foun- 
dation. This  semifabulons  land  has  been  located  with 
more  justification  in  Mo/ambiipieand  Zambesia.  The 
statemi'iit  that  Tunis  is  the  Biblical 
Other  Bib-  Tarshish  is  erroneous,  and  was  long 
lical  Iden-  ago  refuted  by  Abraham  Zacuto  ("  Yu- 
tiflcations.  basin."  p.  2:514.  London.  18,')7).  Nev- 
ertheless, it  is  the  serious  opinion  of 
Zacuto  that  Epher  (Gen.  xxv.  4)  gave  his  name  to 
the  coiiliiii'iil  when,  as  Zacuto  thinks,  the  chililren  of 
Kelurah  migi-.Ueil  thilher("  Vuhasin."  |).  2;5;S/').  This 
is  also  I  he  opinion  of  the  Arabian  Ibn  Idris(Kapo])iirt. 
"'Erek  .Millin."  ]>.  IS4).  Benjamin  of  Tudela.  a  noted 
traveler  of  the  twelfth  century,  considered  Tuids  the 
same  as  Ilanes  (Isa.  xxx.  4).  and  also  i<lentilieil  the 
iniidern  Damiclta  with  the  Biblical  Caphlor.  Accord- 
ing to  li'gend.  the  city  Sabta  (XHiD)  "as  built  by 
Sliem,  the  s(in  of  Nnali.  anil  it  is  even  related  that 
Joab.  the  genenil  of  David,  reached  il  ("Vuhasin." 
p.  'J2I!</).  Israi-1  ben  Joseph  Benjamin,  a  traveler  of 
more  recent  tinies.whosodescriptionsof  variouscoun- 
tries  were  written  in  French.  German,  and  English, 
and  tnuislated  into  Hebri'W  by  David  Gordon 
("  Mase  V  Israel  "  |  Israel's  Travels],  p.  1(19.  Lyck. 
lH."ill),  relati'Sthe  sjime  legend,  but  docs  not  mention 
the  "  Ynliasin  "  In  a  giugraphical  work  by  .\braham 
Faris.sol.  "  lirgeret  ( Irhnt  '( )lani  "  (Ijtier  on  the  Ways 
of  the  Wiirldl.  fols  IS  and  Ito.  even  panidise  is  sjiid  to 
have  been  situated  in  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  in 
Nubia  (Znnz.  "(JeoLrniphiselic  I.ileratur  der  Juden," 
in  "Gesjunmelte  Sehriften."  i.  IT!'.  Merlin.  lH7."i). 

Without  doubt  ICgypI  is.  hisiorieally.  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  countries  of  .Vfriea.   Indeed,  il  wascim- 
sidered    by  the  ancients  as    belonging 
^f?ypt.       miller  to  .\sia  than  to  .\friiii.  and  was. 
with  Palestine.  I  be  classic  land  of  Jew- 
ish history.     Eorcenluriesaii  iinporlant  historic  con- 
nection evisti'd  bel  Ween  the  land  of  the  Israelites  and 
the  kingdom  of  the   I'haianhs,  a  connection   which 


the  tablets  discovered  in  1887  at  Tell  cl-Amarna 
have  established  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt. 
When  the  national  life  of  Israel  in  Palestine  ceased, 
an  important  section  of  the  people,  carrying  with 
them  the  pr.iphet  Jeremiah,  wandered  back  to  Egypt. 
Thus,  for  the  second  time.  Egypt  became  the  home 
of  the  Jewish  race,  and  much  of  later  Jewish  history 
was  made  upon  its  soil.  To  what  importance  the 
Jews  allaincd  here  can  best  be  inferred  from  legeud.s 
concerning  them,  originating  in  other  lountries.  Aa 
Elliio]iic  apocryphal  book  contains  a  legend  respect- 
ing Jeremiah  which  narrates  that,  in  answer  to  a 
prayer  of  the  prophet,  the  reptiles  of  the  dry  land  anil 
the  crocodiles  of  the  rivers  were  exterminated  (H. 
Basset.  "  I,es  Ajiocrviilics  Etliiopieiis."  i.  2.").  Paris, 
ISiCi;  and  also  "Chrou.  Paseliale."  ed.  Dindorf,  i.  293; 
Suidas.  undertlie  word  '\ii)n/ai).  According  to, Jew- 
ish legend  siniihir  blessings  descended  upon  Egypt 
at  the  advent  in  the  land  of  the  patriarch  .laeob  (.Mid- 
rash  Tanl.iuma  on  Gen.  Ixvii.  lU.  ([Uoteil  by  Kashi). 
A  native  legend  declares  also  that,  previous  to  the 
arrival  of  .losepli,  the  sou  of  Jacob,  the  present  prov- 
ince of  Fayum  was  covered  liy  a  great  lake,  which 
received  its  water  from  the  Nile,  but  that  Joseph 
drained  it  and  turned  it  into  a  diy  jilaiii  (Bal.ir  Yu- 
sufs;  Hitter.  "Erdkuude,"  part  i.,"  "  Afrika,"  p.  804, 
Berlin.  1822). 

In  ancient  times  the  Jews  performed  military  serv- 
ice for  the  Egyptians;  for,  according  to  the  letter  of 
Aristeas,  King   Psammetichus,   ])rob- 

Jewish        ably  tlie  second  of  the  name,  employed 

Soldiers  .Icwish  mercenaries  in  a  war  against 
in  Egypt,  the  IClhiopians,  and  it  is  reiiorled  that 
these  Hebrew  soldiers  dislinguished 
themselves  by  their  courage.  Even  more  remark- 
able is  the  legend  recoiuited  by  .losephus  ("Ant." 
ii.  lb,  s;  2),  according  to  which  .Moses  him.self  was 
an  Egyptian  general,  and  conducted  a  successful  in- 
vasion of  Ethiopia  (McroeV).  The  Hebrew  Josephus 
(Josi|)poii.  i.  chap,  ii.),  indeed,  rejiortsthat  Zepho,  son 
of  Eliphaz.  son  of  E.sjui.  who  was  brought  to  Egypt 
as  a  captive  by  the  viceroy  Josejili.  escaiied  thence 
to  Carthage,  where  he  wasa|)pointed  general  by  King 
Angias.  The  source  of  this  legend  is  not  known, 
but  it  recalls  the  Talmudic  legend  (Yer.  Shall,  vi. 
Stic),  that  the  Girgasliites  went  to  Africa,  a  .state- 
ment based  upon  the  fact  that  Carthage  was  col- 
onizeil  by  Plieiiicians;  hence  from  Canaan.  Again 
Jerome,  in  "Onomastica  Sacra."  ed.  Ijagardc,  GiHtin- 
gen.  1SS7.  re|)resents  Gergesanis  as  establishing  colo- 
nies (i-iitiiionii  (irtiiix).  which  story  is  undoubtedly 
based  on  the  Talmudic  legend.  This  recalls  the  in- 
scription said  by  Procopius  to  have  been  found  in 
Africa,  wliieli  describes  Jo.shua  as  a  robber,  becau.se 
he  coni|uered  Canaan  (see  "J<'W.  (Juart.  Hev."  iii. 
I!.'i4;  Barker,  "Supposed  In.scriptiou  upiui  'Joshua 
the  Holiber.'"  illustrated  from  Jewish  sources). 
These  wide  spread  legends  are  ample  proof  that  the 
continent  of  Africa  occupiei.1  an  important  place  in 
tlie  llioughts  of  Jews. 

The  ni\t   most   imporlant   land   of  Africa,   from 
the  point  of  view  of  Jewish  history,  is  Cush  (Ethi- 
opia), the  inliuence  of  whose  king.  Tirhakali.  upon 
the  history  of  Isnu'l   in  the  days  of 
Ethiopia.     King  Hezekiah  is  plaiidy  dis<-eruible. 
Aiiording  to  II  Cliron.  xiv.  H  ,t  «•</., 
(he  Ethiopian   king  Zerali  invaded  Juilah  and  ad- 
vanced as  tar  as  Maresliah;  but  the  pa.ssage  olTers 
many  historical  diDlcullies.    .\  war  of  the  Klhiopian 
king  Kvknos  with  the  Syrians  and  the  Children  of 
the    East   is  di.scribed    iii    Valkut   (Ex.   is  It>8.   .Vii/) 
and   in   the  Sefer  ha-Yashar  (on  Ex.   ii.).   but   the 
source  of  the  legend  is  unknown.     Ezekiel  indicates 
Ethiopia  as  I  he  bonier-laud  of  Egypt,  and  deslguates 


Africa 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


226 


(xxix.  10,  XXX.  fi)  Syonc.  the  prewnt  Assouan,  as  the 
most  sovithcin  city.'  This  probably  exhausts  wiiat 
tlie  Ril>li(al  sources  ami  the  legeiuls  counected  with 
the  Bible  contain  on  Africa. 

About  the  time  that  (ireek  and  Roman  culture 
began  to  iiitlucnce  the  northern  portion  of  Africa 
the  Jews  began  to  spread  into  these 
Greek  and  regions;  indee<l,  they  went  even  be- 
Roman  yond  the  contines  of  the  Koman  em- 
Age,  jiire.  Egyj)!.  according  to  the  testi- 
mony of  I'hilo.  was  inhaliited.  as  far  as 
the  borders  of  JJbya  and  Ethiopia,  by  Jews  whose 
uninbers  were  estimated  at  a  million.  The  great 
mercantile  city  of  Ai.Ex.wnni.v  was  the  intellectual 
and  commercial  center  of  African  Jewish  Wfr.  Alex- 
ander the  (Jreat  had  conferrcil  ujion  the  Jews  full 
rights  of  citizenship,  and  they  guarded  these  rights 
jealously.  In  Cyrene  also  they  were  of  importance; 
and  their  progress  may  be  traced  by  the  aid  of  in- 
scriptions as  iar  as  Volubilis.  in  the  extreme  west 
of  Mauretania  (SehUrer,  "Gesch."  3d  ed.,  iii.  10-2(>). 
Throughout  the  Grecian  countries  they  formed  them- 
selves into  separate  political  communities  (-o'/.i-riv/in: 
see  P.  Prerdri/et.  in  "  I{(\  ne  Arclieologi(|Ue,"  WM. 
XXXV.  4.'i).  while  in  the  Latin  districts  they  not  only 
founded  communities,  but  built  synagogues,  some  of 
which  were  very  beuutifid.  According  to  Jerome,  the 
Jewsdwelt  in  a  continuous  chain  of  settlements,  from 
Mauretania  eastward,  throughout  the  province  of 
Africa,  and  in  Palestine,  reaching  as  far  as  India 
("Ep,  12!)  ad  Dardanum."  ed.  Vallarsi.  i.  906).  If 
they  were  interrogated  on  Biblical  matters  they 
gave  no  answer  ("  E|i.  W2  ad  Augustinum,"  i.  7-f4), 
probalily  in  order  toavcjid  being  drawn  into  disp\ites 
with  Christians.  Jerome,  it  is  true,  claims  they  did 
not  know  any  Hebrew.  When  Jerome's  Bible  trans- 
lation, the  Vulgate,  was  to  be  introduced  among  the 
African  Christians,  the  Jews  spread  the  report  that 
the  translation  was  false  and  thereby  aroused  strife 
among  the  Christian  congregations  (Jerome,  ibirl., 
and  S.  Krauss  in  the  "Magyar  Zsido  Szemle."  vii. 
.">:((»,  Budapest,  ls90).  But  Judaism  in  these  regions 
did  not  dissolve  or  merge  into  Christianity;  on  the 
contrary,  it  continued  to  maintain  its  independent  ex- 
istence. Only  in  Egypt,  particularly  in  Alexandria, 
where  the  path  to  Christianity  had"  been  smoothed 
by  Jewish  Hellenism,  undoubtedly  great  mas-ses  of 
ji'ws  went  over  to  Christianity  :  but  even  there  they 
continued  to  exist  until  the  begimiing  of  the  fifth 
century,  when  Hi.sliop  Cyril  expelled  them  from 
that  city,  which  had  been  their  home  for  many 
centuries.  They  must  have  returned  at  the  lirst 
favorable  opportunity,  for  in  640  the  calif  Omar, 
the  conqueror  of  Egypt,  found  40,000  Jews  in  Alex- 
andria. 

Rjibbinical  sources  show  much  familiarity  with, 
and  great  interest  in.  this  i)art  of  the  world.     The 
Biblical  names  of  Ilamitic  peoples  are 
Rabbinic     explained   in    the   Talnuid   and   Mid- 
Accounts,     rash   from   the   standpoint  of  Greco- 
Roman  geography.     According  to  the 
researches  of  Epstein  ("  Les  Chaniitcs  de  la  Table 
Ethnographiciue."  in  "Rev.  fit.  Juives."  xxiv.  8;  S. 
Krauss.  "Die  Biblische  Volkert^ifel  im  Talmud.  Mid- 
nisch,  und  Targum,"  in  "Monatsschrift,"  xxxix.  56) 
the  following  African  peoples  are  mentioned  :  Sye- 
nians,  Indians  (that  is,  African  Indians).  Sembrita; 
(south  of  Meroe).  Libyans.  Zingians  (on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa),  Mazakians  (in  JIauretania.  mentioneil  in 
Sifre,  Dent.  320  and  in  Yeb.   63i;    in  Ex.  R.  iii.  4 
reference  is  made  to  a  Mauretanian  girl),     A  collect- 
ive term  for  the  dark  skinned  Africans  is  Cushites, 
which  often  occurs  in  this  literature.     The  terms 
"Barbar"  and   "Barbaria."  which  very  frequently 


occur  in  connection  with  the  term  Cushites,  do  not 
indicate  the  Berbers  or  Barbary  country  of  Africa, 
but  the  Scythian  peoples  of  the  north  of  Europe. 
The  word  "Barbaria."  which  occurs  in  Ptolemy 
and  in  Cosmas  Indicoi)leustes  in  about  the  same 
sense  as  the  modern  Barbary.  and  which  has 
come  to  the  .Vrabs  in  the  form  "Barbara"  (Yakut,  i. 
543),  only  appears  in  later  Jewish  literature  in  this 
sense,  and  is  applied  to  the  coast  of  Somalilanil 
(see  Toma.seliek,  under  the  word  "Barbaria."  in  the 
"  Realencyklopildie  fftr  Cla.ssische  Alterlhumswis- 
sensehaft '■).  On  the  other  hand,  the  rabbinical 
term  Np'IDK  .  which  has  been  wrongly  explained  as 
Phrygia,  or  Iberia  in  the  Caucasus,  means  nothing 
else  than  the  present  Africa  ("  Monats- 

Meaning'  schrift,"  i/u'd.),  an<l  is  intended  to  de- 
of  note  either  the  entire  continent  or  the 

"Africa."  Roman  province  Africa,  Thus,  when 
the  "sons  of  Africa"  appear  before 
Alexander  the  Great  to  accuse  the  .Tews  of  the  re- 
conquest  of  Palestine  (Sanh.  91»),  anil  the  Egyptians 
almost  immediately  present  another  charge  against 
them,  the  referince  can  only  be  to  the  province  of 
Africa,  since  the  "sons  of  Africa"  who  demand  the 
restoration  of  Canaan  are,  without  doubt,  the  Gir- 
gashites,  who  had  been  compelled  to  emigrate  to 
Africa  (Yer.  Sheb.  vi,  36c.).  Since  the  legend  of  this 
Girgashite  emigration  is  intimately  connected  with 
the  founding  of  Carthage,  Africa  is  thus  identified 
with  it  even  more  closely  (Tamid.  32'*,  and  the  par- 
allel p.issjige,  where  'pnDX  DrHD,  "  African  land," 
is  evidently  the  siinie  as  Carthage) .  The  Septuagint 
(Isa.  xxiii.  1),  and  Jerome  (on  Ezek.  xxvii).  who, 
though  a  Christian,  was  taught  by  Jews,  and  very 
often  the  Aramaic  Targmn  on  the  Prophets,  iden- 
tify the  Biblical  Tarshish  with  Carthage,  which  was 
the  birthplace  of  a  luunber  of  rabliis  mentioned  in 
the  Talmud  (comiian-  above  the  identification  with 
Tunis).  Africa,  in  the  broader  sense,  is  clearly  in- 
dicated where  mention  is  made  of  the  Ten  Tribes 
having  been  driven  into  exile  by  the  A.s.syrians  and 
having  jourueyed  into  Africa  (Mek.,  Bo,  IT;  Tosef., 
Shab.  vii.  25;  Deut.  R.  v.  14;  and  especially  Sanh. 
94</).  Connected  with  this  is  the  i<lea  that  the  river 
Sambation  is  in  Africa.  The  Arabs,  who  also  know 
the  legend  of  the  Bcui  JIusiX  ("  Sons  of  Moses  "),  agree 
with  the  Jews  in  placing  their  land  in  Africa 
(compare  Bacher,  "Ag.  Tan."  i.  298;  Epstein, 
"Eldad  ha-Dani."  p.  15).  The  i)robable  basis  of 
this  legend  must  be  sought  in  the  actual  existence 
of  the  F.\i..\su.\s  in  Africa.  Rdibi  Akiba,  who 
traveled  in  Africa,  on  one  occasion  made  u.se  of  an 
African  word  (Rapoport,  in  "Bikkure  ha-'Ittim," 
iv.  70,  1823), 

Besides  the  nort h  of  Africa,  the  great  region  to  the 
west  of  the  Red  Sea — the  land  of  Ethiopia  or  Abys- 
sinia (Habeslil,  together  with  its  adjacc-nt  countries, 
inhabited  from  time  inunemorial  by  the  tril)e  of  the 
Falashas,  who  profess  the  Jewish  faith — possesses 
a  special  interest  for  Judaism.  The  native  legend 
narrates  that  the  queen  of  Sheba  (I  Kings,  x.)  bore 
a  son  called  Jlenelek  to  Solomon,  and  that  Menelek 
was  educated  in  Jerusidem  and  afterward  introduced 
the  Mosiiic  law  into  his  own  country.  This,  how- 
ever, only  makes  intelligible  the  rapid  dissemination 
of  Christianity  in  Ethiopia.  With  this  may  be  com- 
pare<l  the  conversion  of  the  eunuch  of  the  queen  Can- 
dace  in  Acts,  viii.  27.  According  to  the  royal  annals 
of  .Vliyssinia.  a  large  part  of  the  land  was  iidiabited 
by  Jews,  even  before  the  common  era.  This  refers, 
in  all  probabilitv,  to  the  F,\l.\sit.\s  (Ritler.  "Erd- 
kunde."  part  i.,  "Afrika."  p.  218,  Beriin.  1822).  The 
undeniable  relationshij)  of  the  Ethioiiian  language 
(Geez)  to  other  Semitic  dialects  stamps  the  Ethiopians 


227 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Africa 


as  a  Semitic  tribe,  au  assumiitinn  that  is  coutirmed 
by  their  physical  a|)iiearaiii-e.  Tlie  iKimadie  Zalans, 
who  live  apart  from  tlii'  slate  elmreh,  also  consider 
tlieiiiselves  Israelites  (Flad.  "Die  Abyssiiiischeii  Ju- 
deii,"  Basel,  IHtli);  also  the  monograph  of  Jletz  in 
"Moiiatsschrift,"  1871),  xxviii. ;  and  Epstein,  "Eldad 
haDaiii."  I'resburg,  1891). 

The  llourishiiij;  condition  of  Xorlh  Africa  brouL'lit 

about  by  Hoinan  civilization  did  not  last  beyond  the 

fourth  century.     The  Vandal  hordes  coni|Uered  the 

province  of  Africa,  and  allhouirh  as 

Medieval  Arians  they  weri'  well  disjiosed  to- 
Period,  ward  the  Jews,  still  Ihr  latter  sullered 
irreatly.  When  the  Byzantines  be- 
came masters  of  this  reirion  the  little  conu'rej^ation 
of  Borion,  which  claimed  to  tracts  its  oriirin  l)ack  to 
Kinj;  Solomon,  wasforced  byJustinian  toaccejit  baji- 
tism  ((iriil/,  "Gesch.  der.Iudcn,"  v.  ;!(i).  Butlhe  By- 
zantine d(jminion  soon  irave  way  to  the  S;ir;icen  ;  and 
the  Jews  were  ]iennitled  to  proi.'ress  in  peace.  L'n 
der  the  intluenccof  the  vivifyini;  Arabic  culturi'  the 
Jews  awoke  to  a  new  life.  The  holy  city  of  K.vinw  a.\, 
from  which  so  many  learned  Jews  have  derived  their 
names,  is  situated  in  Tunis  (Ilin  Ilaukal,  "Orient. 
Geogr.''  pp.  lit,  20;  (pioted  by  Hitter,  l.r..  ]>.  U13), 
and  is  not  identical  with  the  ancient  (yrene,  as 
Kapoport,  the  bioifraphcr  of  the  North  African 
scholars,  asserts  (■■  Bikkure  ha-'Ittim,''  ed.  1820,  p. 
08;  ed.  \sni,  p.  II!). 

The  city  of  Kairwan,  says  the  Spaniard  Abraham 
ibn  Daud,  was  the  most  strongly  fortified  place  in 
the  whole  Ma'arab  ("  West "),  as  tlu;  Jews,  follow- 
iiij;  thee.\ampl(;of  the  Arabic  "  Maj;lircb."  called  all 
North  Africa,  except  I-'.irypt.  Xatronai  ben  Habibai, 
who  was  a  candidate  for  the  cxilarchate  in  liabylon. 
was  obliired  to  jro  into  exile  in  this  reirion  in  77:i 
(K.  Lazarus,  inBri'dl's"  Jahrbuchcr. "  x.  l7(>).  Others, 
however,  hold  that,  in  the  last  instance,  under  the 
term  ".Ma'arab,"  Palestine  must  be  understood. 

Tlie  couununity  of  Kairwan  was  under  the  juris- 
diction of  a  leader,  who  bore  the  title  of  nwA  (head). 
The  other  conjiri'^'alions  of  the  ^la.irhreb  were  ))roli 
ably  organized  in  the  sjinie  manner.  In  Kairwan 
Jewish  learninir  llourished  irreally.  The  "sajres  of 
Kairwan  ''  are  menlion<'d  in  the  "  I'ardcs"  of  Bjislii : 
to  iheiM  the  rabbinical  decisionsof  the  Gconini  Zemah 
(concernini;  the  adventures  of  liw  traveler  lOldad 
lial)aidi,  Sherira  (reirardini;  the  succession  of  the 
Amoraim  and  the  Geonim),  and  Ilai 
The  were  addnssed.     In  the  tenth  century 

Maghreb,  the  natunilist  and  i>hilosopher  I.saae 
Israeli  lived  in  Kairwan.  Like  Smulia 
(Jaon.  he  was  of  Kgvplian  biilli,  beinj;  a  native  of 
the  jilains  of  Kayum.  not  far  from  the  Libyan 
desert,  where  the  .lews  lived  in  the  undisturbed  pur 
suit  of  their  reliirious  practises.  Saadia  beiutrtonsid- 
ereil  a  descendant  of  the  house  of  David,  the  K.iryp- 
lian  Jews  must,  therefore,  have  belonged  to  the  noble 
faniiliesof  Israel.  From  the  eiirhth  to  the  tenth  cen- 
tury the  Maghreb  was.  after  Babylonia,  the  most  im- 
portant country  for  the  .lews.  The  great  rabbinical 
school  upon  which  the  (ii'i>nim  Jacob  ben  Nissiui. 
Ilu-hifl.  ami  I  lananeel  conferreii  great  glory  was  also 
sllualcd  in  Kairwan.  I  lananeel  (conuneiilary  on  K\. 
X.  1-1)  is  authority  for  tin-  slaleinint  that,  inanswir  to 
tlie  prayer  of  Moses,  the  locusts  were  tianished  from 
Egypt,  and  that  thencidorward  the  land  reniaineil 
free  from  that  plague.  Ilananeil  show  s  also  some 
knowli'dge  of  Greek,  a  surprising  fact,  inasmuch  as 
the  .\rabic  tongue  aral  Arabic  culture  were  all  prev 
alenl  in  those  regions,  .\braham  Zaculo.  who  livid 
in  Tunis  iluring  Ilii'  sixleenlli  ccninry,  w  rites  in  tln' 
"Yuhasin  '  (p.  212,  ed.  Liaidon),  as  does  also  the 
chronicler  JiLseph  ben  Ziiddik  Arevnlo  (c|iinte<l  by 


Xeubauer.  "!Mcdia>val  Jewish  Chronicles,"!.  92.  Ox- 
ford, 1887),  that  the  rabbinical  administration  had 
its  seat  in  Kairwan.  The  next  important  town  of 
.Morocco  was  Fez.  from  which  the  Karaite  JIo.scs 
Alfasi  anil  the  Tahnudist  Isiuic  Alfasi  dirived  their 
names.  The  Kanute  Closes  Dari  derived  his  name 
from  another  ^loroccan  city.  In  the  .Middle  Ages  an 
extensive  intercourse  existed  between  Spain  and  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa  lying  directly  opposite;  the 
conuuerce  was  maintained  mainly  by  Jews.  Leo 
.\fricanus  ("Africiu  I)escri|itio."  Zinich.  l.j.)!)),  him- 
self of  Jewish  birth,  reports  that  in  North  Africa  the 
Jews  were  the  only  masons,  locksmiths,  goldsmiths, 
metal- founders,  potters,  silk-weavers,  painters,  and 
minters  (Kay.serling.  "Zur  Gesch.  der  .luden  in  Ma- 
rocco  aus  Alter  uud  NcucrZeit,"  in  "  Monatsschrift," 
1801,  X.  4(11). 

In  the  twelfth  century,  while  the  Almohades, 
who  had  come  from  North  .Vfrica,  were  devastating 
S|>ain,  thousands  of  Spanish  .Jews  were  obliged  to 
seek  refuge  in  North  Africa.  In  speaking  of  this 
persecution  Abraham  ibn  I)au<l  (ed.  Neubaucr,  p. 
77)  Sitys  that  Ibn  Tumart  had  massacred  all  the 
Jews,  from  Zala,  "the  end  of  theworhl,"  to  Ahncria, 
in  Spain.  The  same  author  (p.  80)  mentions  Tan- 
gier (nj3Xt3'^  Tangali)  as  the  remotest  settlement  of 
Jews:  compare  tlu^  fragment,  p.  190,  "the  congre- 
gation of  Israel  is  scattered  from  the  city  of  Zala  in 
the  extreme  Maghn-b  |Zala  in  Trijioli,  on  the  Greater 
Syrtis,  is  ])r<ibably  lucanl  |  up  to  Tangier  [Tanja, 
so  read  with  the  variant,  nniD.  Tanilut,  which  must 
be  read  KJjn,  Tan.ga]  at  tlie  beginning  of  the  Magh- 
reb; also  in  the  utmost  end  of  Africa  and  in  all 
Africa  [this  last  clause  is  found  only  in  London  edi- 
tion, ji.  214//]  and  in  Egypt."  The  lands  of  Asia  and 
Europe  then  follow.  Ibn  Daud  also  calls  the  Magh- 
reb "the  land  of  the  Philistines"  (ih.  p.  00). 

The   iiersecutioiis  of  the  .Vlniohades  forced  Moscs 

Maimonides  to  leave  Spain,  and,  after  remaining  for 

a  short  time  in  Fez,  he  took  up  his 

Renais-      abode  in  Ft)stat,  near  Cairo,   Egypt. 

sance  of      Thus,  through  this  great  philosopher, 

Egypt.  the  center  of  .Vfriean  Judaism  became, 
for  a  time,  transferred  to  F^gypt.  The 
office  of  /i«///(/ (in  .Viable  nun),  which  made  its  holder 
the  spiritual  head  of  a  large  section  of  the  Jews,  re- 
mained for  a  long  time  in  the  family  of  Maimonides. 
It  is  only  neces.sary  to  read  the  chronicle  of  Joseph 
Sambari  (ed.  Neidiaucr)  to  ])erceive  that  Egypt  had 
become,  as  it  were,  a  second  holy  land  for  Judaism. 
About  1170  Benjamin  of  Tudela  traveled  in  Africa, 
and  compili'd  some  very  exact  data  ciaiceruing  Egypt. 
('om|iaie  .Vshcr's  edition,  and  also  Lelewel  ("Geo- 
graphic du  .Moyen  .\g<',"  vol.  iv.,  Brus.scls.  18,")2).  In 
conneclion  w  lib  this,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  Ben- 
jamin knew  of  warlike  Jews  in  Libya.  The  Jew  isli 
populallon  of  Cairo  (New-Mizr)  was  com  posed  of  two 
ilemenls — I'alislinians  (Syrians)  and  Babylonians 
(lnikiaiis),wlioliad  separate. synagogues — concerning 
which  many  legends  were  in  circulation.  Thi'  syna- 
gogue in  Old  Cairo(Fostat)  was  even  more  celebrated. 
.\n  inscription  on  its  wall  announced  that  it  had  been 
creeled  Ihlrly-eight  yeai-s  before  the  dislruclion  of 
the  >s;|.(i,nd  Temple.  .Vccording  to  Obadiah  Berii 
noro,  whosiiw  it.  this  was  h'gible  in  the  sixteenth 
(■••ntiirv  ("Jalirbuch  fUr  die  Gesch.  der  Jiiden,"  iii. 
24t>,  l.eii>sic.  I80;t).  The  .\mbic  writers  Abdallatif 
anil  Makiizi  also  mention  il.  Sec  the  note  of  .Miink 
on  "  Benjaiuin  of  Tudela," ed.  .\sher.  ii.  2(N),  Juilah 
.Mliarizi  ( "Tahkcmoni,"  chap.  40)  came  across  a 
large  coiign  gallon  of  .Maghrebis  in  Cairo.  Kamiles 
also  exlslid  ill  Egypt  in  great  numbci-s,  and  peri- 
odically stood  liighcr  in  llie  esteem  of  the  goverii- 
menl  tliiin  the  Hubbinitcs.     Couceniing t be  E.gyptian 


Afi-ica 
Agai,  Adolf 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


228 


Bamaritans  sec  the  ilala  of  Heidenlieim  in  the  "  Vier- 
tiljahrsschrift  fUr  I)iuls(  he  uiid  EiiL'lisolic  Thcolo- 
gische  Forschuiif;  unil  Krilik."  iii.  354-3r)0  (lS(i7). 
iiud  N.  IJrUll  iu  " Jiihrl)(i(hir."  vii.  4;S-4.j  (1885). 
CazJs  treats  of  Jewish  uiitiquities  in  Tripoli  in  the 
"  Kev.  fet.  Juives."  189(1.  xx.  78-87.  Thelist  of  town 
names  in  Jlorocco  and  Al.ijeria.  given  for  halakic  pnr- 
piisi's  (••  Rev.  i,t.  Juives,"  v.  249),  is  of  geogniphical 
importance. 

In  the  Jliildle  Ages  only  tlie  northern  part  of  Af- 
rica is  of  importance,  fur  general  as  well  as  for  Jew- 
ish history;  but  the  ailventnrer  Kldad  lia-Dani  at- 
tracted general  attention  in  the  niiilli  century  l)y  liis 
romantic  talis  and  thereliy  aroused  interest  in  the 
Jews  of  unknown  regions  of  Africa.  Fleeing  from 
the  inassjicres  in  Spain  in  1301  and  seeking  refuge 
in  Africa,  tlie  Jews  ad(le<l  materially  to  the  pojiula- 
tion  of  the  Barbary  slates.  The  cities  of  Algiers, 
Bougie,  Constantine,  Miliana,  Oraii,  Tenez.  Tlemcen 
and  others  were  settled  by  exiled  Jews 
The  and  -Alaranos,  and  they  became  com- 
Barbary  munitiesof  importance  by  virtneof  the 
States.  intelligenee  peculiar  to  tlie  Spaidsh 
Jews.  Algiers  sheltered  such  rabbin- 
ical authorities  as  Isaac  ben  Sheshet  and  Simeon  ben 
Zemah  Duran.  A  century  later,  at  the  time  of  the 
greatexpulsionof  the  Jewsfroni  Si>aiuand  Portugal. 
the  same  process  was  repeated,  but  on  a  greater  scale 
and  under  much  sadder  condition.s.  It  was  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa  that  the  heartrending  in- 
cidents took  place  which  are  described  with  such 
horrible  vividness  in  "Shebet  Yehudah"  and  other 
chronicles.  Ilun.irer,  pestilence,  and  the  sword  car- 
ried off  the  uidiappy  refugees  by  huiulreds;  those 
who  escajied  (h'atli  were  sold  into  slaveiy  or  were 
forced  to  renounce  their  faith.  Since  that  time  the 
descendants  of  these  refugees  have  lived  in  the  Bar- 
bary  states,  especially  in  Morocco,  in  cnntiiuial  mis- 
ery. Only  in  Egypt  did  the  Jews  retain  a  position 
of  .some  importance.  In  1,517  Egypt  came  luider 
Turkish  rule;  and,  as  in  the  rest  of  Turkey,  Jewish 
names  came  to  the  fore,  mainly  of  Spanish  scholars 
and  diplomats.  Under  the  viceroy  Ahmed  Shaitan 
the  Jews  were  greatly  o]ipresse<l.  but  were  saved 
in  an  almost  miraculous  nuuuier.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  David  Keubeni  told  a  wonderful  tale  of  a 
Jewi.sh  kingdom,  by  which  he  probably  meant  tliat 
of  the  Falashas.  The  Jews  in  the  .Alaghreb  were 
.just  as  eager  to  listen  to  fantastic  IMessianie  an- 
nouncements as  their  brethren  in  other  lands:  they 
also  loved  to  dwell  in  Jerusjilem.  In  1.'521  an  anony- 
mous Italian  pilgrim  reported  that  all  classesof  Jews 
were  to  be  fount!  in  Jerusalem,  there  being  among 
them  Jlostarbino.  or  Jloriscos,  and  Maghrebim  from 
the  Barbary  states  "Shibhe  Yerushalaim."  p.  21). 
Jews  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Portuguese  con- 
qtiests  and  discoveries  in  and  around  Africa.  The 
Jews  of  Saffee  and  Arzilla  also  distinguished  them- 
selves by  their  bravery  (Kayserling."Theilnahnieder 
Juden  au  den  Portugiesischen  Entdeckungen "  in 
"Jahrb.  fi'ir  die  Gescii.  drr  Juden."  iii.;  also  Kay- 
serliug."Geschichte  der  Juden  in  Portugal,"  x.  157- 
Ififi). 

The  number  of  Jews  in  Egypt  greatly  decreased 
in  modern  times,  but  recent  events  have  again  at- 
tracted them  to  the  lanil  which  first  saw  them  emerge 
as  a  nation.     The  census  of  1897  enu- 
The         merated  25, 200, of  whom  fully  one  half 
Modem      were  foreigners;  the  Favum  only  con- 
Period,      tained  nine.     There  have  been  indeed 
remarkable  fluctuations  in  the  Jewish 
population  of  f^gypt.     Jleshullam  Volterra,  about 
14i)0.foun(l  in  Alexandria  only  sixty  Jewish  families 
(Luncz,"  Jerusalem  Jahrbuch,"  1881,  i.  176).  vet  the 


Jews  there  rememliered  the  time  when  4.1100  families 
had  dwelt  within  the  city.  jMeshidlam  found  neither 
Samaritans  uiir  Karaites  there.  Jacob  Safir("Eben 
Sappir,"  Lyck,  IStiti)  found  no  Jews  in  Upper  Egypt 
or  the  Fayum.  but  ;}(),()(H)  were  reported  to  he  in 
Syene  (As.souan).  South  of  Egypt,  in  Abyssinia,  live 
the  Falashas  with  a  population  variously  estimated 
between  80.0110  and  200.000  souls.  The  Jewish  pop- 
ulation of  ,Moro(<()  is  estimat(Ml  at  about  IdO.OOO,  ac- 
cording to  Xossig  (■■  iMaterialien  zur  Stutistik  des 
Jlldischcn  Stamnies,"  ]).  105.Viinna.  18S7).who  bases 
his  ti.srures  ujion  the  statistical  reports  of  the  Alliance 
Israelite  Universelh' in  Paris  and  the  data  of  Gerhard 
Hohlfs.  Benjamin  (Jordon,  however,  ,i;i  vest  heir  num- 
ber as  2(»0,(Mio.  The  Jewish  tax  furnishes  a  protit- 
alde  source  of  revenue  for  the  government.  Here  the 
Jews  are  subject  to  the  most  degrading  laws,  to  op- 
l>ression  and  insult  by  both  government  and  people, 
and  they  have  even  been  nuirdered  with  im|)un- 
ity.  The  Alliance  in  Paris  and  the  An.irlo-Jewish 
As.sociatioii  in  London  do  their  titmost  to  protect 
them,  but.  unfortunately,  with  little  success.  These 
institutions  also  maintain  excellent  .schools  in  all 
north  Africa,  as  well  as  throughout  the  Orient.  The 
Jews  of  Morocco  and  Algeria  are  of  tlie  true  Oriental- 
Jewish  type.  Fairliairand  blueeyesare  never  found 
among  them.  In  Algeria,  which  has  been  under 
French  rule  since  18:io,  there  were,  in  IKiH.  about 
.")0. 000  .Tews.  Both  in  Algeria  and  Morocco  the  Jews 
alTect  a  ]ieculiar  pronunciation  of  the  Hebrew  (.1.  J. 
L.  Barges.  "Tleni(;en."  Paris,  18.-)9).  All  travelers, 
both  of  earlier  and  later  time,  remark  upon  their  pe- 
culiar ritual  (see  Zunz,  "  Hilus").  Tunis,  which  is 
a  French  imitectorate,  contains  about  45.000  Jews. 
Here  the  Italian  and  Sjiaiiisli  Jews,  though  much 
fewer  than  the  natives,  jiossess  great  inlluence.  even 
greater  than  those  in  Egypt  or  ^Morocco.  In  the  vi- 
cinity of  Zaghwan.  in  Testur  and  Beni  Zit.  the  .lews 
live  in  the  mountains  as  nomads.  In  Tripoli  (in- 
cluding Fez/an  and  Barka).  which  is  under  Turki.sh 
rule,  they  niimberaboutti. 000.  of  whom  li.OOO  live  in 
Tripoli  proper.  In  the  Sahara  there  are  about  8.000 
Jews,  whose  settlements  reach  as  far  as  Timbuctoo. 
Mordecai  Abu  Sereiir,  who  traveled  through  Morocco, 
mentions  a  warlike  tribe  in  the  Sahara,  the  Dagga- 
tonus,  who  claim  to  be  of  .Tewisli  origin  (see  his 
book,  "Les  Daggatouns,  Tribu  d'Origine  .Juive  De- 
nieurant  dans  le  Desert  de  Sahara."  translated  from 
Hebri'W  into  French  by  I.  Loeb.  Paris,  1881.  Eng- 
lish translation  by  Henry  S.  Moniis.  Philadelphia, 
1881).  According  to  t'lie  "Yiil.iasin,"  21*(,  the 
Jews  of  Ouargia  were  Karaites.  Jews  live  also 
among  the  Kabyh'S  (Benjamin  Gordon.  I.e.  pp.  117, 
119,  120).  In  South  Africa  Jews  live  in  Cape  Col- 
ony, Natal,  and  in  the  former  Boer  republics.  They 
enjoy  great  prosperity,  and  liave  formed  congrega- 
tions after  the  English  model.  Their  number  is 
probably  about  20.000.  In  1879  a  report  was  circu- 
lited  that  French  explorers  had  discovered  Sati- 
kinga,  an  island  near  the  coast  of  Africa,  exclusively 
populated  by  Jews.  S.  K.  " 

Loeb.  in  the  article  "Juifs  "  in  "Dictionnaire  Uni- 
versel  de  Geogra)iliie"  of  Vivien  Saint-Martin,  p.  28 
of  the  reprint,  Palis,  18s4,  givesthe  following  num- 
bers for  Jews  in  Africa;  Eirvpt.  8,0(10;  Abys.sinia 
(Falashas).  200.000;  Tripoli,  (i'o. 000;  Tunis,  .^5.000; 
Alseriaaiid  Sahara.  43.500;  Morocco,  100.000;  Vayie 
Colony.  1,.500;  total.  408.000.  Of  these,  the  estimate 
for  the  Falashas  is  probably  double  the  reality,  while 
the  numbers  at  the  Cape  have  been  larselvincreasi'd 
—probably  to  25.000.  '     "  J. 

AFRICANtrS,  SEXTUS  JULITJS.  See  Jf- 
i.irs,  Sextis,  Akkic.vnis. 


229 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Africa 
A^ai,  Adolf 


AGA,  BENJAMIN  :  Lender  of  tin-  Kiiniiti-s  of 
\\u:  Criiiica,  wlici  iHimI  in  ixi4.  He  was  the  rnyal 
Ireasiirerof  Scliiii  (iliyny  Khan,  the  hist  Tatar  ruler 
of  the  Crimea,  am!  llierefnre  is  calU'<l  in  Karaile  lit- 
erature Ha-NeenianC  tlie  Trusted  ") — an  appellatidii 
bestowed  also  upon  his  father  Samuel,  who  died  in 
1770,  and  who  prohahly  helil  the  .same  oltiee  under 
former  khans.  When  (Jliyrey  Khan  tied  for  his  life 
from  liis  rebellious  subjeels,and  soui^bl  succor  from 
his  protectress  Calberine  II.  in  St.  I'etcrsburj;,  Ai^il 
followed  him.  hopinjj  to  collect  the  larjjc  sums  of 
money  that  he  had  advanced  to  the  fuj^ilive.  In  17!!.'"). 
after  the  Crimea  liad  been  luider  IJussian  ride  for 
over  a  decade.  Benjaun'n  A.ira.  Solomon  ben  Xahamu 
Bobowitz,  and  the  astronomer  Lsaac  of  Kalea,  the 
son-in-law  of  Jacob  Afra,  w  ho  was  the  elder  brother 
of  Benjamin  A^'a.  went  to  St.  Petersburi;  as  a  dele- 
gation from  the  Crimean  Karaites,  to  i)etition  the 
empress  to  release  their  sect  from  the  double  rate 
of  ta.xation  which  all  the  Jews  then  had  to  pay. 
Through  the  intervi'ntion  of  the  notorious  Count 
Zouliov  (who  was  one  <if  the  a.ssa.ssins  of  Emperor 
I'aul  in  1801),  the  delegation  obtained  from  the 
empress  the  exemption  i'mm  the  obno.\ious  "Jew- 
ish" taxes,  some  land  grants,  and  other  privileges 
which  bad  not  been  asked  tor.  This  established  an 
impnrlani  pirecedenl  forexiniptinirtbi'  Karailesfrom 
sub.se(|uent  antijewish  legislation.  The  extraordi- 
nary successor  the  mission  served  toarouse  great  en- 
thusiasm among  the  Karaites,  and  Agaand  his  fellow 
delegates  were  received  with  great  honor  on  their  re- 
turn. A  large  monolith,  fashioned  out  of  marble, 
with  fitting  inscription,  was  erected  in  the  cotirl  of 
the  synagogue  at  (Ju/.lowo  (Euiiatoriaor  Koslov),  to 
commemorate  an  event  .so  importani  in  the  history  of 
the  Karaites  of  Kussia. 
ItiBLiooRAPHY  :  IsajicMit  Kalea,  Or  ha-Lclianah,  JItomIr,  1882. 

P.  w. 

AOABTTS  :  A  Jew  of  Jerusalem ;  one  of  the 
])rophcls  who,  after  the  ilispi-rsion  of  Ihe  early  fol- 
lowersof  Jisus.  came  to  the  city  of  Anlioeh(Acis,  xi. 
19-'2K,  xxi.  10).  He  represents  some  of  the  spiritual 
forces  that  lielped  to  shape  th(?  new  faith.  "  By 
the  l)ower  of  the  Spirit  he  iiredicled  Ihe  great  fam- 
ine which  afterward  visited  Judea  under  Claudius" 
Ix'lweiri  the  years -14  and  4H.  This  was  the  famine 
in  which  (Jueen  Helena  of  Adiabene  proved  a  great 
lienefaelress  of  the  Jews  (see  Josephus.  "  AnI."  XX. 
2,  S  ."i^and  in  which  liarnabasand  I'aul  were  sent  from 
Aniioeh  wit  hconlril>ul  ions  for  the  relief  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  Jcrusjileni.  On  another  (Kcasion  A.irabus 
liad  come  from  Judeii  to  Ca'sarea  into  the  house  of 
Philip,  the  preacher  of  the  new  tidings,  whose  four 
virgin  (laughters  were  prophetesses.  Then?  \w  took 
the  girdleof  Paul.  and.  having  bound  hisown  hands 
anil  feet  therewilb.  sjud :  "Thus  sailli  the  Ihily 
Ohost,  So  shall  Ihi' Jews  at  Jerusalem  bind  Ihe  man 
Ihatowni'lh  Ihls  girdli'.  and  shall  deliver  bini  inio 
the  hands  of  llie  C.enlili-s"  (.\els.  xxi.  H-1 1 ).  Paul  in- 
sisted upon  going,  in  spile  of  all  entrealiis.  and  met 
Willi  thi'  fate  predicted.  Prophesying — which  liy 
Pliarisjiie  Judaism  liad  been  regarded  as  suspended 
(see  I  .Mace.  iv.  4ft,  .xiv.  41;  E/nv,  ii.  O:!;  Neh.  vii. 
ft");  Ps.  Ixxiv.  i))— was  a  conspicuous  ]ilieiionienon 
among  the  early  Chrislians  (see  Malt.  xxi.  '2(1:  1 
Cor.  xii.  10, 'JS;  '•  I>idaclie,"  X.  xi.  etc.  l.  bin  was  not 
unknown  to  those  circles  of  the  Jewish  pi'ople  who 
beliived  in  the  working  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (s<'e  Book 
of  Wisdom,  vii.  27,  and  Josephus,  "Ant."  .\iii.  12,  §  1 ; 
xiv.  Itt,  S  2;  .xvii.  11!,  si  3,  4;  "  B.  J."  i.  3,  !;  .'i). 

K. 

AGAO.— Biblical  Data:  Kiiigof  the  Amalekiles, 
taken  by   King  Saul  after  a  siifcessfill  expedition 


against  him  (I  Sam.  xv. ).  His  life  was  spared  by  .Saul ; 
but  the  |iro])liet  .Samuel,  who  regarded  this  clemency 
asadelianeeof  the  will  of  YHWH,  put  him  to  death 
at  (iilgal  as  a  Siieritice  similar  to  that  sometimes  per- 
formed by  Ihe  early  Arabs  after  a  successful  combat 
(W.  Bobertson  Smith,  "Beligion  of  the  Semites,"  2d 
ed.,  p.  491).  In  Num.  xxiv.  7  Balaam  refers  to  Agag 
in  away  that  gives  probability  to  Ihe  coujecl  lire  that 
the  name  was  a  standing  title  of  the  kings  of  Amalek. 

J.   P.   McC. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  The  rabbis  taught 

that  the  .lews  took  vengeance  on  Agag  for  Ihe  cruel- 
ties they  had  undergone  at  Ihe  hands  of  the  Amalek- 
iles, who,  to  mock  at  the  Jews,  IheirGod,  and  the  rite 
of  circumcision,  mutilated  every  Jew  that  fell  into 
their  jiower  (see  A.M.M.ICK);  Samuel,  I  hey  say,  Irealed 
Agag  in  the  same  way.  According  to  some  author- 
ities, Ihe  death  of  Agag,  described  in  Ihe  Bible  by  the 
unusual  word  ira-yfH/iiinnif  ("hewed  in  iiieces,"  I 
Sam.  XV.  ii'-i),  was  brought  about  in  a  much  more 
cruel  way  than  the  word  denotes.  Others  think  that 
the  only  unusual  (hingin  the  execution  of  Agag  con- 
sisted in  the  fact  that  it  was  not  carried  out  strictly  in 
accordance  with  Ihe  ])rovisions  of  Ihe  Jewish  law,  re- 
el ui  ring  witnesses  to  prove  Ihe  crime;  nor  liad  he  been 
specilically  "warned"  as  the  law  re(piired.  Bui, 
Agag  being  a  heal  hen,  Samuel  convicted  him  ac- 
cording to  the  hcallun  law,  which  demanded  only 
evidence  of  Ihe  crime  for  condemnation  (Pesik.  iii. 
2.54,  Pesik.  I{.  xii.  xiii.  and  Ihe  parallel  passages 
quoted  by  Buberin  Pesik.).  The  execution  of  Agag, 
however,  occurred  in  one  respect  loo  late,  for  had  hv 
been  killed  one  day  sooner — that  is.immedialely  upon 
his  caplure  by  Saul — the  great  jieril  which  the  Jews 
had  to  undergo  at  the  bands  of  Hainan  would  haw, 
been  averted,  for  Agag  thereby  became  a  progenitor 
of  Ilaman  (Meg.  13a,  Targ.  Shenito  Esth.  iv.  13). 

L.  G. 

AOAI,  ADOLF  :  Pliysician  and  journalist ;  bom 
March  :il,  lM:i<>,  at  .lankovacz,  Hungary.  His  father, 
Joseph  Kosenzweig.  al  the  age  of  Ihirleen,  emi- 
grated from  (Jalicia  to  Hungary,  where  he  studied 
medicine,  became  a  iihysici.an,  and  wrote  a  liook  on 
asphyxia,  w  Inch  w.-is  iillimalely  published  with  the 
linaiicial  aid  of  the  Hungarian  secrelary  of  state, 
Ciabor  Klaiizal,  He  translated  Ilungariau  classics 
into  Hebrew.  Ilis  son  Adolf,  who  later  adopted  a 
Hungarian  name  and  called  himself  Agai  (.\g= 
German  y.iriiij)  was  eduiatcd  at  Biida|)est  and  Vi- 
enna, and  afterward  traveled  extensively  in  Eu- 
ro])!', Asia,  and  Africa.  His  first  literary  jiroduclion 
— a  novel  enlilled  "  AnIoiiKlle  " — was  published  in 
the  columns  of  the  "  IliilgyfuU'ir  "  in  l.s.")4.  Por  this 
journal  and  for  Ihe  "  Yasariiapi  Uj.siig"  he  wrote 
letters  from  Vienna  (lH,14-8!),  and  occasionally  con- 
tribiiled  (o  the  "Wanderer,"  "(!arleiilaube,"  anil 
"  Flicgcnde  Bliltler."  In  lS(i."),  under  the  iiseudo- 
nym  "Porzo. "he  wrote  a  .series  of  spirited  feiiil- 
letons,  remarkable  for  llieir  pathos  ami  liiimor. 
From  1S70  to  1S7!)  he  edited  the  "  Nagy  vilag,"  and 
in  1M71  founded  a  comic  weekly,  "  Borsszem  .lanko," 
of  which  hi'  was  editor  in  1900.  The  hiinioniiis 
chaniclers  lie  created  are  well  known  in  Ilun.iiary, 
especially  "Seifcnsleiner  Salamon,"  a  l.vpe  of  wiliy 

Jew.     Ill  1S7I  Airiii  imderlook  ll ditorsliip  of  Iho 

"Kis  Lap,"  which  he  had  foundeil  for  the  youth  of 
his  coiinlry.  In  that  journal  he  writes  under  the 
pseudonym  "Forgo  Bacsi."  His  annual  caleiulars, 
published  under  the  names  of  Ihe  various  humorous 
chaniclers  ill  his"  Horsszeiii  Jaiiko."  arc  wiil(4y  read. 
Agai  isa  succissfiil  li  ctunr.  and  haslninslaled  (ier- 
inan  and  French  books  into  Hungarian.     He  is  a 


Afrane 
A^eda 


Till::  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


230 


member  of  the  KisfuUidj'  Society  and  also  of  the 
Hungariaii-Jt'wisli  Literary  Society. 

BiBLioiiKAi'iiY :  Pallas.  .Udi/i/iir  I,<'J-ik()n,  1.  141;  Szlnnyel, 
Miiuii'ir  Iriik  Tiim. I. '*:  PcDtlJXaiilo,  IW.,  No.  30;  itagyar 
Szntoii,  vlli. 

II.   W. 

AGAPE  ( plural  AGAPiE  —  "  Love-feasts  ") : 
Tlir  imiiif  jjiven  to  tlir  idiimaiiiion  meals  of  the 
early  Cliristlans.  at  which  the  rich  uikI  the  i)oor.  the 
master  and  the  slave,  SJlt  together  at  one  table, 
merginj;  all  distinctions  of  rank  in  fniternal  union 
anil  fellowship.  A  good  description  of  the  Agape 
is  given  in  Tertullian,  "  Apologeticus."  x.\.\i.\.  It 
began  and  closed  with  thanksgiving  and  song  (see 
Gk.\ce  .\t  Micai.s).  but  had  no  specific  religious 
character,  nor  any  refiiencc  to  the  Last  Sui>per  of 
Jesus;  at  least  not  during  the  first  century,  as  is 
seen  from  the  "  Didache,"  i.\.  .\.  (see  "  DiDAcmc."  and 
compare  I  Cor.  xi.  20;  .lude,  13,  where  the  term 
ayd-m,  "love-feasts."  first  appears).  The  jmorand 
the  widows  and  orphans  were  the  chief  i)artakers  of 
the  Agape  (Apost.  Const,  ii.  2s).  AH  these  worthy 
recipients  from  the  common  dish  (called  t'lin/pii/  in 
the  -Mishnah  K-ah.  viii.  T)  were  regarded  as  "  an  altar 
to  (iod  "  (Apost.  Const,  ii.  26,  iv.  3).  In  rabbin- 
ical literature  reference  is  made  to  a  similar  feast, 
where  "  the  table  spread  by  the  rich  in  fiout  of  their 
doors  for  the  support  of  the  jjoor  is  likened  to  an 
altar  which  atones  for  the  sins  of  the  rich"  (Targ. 
Yer.  Ex.  xl.  6).  Every  table  at  which  portions  were 
reserved  for  the  poor  is  called  "the  table  that  is  be- 
fore the  Lord  "  (Ezek.  xli.  22;  Ber  ri'yii ;  compare  Ab. 
iii.  6);  hence  the  term,  "the  Lord's  supper"  (I  Cor. 
xi.  20).  which  originally  did  not  refer  to  .Jesus.  Some 
of  the  saints  in  IJabylou  kejit  up  the  ancient  custom 
of  opening  the  door  before  breaking  bread  and  cry- 
ing forth:  "Let  all  who  are  hungrv  come  and  par- 
take of  my  meal"  (H.  Iluna  in  Ta'anit,  20/<).  The 
provision  inadeby  the  charity  treasury  forthe  needy 
was  called  Konn.w  (Midr.  Zutta;  see  Slidr.  Shir 
ha-Shirim,  ed.  BubcT.  2;!).  By  referring  to  this  "ato- 
ning altar  of  charity"  .lohanaii  b.  Zakkai  consoled  his 
jMipil  .Toshua  b.  Hananiah.  who  mourned  over  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple,  citing  Ilnsea.  vi.  C.  "For  I 
desired  mercy,  and  not  sjicrifice."  and  pointed  to  the 
examiile  of  Daniel,  who  "worshiped  the  Lord"  in 
exile,  no  longer  b_v  sacrifices  of  blood,  but  bj'  provi- 
ding for  the  poor  (Ab.  K.  N.  iv.  4). 

BIRl.IocRAPnT:  Herzop.  Ilrnlnirtil.l^iinlilii-  fllr  Prnlenlatlt- 
isi-}ti  Tliriilti[jic.  s.  v. :  Smith.  lUfliumirii  nf  i  'Inistittii  Anti- 
quitifs,  s.v. :  Spitta.  Zur  (if:sfhichtc  uud  Littcralur  ttt-ji  L'r- 
christcntlium,  pp.  SSi  ct  acq. 

K. 

AGATE. — Biblical  Data:  A  precious  stone, 
meii!iiiii(  il  four  tinii'S  in  the  Authorized  Version 
of  the  Bible — twice  as  the  translation  of  /.nilhxl  (Isa. 
liv.  12,  Ezek.  xxvii.  l(j),  and  twice  of  .«//</«  (Ex. 
xxviii.  19,  xxxix.  12).  The  Agate  derives  its  name 
from  the  place  where  it  was  first  found — the  banks 
of  the  river  Achates  in  Sicily;  but  it  is  not  confined 
to  that  locality,  being  met  with  in  many  parts  of  the 
•world.  It  occurs  near  the  ancient  Chalcedon.  in  Asia 
Minor  (  whence  the  name  "chalcedony"),  as  the 
white  Agate.  The  sard  (brown),  carnelian  (red),  onyx 
(white  an<I  black),  and  .sardonyx  (white  and  red)  arc 
other  varieties  of  the  same  mineral.  Drlitzsch,  "He- 
brew Language."  3(5.  connects  shebo  with  the  Assyr- 
ian .«/(i(i/f  ("  the  shining  ").  G.  B.  L. 

In    Rabbinical    Literature :     According  to 

Samuel  bar  Xahmani  (B.  B.  T.iii),  two  angels.  Ga- 
briel and  .Alichael.  discussed  in  heaven  tlie  mean- 
ing of  kadkod  (Agate),  occurring  in  Isa.  liv.  12  : 
"And  I  will  make  thy  windows  of  agates  [13131." 
One   maintaine<i  that   this  precious  stone   is   iden- 


tical with  beryl,  while  the  other  thought  it  to  be  a 
jasper.  Whereupon  (Jod  interveta-d  with  a  |)arono- 
masia,  saying:  "  Kadkod  will  contain  both  [pi3  'in'i) 
|'13l]."  According  to  others,  the  discussion  took 
place  between  the  Palestinian  umoniim  Jinlah  and 
Ezekiel.  sons  of  K.  Hiyya;  see  also  Pcsik.  H.  xxiii.. 
and  Midr.  Teh.  Ixxxvil  M.  B. 

AGDE :  A  town  in  the  department  of  Herault. 
France,  two  miles  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and 
thirty  miles  from  Montpellier.  Probably  there  was 
a  Jewish  community  here  sometime  before  the  sixth 
century  ;  for  the  Council  of  Agde,  which  as.sembled  in 
the  city  in  ."lOfi,  prohibitid  bcilli  Christian  ecclesiastics 
and  laymen  from  eating  with  the  Jews  or  inviting 
them  to  their  houses.  This  prohibition,  which  was 
only  a  repetition  of  that  lumnulgaled  by  the  Council 
of  Vannes  in  4(i.").  jirnves  that  the  Jews  had  been  on 
good  terms  with  their  Christian  neighbors.  Agde 
was  the  center  of  great  maritime  coiumerce,  and  the 
Jews  took  an  important  part  in  the  commercial  ac 
tivity  of  southern  France.  When  William  III.,  sei- 
gneurof  M(inl])ellier.  concludeda  treaty  of  cnnunerce 
with  the  bisho]>and  the  viscount  of  Agde  in  1 1!*,"),  he 
stipulated  that  all  merchants  of  the  city,  whether 
Christians.  Saracens,  or  .Tews,  shoidd  be  upon  a  foot- 
ing of  equality.  Except  those  who  hail  been  under 
the  protection  of  the  bishop  for  .some  time,  the  Jews 
of  Ag<le,  in  the  year  127.'^,  were  comi)elleil  to  ])ay 
their  taxes  directly  to  the  royal  treasury,  Tlmse 
under  the  bisho|)'s  tare  continued  to  pay  their  taxes 
to  the  Church,  The  number  of  Jews  in  Agde  can 
not  have  been  large,  as  they  po.s.se.sse(l  no  cemetery 
there  and  had  to  bury  their  dead  in  Beziers,  three 
miles  away. 

BiBLm(;R.\PiiY :  Aaron lia-Kohen.  Orhot-IJamiti'u '. "fi'' :  Salirc 
JvifKde  LatwuetttK,  pp.  39.  dtH);  Gross!  Gallia  Judaica,  pp. 

-'•-■•  M.S. 

AGE,  OLD :  Various  terms  are  used  in  the  Bible 
to  designate  the  declining  years  of  life.  The  most 
frer|Uent  is  zakeii  (old.  and  old  man).  This  term  is 
applied  first  to  Abraham  and  thereafter  to  other 
Biblical  worthies,  as  Is;iae.  Jacob.  Joshua,  Eli,  Sam- 
uel, and  David.  In  a  nund>er  of  instances  the  tcMiii 
is  defined  by  the  additional  expres.sion  "advanced 
in  years."  This  term  zaki-n  is  connected  with  the 
word  znkini  (beard),  the  gi>iy  beard  being  the  most 
striking  sign  of  age.  From  zaken  are  obtained  the 
derivatives  ziknah  and  zikmiim,  meaning  "old  age." 
We  find  also  the  following  expressions:  mlmJi  (uhl 
age),  !/fi)i/i i/i/i  (an  old  man),  siha'  i/niniiii  (siitiated  with 
years),  mela  ynniiiit  (full  of  years),  kaUiir  yntiiim  (rich 
in  years).  Of  the  two  terms  most  commonly  used 
for  Old  Age.  sebah  designated  a  greater  age  than 
ziknah.  In  the  Mishnah  Ab.  v.  21.  where  the  ages 
of  man  are  enumerated,  the  age  of  sixtj-  is  calle<l 
ziknah.  while  that  of  seventy  is  called  sebah.  In  the 
Bible  itself  (Hs,  xc.)  we  find  but  one  definite  st;ite- 
ment  of  the  limit  of  life:  "The  days  of  our  years  are 
threescore  yearsand  ten ;  and  if  by  reasim  nf  strength 
the}'  be  foiu'score  years,  yet  is  their  str<'ngthl:diorand 
sorrow  "  (Ps.  xc.  iO).  In  the  Talmud  we  find  a  simi- 
lar stateim'nt :  "  If  one  dies  at  eighty,  he  has  reached 
old  age"  (JI.  K.  28<(,  B.  B.  7.w). 

The  physical  ills  attendant  upon  Old  Age  were 
fully  aiipreciated  by  the  Biblical  and  Talmudieal 
sages.  The  author  of  Ecclesiastes  in  his  celebrated 
dirge  indicates  the  failing  powers  of  age  (Eccl.  xii, 
1-7):  and  the  Psjdmist  makes  jiathetic  reference  to 
the  infirmity  of  his  declining  years  (Ps.  Ixxi.  9-lH). 
In  the  Mishnah  the  greater  inability  of  the  aged  to 
aciiviiie  learning  is  set  forth  by  the  following  simile: 
"When  the  oUl  receive  instruction  it  is  like  writing 
a  palimpsest  "  (Ab,  iv.  20) ;  and  in  a  passage  of  the 


231 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agape 
Ageda 


Talmud,  in  which  youth  is  eomparcil  with  Old  Age, 
there  is  the  somewhat  eiiigiiiatic  statement.  "Two 
are  better  tlian  three  "  (i^liah.  1-V2<() — an  exjjression 
strangely  similar  to  the  so-called  "riddle  ot  the 
S]>hinx." 

Tlie  fact  that  Abraham  is  the  first  person  men- 
tioned in  the  Hible  as  aged  gave  rise  to  the  follow- 
ing Haggadah:  "L'ntil  Abndiam's  time  the  young 
and  the  old  were  not  distinguishable  from  each  other; 
couse(iU(ntly,  young  i)eople  would  jest  with  Abra- 
ham, taking  him  for  their  companiun.wliereas  the  old 
addressed  Isaac  in  a  manner  becoming  a  man  of  jcars. 
This  iniluced  Abraham  to  pray  to  Uo<l  frjr  an  out- 
ward token  of  dignity  and  honor  for  tliose  advanced 
in  years;  and  the  Lord,  granting  his  wish,  said. 
'Thou  shalt  be  the  first  iijion  whose  head  the  silver 
crown  of  old  age  shall  rest  '"  (Tan..  Havye  Sandi, 
ed.  IJuber,  4-.");  Gen.  H.  l.w.;  15.  ."\I.  IST-c  iSaiih.  IDTi). 
Old  Age  iini)liesa  state  of  inactivity  ;  hence  its  help- 
lessness entailed  upon  the  young  the  duty  of  ju-ovi- 
ding  for  the  sup]i(irt  and  <<)mfort  of  the  "old  (Ruth, 
iv.  l.j).  The  Ess<iie  brotherhoods.  <'Specially,  niaile 
it  their  object  "to  honor  the  old  and  provide  for 
them;  just  as  lawful  children  honored  and  provided 
for  their  jiarenls,  so  they  ollcred  the  aged  all  possible 
comfort  by  l>ersonal  care  anil  wise  forethought" 
(I'hilo.  ed.Mangey.  ii.  4.")!t).  During  I  he  .'Middle  Ages 
the  aged  who  lacked  support  found  shelter  in  houses 
established  by  the  .lewisli  community,  called  hckdesh 
(see  HkivDKsh  and  1{i;xi-:v(>i.i-;nt  Institi  tioxs). 

Most  marked  are  the  teachings  of  Hililiciil  imd  Tal- 
mudical  ethics  in  regard  to  the  respect  due  to  Old  Age. 
Age  as  such  is  regarded  as  venerable  and  deserving 
of  consideration  from  the  young.  In 
Respect  for  Lev.  .\ix.  :ii  the  attitude  of  the  young 
Old  Age.  toward  the  old  is  expressed  in  no  un- 
certain tone:  "Thou  shalt  rise  up  be- 
fore till-  hoary  hiad.  anil  honor  the  face  of  the  old 
man."  The  respect  entertained  for  Old  .\ge  is  indi- 
cated in  a  number  of  expressions  in  Biblical  and 
rabbinical  literature,  such  as  the  following:  "The 
hoary  head  is  a  crown  of  glory,  if  it  shall  i)e  found 
in  the  way  of  righteousness"  (Prov.  .xvi.  31);  "De- 
spise not  thy  mother  when  she  is  old"  (Prov.  xxiii. 
'2'i)\  "The  beauty  of  old  men  is  the  gray  head  "(Prov. 
x.x.  20).  When  Kliliu  is  introduced  as  one  of  the 
s|iiakers  in  the  liook  of  .!ol).  we  read  that  "Elihu 
had  waited  till  .lob  had  spoken  because  tliev  were 
elder  than  he"  (,Iob.  xxxii.  4).  The  Talnuid  also 
has  numerous  expressions  of  a  similar  tenor.  Of 
ISabbi  Meir  it  is  told  thai  he  arose  whenever  he  saw 
even  an  ignorant  old  man;  for.  sjiid  he,  "the  verj- 
fact  that  he  has  grown  old  must  be  due  to  some 
merit"  (Yer,  I5ik.  iii.  (i.'xi.  Habbi  .loliaiian  always 
arose  before  an  aged  lieatlien,  becatise,  as  he  said,  of 
the  sulTerings  the  heathen  must  have  endured  in  the 
«ourse  of  a  long  life  iKid.  :i:i.O.  "  Uespect  even  the 
old  man  who  has  lost  his  learning"  is  found  in 
the  Talmud;  "for  there  were  placed  in  the  ark  of 
the  covenant  not  oidy  the  two  perfect  tablets  of  the 
Law.  l)ut  also  the  fragments  of  the  tablets  that  Moses 
sliallered  when  he  .saw  the  peoi)le  dancing  before  tlie 
golden  calf"  (l!cr.  VJi). 

In  sevend  passages  of  the  Bible  (Deut.  x.\viii.  50; 

Isji.  iii.  .">.  xlvii.  (i;  Ijun.  v.  12)  disrespect  for  the  aged 

is  considered  as  one  of  the  marks  of 

Age  Sjm-    evil  times;  and  in   the  Talmud   it   is 

onjrmous    stated  that  a  sign  of  the  troubled  davs 

with  preceding  the  coming  of  the  Messiah 

Wisdom.      will  be  the  lack  of  respect  and  courtesv 

shown    by   the   yoinig    towanl    IheiV 

elders   (Sotah.    AWi).     The    reason    foi    the    respect 

shown  to  Old  .\gc  lay  chielly  in  the  circuinstance  that 

advanced  years  were  supposed  to  bring  experience 


and  wisdom.  The  old  man,  having  passed  through 
the  tiials  of  life,  was  looked  upon  as  a  source  of 
counsel,  and  as  being  tilled  w  itli  the  spirit  of  discre- 
tion and  knowledge  (.lob,  xii.  12;  xv.  10).  Hence, 
the  term  zaken  came  to  be  used  for  wise  man  (coun- 
selor), and  also  for  elder  in  the  .sense  of  ruler.  Ex- 
pres.sive  of  this  is  the  definition  of  zaljen  which 
we  find  in  the  Talmml.  "The  zakeu  is  he  who  has 
acquired  wisdom"  (Kid.  'i'ih).     Compare  the  pun  in 

Sifra.  Kedoshim,  vii.  12  n03n  ni^'C  HT  N^N  [pt  pX— 
which  is  obviously  the  older  form,  .\nother  indica- 
tion of  it  is  the  story  told  by  Eleazar  ben  Azariah, 
who,  having  been  elected  iiresiilent  of  the  Sanhedrin 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  was  considered  too  young. 
But  a  wondrous  thing  happened:  his  beard  "turned 
white,  so  that  he  had  the  appearance  of  an  old  iium 
("Lo!  I  am  like  a  man  of  seventy  " — Ber.  2y<0.  In 
accordance  with  this  thought,  there  is  a  strain  run- 
ning througho\il  the  literature  of  the  .lews,  indica- 
ting that  the  exiHiHence  of  years  is  tlie  best  guide 
for  deciding  vexed  i|Ue.stions.  After  the  death  of 
Solomon,  his  son  Hehoboam.  by  disregarding  the  ad- 
vice of  the  elders  and  following  the  counsel  of  young 
inen,  brought  about  the  division  of  the  kingdoiu  (I 
Kings,  xii.  VA.  14).  A  similar  incident  is  ircorded 
in  the  Talmud.  In  the  days  of  Hadrian,  when  the 
enthusiastic  young  men  advised  the  rebuilding  of 
the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  .some  wise  nun  reminded 
the  people  of  the  event  that  occurred  in  Hehoboam's 
time,  and  .sjiid.  "If  young  people  advise  you  to 
build  the  Tem|de,  ami  old  men  .Siiy  destroy  it,  give 
ear  to  the  latter:  for  the  building  of  the  young  is 
destruction;  and  the  tearing  down  of  the  old  is  con- 
struction" (Tosef..  -.Vb.  Zarah  i.  19).  The  classic 
passii.ge  on  Old  .Vge  in  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus 
(Sirach,  xxv.  4-6)  lays  .stress  upon  the  insight  that 
comes  with  years:  "How  beautiful  a  thing  is  judg- 
ment for  gray  hairs,  and  for  elders  to  know  counsel  I 
Howbeautifid  is  the  wisdom  of  old  men.  and  thought 
and  coun.sel  to  men  that  are  in  honor.  Much  experi- 
ence is  the  crown  of  old  men;  and  their  glorying  is 
the  fear  of  the  Lord."  Hence.  "He  who  learns  from 
the  old  is  like  one  who  eats  ripe  grapes  and  drinks 
old  wine"  (.Vb.  iv.  2(1). 

Of  the  wise  who  have  begun  to  acquire  learning 
in  early  youth  and  continued  to  devote  thein.selves 
to  .stuily  after  they  have  grown  old.  it  is  said.  "The 
older  scholars  grow,  the  greater  their  wisdom  be- 
comes "  (Shab.  1.52'0-  Bui  there  are  statements  iu 
the  Bible  and  the  Talmud  to  the  elTirt  that  mere 
length  of  years  offers  no  claim  to  reverence  (Job. 
xxxii.  (W)).  The  Psjdmist  exclaims.  "I  understand 
more  than  the  aged,  becau.se  I  have  kept  thy  pre- 
cepts" (Ps.  cxix.  100)  ;  and  the  Preacher  declares. 
"Better  is  a  poor  and  wise  child  than  an  old  and 
foolish  king"(Eccl.  iv.  IH).  .More  einplialic  is  the 
author  of  the  Book  of  Wi.sdom  when  he  says:  "  Hon- 
orable old  a.ire  is  not  that  which  standetii  in  length 
of  time,  norisils  measure  given  by  nuiidier  of  years: 
but  understanding  is  gray  hairs  unto  men.  and  an 
unspotted  life  is  ripe  old  age"  (iv.  S.  it),  .*^imilarly. 
Habbi  Judah  ha  Nasi  advised.  "Look  not  upon 
the  ves,sel.  but  at  what  is  in  it.  for  there  are  new  ves- 
.sels  full  of  old  w  inc.  and  there  an-  old  vess«'ls  which 
do  not  contain  even  new  wine"  (Ab.  iv.  207).  In 
the  Midrash,  too,  it  is  well  said,  "There  is  i\\\  old  age 
without  the  glory  of  long  life;  and  there  is  long  life 
wiilii>ut  the  ornament  of  aire:  perfect  is  t lull  old  age 
whirli  lialli  lioth"  (Cell,  |{.  I\i\  i  D.    V 

AGEDA,  ALLEGED  CONFERENCE  OF; 

In  an  Liigli>h  panqiblet.  entitled  "  .\  Narrative  of  the 
Proceedings  of  a  (Jreat  Council  of  Jews  .Vs.setnbled 
on  the  Plain  of  .Vgeila  in  Hungary,  about  Thirty 


AReda 
Ai^es  of  If  an 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


232 


Leagues  from  Biula,  tdExaiiiini'  tlic  SfripturesCon- 
(•i-rniii!;  Chrisl,  on  the  Twclflli  of  OclotuT,  IGoO," 
Ldiidon,  16.")"),  a  certain  Samuel  Hrett  gives  a  full 
re|iiirt  of  a  tictilious  .Icwisli  eonference.  sjiiil  to  have 
been  lielil  at  Ageila.  Ilunirarv,  in  October,  lOoO,  It 
was  attended  by  three  hundred  ral)bis  and  tliree 
thousiind  persons,  who  had  come  together  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  to  consider  their  attitude  toward 
Christianity.  Oidy  tliose  .lews  were  admitted,  he 
states,  who  understood  Hebrew  and  were  able  to 
trace  their  pedigree  toihe  Twelve  Tribes.  Six  Cath- 
olic friars,  specially  delegated  by  the  |)o|)e,were  also 
present.  The  discussion,  carried  on  in  pure  Ilebn'W, 
lasted  for  eight  days.  The  doctrines  of  the  Church, 
as  expounded  by  the  Roman  friars,  were  rejected  as 
idolatrous;  and"  the  Jews  fell  back  to  their  former 
[losition.  Some  of  them,  liowcver,  expressed  a  fa- 
vorable opinion  of  Protestantism,  and  especially  of 
the  r.,ondon  clergy. 

This  report  found  its  way  to  Germany  and  Ilun- 
garv,  where  it  was  variously  reproduced  {".Sula- 
mith,"  II.  i.  233-^4:5;  "  Allg."  Zeit.  d.  Jud."ls3.S; 
Fenyes,  "  JIagyaroszagnak  Sat.  Mostani  Allapot.ia," 
iii.  27.  and  in  many  geographical  and  historical 
works:  compare  Leojiold  Lijw,  "Gesammelte  Schrif- 
ten,"  iv.  41!)).  It  is  still  found  liere  and  there  in 
pamphlets  of  the  Jewish  missions  in  England,  Ger- 
many, and  Austria. 

However,  on  critical  examination,  the  story  shows 
all  the  marks  of  a  fictitious  creation.  There  is  no 
idace  in  all  Hungary  known  as  Ageda:  the  rcMiuirc- 
ment  of  a  pedigree  was  foreign  to  Jews  of  that 
])eriod ;  and  the  statement  that  the  discu.ssions  were 
carried  on  in  Hebrew  is  also  very  suspicious.  Fur- 
thermore, an  event  of  such  :iia,gnit\ide  would  have 
create<l  the  deepest  commotion  in  Israel,  and  would 
have  given  rise  to  lieatcd  polemics  and  much  wri- 
ting of  responsii;  whereas  there  is  not  the  slightest 
evidence  in  Jewish  literature  to  corroborate  Uretl's 
account.  Manasseh  ben  Israel  in  his  "Vindicite 
Jud;eorum"  speaks  of  "the  fabulous  narrative"  of 
the  proceedings  of  this  cotincil. 

It  is  probable  that  Brett  wrote  his  apocryphal  ac- 
count with  a  twofold  purpose;  (1)  to  demonstrate 
the  incapacity  of  Catholicism  to  fulfil  its  mis.siou ; 
and  (2)  to  spur  English  Christendom  to  financial 
contributions  for  the  Jewish  missions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY :  Sutamith.  II. i.233-21.3 :  Ang.Zcit. d,  Jud.  1838 ; 
Li')W,  Gesammelte  Sehrifteii,  iv.  418  et  «»(•;  Selig  Cassel, 
Vehcr  die  Rabhincrvcriiammhina  dcs  Jahrea  lOoo.  Berlin, 
181J. 

M.  B. 

AGEN :  A  town  In  the  department  of  Lot-ct- 
(iniomii'.  France,  on  the  banks  of  the  Garonne, 
southiast  of  Bordeau.x.  Some  Jews  settled  herein 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  records 
show  that  the  Jews  of  Agen  were  the  first  victims  of 
the  persecutions  by  the  fanatical  "Shepherds"  (P.vs- 
TOUKE.wx),  abody  of  wandering  friars,  who,  headed 
by  a  Hungarian  monk,  under  the  pretense  of  deliv- 
ering Saint  Louis,  the  king  of  France,  then  a  pris- 
oner in  the  hands  of  Saracens,  committed  barbar- 
ous ravages  before  they  could  be  siip|iresse(l.  From 
.Vgen,  the  Ijloody  persecutions  spread  through  more 
than  120  communities  in  Guienne  and  Gascony. 
The  unfortunate  Jews  sent  delegates  to  the  king 
of  France  imploring  Ids  protection.  That  Jews 
were  still  in  Agen  and  its  environs  in  12.')0  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  the  seneschal  there  was  ordered  to 
find  all  prohibited  Hebrew  books,  and  that  the  Do- 
minicans, who  aided  the  authorities,  threatened  with 
excommunication  all  Christians  who  hid  these  books, 
or  sympathized  with  the  Jews. 


There  was  a  Immlet,  also  inhabited  by  Jews,  calleil 
Ageiiais,  near  Agen. 
Iliiu.iofiKAi'iIv  :  Shiliil  l'i;ii«l<i)i,ed.  WleniT,  p.  4;  ShiiMit- 

III  lia-l\iililiuliih.  eil'.   .\iiistercliim,  p.  HI ;  H.  (iross,  Uallia 

Jwtaicn,  p.  44. 

M.  S. 

AGENCY.  LAW  OF:  The  Law  of  Agency  deals 
with  the  sialus  of  a  person  (known  as  the  agent) 
acting  by  direition  of  another  (the  ]iriiiciiial),  and 
thereby  legally  binding  the  iiriucipal  in  his  connec- 
tion with  a  third  iieison.  The  person  who  binds 
a  ])rincipal  in  this  manner  is  his  agent,  known  in 
Jewish  law  as  xluluiih  or  Kluliit/i  (one  that  is  sent): 
the  relation  of  the  former  to  the  latter  is  known  as 
agency  is/itlihu/).  The  general  principle  is  enun- 
ciated thus:  A  man'sagent  is  like  himself  (  Kid.  41i). 

1.  Under  the  Jewish  hiw  an  agent  may  lie  ap- 
pointed without  the  formality  of  writing,  that  is, 
by  spoken  words;  and  witnes.ses  are  not  needed  to 
give  ellect  to  these  words,  except  to  prove,  in  case 
of  dis])iite.  that  authority  li:id  been 
Appoint-  given,  and  the  extent  of  such  :iuthor- 
ment.  ity.  The  standard  authorities  draw 
this  conclusion  from  the  remark  in 
Kiddusliin,  (W/.  that  witnesses  are  needed  only  to 
meet  denials. 

A  woman  as  well  as  a  man,  and  even  a  mar- 
ried woman,  or  the  "Caniuinite  bondman  ''  or  bond- 
woman of  an  Israelite,  may  be  an  agent  and  bind 
the  principal,  .■(/("/('(/(  (sciuh'r),  or //ni/nUin  Imi/il (maa- 
ter  of  the  hou.se).  A  deaf-nuite,  a  person  of  un- 
sound mind,  or  an  infant  (a  boy  under  thirteen  or 
a  girl  under  twelve  years  of  a.ge)  can  not  be  an 
agent,  being  deemed  deficient  in  reason  (based  on 
Mishnah  15.  K.  vi.  4);  but  such  a  one  may  act  as 
messenger  to  carry  money  or  goods  to  the  partv  in 
interest  by  his  express  con.sent.  In  no  case  is  a 
(r<'ntile  recogni/ed  as  the  agent  of  an  Israelite,  either 
to  bind  him  or  to  aciiuire  anything  for  his  benefit; 
an<l  a  bondman,  not  subject  to  the  marriage  laws, 
cannot  (pialify  as  the  agent  of  a  married  woman  to 
accept  a  bill  of  divorce  for  lier  (Kid.  41?),  Git.  234). 

An  infant  in  the  legal  sense  can  not  api>oint  an 
agent,  even  for  acts  for  which  he  would  be  compe- 
tent in  person;  thus,  an  infant  wife  can  not  depute 
one  to  reccivi'  her  liill  of  divorce  ((Jit.  vi.  3». 

A  paid  agent — that  is,  a  factor  or  broker  (sininr) — 
does  not  differ  from  the  un])aid  agent  in  the  relations 
which  he  can  establish  between  liis  principal  and  a 
third  jierson. 

One  who  wishes  to  authorize  another  to  bring  an 
action  for  him  to  recover  money,  land,  or  goods 
must  make  out  a  writing  known  as  n{<L""in  (letter 
of  attorney),  which  in  form  is  a  transfer  of  th<'  claim 
or  of  the  thing  to  be  sued  for.  It  must  contain  such 
words  as:  "Go  to  law,  win,  and  .eet  for  thyself" 
(B.  K.  TO(ir);  otherwise  the  defendant  need  not  rec- 
ognize the  attorney  as  a  proper  party  to  the  litiga- 
tion. The  Talmud  refers  to  these  letters  of  attorney 
only  in  cases  where  the  return  of  a  deposit  is  to  be 
demanded. 

:Maiinonides  ("Hilkot  Sheluhiu,"  iii.  2,  ba.scd  on 
B.  K.  70<n  holds  that  the  transfer  of  an  aliipiot  part 
of  the  claim  is  enough  to  .give  to  the  attorney  a 
standing  in  court ;  for  a  |)art  owner  may  sue  on  be- 
half of  himself  and  companions.  This  view  is  ac- 
cepted by  later  casuists. 

An  agent  may  appoint  a  subagent  (Kid.  41fl); 
but  under  the  Roman,  as  well  as  under  the  English- 
American  law,  he  can  do  so  only  by  special  authori- 
zation. Probably  this  would  also  have  been  the 
ruling  under  the  rabbinic  law;  but  both  the  Tal- 
mud and  the  standard  authorities  are  silent  as  to  the 
conditions  allowing  the  appointment  of  a  subagent. 


233 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


A^eda 
A^es  of  Man 


For  tlic  couditions  uiidor  which  substitutes  are  al- 
lowed for  delivery  of  bills  of  divorce,  see  Divokce. 

2.  The  powers  of  an  asent  may  be  revoked  at  any 
time,  and  whatever  he  does  after  revocation  is  not 
binding  upon  the  principal.  However,  the  revo- 
cation takes  ellect  only  from  the  time  that  it  is 
brought  home  either  to  the  agent  or  to  the  person 
with  whom  he  deals  (compare  rules  in  ^lishnah  Git. 
iv.   1,  with   reference  to  the  recalling  of  a  bill  of 

divorce  from  the  hands  of  the  mcs-sen- 

Revoca-     ger  sent  to  deliver  it).     But  when  a 

tion.         deed  of  manumission  is  handed  to  an 

agent  for  delivery  to  the  bondman,  it 
can  not  be  recidled ;  for  a  person  may  l)e  benetited 
in  his  absence:  hence,  the  mere  delivery  to  the 
agent  gives  the  liondman  his  freedom  (ift.  i.  6).  As 
in  the  Homan  and  in  the  English-American  law,  the 
death  of  the  principal  ends  at  once  all  the  powers 
of  the  agent,  and  the  heirs  are  in  no  wise  bound  by 
what  he  does  tlicreafter,  nor  can  they  benefit  by  his 
acts — such  as  taking  possession  of  land  or  chattels — 
unless  they  adopt  him  as  their  agent  {ih.  ;  and  see 
Git.  VAit  it  Kef/.).  But  a  request  to  an  agent  to  make 
a  gift  of  money  to  a  jiersou  named  is  not  revoked 
by  death,  it  being  carried  out  as  the  wish  of  a  dying 
man  ;  while  a  manumission  luider  like  circumstances 
could  only  take  ellect  by  delivery  of  the  deed.  The 
authority  of  a  subagent  is  not  terminated  by  the 
death  of  the  interme<liate,  but  only  by  the  decease  of 
the  principal.  Th<-  power  of  an  attorney  holding  a 
hitiiihiiiih  to  carry  on  an  action  does  not  lapse  by  the 
death  of  the  principal ;  as  he  is.  in  form  at  least,  an 
a.s-signee  and  acts  in  his  own  right. 

3.  It  is  a  general  i)rinciplc  that  the  agent  who 
acts  outside  or  beyond  the  power  given  to  him 
"does  not  etfect  anything";  in  other  words,  his  acts 
are  void,  and  neithi'r  bind  nor  benetit  his  principal. 

In  construing  the  powers  of  an  agent 
Extent  of  — especially  those  of  one  who  is  em- 
Powers,  ployeil  to  buy  or  sell  for  his  principal 
— the  tirst  rule  is  that  the  principal  is 
supjiosed  to  have  his  own  profit  in  view  when  he 
appoints  an  agent,  and  that  he  sjiys  to  him  in  effect, 
"I  sent  thee  out  to  gain,  not  to  lose"(Ket.  99'<  f  < 
)Mi»»iiii) .  When  the  agent  exceeds  his  authority, 
his  act  is  void;  l)ut  tliis  occurs  only  when  he  dis- 
closes the  agi'ucy.  As  it  is  presumed  that  the  agent 
is  not  to  act  so  as  to  cause  a  loss  to  his  principal,  a 
transaction  negotiated  by  an  agent  may  bi'  set  aside 
if  the  other  i)arty  to  it  be  guilty  of  "overreaching." 
even  though  to  an  amount  less  than  one-si.\lli  of  the 
value,  which  is  the  limit  allowed  between  parties 
dealing  with  each  other  in  person,  and  though  the 
purchase  or  sale  be  of  land  or  of  a  bond,  to  which 
the  law  on  overreaching  <hies  not  apply.  Hut  the 
prini'ipal  is  prot<'(ie(l  in  this  way  only  when  those 
dealing  with  the  agent  arc  apprised  of  hiseliani<'ter. 
When  one  is  entrusted  w  illi  liis  principal's  money  or 
goiKls,  and  lieals  with  llaiu  as  with  his  ow  n  w  ilhout 
disclosing  his  principal,  the  person  dealing  with  him 
has  the  same  rightsas  if  he  dealt  with  the  |irincipal; 
and  if  the  agi^nt  exceeds  his  authority,  or  disregards 
the  implied  limitation  not  to  involve  his  principal  in 
losses,  the  latter  nuist  look  tci  thr  aginl  alone  for 
redress  (Maimoniiles,  "  Yad  lia-Ha/.akali,  llilkot  She 
luhin,"  ii.  4). 

Any  one  appointing  an  agent  may  confer  upon  him 
wider  ]>owers.  agreeing  befi>rehand  to  any  transai'- 
tions  into  which  he  may  enter;  in  thiscase  the  prin- 
cipal is  bound  by  all  the  bargains  which  the  agent 
may  make,  whether  good  or  bail  (i'/».  i.  3). 

.\mong  later  casuists  the  opinion  gained  ground 
that  one  who  has  ilralt  with  an  agent  may.  in  a  (lis 
pule  with  the  principal,  claim  that  he  has  given  to 


the  agent  this  wider  authority;  and  the  principal 
will  have  to  bring  witnes.ses  to  the  contrarj',  if  he 
wishes  to  be  relieved  of  the  agent's  bad  bargain 
("Hoshen  Mishpat,"  SS  182-184). 

4.  Xo  distinction  .seems  to  be  made  between  paid 
and  unpaid  agents  in  their  duty  of  protecting  faith- 
fully the  interests  of   the  principal. 

Duty  of  Thus,  when  an  agent  is  entrusted  with 
Agent  to  money  to  purchase  land,  it  is  under- 
Principal,  stood  that  such  a  purchase  must  be 
accompanied  by  the  usual  warmnty 
of  title  {aluirnj/iit);  if  he  buys  without  a  warranty 
deed,  his  principal,  if  he  desires  to  keep  the  land, 
may  insist  on  the  agent's  tirst  taking  it  in  his  own 
name  and  then  conveying  it  with  his  own  warranty 
(Maimoni<les,  I.e.  i.  3," derived  from  B.  H.  169i). 

In  cases  where  an  agent  is  sent  out  to  buy  an 
article  of  known  ti.xed  price,  and  the  seller  supplies 
him  with  a  greater  quantity,  the  excess  is  divided 
between  principal  and  agent;  where  the  price  is  not 
ti.xed,  the  whole  excess  goes  to  the  principal.  If  an 
agent  is  entrusted  with  money  to  buy  certain  goods 
and  he  buys  them  for  himself,  he  must  surrender 
them;  but  when  ordered  to  buy  land  and  goods,  if 
he  puts  his  principal's  money  aside,  and  buys  with 
his  own  money,  he  is  considered  a  swindler,  but  no 
redress  can  be  obtained.  Such  an  act  may  even  be 
blameless  if  the  seller  happens  to  dislike  the  priuci- 
pal.  and  is  unwilling  to  sell  to  him,  but  is  willing  to 
ih'al  with  the  agent.  If  an  agent  sent  out  to  buy 
wheat  buys  barley,  or  vice  versji,  the  priiuipal  may 
claim  the  jirotit  if  there  be  any,  but  he  is  jiermitted 
to  throw  the  loss  on  the  agent.  A  factor  w  ho  has 
bought  goods  for  his  principal  and  stores  them 
carelessly,  so  that  they  are  injured  by  dampness, 
etc.,  is  liable  for  the  resultant  loss  ("Hoshen  Mish- 
pat,"/.c). 

5.  A  man  may  betroth  a  woman  to  himself  in 
person   or  by   pro> y  througli  an  agent;   a  woman 

maybe  betroilied  in  person  or  through 
Non-Com-    her  agent  (who  accepts  the   coin  or 
mercial       ring  or  anything  of  value  under  au- 
Ageucies.     thority   from   her);    a  father  can  I)e- 
troth  his  daughter  while  she  is  a  girl 
(between  twelve  and  twelve  and  a  half),  either  him- 
self or  through  his  agent  (ilishnah  Kid.  ii.  1). 

The  messenger  through  w  horn  a  bill  of  divorce  is 
sent  by  the  husliand  for  delivery  to  the  wife,  or  who 
is  sent  by  the  wife  to  bring  or  to  accept  it,  can  not 
properly  be  called  an  agent ;  but  agency  enters  into 
the  law  of  divorc<>  very  broadly  in  the  chapters  of 
the  Talnuid  in  Gittin.  For  agency  in  divorce,  see 
DlvciniK.  Betrothals  of  either  party  through  an 
agent  ceased  long  ago  among  Jews. 

For  the  relation  of  an  agent  toward  his  principal 
in  cases  of  taking  possession,  see  Ai-IEN.\tion. 

Dini.ioiiKAiMlv  :  I..  M.  Shiirimii.s  In  Jrw.  Qrutrt.  Ttrr. 

r.  V  n 

AGES  OF  MAN  IN  JEWISH  LITERA- 
TURE. THE  SEVEN  :  The  Biblical  allusions  to 
the  \ari(iusslaL'e>olliuiiian  life(.Ier.  vi.  11,  Ii.  22;  Ps. 
c.xlviii.  12)  ami  the  metaphors  in  Holy  Writ  con- 
cerning man  in  all  his  jihases  are  brought  together 
in  Low's  "Pie  Lebeiisalter,"  pp.  12- '20  (see  .VoK, 
'\'oiTii).  In  the  Talmud.  Ihe  idea  of  "agi's  of  men  " 
is  i'Xpres.s<-il  by  the  word  piQ  (litendly  "to  break  "; 
eom|)are  especially  Obad..  14).  To  the  rabbis,  a 
threefolddivisionof  human  life,  viz.,  boy  IkmhI,  youth, 
and  old  age,  seemetl  more  acceptable  than  any  other. 
In  Ihe  earlier  Midnishini  live  periods  are  mentioned: 
D':pt.  D'">y3.  D*Jt2p.  D'lina.  CS'PJV  iTiui.  to  Ex..  .cl. 
.Slitlin,  p.  l^Ui  In  Ihe  siime  work  (introduclion 
to   Haa/.imi;    PcsHi.  U.  xx. ;   LOw,  "  Lebcn.salter." 


Afres  of  Man 
Annates 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


234 


p.  24)  liuman  life  is  symbolicallj'  conipan-d  to  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  zixliae  (Kiiirlish  translation  in 
"Jewish  C'lironiele."  Nov.  23.  ISii-l.  p.  U).  Theconi- 
piilaliiin  of  tifleen  years  for  inch  aire,  to  be  found 
in  the  aihlilion  to  Abot.  v.  21  (Taylor.  ">>ayinj;s 
of  the  Fatlicrs,"  Eni;.  ed..  pi).  !I7,  DS,  Cambridge, 
1897).  and  attributed  to  Ben  Bag  Bag,  or  Samuel 
lia-^atan  (ibid.  p.  22).  became  very  popular  among 
Jews  because  of  the  educational  hints  thrown  out  in 
the  sjiying.  which  was  parai)lirased  in  verse  by  Solo- 
mon ben  Isaiie  Levi,  in  his  conimeiitary  called  "Leb 
Abot"  (The  Heart  of  the  Fathers),  "published  in 
Salonica.  \'M'i.      Aliriihiini  ilin  Ezra's  poem,  entitled 

131  im^103  mar  noiS  p  CJIortal  Man  Should 
e'er  be  .Mindful  of  his  Urigin,"  etc.),  has  often  been 
pid)lished  (see.  for  instance.  Abravanel.  "Nahlat 
Abot."  p.  189/<.  Venice.  I.IOT;  "Midrash  Shemucl  "  of 
Samuel  Uceilo.  Frankfort-on-theMain  ed.,  p.  56((  ; 
the  poems  of  Ibn  Ezra.  ed.  Ahiasjif,  Warsaw,  1893; 
Taylor.  "Savings  of  the  Fathers."  p.  22:  comjiare 
Steinsclineiderin  "Z.  D.  M.  G.."  IS^O,  iv.  164.  n.  77). 
A  German  version  of  the  poem  which  is  incorporated 
in  the  Sepliardic  liturgy  is  given  in  Ij('>w's  book,  pp. 
38,  39;  and  another  in  Lettcri.s,  "  Andachtsbuch." 
etc.,  pp.  14!),  lot).  Prague.  18(ii).  Other  poetic  selec- 
tions by  Spanish  Jewish  poets,  amient  and  modern, 
on  the  various  stages  of  human  life,  are  reproduced 
in  Liiw,  f.r..  )ip.  37—41. 

The  division  into  seven  ages  apjiears  to  have  been 
originally  Greek,  and  is  atlributed  .to  Solon  (flour- 
ished about  t):i!S-.").iS  H.C.).  who.  according  to  Philo 
("  Oe  Muudi  Opitieio,"  ed.  Mangey.  i.  2.5,  20),  speaks 
of  ten  ages  of  seven  years  each.  The  seven  ages  are 
first  met  with  in  Hip])oerates  (died  about  357  n.c). 
and  are  also  given  by  Philo.  whose  divisions  are  in- 
fancy, childhood,  boj'hood,  jouth.  manhood,  middle 
age,  and  old  age. 

Reference  to  the  seven  periods  are  (|uite  fre(|Uent 
in  the  Jlidrash.  There  are  some  dala  which  Li'iw 
has  omitted  to  mention.  The  .Midrash  Tadsheh  enu- 
merates a  number  of  things  divisible  into  seven 
parts,  such  as  festivals,  stars,  portions  of  the  human 
anatomy,  etc.     Among   others  are   the   following: 

}pr,  2C'.  c"x.  D^y.  nan.  nyj.  ih'' :  nioip  'r.  which 

are  the  equivalents  of  the  designations  in  Hippoc- 
rates (see  Jelliuek.  "]5.  H."  iii.  168.  lAijisic.  185.j; 
Egers,  in  "  Hclir.  Bibl."  xvi.  17).  A  siitirical  subdi- 
vision into  heptads  may  be  found  in  Eccl.  I{.  to  i.  2: 

"  Tlie  Seven  Vanities  of  whieli  the  Pr*'aelier  speaks  corre- 
spond to  the  seven  eons  of  man.  The  r)ii)d  of  a  year  is  iilce  a 
liiniB.  put  in  a  ( oneli  ami  ailoreii  l).v  all ;  at  two  or  tliree  lie  Is  like 
a  swine  tluhbllnp  in  filth :  at  ten  he  l«uinils  like  a  kid  :  at 
twenty  lie  is  like  a  lio!"se  neiphintr  and  spirited,  and  desires  a 
wife;'\vhen  he  has  inarrie<i  a  wife,  lieliold  I  he  is  like  an  ass; 
when  ehiliiren  are  boni  to  him.  he  is  shameless  as  a  dnir  in 
pmrnrinp  the  means  of  sustenance  :  when  he  has  prown  old 
he  is  like  an  aiie— that  Is,  If  he  is  an  am  ha-<irr2  [i)mo- 
niinusl— liut  a  learned  man  like  David  Is  a  king,  thougb  old  (I. 
Kings,  1.  D." 

The  Siinie  tradition  is  quoted  in  the  unpublished 
Midrash  ha-Gadol  to  Gen.  ii.  1  with  some  peculiar 
variations.  Parallels  from  folk-lore,  especially  on 
the  zoological  metaphors,  are  given  by  Ijiw  ("Le- 
bensiilterr"  m'.  23.  24.  371.  notes  40."  41)  and  by 
Egers  ("Ilebr.  Bibl."  xvi.  17).  Kenderings  of  the 
above  in  G<'rman  are  to  be  found  in  Wi'iusche.  "I)er 
Midrash  Kohelet."  p.  3  (Leipsic,  IHSO).  Liiw  (I.e..  pp. 
22.  23)  and  J.  Dessauer.  "Spruchlexikon  des  Tal- 
mud und  Jlidrasch."  pp.  12o,  126,  No.  !)4S  (Budapest, 
1876).  give  paraphrases  of  the  tradition  in  verse 
(for  English  translations,  see  Taylor.  "Sayings  of 
the  Fathers."  p.  Ill;  Hyman  Hurwitz.  "Hebrew 
Tales."  American  ed..  1847.  pp.  75.  76;  W.  A. 
Clouston.  "Flowers  from  a  Persian  Garden."  pp. 
257-259  (London,  189(1).  with  parallels;  compare  also 


Schcohtcr,  "Studies  in  Jtidaisra,"  1896,  pp.  295, 
299.  300).  There  is  also  an  interesting  elaboration 
of  the  legend  of  the  Seven  Ages  of  Man  in  an  old 
Midrash  on  the  "Formation  of  the  Child  "  (Ye^.inil 
ha-Wela<i).  published  in  Wagenseil's  Latin  edition 
of  the  treatise  So!ah.  pp.  7i-79  (Altdorf.  1674);  in 
Makirs  "Abkat  Hokel."  pp.  23./.  24A  (Amslenliun. 
ed.  1690).  and  in  Jellinek's  "B.  H."  i.  154.  155  (Leip 
sic.  1S.53I.  where  Plalo's  doctrine  of  pree.xistence  is 
indicated.  This  version  of  the  story  is  given  in  Yalk. 
to  Eccl.  i.  2(ed.  Warsiiw.  1S77).  p.' 1080.  S  9<>(i,  from 
Midr.  Zulta.  eil.  Buber.  p.  84.  where  it  is  ascribed  to 
Judali  bar  Simon,  who.  in  turn,  transmits  it  in  the 
name  of  Joshua  ben  Levi. 

The  fullest  and  most  striking  parallel  to  Shake- 
speare's "Seven  Ages"  (on  which  a  special  mono- 
graph was  written  by  Or.  John  Evans,  entitled 
"Shakespeare's  Seven  Ages  of  Man.  or  the  Prog- 
ress of  Human  Life."  London.  1834)  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Jlidrash  Taiihuma.  The  followjug  is  a  trans- 
lation: 

"  Forn<nv.  seyen  Wi^rlds  follow  one  another  in  rapid  sueeession. 
In  the  Ilrsl.  the  ehilil  may  In*  coniiian.^l  to  a  king;  alt  gR-et  It 
and  long  to  cat^ii  a  glimpse  of  ii ;  tliry  finhnu-e  and  kiss  It.  it  be- 
ing but  one  year  old.  In  the  sei-ond  stage,  when  altout  two 
years  old.  It  "may  be  eompao-d  ti.i  the  unelean  animal  whleh 
wallows  In  the  nilre.  In  the  third  jHTlod.  It  resembles  a  kid  of  ' 
the  goats,  which  capers  hither  and  thither  in  the  pres*'nce  of  Irs 
mother — an  object  of  delight  and  joy  to  its  pan-nts,  niakliig 
glad  the  hearts  of  all  whi)  l(K)k  upon  it.  [This  period  would  In- 
clude the  age  at  \yhich  it  Iwgins  Ut  walk  alone  along  the  public 
way.  ande.xtends  to  the  yeare  of  maturity  at  the  age  of  eiglil«-<'n.] 
And  now.  in  the  fourth  stjige.  lie  may  t)e  likened  to  a  siiirlted 
steed,  ninniiig  in  the  nice  and  contuiing  In  the  siiviiglli  of 
yoiitli.  But  there  comes  the  iirih  slai:*'.  in  which  he  becomes  as 
the  saddled  ass.  when,  at  the  UL'e  nf  furty.  he  is  bowed  duwn  by 
the  weight  of  wife  and  children.  lia\ mg  to  travel  backwanl  and 
furwardin  order  lo  bring  bonie  sustenance  for  the  iiienibersof  his 
liousehold.  And  tiow  mucli  keener  this  contest  iteconn^i  In  the 
sixth  [leriod  of  life,  when,  like  a  whining  hound,  the  brea.l- 
winner  of  the  family  in  shamelessness  nfces  and  tears  atwait, 
snatching  fnan  one  "in  order  to  give  to  another.  And.  lastly, 
there  arrives  the  seventh  stage  of  man's  existence.  In  wlilcii, 
ajx'-llke,  his  countenance  changes,  and  childlike,  he  asketh  for 
ewrythlng,  eating  and  itrlnking  and  playing  as  a  child :  and 
there  he  sils,  eyen  his  children  "and  his  household  mocking  at 
him,  disregarding  tiim  and  loathing  him  :  and  when  he  utters  a 
word,  he  hears  siidi  expressions  a.s  '  Let  him  alone,  for  he  Is  old 
anil  childish.'  This  is  the  period  in  which  liissli-ep  Is  so  light,  that 
the  iliiller- tif  a  bird's  wing 'v.iiiUl  n>iise  him  fnaii  his  slumlter; 
and  this  peil(»de.\  tends  t"  t  lie  t  line  liiwhicli  his  hour  of  tlepart  lire 
fri-Uii  this  world  Is  fixed,  at  which  the  self.same  angel  comes 
to  him  and  lusks  him,  '  Host  thou  recuenizeme?  '  to  which  he  re- 
phi's,  *  Inde*»d,  I  do:  but  wherefore  d<'sl  tliou  come  lo  me  just 
this  day  V  '  'In  order  to  take  thee  out  of  this  world,'  says  the 
angel,  'for  thy  time  has  come  to  depart  hence.'  ImmHllalely  he 
commences  to  weep :  and  his  cry  pierces  the  world  from  one  end 
t*>  the  other:  aiMressiiig  the  angel,  he  exclaims,  '  Ila-st  thou 
not  already  c-ause<l  me  i< .  .piii  two  Worlds,  to  enter  this  world  V ' 
to  which  the  aiiL'el  Ilnally  replies :  '  And  have  I  not  already  told 
thee,  that  against  ihy  will  thou  art  cr'ated— against  thy  wilt  thou 
art  b(irn,  apainst  tliy  will  thou  livest,  and  against  thy  will  thou 

must  render  a< iint  for  thy  actions  before  the  Supreme  King 

of  Kings,  blessed  be  He'/'  "  (Ab.  It.  N.  p.  2i). 

The  fir.st  Jewish  author  who  mentions  the  clas- 
sification of  Hippocrates  is  Solomon  ha  Levi  of  Sa- 
lonica, whose  views  may  be  found  in  a  sermon  de- 
livered by  him  on  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  in  1574. 
He  identities  the  seven  stages  of  Hippocrates  with 
the  seven  names  of  the  evil  inclination  ("  "i'ezer  lia- 
ra'  ")  spoken  of  in  the  Talmud  (see  his  "Dibre  Slie- 
lomoh"  (The  Words  of  Solonton).  pp.  lOlf,  297./; 
Low.  I.e..  pp.  31,  32.  36).  The  jdiysician  Tobias 
Cohen  (1652-1729)  was  also  familiar  with  the  divi- 
sion into  heptads.  "The  life  of  man."  he  says,  "ac- 
cording to  the  opinion  of  the  ))hysicians,  is  divisible 
into  seven  chai)tcr.s,  as  follows:  infancy,  childhoml, 
pubertv,  youth,  prime,  old  aire,  and  very  old  age" 
(see  ]A')\\J.e..  pp.  36.  372.  notes  82,  83).  His  views 
diiler  from  those  of  Philo.  Low.  I.e..  gives  a  Ger- 
man translation  of  Cohen's  own  ideas  on  the  sub- 
ject;  despite  his  learning  and  culture,  he  seemed 
to  be  intliienced  by  the  symbolism  of  luimbers  (see 
his  "  Maaseh  Tobiah."  p.  73«).  About  other  divisions 


235 


THE  JEWISH   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Aees  of  Man 
Ag^nates 


of  human  life  bj'  Jewish  authors  in  the  Middle  Ages 
and  in  miidini  times  sec  the  resume  in  Liiw,  I.e.  pp. 
2<>— 41.  Poetic  contributions  to  this  subject  from 
the  pen  of  Samuel  lia-N!i!ri<l.  Abraliam  ibn  Ezra, 
and  other  poets  of  the  Spiuiisli  school  are  especially 
inlerestiujr.     See  al.so  Skvkx. 

BuiLiOGturnv :  Warkernasel,  Die  Leltowalter:  Kin  Bei- 
trtw  Ziir  Veivteu-heiulfit  Sitteii- utut  liechtsiirsehiehte, 
lliisi-l,  WK;  lAHjpolil  Low.  [He  Liheu-vlUir  ill  thrJIUI.  Lit.. 
»y.vKtiX\n,  IST.i.  Addltluns  In  Stflnschnelder.  Ihhr.  Ilihl.  xlll. 
aa.itl.  B<'rlln.  l«~t;  xvl.  lii-lS.  Uerlln,  1H7H  IDr.  EKer's  n-vlew 
of  Low's  work) ;  llebr.  Ueben.  pp.  257,  874,  Berlin.  1S9;S. 

G.  A.  K. 
AGGADA,  THE.     See  Hacg.\d.vh.  Tiik. 
AGGADISTS.     >. .    Hago adists. 

AGGEI,  THE  PROUD  KING:  The  original 
idea  of  the  legend  con<criiiiig  the  I'roud  KingAggei, 
which  appears  in  various  forms  in  folk  lore,  is  found 
also  in  the  Talmud,  the  Midrashim.  and  the  Tar- 
gum.  Tlie  Russian  version,  as  rendered  by  CJarshin, 
reads  as  follows; 

"Till"  wi'allliy  and  mlprhtyczar  Ageel,  niler  of  a  preat  coun- 
try, ^rrcw  proud  and  hiiutfhtv.    iinc  day,  hearing  the  prlnst  n'ad 

from  ilH'  Holy  .srhptures  that  tin*  rich  may  [(tH-ome  j r  and  the 

|Mior  rh'li.  In*  bcrainc  an»?ry.  Wiw  It  pos.sllile  ilml  lit*.  Amfei, 
could  ever  becoiuc  [KMjr.  and  some  lH*iirpir  tx'roiiie  rlrli  In  Ids 
sit'ad  ?  lie  (prdnrvd  the  prle.si  to  be  Imprisoned  and  the  leaves 
i-onuilnint;  the  w<»nls  he  had  exinmiuled  to  lie  toni  from  the 
lMH»k.  tiod  thereuiKHi  resolved  to  liuiiiillale  AKpei  for  his  arni- 
ganre.  (in  one  tuTiislon,  when  huiitlm.;  with  his  servants,  he 
sl4irled  a  U'liittlfiil  deer,  which  he  pursued  into  a  hinely  place. 
far  away  fntiii  his  retainers.  When  the  ile«'r  ttHik  to  the  river. 
AiTL'el  swam  after  It  and  folltiwed  It  Into  a  forest.  The  creature 
was  an  anitel  that  had  taken  the  form  of  a  ileer.  Ijiter.  hy  the 
laird's  command.  It  assumed  the  aptiearance  of  .\l'Ui'I.  Joined 
the  hunters,  and  rode  htmie  with  them.  .No  one  su>i"-c(ed  ihat 
lie  was  not  the  real  czar,  though  all  wen*  surjirlseil  at  tl)e  rliauife 
In  liLs  iK'havlor;  ftir  he  liecame  serious  and  meted  out  Justice  on 
every  hand. 

"  tlH'  P'al  Amtel.  naked,  liiinirry,  and  exhausted,  met  a  shep- 
herd, to  whom  he  declareil  lilmstfl'f  its  the  sovereit'n.  The  shep- 
llerd  conskh>red  him  an  imtsislor  and  i;ave  him  a  thraslilni;  :  hut 
later,  dei-ldin^  that  Apt'el  was  lu.sane.  he  threw  a  sheepskin 
alHiut  him  to  cover  his  nakeilness.  When  Airtrei  returned  to  the 
oily  he  went  :o  the  palace,  hut  the  ^uanl  drove  lilm  :i«ay.  He 
then  had  to  work  as  u  common  ialNtrer.  t'oiuliiced  that  a  hold 
and  impuilctit  ini|s>stor  had  usurjK'd  his  place.  .Ak'^rei  repaired 
to  the  church  an<l.  when  the  new  ruler  piLs,se<l  hy.  limki'ti  Into 
his  face  and  immediately  ns-otfidzisl  the  an^ei  of  tlie  Loril. 
Filled  with  horror  and  fear,  he  left  the  city,  and  si«in  liecame 
convlnctil  that  (iod  had  punished  him  for  his  haut'litiness.  In 
his  hnmillatlon  he  confes.s»Ml  his  sins  and  prayed  to  (iod  for 
luen-y  and  strength.  At  the  end  of  three  years  the  new  .sover- 
i-iuii  issued  an  order  commanding  all  the  lH*gt?ars  and  the  poor 
(liniiitrhout  the  country  to  altenil  a  tfiiind  recejitlon  and  fea.st  In 
his  palace.  Amontf  them  wa.s  a  group  of  hllnd  men,  with  Aggel 
ns  (heir  leader.  When  the  angel  passed  round,  he  asked  Aggei: 
'Are  vou  also  ft  lieggarV  .\ggei  replied  that  he  wils  hut  the 
servant  of  the  Iwggars.  The  angel  then  told  him  that  his  jiun- 
ishment  wiLs  at  an  end  an<l  that  he  might  take  the  niler's  man- 
tle, the  sword,  and  the  scepter  again,  and  rule  the  jw-ople  wisely 
and  mildly.  Hut  Aggel  dhl  not  wish  to  rule  again  ;  and  he  went 
away  to  lead  the  hllnil." 

This  leirend  is  based  u]>on  the  haggadic  tales  of 
Solomon  iSaiih.  9."i</  ;  Cant.  H.  to  i.  10;  Targ.  Eccl.  i. 
12;  Midr.  Tan..  Waerii ;  Yer.  Sanh.  ii.  20;  (iit.  (!S/,  ; 
we  especially  the  old  Knssian  legend  of  the  "Czar 
SoUimon  anil  Kitovras"  ilhat  is.  Asmodeus).  which 
is  to  be  founil  in  the  collection  of  legends  on  IJilili- 
cal  topics  iindcT  the  tille  '•  Paleya  "  (14T7and  14it4). 
which  lire  niniost  exactly  the  same  in  contents  us  the 
Tiilmudic  Ilaggadah  of  "King  Solomon  and  Asmo 
di'iis").  S.  lii'ilin  is  of  opinion  that  the  Kiissiniis 
received  the  Talmudic  legend  in  a  Hussian  nnilcr 
ing  from  Sotilh  Kussiaii  Jews  in  very  early  limes 
("Skaziinie  o  (Jordom  Aggeve"  (Tale  of  the  Proud 
AgL'ei)  in  "  Voskliiid."  November.  IMUUl.  Israel  Levi 
in  his  article,  "  LOrgueil  de  Siilomon  "  ("  I{ev,  fit. 
Jiiives,"  xvii.  i"iH  ft  mi/.),  also  tries  to  prove  that 
the  legend  is  not  of  Indian,  but  of  Jewish,  origin; 
while  M.  Ves.si'lovski,  in  "  Netie  IJeiirilire  ziir  (ir 
schichti'  der  Salomonsnge  "  (".\r(liiv   fllr  Slavische 


Philologie."  1882.  pp.  393-411).  is  of  the  opinion  that 
traces  of  the  Indian  legend  (from  the  "Vikramach- 
aritni ")  are  to  be  found  in  the  Talmudic  tale  of 
"Solomon  and  Asmodeus." 

BiBLiofiRAPiiv  :  H.  Vamhagen,  Kill  Indifches  MUrchcn  auf 
Seinir  ll'tiwlerttuif,  Berlin.  Iss:*;  Krlanger.  Deitriluc  zur 
KmiliKelicii  I'll  ill  ill  niie,  Ix.  HI.  Krlangen,  1«90;  The  I'rnud 
A'iiij/,  In  liarUutm  itiut  Jnsaphat,  ed.  liv.'J,  Jacobs,  l>jndon, 
l.fllli:  Benfey.  I'anlilinhiiilni.  II.  124,  Ulpslc.  lH.-iU;  Will- 
iam Mortis.  The  I'nntil  Kiinj.  In  The  Karthlu  Partulise,  '.V\ 
eil..  p.  :il(i;  .Kivlnianns,  In  the  early  English  version  of  the 
Getita  Itiimnnoniin,  pp.  7.5  el  sci/.,  Ixindon.  1S7H;  I'os.  Nov., 
ISSKI;  ,.lrr/iir  |llr  .s'Ioris()i<;  Philnliiuie.  lt«.',  pp.  5t£.*  c(  *<;<(.: 
Ute.  t^t.  Jitieen,  xvli.  57-tVi. 

II.   R. 

AGLA  :  A  cabalistic  sign  used  as  a  talisman.  It 
isacomliiiiation  of  the  initial  letlersof  "»'lff"A  (lil>lH>r 
Le'iihiiii  Ailiiiiiii."  the  first  four  words  of  the  second 
benediction  of  Sheinoneli  'Esreli  (see  Moses  Holarel. 
comnicntaiy  on  "Scfer  Ycziiah,"  i.  2,  and  Hayyim 
Vital.  "Peri  Ez  Hayyim.  Sliaar  'Amidali."  IH.  and 
Mi-ir  ilm  (iabliai  on  "Shemoiieh  'Esreh").  To  Ihc 
letters  Jod.  He,  the  numerical  value  of  which  ecpials 
fifteen,  Isaac  Liiria  added  the  nunieiical  value  of 
letters  making  twenty,  which,  when  added  to  the 
fifteen,  thus.  ].5-|-20  =:  3.j.  is  eipiivalent  to  the  sum 
total  of  the  letti'is  in  Agla.  that  is.  l  +  3  +  :iO  +  l 
=  3.~).  Othercabalists  identify  the  name  with  that  of 
the  thirty-live  angelic  princes  of  the  Torah.  Cii'ide- 
maiin  ("Gisch.  der  Erziihiiiigihr  Juden  in  Ilalien." 
]i.  ;5;5li)  calls  allenlioii  to  Ihc  singular  fad  that  the 
four  letlei's  A  G  L  .V  inscrilicd  upon  wooilen  dishes, 
together  with  Chiistiaii  cro.s.ses,  were  used  as  a  talis- 
man against  lire,  the  letters  being  said  to  signify: 
Allniiie/ilif/i  r  Unit.  Li'i»ehe  An»  ("Almight}'  God. 
e.xtinguisli  the  flames").  J.  L.  S. — K. 

AGNATES  (Latiu.  Agnati.  Adgnati) :  In  Roman 
law.  kindred  on  the  paternal  side  only:  the  word  is 
used  in  contiadislinctioii  1o  enf/miti.  kindred  on  the 
mother's  as  well  as  on  thi'  father's  side. 

In  Jewish  law.  the  right  of  inheritance,  basi'd  on 
the  written  law  (Xum.  .\xvii.  8-11).  recognized 
among  ascending  and  collateral  kindred  the  Agnates 
only.     The  text  reads: 

"  If  n  man  die,  and  have  no  son,  then  ye  sliall  cause  his  In- 
heritance to  pas.s  unto  bis  daughter.  .\nd  If  he  have  no  daugh- 
ter, tlien  ye  shall  give  his  Inhcritunct*  unto  his  hrethrvn.  And  if 
he  have  lio  hrclhivn.  then  ye  shall  give  his  inheritance  unto  his 
father's  brethren.  And  if  his  father  have  no  hivthreii,  (hen  ye 
shall  give  his  inheritance  uiit<»  his  kinsman  that  Is  next  to  hlin 
of  his  fiiinlly,  and  he  shall  [hisscw*  it :  and  it  shall  U*  unto  the 
children  of  Isnieia  statute  of  Judgment,  as  the  Lord  coiiimauded 
Mos«*s." 

The  traditional  construction  of  this  law  is  found 
in  the  Jlislinah  (H.  B.  viii.  2),  The  order  of  succes- 
sion is  as  follows; 

'■  •  If  a  man  die,  and  have  no  son,  then  yeshall  cause  his  Inheri- 
tance to  pa.ss  unto  his  daughter'  I  Num.  xxvli,  s] ;  ason  conies 
hefoiv  the  daughter,  and  all  the  ile.si'eiidants  of  the  son  come  Iw- 
fon'  the  daughter.  The  danghtiT  comes  lH-fon>  her  uncles ;  and 
all  the  desi-ellilants  of  the  daughter  mine  iH-fore  her  uncles.  The 
broilierscoiiie  befon' the  father's  brothers:  and  the  desi-endani.s 
of  the  brolhers  come  U'fon'  the  fai Iter's  brotheiN.    Thegenenil 

luh'  Is  this :  Whoi'ver  Is  pn'fenisl  In  tl nler  of  succ<'»lon,  his 

desceniliints  an- also  preferred;  and  the  father  pixfedes  aiiyiif 
his  des4'eiidants." 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  default  of  issue  the  inherit- 
nneeasceiiilslollie  falhcrof  I  lie  deceased.  The  Mosaic 
law  does  not  provide  for  such  a  ciisi' ;  perhaps  because 
(he  text  deals  with  the  ori^dnal  division  of  the  Holy 
I.,and,  I  he  soil  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  inalienable, 
so  I  lull  no  one  can  well  have  an  inheritable  estate  in 
land  until  after  his  father's  death,  liul  during  the 
second  commonwealth  the  law  of  the  Jubilee  could 
no  longer  be  carried  out.  Thus,  it  would  often  hap 
pell  thai  the  estate  of  a  childless  person  would  go  to 


Agnates 
AKuosticism 


TIIK  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPKDIA 


236 


liis  surviving  fiithiT.  as  it  diil  by  tlio  Koiimn  liiw  also; 
iiiul  tliisiii  prefcrciui- to  1)1(11  hers  and  sisters  and  their 
descendants.  Neither  the  Ihhrews  niir  the  IJinnans 
shanil  in  the  slninire  notinn  of  the  coinnKin  law  of 
Enjiland.  that  land  must  in  no  ease  " ascend." 

Both  Hible  and  Mishnah  treat  the  daiiu'liter  only 
in  the  .siufiular;  hut  if  there  were  several  daufrhters 
they  divided  eciually.  80  did  the  several  sons,  a.side 
from  the  double  share  of  the  tirstborn.  wliicli,  how- 
ever, attached  oidytoan  inheritance  from  the  father 
(in  which  his  eldest  son.  irrespective  of  the  situation 
of  the  inotli<r.  had  a  double  share — Dent.  .\.\i.  I.VIT), 
and  not  to  succession  from  the  mother  or  brother. 
Tiider  the  words  of  Scri]ilure.  "of  all  that  he  hath  " 
(literally,  "all  that  is  found  with  him  ''),  it  is  held  that 
the  double  share  is  allowed  only  of  such  estate  as  the 
father  is  posses.sed  of  at  the  time  of  his 
Children's  death.  Hence,  if  the  father's  brother 
Share.  dies  after  him,  the  first  son  does  not  re- 
ceive a  double  share  of  the  estate  which 
conies  to  the  sons  from  this  source  throujrh  the  father. 
And  this  notion  is  carried  so  far  that  even  a  loan  or 
other  demand  owiufj  to  the  father  at  the  time  of 
death,  when  collected,  is  divisible  equally;  and  the 
eldest  son  mustalso  recompense  his  brothers  in  money 
for  the  fruits  or  corn  ears  that  have  grown  from  buds 
and  stalks  .since  the  father's  death. 

Wlu'ii  a  tirstborn  son  has  died  before  his  father, 
his  own  children  take  the  double  share  in  the  irrand- 
father's  estate.  Thus,  when  ,1  has  two  sons,  //and 
('.  who  die  before  him,  anil  .1  dies,  lln  daujrhter  (if 
lie  has  no  son)  receives  two  thirds  of  A'k  estate,  and 
C's  children  one  third  (B.  B.  viii.  4,  and  Gem.  ibid. 
Vi'ibit Kif].  ;  "Hosheii  ha-.Mishpat,"  i;  2TH);  and  gener- 
ally speaking,  under  the  principle  of  representation, 
remote  descendants  of  the  decedent,  or  of  a  coniinon 
ancestor,  always  take  by  families  (per  utir/icx)  and 
never  by  heads  (;«/•  nijiitn). 

Sisters  come  after  brothers  and  their  descendants. 
Although  they  are  not  named  in  the  Bible,  the  Mish- 
nah  takes  ycconnt  of  them  (B.  B.  viii.  1):  "A  man 
inherits  from  his  mother.  an(l  the  husband  from  the 
wife,  and  the  children  of  sisters  inherit,  but  do  not 
transmit";  and  with  these  words  it  excludes  the 
cognates,  that  is,  the  kindred  on  the  mother's  side. 

The  right  of  the  surviving  husband  to  inherit  the 
estate  of  his  wife  is  not  deriv<'d  from  Scripture.  The 
Talmud  (B.  B.  1114)  points  only  to  an  obscure  hint 
in  Num.  .\xvii.  11  to  suiiport  the  customary  law  of 
inheritance  t  o  this  extent ;  but  the  wife  never  inherits 
from  the  husband. 

Illegitimates  inherit,  transmit,  or,  as  links  in  the  line 

of  descent,  pass  a  succession,  in  the  sjime  manner  as 

those  born  in  wedlock;  uvenii  nmmzer 

Illegiti-  (child  begotten  in  incest  or  adultery) 
mate  Chil-  has  the  stime  .standing  as  a  legitimate 
dren.  child.  From  this  rule  are excejited  chil- 
dren that  are  the  fruits  of  intercour.se 
with  a  "  Canaanite"  bondwoman  or  with  a  Gentile ;  be- 
cause such  children  are  reckoned  after  the  mother, 
not  after  the  father  (comjiare  Dent.  vii.  4).  This  full 
kinship  of  illegitimates  (subject  only  to  this  excep- 
tion) with  the  fat  her  and  his  Agnates  is  recognizi'd  not 
only  for  the  purjiose  of  succession,  but  for  all  pur- 
poses; thus  the  law  of  tin-  levirate  applies  to  a  nat- 
ural brother.  In  fact,  the5Iislinalilaysd<iwn  the  rule 
of  equality  under  the  very  head  of  the  levirate  (Yeb. 
ii.  5):  "lie  who  is  a  brother  to  somebody  from,  an// 
source  puts  his  brother's  wife  under  the  duly  of  the 
levirate.  and  is  a  brother  for  every  purpose,  except 
when  one  brother  comes  from  a  bondwoman,  or  from 
a  Gentile  mother ;  when  one  is  a  son  from  any  source, 
he  frees  his  father's  wife  from  the  levirate,  and  is 
guilty  of  a  deadly  sin  in  striking  or  cursing  the  father, 


and  is  his  son  for  all  jiurpose-s.  etc. "  (see  also  Jlaimoii- 
ides,  •'  Nalialot,"  i.  7).  The  only  ditlicully  resting  on 
an  heir,  related  through  an  illegitimate  birth,  is  how 
to  prove  his  kinship.  Here  I  hi'  law  deems  recogni- 
tion by  tlie  ancestor  who  transmits  the  inheritance 
snilicient ;  and  the  father's  word  is  believed  when  he 
say8"N.  N.  is  my  son  "(B.  B.  viii.  (!,  sec  .Mainioiiides, 
I.e..  iv.  1-8). 

An  Israelite  who  becomes  an  apostate  does  not 
lose  his  standing  as  an  agnate  thereby,  neither  do 
his  children  who  are  born  of  an  Israelite  mother. 

Should  the  estate  of  a  deceased  (it  utile  fall  under 

the  jurisdiction  of  a  .lewish  court,  it  must  be  given 

to  histientile  kinsmen  acconling  to  the 

Gentiles  rulesofthe  Mosaic  law.  Though  the 
and  sagi'S  held  the  chastity  of  the  heathen 

Proselytes,  in  such  low  repute  as  not  to  recognize 
the  kinship  between  heathens  and  eon- 
verts,  the  reputed  kinship  between  one  heathen  and 
another  is  deemed  sullicieul  to  determine  the  right  of 
succession. 

Every  full-blooded  Israelite  is  supposed  to  have 
agnatic  heirs;  for,  if  need  be,  the  common  ancestor 
woidd  be  found  in  the  head  of  his  tribe.  But  a 
proselyte  dying  without  issue  born  while  he  was  a 
Jew  has  no  heirs,  as  the  marriage  of  (Jentiles  is  not 
recognized  as  a  basis  of  heirship,  and  the  estate  of 
a  proselyte  in  such  cases  has  no  owner  (see  ^lishnah 
B.  K.  iv.  7,  and  elsewhere). 

The  preference  of  sons  over  daughters  is  greatly 
moderated  and  often  reversed  by  the  right  of  t  he  latter 
to  maintenance,  based  on  the  marriage  contract,  or  Ar- 
iKhiili.  R.  .Moses  Isserles,  in  his  notes  to  the  "  Hoslien 
ha- JIisli])at "  (^  27fi,  4)  points  out  that  a  person  born 
out  of  wedlock,  whose  father  is  unknown,  stands 
on  the  .same  footing  as  a  ]U'oselyte.  If  such  a  person 
aciiuires  ]iroi>erly  and  dies  without  issue,  he  has  no 
heirs,  and  his  estate  belongs  to  the  tirst  occupant. 
In  short,  there  is  no  heir  by  the  mother's  side  either 
in  the  ease  of  legitimate  or  of  illegitimate  children. 

The  right  of  hoichjiot  {ni//>iti<)).  by  whichadvauces 

made  by  the  father  in  his  lifetime  to  his  children  are 

reckoned  as  belonging  to  the  estate,  so  as  to  equalize 

the  shares  of  the  children  after  his  death,  is  known 

both  to  Kouian  and  to  English-Ameri- 

Rig'ht  of  can  law,  but  was  not  recognized  (Mish- 
Hotchpot.  nab  B.  B.  viii.  7.  X)  either  in  sharing  the 
inheritance  or  in  providing  mainte- 
nance for  the  daughters.  The  sjtme  rule  for  the  in- 
heritance of  lands  applies  to  goods,  effects,  or  slaves; 
and,  as  under  the  Roman  law,  the  whole  estate  is 
treated  as  one  aggregate. 

Relationship  is  spoken  of  in  the  >Ii.shnah  as  an 
objection  against  acting  as  judges — in  criminal  cases 
as  in  civil  disputes — or  as  witnesses  (Sanli.  ill.  H,  4); 
btit  here  Agnates  are  not  the  only  kindred  to  whom 
the  opposite  party  may  object.  In  fact,  affinity  is 
ground  enough. 

"These  are  relations  [for  this  purpose!:  His  [a  person's) 
father,  liis  Itrother.  his  father's  brother,  his  mother's  blither, 
his  sist^'r's  hiisbantl,  liis  paternal  or  maternal  aunt's  husband, 
his  sl^'pfather.  his  falher-in-Iaw,  and  his  brother-in-law  (by  the 
wife),  with  their  sons  and  sons-in-law,  and  his  stepson." 

This  is  the  tradition  according  to  R.  Akiba;  but 
the  older  tradition  (tirst  !Mishnah)  was  as  follows; 

"  His  father's  hrothrr  and  his  father's  brother's  -son  and  who- 
ever is  i-apjtble  of  inheritinp.  or  who  is  at  the  time  connected  by 
marriage  with  a  woman  nearest  in  descent." 

This  earlier  view  seems  to  have  confined  the  ob- 
jection to  Agnates,  and  to  have  proceeded  on  the 
grouud  that  the  nearest  agnate  was  interested  in  the 
property  or  demand  in  dispute,  and  was  therefore 
unfit  to  act  as  judge,  or  to  give  impartial  testimony. 

L.  N.  D. 


237 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agnates 
Agnosticism 


AGNOSTICISM:  A  term  invented  by  Prof. 
Tliomas  II.  Hu.xicv  in  IHOit.  cxpres.sive  of  opposi- 
tion to  till-  cliiiins  of  the  Christian  gnostie  as  "  tlio 
one  wild  knows  all  about  (!oil  "  (sec  Ilti.xlcy  in  the 
■■  Nincti-i-iiih  CrnHn'y."  Fchriiary.  1^>*'J)-  in  adapta- 
tion of  Ihi-  descriptive  adjective  found  in  .St.  Paul's 
mention  of  tin'  altar  "to  the  iniknown  (Joil  "  (Acts. 
xvii.  23).  The  word  agnostic  with  its  derivative  has 
pas.sed  into  recent  literature  as  the  desiirnation  in 
the  main  of  the  theories  of  two  jrroups  of  thinkers. 
In  its  oriirinal  implication,  correspondinj;  to  the 
positi<m  of  its  inventor,  the  term  airnostic  npre- 
sented  a  state  of  suspended  jud;;inent  with  rcirard 
both  to  theism  and  atheism.  On  the  ground  that 
e.\istinii  evidence  does  not  justify  either  tliealtirma- 
lion  or  the  denial  of  tlw  beinjt  of  God, 
Name  and  God  is  held  to  l)e  unknown.  Ilowever, 
Meaning,  the  word  has  assumed  a  secondary 
meaninir.  It  has  come  to  denote  the 
theory  that  God  is  not  oidy  now  unknown,  but  is 
forever  unknowable,  on  the  assumption  that  the  na- 
ture of  liuman  knowledire  is  such  as  to  preclude 
knowledsje  of  ultimate  thiiif^s.  In  the  former  sense 
the  af^iKistie  jiosition  makes  a  reaction  against  the 
dogmatism  of  both  the  Church  ami  of  atheistic  ma- 
terialism. Each  jiresumed  to  pos.sess  ultimate  knowl- 
edge. A  proti'st  ajrainst  the  arroirant  gnosis  of  these. 
Agnosticism  reiiresents  a  wholesome  phase  of  modern 
thoutrht.  It  is  expressive  of  the  recognized  need  of 
modesty  and  a  liiifher  degree  of  reverence.  The  dog- 
matism of  till'  Church  was  neither  modest  nor  rev- 
erent; and  these,  its  failings,  marred  also  the  attitude 
of  itsantipode,  insistent  materialism. 

Not  content  to  teach  that  God  is.  the  Church  pro- 
ceeded to  catjilogne  what  He  is.     In  clainung  for  it- 
self this  knowledge,  it  ignored  the  linutations  of  hu- 
man thought.     It  cnn founded  analogy 
Han's        with  idi'iitity.  The  Church  failed,  fur- 
Knowledge  lliermore.   in  self  consistency.     It  ap- 
of  God.      pealed  to  revelation,  and  thus  conceded 
the  positicm  of  those  who  insist  upon 
the  inability  of  human  reason  to  arrive  at  a  compre 
liensive  knowledge  of  God.     On  the  other  hand,  it 
ftssuined  that  the  liuman   min<l.  lacking  the  insight 
to  attain  unto  the  knowledge  of  Gixl.  may  yet  under- 
stand and  interpret  revelation,  and  proceeded  to  de- 
velop, from  data  beyond  cognition,  a  theory  of  the 
Go<lliead  and  of  (ic.d's  relations  to  the  world  and 
every  individual  therein.    This  contradictiou  pidve<l 
to  be  the  vulnerable  point  which  atheism  was  not  slow 
toatta<k,  but  atheism  in  turn  fell  into  the  errorof  its 
antngonist.     Hefusing  toacknowledge 
Agnosti-     reidity  beyond  the   visible,   tangible, 
cism  versus  and  sensuous  world,  it  contradicted  it- 
Atheism,     self  in  buililiiig  up  a  tla'ory  of  the  uni- 
verse which   lraiiseende<l   the  data  of 
immediate  c.xperienee.     Ilsdinials  were  as  dogmatic 
as  were  the  allirmations  of  Church  theism.    Agnosti 
eism.  in  proclaiming  a  truce  to  the  verbalism  of  both 
eontestnnts.  <ame  upon  the  world  of  thought  as  a 
refreshing  breeze  after  a  hut  aii<l  stilling  sirocco.    As 
such  a  protest  and  reactinii.  it  helped  to  clarify  the 
atmosphere  ami  eonlribiited  to  the  reixamination  of 
the  foundations  of  belief       It  emphasized  the  neces- 
sity of  clearer  statements  <if  the  basic  propusitions 
at  issue.      Hut  it  could  be  only  preliminary      The 
metaphysical  interest  in  man  is  toostri>ng  to  resign 
itself  to  inactivity,  and  the  pas,sion  for  iniity  and 
harmony  is  too  insistently  interwoven  in   the  very 
constitution  of  the  htunaii  soul  to  respect  the  lines 
dniwn  by  this  Agnosticism  of  "suspended  judgment" 
in  expect4iney  of  further  anil  fuller  evidence. 

In  its  own  development  Agnosticism  had  to  pro- 
gress iH'yond  itslirsi  positions.    Enunciating  the  doc 


trine  that  God  is  not  only  unknown,  but  forever  un- 
knowable, the  later  agnostic  theories  recur  to  the 
meta|)hysical  epistemology  of  Kant  and  Comte.  as 
modified  in  the  synthetic  philosophy  of  Herlwrt 
Spencer.  Fundamental  to  this  jdiase  of  Agnosti- 
cism is  the  thesis  that  knowledge  is  conlined  to 
phenomena — that  the  nature  of  ultimate  things  lies 
beyond  the  reach  of  human  thought.  The  radical 
defect  of  this  contention  has  often  been  iiointed 
out.  If  it  were  true  that  our  knowledge  is  limited 
to  the  phenomenal,  by  no  possibility  could  we  ever 
become  aware  of  the  limitation.     To 

Develop-     atlirm  that  things  inthemselves  exist, 
ment  of      but  that  man  can  not  know  them,  im- 

Agnosti-  plies  the  contradiction  of  one  half  of 
cism.  the  propo.sition  in  the  other.  If  we 
can  not  know  things-in-themselves. 
how  do  we  know  that  they  exist?  If  we  know  that 
they  exist,  then  they  are  not  unknowable.  The 
knowledge  that  they  are  includes  in  a  certain  degree 
also  the  knowledge  of  what  they  are.  The  argu- 
ment which  jiroves  that  we  can  not  know  what 
things  are  in  themselves  tells  against  the  knowl- 
edge that  they  are. 

In  the  Kantian  system  the  principle  of  causation 
is  relied  upon  to  prove  the  existence  of  the  things 
in  themselves.  Hut.  if  our  knowledge  is  confined 
within  the  realm  of  idienomena.  this  principle,  of 
necessity,  will  apply  only  to  phenomenal  existence. 
We  can  not  take  one  step  farther  by  the  aid  of  this 
crutch.  In  knowing  the  limits,  we  have  pa.ssed  be- 
yond them.  This  new  Agnosticism  controverts  the 
position  of  the  sensatiouists.  It  concedes  that  sen- 
sations must  have  a  cause  beyond  them.selves.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  outer  world  is  regarded  as  an  in- 
ference, depending  on  an  act  of  abstract  thinking.  It 
is  then  conceded  that  we  know  more  than  the  imme- 
diate data  of  ex])erience,  for  sensjitions  are  the  only 
states  of  cx|ierience.  Yet  we  assume,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  causation,  the  existence  of  a  world  beyond 
and  antecedent  to  our  sensations.  In  truth,  the  kiiowl- 
edge  of  sensations  is  not  more  direct  than  that  of 
objects. 

To  know  consists  not  in  the  act  of  immediate  ex- 
perience, but  is  a  composite  opemtion  in  which  com- 
parison and  memory — that  is  to  say,  the  conscious 
revivifying  of  experiences  which  have 
Conscious-    passed  away  and  are  no  mori — play 

ness  and     considerable  part.     Self  consciousness 

Knowl-  as  the  basisof  thought  thus  transcends 
edge.  the  actual  as  clearly  as  does  the  in- 
ference of  tilings  beyond  the  phenom- 
enal. Rut  this  world,  to  which  our  sensjitions,  as 
interpreted  by  consciousness,  point,  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  which,  though  beyond  experience,  is  ours,  we 
inferiiret  by  the  data  of  our  own  consciousness. 
We  projeel  into  the  beyond  our  own  personality. 
Our  pei'sonal  experience  now,  as  Kant  himself  has 
pointed  out,  is  in  a  certain  sense  out  of  and  alMlve 
time,  since  the  conscious  unity  which  is  present  in 
it  all.  and  without  whi<-h  it  could  not  exist,  is  no 
member  of  the  tem]iiinil  series,  but  is  that  which 
makes  the  very  conception  of  time  possible.  Our 
own  self  thus  asserts  itself  as  free  from  the  limitii- 
tions  of  time,  and,  therefore,  it  is  not  proved  that 
the  reality  underlying  the  All  must,  of  necessitv.  1h' 
ipiite  uiiliki'  what  we  know  as  human  life.  \Vliat 
we  know  of  self  we  may  not  deny  to  the  absnlute. 

The  fear  of  falling  into  Antiikopomoui-uism  am> 
ANTiiiioiMiivM'msM  is  the  fatal  obsession  of  Agnosti 
cism ;  but  we  think  as  men,  and  can  not  think  other- 
wise. Mythopoetic  construction  is  inherent  in  all 
mental  synthesis.  .Science  can  not  spare  the  privilege 
or  resist  the  inclination.    Any  system  of  interpri'ting 


Afrnosticism 
Ag-ram 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDLV 


238 


niituri'  to  ninu  must  resort  to  the  picture  langunpe, 
wliicli  iiloiK"  evokes  response  from  the  liiinmii  iniiul. 
(oiifusion  ill  the  useof  tlie  term  kiiowUdiie  1ms  lent 
a  senibliuice  of  cojrency  to  the  ( cmlenlions  of  Ag- 
nosticism. AVhnt  we  know,  we  know  ns  human  he- 
inps:  tlint  is  to  sny.  in  its  relations  to  our  conscious 
self.  Sensiitions.  the  immediate  material  of  our  con- 
sciousness, we  know  in  no  mannerdifferent  from  the 
way  in  which  we  know  the  tuiities  lieyond  and  un- 
derneath these  sensjitions.  In  their  relations  to  us 
we  know  the  thinirs  in  themselves,  the 
Knowledge  existence  of  which  need  not  be  estab- 
of  God  and  lished  for  us  by  a  process  of  tliou^rht. 
the  World,  but  the  knovvledtreof  which  isan  origi- 
nal dfitiun,  which  is  i)resupposed  in 
every  act  of  thinking.  Our  own  personal  identity 
and  self-consciousness  are  of  things  in  themselves. 
As  we  know  ourselves,  we  know  them.  The  knowl- 
edge of  our  Ego.  which  is  the  consciousness  of  o>ir 
unity,  leads  to  the  knowledge  of  the  ultimate  unity 
underlying  all  that  is.  While  we  may  never  know 
what  God  is  in  Himself,  we  do  know  what  He  is  for 
us.  As  we  are  a  part  of  the  All.  that  which  we  are 
must  also  be  in  .some  degree  of  the  essence  and  nature 
of  the  All.  The  All  can  not  be  less  than  we,  a  part 
thereof. 

Judaism  has  little  to  learn,  and  still  less  to  fear, 
from  modern  Agnosticism.  Conceiving  of  man  as 
created  in  the  image  of  God,  it  bases  its  Godknowl- 
cdge  on  the  self-knowledge  of  man.  By  looking  into 
himself,  man  learns  to  know  his  God;  and  it  is  in 
terms  of  this  self-cognition  that  Judaism  expresses 
its  God-consciousness.  The  early  Biblical  writings 
are  naively  anthro|)omorphic  and  anthropopathic. 
The  iihilosophers  of  Judaism,  begin- 

Jewish  ning  with  Piiii.o.  prefer  to  hy  posta.size 
Views.  divine  manifestationsaiid  powers, such 
as  wisdom,  grace,  justice,  prescience, 
to  descriptions  of  His  entity  in  human  terms.  This 
tendency  finds  expression  in  the  nomenclature  which 
borrows  designations  of  si)ace  and  locality  to  con- 
note the  Deity.  "Being,"  "lie  who  is,"  seem  to 
sutlice  to  name  Him  adc(juately.  Beyond  this  ascrip- 
tion of  Being,  the  pious  disinclination  to  associate 
with  Him  other  and  less  comprehensive  connota- 
tions woiild  not  venture.  The  hazan  who  exhausted 
a  rich  vocabulary  of  attributive  descri|ition  in  his 
zeal  to  magnify  God  was  censured  for  his  presump- 
tion (Bab.  Ber"  336).  "'The  Name"  is  the  favorite 
sj'nonym  for  God. 

Funfiamental  to  the  theology  of  most  of  the  phil- 
osophic writers  among  the  Jews  is  the  thesis  that, 
while  we  may  predicate  existence  of  (Jod,  we  can  not 
attain  imto  the  knowledge  of  His  (luality  (Maimon- 
ides,  "Moreh,"  i.  US),  josejih  Albo  reports  the  an- 
swer given  by  a  "  wise  man  "  to  the  (|uery,  whether 
he  knew  the  ir/mf  of  the  Godhead:  "Did  I  possess 
this  knowledge,  I  myself  would  be  God"  ("'Ikka- 
rim."  ii.  30).  The  controversy  concerning  the  ascrip- 
tion of  attributes  to  the  Deity  was  fanned  intoa  high 
blaze  in  conseipicnce  of  dogmatic  disputi'S  in  the 
camp  of  Mohammedan  theologians.  Saadia  devotesa 
series  of  chapters  ("Emuuot  we-De'ot,"  ii.  -1-9)  to  the 
discussion  of  the  problem,  and  comes  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  attributes,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
can  not  be  ijredicated  of  God.  Those  found  in  the 
Bible  may  be  divided  into  such  as  inilicate  essence 
and  such  as  connote  action :  the  former  are  compre- 
hended in  God's  imity  and  are  a  mere  accommoda- 
tion to  the  necessities  of  language,  while  those  of 
activity  are  mere  designations  of  God's  power  in 
nature  and  history. 

Saadia  was  succeeded  by  a  long  series  of  thinkers, 
who  contend  that  the  attributes  have  in  reality  only  a 


negative  implication.  They  exclude  their  contraries, 
bvit  do  not  allirin  of  God  a  i)ositive  reality,  not  in- 
cludcMl  before  in  His  Ii<ing.  Jlaimon- 
Qualiflca-  ides,  in  his  ".Moreh  Nebukim  "  (i,  ,">()- 
tion  by  (id),  on  the  whole  is  inclined  to  accept 
Negation,  this  theory.  To  attribute  ipialities  to 
(iod  would  amoimt  to  limiting  Him. 
and  thus  would  degrade  His  Being.  The  attributes 
life,  power,  knowledge,  and  will  constitute  only  a 
seeming  exception.  But  while  in  man  life  and  knowl- 
edge,  thtuight  anil  ]iower  are  se]ianili'  and  divided, 
in  (iod,  the  One  and  Indivisible,  tliey  are  one.  (ioil's 
thought  isnolof  the  order  of  human  thought.  It  is 
spontaneous.  Why,  then,  adds  Mainionides,  in  view 
of  the  es.sential  dilTerence  of  implication  in  the  terms, 
use  them  in  connection  with  GodV  From  the  very 
beginning,  he  adds,  Jews  had  a  dread  of  ju-onoun- 
cing  the  name  of  the  Deity.  The  i)riests  alone  at 
certain  times  anil  in  holy  places  could  jjresiune  to 
utter  the  Ineffable  Appellatiun.  Others  had  to  para- 
phrase it.  Adonai  and  Klohim  designate  God  as 
cognized  from  His  works.  .Still  JIaimonides'  thesis 
has  also  its  jiositive  side.  The  more  we  know  what 
God  is  not,  the  nearer,  says  he,  we  draw  by  this  road 
of  negation  to  the  perception  of  what  is  involved  in 
the  concept  of  the  Deitv  as  the  (Jne  and  Indivisible 
Unity, 

In  all  essentials,  modern  Judaism  shares  the  i)osi- 
tion  of  Mainionides.     It  regards  all  attempts  at  de- 
scriptive connotations  of  the  Godhead 
Modern      asanthropomorphic makeshifts  to  find 
Jewish       words  for  a  thought  which  in  reality 
■Views.        is  beyond  the  power  of  human  tongue 
adequately  to   convey.     (Joil   is.     In 
Himself,  He  is  uid<Mowable.     In  so  far  as  He  is  in  re- 
lation to  our  own  self,  the  life  of  Israel,  the  human 
family,  and  the  world.  Heisknown.      I'p  toaci-rtain 
point,  then,  Judaism  is  a.gnostic.     It  parts  cornpany 
with  Agnosticism  at  the  point  where  the  certitude 
of  our  own  immediate  consciousness  of  the  reality 
beyond  the  limiteil  range  of  sensational  experience 
is  called  into  doubt.     By  the  light  of  thisconsciou.s- 
ness,  which  is  an  immediate  datum,  by  the  facts  of 
his  own  identity  and  persistency  as  a  conscious  en- 
tity in  time  and  space — yet  w  ithal  above  time  and 
space,  and  constituted  into  a  moral  iiersonality  by 
the  aililitional  data  of  Israel's  history  and  the  guiil- 
ance  of  the  world  and  humaidty — the  Jew,  in  accord- 
ance with  .Judaism's  doctrine,  draws  the  warrant  for 
predicating  in  his  faltering  human  language  the  ex- 
istence of  that  "  ))ower  not  our.selves  making  for 
righteousness,"  iiaraphriising  attributes  which  ag-  • 

nostic  metaidiysics,  in  its  confusion  of  the  imjilica-  * 

tions  and  the  linntations  of  knowledge,  refuses  to  ' 

admit.  The  I'nknowable  God,  througli  the  medium 
of  human  cognition,  is  apprehended  as  the  God  who 
is,  and,  as  existing,  is  known  by  analogy  and  brought 
nearer  to  man  by  symbolism  rooted  in  human  ex- 
perience and  human  self-consciousness.  See  also 
ANTIIIU)POM<)RrilISM.  E.  G.  II. 

AGOBARD:  Bishop  of  Lyons;  born  779;  died  ^ 
.Tune  tj,  ^4ll;  was  one  of  the  principal  opponents  of  '' 
Judaism  in  the  ninth  century.  In  his  lime  the  .Tews 
of  Lyons  inhabited  a  special  (piarter,  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill  of  Foiu-viere.  They  obtained 
from  King  Louis  the  Debonair,  of  France — the  son 
and  successor  of  Charlemagne — a  special  ma.gistratc 
(iiiiiffis/i  r  Jiidwitruui)  nameil  Eberard — a  ]>rominent 
man  of  the  court — to  defend  them  against  the  intol- 
erance of  the  clergy.  This  arotised  the  indignation  of 
Agobard,  which  heexpressed  in  four  epistles — one  to 
Louis,  one  to  the  priests  of  the  palace,  one  to  Bishop 
Hilduin,  and  one  to  Nibridius,  bishop  of  Xarbouue. 


239 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Airnosticism 
Agrram 


In  tlip  first  Ic-ttcr,  which  he  entitles  "Conecinino: 
the  Insolence  of  t  lie  Jews  "  {I)e  Insult  lit  id  Jmhuiniin ). 
he  complains  bitlerly  of  the  asritations  of  Eheninl 
and  the  royal  coniniission<Ts.  Gerric  and  Frederick, 
against  his  elerfry  and  himself.  "What  have  I 
done,"  he  asks,  "to  incur  the  anger  of  the  kins?  I 
have  coiitined  myself  to  giving  to  the  faithful  the 
following  recommendations:  not  to  sell  Christian 
slaves  to  the  Jews;  not  to  permit  the  Jews  to  sell 
them  in  Spain,  or  to  have  Christians  in  their  pay 
and  employ ;  to  prevent  Christian  women  from 
observing  the  Sabbath  with  Jews,  from  working 
with  Ihcui  on  Sundays,  and  from  partaking  of  their 
meals  during  Lent:  to  f(]rliid  their  servants  eating 
meat  iluring  that  period;  not  to  buy  meat  that  had 
been  bled  and  rejecteil  by  them  as  being  unclean 
and  theref(ire  called  Chiistian  meat,  nor  to  sell  it  to 
other  Christians;  not  to  drink  such  wine  as  is  sold 
only  to  Christians,"  etc. 

Agobard  tried  to  justify  these  recommendations 

by  enumerating  his  grievances  against  the  Jews. 

"They  boast."  he  says,  "of  beingdear 

Accusations  to  the  king  an<I  of  being  received  by 

against  him  with  favor,  because  of  their  de- 
Jews,  scent  from  the  Patriarchs;  they  exhibit 
costly  garments  which,  they  sjiy,  have 
been  pres<nted  to  them  by  the  relatives  of  the  king, 
and  gowns  which  their  wives  have  received  from  the 
ladies  of  the  jialace;  contrary  to  the  law,  they  take 
tlu-  liberty  of  building  new  synagogues;  ignorant 
Christians  claim  that  the  Jews  preach  better  than  the 
Christian  |iriests;  and  the  conunissioners  of  the  king 
have  ordered  a  change  of  the  market  day,  in  order 
that  the  Jews  might  be  able  to  observe  their  day 
of  rest."  He  ends  by  accusing  the  Jews  of  stealing 
Christian  children  to  sell  them  as  slaves. 

This  first  epistle  is  fcjllowed  by  a  memorandum, 
cotintirsigned  by  the  bishojisof  Vienne  and  Chalons 
and  entitled,  "Concerning  the  Superstitions  of  the 
Jews."  In  it  are  recounted  the  judgments  that  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church  have  jias.sed  upon  the  Jews, 
the  restrictive  measures  taken  against  them  by  dif- 
ferent councils,  their  false  superstitions,  and  their 
refusal  to  bi'licve  in  the  divinity  of  Jesus.  By  ci- 
ting numerous  Biblical  texts,  endeavors  are  made 
to  demonstrate  that  the  society  of  Jews  should  be 
avoided  still  more  than  that  of  pagans,  as  Jews  are 
the  opponints  of  (  hristianity. 

The.se  writings  did  not  produce  on  the  king  the 
effect  exiiecl<d  by  Agobard.  who,  by  ba])tizing  a 
female  slave  belonging  to  a  Jew  (despite  the  opjiosi- 
ti(m  of  her  master),  alienated  whatever  regani  the 
monarch  had  entertained  for  him.  Of  this  he  had 
evidence  in  the  coldness  of  his  reception  by  Louis  at 
an  interview  in  which  Agobard  attemiited  to  justify 
himself. 

In  a  second  epistle,  addressed  by  the  bishop  to  the 
priests  at  the  court,  he  consults  the  prelates  Ada- 
lard.  I'vala.  anil  Ilelisichar  upon  the  course  to  be 
pursued  toward  tin-  pagan  slaves,  belonging  to  Jews, 
who  desire  to  enter  into  the  pale  of  the  Church. 
Agobard  was  inclini'<l  to  admit  them. 

The  third  epistle,  addressed  to  Hilduin.  prelate  of 
St.  I'ahiis,  and  to  the  abbot  Wala.  reveals  still  more 
clearly  Agobard's  zi  iil  for  proselytism.  He  entreats 
them  to  iiiduc<>  the  king  to  revoke  the  edi<t  in  favor 
of  the  Jews,  forbiildiiig  the  baptism  of  their  slaves. 
He  points  out  that  it  is  a  sjured  duty  for  every 
priest  to  work  for  the  stilvalion  of  those  who  are 
plunged  in  error;  henci'  they  must  make  use  of  their 
inlluence.  "that  the  soids  that  <-onld  augment  the 
tlock  of  the  faithful,  and  for  whose  sjilvation  pviblic 
pravers  are  odercd  to(!od  by  the  I'niversid  Church 
on  t'a.ssion  Dav,  shouM  not  remain,  through  the  ob- 


stinacy of  the  unbelievers,  through  the  wickedness 
of  the  enemies  of  heaven,  as  well  as  the  pretended 
edict  of  the  king,  in  the  snares  of  Satan.  " 

Not  all  prelates  of  that  time  shared  Agobard's 
sentiments.  Nibridius.  bishop  of  Narbomie.  did  not 
hesitate  to  maintain  cordial  relations  with  the  Jews, 
and  even  invited  them  to  his  table.  Therefore  Ago- 
bard considered  it  his  duty  to  induce  him  to  break  • 
filT  all  intercourse  with  them.  "  It  .seems  to  me  to  be 
unworthy  of  our  faith,  "  he  writes  to  him,  "that  the 
sons  of  light  should  associate  with  the  children  of 
darkiu'ss,  and  thai  th<'  Church  of  Christ. which  ought 
to  present  itself  for  the  kisses  of  her  celestial  S])ouse 
without  blemish  and  witlKJUt  wrinkle,  be  disgraced 
by  contact  with  the  deliled  and  repudiated  Syna- 
gogue." And  after  having  recalled  to  him  all  his 
etTorts  to  prevent  every  intercour.se  between  Jews 
and  Christians,  notwithstan<ling  the  opposition  of 
Kberard  and  the  royal  conimi.ssioners,  he  adds: 
"  You  know  that  one  should  not  only  not  make  use 
of  those  who  do  not  want  to  accept  the  ai)ostolic 
lircaching,  but  should  shake  olT  the  dust  of  their 
dwellings;  in  the  Day  of  Judgment,  Sodom  and 
tjomorrah  will  be  pardoned  so(^ner  tliaii  tney." 
.\nd  he  concludes  by  requesting  Nibridius  not  to 
allow  any  of  the  faithfid  to  conununicate  with  such 
accursed  ones,  and  to  exhort  all  the  neighboring 
bishops  to  concur  in  that  work.  Besides  their  po- 
lemic inten-st.  Agobard's  writings  about  the  Jews, 
es]ieeially  his  letter  on  their  superstitions,  throw 
light  on  their  social  history  and  give  evidein-e  of  the 
existence  of  works  like  the  "<  )tiol  de  K.  Akiba."  the 
"Shi'ur  Iy)mah,"  and  the  "  Hekalot,"  in  the  ninth 
century. 

It  is  well  known  that  Agol)ard  opcidy  sided  in 
the  revolt  (if  the  sons  of  Louis  I.  against  their  father. 
His  wrath  at  having  failed  in  his  undertaking  against 
the  Jews  was  one  of  the  causes  that  led  him  to  this 
attitude.  In  H^U  he  was  conqielled  to  nlian<lon  his 
bisho]irie  an<l  to  seek  safety  in  Italy  with  Lothair, 
the'  son  (if  Ihekinir;  but  three  years  later  he  was  rec- 
onciled with  Louis  and  resumed  his  episcopal  duties. 

BiBi.iO(iRAPiiY:  Awtliardl  (>itera.  Parts.  IWttl;  Grfltx.  Oench. 
il.  Jtiitni,  V.  2o(>-2tMl:  lliuulcshaifcn,  lHwrjiatin  dr  .■!(/(»- 
/i(in/i  Vila  ((  Si-iiplix.  (ilcsseii,  ls;il ;  Mace,  Vir  il'Afiiitiiirtl, 
1S4«;  SaiiiDSZ,  Dru  lliiUiicii  AU'il/'inl  Ahhaiiilluinnii  wi<Ur 
</k-  juiku,  Ltlpslc,  ISW, 

A,  L. 

AOBAM  (ZAGREB) :  Austro-IIungarian  city, 
c.-ipilal  of  (  roali.i  and  Slavoiua,  situated  near  the 
Save  river,  about  ItiO  miles  from  Vienna.  The  first 
two  Jewish  fandlies  that  settled  at  Agrain  migrated 
thither  during  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
Inry.  Soon  after  the  Edict  (if  Toleration  had  been 
issued  by  Kniperor  Joseph  II.  in  17^<l.  the  numlierof 
immigraiits.  consisting  chietlv  of  merchants  and  me- 
chanics, slowly  increased.  In  11^11  they  bought  a 
lot  for  a  cemetery,  tind  twenty  years  later  imrchascd 
a  hou.se  which  was  used  as  a  synagogue  and  as  a  icsi 
deuce  for  the  rid)bi.  The  Christian  popidation  re- 
sented the  presence  of  Jews  among  them,  and  this 
led  to  occasionid  rioting.  The  most  seiious  disturb- 
ance of  this  kind  occurred  in  is;i!l.  b\it  did  not  as- 
sume |iro|"Mtions  of  great  conseiiueiice.  The  tiirn- 
ini:  point  in  the  history  of  the  cominuinty  dates 
from  the  foiunlation  of  its  school  in  1H40.  Shortly 
after  the  congregation  elected  a  rabbi  of  UKHleni 
views  and  (ierinnn  education,  in  the  synagogue 
the  Cicrman  sermon  and  some  trivial  changes  in  the 
ritual  led  at  first  to  friction  between  the  progressive 
and  conservative  elements  of  the  (ominunity.  The 
latter,  discontented  with  what  liny  considered  a  de- 
parture from  their  ancestral  religion,  si'ceded  in  lS-10, 


A^ram 

Agricultural  Colonies 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


240 


anil  formed  iinotluT  cunsiiciriition.  In  tlic  rnoari  tinip 
political  qucstionsocfupiid  llii'  attention  of  the  com- 
munity. The  united  conjirejiations  of  tlie  kiniriioni 
of  Croatia  (Aaram,  Kreutz.  Wanisdin.  and  Sissek) 
petitioned  tlie  Hungarian  parliament  to  ;;rant  tlicm 
the  franchise,  but  their  jietition  was  rejected.  The 
year  of  the  revolution.  1^<4X.  witnessed  insiiiniticaiit 
rioting  in  Ajrram.  in  spite  of  which  the  Jews  aliilia- 
ted  with  the  Croatian  party,  and  some  of  them 
also  served  in  the  army  that  fought  against  the  Hun- 
garians. 

In  18.")0  the  keeping  of  records  of  birlhs,  inar- 
riages.  and  deaths  was  introduced,  and  the  school, 
which  had  grown  to  such  an  extent  that  it  required 
live  teachers  to  instruct  thcclassi'S,  was  reorganized. 
Tlie  conservative  (larty  of  the  comnuinity  continued 
its  .separate  organization,  altlmugli  in  1S.")2  the  gov- 
ernor had  ordered  it  to  disband,  and  threatened  to 
punish  every  attempt  at  .scces.sion.  But  in  opjiosi- 
tion  the  archbishop,  George  Haulik,  encouraged  the 
conservatives,  granting  them  a  lot  for  a  cemetery 
and  a  new  synagogue.  Four  years  later  both  con- 
gregations luiited  and  formed  a  new  organization 
which  lasted  initil  ISOT.  when  the  introduction  into 
the  synagogue  of  an  organ  caused  another  secession 
of  the  conservative  members.  In  tli<' nunMlimi' the 
political  conditions  of  the  community  had  been  im- 
])roved  by  the  right  to  own  real  estate,  which  was 
grjinted  them  in  1800,  but  a  petition  for  full  fran- 
chise, repeated  in  18fil.  was  again  rejected.  It  was  not 
until  1873  that  the  diet  of  Croatia  granted  the  Jews 
full  rightsas citizens.  Subseciuently  anotherattempt 
was  made  to  bring  the  two  congregations  together. 
but  as  the  small  orthodo.v  congregation  demanded 
the  maintenance  of  a  separate  synagogue,  a  sliohct, 
and  a  l.iazan,  the  ctfort  was  unsuccessful.  However, 
in  1879  the  government  recognized  the  orthodox  con- 
gregation as  forming  a  separate  organization,  which 
was.  however,  not  able  to  erect  a  modern  building 
until  1897. 

The  following  figures  illustrate  the  steady  growth 
of  the  commiuiity :  There  were  only  thirty-two  con- 
tributing members  in  1833;  in  eight  3'ears  this  num- 
ber increased  to  forty-five,  and  five  years  later  to 
sixty-two.  In  1899  five  hundred  and  thirty-two 
Tuenibers  represented  about  two  thousand  persons 
comprising  the  community.  Thisabuormal  increase 
is  explained  by  large  accessions  from  Hungary. 
Bohemia,  and  Moravia.  Still  the  growth  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  as  rapid  as  these  figures  would 
indicate,  as  ])robablythe  number  of  families  forming 
the  community  was  considerably  greater  than  might 
be  inferred  from  the  number  of  members  contribu- 
ting toward  the  synagogue,  especially  as  the  num- 
ber of  families  paying  the  special  Jew  tax  in  1843 
is  given  as  one  hundred  and  four.  This  tax  was  a 
heavy  burden  on  the  congregation,  both  from  a 
material  as  well  as  from  a  moral  point  of  view.  In 
vain  did  the  congregation  protest  against  it.  In 
1838  the  tax  amounted  to  718  silver  Horins  (about 
S3.59.  or  £72).  In  1843  it  increased  to  800  florins,  at 
which  time  the  income  of  the  congregation  was  only 
1,075  florins,  or  §.537.  This  income'  rose  to  20.0(H) 
florins  (.SIO.OOO.  or  £2.000)  in  1899.  and  the  value  of 
the  real  estate  owned  bv  the  congregation  is  ap- 
praised at  10(1.000  florins  "(S.50. 000,  or  £10.000). 

The  occupations  followed  by  the  members  of  the 
community  are  varied.  Twelve  lawyers  and  fifteen 
physicians  practi.se  in  the  city,  and  different  manu- 
factures and  trades  afford  employment  to  numbers 
of  Jewi.sh  merchants,  mechanics,  and  clerks.  The 
school  of  the  commimity  is  attended  b)'  240  children, 
and  2(50  Jewish  children  are  admitted  to  the  public 
schools.     Besides  its  private  school,  the  congrega- 


tion maintains  a  separate  school  for  religious  instruc- 
tion. A  Talmud  Tondi  and  a  Hi''jra  Kadisha  (burial 
society)  were  established  in  1818,  and  there  exist 
to-day  also  a  ladies'  .society-  and  a  charitable  associa- 
tion called  Gemilut  Hesed. 

The  following  persons  have  offlciatcd  as  rabbis 
at  Agnim:  Aaron  Palota  up  to  1840:  J.  Goldman, 
1840-5(1.  when  he  became  a  ccmvert  to  Christianity ; 
L.  Hokonstein.  ls.")()-.58.  anil  Dr.  Hosea  Jacobi  since 
18(i7.  The  last  is  the  author  of  text -books  for  re- 
ligious instruction  written  in  the  Croatian  language. 

G.  8. 

AORABIAIf  LAWS  :    With  the  settlement  of 
the  lsi:irlit(s  ill  (':iiiu;iii.  und  the  conseiiuent  trans- 
ition from  their  formir  nomadic  mode  of  life  to  agri- 
cultural conditions,  fixed  tenure  of  landed  property 
became  a  natural  institution.     At  the 

Fixed        time  of  the  consolidation  of  the  mon- 
Tenure  of    archy.  not  only  each  tribe  but  each  clau 

Land.  and  each  household  was  permanently 
settled  upon  some  well-defined,  larger 
or  smaller,  area.  The  estate  passed,  through  inherit- 
ance, from  father  to  son:  where  the  sentiment  of 
filial  affection  was  particularly  strong,  it  was  not 
liermitlid  to  become  the  pos.session  of  a  stranger,  as 
is  shown  in  I  Kings,  xxi.  3.  "The  Lord  forbid  it  me, 
that  I  should  give  the  inheritance  of  my  fathers  unto 
thee";  otherwise,  there  was  nothing  in  the  way  of 
disposing  of  it  by  sale  (Gen,  xxiii,  9).  or  barter 
(I  Kiugs,xxi.2).orgift(Gen.  xxiii. 11).  Whenevertlu? 
sale  of  an  estate  became  necessary  (as  in  the  ca.se  of 
poverty),  in  accordance  with  an  ancient  custom,  the 
next  of  kin  enjoyed  tlie  privilege  of  preemption  ("the 
right  of  redemption.'' Jer.  xxxii.  7:  Hutli.  iv.  3,4). 
According  to  the  older  accounts  preserved  in  the 
Bible,  for  examide.  Judges,  i..  the  coniiuest  of  Ca- 
naan was  gradual  and  protracted ;  indeeil,  it  was  not 
completed  before  the  reign  of  Solomon.  Moreover, 
the  invasions  were  made  by  the  tribes  singly:  there 
was  apparently  at  no  time  anything  like  a  concen- 
trated effort.  Each  invading  honle  naturally  st'ttled 
on  the  territory  it  conquered.  But  nothing  is  known 
about  the  manner  in  which  the  land  was  parceled 
out  among  the  individual  clans  or  households. 

The  information  contained  in  Joshua,  chaps,  xiii. 

et  Her/.,  is  based  upon  the  theory  that  the  conquest  of 

the  greater  part  of  the  country  was 

Distri-       the  work  of  one  generation  under  the 
bution  of    leadership  of  Joshua,  who.  before  his 

Land.  death,  distributed  the  land  by  lot 
among  the  various  tribes  in  shares 
proportionate  to  the  number  of  souls  constituting 
each  hou.sehold.  The  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  and 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  to  whom  the  country 
east  of  the  Jordan  had  been  assigned  by  Jloses,  were 
permitted  to  return  to  their  homes.  Special  cities, 
forty -eight  in  number,  scattered  through  the  coun- 
try, were  allotted  to  the  Levites.  All  this  agrees  in 
detail  with  the  instructions  which  are  found  in  the 
closing  chapters  of  Numbers  (xxxii. -xxxvi.),  and 
which  is  assumed  to  belong  to  the  later  strata  of  the 
Priestly  Code;  they  are  probably  nothing  but  the 
result  of  the  unhistorical  reflection  of  after  times.  It 
is  clearly  provided  (Num.  xxxvi.  9)  that  in  no  case 
may  land  be  transferred  from  one  tribe  to  another. 

Somewhat  older  and  quite  idealistic  in  the  expecta- 
tion of  miraculously  altered  geograiihical  conditions 
is  the  plan  of  allotment  adopted  by  the  prophet  Eze- 
kiel  in  the  constitution  he  outlines  for  the  restored 
people  (Ezek.  xlv.  et  seq.).  With  the  exception  of  a 
reservation  for  the  Temple  and  its  ministers  (priests 
and  Levites)  and  for  the  domain  of  the  prince,  the 
whole  country  is  divided  by  the  prophet  into  twelve 


241 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDLV 


A^ram 

Ag^ricultural  Colonies 


Strips,  which  are  to  be  inliabited  by  the  Twelve  Tribes. 
The  wish  is  expressed  that  "my  people  be  nnl  seat- 
tered every  liiiiii  from  his  possessicui"  (Ezek.  xlvi.  ISj. 
Partly  in  conseciuenee  of  the  Syrian  wars  by  which 
the  nortlieni  kiii;;dom  washamssed  for 
Rise  of  nearly  a  century,  and  partly  throu<rh 
a  Moneyed  the  rise  of  connnerce  and  of  a  nion- 
Class.  eyed  class  in  the  population,  the  im- 
poverished pcasjint  was  forced  to  mort- 
gage or  sell  his  small  farm.  Vast  estates  became 
concentrated  in  the  haii<ls  of  a  few:  they  "joined 
house  to  house  and  tield  to  ticld,"  unscrupulously  dis- 
pos,sessini;  the  poor,  who  hired  themselves  out  as 
laborers  or  sold  themselves  and  their  children  into 
slavery.  Against  this  stati'  of  alTairs  the  iirophets, 
nearly  all  of  whom  were  themselves  children  of  the 
people,  raised  a  cry  of  indignation,  vehemently  de- 
nounein;;  the  greed  of  the  rich  landlords  of  Samaria 
and  .Jerusalem.  Their  denunciaticins.  while  |ierhaps 
barren  of  innnediate  results,  ultimately  led  to  the 
fornudaliiin  of  laws  directed  airainst  aggression  on 
the  i>art  of  the  ruling  classes.  Thus,  the  removal  of 
landmarks  is  made  one  of  t  hose  great  ofTenses  against 
whi(  h  the  <livinc  curse  is  invoked  (Dent.  xix.  14, 
xxvii.  17;  Hosea,  v.  10). 

Tlie  Jubilee  year  was  mainly  instituted  in  order  to 
prevent  violent  changes  in  the  tenure  of  lands  (Lev. 
xxv.i'-i  it  till/.).  The  land,  the  law  <leclares.  prop- 
erly belongs  to  YHWIl.  who  is  sole  landlord,  while 
all  the  Isnielites  are  but  his  tenants. 
Institution  Therefore  the  land  must  not  be  sold  in 
ofJubi-  perpetuity.  It  may  be  leased,  or  its 
lee  Year,  crops  may  be  sold  ;  but  in  the  Jubilee 
year  the  laud  returns  to  its  original 
owner.  The  price  paid  fora  piece  of  laud  must  dilfer 
according  tothe  numberof  eropsexpectcd  before  the 
next  .Iubil(<\  the  y<ar  of  release.  Tlie  original  owner 
may  reclaim  his  property  at  any  time  he  chooses — 
according  to  the  .Mishnah  (Ar.  ix.  1),  however,  not 
within  the  first  two  years  after  the  sale — by  refund- 
ing to  the  buyer  the  value  of  the  crops  remaining 
initil  the  Jubilee.  When,  through  poverty,  he  is 
not  in  a|)osilion  to  redeem  the  property  himself,  the 
right  and  the  duty  of  reclaiming  it  devolve  upon  hi.s 
nearest  kinsman.  Houses  in  villages  are  reckoned 
as  part  of  the  groiind;  Ihey  may  therefore  be  re- 
claimed at  any  time,  and  are  released  in  the  Jubilee 
year.  Hut  a  house  in  a  walled  city  may  be  re- 
claimed only  during  the  first  year  after  the  .sale:  if 
it  be  not  redeemed  within  that  i>eriod  it  becomes  the 
perpetual  property  of  the  buyer  and  is  not  released 
in  till' Juliilee  year.  Exception  is  ma<le  in  favor  of 
dwellings  in  F.evitical  cities,  whic  h  may  be  reclaimed 
at  all  time's,  and  are  rehasrd  in  the  Jubilee- year.  Pas- 
ture land  around  a  I-evilieal  city  may  not  bi-  sold. 
The  release  of  land  as  a  general  institution  appears 
Iiowliere  in  the  earlier  litenituri'  of  the  Hible.  The 
ni'arest  ajiproach  to  it  is  the  provision  in  the  scheme 
of  ICzekiel  that,  while  the  prince  may  give  away 

fiarts  of  his  domain  to  his  sons  in  perpetuity,  the 
unds  nceivi-d  from  him  by  his  servants  are  to  be- 
come his  again  in  "  the  year  of  liberty  "  (Ezek.  xlvi. 
10.  17).  The  year  meant  is  apparently  the  seveiilh 
year.  According  to  the  Deuteronomic  code  (Dent. 
XV.  7-l:t:  also  Jer.  xxxiv.  l-l).  it  was  the  vear  for 
the  release  of  debts  and  the  manumission  of  slaves; 
the  year  of  .Inbilee  seems  to  bi'  modeled  upon  the 
Sabbatic  year  and  represents  a  latir  and  more  com- 
prehensive ilevelopinent.  Tin-  law  was  probably 
never  enfon-ed.    A(-cordiiig  to  IhiTalmuil  ('Ar.  !12^/), 

thi-.Iuliileee-eased  to  1 bservcd  «  ilh  the  Iraniporta- 

tion   of   till'   tnins  .Ioi-ilauie  tribes  by   the   king   of 
Assyria  (I  C'hron.  v.  "Jli).     p'or  adililional  informa- 
tion concerning  the  rabbinical  interpi-i-tation  of  the 
I.— Iti 


laws  sec  Mishnah  ('Ar.  ix.):  Maimonides,  "  Yad  ha- 
l.Iazakah."  iii.  7,  7.     See  also  Jubii.ee,  Sjiemittah. 

M.  L.  M. 

AGRICULTURAL     COLONIES     IN     THE 
ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC  (ARGENTINA)  : 

l-^xcepting  certain  .settlements  of  Jewish  farnw-rs  in 
Brazil  referred  to  elsewhere  (pp.  21)"),  2ti0),  agricul- 
ture among  the  Jews  in  South  America  has  been  con- 
fined to  the  Argentine  colonies  established  by  the 
Jewish  t'olonizatiou  .\ssoeiation  of  Paris  (of  which 
the  late  I5aron  and  IJaroness  de  Ilirsch  were  the 
founders  and  practically  the  sole  stoc-kholders).  In 
August,  1K!)1,  by  the  direction  of  Baron  de  Ilirsch, 
some  3.000  s(|inire  leagues  of  land  were  purchased  in 
various  parts  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  for  SI, 300,- 
000  (£260.000).  In  all,  over  17,000,000  acres  were 
aec|uired.  At  first  the  project  of  settling  Russian 
refugees  on  a  large  scale  in  Argentina  met  with  a 
jirotest  from  the  government,  but  the  matt<'r  was 
amicably  arranged.  As  early  as  1889.  independent 
attempts  had  been  made  by  certain  Jewish  imnd- 
grants  from  Russia  to  establish  colonies  in  Argentina, 
but  this  was  not  done  on  a  well-ordered  plan,  and 
later  the.se  colonies  and  colonists  were  absorbed  by 
the  .lewish  Colonization  Association.  The  colonies 
were  named  for  Baron  and  Biironess  Manrici'  ile 
Ilirsch.  At  first  two  tracts  were  set  ajiart  forcoloni- 
/ation:  one,  9  leagues  scjuare,  situated  in  the  jjrov- 
inceof  Buenos  Ayresand  called  Mauricio;  the  other, 
4i  leagues  square,  in  the  province  of  Santa  Fe  and 
called  MoVseville.  C'(donists  began  to  arrive  in  the 
sumiuer  of  isyi  in  such  luunbers  that  by  the  end  of 
the  year  they  numbered  2,8.")0.  The  central  admin- 
istrative oflicc  was  established  in  the  city  of  Buenos 
Ay  res;  but  considerable  friction  arose  between  the 
(■olonists  and  the  non-resident  executive  ollicers, 
with  the  result  that  the  very  existence  of  the  colony 
was  threatened.  There  were  other  dillieulties:  the 
locusts,  which  were  very  luimerons. 
Early  Diffi-  destroyed  the  growing  crops,  and 
culties.  water  was  scarce.  Although  the  col- 
onies received  constant  acces.sions.  it 
was  necessarv  to  deport  so  many  discontented  colo- 
nists to  the  I  nited  Slates— 800  were  deported  within 
about  two  years— that  in  October.  18»:{.  oidy  2,083 
persons  remained.  Since  thin  the  executive  otlice 
has  been  reorganized,  and  although  there  have  been 
many  desertions,  due  to  discontent  or  to  the  damage 
done  to  the  holdings  by  locusts  and  drought,  as  well 
as  to  the  distance  of  the  farms  from  the  niilroad 
stations  and  markets,  the  number  of  inhabitants  has 
been  slowly  but  steadily  inereasini:.  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  colonists  has  become  fairly  comfortabh-. 
MoTseville,  in  the  province  of  Santa  Fe,  is  the 
oldest  of  the  Jewish  Agrictdtural  Colonii-s  in  Argen- 
tina. It  was  founded  by  lius.sian  inunigrants  in  1890. 
before  the  establishment  of  the  Ji-wisli  Colonization 
Association,  but  was  reorganized  by  that  a.s.sociation 
in  1891.  Including  till' estates  of  Vir- 
Molseville.  ginia  ami  Sania  Elena,  MoVseville  em- 
braces nc-arly  tiO.dOO  acres  r-'-I.O(MI  hec- 
taresl.  of  which  22,.")OOacrisareoecupi<'<l  by  colonists, 
Allhongh  if  has  pas.sed  through  several  grave  crises, 
MoVseville  is  tin-  most  successful  of  the  Argentine 
colonies.  lis  success  is  attributable  (1)  to  llie  fact 
that  the  colonisis  had  time  to  gain  the  experience 
Ihey  needed,  and  (2)  to  till'  ai<l  a<'<onli'd  them  by  the 
.b-wisli  Colonizalii>n  Association  by  the  creation  of 
lucerne  liclils.  Tlies<-  fields  not  oidy  favor  the  rt-ar- 
ing  of  cattle,  but  yield  forage  which  finds  a  n-ady 
market  in  the  more  luvrlherly  portions  of  Argentina, 
where  fodiler  is  often  seane.  The  colonv  is  eqin- 
disianl  fnini  the  two  railway  slatioiisof  Puiaciosuud 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Argentine  Republic) 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDI.V 


242 


MiiVsevillc.  which  are  ((imu'ticd  liy  a  flood  mad.  af- 
I  fording  aiiiiilc  facilities  fort  he  traiisporlat  ion  of  cro])3 
to  tlic  markets.  MoTscville  lias  become  a  center  for 
tlie  piinhase  of  provisions  by neifihborinj; colonists, 
many  Italian  settlers  resorting  to  it  for  this  inir])ose. 
The  colony  contains  t<l  colonists,  representing  a 
total  of  1(W  families  an<l  82.5  i)ersons.  These  fam- 
ilies live  in  130  brick  ho\ises.  nearly  all  of  which 
are  siirnninded  by  groves  of  fniil  trees  and  gardens 
pl.mted  by  the  colonists.  Accoriliug  to  the  colony's 
report  for  1809,  it  apjiears  that  in  1S98  the  area 
tilled  was 20,574 acres (H.;Wl) hectares),  divided  upas 
follows:  wheat,  11,0(19;  lia.\,  4.901;  lucerne,  :!,y3T; 
rye,  77;  vegetables,  500.  Yielding,  as  they  do,  six 
crops  a  year,  the  lucerne  fields  occupy  an  iini)ortant 
place  in  the  agricultural  ccoiioniy  of  llu>  colony,  and 
their  cull  ival  ion  has  made  itpos-;ilile  to 
Statistics,  establish  ii  butter  and  cheese  factory, 
to  which  the  Colonists  sell  their  milk. 
This  factory  is  cond\uted  as  ii  jirivate  enteriirisc  by 
individiuils  not  connected  with  the  colony,  tlie  land, 
buildings,  and  a  small  bounty  having  been  obtained 
by  them  from  the  Jewish  Colonization  Association. 
Some  colonists  sell  from  1.800  to  1.900(|uartsof  milk 
a  month  to  the  factory.  About  l.lOOhead  of  cattle, 
including  780  plow-oxen,  have  been  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  colonists  by  the  Jewish  Colonization 
Association;  and  in  addition  to  these,  many  colo- 
nists have  bought  cows  of  their  own.  MoVseville 
contains  a  synagogue,  a  school,  a  pharmacy,  and  a 
commiuial  bath.  In  the  school  f>3  boys  and  00  girls 
are  taught.  At  present  (1900)  the  facilities  for  edu- 
cation in  other  parts  of  the  colony  are  inadi(|uate, 
and  two  more  schools  are  to  Ix;  established  sljortlj-. 
Mauricio,  in  the  ]>roviiice  fif  I!ucn<is  Ayres.  com- 
prises an  area  of  about  62,000  acres  (2."),0001iectares). 
There  are  164  colonists  in  J\biuricio,  representing  211 
families,  and  a  total  of  1.04.')  persons.  The  soil  is 
not  so  rich  as  that  of  other  colonies  in  Argentina. 
The  only  way  in  which  this  inferiority  can  be  over- 
come is  liy  variation  of  crops,  which  system  reimires 
larger  areas  than  are  at  the  dispo.sal  of  the  colonists. 
As  very  liigh  iirices  are  asked  for  land  adjacent  to 
the  colony,  th(!  adminislnilors  have  met  the  difll- 
culty  by  acquiring  some  not  in  its  immediate  vicin- 
ity, to  which  some  of  the  families  at  JMauricio  are 
to  be  transferred.  This  would  permit  of  the  alloca- 
tion of  more  land  to  those  that  remain,  thus  enabling 
them  to  vary  their  crops.  In  1898  the  following 
crops  were  sown:  wheat,  13.427 acres;  maize.  6.952; 
lucerne,  1,47.5;  flax,  7;l)arley,  12;  rye,  71;  oats,  7; 
toliaceo,  2i;  vegetables,  130;  making  a  total  of  22,- 
089  acres,  or  about  9,000  hectares.  Cattle-breeding 
being  considered  one  of  the  most  imjjortant  forms 
of  indu.stry  by  the  settlers,  it  has  been  necessary  to 
form  large  lucerne  fields  at  considerable  expense,  as 
natural  jiasturage  is  insulbcicnt.  Up- 
Mauricio  ward  of  2,.")00  head  of  cat  lie  have  been 
and  jilaced  at  the  dispos;d  of  the  colonists 

Clara.  liy  the  Jewish  Colonization  Associa- 
tion, of  which  about  800  are  plow- 
oxen.  A  butter  and  cheese  factory  is  about  to  be 
established.  JIauricio  has  a  hospital,  a  steam  Hour- 
mill,  a  slaughter-house,  and  a  bath.  The  principal 
centers  of  the  colony  are  Algarrobo  and  Alice.  At 
each  of  these  places  there  is  a  school,  attemled  by  63 
boys  and  30  girls  and  65  boys  and  28  girls  respect- 
ively. A  third  school  has  been  opened  in  Mauricio, 
and  is  attended  by  24  boys  and  8  girls.  The  sani- 
tary condition  of  the  colony  is  good. 

By  far  the  largest  group  of  Jewish  colonies  in 
Argentina  is  that  known  as  Clara  (naiued  after  the 
Baroness  de  Ilirsch)  in  the  province  of  Entre  Rios, 
which  was  established  liy  the  Jewish  Colonization 


243 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Arg^entine  Republic) 


it-ii-r  i.-.i- . 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Argentine  Republic) 


TIIE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


244 


Association  in  1894.  Some  of  the  presi-nt  si'ttliTs  in 
Clam  wore  liroiijjlit  llicre  durin!.'  tlio  second  exodus 
of  tlie  Jews  from  IJiissia.  in  ISill.  and  were  selected 
from  refugees  thai  had  arrived  in  Constantinople. 
IJut  the  more  important  liodyi>f  colonists  was  orjran- 
i/.ed  in  I{us.sia  in  1S!I4;  ten  groups,  of  about  forty 
families  each,  being  formed.  These  were  taken  <li- 
rect  from  tlie  ships  in  which  they  arrived  to  the  farms 
on  which  they  were  to  settle,  where  houses,  cattle, 
seeds,  iinplenienls.  and  the  food  necessary  for  them 
between  seed-time  and  liarvcst  had  already  been  pro- 
vich'd.  The  tirst  three  groups  to  arrive  were  settled 
in  three  villages  of  fifty  houses  each  ;  the  next  three 
were  established  upon  a  system  midway  between  the 
village  system  and  that  of  isolated  farms;  while  some 


villeand  Mauricio.  where  the  maximum  distance  from 
niilway  stations  is  about  nine  miles.     In  Kntre  Rios 
certain  groups  are  twenty  miles  or  more  from  the 
railway.     Considerable   sums  of  money  are   being 
applied  l)y  the  Jewish  Colonization  As-sociatiou  to 
the  formation  of  lucerne  fields  in  this 
Character-  pidvince.    as    the   breeding   of  cattle 
istics  of     forms  an  important  jiart  of  the  econ- 
the  omy  of  the  colony.  A  large  steam  Hour- 

Colonies,  mill  is  in  operation,  and  there  are 
three  well-oiganized  schools  in  which 
two  hundred  children  receive  instruction.  The 
sanitary  condition  of  the  settlement  is  good.  At 
Ceballo.s,  in  the  northern  portion  of  Entre  Kios,  the 
Jewish   Colonization  Association  has  established  a 


Clara  colum— t_  inLii 


(From  a  pboto^aph.) 


MAKII.Mi   Kill  .SlHii 


of  the  families  of  the  remaining  groups  were  estab- 
lished upon  isolated  farms  only.  The  pojiulation  of 
this  colony  has  been  increased  by  a  consid<'ruble  im- 
migration, although  many  of  the  early  si'ltlers,  dis- 
couraged by  reverses  and  unable  to  endure  the  priva- 
tions of  pioneer  life,  have  withdrawn.  At  first  the 
houses  in  Entre  Rios  were  built  of  clay,  but  they  ba<i 
to  be  reconstructed,  and  are  now  entirely  of  brick. 
It  was  found  ditflcult  to  supply  the  necessarj-  water, 
as  wells  had  to  be  bored  to  a  depth  of  82  to" 98  feet. 
At  iMoiseville  and  Mauricio  water  was  found  at  a 
depth  of  7  to  9  feet.  These  conditions  made  the  in- 
stallation of  colonists  very  expensive. 

The  soil  of  this  group  of  colonies  is  rich,  but  com- 
pact and  heavy,  as  it  has  been  plowed  for  only  a 
few  years ;  the  yield,  however,  is  not  so  good  as  might 
be  expected.  During  1898  the  colonists  sowed  ee.O.lfl 
acres,  subdivided  as  follows:  wheat,  33,838:  lucerne, 
4,70.");  flax,  27,852:  barley,  242:  rye,  19.  In  regard 
to  the  transportation  of  produce  to  market  the  colo- 
nists of  Clara  are  not  so  well  situated  as  those  of  iloise- 


cattle-breeding  farm  of  23.090  acres,  which  is  under 
the  supervision  of  the  council  at  Buenos  Ayres. 

In  Entre  Rios  the  Jewish  Colonizal ion  Association 
owns  3H1. 779  acres,  of  which  19."),.")4.">  are  colonized. 
The  colony  of  Clara  is  composed  of  19  villages  or 
groups,  which  with  their  populations  (January, 
1899)  are  enumerated  in  the  following  table: 

Statistics  of  Clara  Colony. 


Villages. 

1' 

_« 

1 

Baron  rte  (iiinzlifrg 

Banm  de  Hirsch  

i:!3 
32 
40 
71 
71 
42 
22 
60 
29 
80 

138 

;t4 

40 
74 
74 
49 
21 
69 
19 
83 

2!i9 
49 
70 

i:m 
lie 
«1 

34 
119 

3(1 
114 

m 

33 
.54 
14K 
109 
48 
27 
«fi 
30 
96 

745 
148 

m 

429 

Bekv             

ai6 

198 

F.hen  lia-Roshah 

94 
334 

Ida 

108 

Isolated  Houses 

372 

245 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Canada) 


Statistics  of  Clara  Colony  (Contin ued). 


viuaifes. 


Klrjulb-Arbitti.... 

Mltjuel 

Mosc'as.. 

IVrllssa 

Prlmero  de  Mayo, 

Itiiohel 

K(>st)  Pinab 

Snn  AnUinlo 

S(jDDenfel(l 


21 
27 
»( 
73 
29 
24 
4(1 
SO 


033 


c 

o 

S 

« 

"- 

29 

54 

51 

■w 

44 

3U 

2(i 

42 

X, 

35 

99 

71 

74 

120 

IIU 

28 

5ti 

33 

■M 

34 

23 

41 

78 

67 

81 

131 

92 

9«2 

1,652 

1,338 

159 
Vii 

vm 
38;t 

14lt 
107 
226 

3m 


M.  R. 

AGRICTTLTTIRAL  COLONIES  IN  CAN- 
ADA :  Ajiiiiulluiul  iicliv  il\  aiiKiiii^.Ii'Us  iij  (  miiuiIh 
is  11  sfiHR'l  to  Husso-Jcwisli  iinmitrnilion  (Hciisidiiid 
by  persecution.  Tlie  Mansion  House  C'onunittee  of 
London.  Enjrland.  the  Jewish  Colonization  As.soeia- 
tiou  of  Paris,  anil  a  local  committee  in  Montreal, 
Canada,  have  h<en  the  chief  agencies  that  have  fos- 
tered and  directed  the  movement.  Jewish  farmers 
have  met  with  a  certain  measure  of  success  in  the 
colonies  established  there:  but  Canada  does  not  olTer 
to  novices  in  farming  the  natunil  advantages  per- 
taining to  favombly  situated  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  question  of  markets  for  the  sale  of 
produce  is  also  a  more  serious  one  in  the  Dominion ; 
and  the  long  winters,  during  which  little  outside 
work  can  be  done,  have  [iroved  to  be  a  test  that 
many  wouldbe  colonists  have  been  tmablo  to  stand. 

The  first  Jewish  agricultural  colony  in  Canada 
was  established  under  the  auspices  of  the  JIansion 
House  Committee,  which,  in  1SH4,  purchased  several 
thousand  acres  of  land  in  the  district  of  Moosomin 
in  the  Northwest  Territories.  22(J  miles  west  of  Win- 
nipeg, tlie  capital  of  Slanitoba.  About  HO  families 
received  grants  of  land,  callle,  implements,  etc..  as 
Well  as  sullicient  food  and  other  necessjiries  to  last 
until  the  end  of  the  third  harvest.  Before  the  ter- 
mination of  this  period  the  .settlers  Iiad  become  dis- 
couraged, anil  had  all  abandoned  their 
Moosotnin  farms.  .Most  of  the  colonists  migrated 
Colony.  to  Winnipeg.  The  colony  ha<l  been  un- 
der the  management  of  Sir  Alexander 
Oalt,  then  Canadian  High  CommissioniT  in  London. 
who  acted  as  Irusti'c  for  the  .Mansion  House  Com- 
mittee'. While  the  land  at  Mo<js<jmin  was  good  for 
(igrieultural  purposes  anil  was  well  supplied  with 
water  and  timber,  it  was  twenty  to  t  wentytive  nules 
distant  from  the  railroad;  consii|Uenlly.  the  colo- 
nists found  it  impossible  to  obtain  a  market  for  their 
produce. 

In  IMiil  a  Jewish  colony  was  foimded  at  Oxbow, 
in  easlern  Assiniboia.  twenty  five  miles  east  of 
Hirsch,  the  first  seltli  is  being  a  farmer  named  I'iirce 
and  his  two  sons.  In  !!l(l()  ihiie  were  at  this  place 
14  Jewish  families,  including  some  from  Winnipeg, 
and  some  of  the  original  Hirsch  colonists,  who.  in 
order  to  avoid  the  repayment  of  advances  made  to 
them,  removed  to  Oxbow  with  the  callle  and  imple- 
minis  provided  for  them  by  the  Jewish  Coloniza- 
tion .\s.sociation  of  Paris. 

It  was  in  con.sei|Uinie  of  the  very  large  intbix 
of  liussian  refugees  into  Ihi'  Doininion.  at  llie  lime 
of  the  second  great  mignition,  thai  IJaiion  .Maiiik  k 
DK  lliiiscii  deeiileil  in  isirj  to  start  an  agricidlunil 
colonization  movement  among  these  people  by  pla- 
cing .some  of  them.  selecl4il  as  most  seitnbli'  for  the 
purpose,  on  farms  in  the  Northwest  Territories.  The 
Young   Mill's   IIilnTW  Itinevolint  Sociilv  of  Mon 


t  real  agreed  to  undertake  this  task:  and.  inconse- 
quence, the  members  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of 
that  society  were  appointed  trustees  of  the  coloniza- 
tion fund,  under  the  direction  of  the  Jewish  Coloni- 
zation A.ssocialion  of  Paris. 

Careful  investigations  were  made  before  the  land 
for  the  colony  of  Hirsch,  named  after  its  founder, 
was  finally  selected.  It  lay  in  the  extreme  south  of 
the  district  of  Assiniboia,  six  miles  from  the  Mouse 
Hiver,  and  about  twelve  miles  from  tlie  United 
States  boundary  line  (103°  AV.  long. :  49'  21'  N. 
lat.).  The  land- was  practically  free,  as  it  was 
obtained  from  the  government  "upon  payment  of 
the  homestead  entries,  which  are  repayable  if  the 
Iirovisions  of  the  Doininion  Lands  Act  are  complied 
with.  At  first,  4!)  families  were  sent  to  Hirsch  and 
provided  with  houses,  horses,  cattle,  implements, 
seeil,  antl  provisions  for  three  years.  It  was  soon 
found,  however,  that  24  additional 
Colony  homesteads  were  required  for  the 
Named  sons,  sons-in-law,  and  other  relatives 
after  Baron  and  friends  of  the  original  colonists, 
Hirsch.  making  a  total  of  r.\  farms  of  160 
acres  each,  or  11.680  acres  in  all.  Be- 
fore leaving  Jlontreal  each  of  the  colonists  signed 
an  agreement  to  repay,  in  twelve  annual  instal- 
ments, the  money  advanced.  At  the  expiration  of 
the  first  three  years,  when  nearly  §.50.000  had  been 
expended  for  the  benefit  of  tlie  settlers,  it  was 
announced  by  the  trustees  that  the  colonists  ought 
thenceforward  to  be  self-supporting.  Thereupon 
the  majority  of  the  .settlers  sold  all  their  movable 
property,  and  with  the  proceeds  departed— some 
going  to  Winnipeg,  others  to  St.  Paul,  and  a  few- 
even  as  far  as  San  Francisco.  In  189."),  .5  families 
were  brought  from  Red  Deer  to  Hirsch:  and  in  1899, 
3  families  came  from  Winnipeg,  and  .5  from  London. 
In  1900  there  were  28  families  "at  Hirsch— all  doing 
well,  especially  those  of  the  original  settlers  that 
remained.  Two  schools  have  been  built,  one  of 
which  was  opened  in  1899  and  the  other  in  19(K).  A 
paitl  manager  has  now  full  charge  of  the  colony,  all 
responsibility  being  taken  from  the  Montreal  trus- 
tees. In  this  cohmy  there  is  an  abundant  supply  of 
water  from  wells  throughout  theyear.  Thediiiiate 
is  healthful;  and  the  soil  is  a  clayey  loam  mixed 
locally  with  gravel  or  sand,  having  arich  vegetable 
mold  as  lop-soil.  It  is  fertile,  and  there  is  no  bar- 
ren land — bullalo-grass.  which  forms  nutritious  past- 
ure, covering  the  uncultivated  dislricts.  The  staple 
product  of  the  district  is  wheat.  Next  to  wheat, 
l)rairie-grass  is  the  most  important  crop,  on  account 
of  its  ii.scfulness  in  dairying  and  stock-niising. 

■Wapella,  which  is  on  I  he  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
road, in  the  eastern  jiartof  the  district  of  Assiniboia. 
is  on  the  sileof  a  former  settlement,  and  was  formed 
in  1894  by  20  ,I(  wish  families.     These  colonists  hail 
means  of  their  own  and  needed  no  outside a.s.sistance. 
lliiwever.  they  did  apply  for  help  to  build  a  .s<hool, 
and    funds   were   provided    for  that    purpose;    but 
before  these  could  be  sent,  the  settlers 
Wapella     succeeded  in  raising  sullicient  money 
and  Red    among  themselves.     The  scIiihiI  was 
Deer         opened  in  1S98;  and  altogether  the  col- 
Colonies,     ony  seems  to  be  prospering.     Wapella 
dates  back  to  isst!.  wlien  Herman  \m\\- 
diiti.  of   London,  sent  .lolm  llepner  and  four  young 
Jews  tot  'aiiada;  forwarding,  at  lliesjune  time.  $2,000 
to  the  oDlcials  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad,  to 
n,s.sist  ill  locating  them,  and  to  provide  the  .settlers 
with  the  neces.sary  implemenls.  cattle,  tools,  provi- 
sions, and  seed. 

Another  settlement  was  formed  in  the  Bed  Deer 
district  by  a  few  Riisso  Jewish  colonists,  who  were 


Agrricultural  Colonies 
(Palestine; 


TIIK  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


246 


assisted  hy  snnio  bcni'volciit  people  of  Chicago;  but 
lifter  reiiiiiiniiig  upon  their  fiirnis  for  ii  yeiir,  they 
found  that  tliey  were  uniil)le  to  niiike  a  livinir.  and 
petitioned  tlie  coloni/.ation  eonunittee  at  Montreal  to 
remove  tlieni  to  Ilirseh.  Tlu'ir  recpiest  wasf;rant<'d  ; 
and  in  the  autumn  of  is'.l")  tliey  were  iriveu  cattle 
and  iniplements  and  plai'<(l  uiion  some  of  the  farms 
abandoned  by  the  oriirinal  colonists  at  llirsch.  In 
19U0  thev  wei-e  said  to" be  thriving. 

One  of  the  mistakes  that  the  Jewish  farmers  of 
Canada  have  made  has  lieen  the  ])urcliase  of  expen- 
sive farming  implements  on  the  instalment  plan. 
The  rate  of  interest  on  deferred  jiayments — often 
as  liii,'h  as  13  per  cent  iter  amium — iaus<'S  them 
to  run  into  debt,  and  they  seldom  succeed  in  ex- 
tricating themselves.     Jlixed  fanning  is  generally 


in  Gaza  on  farms,  where  they  cultivated  the  vine  and 
raised  cereals  (see  his yoD  3n3D.  "  I.etlerof  Tnivels." 
ed.  by  M.  l.nnc  z.  Jeriisjdem,  1S,S3). 
Early  AViien,  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 

History,  century,  Joseph  Nasi,  duke  of  Naxos, 
began  to  rebuild  the  cily  of  Tiberias, 
"where  only  Jews  were  to  dwell,"  he  idanled  nuil- 
berry-trees  to  encourage  the  inhabitants  in  the  breed- 
ing Of  silkworms,  llis  contemporary,  Moses  ben 
Jos<>pliof  Tniiii.  in  his  responsa  (Venice,  IGJ!*,  i,  §46). 
relates  that  tlnNjewsof  I'aUstine  devoted  tluni-selves 
at  that  time  to  such  agricultural  ]iursuits  as  culti- 
vating cotton,  growing  cereals,  raising  vegetables, 
jtlanting  mulberry-trees,  breeding  silkworms,  and 
apiculture. 

These  records  show  merely  that  agriculture  was 


l.L.NLU.lL  VIEW  OF  THE  ElSUO.x   _.....; 
(From  a  photogr&pti.) 


advised;  and  where  this  system  is  adopted  success 
usually  follows.  All  tlie  settlements  are  suited  to 
this  kind  of  farming,  since  they  embrace  good  gni- 
zing-land,  as  well  as  good  soil  for  both  grain  and  root 
crops.  Hay  grows  in  abundance ;  and  the  land  is 
not  subject  to  early  frosts.  M.  U. 

AGRICXTLTXTKAL  COLONIES  IN  PAXES- 
TINE  :  Since  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  from  their 
native  laud,  many  etTorts  have  been  made  to  induce 
them  to  return  to  Palestine  and  engage  in  agricul- 
ture. Probably  the  first  of  these  to  lead  to  any 
practical  result  occurred  in  the  nineteenth  century; 
though  in  the  travels  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela.  and 
of  Petahyah  of  Katisbon,  there  are  records  of  small 
settlements  of  Jews  in  the  Holy  Land  dating  as  far 
back  as  1170.  Three  centuries  later  Meshullam  ben 
Jlenahcm  Volterra,  of  Florence,  while  traveling 
through  Palestine  (1481),  found  sixty  Jewish  families 


pursued,  perhaps  intermittently,  by  Jews  in  Pales- 
tine for  several  centuries;  but  they  do  not  point 
directly  to  the  founding  of  Agricultural  Colonies  as 
such.  "  For  the  establisjmicnt  of  these  one  must  look 
to  comparatively  modern  times. 

That  Sir  Moses  Montetiore  long  cherished  the 
idea  of  establishing  Agricultural  Colonies  in  the 
III ily  Land  is  well  known.     On  each  of  his  seven 

visits   there,   he   devoted   much  lime 

Sir  Moses   and  thought  to  the  subject,  i)articu- 

Montefiore.  larly  with  reference  to  the  i)rolilein 

of  securing  protection  for  the  lives 
and  property  of  any  future  colonists.  Besides  in- 
terviewing Boghuz"Bey  in  1838  ("  Diaries,"  i.  199). 
on  his  second  visit  to  Palestine,  he  held  conferences 
with  Israel  Drucker  (who  had  a  farm  at  Djermek) 
and  other  landowners.  On  his  fourth  visit  to  the 
East,  in  1854.  he  was  received  by  the  sultan  and 
had  an  interview  with  the  British"  Ambassador,  Sir 


247 


Tin:  .ir.WISII  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Palestine 


Stratford  cU'  Hcdclillc,  respof-ting  tlie  purchase  of 
land  in  Palestine.  After  consulting  with  a  conuiiit- 
tce.  Sir  Moses  selected  thirty  live  families  from  Safed, 
and  provided  them  with  the  means  nceessjiry  to  he- 
gin  farmini;  (ih.  ii.  47).  Previous  to  this,  however. 
Colonel  Gawler.  an  olheer  in  the  British  army,  had 
formed  in  London  a  colonization  .society  for  the  same 
purpose  (ISlo);  but  on  account  of  the  unsettled 
state  of  the  country  that  followed  the  war  between 
Turkey  and  Egjpt  (1839— tU),  the  plans  could  not  be 
realized. 

About  1860,  several  orthodox  rabbis,  among  wliom 
were  Ilirsch  Kalischer  and  Elijah  Gutmaclier.  devel- 
oped a  plan  for  the  colonization  of  Palestine  with 
Russian  and  Rumanian  Jews;  and  this  plan  was  soon 
aftersupported  by  the  M.\sKii.i.M  (Progressists).  The 
latter  induced  the  Ai.i.i.vNC  E  IsK.\iii.rrK  Univku- 
8EI.I.K,  of  Paris,  to  interest  themselves  in  the  matter, 
notwithstanding  the  circumstance  that  many  mem- 
bers of  the  Alliance  doubted  the  adaptability  of  the 
Jews  to  agricultural  work.  This  organization  sent 
C'll.Mtl.KS  Kkttkk  as  its  representative  to  Palestine 
to  investigate.  On  his  return  lieadvi.sed  the  Alliance 
to  make  a  beginning  by  establishing  a  school  for  the 
purpose  of  training  in  agriculture  the  Jewish  children 
of  Palestine  and  those  of  other  Oriental  countries. 
The  Turkish  goveniment  presented  the  Alliance  with 
250  liectares  ((517  acres)  of  land  near  JalTa,  on  the  road 
to  Jerusalem;  and  in  1S70  a  farm  school  was  estab- 
lished, under  the  supervision  of  Charles  Ki'tter,  at 
Miljiweli  Yisrael.  Hire  all  branches  of  horticul- 
ture, especially  viticulture,  are  taught  aflcrthemost 
modern  niitlio<ls.  and  so  successfully  that  the  pro- 
ceeds derived  from  the  sale  of  the  i)roduce  are  sulli- 
cient  to  defray  all  expenses.  Former  p\i))ils  of  the 
iustitution  areemjiloyedas  teachers  of  agriculture  in 
several  of  the  more  recently  founded  colonies,  while 
others  have  received  employment  in  the  adjacent 
Turkish  provinces.  The  population  of  thiscolony  in 
18'J8  atrirregated  225  persons,  including  100  pupils  in 
the  school. 

In  1878  the  iilea  of  the  Jewish  colonization  of  Pal- 
estine was  again  brought  before  the  ])ublic  by  Lau- 
rence Oliphant  an<l  the  Earl  of  Shaftesliury.  This 
resulted  in  the  purchase,  by  several  Jews  of  Jerusa- 
lem, of  270  hectares  (767  acres)  of  land  from  Selim 
Kass.ir.  an  Arab  of  JalTa;  and  the  colony  of  Peta^ 
Tilfwah  was  started.  This  colony  forms  a  part  of 
the  village  of  t)ndebish  (Mnhhliis),  and  is  situated  on 
the  road  to  Xablus.  near  the  riv<r  'Aujih,  about  six 
miles  from  the  sea.  JatTa  is  only  six  or  seven  miles 
distant.  The  coloni.sts  that  .settled  near  the  river  snf 
ered  from  malaria;  and  mostof  them  werecompelUd 
to  leave.  In  1883  a  |>artof  tliiir  lanci  was  bought  by 
a  fi'W  immignuits  from  l!ielosli>k,  Russia.  For  these 
colonists  the  Russian  Chovevei  Zion  Society  ("  Lovers 
of  ZIon")  built  eighteen  bouses  on  more  healthful 
and  higher  ground:  and  the  settlers,  who  began  by 
raising  cereals,  soon  turned  to  viticulture  and  the 
cnllivatiou  of  fruit  trees. 

In  1H87 Huron  Edmond  de  Rothschild  became  inter- 
ested in  the  colonies  anil  bought  someof  the  vacateil 
land.     Ill'  planted  a  number  of  enca- 
Baron        lyptiis  trees  aroimd  the  mai-shes  as  a 
Edmond  de  preventive  of   malaria.      Emil   Lach- 
Rothschild.  iiiaini,   of  Iterliii,  another  philaiithro- 
pist,  also   bought   a   part  of  the  land 
and  planted  a  large  onuige  grnve  anil  a  number  of 
Rrape-vincs.     I'pon  this  Inut  thereare  now  growing 
more  than  a  million  vines,  besides  a  large  nunilxT 
of  omnge-,  lemon-,  and  other  fruit-trees.     Some  of 
the  colonists  oceu]>y  themselves  in  growing  wheat ; 
others  in  the  culture  of  silkworms.      Another  indus- 
try to  which  Ihev  give  attention  is  tlorieultnre.    This 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Palestine 


THE  JEWISH  ENXYCLOPEDIA 


248 


began  with  the  planting  of  tlie  geranium,  and  led  to 
the  buililiiig.  by  Baron  ile  Uotlisehild,  of  a  ])erfume 
ilistillerv.  Tlie  total  |>oiiiilaliou  of  the  settlement  in 
181»8  was  802  pei-soiis. 

The  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Russia  in  1881  did 
more  than  any  otlier  event  to  brinir  about  the  prac- 
tical colonization  of  Palestine  by  .lews;  ((rtjiinly.  it 
gave  it  the  first  impulse.  At  that  time  emigration 
began  in  earnest,  and  IJussian-Jewish  refugees  mi- 
gnited  in  masses.  In  nearly  every  Jewish  center  of 
Europe  emigration  committees  were  formed.     The 


Adminislratiou  BuililiiiB  df  the  Zikron  Ya'akob  Colony. 

(From  a  lihoio^raph.) 

emigrants  organized  themselves  into  small  commu- 
nities, such  as  the  50  families  from  Kiev  and  Eliza- 
bethgrad  and  the  "  'Am  "Olam  "  (Perpetual  People), 
who  migrated  to  the  United  States  of  America,  and 
founded  colonies  in  Louisiana  and  Dakota:  and  the 
Biluits,  who  selected  Palestine  as  their  future  dwell- 
ing-place. 

At  first  the  colonization  of  Palestine  met  with  little 
encouragement  from  the  Alliance  Israelite  Univer- 
selle;  and  the  communities  that  expected  support 
from  that  body  were  greatly  disappointed.  I?ut  the 
strong  faith  and  self-reliance  evinced  by  those  that 
did  venture  to  Palestine?  convinced  Baron  Edmond 
lie  Rothschild  of  the  possibility  of  successfully  colo- 
nizing the  country,  and  he  took  the  colonies  under 
his  care. 

The  year  18S3witnes.sed  the  foundation  of  the  first 
of  the  Russian-Jewish  Agricultural  Colonies  in  Pal- 
estine. This  community,  which  was  called  Rishon 
le-Zion  {Ajun-Kara),  consisted  of  only  si.\  Russian 
immigrants  who  established  themselves  on  the  road 
between  Jaffa  and  Oaza.  one  hour  and  a  half  south- 
east from  Jaffa  and  about  one  hour  from  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  the  site  of  the  ancient  En-hakkore 
(Judges,  XV.  19) .  Soon  after  they  ha<i  located  them- 
selves. Baron  de  Rotlischild  look  them  also  in  charge. 
The  population  of  this  colony, which  covers  an  area 
of  618  hectares  (l,-'>43  acres),  numbered  2()0  in  1890. 
Five  years  later  it  had  increased  to  450,  and  in  1898 
to  531,  exclusive  of  the  members  of  the  administra- 
tion and  of  the  dav-laborers.  The  number  of  dwell- 
ings increased  from  44  in  1890  to  G2  in  ls98.  The 
chief  products  of  the  colony  are  wine  and  brandy, 
which  are  exported  to  Egypt,  Constan- 
First        tinople,  Russia,  Germany,  and  to  the 

Russian-  United  States.  Overamillionandahalf 
Jewish      of  vines  have  been  planted.    An  enor- 

Colony  in  mous  cellar  has  been  built,  fitted  with 
Palestine,  modern  machinery  and  presses  for  the 
manufacture  as  well  as  the  preserva- 
tion of  wine.  Jlostof  the  grape-vines  planted  have 
been  imported  from  America.and  grafted  with  Freucli 
varieties,  the  vines  being  thus  made  unsusceptible  to 


the  attacks  of  the  phylloxei-a.  The  colony  has  pro- 
duced as  much  as  15.(MM)  hectoliters  (H9G,300  gallons) 
of  wine' in  a  year,  besides  a  ([uantity  of  good  brandy. 
Over  20,000  mulberry-trees,  used  in  silkworm  cul- 
ture, as  well  as  a  large  nmnber  of  fruit-trees,  such 
as  the  almond,  fig,  pomegranate,  apple.  an<l  citron, 
thrive  in  the  settlement.  Every  family  in  the  colony 
inliabits  a  stone  dwelling,  with  a  flower-  and  market- 
garden,  aiul  owns  a  horse  and  cart,  together  with  at 
least  one  cow  and  some  poultry.  The  indebteilness 
of  each  family  to  Baron  Rothschild  is  being  gradu- 
ally li<iuidated.  The  colony  supports  a  synagogue, 
a  school,  a  public  bath,  a  nursery  garden,  a  library,  a 
town  liail,  anil  a  hospital.  The  internal  affairs  of  the 
coiumunity  are  administered  by  an  elective  commit- 
tee of  settlers(Dalman  in  "Zeitschriftdes  Deutschen 
Palilstina-Vereins."  1893.  xvi.  194  et  seq.:  "  Palas- 
tina,"  1892-98;  "Die  Welt,"  1897,  No.  27;  Luncz, 
"Luah."  1896-1900;  Leo  Mozkin  in  "Die  Welt," 
1898,  No.  36). 

A  party  of  ninety  Russian-Jewish  students,  mem- 
bers of  the  Society  Bilu,  migrated  to  Palestine  in 
1882,  and  set  to  work  as  coiinnon  laborers,  hoping 
to  save  enough  money  to  found  a  separate  agricul- 
tural colony.     They  took  for  their  motto  the  word 

ITn  (Bilu),  which  is  an  abbreviation  made  up  of 

the  initial  letters  of  T\2hy\  V^h  apV  JVI  ("House  of 
Jacob,  come,  let  us  go! '').  These  young  men,  some 
of  whom  were  graduates  of  Russian  universities,  at 
first  suffered  many  privations:  but  in  1884.  through 
the  efforts  of  .Tehiil  Michael  Pinnes.  together  with 
a  number  of  inunigrants  from  Kharkov  who  pur- 
chased one-fifth  of  the  land,  they  joined  the  Ghede- 
rali  colony,  which  was  started  liy  the  Chovevei  Zion 
Society  of  Paris.  Ghederah,  named  after  the  village 
of  Katra,  is  situated  about  four  miles  southwest  of 
Ekron,  and  covers  an  urea  of  330  hectares  (815  acres). 
One-fourth  of  this  is  under  wheat;  and  on  the  re- 
mainderabout  200,000  grape- vines  and  different  kinds 
of  fruit  trees  have  been  planted.  The  colonists  have 
a  synagogue,  a  school,  and  a  pharmacy.  In  1898 
twenty  families  settled  in  the  colony,  and  the  total 
])opulation  amounted  to  130  (Mozkin  makes  the  num- 
ber 69).  This  colony  was  supported  by  the  Russian 
Chovevei  Zion  Society ;  but  recently  it  has  been  taken 
under  the  protection  of  the  Jewi.sh  Colonization  Asso- 
ciation of  London. 

Reuben  Lehrer,  of  Kherson,  bought,  likewise  in 
1882,  135  hectares  (336  acres),  in  Wadi-el  Hanin, 
about  two  miles  from  Rishon  le-Zion,  and  founded 
a  colony  called  Naljalat  Reuben,  by  selling  some 
of  the  land  to  liussinii  ininiigrants.  In  1896  the  set- 
tlement numbered  18  families,  or  about  100  individ- 
uals, and  in  1898  had  increa.sed  to  121  persons.  It 
has  a  large  orange-grove.  1.50,000  grape-vines,  and 
many  thousands  of  fruit-trees  of  various  kinds. 
The  founder,  Retiben  Lehrer.  occupies  himself  with 
apiculture.  In  1895  his  200  hives  brought  an  income 
of  4.000  francs  (§772).  The  colony  received  support 
from  the  Odessa  Aid  Society,  and  recently  the  Jew- 
ish Colonization  Association  of  London  granted  it  a 
loan  of  100,000  francs  {.?19.300i. 

In  1882  some  Jewish  inimiL''rants  from  Rumania 

founded  the  colony  Zikron  Ya'akob  in  Samaria. 

Tins  is  the  largest  and  finest  of  all  the 

Zikron      colnnies  in  Palestine.   It  lies  about  four 

Ya'aljob    miles  east  of  the  Jlediterraneau,  and 

Colonies,  about  ten  miles  from  Haifa.  The  pop- 
ulation is  about  1,000  (200  families)^ 
and  the  tract  occupied  is  about  1,4.54  hectares  (3,035 
acres).  The  colonists  engage  in  various  occupations, 
such  as  growing  wheat,  breeding  silkworms,  keep- 
ing bees,  and  raising  vegetables.    As  evidence  of  the 


249 


THE  JKWISII    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Palestine, 


))rosii('rity  of  the  colony,  reference  must  be  made  to 
tlie  possession  of  ii  stMini-plow.  a  stonm-mill,  an  aquc- 
iluct,  a  larye  nurscn  ;;aiili'n.  jiavcd  sirects,  spacious 
wine-cellars,  a  library,  a  scliciol,  a  synairofTiic.  anil  a 
liospital.  Furl licr  evidence  of  this  is  the  establish- 
ment of  the  followinj;  bniiulu's:  Tantura,  the  an- 
cient Dor,  now  called  A^ot  Zikron  Ya'a^ob,  situ- 
ated four  miles  Udrlh.  biuiiilid  by  I5ariiii  Eilniond 
de  Kiithscliild,  with  'M  families  and  some  laborers 
who  had  worked  in  a  ^lass  factory  which  had  to 
be  jriven  up,  owini;  to  the  ))oor  (jnality  id'  tin-  sand 
used;  Shefeya,  with  :3iManulics;  Em  el-Gammal 
(Umm  al-Jimal),  with  4  families;  and  Em  el-Tut 
(XXmrn  al-Tut).  According  to  the  latest  information, 


received  aid  from  the  Chovevei  Zion  of  Russia  and 
Baron  de  Rothschild,  The  settlement,  located  on 
the  shores  of  Jjike  lluleh,  occupied  a  tract  of  about 

■J2S    hectares  (•'J63  acres^,  and   liad   a 

Yesod  ha-    jiopulation  of  100.     Its  irrigation  fa- 

Ma'alah.     cililies  are   unusual,  receiving,  as   it 

does,  an  inexhaustible  supply  of 
water,  by  steam-power,  from  Lake  Iluleh,  Large 
nursery -gardens  and  the  cultivation  of  roses  on  an 
extensive  scale  constitute  the  chief  industry  of  the 
colony.  Attar  of  roses  is  tnadc  at  a  distillery  erected 
by  IJaronde  Hothschild,  SimuMif  the  minor  occupa- 
tions, from  which  an  additional  income  is  derived, 
arc  fishing  in  Lake  Huleh  and  cattle-breeding. 


lit.st.KAl.   \it.\\    UK  REUODOTU  COLOXV,  lAl,h.-.li.\t.. 
(From  «  pbolot^Tsiib.) 


the  Zikron  Ya'ajfob  colony,  with  its  branches,  has 

a  popuhilidM  (if  ali.iul  2.000,' 

In  the  same  year  (1HH2)  some  immiirnints  from 
Rumania  foundeil  the  colony  Rosh  Pinah  (.launah). 

No  tlcwish  sellli  IMC  111  in  Palestine  is 
Rosh  more  picturesquely  situated.  It  lies 
Pinah.       about  four  miles  north  of  Safed,  on  the 

slope  of  a  mountain,  and  conunands  a 
magnificent  view  of  Mt.  Ilermon  and  Lake  lluleh 
(Merom),  It  covered  filO  hectares  (1,.W I  acres),  which, 
ill  1>^W\.  supported  a  population  of  -Kill,  in  To  fami- 
lies, or,  accordiu!.'  to  \V,  liambus.  So  families,  orabout 
,'iOO  souls.  In  IStl.S  the  population  had  decreased  to 
IHI."),  The  seltlemi'nl  possesses  tlO  ho\isi'S,  a  small 
liark,  all  the  necessary  conununal  huildin.ifs,  a  silk- 
biclory  (atforiling  employment  to  some  lifty  lads 
from  Safed),  about  half  a  million  grape-vines,  and 
about  I'd, (100  mulberrv  trees. 

In  IMS3  immiLTaiils  from  Russian  Poland  founded 
the  colony  Yesod  ha-Ka'alah  (Izbald  or  llurbat 
Zubad).      They  encountered  dilticuliirs.   bm  uiiiny 


In  1884  the  cohmy  Hazkeret  Bitya  (Ekron)  was 
started  by  Baron  Eilmond  di'  Roihschihi,  with  eleven 

families  of  .Jewish  agriculturists  from 

Hazkeret     Ro/enoi.  Russia,  on  the  site  of  Eknm 

Bitya.       of  the  Rible,  the  .Vkir  of  to-day.  This 

is  situated  southwest  of  Er-Ramle, 
near  .labni  h  (.lamnia).  The  colonists,  numbering, 
in  lilOO,  l."iO,  in  ;!0  families,  ])Ossessed  !!T2heclurc-s(llli) 
acres).  At  first  the  selllersdid  good  work;  but  in 
18S,S  they  were  led  by  agitators  to  discontinue  oper- 
ations in  the  year  of  the  Shemittah,  and  this  iiiact  ivily 
relaicUil  the  development  of  the  colony.  In  a  short 
time,  howi-vcr,  tlx'y  realized  their  mistake,  and  by 
exlni  industry  redeemed  their  lost  time;  so  much 
so,  that  they  were  the  first  among  the  colonists  to 
manage  witliout  the  aid  of  Baron  de  Rothschild.  .V 
portion  of  the  land  is  devoted  lotlie  cultureof  about 
Itt.tKMI  fruil-lrces  of  various  kinds;  the  remainder 
to  the  growing  of  cereals,  the  condil ions  iH'ing  es- 
pecially suitaiile  for  the  priMluctiou  of  excellent 
wheat,  sesame,  and  barley. 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Palestine) 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


250 


In  1884  a  jirivati'  iiidividtml    purclmsed  ii  large 

tract  of  land  nt^ur  the  Hridge  of  llie  Uaiigliter  of 

Jacob,  which  is  built  over  the  Jorilau  near  Lake 

Huleh.     On  a  part  of  this  land  CUM  hectares  =  4«4 

acres)  20  laborers  settled,  who  had  to  Jiay  off  their 

holdings  in  instalments.   Theirsite  wascalled  Oesher 

ha-Yarden  ("  Hridire  of  t  lie  Jordan" ).  The  other  half 

of  this  tract  was  sold  to  a  teacher  and  2.">  hiborei's 

froniSafed.  These  latter  colonists  have 

Mishuiar    been  supported  by  the  societies  Cho- 

lia  -Yarden  vevei  Ziou   and  Ezra  of   Berlin,  and 

and  Beer-   were,  in  1898.  under  the  protection  of 

Tobiah.      the  Jewish  Colonization  Association  of 

London.    The  colony  occupying  the 

entire  tract  is  now  called  Mishmar   ha-Yarden 


the  colony  Rehoboth  (Damn).  It  is  sitinited  four 
miles  from   Uishon  Ic  Zion.  and  the  same  distance 

from  Handeh.  a  railroad  station  be- 
Rehoboth.    tween  Jalfa  and  Jerusjdeni.     At  first 

the  Turkisli  government  hindered  the 
devt'lopinent  of  this  colony  by  placing  obsta<les 
in  its  way;  but  in  1894,  the  friction  between  the 
aulhoritii-s  and  the  colonists  having  s<mu\vliat 
aljaled,  Uehoboth  began  to  thrive.  In  1898  its  pop- 
ulation was  281,  and  its  land  holdings  9.w  hectare-s 
(2. 387  acres).  A  tine  vineyaril,  laid  out  by  Jewisli 
day-laborers,  contains  2o().i)()0  vines  (C'ld.ooi)  accord- 
ing to  W.  Uandjus  in  "  I'alUstina,  Land  und  Leutc," 
p.  UT);  and  there  are  a  great  number  of  almond, 
mnllierrv,   and  other  trees.      Some  of  the  settlers 


liKM-.K.VL    \  IhW 

("  Watch  on  the  Jordan  ").  In  1898-it  had  a  popula- 
tion of  93. 

In  1888  Baron  de  Rothschild  bought  640  hectares 
(1,580  acres)  of  land  In  Kastinje  (El-Kastine)  from 
some  Bessarabian  .Tews,  and  founded  the  cf)lony 
known  as  Beer-Tobiah.  It  is  situated  about  eight 
miles  from  (Jhederah.  on  the  main  road  to  Gaza.  The 
federated  Chovevei  Zion  societies  bought  the  land 
from  Harou  de  Rothschild  in  1895.  and  established 
upon  it  20  families  that  had  been  laboring  in  the 
other  colonies.  This  colimy  has  developed  into  a 
typical  Palestinian-Jewish  village.  Industrially  it 
is  devoted  solely  to  the  growing  of  wheat ;  and  it  is 
in  a  prosperous  condition.  Its  population  in  1899 
•was  118. 

A  party  of  wealthy  Russian  Zionists,  with  Rabbi 
Samuel  Mohilever  of  Bielostok  at  their  head,  pur- 
chased in  1890  an  area  of  630  hectares  (1,556  acres) 
from  a  person  at  Jatf.-i.  for  the  Warsaw  Agricul- 
turalSociety  (Menuhah  we-Na^alah)  and  founded 


'  M    I  lU.ON  V.    i'Al,h>l  I  >K. 
.I'll-) 

grow  cereals.  The  fact  tliat  each  household  lias  a 
garden,  horses,  cattle,  and  poultry  indicates  a  fann- 
ing si)irit  among  these  Jewish  settlers.  The  Jewish 
Coloiuzation  Association  granted  this  colonv  a  loan 
of  125,000  fmncs  (.525,000).  Rehoboth  jirovidi^s  a 
good  school  for  its  children.  Instruction  is  given 
in  the  Hebrew  ton.gue.  Clo.se  to  this  colony  the 
Berlin  Ezra  Society,  in  conjunction  with  the  Lon- 
don Chovevei  Zion  Society,  has  founded  a  small  col- 
ony consisting  of  si.x  families  of  laborers. 

Russian  colonization  societies,  from  Riga,  Wilna, 
and  Kovno.  in  1X83  purchased  2.600  hectares  (6. .500 
acres)  in  El-Chuderah,  south  of  ancient  Ca-sarea. 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Xahr  el-Mefdshir,  which 
flows  into  the  Wadi  el-Chuderah,  where  a  colony 
was  founded  in  1891  in  which  there  were  153  colo- 
nists in  1898. 

In  1891  some  speculators  bought  430  hectares 
n.075  acres)  of  land  about  two  miles  north  of  Safed, 
in  'Ain  Zeitun,  and  .sold  it  to  a  party  of  laborers. 


251 


THE  JEWISH    ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Palestine, 


Not  liaviiig  sufficient  int-ans  to  work  the  tract  prop- 

eily.   I  lie  new  owners   transferred   it   to  Huron  do 

ISotlisiliild,  willi  wliiise  lieneliecnt  aid  7.")0, 0(1(1  vines 

iindniiiny  fruit  trees  were]  ilanted  in  I  lie 

Some         course  of  six  orseveu  years,  and  dunnj; 

Minor        tliistinieaiuiinlxT of  houses  were  built. 

Colonies.    The  [lopuhitiou  in  1«'JS  was  51. 

In  llie  .same  year  (1891)  the  little 
<-oliiny  of  Mo?ah  was  founded  uear.Ierusalem,  Three 
families  si'ttled  on  ■>'■>  lieelaris  (147  acres)  of  laud ; 
and  they  are  supported  liy  the  I!'Me  U'rith. 

.\liiiut  the  same  lime  5  fMiinliis  ficim  Wilna  set- 
tled west  of  i>afe<l  in  Shejur  mar  Kefr  Anau. 

In  lHy>  Barim  <h'  Holhsehild  purchased  11.700 
hectares  (29,200 acres)  of  land  in  ICarife,  in  th<-  vicin- 
ity of  Shech  Sad.  in  the  old  Traclionitis,  lie  sold 
971)  hectares  (2.42.")  acres)  to  the  Enirlish  Chovevei 
Zion  Society.  The  railroad  from  Haifa  to  Damas- 
«'Us  traverses  the  district. 

In  1><'.l(i  Banin  de  Uothsclnld  founded  tlic  colony 
Metullah,  which  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  .Mt,  Iler- 
moM.  lint  far  fmm  the  ancient  Dan  (Laish),  on  the 
northern  border  of  Palestine.  The  i)o|iulation  of  this 
colony  in  1H9H  was  2:W,  most  of  the  male  in(  inbers 
of  which  were  young  men  who  had  lalxncd  for 
several  years  in  other  colonies  or  were  the  children 
of  colonists  elsewhere.  The.v  cultivate  wheat  and 
tobacco. 

A  .lewish  colonization  society  in  Bulgaria,  con- 
sistini;  of  .")(•  members,  bought  4.~)0  hectares  (1.12.") 
acres) of  land  from  the  English  Mission,  and  founded 
the  colony  Artuf,  or  Hartuf,  in  1890.  Nine  of  the 
members  came  with  their  lamilies,  and  formed  a 
comniuinstic  society,  working  under  the  manage- 
ment of  a  superintendent  elected  l)y  themselves. 
In  189m  ih|.y  had  not  yet  aci|uii-ed  title"  to  their  land. 
In  1S1I8  I.i-o  .Mozkin  inspected  the  colonies  on  be- 
half of  the  Vienna  Conference  of  Zionists,  and  his 
rr  port  showed  a  state  of  alTairs  not  altogether  satis- 
factorv. 

In  1898  there  were  in  all  the  2.")  colonies  about  .1.000 
.lews.     (According  to  the  reports  of  L.  MozUin  and 
others,  there  are  in  all  Palestine  about  4.."i(ll)  .bwish 
coh'insts,  occupying  about  2."i.0(l(l  hectares — (i2.")0(l 
acres — of  land. )  Besides  ;!00  families  of  ihiy -la borers, 
there  were  OfiO  fanulii'S  of  actual  cnli  mists,  numbrriiiL' 
2.838  persou.s.     Of  these.  390  familii-s.  <.r  l.odd  per- 
sons, were  under  the  management  of  the  Kothschild 
adnnnistration,     Inadditionto  tlieaid 
General      received  from  this soune,  variousbod- 
Condition     ies   su|)port   the    colonists,   more   cs 
of  the         pecially  two  organizations,  viz.,   the 
Colonies.      Odessa  Aid  Society   for  Jewish  .Vgri- 
culturisls  and  .\rtisiuis,  and.  in  much 
larger   measure,    the   Jewish   Colonization   Associa- 
tion,   The  following  are  the  chief  (anses  that  retard 
the  development  of   the   Palestine  colonies:    (I)  the 
dependence  on  charity,  notably  on  that  of  Baron  <le 
Kothschild;  (2)  the  la'ik  of  legid  Security  of  tith-:  (3| 
want  (d'  publicilv  (see  I>eo  Mozkin,  in 
Mahanaim.  "Kie  Welt,"  IHIW.  Nos.  ■.W-.iH). 

In  1S99  the  colony  Mahanaim  was 
foundi'd  by  the(!alieian    .Miabat  /.ion  Society,    with 
tlieaid  of  the  .lewish  Colonizatinii  .VssiH'lation    and 
of  the  Ezra  Society  of  lierlin.      They  began  with  10 
Oalieiaii  and  ti  native  families,  and  have  already  re 
ceived   from   the   government  ))erniis.si(>n   to   biiilii 
lioiisis  and  enlarge  the  colony  geiier 
Chanfe  of    ally.     This  now  covers  about  8011  hec 
Title.         tares  (about  2.011(1  ncres),  at  the  foot  of 
Ml    IIiiiiioM.  It  is  reached  from  I'ort 
llail'a,  via  .\cie.  in  twelve  hours. 

.M  the  ind  of  1899  those  Agricullunil  Colonies 
in  I'ali'stine  u  hose  title  lav  in  the  name  of  Edmoiid 


de  Rothschild  passed  over  to  the  management  of 
the  Jewish  Colonization  Association  of  London, 


JEWISH   AGRICULTURAL  COLONIES 
IN 

PALESTINE 

J.D.  EISENSTEIN  ' 


A  list  itf  colonit"*.  witli  daii's  of  fotimliilitm.  popvi- 
Intioii.  atul  nthrr  ilt'tiiils,  is  ^ivcn  on  ilit'iioxt  pao': 


A^icultural  Colonies 
[Palestine— Russia) 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


262 


•  The  populations  of  Ahlit  and  Tantura,  not  being  known 
separately,  are  given  together  as  iB  under  the  latter  colony. 

Bibliography:  A.  Usishkin,  in  JlhUtichc  Vulkshihliuthck  of 
S.  KHliinHwltsi-h.  isx',1.  ii.  f-7  rt  si-q.;  A.  M.  Luncz.  Jtnistt- 
lem.  l.-iii.,  .Ii-nisalnn.  Isn:.',  lsst.  ikhK;  il„ri:h  Derek  hc-Ercz 
YiJ<ri(tl  u'l  -Sunn,  .ItTusalt^m.  Isiil :  Paul  Demidov.  U'/j  Hin- 
miK'!  Cliarioit.-Tihurg,  If'Jl :  S''i\i>lli  Hi  i«ni  nf  the  JcicWi 
Hefimns'  Aiil  Siii-iilii,  Lfimion,  Is'-C  :  M.  Ad.-lmann.  Luah. 
Hchri  ir  CfUi  Hilar  fur  5*15:3  and  :ViM,  .I.-nisalHin,  Is'.tMM;  N. 
Blrnliaum.  I>ir  \iiluinaU'  Winh  nirlnirl  ilis  .7»Wi.<((i()i 
IVif/ii  X  in  Si  iiirm  /.diic/t .  Vii-nna.  ls;i:i :  (ililmt  i ihshrliislni 
V:<pinin>sIu}uMviivitniii(t  Yi  rrf  uiiin  Zi  iiih  ih  Jlziinu  i-U'..  ~ 
vols..  Odessa,  Isya-SKJ:  I'ahstina  {Tlie  Chvrcvci  Ziun  Quar- 
terlji).  pp.  1-33,  London,  1893-98;  C.  R.  Ponder,  Kantern 
Palestine,  London.  1893;  M.  Meyerowit^,  *E2/i  rre-Ttishiah. 
Witike  utul  littlhschWtic  fUr  Eiiucandenitk  JIUlm-tie  Oit- 
oni^ten  iit  PttUMina,  Warsaw,  18S5;  Literam  Diuest,  lsi*5. 
No.  38:  W.  Bamhiis,  Die  JUdisctirn  Vi'irfcr  in  I'ltliln- 
tina.  Berlin.  \S'.m;  Idem.  PaliMina,  Berlin,  18i<»;  idem,  Hirr 
Mozkin  nnd  die  Wahrheit  tiher  die  Knloni-tation  Patdit- 
tlna'x.  Berlin,  1898;  Jlldi.icher  Volkuknlendcr.  Coloirne, 
1897-!r9;  A.  Krledenwald,  Lovern  nf  ZUm,  Baltimore.  1895; 
Die  Welt,  189r-19U0:  Erez  Htmdah.  by  M.  Sokolov,  War- 
saw, 1885;  Jewish  Agricujtnr'e,  in  Btnrktrfmd^s  ^[l^^nzine, 
Ot.,  1883;  M.  Frledland,  Die  Kulimisirunii  PaldslinnS. 
Berlin,  1870:  J.  Brill.  Yesml  hn-Mirahili.  .Maveni-e.  Is.'sS; 
Bachrach,  Maxa'  If-Erei  ha-Kidnsliali  i Travels  in  the  lldy 
Land):  Ben  Yehudah,  Erez  Yi.'riitUl'^i;  Si-<liniiitieli'slii 
VkeizateU  Litrratuni  o  Yevrcuakh  na  Pussknm  Ynznkiie, 
Nos.  ."iiis7-.!is4ij,  St.  Petersburg.  1893:  Meshullain  bi-n  Mcnu- 
hem  Volterra  of  Florence,  Miktah  Magna,  Jerusalem.  188:.'. 

H.  R. 


AGRICtTLTURAL  COLONIES  IN  RUS- 
SIA: rill-  iilia  I'l  ciiliuii/iiit:  tlie  .lews  ;i<  ii.irriciil- 
lurists  ill  Hussiuorijriiiiitod  with  the  Pulisli  liistoriau 
t'/iK-ki  and  Nathan  Xata  (Xotkin).  wlio  in  turn  iii- 
spireit  the  pod  Derzhavin.  whom  Em- 
First  Bug-    piTor  Paul  sent  to  AVliite  Hiissiain  1799 

^stion.  to  investigate  the  famine  in  that  gov- 
ernment and  to  take  proper  measures 
of  relief.  "To  eheck  tlie  selfish  occupations  of  the 
.Jews."  Derzliaviu  recommended  tliat  a  special  class 
of  ngrictilturists  be  formed  and  transferred  to  the 
governments  of  Astrakhan  and  New  Russia,  hoping 
thus  to  relieve  White  Russia  of  a  portion  of  its  dense 
|iopulation. 

On  October  9, 1802,  a  special  commission,  the  first 
of  its  kind  in  Russia,  was  organized  by  the  benevo- 
lent Kniperor  Alexander  I.,  to  consider  Derzhavin "s 
recommendation  and  to  draft  a  plan  for  improving 
tlie  condition  of  the  .Jews.  One  Jewish  delegate 
from  each  government  of  the  Pale  of  Settlement  was 
elected  to  confer  with  the  representatives  of  the  gov- 
ernment. As  a  result  of  the  two  years'  work  of  this 
commission  an  "Enactment  concerning  the  Jews" 
was  sanctioned  by  the  czar,  and  promulgated  De- 
cember 9,  1804.  It  contained  the  following  provi- 
sions: (1)  The  Jews  of  Russia  were  to  be  grouped 
into  five  classes,  viz.,  agriculturists,  manufacturers, 
arti.sans.  merchants,  and  minor  burgesses.  (2)  The 
agriculturists  were  permitted  to  buy  and  rent  lands 
in  all  the  western  and  southwestern  provinces  and  to 
cultivate  their  farms  themselves  or  with  hireil  help. 
(3)  For  those  without  means  the  government  jiledged 
itself  to  provide  80,000  deeialines  (1  di-ciatine  =  2.70 
acres)  of  land  in  the  western  and  soutliern  govern- 
ments. (4)  All  .lews  that  wished  to  become  colonists 
were  required  to  submit  certificates  of  their  phy.sical 
fitness  for  agricultural  pursuits;  andeacli  family  had 
to  give  proof  of  the  possession  of  not  less  than  400 
rubles  with  which  to  pay  for  the  land,  implements, 
and  household  necessjiriesforsettlement.  (See"Polny 
chrouologicheski  Sbomik  zakonov  1  polozheni  kasji- 
yushchikhsya  yevreyev  "  (Complete  Chronological 
Collecti(m  of  Laws  and  Regulations  Concerning  the 
Jews),  compiled  by  V.  O.  Levanda,  pp.  53  et  seq.,  St. 
Petersburg,  1874. 

In  ISOG  many  Jewish  families  from  the  govern- 
ments Vitebsk  and  Mohilev  on  the  Dnieper  removed 
to  southern  Russia  and  founded  the  first  seven  ag- 
ricultural colonies  in  the  government  of  Kherson. 
They  were  named;  Nahar-Tob,  liar  Shefer,  Sede- 
Menuhah,  Bobrovy-Kiit,  Jefeh-Xahar, 
First         Jaazer,  and  Kamenka.     These   lands 

Colonies,  had  previously  been  inspected  by 
Xahum  Finkenstein  and  Lieberraan, 
who  were  commissioned  to  do  so  by  the  .Jews 
of  Vitebsk  and  Mohilev.  with  the  consent  of  the 
minister  of  the  interior  (Xikitin,  "  Yevrciskiya  Zem- 
ledelcheskiya  Kolonii."  12). 

The  authorities  in  charge  of  colonization  were  ili- 
rected  to  establish  settlements  in  territories  well 
adapted  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  colonies 
were  to  be  founded  at  certain  distances  from  Chris- 
tian settlements,  and  the  .Jewish  colonists  were 
denied  the  right  to  purchase  land  in  Christian  vil- 
lages. Every  occupation  not  in  the  line  of  agricul- 
ture was  strictly  prohibited.  The  colonial  authori- 
ties were  to  lend  the  Jews  all  possible  assistance 
and  protection.  L'nfortunately  for  the  settlers,  the 
oHicials  selected  territories  more  adapted  for  cattle- 
breeding  and  agriculture  on  a  large  scale  than  for 
small  farms;  and  those  colonists  who  had  settled  on 
their  own  account  were  left  almost  without  the 
necessary  means  to  purchase  implements  and  food. 
E.xhausted   by  the   long   and  weary  journey,  and 


253 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Palestine— Russia 


iiimrcusloiiicd  to  the  climate  of  tlip  spiiiscly  scttleil 
Siiilli  H\issian  steppes,  many  fell  ill  ami  died;  while 
otliers  sold  their  estates  for  uext  to  nothiuf:  and 
returned  to  their  old  homes  or  left  tlie  country 
altoijethcr.  Only  tlie  poorest  remained  in  tlie  colo- 
nies; and  these  led  a  miserable  exist.-nee,  hojiinj,'  in 
vain  for  the  support  ])romised  hy  the  jrovernment. 
Notwitlistandinj;  the  (lra«"l)aeks,  l.O'.Mt  families  had 
lieen  s<'ttle(l  in  these  colonies  n|)  to  the  year  I.SIO. 
On  April  0  of  that  year  an  edict  was  issued,  dis- 
conlinuin^'  the  transfer  of  Jews  to  New  Russia,  all 
the  funds  assiirned  by  the  government  liaving  been 
expended.  In  IHID  General  Int/.ov,  chief  superin- 
tendent of  South  Russian  colonics,  inspected  the 
Jr«  isli  settlements,  and  lie  reported  on  them  so  fa- 
vorably that  the  (juestion  of  eontinuinfr  Jewish  col- 
onization was  discussed  at  St.  i'eterslmrir.  In  \KT.'> 
a  li>aii  of  .jll.OdK  rubles  was  iTranleil  for  colonization 
imrposes,  and  this  enabled  44;i  families  to  settle — 
partly  in  the  old  colonies  and  i)artly  in  new  settle- 
ments. In  the  same  year  further  emijjration  to  New 
Russia  was  stopped  by  the  government.  Under  tlie 
conscientious  management  of  General  Intzov,  the 
economic  condition  of  the  colonies  improved;  but 
his  strict  administration  and  almost  military  discip- 
line drove  many  of  the  colonists  away.  His  plan 
of  distributing  ihe  free  farms — by  which  the  colon- 
ists were  grouped  together,  not  by  families,  but  to 
suit  the  convenience  of  the  maiiagenient — was  detri- 
mental to  the  development  of  the  colonics. 

The  second  jieriod  in  the  history  of  Jewish  colo- 
nization in  Russia  begins  with  the  edict  conei'ining 
the  Jews  issued  by  Czar  Nicholas  I. 

Second  on  Ai)ril  i;{,  ISi.").  From  this  it  was 
Era.  manifest   that   the   czar   intended   to 

colonize  New  Russia  with  Jews,  who 
were  to  be  settled  there  in  great  numbers.  Briefly 
the  provisions  of  the  edict  were  as  follows:  (1)  Jews 
were  permitted  to  join  the  peasjint  class  in  New 
Rus,sia  without  being  compelled  todoso.  (2)  Forty 
candidates  were  entitled  to  the  riirht  of  founding  a 
colony,  (;i)  Jews  were  granled  the  right  lo  buy  or 
rent  lands  from  Christian  owners  or  from  tln'  crown 
in  territories  where  Jews  were  allowed  to  live.  (4) 
Jews  joining  the  Jieasant  cla.ss  weri'  relieved  from 
certain  taxes  and  duties.  ('>)  Jews  colonizing  tifty 
Jewish  families  on  their  estates  were  enlitleii  to  hon- 
orary citizenship,  and  those  colonizing  one  hundred 
families  were  entilleil  to  be  raised  to  the  nobility. 
((()  Colonists  were  granted  the  right  to  .send  their 
children  to  all  public  schools,  gymnasiums,  acade- 
mies, and  universities  ("  Russian  Code."  pp.  24-27, 
104-117).  Notwillisianding  these  privileges,  the 
Jews,  remembering  the  trials  and  sulTerings  encoun- 
tered by  the  tirst  colonists,  showed  but  little  enthu- 
siasm for  the  .scheme;  an<I  the  czar,  disappointed  at 
the  coniplele  failure  of  his  well  meant  project,  or- 
dered a  special  eoiiimission.  under  the  presidency  of 
Cmiiit  Kankrin,  minister  of  linance.  to  investigate 
the  matter.  This  commission  allributed  the  failure 
toeliiiialic  reasons,  and  recommi'nde<l  Ihe  fertile  terri- 
tories of  Siberia,  with  their  healthful  climate,  us  more 
suitable  for  colonization. 

In  \KW>  the  czar  issued  an  order  assigning  l.'(,1.54 
decialines  of  land  in  the  governnienl,sof  Tobolsk  and 
Omsk  for  colonization  by  Jews.  This  order  had  an 
unexpected  anil  remarkable  result.  The  enthusiasm 
of  the  Jews,  rich  and  pour,  learneil  and  ignorant, 
knew  no  limits.  Jewish  scholars — I.  I!.  I.evinsohn, 
li.  .Maiidelslanim,  and  others — supported  the  gov- 
ernnn'iit  plan  by  contributions  to  tin'  press  and  by 
public  speeches.  Almost  e(|ual  sympathy  was  shown 
by  Ihe  Chrislian  population  of  all  clas.s»'». 

The  lirsl   who  sought   lo   be   colonized  were  70 


families,  numbering  ■^')()  peiNons.  from  ^litau  in 
Courland.  who  applied  through  their  leaders,  Meyer 
Mendelsohn  and  Elijah  Mitauer,  for  permission  to 
settle  in  the  province  of  Ekaterinoslav.  Numerous 
other  applicants  sent  in  similar  reiiuests  for  the  prov- 
inces of  Siberia,  among  them  being  117  families  from 
Courland,  200  from  I  he  estates  of  Prince  Dolgorukov, 
and  427  from  .Mohilev.  In  all.  990  families  forwardeil 
aiiplications  to  Count  IJludov,  minister  of  the  in- 
terior. At  the  Siime  time  the  minister 
The  received  communications  from  many 

Siberian  governors  pointing  out  the  impracti- 
Proposal.  cahility  of  sending  Jews  to  Siberia. 
Count  Kankrin,  however,  remained 
firm  in  his  conviction  that  Siberia  was  the  most 
suitable  country  for  Jewish  colonization:  and  his 
lilan  was  sanctioned  by  the  czar,  October  27.  1836 
(."Vos. "  1WS2.  iii.  02).  Kankrin  proceeded  with  his 
arrangements,  and  in  due  course  reported  to  the 
czar  tiiat  all  was  ready  for  the  expedition.  To  the 
intense  disa])pointinent  of  all  concerned,  the  report 
was  retuined.  January  5,  1837,  with  the  following 
remark  in  the  czar's  handwriting,  "The  transfer  oj 
Jews  to  Siberia  is  to  he  stopped." 

As  .soon  as  the  new  edict  was  issued  Bludov  gave 
orders  to  all  governors  and  governor-generals  of  the 
Siberian  provinces  to  seize  the  would-be  colonists 
wherever  they  might  be  found  and  to  send  them, 
under  jiroper  convoy,  to  the  government  of  Kher- 
son. Shortly  before  the  i>ublieation  of  the  edict,  36 
families  had  arrived  at  Omsk.  With  the  iiermis- 
sion  of  the  authorities,  they  had  migrated  there  on 
their  own  account.  These  were  permitted  to  return 
to  their  former  homes  or  to  settle  in  New  Russia. 

Koniarov  was  sent  by  l$ludov  to  the  government 
of  Kher.son  to  settle  738  families  in  the  original  nine 
colonies.  But  not  tmtil  the  year  1840  were  the  new 
colonists  moved.  There  were  then  to  be  settled  346 
families  (1,.5.")2  persons)  from  Courland  and  863  fam- 
ilies (6,171  persons)  from  Lithuania  and  other  north- 
western provinces.  The  condition  in  which  most  of 
these  colonists  from  Siberia  and  from  the  northwest- 
ern governments  arrived  at  South  Russia  was  piti- 
ful. On  till'  road  many  died,  while  others  had  to 
be  placed  in  hospitals.  The  Courlanders — Hlestined 
to  be  pioneers  of  colonization — were  maltreated  by 
the  othcials  in  charge  during  their  voyage  down  tlie 
Dnieper,  and  were  unable  to  begin  work  till  the 
following  year,  as  is  shown  in  the  report  of  Dr. 
Schindler  to  Prince  Dalgorukov,  JIajor  Henken- 
dortT,  in  a  communication  to  Kisselev,  declared  in 
distinct  leriiis  that  the  czar's  promises  to  the  Jews 
of  Courland,  bolli  written  and  verbal,  had  not  been 
fultilled.  They  found  no  houses,  seeds,  or  agri- 
cultural iinplciiiints.  As  soon  as  they  had  reached 
theirdestination  the  authorities  of  Kherson  sent  them 
to  the  old  colonics.  The  result  was  that  in  n  short 
time  all  the  houses  were  overcrowded,  and  thou- 
sands had  to  camp  in  the  opi^n  tields  near  Ihe  seltle- 
nieiils.  In  Yanovka,  for  instance. 
Difficulties  two  ihousimd  settlers  had  to  remain 
of  Kherson  wilhoiil  shelter;  and  the  provisions 
Colonists,  .soon  gave  out.  This  famine  brought 
on  all  kinds  of  sickness  and  tiuallv 
caused  the  people  to  revolt.  The  authorities  took 
strong  rejiressive  measures,  the  number  of  over- 
seers was  considerably  incn-ased,  and  the  disturbers 
of  Ihe  peace  were  severely  punished.  Count  Vor- 
onlzov.  Ihe  governor-general  of  Kherson,  deciiled 
to  found  four  new  colonies;  and  he  did  his  best  In 
improve  the  wretched  conditions  of  Ihe  old  settle- 
ments. In  June,  1X41,  he  founded  four  colonies 
which,  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  si'ltlers,  wen; 
called  Novy  Hreshivl  (New  Breslaut,  Lvov  (Ia'IU- 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Bussia) 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


254 


bcTfr).    IJoiimnov,    and  Novo   Poltnvka  (Ni'w    Pol- 

tavka),  and  settled  llicrc  7(ll>  fmnilics  ("  Vos."  \Wi. 

vol.  7).     Kartzev's  report  uf  1M4.')  showed  timt  there 

were  l.tilil  families  (12.779  persons)  in 

Statistics     the  Kherson  colonies.    Of  these.  U.Olti) 

of  Kherson   individuals  were  settled  l>y  the  irovern- 

Colonies.      nient:  the  rest,  having  paid  for  their 

farms,  settled  on  their  own  aeeount. 

From  1841  to  1S45  the  jrovernnient  expended  234,- 

539  nd)les  in  aidins  Jewish  colonists  in  Kherson. 

The  following  table  shows  the  condition  of  the 
fifteen  colonies  in  the  government  of  Kherson  in 
1845  : 


NniiiH  of  Colony. 


B<)hrovy-Kllt 

Kfeiipar 

Int'iiietz 

Israelevka 

Izluchlsta 

Kaiiienka 

Lvov  (LcmtxTir) 

Napartov,  Great 

Napartov.  LiUIe 

Novy  Breslavl 

Ndvii  I'liltuvka 

Koinan(»v 

Saigadak 

Seidenieniihn,  (ireat. 
SeldemeDuba,  Little.. 

Total 


Families. 


Settled. 


2Si 
111 
151 
91 

;*i 

si 
119 
HI 

37 

*( 

l.Tll 

IL'S 
19 

229 
Si 


1.397 


Not  yet 
Settled. 


SO 
15 
14 
20 
9 
30 

ii 
■J 


ISO 


Houses. 


187 
159 
i;iO 
82 
60 
60 
119 
95 
31 
92 
150 

i;i2 

19 
204 
35 


1,555 


In  the  fifteen  colonies  there  were  5  synagogues, 
12  houses  of  prayer,  G  town  halls,  7  warehouses.  7 
bath  houses,  1  seed-warehouse.  8  windmills,  463 
horses,  2,332  sheep,  3.323  o.xen,  1.117  wa.srons.  28!) 
plows,  and  533  harrows.  Of  the  colonists  3.308 
were  entered  in  the  books  as  taxpayers. 

The  colonies  had  an  income  of  3.363  rubles  per 
annum,  besides  rents  from  distilleiies  and  restau- 
rants kept  by  Jews  who  were  not  colonists.  The 
local  authnriticsof  the  fifteen  Jewish  villages  named 
in  the  table  were  11  mayors,  23  assessors,  and  11 
clerks.  Keligious  affairs  were  administered  bv  12 
rabbis,  assisted  by  30  juiriinmm  ("  directors  ")  and  16 
treasurers.  The  five  synagogues  were  maintained 
at  the  expense  of  the  communities.  Jlost  of  the 
colonists  firiginally  belonged  to  the  merchant  class, 
833  persons  only  being  artisans.  Only  the  tailors 
(359),  shoemakers  ( 144).  and  blacksmiths  (11)  found 
employment  in  the  colonies;  the  others  cither  sought 
employment  or  established  themselves  in  surround- 
ing towns.  The  death-rate  of  the  colonies  was 
very  high.  To  every  birth  there  were  over  twentj' 
deaths.  The  poor  results  shown  were  due  to  the 
inexperience  of  the  colonists,  the  corruption  of  the 
officials,  and  the  absence  of  all  instructicm  from 
more  exiierienced  colonists.  This  was  practically 
confessed  by  the  Russian  officials  in  their  reports  to 
Czar  Nicholas,  who  took  a  deep  jiersonal  interest 
in  the  whole  matter  (see  Kisselcv's  report.  June, 
1845).  In  1846  the  colonies  were  put  under  the 
management  of  the  Jlinistry  of  Domains,  a  special 
Jewish  fund,  called  kni-ulikn  ("basket  fund"),  being 
set  apart  for  the  necessary  expenditures. 

As  regards  the  colonies  in  Ekaterinoslav,  a  report 
made  in  1847  by  Baron  Stem  pel.  superintendent  of 
the  colonies,  shows  that  the  settlers  on  arriving  in 
Ekaterinoslav  generally  found  no  provision  made 
for  them.  They  were  not  permitted  to  repair  the 
dilapidated  shanties  which  served  for  houses,  and 
were  not  even  allowed  to  seek  shelter  in  the  neiffh- 


boring  villages  \intil  sprin,e.  as  Stempel  had  sug- 
gested. Those  who  did  so  were  cruelly  driven  back 
by  Co.s.siicks.  El>idemics  of  scurvy  and  smallpox 
occurred  soon  after  ("  Archives  of  Kherson- Bessji- 
rabia  Board  of  Adminislnition."  report  of  Fib.  15, 
1849,  No.  116:  sec  al.si>  Harold  Frederic.  "The  New- 
Exodus."  pp.  7S.  79.  New  York.  1893).  After  1849. 
Jewish  immiu'ranis  from  northwestern  Russia  were 
dirccl(<l  chiirty  to  the  governnn-nt  of  Ekaterinoslav, 

where,   up   to    1S.56,   fifteen   colonies, 

Colonies  at   sheltering  766  families,  were  founded. 

Ekateri-      The  Ekaterinoslav  colonies  were  un- 

noslav.       drr   thi'    managi'mcnt   of    a  director 

appoinle<l  by  the  Klierson-B<'Ssjirabia 
bureau  of  govermncnl  domains,  and  wereilividcd 
into  four  districts,  with  an  riverseer  at  the  head  of 
each.  The  colonists  elected  their  own  aldermen, 
all  the  other  authorities  being  Christians.  Hebrew 
schools  i/ieiliin'm)  were  prohibited  in  the  colonies. 

The  followin.ir  table  shows  the  condition  of  the 
Jewish  colonics  in  the  government  of  Ekaterinoslav 
in  1890: 


Name  of  Colony. 


Bopodarovka — 

(iorkaya 

(irafskaya . 

Khlyetwdarovka 

Krasnoselka 

Mezhirwh 

Nadezlinaya. ... 
NiM-liaycvka  .  . 
.N'ovoziatopol ... 

i'rlymimya 

Iloskt'shnaya  — 

llovnnpttl 

Sladkovddnaya.. 
Tniddlyubovka. . 

Vfselnya 

Zatlshye 

Zellonoepole 

Total 


Land  In 
Dtvlatfnes.* 


1,1150 
TKO 

910 
.570 
1.2IK) 
l.llll 
1.230 
IBO 
1.S60 

sro 

7S0 

1.190 

MO 

irrd 

hlU 
I.IHIO 
1.170 


Hired 
Help. 


17,620 


278 
252 
181 
81 
319 
290 
3.51 
216 
458 
1«9 
178 
219 
19:i 
2)12 
244 
•£ii 
370 


4 

16 
3 
1 
3 

24 

12 
5 

20 
5 


4.314 


121 


•  1  deeiatine  =  2.70  acres. 

Of  the  hired  help.  106  persons  were  Christians  and 
35  were  Jews  ( K.  Sluchev.ski.  "  Yevreiski  va  Kolonii," 
in  "Russki  Vyestnik."  iv.  306,  1890). 

In  18.')6  Ev/.el  (Joseph)  Gl'inzburg  gave  the  gov- 
ernment 10.000  rubles,  the  interest  of  which  was  to  be 
applied  in  providing  annual  rewards  for  the  best 
Jewish  farmers:  the  recipients  to  be  determined  by 
the  Minister  of  Domains  (" Civil  Code,"  vol.  xxxi. 
No.  30.  672). 

After  18-56  only  f(rar  more  colonics  were  founded; 
namelv,  two  in  the  government  of  Kherson  and 
two  in  that  of  Ekateiinoslav.  Under  a  law  en- 
acted in  1866  Jewish  colonization  ceased  entirel.v. 
The  measure  was  adopted  mainly  for  financial  rea- 
sons, the  basket  fluid  no  longer  siifiicing  for  both 
colonizationand  education.  Besides  this,  New  Rus- 
sia was  no  longer  in  need  of  artificial  colonization. 
The  reports  of  V.  A.  Islavin,  an  official  who  visited 
the  colonies  in  1851  and  again  in  1865.  enable  a 
comparison  of  those  years  to  be  made.  Instead  of 
the  15  colonies  in  1847  there  were  37 
Contrast     in    1.^65  —  20  in    Kherson   and    17  in 

between  Ekaterinoslav:  the  2.210  families  in 
1851  and  1S51.  consisting  of  14,780  persons,  had 
1865.  increased  in  1865  to  2.873  families, 
consisting  of  32,943  persons:  and  in- 
stead of  85,563  deciatines  of  cultivated  land  in  1851, 
there  were  in  1865,  129.521  deciatines. 

The  following  figures  contrasting  the  condi- 
tion of  the  colonies  in  1851  and  in  l865  will  be  of 
interest ; 


255 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
Russia) 


Kherson. 

EKATKRIX08LAT. 

1&51. 

1885. 

1851. 

ISfti. 

Public  Bullillnga 

i,.wr 
i.an 

997 

98 
2.023 
2«9 
441) 
2.238 
.i..i79 
4.291 

o 

289 

58 

'499 

788 

98 

Private  HoiiwfS ... 

922 
293 

Oxen                              .... 

4 

1.034 

Cows  and  Calves 

l.mi8 
1.2:iO 

In  1869  the  Ministry  of  Domains  institutcfl  an 
inquiry  rospcctinir  the  Jewish  settlers  of  tlie  Xew 
Russiim  colonies,  in  order  to  ascertain  liow  ninny  of 
tliein  really  occupied  tliemselves  with  ajrriculture 
anil  liiiw  many  were  indigent  and  wnrljdess.  Asa 
result,  in  the  course  of  ten  years  10,;i.">i»men.  women, 
and  cliildren  were  e.\i)elled  from  the  chiss  of  atrri- 
culturists.  In  1874  all  reserve  lands,  which  iiad 
lieeii  counted  as  part  of  the  colonies,  were  taken 
away  frf)m  them. 

In  the  western  irovernments  tlio  .lewish  .Vs'ricul- 
lural  Colonies  were  founded  after  the  pul)lication  of 
the  edict  of  IKi't.  There  the  .Tews  were  permitted 
to  settle  on  {rovernment  as  well  as  on  iirivate  lands, 
and  for  foundini;  colonies  wealthy  Jews  were  re- 
warded with  the  title  of  honorary  citizens.  In 
1S4S.  l.")8  families,  comprising  SMti  persons,  settled 
on  government  land.s.  Eleven  years  later  (1S.")!I)  the 
settling  of  .lews  on  such  land  in  the  western  gov- 
ernments ceased  entirely:  and  in  18(54  they  were 
deprived  of  the  iierniission  even  to  settle  on  private 
lands.  In  I8T0  there  were  ;i4,4T.")  Jews  settled  in  the 
Agricultural  Colonies  in  the  western  governments, 
distributed  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 


liovemment. 

Number  nf 
Settleuienls. 

Numlier  of 
Individuals. 

Land  In 
Derlatines. 

Gnxlno 

Kiev 

211 
32 
15 

14 
18 
5 
10 

1.376 
7.VKI 
2.477 
:i.il23 
2.2'iil 
9.411 
2.(«l(l 

2.6.T5 
2.719 

Kovno     

2.2")2 

Minsk  

3,.">77 

Mi'hllev 

8,413 

Ptxiolak 

8.470 

Wllna 

2.iii;9 

Vltelwk 

Vnlhvnia  

824                      749 
3  274                   '*  *"7 

. 

21a 

34.475 

;i:i,85l 

The  above  numbers  have  since  considerably  de- 
creased. 

State  ok  Rcsso-Jkwish  AonicuLTunE. 


Oovemiiient. 


Bessanibla 

ChernlRiiv  — 
Ekatertnnsliiv.. 

(imlno 

Kherson 

Kiev 

Kovno 

Podolsk 

Poltava 

Taurlda  (Cr|. 

men'  

Vllelwk 

Vnlhvnlo 


1 

i 

,    •='E 

11 

IS. 

!5 

N 

M 

1111.210 

79.8711 

111,0117 

30.257 

21,IM 

3.'.rj 

2I8,M3 

11,477 

4.(RI 

2.252 

II.8AT 

2.nw 

40.838 

8«,.Wfl 

1111 

;tMr.i 

749 

13,91B 

408 

l«7..'i.39 

i:)9..-iiri 

.5S.HV 

2.M.u'iO 
Sill  .51 8 

311.4:12 

241 1,  tin 
172.:r79 

24.891 
44.278 

aoi,u48 


^1 


/-  C8 


2r«.74« 
219.:181 
UH.:tt; 
319,510 
4r2,8«t 
272.9.V. 
42.717 
248.(C1 
2i;t.215 

lin.iCQ 

77.2l«l 

3iuj;r2 


i2  -'&=•*■ 


!=■■ 


9.1 
5,8 
2,.5 
10.11 
8.4 
0.3 
1.3 
0.0 
5.3 


5.8 


12.1 
4.4 

•i   •> 

9.5 

14.1) 

i». 

18.7 


12.9 
14.9 


•  1  dwlatlne  =  2.71)  acm. 


The  jireceding  table,  published  in  "  Statist ichcski 
Vremennik  H<issiskoi  Imperii  "  (Statistical  Annals  of 
the  Rus.sian  Empire).  'M  series,  part  2.  edited  by  V. 
Alenitzyn,  St.  Petersburg,  1884,  shows  the  extent 
of  land  owned  and  leased  bj'  Jews  in  western  and 
southwestern  Russia  in  1881. 

These  results  were  the  more  remarkable  because  it 
was  exactly  in  this  year  1881  that  the  colonies  re- 
ceived the  greatest  check  to  their  develojiment  by 
the  riots,  which  actually  reached  the  colonies  of 
Kherson  and  Bessarabia  and  disturbed  the  sense  of 
security  in  all  tlie  rest.  Several  of  the  b<'st  Jewish 
farmers  in  Bessarabia  emigrated  in  that  year  to  the 
United  States  and  Palestine. 

The  M.\Y  I/.\ws  of  1882  (put  into  application  in 
1891)  intlueiiced  the  development  of  the  .\gricul- 
tural  Colonies  of  Russia  only  indireclly.  They  jnit 
a  stop  to  all  imiuigiation  of  the  Jewish  inhabitants  of 
the  towns  into  the  villages,  and  indeed  sent  no  less 
than  .")().IHIO  from  tiu'  villages  into  the  towns.  By 
this  means  the  development  of  agricultural  tastes 
among  the  Russian  Jews  was  effectively  arrested. 

But  the  -Vgricultural  Colonies  were  i)articularly 
exempted  from  the  operation  of  these  enactments. 
In  18,80  a  fund  to  promote  handicraft  and  agricul- 
ture among  the  Hussian  Jews  Avas  initiated,  with 
a  capital  of  2110.001)  rubles,  by  S.  Poliakov,  Baron 
II.  Giinzburg.  A.  Saik.  Leon  Rosenthal.  M.  Fried 
land,  and  others.      Seven   years   later 

Recent  (1887)  the  amount  of  this  fund  (1.110,- 
Progress.  '271  rubles)  was  turned  over  to  the 
geneiid  fund  of  the  government  treas- 
ury. In  18!ll  an  agricultural  school,  atliliated  with 
the  Jewish  Orphan  .\sylum.  was  ojiened  at  Odessa. 
In  181)'J  the  govenuneiil  granteil  Baron  II.  fJiinz- 
burg  [lermission  to  found  a  Jewish  agricultural 
colony  on  his  estate  in  the  district  of  Bendery,  gov- 
ernment of  Bessarabia.  The  colony  is  called  Ros- 
.sianka,  and  covers  ."iOO  deciatines  of  land,  of  which 
400  are  under  cultivation,  each  farmer  being  enti- 
tled to  20.  The  remaining  100  deciatines  are  re- 
served foracommou  pasture  andforfuture  enlarge- 
ments of  the  farms.  All  tliesellh-rs.  except  soldiers 
that  have  served  their  lime,  must  be  graduates  of 
.some  aiiricullund  school;  and  all  storekeepers  must 
be  Christians  C'Ahiasaf,"  181»'J,  p.  3(il). 

In  1000,  according  to  the  latest  reports,  there  were 
more  than  100.0(10  Jewish  agriculturists  in  Russia 
cultivating  their  own  farms.  GO.OOOof  whom  are  set- 
tled in  170  colonies.  In  South  Russia,  Jews  in  great 
numbers  seek  work  on  Christian  estates  and  tind 
ready  iiuployment  there.  In  Siberia,  ('specially  in 
thedislrici  of  Krasnoyarsk,  there  are  numerous  Jew- 
ish agiicullurisis  who  have  established  themselves 
on  single  farms;  and,  except  as  to  their  religion,  they 
differ  little  from  the  general  ma.ss  of  Ihe  Jieasjinls. 

In  Poland,  according  to  the  official  statistics  of 

1887,  Jews  owned  about  270.(1(10  ileciatiiies.      In  the 

government  of  Plot/.k  tliere  are  three 

Poland.  setlleinenls.  ICukhari.  D/.hikovicii.  and 
Rodolobovka.  which  were  founded  in 
the  thirties  by  Ihe  local  .lewish  lamlowiier,  Solomnn 
(Zelman)  Posner.  who  enjoyed  the  proleclioii  of  the 
vice-regent.  Count  Paskevich.  Thes<'  seltleiiienls 
are  in  a  tloiirishing  condition  and  are  inhabited  by 
,")IH)  Jewish  fanners.  Tiiere  are  also  some  farmers 
scattered  in  ihe  government  i)f  Radom.  In  Be,s.sa- 
rabia  many  Jews  eulllvate  Ihe  vine.  There  are  nine 
colonies,  mainly  in  Ihe  disirici  of  Soroki,  with  a 
po|nilation  of  -i.liOO  and  an  area  of  over  H.OlK)  decia- 
tines. In  Ihe  sjiini'  district  there  are  about  twenty 
villages  entirely  inhabited  by  .lews,  who  cullivalo 
Ihe  vine,  toliacco.  and  fruit  ("Vos."  .Vpril  20.  UHMi). 

In  Ihe  periiMllcal  "  Kaspi  "  for  April,  181)."),  a  (;oimI 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Russia-United  States' 


TIIK  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


256 


description  is  given  of  the  Vartaslien  settlement  in 
tlie  district  of'  Nool^lui  (government  of  Elisiibeth- 
jiol),  wliicli  is  wliolly  inliabited  by  Jewish  tobacco- 
planters  (350  families). 

The  following  two  tables  have  been  romi>iled  by 
the  Odessji  Society  for  the  Aid  of  .Jewish  Agriciii- 
turists  and  Artisans  in  Syria  and  Palestine.  No. 
I.  shows  that  in  If^'.HJ  nearly  i)T,()()0  Jews  in  Russia 
were  engaged  in  agriculture.  Besides  these  colo- 
nists who  were  grouped  in  settlements  there  were 
numerous  single  families  occupied  in  agricultural 
pvirsuits.  as  shown  in  table  No.  II. 

I.— JywiSH    AGRKTI.Tt  UlSTS  IN  BCSSIA,  189(1. 


Goveraments. 

Number  of 

.Jewish 
Agricultu- 
ral Settle- 
ments. 

Number  of 
Persons. 

Cultivated 

Land  in 

Declatines.* 

7 
17 
20 
23 
32 
15 
2ij 

i4 

3 
5 

11) 
18 

2,100 
7,819 
2,7.52 
19,419 

1.5.9(10 
4.9.51 
7.!M() 
4..i(K) 

18,823 

.500 

1,648 

«..54S 

3,9;i2 

2,900 

16.230 

2.6«5 

41.790 

J^lgy                             

2,719 

2.253 

3,.577 

Mohllev 

Podolsk 

Plotzk 

Vitebsk 

Volhvnla 

Wllna 

8.413 
8.470 
240 
749 
2.9*7 
2.069 

Total 

2(i5 

96,930 

95.011 

*  1  declatlne  =  2.70  acres. 
II.— Jewish  Workers  on  Plantations  in  rcssia,  1896. 


Governments. 


Bessarabia  . . 
Chernigov  . . . 
EkatiTlnoslav 

Grodno 

Kherson..     ■ 

Kiev 

Kovno 

Minsk  

Podolsk 

Poltava 

Tauriila 

Vitebsk 

Volhvnla 

Wllna 

Total 


Culture  of 
Tobacco. 


i,a58 

384 
168 
;.869 
I.l;i8 
801 
612 
:!90 
8:i9 
308 

22;) 

;!20 
12.5 
503 


10.038 


Gardening, 
etc. 


ats 

93 

5 

6.31 

20('l 

1.351 

1,896 

169 

6 

1 

30 

51 

533 


5,376 


There  were  also  about  1,800  Jewish  field-laborers 
employed  in  1890  on  about  2.5  different  estates  in 
Bes.sarabia,  Gi'odno,  Kherson,  Kiev,  Podolsk,  and 
Poltava. 

III.— Jewish  Agricultural  Colonies  in  Russia  in  1898-99. 
(Data  Collected  bv  the  Jewish  Colonization  Associa- 
tion.) 


Governments. 

Number  of 
Colonies. 

XumlMT  of 

Jewish 
Agricultur- 
ists. 

Land  Oc- 
cupied by 

Them,  111 
Declatines. 

a 

17 
13 
21 
19 
30 
25 
75 
14 
19 
14 
35 

3,960 
8,.597 
l.SOi) 
23,801 
2,965 
1,5311 
.5,.540 
5.290 
3,330 
865 
4.910 
1,910 

2,90(i 

17,660 

4,198 

43,336 

Kiev 

3.373 

2.854 

Minsk 

6.431 

Moirhilev.          

4.954 

Podolsk 

3.125 

Vitebsk 

nil 

.5.426 

Wilna 

4.413 

Total 

378 

63,223 

95.785 

IV.-Jewish    A(iRi(ri.TrRisTS    IX    IHssiA   oiTsiiiE  of  the 

(DLUNItS,  IN   1899.       iNfORMATION  GaTHEREH   IIV  THE  UU.<- 

siAN  Jewish  Colonization  Committee,  Received  through 
Baron  David  gCnzburg. 


Horticul- 
ture. 

Tobacco 

CULTURE. 

VITI- 
CULTURE. 

.-a  .• 
2^ 

Goveraments. 

il 

2 

ll 

Z 

il 

"3  . 

P 

z 

u 

XT 

z 

it 

z  g 

Bessarabia 

Chernlffov 

Courland    

Ekat^TinosIav.... 

721 
5.51 

■M 

3 
2,047 

44 

.56 

170 

1,495 

35 

234 

497 

1,849 

811 

81 
194 
9:15 
177 

44 
445 
165 

61 
105 
490 
160 
.578 

1,.568 

.599 

56 

1.5 

1.174 

.53 

81 

2411 

1.6;t! 

17 

390 

168 

1.642 

Lira 

22 

146 

805 

1,18.5 

811 

938 

260 

46 

.55 

39:1 

5:il 

l,i:i2 

789 
114 

1,512 
467 

459 

776 

368 

a5 

99 

3 

844 

?2 
114 

41 
817 
3.58 
174 
4.52 
728 
583 
151 
140 
407 

45 
210 
222 
181 
4 
305 
:J73 
231 
4.52 

2:) 

8 

;(.5 

2i 

1 

26 

104 

31 

4 

3 

.... 

4 

60 

.... 
■■"2 

::^ 

3 

Kiev 

4 

Kovno 

Kveltzy 

51 

■  ■  15 

"  "2 

'  441 
24 

"300 

'■■■5 

";J57 

138 

12 

Lublin 

13 

Minsk 

r 

Mohllev 

1 

Petrokov 

Plotzk 

Podolsk 

2 

23 

Poltava 

1 

Siivalkl 

Syedletz 

....  ,.. . . 
'.'.'.'.    "38 
■•■48"i 

4 

U 

7 

Vitebsk 

1 

Volhynia 

Warsaw 

Wilna 

2 
5 

5 

Total 

11.984 

15,112 

1.746 

3,646  i  66.-. 

1.136 

7,185 

177 

From  numerous  official  reports  of  Benkendorff, 
BarnnsHahnandStempcl.  Kartzev  and  Islavin,  up  to 
l.ssi)  (suinniarized  in  Nikitin).  it  is  evident  that  the 
Jewish  colonics  in  New  Uussia  are  in  no  way  behind 
the  Christian  Russian  villages  in  rational  farming. 
If  the  colonies  have  not  been  as  great  a  success  as 
was  anticipated,  the  fault  lies  rather  with  the  method 
of  foundation  and  tlie  obstacles  placed  in  the  waj' 
by  officials  than  with  the  Jewish  colonists  them- 
selves. 

BiBLiocBAPiiv  :  N'Ikltin.  I't  rirW.ii/a  ZfmUdwMnfMm  Knl- 
ifiiii.  in  rii.1.  18H3-S9;  also  in  bcn.k  fonii.  Si.  iVieiNbiirir,  1887; 
(ii>iban.«kl.  Yivni  v  fio.'wii.  pp.  Ilo  ft  « ./..  3.s:i  .  (  mi;..  St. 
Peterslmrg,  1877:  Wohl,  Yivni  Zi  iiihih/i  li  1 1.  supplement 
to  Ha-Kiirmrt.  1860.  Nos.  13-15;  Perl.  ltu)i,  n  ^.mlililj.  lTii(riie, 
18:!8:  Hn-Slinhar.  1876,  vll.  361  rl  wii..  4is  ,  (  .w/. :  Frederl.', 
TlK  Xr}r  Kriuhis.-pp.  3.5.77:  AUa-Zcit.  il.Jud.  ISKi.  p.  .Wi; 
Buchoitz.  (i'..v/i.  ll.  JuiUn  in  )ii|/n,1899,  p.  57;  lVi"r<:i»friH(i 
ZiiiilKliiilihixl.inn  Kiilnnii,  in  Kfron's  Russiian  translation 
of  Bro<-klmus"  KiniviranthniMi  riliiiu.  St.  I'etersburir.  1894; 
I'letnikciv.  1'.  rr.  W.n/u  Z'  iiilidiiflrlu  ■■<l;iiia  K<'liiiin  Kkaliri- 
iiiislornhi'i  liiilii  riiii.  St.  I'c'ti-nihure.  l.-i'.rj;  Afiiiui-syev  Chuzh- 
blnski.  S(ihrinii(  Snihiiii  ni.  vil.  341  ft  xcq.,  St.  ivtersburg. 
1M1«;  Kuliiiii.  Yri-ni  Zemhil]iiUzti.  etc.,  St.  Petersburg.  1880; 
Statisliilii  shi  \'r>  mintiik  Iiiu*iti»kni  Imi)erii^  3d  series,  part 
il.  St.  Petelsburit.  1^'H. 

H.  i: 

AGRICtTLTURAL    COLONIES     IN    THE 

UNITED  STATES:    Willi  the  cMvpti if  the 

]i:irtly  suciTssfiil  c\|icriineiil  liy  tliirlcen  Jewish 
familiesin  the  stateof  New  York  in  ls:iT(see below), 
Jewish  agriculture  and  Agricultural  Colonies  in 
America  are  not  of  earlier  date  than  the  great  Russo- 
Jcwish  migration  of  1881-82. 

The  first  agricultural  colony  settled  by  .Tews  in 
the  United  States  was  fouudcirat  "Wawar'sing,  Ul- 
ster county.  New  York,  in  1837.  and 
First  Jew-  was  naniecl  Shoi.om  ("Peace").  It  was 
ish  Colony,  founded  by  thirteen  Jewish  families — 
under  the  leadership  of  a  certain  Moses 
Cohen — who  left  New  Y'ork  city,  where  they  had 
been  living,  to  engage  in  agriculture  on  farms  which 
they  hud  purchased.     For  five  years  they  tried  to 


257 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(Russia -United  States) 


nmki'  fiinniiiir  piiy,  Imt  were  coinpellpd  to  add  to 
tlicir  ciiriiinirs  Iniiii  tlic  liuid  by  inanufafturiiif;  on 
a  small  scale  and  liy  tradinL'.  Sonic  of  the  orifiinal 
settlers  moved  out  of  the  colony  during  this  period, 
and  other  Jewish  families  joined;  but  finding  it  im- 
])ossible  to  support  themselves  by  farming,  they 
sold  their  lioldings  anil  moved  away  (1842). 

The  first  agricultural  colony  of  Russian  Jews  in 
the  I'niled  Slates  .settled  on  Sicily  Island,  Cata- 
houla jiarish,  near  Hayou   I.ouis,  J>ciuisianu.  in  the 

eastern  part  of  the  slate,  not  far  from 
Louisiana.   Ihe    .Mississippi    river.      Il    comprised 

;!.')  fumilic'S  from  Kiev  and  So  families 
from  Eli zulicthgrad,  and  hail  been  partially  organized 
in  IJussia.  When  the  colonists  arrived  in  zVmerica  in 
October.  1H81,  they  found  that  negotiatious  for  the 


into  tliree  groups,  so  as  to  work  most  cfTectively  on 
the  land  that  had  been  purchased  in  three  tracts. 
The  groun<l  was  tilled,  and  corn,  cotton,  and  vege- 
tables were  planted.  The  colonists  worked  with 
energy,  building  fences  and  generally  improving 
the  land,  when,  early  in  the  spring  of  1882,  the  en- 
tire region  was  flooded  owing  to  an  overflow  of  the 
Mississippi  river — houses,  cattle,  im])lements,  and 
crops  being  all  swept  away,  and  an  expenditure 
estimated  at  over  §20,000  was  rendered  nugatory. 
Some  fif  the  colonists  removed  to  8an  Antonio, 
Texas,  and  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  while  others  purchased 
isolated  farms  in  Kansas  and  Missouri,  where  they 
are  now  successfully  engaged  in  agriculture. 

In  July,  1882,  Herman  Rosenthal,  a  Russian  from 
Kiev,  president  of  the  Louisiana  colony,  headed  a 


i.K.NKKAL  View  ok  Wooijuink  Culu.w.  Ntw  JtK^tV. 

(From  ft  photofEmph.) 


establishment  of  the  colony  in  T,ouisiana  ha<l  been 
completed  by  H.  liosenthal.  A  New  York  cununil- 
tee  consisting  of  M.  S.  Isaacs,  Dr.  Julius  (Jnldman. 
M.l';ilinger,('liarles  L.liernheim,  and  Henry  S  Hiiiry, 
acting  as  the  represenlalives  cd'  the  Alliance  Israelite 
I'ruverselle  of  Paris.  KraiKc.  advanced  the  colonists 
Ihe  sum  of  .?2.HII0,  nominally  as  a  loan  ;  and  they  jios- 
ses,sed  about  S2. 800  of  their  own.  A  tract  of  land, 
comprising  about  o.OOO  acres,  was  purchased  at 
$8  an  acre.  (»n  their  arrival  at  their  future  home, 
the  colonists  were  lodgeil  temporarily  in  three  old 
liiiuses  thai  still  stood  on  the  properly,  which  be- 
fore the  Civil  War  hail  been  a  plantation,  and  since 
then  had  remained  uncidlivaleil.  Lumber  (for  the 
<Te(iioii  of  small  houses),  horses,  farm  implements, 
<'atlle,  poultry,  etc.,  were  forwarded  to  the  settle- 
meni  from  New  Orleans  by  a  local  <<>niiniltee  of 
Ihe  Alliance,  which,  under  ihe  chairmanship  of  Ju- 
lius Weiss,  liad  tnken  charge  of  the  alTairs  of  the 
colony. 

The  colonists,  who  numbered  173,  were  divided 
I.— 17 


group  of  20  Russian  families,  who  settled  on  farms 
in  the  southeastern  part  of  what  is  now  South  Da- 
kola,  and  formed  a  colony  which  they 
South  called  Cr^mieux.  It  was  situated  in 
Dakota.  Davison  county,  fourteen  ndles  from 
Mt.  Vernon,  the  nearest  railroad  station, 
and  twenty-six  miles  from  Jlitchell,  the  county-seat. 
Most  of  the  colonists  had  (|uarter-s<>ction  farms  of  100 
acres  each,  while  some  of  the  farms  covered  as  much 
as  a  sc|uare  mile  (t>40  acres).  ,\mong  the  .s«'ttlers 
were  se vend  families  that  had  joined  the  ill  fated  .set- 
tlement in  Louisiana.  Thecolonislsat  Cremieux  had 
means  of  their  own.  and  the  flrst  year  met  with  a  fair 
measure  of  success.  Oat.s,  wheat,  rye.  and  barley 
were  .sown,  and  yielded  pood  crops,  while  especial 
attention  was  paid  to  the  raising  of  Max.  In  the  sec- 
on<l  year  wheat  was  more  extensively  cultivati'd  ;  but 
the  wheal  bug  made  its  appeaninci',  and  a  largi'  part 
of  I  he  crop  was  destroyed.  In  addition  to  this,  a  pro- 
longe<l  period  of  drought  caused  the  death  of  many 
cattle       In  ilie  lliird  vear  Ihunderslnrms  « ire  so  de- 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(TTuited  States) 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


258 


structive  to  the  standing  crops  that  thi'  colonists  were 
conilicllcd  to  mortgage  their  farms;  l]ul  the  nite  of 
interest  demamled  on  loans  was  so  high  that  most 
of  the  si'ttlers  sold  out  and  moved  away.  A  few 
remained  a  year  or  two  longer;  l)ut  excessive  in- 
terest on  their  mortgages  and  a  scarcity  of  water 
proved  a  combination  too  iiowerful  for  tlicm,  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  ISS.")  tliey  also  left  the  settle- 
ment. The  failure  may  likewise  be  attributed,  in  a 
measure,  to  the  distance  of  tlie  colony  from  the  rail- 
road and  the  county-seat. 

Another  attempt  at  Jewish  colonization  in  South 
Dakota  was  made  soon  after,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Alliance  Israelite  Universelle.    Twenty-live  un- 


were  lit  for  cultivation.  Water  was  scarce,  except 
in  the  spring,  when  mountain  Hoods  endangered  e.\- 
istence  itwlf.  During  the  lirst  year  of  settlement 
there  were  in  all  l'>  families  at  Cotopa.xi,  with  a 
totJil  of  04  persons.  After  many  liardsliii)s  the  set- 
tlers were  comi)elled  to  leave  the  colony,  as  they 
could  not  make  a  living  fnmi  the  soil,  and  had  no 
other  industries  from  which  to  derive  an  income. 

In  the  summer  of  ISbJ  a  Jewish  agricultural  col- 
ony of  socialists  was  established  in  the  southwest- 
ern portion  of  Oregon,  near  the  Cali- 

Oiegon.  fornia  line,  by  a  l>arty  of  Jews  from 
souUiwesteru  Russia,  who  called  them- 
selves "Sons  of  the  Free,"  and  named  their  settle- 


TllK  SCHOOLHOCSE,  WOODBI.NE  COLONY,  NKW  JKRSKV. 
(From  a  phol«gr»]>li.) 


married  young  men  .settled  as  farmers  >ipon  a  tract 
of  land  near  Cremieux  at  a  place  wiiich  they  called 
Bethlehem -Yehudah.  They  carried  on  their  work 
upon  a  communistic  basis;  but,  not  withstanding  out- 
side supi>ort.  the  experiment  proved  \msuccessful. 
After  a  precarious  existence  of  a  year  and  a  half, 
during  which  there  were  much  strife  and  discontent 
in  the  community,  the  settlement  was  abandoned. 

An  attempt  to  establish  a  Jewish  agricultural  col- 
ony in  Colorado  met  with  no  better  success.     On 

M;iy  !l.  ISS'2.  13  families  were  sent  to 
Colorado.     Cotopaxi   in  the   state  of  Colorado, 

with  means  furnished  by  the  Hebrew 
Emigrant  Aid  Society  of  Now  York,  The  colonists 
were  settled  on  government  land,  160  acres  being 
allotted  to  each  family;  but  of  1,780  acres  100  only 


mcnt  New  Odessa.  The  colony  was  situated  265 
miles  from  Portland,  near  the  town  of  Glendale, 
on  the  California  and  Oregon  Railroad.  Originally 
there  were  40  persons  in  thissettlement,  most  of  them 
unmarried,  and  many  of  them  would-be  social  re- 
fonners,  A  grave  mistake  was  made  in  the  selec- 
tiim  of  the  land,  but  one-fourth  of  it  being  capable 
of  cultivation.  Some  of  the  settlers  lost  courage 
before  the  first  harvest  and  went  awa)'.  In  March, 
1884,  10  new  settlers  bought  TOO  acres  for  !?4,H(KI;  of 
which  about  100  acres  were  jilanted  in  oats,  wheat, 
barley,  and  potatoes.  A  few  of  the  colonists  tried 
to  support  themselves  by  cutting  ties  and  fire- 
wood for  the  railroad,  but  to  little  purpose.  This 
colony,  too,  proved  a  failure,  and  was  abandoned 
in  1888, 


259 


THE  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
(United  States; 


An  attempt  was  made  to  found  ii  colony  of  Husso- 

Jewish  f;iniiers  in  what  is  now  Noilli  Dakota      This 

colony,  known  as  Painted  Woods, 

North        was  loculeil,  in  IMS',',  near  the  town  of 

Dakota.  Uismuick.  Twenty  families,  each  re- 
ceiving 11)0  acres,  made  the  initial  ex- 
periment, which  was  largely  due  to  the  elforts  of 
Kev.  .1.  Wechsler  of  St.  I'aul,  Minn.,  and  his  .Iivvish 
fellow  citizens.  In  the  course  of  a  year  the  colony 
had  increased  to  54  families,  representing  ,sonie  'MO 
individuals;  hut.  owing  to  prairie  lires  and  severe 
drought  during  the  winter  of  1SS4-,S.').  their  los.ses 
were  so  heavy  that  there  was  much  distress  among 
the  colonists,  IJefnre  this  period  of  misforl \nie  he- 
gan  the  population  of  the  colony  consisteil  of  71  men 
and  .VJ  women  and  nearly  '.)0  children.  IJy  the  spring 
of  IHX^>  only  40  colonists  were  left.  Funds  had  heen 
sent  (luring  till' winter  to  relieve  their  wants;  an<l, 
later,  a  sum  of  about  iii."),00()  was  furnished  to  iirovidc 
seeds,  implements,  horses,  and  cattle.  In  all.  about 
$'20,000  h.'iil  been  spent  ujioii  the  colony  by  the  be- 
ginning (pf  IH.'SU.  in  that  year  the  crops  failed,  en- 
tailing much  suffering  during  the  ensuing  winter 
In  1HH7  the  <'olonists,  having  met  with  no  more  sue 
ces.s  than  their  i>redece.ssors,  were  obliged  to  give  up. 
It  is  said  that  a  few  Jewish  farmers,  survivors  of 
thiscolonv,  are  .still  to  be  found  scattered  through 
North  Dakota. 

On  March  "27.  1MH4.  an  agricultural  colony  was 
founded  in  I'ralt  countv.  in  the  soMlhern  pari  of 
Kansiis,  which  was  named  after  Sir  Moses  Monte- 
fiore.  At  tirst  the  prospects  of  this  colony  were 
promising;  but  it  was  soon  found  that  llie  culti- 
vation of  the  soil  was  beset  with  dillieidties  that 
had  been  underestimated.  As  the  settlers  were  nn 
lilted  for  the  hard  work  enlailcd  by  fanning  in  this 
region,  they  were  eomiKlled  lo  sell  the  land  an<l 
leave.  Some  of  them  seltleilat  Allianci'.  in  New  Jcr 
Rvy.  while  most  of  them — inall.  17  families — wen;  es- 
lablishc<l,  Apiil,  Iss.'),  near  Lasker,  in  Fonl  county, 
Kansas,  by  the  Montetiore  Agricultural  Aid  Society 
<if  New  York.  About  nine  s(|uare  mill's  of  land  were 
purclia.sed,  and  each  family  was  given  a  farm  of  KiO 
acres.  For  some  years  the  colony  llirovc,  but  in  the 
end  was  also  misuccessful. 

Through  the  elforts  of  the  Jewish  community  of 

Cincinnali  another  attempt  at  coloni'/ing  in  Kansas 

had  I I ide  ill   ls.S'_>.     This  sitlle- 

Kansas.  ment.  which  was  calleil  Beer-sheba, 
was  located  in  Iloilgenian  county 
Here,  again,  prospects,  apparently  bright,  were  soon 
iliinnied.  Owing  to  disputes  between  the  colonists 
and  the  managers  of  the  ,setllenient  the  latter  sold 
all  the  animals  and  implements,  thus  subjccling  the 
former  to  many  hardships.  In  order  to  eiirii  a  live- 
lihood the  farmi'i's  sought  employment  in  Doilge 
City,  (iardeii  City,  ami  oilier  places,  where  they 
workeil  at  trades,  wliili'  (heir  families  remained  on 
the  farms.  They  continued  to  struggle  on,  and  in 
a  few  cases  siicceeded  in  making  their  farms  moder- 
ately prolilable;  but  as  a  colony  the  attempt  was 
not  a  success. 

A  Ihird  agricultural  I'olony.  known  as  Hebron, 
was  eslablished  in  soulhern  Kans,'is.  This  setlle 
nieni  comprised  MO  families,  one-half  having  private 
means,  the  other  being  aided  by  the  Montetiore  Ag 
ricnllural  Aid  Socielv.  Only  a  few  families  suc- 
ceeded in  making  llieir  farms  pay.  and,  a.s  a  whole, 
the  iitlempi  was  a  failuri'. 

In  March.  |MS(i.  Gilead,  in  Conmnche  county, 
Kansas,  was  settled  by  'Jo  rumilies,  most  of  whom 
were  Kumanian;  wliiii'  Touro  was  begun  with  \'i 
Uussian  families,  and  Leeser,  in  Finney  counly, 
with  u  still  smaller  number       \\  liai    has  been  said 


of  the  other  Jewish  Agricultural  Colonics  of  Kansas 
applies  also  to  lhe.se.  Each  attempt  was  a  struggle 
beset  with  hardships,  rewarded  by  occasional  suc- 
cess, and  i-nding  in  complete  failure. 

In  IHS'2  l.a/anis  Silberman.  a  banker  of  Chicago, 
settled  \i  Kusso  Jewish  families  on  800  acres  of  land 
in  Michigan,  lying  on  tlie  shores  of  Vurp  lake,  be- 
tween Lake  Michigan  and  Grand  Traverse  bay. 
After  many  dilliculties  with  the  .settlers,  who  either 
would  not  or  could  not  make  any  iiaynients  on  the 
amounts  advanced  to  them,  Silbemnm  abandoned 
the  enterprise:  and  soon  after  the  colonists  dis- 
banded. The  failure  was  asenbed  as  much  to  lack 
of  capital  as  lo  the  fact  that  the  colonists  were  not 
practical  agricidturists. 

In  August,  tS!)l,  Kifamiliesof  Russian  Jewsseltled 
in  Huron  county,  .Michigan,  some  three  miles  from  the 
town  of  Had  .\\i'.  They  called  their 
Michigan,  settlement  Palestine.  The  land  was 
wild  but  good.  The  colonists  took  it 
on  five-year  contracts,  agreeing  to  jiay  §12  an  acre 
for  their  holdings,  each  family  contracting  for  40  to 
()0  acres.  This  selllenient.  like  most  of  the  other  at- 
tempts at  Jewish  colonization  in  the  I'liited  Slates, 
was  begun  too  hastily,  and  w  ilhout  sutlicient  means 
to  tide  the  colonists  over  the  unproiluclive  period  and 
to  secure  them  a.srainst  probable  losses  from  drought, 
fire,  and  Hood.  They  succeeded  in  erecting  a  few 
shanties  and  log  houses,  but  these  were  insuthcient 
for  their  niiils;  and  they  ran  into  debt  for  Ihe  few 
liorsi'S  and  cows  that  Ihcv  were  able  to  obtain.  In 
the  spring  of  lS!)-2  the  lieih  El  Hebrew  Kelief  Soci 
ety  of  Detroit  (a  citv  one  hundred  and  thirty-live 
miles  southwest  of  tfie  colony)  sent  food  and"  tools 
to  the  colonists,  and  on  their  behalf  applied  to  the 
Baron  de  Ilir.scli  Fund,  which,  at  this  lime  and  in 
sub.sequent  years,  gave  them  substantial  help.  In 
spile  of  this  support  Ihe  farmers  have  been  unsuc- 
cessful. Four  or  live  have  given  u]i  their  holdings, 
while  till'  rest  arc  slill  slru.irglin.ir  on  in  Ihe  lioj>e 
of  eventually  payin.ic  olf  llieir  burden  of  debt.  In 
October.  1M!)7.  there  were  13  men.  11  women,  and  39 
children  in  Ihe  colony.  In  April,  1900,  there  were 
but  H  families,  and  these,  too,  would  have  left  but 
for  the  frei|nenl  anil  substantial  aid  rendered  by 
philanthropic  organizations. 

.\mong  ollier.iew  isli  .Vgricultural  Colonics  having 
only   brief  i'.\islence  may    be  mentioned  one  eslab- 
lished by  l-"!  Jewish  families  in  1Mm3  on  land   pur- 
cha.sed  with  their  own  funds  near  the  city  of  \Va.-li- 
inglon,  D.  C.   This  colony  they  called  Washing-ton, 
and   it,  too,  was  doomed  lo   failure.     Through  the 
elTorts  of  some   pliilanlliropic  Jewish  residents  of 
Baltimore  9  families  were  established  in  November. 
ISS'2.  at  a  place  called  Waterview,  on 
Virginia,     the  Happahannock  river,  in  \'iri;inia. 
Iiul   before   \HS(\  this  colony  had  dis- 
appeared.     .V  dozen  ,Iew  ish  families  were  colonized 
in  .Middlesex  county,  Virginia,  in  18M2,  but  ilid  not 
reniain  there  long. 

Among  scvcml  other  futile  atlcmpls  at  ,Tewish 
agricnlliinil  coloidzalion  between  I.mM'J  and  isit'2  was 
one  in  Calaveras  counly.  California. 

Jewish   agricultunil  colonizalion  in  (^>nne<'tlcut 

dales  from  the  sclllemenl  of  llirei'  Jewish  families, 

ill  1S9I,  at  New  London  and  Norwich, 

Connecti-     by   the    I'niteil    Hebn'W    Charilies   of 

cut.  New  York  clly.  with  money  provided 

lor  Ihe  purpose  by  the  Baron  de  Ilirseh 

Fund.     The  families  were  sent  lo  work  in  mills,  but 

by  strict  economy  lliey  siiccci'ded  in  a  few  years 

in  .saving  enoni.'li  money  to  enable  the  heads  of  the 

families,  w  Im  had   been  dairy  farmers  in   Uussia,  to 

buy  cheap  farms  near  Norwii  h       Nol  loin;  aflir.  iu 


Agricultural  Colonies 
^United  States) 


THE  .lEWISn  EXCYCLOPEDLV 


260 


1892,  one  Hiiyyim  Pankiii,  a  Russiau  Jew,  aided  by 
the  Baron  ilc  Ilii'scli  Fund,  lioujrlit  a  farm  near 
Chesterfield.  IK'  scxm  siuceeik'd  in  inilucini;  2y 
other  .lewish  fiunilies  to  settle  near  the  same  |)lace. 
They  all  eiigaired  mainly  in  (lairy■^arMlinl.^  as  (he 
soil  was  not  rich  euonj;li  to  make  market  gardening 
prolitable.  although  eaeh  farmer  raised  his  own  foil- 
tier  and  the  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  rciiuired 
for  his  family.  The  general  method  by  which  these 
farms  were  purchased  was  by  the  payment  of  one- 
third  to  one-half  in  cash,  the  l)alanee  remaining  on 
mortgage  at  .■»  or  6  per  cent  per  annum.  Later,  the 
Banm  de  Hirseli  Fund  made  loans  on  second  mort- 
gage to  some  of  the  farmers,  to  enable  ihem  to  im- 
prove their  holdings.  The  liojiulalion  of  I'liesterlield 
has  been  unstable.  Of  the  ".iS  families  that  settled 
in  August,  1892,  only  \~t  remained  in  the  autunui  of 
1894;  but  18  others  had  come  in  the  meantime,  so 
that  in  the  latter  year  the  total  nund)er  of  .lewish 
farmers  was  33.  In  1897,  through  the  good  otliees  of 
the  trustees  of  the  liuron  <le  llirseh  Fund,  a  steam 
creamery  was  erected  and  a  synagogue  was  Ijuilt.  In 
.size  the  farms  range  f rom  ;}'3  to  13Jaeres.  theaverage 
being  about  GO;  the  i>riee  jiaid,  including  buildings, 
averages  §15  an  acre.  While  some  of  the  original 
settlers  who  were  unsuccessful  left  the  colony,  new- 
comers took  their  places,  so  that  the  population  has 
not  decreased. 

The  general  statistics  of  .lewish  Agricidtural  Col- 
onies in  t'omiecticut  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
In  .\pril.  1891,  2,370  acres  of  farm  land  were  owned 
liv  19  Hebrew  immigrant  families  (compare  "Ameri- 
can Jewish  Year  Book,"  1899-1900,  pp.  281  and  283). 
These  farms  cost  S2l),80ll.  of  which  sum  §."),840  was 
I)aid  in  cash.  The  total  Jewish  farming  jiopulation 
at  that  time  was  143  persons.  In  January,  1892.  the 
nundier  of  acres  of  wooilland  and  pasture  owned  by 
Jewish  farmers  was  7.813,  of  which  1.420  acres  were 
cleared.  The  purchase  jiriee  of  these  lauds  was 
S89,()U0.  of  which  S36,0.50  had  been  paid,  the  balance 
remaining  on  mortgage  at  5  or  0  per  cent.  These 
farms  were  owned  by  53  families,  consisting  of  491 
persons.     The  farmers  ownid  229  head  of  cattle. 

In  December,  1899,  there  were  600  Jewish  farmers 
in  New  England,  mainly  in  Connect  lent,  with  some 
scattered  in  Massachusetts.  It  was  estimated  that 
$1,100,000  had  been  invested  by  them  in  their  hold- 
ings, §1,2.")0.000  remaining  on  mortgage.  The  prin- 
cipal grotips  of  selllemenis  in  Conneeticut  are  at 
Chesterfield,  Colchester,  ami  Montville,  with 
others  near  Norwich  and  New  London. 

Of  all  the  Jewish  Agricultural  Colonies  in  the 
United  .Status  the  most  important  are  those  founded 
in  New  .Jersey.     With  few  exceptions 
New  they  were  all  established  in  the  south- 

Jersey,  irn  part  of  the  state,  and  ineluile 
Alliance,  Rosenhayn,  Carmel, 
Woodbine,  Montefiore,  May's  Landing,  Hal- 
berton,  Malaga,  and  Hightstown.  Of  these 
only  the  first  four  still  (19011)  remain.  There  were 
300  Jewish  farmers  in  New  Jersev  at  the  beirinning 
of  the  movement  in  1882.  200  in"  1893.  and  onlv  70 
at  the  end  of  1896.  Through  aid  e\tend<-d  by  the 
Jewish  Colonization  Association  of  Paris  in  1897. 
the  colonists  were  given  effective  help,  so  that  in 
1900  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  2.50  Jewish 
farmers  in  the  state — most  of  whom  were  settled  in 
the  southern  part.  Of  these  probably  not  more  than 
100  families  make  a  living  exclusively  by  farming. 

The  colony  of  Alliance  is  situated  in  Salem 
county,  New  .lerscy.  aliout  a  mile  north  of  Broad- 
way— a  station  on  the  New  Jersey  Southern  Kail- 
road.  It  is  about  43  miles  southeast  of  Philadelphia, 
and  4  miles  from  Vinelaud,  the  nearest  market-town. 


The  colony  was  named  after  the  Alliance  Israelite 
I'niverselli'.  wliich  provided  fun<ls  for  its  founda- 
tion. Three  large  wooden  buildings  were  erected 
to  afford  temporary  shelter  for  the  colonists,  who 
were  brought  thilher  in  May,  18,82. 

The  soil  is  a  light  sandy  loam  covered  with  the 
bush  and  scrub-oak  common  in  southern  New  Jer- 
sey. At  the  outset  2.">  families,  principally  from 
cities  of  southern  Russia  (Elizabethgrad,  Odessa, 
Kiev,  etc.),  settled  at  Alliance,  but  this  numbersoon 
increased  to  07  families.  The  lirst  winter  was  ])as.seil 
by  the  colonists  crowded  together  in  the  three  build- 
ings mentioned,  their  needs  being  provide(l  for  in 
liartbythe  Ilelirew  Emigrant -Vid  Society.  'I'henext 
year  the  land  was  divided  into  lifleen  acre  farms; 
houses  consisting  of  two  rooms  and  a  cellar  were 
erected,  wells  sunk,  and  other  improvements  made. 
Contracts  were  entered  into  under  which  each  farmer 
was  to  pay  within  ten  years  §3r)0  for  Ids  holding, 
the  house  Iteing  reckoned  at  SMO.  The  number  of 
acres  devoted  to  coutmnnal  imrposes.  school-build- 
ings, factories,  burial-ground,  etc.,  was  l.'JO. 

Each  family  during  the  tirst  year  of  settlement 
received  .?8  to  Sl2  per  month  for  9  months,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  its  members,  and  §100  worth 
of  seed  for  jdantin,;:.  ¥aic\\  farmer  also  received 
some  furniture,  cooking  uten.sils,  small  fanning  im- 
plements, elc.  The  second  yi'ar  each  family  re- 
ceived .830  worth  of  seed,  and  about  .50families'wcre 
also  supplied  with  sewing-machines.  One  of  the 
large  buildings  above  referred  to  was  converted  into 
a  cigar  factory  during  the  second  winter;  but,  the 
hands  being  unskilled,  wages  were  very  low.  This 
industry  was  discontinued  the  next  year,  and  the 
colonists  suffered  very  much  in  consecjucnce.  Ow- 
ing to  these  liardshijis  and  discoursigements,  by  the 
end  of  1884,  17  farmers  abandoned  their  holdings, 
which  reduced  the  population  to  ."lO  f:imilies,  com- 
jn-ising  2.")0  jiersons.  About  this  time  a  i)arty  of 
delegates  from  the  Mansion  House  Fund  of  London, 
England  (Samuel  Montagu,  Benjamin  L.  Cohen, 
and  Dr.  A.  Aslier),  visite(l  and  investigated  the  con- 
dition of  the  colony,  with  the  rcsidt  that  §10,000  was 
sent  for  its  aid  to  the  New  York  Hebrew  Emigrant 
Aid  Society,  the  Alliance  Land  Trust  being  formed 
by  Henry  S.  Hemy.  Isiac  E))pin,ger,  Leopold  Gcr- 
shel,  Leonard  Lewisohn,  S.  jMidir,  F.  de  Sola  blen- 
des, and  others.  About  §7.000  was  devoted  to  the 
completion  of  the  inirchase  of  the  land  in  behalf 
of  the  colonists  generally,  the  remainder  being  used 
to  buy  horses,  cows,  implements,  etc.,  for  the  more 
deserving  among  them.  New  contracts  were  made 
whereby  one-half  of  the  farm  was  to  be  given  to  the 
holder  free  of  charge,  provided  the  other  half  was 
l)aid  for  in  equal  instalments  extending  over  thirty- 
three  years. 

Among  the  local  industries  established  at  Alliance 
were  a  shirt  factory  and  a  tailors'  shop,  the  employ- 
ment from  whidi  materially  aided  the 
Local  colonists  during  the  winter  months. 
Industries.  In  1889  the  population  of  the  colony 
was  .')29,  of  whom  282  were  males  and 
247  females.  The  farmers  owned  1 .400  acres  of  land, 
of  wliii  h  889  were  cultivated.  There  were  92  houses 
in  the  colony,  a  synagogue  (dedicated  July  29, 1888), 
a  library,  a  post-otfice,  aTid  a  night-school.  Through 
the  joint  efforts  of  the  Baron  de  Ilirsch  Fvuid  and  the 
Jewish  Colonization  Associatitm  of  London,  tailors' 
shops  have  been  established,  thus  affording  a  local 
market  for  produce.  The  most  recent  statistics  ob- 
tainable regarding  .Vlliance  show  that  there  arc 
(1900)  96  Jewish  families,  aggregating  •")12  persons, 
in  and  around  the  colony  (including  Norma).  Of 
these,    33   families   devote   themselves   entirely   to 


261 


Tin:  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
.United  States) 


farminfr,  15  entirely  to  ttiiloiinsr,  12  oombino  funiiinj; 
iiiiil  tiiiliiriiiir.  iiiul  tlie  reiiiiiiniinr  3(1  not  mily  till  llieir 
fiirins  liut  also  follow  some  other  crall.  swell  as  ma- 
sonry, slioemaking,  tarpeutry ,  etc.  Over  1,500  acres 
of  land  are  owned  by  these  .settlers,  of  which  530  are 
devoted  to  fruit,  577  to  vegeliibles.  and  the  remainder 
to  fodder  or  i)astiire.  There  arc  87  dwcllinsr-houses, 
with  111  ontliuildiniTS.  The  cupilal  invested  in  1897 
was.sl|-,'.2!t8,  of  which  Sti.H.o:!:}  had  been  rejiaid  in 
cash.  The  balance  remained  due.  The  valueof  the 
yearly  productsof  the  soil  was  estimated  at§17,8()8. 
The  colonists  then  owned  55  liorscs,  7!)  cows,  and 
•1,700  fowls.     See  also  Ai.Li.vNCK,  New  Jersey. 

Another  Jewish  airricultnral  colony  in  Xew  Jersey 
is  known  as  Carmel,  and  lies  in  ( 'nndierland  county, 
in  the  southern  iiart  of  the  state,  midway  between 
Hridirelon  and  .Millville.  The  nearest  raihfiad  sta- 
tion to  the  colony  is  at  Uoscnhayn,  alioul  three  miles 
to  the  north  of  Carmel.  Seventeen  Kusso-Jewi.sh 
farmers,  aide<l  bv  Jlichacl  Ileiliirinof  New  York,  set- 
tlc<l  here  in  1880,  and  called  the  jilace  Carmel.     A 


exclusively  by  tailorin>r.  These  families  own  1,029 
acresof  land. of  which  113  are  devoted  to  fruit  grow- 
ing, 504  to  raising  market  produce,  while  the  remain- 
ing laud  is  devoted  to  pasture  or  fodder.  <»f  the 
dwelling-houses,  48  are  occupied,  together  with  86 
barns  and  other  outbuildings.  The  total  valine  of 
these  holdings  is  estimated  at  §84.574,  on  which  there 
is  an  indebtedness  of  §20,273.  The  yearly  ])roduce 
of  the  soil  was,  in  I'.IOO,  valued  at  §12,58.1;  that  ac- 
tually sold  bidught  §8.200,  while  the  remainder  wa.s 
consumed  by  the  liroducers.  The  settlers  of  Carmel 
own  36  horses,  114  cows,  and  3,300  fowls.  In  the 
community  several  factories  have  been  established — 
chietly  for  the  manufacture  of  clothing — and  the  em- 
Iiloyment  they  afford  is  a  source  from  which  many 
of  the  settlers  derive  their  principal  means  of  liveli- 
hood. 

Rosenhayn,  another  colony  in  the  same  state,  is 
sitvuiteil  in  Cumberland  county,  on  the  New  Jersey 
Southern  Kailroad.  It  was  founded  \>y  the  Hebrew 
Emigrant  Aid  Society  of  New  York,  0  families  hav- 


TuK  Ba.s'U  of  hie  Wooddixe  touixv. 

(From  a  [tWlograpfa.) 


vear  or  two  after  the  settlement,  7  of  the  original 
inunigrants,  discouraged  by  the  jioor  res\dls,  left  the 
<'olony,  but  their  places  were  soon  tilled  by  others 
who  came  from  western  Russia.  In  188!)  tint  colony 
contained  28ti  p<rsons,  of  whom  150  were  men  and 
boys  and  130  wonun  and  girls,  living  in  30  honsis. 
Kighty-two  of  their  children  alli'nded  the  ])ublic 
school.  Tlu;  farms  comprised  804  acres,  of  which 
the  Jewish  colonists  o<<upied  848  acres,  allhough 
only  123  were  under  cultivation.  Corn,  rye.  buik- 
«heat,  vegetables,  and  berries  were  the  chief  crops. 
I>uriiig  the  winter  the  farmers  supported  Ihemselves 
by  tailoring.  In  the  latter  part  of  188i(,  owing  to  a 
Blftof  §5,000  liy  Ilaron  .Maurice  de  llirseh,  1.500  ad- 
(lilional  a<res  of  land  were  |)urchased.  and  30  new 
houses  creeled  at  an  average  cost  of  §800  each. 

Theconilition  of  the  colony  at  Carmel  has  been  one 
of  varying  prosperity  and  ilepression.  Oulsiile  aid, 
either  iiy  the  establishment  of  local  industries,  by  lib- 
I'ral  loans  on  mortgage  at  u  low  rjile  of  inleresl.  or 
evi'n  by  direi  t  gifts,  has  from  time  to  time  been 
necessary  to  enable  the  colony  to  exist.  Carmid  con- 
tained, in  IllOO,  8!t  Jewish  families,  whose  members 
aggregateil  471  persons.     The  numberof  families  en- 

ftaged  exclusively  in  fanning  is  111;  14  cianbine  fami- 
ng and  tailoring,  13  ari'  engagid  in  farming.  23  in 
trades  other  than  tailoring,  ami  33  earn  their  living 


ing  been  sent  to  the  northern  part  of  Rosenliayii  in 
1883.  Ill  1887  other  Jewish  families  bought  land 
near  Hosenhayn,  and,  to  jiay  for  it,  workeil  at  tailor- 
ing in  I'hiladelphia.  In  the  following  year  37  addi- 
tional families  .seliled  in  the  neighborhood,  where 
they  were  sold  farm  land  on  the  condition  that  they 
should  build  houses  and  (ullivate  a  certain  part  of 
their  holdings  within  a  spccitied  time.  This  agree- 
ment iinposeil  hardshi]>son  the  colonists;  for.  inorder 
to  meet  their  i>aymiiits,  they  had  to  work  at  tailor- 
ing. For  some  time  they  lived  and  toileil  in  a  largo 
wooden  building  opposite  the  Uosinhayn  niilway 
station.  Ily  thi'  latter  |)art  of  188!)  the  Jewish  set- 
tlersowned  l,l)12acresiit  Hosenhayn,  of  which,  how- 
ever, only  201  acres  were  under  cultivation — produ- 
cing chielly  berries,  corn,  and  gnipe.s.  There  were  07 
families,  living  in  23  houses,  0  of  whii-h  were  built 
by  local  Jewish  carpenters  The  population  at  that 
lime  amounted  to  2!t4,  comprising  140  malis  and  145 
females.  Sixty  of  the  children  attended  the  public 
school.  In  Ihiscommunily  there  are  47  families. »  ho 
derive  a  living  wholly  or  in  part  from  their  farms, 
and  who  hold  a  total  of  l.;l.ss  iicn-s,  of  which  WH  are 
under  cullivation.  They  own  7.415  frnil-IK-es,  28,- 
770  gnipe  vines.  12S  liors<s  and  ciiws.  and  upward  of 
(t.(KM)  fowls.  The  valueof  their  holdings  is  estimated 
at  §85.520.  upon  which  there  is  an  indebtetluess  of 


Airrlcultural  Colonies 
Aifrioulturo 


THE  .IF.nisn   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


262 


S"-2('>.i)8(i.  Here,  as  at  the  other  successful  soutliern 
New  Jersey  .lewisli  colonies,  thereare  factories,  where 
a  portion  of  the  jieople  earn  most  of  their  living  ex- 
penses, thus  furnishing  a  local  market  that  pays  a 
iiiir  price  for  their  products  and  enahlinu:  them  to 
avoid  the  expensive  freight  rales  and  commissions 
allacliing  to  the  sale  of  produce  clsiwhere. 

Woodbine,  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  Cape 
May  county.  New  .lersey,  at  the  jun<iion  of  the 
West  .Jersey  and  Seashore  and  the  South  Jersey 
railroads,  is,  at  the  present  time  (1001).  the  most 
successful  of  the  Jewish  colonies  in  America.  It 
was  established  August  2S.  1891,  liy  the  trustees  of 
the  Baron  de  Hirscli  Fund,  and  since  that  time  has 
been  carried  im  unili'r  their  supervision.  The  laml, 
coruiirisiiig  about  5.300  acres,  was  purchased  for 
S!:i7.")00.  The  farms  arc  located  around  the  town, 
which  Contains  several  facloiies,  a  synagogue,  a 
church,  two  public  schools,  a  ninnlier  of  stores,  and 
aliout  a  hundred  neat  frame  <lwellings,  sheltering  a 
popidation  of  about  1,000  .souls.  In  liiol  there  were 
5'.'  families  of  Jewish  farmers  at  Woodbine,  repre- 
senting a  total  of  about  400  persons.  Of  the  farms 
4!l  contain  15  acres  each;  two.  10  acres  each,  and 
one.  30  acres.  Of  the  total  of  785  acres  no  less  than 
50tl  are  under  cultivation.  The  principal  products 
are  berries,  small  fruits,  and  garden  truck,  as  well 
as  dairy  prodvicts.  The  aggregate  value  of  the 
farms  is  about  S50.000.  liesides  these  farms,  the 
liaron  de  Ilirsch  Agric\iltural  School  has  farm  land 
to  the  extent  of  'i'O  acres,  of  which  T'l  acres  are 
under  cultivation.  The  town  all'onls  a  local  market 
for  farm  products,  and  the  townspeople  linil  sulli- 
cient  employment  in  the  local  factories.  It  has  been 
found  that  this  system  of  combining  local  industries 
and  farming  gives  the  very  best  results. 

Various  other  attempts  to  establish  Jewish  Agri- 
ctiltural  Colonics  in  New  Jersey  have  failed.  The 
colony  at  Estelleville,  established  in  1883,  not  far 
from  Alliance,  was  abandoned  in  the  spring  of  1883. 
Another  colony  at  Montefiore,  near  lielle  Plain,  a 
station  on  the  AVcst  Jersey  Uailroad  not  far  from 
Woodbine,  wasalso  abandoned  soon  after  its  founda- 
tion, leaving  28  houses  and  a  factory  standing.  In 
18in  a  syndicate  of  New  York  Jews  bought  up  sev- 
eral thousand  acres  of  land  for  farming  purposes 
about  four  miles  from  May's  Landing,  in  Atlantic 
county,  but  the  colony  has  been  of  slight  importance. 
Emphasis  should  be  placecl  upon  the  fact  that  only 
by  the  combination  of  fanning  and  local  factory 
employment  have  the  Jewish  colonies  in  southern 
New  Jersey  been  able  to  survive.  M.  R. 

BlHLioGRAPIIV:  Price,  RvsKl<le  Yevrri  v  Amerike.  pp.  48-7S: 
J.  D.  Elsenstein,  in  Xrr  ha-Mn'arahi.  II.  S-l.i,  IU-7i,  139-i:!«, 
ITH-lKl;  Lundsberp,  IIist,of  thf  Perffcutinusiif  thr  JfWti  iu 
JUtss-in^  an.  eiilitlffi  liu.ssiitn  Jnr-<  tis  Amrrirnn  Ffirmi'rs. 

AGKICTTLTURE.— Historical  Aspects:  Ag- 

ricultiM'e  was  the  basis  of  the  national  life  of  tlie 
Israelites:  state  and  Temple  in  Palestine  were  alike 
foiuided  on  it.  At  the  out.set  the  Hebrews  are  rep- 
resented as  a  jiastoral  tribe.  "  A  roaming  Aramean 
was  my  father,"  Siiid  the  Israelite  when  ottering  his 
first-fruits  as  a  thanksgiving  before  the  Lord  (Deut. 
XX  vi.  5,  Ilcl).).  Till'  Patriarchs  are  mainly  herdsnieii. 
pasturing  their  sheep  and  cattle  on  commons,  with- 
out  generally  cultivating  the  soil:  at  the  same  time 

Istiac  "  .sowed  in  that  land  [Gerar].  and 

Israel       received  in  the  same  year  a  hundred- 

Originally  fold "  (Gen.   xxvi.l2)";    and   Joseph's 

Pastoral,    dream  of  sheaves  of  corn  in  the  field 

(Gen.  xxxvii.  6,  7)  seems  to  betoken 
familiarity  with  agricultural  life.  But  Jacob  and  his 
sons  enter  Egypt  as  sheiiherds  only  (Gen.  xlvii.  3): 
and  this  pastoml  life  was  adhered  to  until  even  a 


later  period  by  the  Iribesof  Ueiiben.  Gad.aiKl  by  half 
of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  inhabiting  the  tnuis  Jor- 
danic  plain  (Num.  xxxii.  1),  and  by  the  clans  dwell- 
ing in  the  highlands  of  western  Palestine  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  2).  A  certain  dislike  to  agricultural  life  was, 
however,  manifested  among  the  sons  of  l{ecliab(.rer. 
XXXV.  7).  The  intirc  Mosjiic  legislation  was  con- 
ditioned upon  Israels  possession  of  Canimn  as  the 
laml  ])romised  to  Abraham.  The  Sabbath  had  chief 
.signiticanee  to  a  people  that  had  iiassed  the  jiastoral 
stage  and  that  empUiyed  man  and  beast  in  agri- 
cultural labor  (Ex.  xxxiv,  21).  Still  more  closely 
connected  with  agricultural  life  were  the  three  fes 
tivals  of  the  year  (Ex.  xxiii.  14-10).  The  system  of 
public  provision  for  the  poor  was  based  upon  agri- 
cultural life:  the  Law  claimed  the  gleanings  of  the 
harvest,  of  the  vineyard,  and  of  the  olive  grove 
for  the  iioor  and  the  stranger  (Lev,  xix,  i),  10: 
Dent.  xxiv.  10-21).  The  Sabbatical  year  of  release — 
the  produce  of  which  was  reserved  for  the  poor,  the 
stranger,  and  the  cattle  (V,\.  xxiii.  11) — and  the 
Jubilee  year,  with  its  restitution  of  the  ancestral 
])ossessions  (Lev.  xxv.  28),  were  based  njion  an  agri 
eiiltunil  eeoiioiny  (see  AoUAUiAN  L.wvs;  L.^nd  Ten- 
lltE  ;  S.\11I!.\T1C.\I.  Yk.\R). 

The  whole  conception  of  God  as  the  bountiful 
giver,  as  well  as  that  of  His  retiibutive  justice — deal- 
ing blessings  to  the  observer  of  the  Ijiw,  and  sor- 
rows or  '■  curses  "  to  the  tniiisgressor — 
Direct  Re-  is  founded  altogether  ujion  the  fact  of 
lations  Israel's  agricultural  enjoyment  of  Ca- 
with  God.  iiaaiuEx.  xxiii.  25:  Lev.  xxvi.  3-G,  10, 
20,  20:  Deut.  viii.  7-10.  xxviii.  3-5.  12. 
etc.).  Canaan  was  totally  dependent  for  its  fertility 
upon  the  rain  of  heaven,  which  God  W(juld  grant  or 
withhold  according  as  Israel  was  faithful  or  unfaith- 
ful (see  Driver,  •'Commentary  on  Dent."  pji.  129  f/ 
Kcq.).  The  impression  which  Palestine — with  its 
brooks  and  fountains,  its  valleys  and  hills,  its  fields 
of  wheat  and  barley,  its  plaiitationsof  vines  and  fig- 
trees  and  ])om<'granates — made  upon  the  Israelites, 
unaccustomed  as  they  were  to  Agriculture,  is  vividly 
portrayed  in  the  ejiisode  of  the  spies  (Num.  xiii.  23 
et  wg.).  It  appears  that  when  the  magnificent  fruit 
of  the  country  was  shown  to  the  people,  far  from 
awakening  a  desire  to  take  possession  of  the  land  that 
"flowed  with  milk  and  honey,"  it  filled  them  with 
fear  by  reason  of  its  very  size,  just  as  did  the  uncom- 
monly tall  men  .'ind  strong  cities  that  the  spies  liad 
seen.  Canaaiiiteagrieultural  develoiunent  ]U'esented 
to  the  Hebrew  sheiiherd-tribes  a  superiority  from 
which  they  shrank  with  a  self-depreciating  awe. 

Centuries  had  to  elapse  before  .ludah  and  Israel 

could  dwell  safely  "every  man  under  his  vine  and 

under  his  fig-tree,  from  Dan  even  to  Beer-slu'ba"  (I 

Kings,  iv.  25),  and  before  the  Hebrew  farmer  could 

feel  that  it  was  his  God  who  instructed  him  how 

to  plow  and  to  sow  and  to  cast  in  the  wheat  and  the 

barley  and  the  rye(lsa.  xxviii.  20).     The  subjugated 

Cauaanites  no  doubt  were  made  to  initiate  their  Is- 

raelitish  con(|iierors  into  the  jiraetises 

Agri-        of  agricultural  life.     The  land  hitherto 

culture       held  to  be  watered  and  made  fruitful 

Learned      by  the  Canaanite  gods,  Ba;d  and  As- 

from  the     tarte,  was  conceived  to  be  henceforth 

Canaanites.  under  the  tutelage  of  the  national  deity 

of  Israel,  but  the  art  of  its  cultivatiipii 

had  to  be  learned  from  its  former  owners,  and  here 

wasa  fruitful  cause  fiu-  the  people's  continual  lapsi-s 

into  Canaanite  idolatry.     The  unbridled  joy  of  the 

harvest  anil   the  vintage  filled  the  land  with  songs 

and  dancing  (Judges,  ix.  27):  and  the  "high  places." 

as  centers  of  idolatrous  worship,  continued  to  exert 

a  baneful  spell  upon  the  fanuiug  population  settled 


263 


THE  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agricultural  Colonies 
Agriculture 


in  llic  viciiiily.  This  was  in  thv  maiu  tlie  contest 
hctwccii  Himl  and  YinVlI  in  the  time  of  the  oarly 
]irii|iliils;  and  lliisea  (ii.  I(t)  ('"inplained  that  Israel 
did  nut  know  tliat  it  was  God,  and  not  Baal,  who 
pave  the  com  and  wine  and  oil.  Only  when  the 
name  of  ISaal  should  no  loiiirer  lie  menti<ined  (i/i.  18) 
winild  lUr  lilessiiigs  of  Afiriculture  have  no  admix- 
ture of  loss  and  sulTerinir.  "  Haal  "  remained  the 
name  for  the  fructifying  rain  down  to  the  time  of 
the  Mishnah  (see  iSliel).  ii.  !).  and  elsewhere:  com- 
liarei<<  Jlmil,  the  expression  for  u  lield  watered  by 
rain ;  see  lielow). 

That  the  Israelites  |iraclised  A.i^rieulture  with  suc- 
cess is  learned  from  the  statement  that  Solomon  sent 
to  Hiram  annually  40,000  kor(aliout  440.000  bushels) 
of  wheat  and  liarlev  and  40.000  baths  (340.000  iral- 
lons)of  oil(I  t'hrou."ii.U|A.V.  10]).  In  Ezekiel'stime 
Judah  traded  extensively  with  Tyre ;  seudinf;  thither 
.wheat,  honcv,  oil.  and  balm  (Ezek.  xxvii.  ITi.   On  the 


prophets,  and  kings  (Judges,  vi.  11 ;  I  Kiugs,  xix.  19: 

I  Sam.  xi.  .'))are  called  from  the  plow  to  be  leaders  in 

Israel.  King  L'zziali  is  especially  mentioned  as  a  lover 

of  husban(lry  (II  Cliron.  xxvi.  10).     If 

Estimation  at  times  the  cidlivation  of  tliesoil  was 

of  A^i-     regardedasacurse  (Gen.iii.l7,iv.l2),it 

culture  in  was  because  the  blessing  of  God  was 

the  Bible.    with<lrawn  from  the  .soil  for  man's  sin. 

If  it  was  not  always  an  easy  task,  all 

the  greater  was  the  jov  of  the  harvest  that  rang 

through  their  psalms  (Vs.  Ixv.,  Ixxii. :    Isn.  xvi.  9, 

10) — a  joy  which   expressed  itself  in   gratitude  to 

God  and  in  making  the  needy  to  be  sharers  in  His 

gifts(Deut.  xvi. 11-1.").  xxvi. 11)     "He  that  tillethhis 

land  shall  have  plenty  of  bread."  says  the  Book  of 

Proverbs   (xii.   11.   H.  V.).      "The   king   himself  is 

served  by  the  lield"  (Eccl.  v.  8). 

The  love  for  Agriculture  became  so  ingrained  in 
the  Jew  that  he  contemptuously  gave  the  trader  the 


IMVISION    (IF    FlELllS   IN    MOPKK.V    P.ILI':STIXK. 
(From  X  )>hotojfTftI>h  by  BonfiU.) 


Other  hand,  in  the  time  of  the  Judges,  the  Midianites 
and  Amalekiles  regularly  destroyed  the  produce  of 
the  soil  when  the  sowing-time  had  passed  (Judges, 
vi.  2,  8) ;  and  in  King  Sauls  tim<'  there  was  no  smith 
found  in  thelaml  to  sharpen  the  jilowshares,  because 
the  Philistines  would  not  allow  the  Israelites  to  fur- 
nish thems<4ves  with  weapons  of  war  (I  Sam.  xiii. 
I'.l.  20).  The  great  stride  forward  nm<le  during  the 
reign  of  .Siilomon  indicates  that  a  very  hir^'e  ela.ss 
of  the  Canaanite  population  nuist  have  been  sul)- 
iuirated  to  perform  the  main  labor  of  farming  for 
Israel. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  described  by  the  Bible 
ns  the  destiny  and  duty  of  man  from  the  beginnin.g. 
Adam  is  placed  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  to  dress  it  and 
keep  it;  and  when  expelled  hi-  is  sent  forth  to  till 
the  ground  ((!in.  ii.  I."),  iii.  2:t:  Ps.  liv.  14).  The  mil- 
lennium of  peaci'  will  .see  a  people  given  only  toagri- 
<'idtural  pursuits(Isji.  ii.  4  :  JiT.  x.wi.  II:  Hosea,  xiv. 
7:  Amos.  ix.  1:1:  Micah.  iv.  4;  Mai.  iii.  1 1  :  Ps.  Ixxxi.  17 

i.V.  V.  Hi]).    The  blessings  of  the  Patriarchs  and  the 
'rophels  were  founded  upon  agri<ullund  life  (Gen. 
viii.  22,  xxvii.  2X:  Dent,  xxxiii.  Hi.  Id,  28t.     Judges. 


name  of  "  Canaanite"  (Zech.  xiv.  21 :  compare  IIo.s<>a. 
xii.  8  [A.  V.  7]).  This  attachment  to  the  soil  and  its 
cultivation  increased  rather  than  diminished  during 
the  Babylonian  Exile.  "  Houses  and  lieldsand  vine- 
yards shall  be  posses,sed  a.irain  in  this  land  " — this 
was  the  divine  niessa.ire  .sent  to  the  i)i'Oi>le  Ihrougli 

the  prophet  Jeremiah  before  thi'catas- 

In  P08t-     trophe  came  upon  the  land  (Jer.  xxxii. 

exilic        l.T).     In  fact,  it  was  only  because  the 

Times.       land  did  not  have  its  .Sabbath  years  of 

rest,  as  the  Ijiw  prescribed,  that  the 
people  were  delivinil  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
according  to  the  warning  of  Lev.  xxvi.!t4,4M.  Every 
jirophetic  vision  of  the  future  contained  the  promisu 
of  great  agricultural  prospirity  for  the  exiled  .lew 
(.Vmos.  ix.  i:!<7  ».(/.;  Isa.  xxxv.l;  E/.ek.  xxxiv.  2IW/ 
»■'/.).  Not  oidy  those  wiio  wandered  into  Babyloinan 
cai)livity.  Iiut  those  also  who  were  left  in  Jinlen, 
became  "peaceful  tillers  of  the  soil  (Jer.  xxix.  ">;  II 
Kings,  XXV.  12).  The  words  of  Neh.  xiii.  !•'>  give  us 
ai\  insight  into  the  wine  and  fruit  prinluction  of  the 
Jildean  colony,  whiih  was  considerable  enough  to  in- 
duce the  Tvriiins  to  erect  markets  in  Jerusjilem,  where 


Agriculture 


tllE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


264 


the  Jews  exchanged  tlieir  produce  with  tbeni  even 
on  the  siicri'd  Salibalh. 

We  hiive  an  extellent  description  of  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  liy  a  iionJewish  observer,  in  the  Letter  of 
Arisleas  (^S  107-114).  written  in  the  second  century 
ii.c,  and  in  Ilecatieus,  fragments  of  which  are  pre- 
served by  Diodorus,  xl.  3,  7.  Josephus  ("Contm 
Apionein,"  i.  22)  says:  "Unlike  other  cities  which, 
havin-j:  a  large  population,  neglect  agriculture,  the 
inliabitantsof  the  higldand  of  Samaria  and  the  neigli- 
borliood  of  Iduniaa  devote  great  labor  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil.  The  land  has  large  plantations 
of  olive-trees,  of  wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals, 
and  an  abundance  of  wine,  dates,  and  other  fruit. 
It  is  well  adapted  both  for  agriculture  and  com- 
merce." In  the  sanu'  work  (i.  12)  he  says:  "We 
neither  inhabit  a  maritime  country  mu'  do  we  delight 
in  merchandise:  having  a  fruitful  country  for  our 
habitation,  we  take  jiams  in  cultivating  that  only." 
In  liis  "15.  J."  ii.  3,  ^S  2— i,  he  describes  Galilee  as 
"exceedingly  fertile,  full  of  iilautalions  of  trees  of 
all  sorts,  no  part  of  it  lying  idle;  its  many  villages 


tural  life  so  extensively  treated  of  in  the  Mishnah,  the 
wliolc  first  section,  Zera'im  (with  the  exception  of 
the  lirst  tri'alise),  being  devoted  to  it. 

Love  for  Agriculture  was  a.ssiduonsly  inculcated 
by  the  Jewish  sjiges.  "Hate  not  toilsome  occupa- 
tion and  husbandry  appointed  by  the  Most  High" 
(Eeclus.  [Sirach],  vii.  1.5,  Oirik).  In  Yitn  Adie  et 
Evic,  22,  it  is  the  archangel  Michael  who  instructs 
Adam  in  jiaradise  how  to  sow  and  to  plant.  In  the 
Hook  of  Jubilees,  xi.  Abraham  is  represented  as  the 
inventor  of  an  improved  method  of  plowing  the  liehl 
so  as  to  jirotect  the  seeds  against  birds.  In  Ex.  H. 
xxxix.  we  are  told  that  the  faithful  observanei'  of 
the  agricultural  seasons  by  the  inliabitantsof  I'alcs- 
tine  induced  Abraham  to  nnike  his  stay  there.  In  the 
Testaments  of  the  Patriarchs  it  is  Issachar,  the  model 
of  Es.sene  piety  (com]iare  (!en.  H.  xcviii.  xcix. ;  Targ. 
Gen.  ilix.  i.")).who  says  (Testament  of  Issjichar,  iii.  ,j): 
"  I  became  a  husbandman  for  my  parents  an<l  brelh- 
reu,  and  brought  in  the  friuts  of  the  lield  according 
to  the  season,  and  my  father  blessed  me,  for  he  sjiw 
that  I  walked  in  simplicity.    .    .    .    Keep  therefore 


^i^^^^'^'^S/ffn^. 


MAXJI" 


-^ 


Plowing  a.nd  Hoeing. 

(From  Wilkiii-siin,  "  An,-I.^nt  Egyptians.") 


full  of  people  owing  to  the  richness  of  the  soil."  So 
Perea,  "in  spite  of  its  rougher  soil,  is  richly  planted 
with  fruit-trees,  chiefly  the  olive,  the  vine,  and  the 
palm-tree."  "Still  more  fruitful  are  the  hills  and 
valleys  of  Samaria  and  Jndca.  Besides  their  abun- 
dance of  trees,  the)'  are  full  of  autumnal  fruit,  both 
such  as  grow  wild  and  such  as  recniire  cultivation." 
Especially  of  the  Hasidim  or  Essenes  we  are  told  by 
Philo("6n  the  Virtuous  Being  Free,"  xii,,  and  in 
the  fragment  preserved  by  Eusebius,  "Pra'i>.  Ev." 
viii.  10)  that  tbey  devoted  all  their  energy  and  skill 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  as  a  truly  ]ieaceable  ]nir- 
snit  of  life.  Indeed,  it  required  no  small  share  of 
self-sacrifice  and  piety  to  live  as  a  farmer  and  ob- 
serve the  Mosaic  laws  concerning  the  tithes  and 
other  gifts  claimed  by  priest  and  Levite.  the  altar 
and  the  poor,  the  Sabbatical  yearof  release  and  sim- 
ilar precepts,  while  at  the  sjime  time  many  a  year's 
produce  was  spoiled  by  locusts  and  drought  or  other 
irresistible  cause.  What  such  a  calamity  meant  for 
the  nation  may  be  learned  from  the  Book  of  Joel  and 
from  Megillat  Ta'anit.  But,  unlike  the  Israelites 
during  the  First  Temple,  the  Jews  of  the  second 
commonwealth  conscientiously  observed  the  seventh 
year  of  release  (see  Josephus."  Ant."  xii.  9,  ^5;  xiv. 
10,  §  5).  Still  the  rural  po]Hilation  {'am  hi  iirez)  was 
not  as  strict  in  these  matters  as  the  doctors  of  the 
law  wished  them  to  be,  and  they  were  consequently 
treated  with  suspicion.  All  the  more  rigorous  were 
the  Hasidim  or  Pharisees  in  their  exclusivism.  It  is 
cbielly  owing  to  this  feature  that  we  find  agricul- 


the  Law  of  God,  my  children,  and  get  simplicity. 
Bow  down  your  back  unto  husbandry  and  labor  in 
tillage  of  the  ground  in  all  manners  of  husbandry, 
offering  gifts  unto  the  Lord  with  thanksgiving,  for 
with  the  tirst-fruit  of  the  earth  did  the  Lord  bless 
me,  even  as  He  blessed  all  the  saints  from  Abel  even 

until  now."  Accordingly,  many  prom- 
In  the  East,  inent  rabbis  in  Judea  and  in  Babylonia 

were  industrious  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  notwithstanding  Ecelus.  xxxviii.  25:  "Ilowcan 
he  get  wisdom  that  holdclh  a  plow?"  (compare 
Ber.  35//):  manv  instances  in  the  Talmud  (Peali.  ii.  6; 
Shab.  150i;  Hul.10.5i/)  illustrate  this  fact.  Habba's 
pupils  were  exempted  from  attending  his  lectures  in 
the  months  of  Nisan  and  Tishri,  as  these  sowing  and 
harvest  seasons  required  their  presence  in  the  field 
(Ber.  35A). 

The  .Jews  were  probably  the  chief  producers  of 
wine  and  oil  also  in  Syria  and  all  the  lands  colo- 
nized by  them,  or  otherwise  the  rabbinical  prohibition 
of  the  wine  and  oil  jirepared  by  the  heathen  (Shah. 
\Vi)  could  hardly  have  been  adhered  to.  In  Africa 
also  the  .Tewish  colonists  produced  wine,  oil,  and 
wheat,  and  the  strange  identification  of  the  Egyptian 
cod  Serapis  with  Joseph  made  bv  both  .Jews  ('Ab. 
Zarah.  AZii;  Tos.,  'Ab.  Zarah.v.  [vi.]  1)  and  Chris- 
tians (see  "Vita  Saturnini,"  quoted  by  ^Momm.sen, 
"  Homische  Gesehichte,"  v.  .5H5,  and  King,  "Gnos- 
tics," p.  161)  probably  owes  its  origin  to  the  fact  that 
the  wheat  exported  from  Alexandria  was  shipjiid  to 
the  Serapeum  in.  Ostia  under  the  .symbolic  tutelage 


265 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agriculture 


of  Serapis,  tlif  god  with  h  measure  on  liis  )ieacl, which 
suggested  resemblance  to  .Ifiseph,  the  seller  of  corn 
in  ancient  Egypt  (.Mdmimiscm,  ihid.w  577:  Siiidas,  «.<■. 
"  Serai)is  ").  The  Alexandrian  .lews  owned  ships  and 
were  mariners  themselves,  undoubtedly  owing  to 
their  living  near  the  seashore  and  their  being  made 
exporters  of  corn  by  the  Jewish  farmers  throughout 
Africa  (see  Griaz,"-'Geseli."  i.  387,  note  3).  That 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria  were  both  farmers  and  ship- 
owners we  learn  from  I'hilo  ("Contra  Flae<uni." 
viii.).  But  llerzfeld  ("  llandelsgesehichte  des  Jli- 
disehen  Alterthums."  i)i).7li-lirj)  lias  shown  that  the 
Jews  in  Palestine,  too.  from  the  time  of  the  Maccal)ees 
until  the  destruction  of  the  state,  exported,  partly  in 
their  own  ships,  their  |)roduccof  crops,  oil,  and  wine, 
of  balsam,  honey,  spices,  and  of  drugs  of  all  kinds. 
and  that  the  Je\v.s  remained  tillers  of  the  soil  in  all 
parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  while  jiursuing  other 
trades  as  well,  as  may  be  learneil  from  the  fact  that 
they  bought  slaves  and  converted  them  to  Judaism 
initil  they  were  forbidden  to  do  so  by  C'onstantius 
in  yiJil  and  by  Theodosius  in  393  ("Codex  Theodos." 

xvi.  H,  ^!!4,<j). 

In  Arabia  the  Jews  of  Yemen  were  in  the  time  of 
Molianuned  thrifty  farmers.  The  Jewish  colonistsof 
Hailiar  especially  were  very  successful  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  wiieat  anil  of  palm-trees,  before  their  whole- 
SJile  slaughter  by  Moliammed. 

The  Jews  of  Abyssinia  have  always  been  farmers, 
and  the  Ten  Tribes  are  deserilieil  as  agriculturists 
in  the  mythical  story  of  KIdad  ha-Dani. 

The  Jews  of  southern  France  pursued  an  agricul- 
tiind  life  and  were  iiossessed  of  shiiis  for  their  wine 
trade  from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  century  (Cassel,  art- 
icle "  Juden  "  in  Krsch  and  (iruber,  "Encyklopildie," 
xxvii.  61,  04;  Griltz,  "Gesch."  v.  .")(i,  after  Gregory 
of  Tours.  See  also  Stobbe.  "Juden  in  Deutsehland." 
p.  7).  In  Languedoc  many  were  owners  of  the  vine- 
yards (J.  IJedarride,  "  Les  Juifsen  France,"  p.  87;  see 
Sftige,  "Les  Juifs  de  Languedoc  Anterieurement  au 
XlV"  Sifcle,  1«81,"  p.  70).  In  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne, Jews  used  to  farm  large  tracts  of  land  for 
their  Christian  neighbors  who  had  no  experience  in 
agricultural  life,  but  the  legislative 
In  Western  measures  of  the  king,  intended  to  reii- 

Europe.       der  the  Jews  as  a  merchant  class  more 

serviceable  to  the  stale,  prohiliiled  this 

(nedarride.  I.e.,  p.  75).     It  was  especially  the  wine 

trade  which  they  controlled  (I)eppiug,  "Die  Juden 

im  Mittelalter,"  p.  .W). 

In  Spain,  in  the  early  >Iiddle  Ages,  the  Jews  were 
the  chief  agriculturists,  and  remained  such,  notwith- 
standing Visigoth  legislation  |irohiliiting  them  from 
working  in  the  lield  on  Sunilay,  and  buying  slaves 
and  the  like  (see  Griltz.,  "Gesch.  der  Juden."  v.  7(1. 
lOM).  I'ndcr  Egica.  in  0(14.  they  were  forbidden  to 
own  land  and  carry  trade  in  their  own  ships,  but  iti 
711  the  Arabs,  after  the  invasion  under  Al-Tarik. 
restored  the  rights  of  the  Jews,  and  the  latter  were 
(piiek  to  learn  from  their  Moorish  neighbors  how  to 
improve  the  nielliod  of  irrigating  the  soil  by  hy- 
draulic machines  and  the  like  (see  Hedarride.  /.<•..  p. 
i)4  and  note  ■J4  on  i>.  4(i3).  The  great  silk  iialustry 
of  the  Spanish  .lews  (see  (iriltz.  "  (iesch.  dir  .luden," 
v.  31H)  li  mi/.)  Tiiakes  it  jirobable  that  they  had  also 
jilantations  of  mulberry-trees,  or  iierhaps  the  Sicil- 
ian Jews  providid  them  with  the  raw  material. 

In  Portugal  the  Jews  were  always  nllowetl  to  cul- 
tivate the  land  and  produce  wine,  while  they  were 
forbidden  to  do  so  in  Spain  under  Christian  rulew 
(see  Kayserling."  (iesch.  d,  .ludcn  in  I'orlUL'al."p.")8). 

In  Greece  the  Jews  during  the  Iwrlflh  century, 
says  Ilertzberg  in  his  "Gesch.  Griechenlands."  were 
most  jirosperous  as  iigriculturists.    lienjamin  of  Tu- 


dela  found  Jews  inhabiting  the  vicinity  of  Mount 
Parnas.svis  occupied  in  tilling  the  soil  ("  Travels."  cd. 
Asher,  p.  l(i).  In  Italy  the  Jews  were  encouraged 
by  Pope  Gregory  V.  to  be  owners  of  land,  though 
he  would  not  countenance  their  having  Christian 
slaves  (GUdemann."  Gesch.  d.  Jild.  Cultiirin  Italien," 
p.  3(J).  The  Jews,  tirst  of  Greece,  then  of  Italy,  de- 
voted particular  care  to  the  culture  of  silk,  whicli  in- 
volved till!  plantation  of  mulberrv-treis.  and  helped 
toward  the  improvement  of  land  and  commerce  (see 
Griltz,  "Gesch."  v.  27'2.  note  4;  and  Gildeinaun, 
"Gesch.  d.  Jiid.  Cultur  in  Italien,  '  ]>.  240). 

In  his  "Gesch.  d.  Ji'id.  Cultur  in  Italien."  p.  .W, 
GUdemann  <alls  attention  to  the  warnings  of  the  work 
Pirke  Habbi  Eliezer  against  the  wandering  life  of  the 
trader,  wherein  occurs  this  sentence,  A.  ii. :  "God 
particularly  promised  fertility  of  the  land  to  the 
Israelites  in  order  that  they  might  lead  a  contented 
and  quiet  domestic  life,  and  not  be  required  to  travel 
about  from  town  to  town." 

In  Germany  the  Jews,  being  compelled  by  the 
Jewish  law,  which  forbids  the  use  of  non-Jewish 
wine,  to  manufacture  their  own,  produced  sullicient 
to  .sell  some  of  their  own  wine  to  non- 
In  Central  Jews  also.  A  decree  of  Henry  IV. 
and  East-  permitted  the  .lews  to  sell  their  own 
em  Ettrope.  wine  and  drugs — revoking  thereby  one 
of  Charlemagne  forbidding  the  sale 
of  thesiimeisee.'^tobbe,  "Gesch.  d.  Juden  in  Deutseh- 
land," p.  231.  note  !)0).  Henry  IV.  also  permitted  the 
Jews  of  Speyer  to  own  vineyards  and  gardens,  which 
fact  makes  it  probable  that  they  superintended  the 
work  t  hemsel  ves.  The  .lews  of  Silesia,  Austina,  Swit- 
zerland, and  Frankfort-on-lhe-Main  likewise  pos- 
sessed vineyards  (see  the  quotation  in  Stobbe,"  Gesch. 
(1.  Juden  in  Deutsehland,"  pp.  177,  27<!,  note  171). 

In  modern  Europe  the  .lews— partly  under  the  im- 
pulse of  the  governments,  partly  of  their  own  free 
will — have  endeavored  to  reawaken  their  ancient 
love  foraflricultural  pursuits.  The  Jewish coininu- 
nities  of  Warsaw  and  Kalish  in  1842,  in  response  to 
a  memorandum  by  Prince  Paskyevitch,  organized 
societies  for  the  promotion  of  A.grieulture  with  ap- 
parently great  success,  for  the  time  (see  Jost."  Xeuere 
(resell. "ii.  2113-313:  Cassel.  article  "Juden."  in  Ersch 
and  (irulier.  ]i.  i;'il).  Still  greater  was  the  success 
of  such  elforts  made  in  Bavaria  (Scheidler,  "Juden 
Emancipation,"  in  Ersch  and  Gruber,  p.  307,  note 
.").  where  reference  is  made  to  statistics  showing  that 
more  than  20  per  cent  of  the  Jewish  population  of 
IJavaria  were  devoting  themselves  in  1844  to  agri- 
cultural and  artisan  pursuits). 

Among  the  .lews  in  the  Caucasus  many  were  for- 
merly hirge  owners  of  orchards  and  vineyards;  some 
produced  wine,  others  a  species  of  tobacco  (Andree, 
"Zur  Volkskunde  der  Juden, "  p.  281).  According  to 
J.  J.  Henjamin  ("  Eight  Years  in  Asia  and  Africa, "2(1 
ed.,  18.")8,  pp.  iH)  it  !»■(/.),  the  more  prosperous  Jews  in 
Kurdistan  are  farmers :  they  go  w  ith  their  wives  and 
children  to  the  fields  and  the  vineyards  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  return  only  in  the  evening.  They  literally 
oliserve  the  law  of  leaving  the  corners  of  the  lield 
and  .some  of  the  grapes  for  the  widows  and  orphans 
(Lev.  xix.  it,  10). 

On  the  virgin  soil  of  .Vinericn  the  Jews  were  among 
the  i)ionecrs  of  Agriculture.  While  Louisde  Torres  in- 
friMluced  lol)aeco  into  use  for  civilized 
In  America,  mankind  (Kayserling.  "("oliimbus,"  p. 
\t'\).  Jews  tnuisphinted  the  sugarcane 
from  Madeira  to  Bra/il  in  l.V|8(aecording  to  Fishell; 
.see  M.J.  Kobler.  "  Publ.  Am.  Jew  llisl.  Soc."  ii.  H4) 
or  in  l."i3l  (Lindo.  in  G.  A.  Kohul's  artich\  ifn'il.  iii. 
13,"i;  <'ompare  Joseph  ha  Koheii,  in  U.  Goltheirs 
translation,  iOiil.  ii.    133).     During  the  seventeenth 


Asrriculture 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


266 


century  the  sugiir  iiidiislry  was  monopolized  by  the 
.lews,  "aiul  with  tlieir  expulsion  from  Brazil  it  was 
t  ninsplautcil  to  tlie  West  Indies,  where,  in  ICGIi,  David 
de  Mercato's  invention  of  new  sugar-mills  benclited 
the  .sugar-trade  in  IJarbados,  The  Jews  in  Georgia, 
chief  amou^  them  Abraham  de  Lyon,  transplanted 
vine  and  silk  cidturo  from  Portugal  to  America 
(••  Publ.  Am.  Jew.  Hist.  8oc."  i.  1(1).  But  while 
De  Lyon  cherished  great  expectations  in  that  direc- 
tion, "the  Jews  of  Georgia  in  gciicnil  found  the  pro- 


after  money,  the  while  lie  has  no  land  of  his  own,  what 
enjoyment  hath  he  from  all  his  travail?"  (Ix'V.  R. 
xxii.).  "Although  trading  gives  greater  prolits.these 
may  all  be  lost  in  a  moment ;  therefore,  never  hesitate 
to  buy  land."  "Sow.  but  do  not  buy  grain,  even 
though  grain  be  cheap  and  thy  land  be  ])oor"  (Yeb. 
C:i'/).  "  A  man  may  not  sell  his  lield  and  put  the  money 
in  his  purse,  or  buy  a  beast,  or  furniture,  or  a  house, 
except  he  be  a  poor  man  "  (Sifra,  Behar,  ,')).  "  When 
a  man  sold  a  licId  out  of  his  patrimony,  his  relatives 


PtOWIXG    I.\   PALKSTIXt:. 

(.\fter  Beoziuger,  "  Hebrtbche  Archl'-'I'^n'  - 


duction  of  uidigo,  rice,  corn,  tobacco,  and  cotton 
more  profitable  (rtiW.  p.  12).  In  fact,  the  cotton-plan- 
tations iu  many  parts  of  the  South  were  whoUj'  in  the 
hands  of  the  Jews,  and  as  a  consequence  slavery 
found  its  advocates  among  thcin.  K. 

The  following  pithy  sentences,  culled  from  rabbin- 
ical literature,  will  serve  to  show  the  estimation  in 
which  Agriculture  was  held  in  the  latter  days  of  .Jew- 
ish national  life:  "In  time  to  come  all  Iiandicrafts- 
men  will  turn  to  the  working  of  the  soil :  for  the  soil 
is  the  surest  source  of  sustenance  to  those  that  work 
it;  and  such  occupation  brings  with  it.  moreover, 
health  of  body  and  ease  of  mind  "  (Yeb.  63'/).  "He 
that  owns  no  land  is  no  man  "  (,>//.).  "The  verse. 
Dent,  xxviii.  66.  is  to  be  thus  expounded :  '  Thy  life 
shall  liang  in  doubt  before  thee  ':  this  refers  to  him 
that  buys  his  food-supplies  from  year 
to  year;  'thou  shalt  fear  day  and 
nigiit':  this  refers  to  him  that  buys 
them  from  -week  to  week  ;  '  thou  shalt 
have  none  assurance  of  thy  life  ':  this 
refers  to  him  that  depends  upon  the  store-keeper" 
(Men.  103J;  Yer.  Shab.  viii.  11«;  Yer.  Shek.viii.  Uln; 
Esther  R.,  introduction).    "He  that  toils  and  stinves 


In  Rabbin- 
ical 
Literature. 


would  bring  barrels  filled  with  cabbage-stiUUs  and 
nut-shells  and  break  them  before  him;  the  children 
would  gat  her  up  the  Cfintentsandshout.'N.X. has  cut 
himself  off  from  his  inheritance! ' ;  and  when  he  took 
it  back  again  they  did  the  same,  shouting,  '  N.  N.  has 
got  back  his  patrimony  '  "  (Yer.  Ket.  ii.  26ff).  "He 
that  hath  a  little  garden  of  his  own,  and  fertilizes  it, 
digs  it,  and  enjoys  its  produce,  is  far  better  off  than 
he  that  works  a  large  garden  upon  shares"  (Lev.  R. 
iii.).  "  Hast  thou  a  field  ?  work  it  with  all  thy  might: 
if  a  man  make  himself  a  slave  unto  his  field,  lie  will 
be  satisfied  with  bread"  (Sanh.  58/-).  "He  that  in- 
spects his  field  every  day  will  find  a  stutter  [Greek 
coin]  in  it"  (Hul.  105«/).  In  Eccl.  R.  ii.  20,  a  story 
is  told  of  a  very  old  man  who  labored  early  and  late 
at  jilanting  trees,  though,  as  the  emperor  Hadrian 
taunted  him,  he  could notexpecttoenjoythcirfruit: 
the  moral  of  the  interesting  narrative  being  that 
every  man  is  bound  to  till  the  ground,  even  though 
he  may  not  expect  to  reap  the  fruit  of  his  labor;  for 
when  he  came  into  the  world,  he  found  that  other 
men  had  subdued  and  cultivated  it  for  him:  there- 
fore shall  he  not  allow  his  jiortion  to  run  wild  or  lie 
barren  ;  for  there  are  others  that  shall  come  after  him. 

F.  DE  S.  M. 


267 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Agriculture 


Physical  Aspects  :  The  various  Pliysiciil  As- 
pects of  Agricultiirr  iiiiintig  the  Jews  may  iiropt-rly 
i)e  troatcil  in  their  natural  (irder  of  ((iiisiileratioii: 
firet  as  to  the  soil  and  eliiiiate;  next  as  to  the  opera- 
tions neeessarv  to  produee  and  seeure  crops, 

Tlie  soil  of  I'aUstine  is  of  a  most  varied  character 
and  eoniiiosition.  consisting  of  alhivial  deposits  in 
the  maritime  l>laiiis  and  in  the  Jordan  valley,  and 
of  the  products  of  cretaceous  lime- 
Soil  stcjiie  and  basjiltic  rocUs  in  the  more 
Conditions,  elevatid  regions.  The  natural  fertil- 
ity of  the  former  districts  was  carried 
into  mountain  regions  hy  l)uilding  low  walls  of 
"shoulder-stones"  (Mishnah  Shell,  iii.  !(),  and  tilling 
in  the  rock- ledges  t«-hind  them  with  the  inexhaustible 
alluvial  earthof  the  valleys  (ih.  iii.  8).  In  this  man- 
ner the  UKiuntainous  districts  of  Samaria,  Gilboa, 
Carmel,  and  other  nuiges  were  celel)rate4l  in  ancient 
times  for  their  fertility.  Rut  such  artiticial  arrange- 
ments needed  constant  attention  to  keep  them  in 
condition  and  to  protect  them  a.gainst  heavy  rains 
(see  Anderlind,  in  "Zeit.  Deutscii,  I'ah'lst,  Ver,"  \\. 
37);  so  that  warfare  and  the  sulisequent  depopula- 
tion have  considerably  diminished  the  productive- 
ness of  such  reirions. 


*•  -"^^^  ■""  -  '^ 


The  lofty  plain  lie 
tween  Lake  Gennesa- 
ret  on  the  west  and 
the  Ilaiu'an  range  on 
the  east,  with  its  \m 
derlying  volcanic  sub- 
stratum,proved  a  most 
fiTtilesoil  for  wheat. as 
many  as  two  and  three 
crojis  a  year  being 
gathered.  The  most 
fertile  lleld.s,  however, 
were  liable  to  be  more 
or  less  ihiekly  strewn 
with  boulder's  (Matt, 
xiii.  .")  and  i)arallels; 
MLshnah  Kil.  ii.  10, 
vii.  1),  till'  Mishnah 
mentioning  that  o<ca- 
sionallv  these  wen'  loo 
large  lor  a  man's  un- 
aiihil  strength  to  re- 
nuive  (Slieb,  iii  7). 
The  easiest  and  best 
use  that  could  be  made  of  the  troublesome  smaller 
stones  which  abounded  in  rich,  rocky  soil  was  to  lay 
them  up  in  fence  rows,  as  protection  against  roaming 
catll<-:  such  stone-rows  were  numerous  in  theexireme 
— if  one  may  judge  from  the  tieldsof  to-day  (see  illus- 
liation  on  p.  'iiV-\\.  In  some  regions  stones  were  so 
abundant  that  lliiy  had  to  he  removed  after  each 
annual  plowing  (see  Vogelstein.  "Die  Ijuulwirl- 
sehaft  in  I'alilslina,"  p,  10,  note  14), 

In  iMislinaic  times  various  kinds  of  soil  were  dis- 
tinguished and  classilird.  such  as  '  iilil.  soil  of  first 
quality;  liiii"iii't,  medium  ;  and  ;/W'i/n7,  |io(ir  soil  (Git. 
V.  1);  also  according  to  digric  of  moisture,  "dry." 
"middling,"  and  "arable"  (Haraita,  Taanil,  2.V<). 
Stones  were  held  to  show  the  fertility  of  the  soil:  if 
they  were  hard  and  Hint  like  (I'liiiiiint).  tin- soil  was 
good;  if  of  clayey  consisleiHV  Oi'ir'il).  it  was  likely 
to  be  poor,  forming  hard  clods  anil  baking  in  the  sun 
(N'uin,  |{,  xvi,;  Tan.  Siielah  I.eka.  Vi).  binil  whi<'li 
naturally  produced  thorn  bushes  was  good  for  wlwat : 
if  it  grew  weeds,  it  was  tit  for  liarley  only  (Yalkut, 
Job,  55  IMS:  (i.mpare  .br.  .vii.  l:b.  .V  soil  which  had 
produced  a  crop  of  llax  was  held  lo  be  excellent  for 
wheat;  and  lanil  was  sometimes  testeil  liy  .sowing  a 
small  piece  in  llax  (Kil.  ii.  7).     A  soulhern  exposure 


was  foiuid  to  be  beneficial ;  but  such  land  R-quired 
irrigation  (Josh.  xv.  1(1,  Men,  H.JK). 

In  contrast  with  Egyjitian  agriculture  (which  de- 
pended solely  upon  the  river  Nile),  in  Canaan  the 
"tirst  rains  and  the  latter  rains"  became  neces.S!irily 
matters  of  especial  importance  and  significant  bles-s- 
ing  (Lev.   xxvi,  a-.j;    Deut.   xi,  i;i.  14).     The  first 

(autumn)  rains  began  in  the  middle  of 
Climate.      Novcinber  (Heshwan,  or  Kislew)  and 

were  called  yunh  or  iimrch  (Deut,  xi, 
14,  Jer.  V,  24),  These  were  succeeded  by  the  lieavy 
and  contimious  winter  rains,  and,  linally,  by  the 
iiKitkon/i,  or  spring  showers,  in  the  month  of  Ni,san 
(Joel,  ii,  23 ;  Taanit,  C"),  So  important  was  the  rain 
after  the  long  Syrian  summer  of  extreme  lieat  had 
liarched  the  land,  that  the  blessing  asked  for  in  the 
fornuda  of  Deut.  xxvi,  l.jwas  interpreted  as  a  peti- 
tion for  rain  and  dew — prayers  for  which  were  like- 
wise interpolated  inlhedaily  ritual  (Mishnah  Taanit. 
i,  1),  Fast-days  were  a|)pointed  in  timesof  drought 
(ifi.  4-7).  The  fall  rains  were  considereil  re(|uisite  to 
soften  the  ground  preparatory  to  plowing  and  seed- 
ing; and  the  spring  rains  were  equally  neces,sary  for 
the  tilling  uj)  of  the  gniin  in  the  ear,  asexpres-sed  by 

the  feUahin's  proverb 


Wuter-wlieel  iu  Palestine, 

(Frum  a  i>ht.l.,t^aph  by  BuDtiU,) 


of  today  :  "  A  .shower 
in  April  is  worth  more 
than  a  jilow  and  a  yoke 
of  oxen"  (Klein,  in 
•Zeit,I)eutsch.Palast. 
Ver."  iv,  72,  (juoted  by 
Vogelstein,  I.e.  4,  note 
2;J),  The  transition 
from  the  rainy  peri- 
od of  spring  to  the 
drought  of  summer  is 
gradual,  the  showers 
growing  lighter  and 
iiss  freiiuent.  The 
mountain  streams, 
however,  continue  to 
run  high  for  a  brief 
period,  and  then 
gradually  slacken  and 
dry  up  entirely.  From 
Xisjin  to  Tisliri  a  niin- 
st<irm  is  a  rarity, 
moisture  being  fur- 
nishe<l  by  the  heavy 
night-dews,  which  sometimes  wet  the  ground  lo  sucli 
an  extent  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  having  been 
rained  upon. 

Of  all  the  crops  iilanted  wheat  (//(■«<(/()  was  the 
most  important  in  Palestine  aselsewheri':  so  great 
was  the  fertility  of  the  huid  that  more 
Crops.  wheat  was  ju'oduced  than  was  re- 
quired f<ir  home  con.sumption  ;  and  it 
was  exported  in  considerable  ipnintilies  (I  Kings,  v. 
25;  Ezra,  iii.  7;  Ezek,  xxvii.  17;  Acts,  xii,  20),  Two 
kinds  were  distinguished,  light  and  ilark(H,  B,  v,  fi). 
Barley  («  "/(lA)  was  used  for  bread  mainly  bv  the 
poorer  classes  (Butli,  iii,  \'>:  .Mi-hnah  Neg,  xiii.  9), 
and  was  also  useil  for  feed  for  animals  (Tosef. .  .Sofah 
iii,  4).  Spill  (/■(/« //(I  n,  nil  intermediate  grain  belweeii 
wheal  and  barley,  was  customarily  sown  in  the  Ijor- 
ders  of  lields,  Oats  (Ji/i(y<'/i)  Were  not  much  gniwn. 
Millet  {ih'/fiiii).  beaiis(/i«/),  and  lentils('<i</<M/i(;;i)  were 
also  widelviullivateil  forfi>oil(ll  Sam,  xvii.2X,  Ezek. 
iv.  It),  Flax  (iiintitiih)  was  certainly  grown  (Josli,  ii. 
ft),  and  possibly  cotton  (Xiiryxi*).  See  B.Mil.KV,  Bk.vns, 
l,i-.NTii.s,  Mii.i.KT,  Si"Ki,T,  and  AViik.vt, 

The  first  crops  planted  weri'  the  iiulse  varieties, 
early  in  Heshwan  (October);  liarley  followed  a  few 
davs  later,  and  wheal   last  of  all.      A  iioleworlhy 


Agriculture 


THE   JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


268 


statute  prohibited  the  sowing  of  a  field "'  with  minfilcd 
seed"  {k-iliii/iiii,  Lev.  xi.\.tO),mi  (ipenit  ion  which  in  one 
liiirvest  iiiiiihl  cxhansl  Ihc  soil  of  nil  its  fcililc  cliiiii 
iciil  conslitiuiits.  Alongside  of  Iliis  may  lie  placed 
the  various  hunianilariaii  laws,  reserving  the  corners 
of  the  harvest  field  forthe  poor  and  thestninger(Lev. 
xix.  !)),  coneerning  the  forgotten  sheaf  (Deut.  xxiv. 
19),  and  other  similar  regulations.  The  harvesting 
seasons  were  Nisan  (Ajiril)  for  barley.  Siwan  (early 
June)  for  wheal,  Tishri  (.September)  for  fruits.  Con- 
cerning these  hitter,  see  the  articles  Flu,  Olivk,  Svc- 
AMOKK.  and  Vine. 

The  various  processes  in  Agriculttire  may  now  bo 

considered.     To  eultivat(!  land  for  the  lirst  lime,  it 

was  ueccssiiry  to  clear  it  cither  of  for- 

Clearing  est  timber  (Josh.  xvii.  1^)  or  of  stones 
and  Pre-  (Isa  v.  2).  When  thus  cleared  it  was 
paring  the  ready  for  plowing,  variously  called  in 
Land.  Hebrew  ;(('/•,  hiiniHh  (to  cut  into),  juihih 
(lo  cleave  asunder),  jintnh  (to  open), 
etc.  If  the  soil  was  clayey,  the  resulting  clods  were 
broken  up  with  mattock  or  hoe;  for  in  llic  sub- 
.setiuent  harrowing  (midml.  .Job,  xxxix.  10)  only  a 
light  harrow,  probably  a  thorn-bush,  was  employed. 
Manure  was  used:  it  consisted  of  wood-ashes  (Jlish- 
nah  Sheb.  ii.  4),  leaves  (('A. 'Ab,  Zarali,  iii.  8),  the  blood 
of  slaughlcred  animals  (ih.  Yoma,  v.  (i ;  Yer.  Sheb.  iii. 
34),  oil-scum,  or  of  the  usual  house  and  farmyard 
refuse,  inio  which  straw  or  other  litter  had  been 
trodden  by  cattle  (Isa.  xxv.  10):  but  whether  it  was 
applied  liefore  or  after  plowing  does  not  appear. 
Manuring  is  referred  to  in  I's.  Ixxxiii.  10:  Jer.  viii. 
2,  and  ix.  21.  It  was  applied  to  trees,  about  their 
roots,  to  preserve  Ihem  and  to  stinuUate  them  into 
fruitfuluess  (B.  K.  iii.  3).  The  passages  Isa.  v.  24  and 
xlvii.  14  refer  rather  to  clearing  the  field  of  standing 
stubble  by  fire  than  to  the  direct  useof  ashesasa  fer- 
tilizer. The  institution  of  the  seventh-year  fallow 
was  also  a  valuable  factor  in  maintaining  the  fertility 
of  the  soil. 

The  implements  used  in  the  siibsefiuent  processes 
were  the  plow,  the  hoe  or  mattock,  and  a  harrow  of 
some  kind.  The  hoe  ('^rfcc)  was  used  to  break  up  fields 
too  steep  or  too  cramped  for  plowing.  The  plow, 
which  was  of  wood,  usually  o.ak.  was  of  the  sim- 
plest and  lightest  construction,  being  carried  to  and 
from  the  field  on  a  man's  shoulder.  Its  essential 
feature  was  the  upright  J-shape<l  limber,  shod  some- 
times with  iron  at  the  point  (I  Sam.  xiii.  20),  and  with 
a  short  crosshead  at  the  top  to  serve  as  a  guiding 
handle.  This  upright  passed  through  a  hole  in  a 
horizontal  beam,  which  consisted  of  two  stout  poles 
lashed  together,  to  the  further  end  of  which  the  yoke 
was  secured.  Consisting  of  so  many  pieces  isee  illus- 
tration p.  26G),  and  these  connected  not  strictly  in 
the  direct  line  of  draft,  the  work  can  not  have  been 
very  perfectl.v  done:  no  greater  dejith  of  soil  than 
four  or  five  inches  being  penetrated  and  torn  up. 
For  stony  or  rooty  ground  it  was  of  course  alto- 
gether useless ;  siich  had  to  be  "  picked "  with  a 
heavy  hoe  (Isa.  vii.  2.')).  This  was  shaped  something 
like  the  American  corn-knife,  but,  the  blade  being 
set  at  a  very  acute  angle  to  the  handle,  it  was  pos- 
sible to  reenforcc  it  for  its  rough  work  by  a  thong 
or  rope,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  (p.  264). 

While  the  farmer's  right  hand  grasped  the  handle 
of  the  plow,  the  team  {zoned)  of  oxen  (Amos,  vi.  12), 
of  cows  (Job,  i.  14,  llcb.),  or,  sometimes,  of  asses 
(Deut.  xxii.  10,  Isa.  xxx.  24),  was  urged  onward 
with  a  goad  (nuilmnd.  dorhun) — a  staff  some  eight 
feet  long,  provided  with  a  sharp  point  for  that  pur- 
pose at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  with  a  flat  blade 
for  cleaning  the  plow-point  (Mishnah  Oholot,  xvii. 
2)  or  for  breaking  chance  clods — held  in  the  plow- 


man's left  hand.  As  many  as  I  wel  ve  teams  were  ini- 
ployed  in  the  same  field  at  one  time ;  each,  no  doubt, 
in  its  own  "land"  or  section  (I  Kings.  xix.UI). 

In  Isji.  xxviii.  '2~>  three  words  are  used  for  the  act 
of  sowing:  namely,  hejiz  (to  scatter)  for  sowing 
"fitches":  zarak  (lo  scatter)  for  sowing  cumin;  and 
sum  (lo  i)lace)  for  wheat  ami  barley  :  the  first  two  ex- 
pressions evidently  referring  to  broadcast  sowing,  the 
latter  lo  drilling  in  the  furrows.  After  sowing, 
the  seed  was  plowed  or  brushed  in  with  Ibe  light 
harrow  to  protect  il  from  birds,  mice,  ants,  and  from 
the  scorching  siuishine.  Sometimes  the  seed  was 
sown  broadcast  before  plowing,  and  covered  in  at 
one  operation. 

Egypt  depended  for  irrigation  upon  Nile  water 
lifted  into  elevated  reservoirs,  whence  it  was  distrib- 
uted lo  the  fields  through  channels  closed  or  opened 
by  a  hillock  <if  earth,  pushed  into  place  by  the  foot 
(Deut.  xi.  10).  Palestine,  on  Ibe  contrary,  hail  an 
abundance  of  brooks  and  rock  sjirings,  ("  fountains"); 
and  was  blessed  with  copious  rains.  From  all  these 
sources  water  was  collected  in  cisterns,  lo  guard 
against  diy  seasons  when  rain  would  be  scarce  and 
brooks  and  springs  be  dried  up.  An  idea  of  the 
machinery  used  in  Bible  limes  may  be  obtained 
from  that  employed  to  raise  the  water  from  wells  or 
springs  in  Palestine  lo-day.  It  consists  of  a  hori- 
zontal wlicel  of  roughly  framed  timbers,  lurne(l  by 
a  bullock  (ir  oilier  animal  lied  lo  a  sweep  bcncalh  it. 
This  wheel  comiects  directly  with  a  vertical  one  of 
equally  rude  construction,  carrying  earthen  jars,  or 
other  receptacles,  fastened  to  its  periphery.  As  these 
jars  rise  to  the  top  they  turn  over  and  empty  their 
contents  into  theconductingchannels.  (See  illustra- 
tion, p.  267.) 

In  addition,  systems  of  channels  and  gutters  were 
arranged  to  catch  the  heavy  rains  on  inclined  ground, 
and  lo  distribute  the  water  .slowly  and  evenly  over 
the  soil.  Such  an  artificially  watered  field  was  called 
bet  ha-Kluiiihiii  (place  of  jiouring ;  see  Job,  v.  10,  Ileb.), 
while  a  field  watered  by  rain  was  called  txt  lM-ha'al 
(place  of  rain;  see  B.  B.  iii.  1). 

Crops  ripe  for  harvesting  were  sometimes  pulled 
up  by  the  roots  (Mishnah  Peah,  iv.  10),  particularly 
pulse.  Grain  was  sometimes  dug  up  with  the  hoe, 
thus  preparing  the  fielil  forthe  next  sowing  (/i.  Peah, 
iv.  4;  B.  M.  ix.  1),  but  was  more  frequently  cut  with 
a  lieriiuxh  (Deut.  xvi.  9,  xxiii.  26),  or  a  marjgal,  or 
sickle  (Joel,  iii.  ]I,b.,  iv.  13;  Jer.  1.  16).  Iron  sickles 
of  the  earliest  times  have  been  found  in  the  Tell  el- 


Modem  Sickle. 

(From  Beniit}f;er,  **Ht.brli9che  Arcfaiologlr.*') 

Ilesy  excavations,  as  also  some  set  with  a  cutting 
edge  composed  of  flakes  of  flint  (Mishnah  Sheb.  v. 
G;  .see  illus. ).  Barley  was  harvested  at  Nisan,  Pass- 
over-time (Tosef. ,  Suk.  3,  18);  wheat  and  spelt  a 
few  weeks  later  (Tan.,  Wayhi,  1.5;  see  also  Ex.  ix. 
32);  and  grain-harvesting  was  finished  by  Pentecost 
(.Siwan;  Tosef.,  Suk.  ih.). 

The  single  handfuls  (zeiatim,  Kuth,  ii.  16)  were 
tied  into  sheaves  (i(^"mwii'»t  or  iilnmmot.  Gen.  xxxvii. 
7;  Ps.  cxxvi.  6)  by  their  own  straw,  were  piled  into 


269 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Agriculture 


heaps  ('outer.  Lev.  xxiii.  10;  Job.  xxiv.  lOjand  indue 

course  were  truusportod  to  the  bums  (mezuwiin,  Ps. 

cxliv.  13)  or  the  threshin^tioor  (;i<iren),  possibly  iu 

wagons  (Amos,  ii.  13),  or,  when  in  smaller  quautity, 

iu  baskets  or  in  panniers  on  asses,  as  in  Egypt  to-day. 

Tliere  were  two  methods  of  threshing:  hitltitt(\o 

beat  out  with  a  stiek)  and  dunh  (to  trample);   the 

former  evidently  referring  to  the  piim- 

Threshing    itive  practise  of  beating  the  full  ears 

and  Win-    (or  pods  of  pulse)  witli  a  rod  or  Hail 

nowing.      to  extract  the  grain  from  theliusks; 

the  latter,  to  the  tnunpliug  of  them 

by  cattle  upon  a  hard  and  level  Hoor  (gureii,  Num. 


the  size  of  a  walnut  in  thicknes.s — securelj'  inserted 
in  holes  in  the  drag,  and  jirotruding  a  couple  of 
inches  (see  Jastrow,  "Diet."  s.t.  ?»3nit3,  p.  526,  for 
citations). 

These  instruments  arc  referred  to  figuratively  in 
Amos,  i.  3und  II  Kings,  xiii.  7.  The  Jiumane legisla- 
tion of  the  Pentateuch  in  Deut.  xxv.  7  forbids  the 
muzzling  of  the  oxen  while  treading  out  the  corn; 
an<l  the  Talmud  (Kelim.  xvi.  7)  similarly  enjoins  that 
they  Ik-  lilindfolded  as  a  safeguard  against  dizziness. 

'I'he  residt  of  so  crude  a  .system  of  threshing  natu- 
rally was  a  large  amount  of  worthless  straw,  torn 
into  short  lengths  1)V  the  weighted  teeth  of  the  morag. 


TllKESlll.Na   IN   I'ALKSTI.SE. 


XV.  20,  xviii.  27,  30;  Hulh.  iii.  2;  II  Sam.  xxiv.  10). 
Sometimes  the  ears  alone  may  have  bei'n  stricken  olf 
the  straw  by  the  sickle  and  thrown  upon  the  tliresh- 
ing-door  (Job,  xxiv.  24);  but  the  usual  method  was 
to  scatter  the  loosened  bundlesotgriiin-bcaring  straw, 
as  they  came  from  tin- barn,  upon  the  goreu,  to  be 
threshed  out,  either  l>y  oxen,  driven  over  them  re- 
l)eatedly(IIosea,  x.ll) — thereby  trampling  them  with 
their  lioofs — (jr  by  causing  cattle  to  draw  certain 
heavy  implements  o\er  the  mass  with  the  Sjuue  re- 
sidt.  These  implements  were  the  linrnz  (Isji.  xxviii. 
27;  Job.  xli.  22)  and  the  murii;/  (Isji.  xli.  1"».  I  C'hrou. 
xxi.  23),  both  of  which,  to  juilge  from  their  modern 
representatives,  were  heavy  woodiii  drags,  weighted 
additionally  with  large  stones  or  with  thi-  driver's 
person;  see  illustration.  The  driver  today  not  iu- 
frecjuently  repos<s  at  full  length  upon  thediiig.  and 
even  slund)ers.  while  the  docile  oxen  follow  their 
monotonous  round  over  tlu'  straw.  The  under  side 
of  these  drags  was  fortitied  either  with  revolving 
metal  disks,  or,  more  commonly,  with  |irojecting 
teeth  of  stone  (Isa.   xli.   15) — little  blocks  of  basalt. 


"Winnowing,  as  a  conseiiiience.  became  a  very  neces- 
sary and  tediousoperation.  When  sullieieiitly  tram- 
pled and  torn  to  pieces,  the  resultant  mass  of  mingled 
grain,  chalT.  and  short  straw  was  tossed  into  the  air 
with  the  tiii:ii/i  (from  zuinh.  to  scatter;  A.V.  "fan." 
Isa.  XXX.  24.  Jer.  xv.  7)and  the  ;•<///<// (eoimecteil  with 
)•//(;/(  =  wind),  properly  a  fork  or  ii  shovel:  imple- 
ment sunder  these  names  are  used  in  Pdestine  today. 
When  a  shovelful  of  the  nnngli'd  ma.ssupon  the  lloor 
was  lifted  and  thrown  against  tlu'  wind,  the  chaff 
(;»"?)  wasblownaway(Ps.i.4);  the  short  straw  windil 
colli'ct  somi-  distance  away  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
heap,  and  was  used  for  ])roventler  (tilHii;  Isa.  xi.  7); 
while  till'  heavier  grain  woulil  fall  at  the  winnower's 
feet  Ciiniitiih.  Kuth.  iii.  7;  (.'ant.  vii.  2).  This  grain 
was  still  lurther  cUansed  from  ears  whi<h  still  hild 
kernels,  anil  from  stubble,  by  being  shaken  through 
a  sieve  (/IvVKini/i.  .Vinos,  ix.  0).  It  is  doubt  fid  whether 
the  word  »<i/.//i  (Isa.  xxx.  2S;  A.V.  "sieve")  ineansa 
sieve  at  all."  Tlie  mesli  of  the  Palestinian  sii've  of  to- 
day is  made  of  sli|)s  of  dried  camel  hide,  ami  is  tine 
enough  to  pass  the  kernels  and  to  hold  the  unthrer-hed 


Agrlsentum 
AKrippa  H. 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


270 


oars  which  arc  then  collected  aiidngain  thriiwn  upon 
the  threshiiij;  llixir. 

Various  immes  for  storehouses  or  hariis  arc  jrivcii  : 
maabuH,  Jer.  1.  2(i;  aiuim,  FK'Ut.  xxviii,  8.  I'rov.  iii. 
10;  imimiiiegiirot,  Joel,  i.  17:  vunuriiii.  Ps.  cxli'v  1:5; 
migkenot,  Ex.  i.  11:  I  Kings,  ix.  li);  in  nitibinical 
writings  also  oznr.  rinrni.  iiuijitrnh.  and  ii/kiIiH.  X.  T. 
aTTofiiiKT/,  all  denoting  nmga/iues  or  gninaries.  (Jmin 
was  sometimes  stored  in  the  lield  (Jer.  xli.  H.  Maksli. 
i.  6),  prohablj-  in  caves  or  cisterns,  as  is  still  the 
practise;  in  such  receptacles  it  will  remain  good  for 
years. 

For  a  description  of  the  various  adverse  influences 
to  which  the  growing  crops  used  to  he  exposed  see 
DiioitiiiT,  E.\sr  ■\ViM),  LocrsTs,  JIii^dkw. 

BiBLlocRAPIiY:  I'Kolino.  Cnmmfulariu.''  di-  Iti  liiixlien  Vrle- 
nan  HthKnmtm.  In  liLs  Tlnmunix  AnlUmiliiliiiii  Siicni- 
noii.  ITtyi.  x.\lx.  1-.")1S;  stadc.  Ilexcli.d.  Viilhis  /.vrircl,  1.  7; 
Niiwarli.  Lclnimch  ili  r  llrlirtliscln  tl  Anliilnliiuit,  ».v.  Ach- 
crlmu;  Benzlnifi'r,  Hilm'linchi-  Arch.  I.  IJ,  IWM,  pp.  ai)7-2i:t; 
TtKmison,  Thr  LiDiilitinl  On-  liimk  (popular  cd.,  IsSD.imdiT 
..UoHHfi-N  <i)i<(  CuKtnm.''.  (in  }hirvist,  Irriudtiim.  I'laiiliini, 
Pliiwiinr.  Xeit.  iHiilxch.  I'alilnt.  Ver.  Ix. :  Achirliau  iim/ 
Vichzuiht ;  Qiiaiirrlii Slnleiiunt.in/ the  Pal.  KxiAitr.  Fund 
(see indexes):  H.  VdgeLsteln,  Wf  Lnndiritisihafi  in  /'(iMx- 
tina  zur  Zcit  d(r  Hinhnah.  Berlin,  IHW;  Adler  and  Casa- 
noviz,  BOilkal  Anliimiticn.,  p.  1U05. 

F.    DK  S.    M. 

AGKIGENTTJM  ( 'OJ'J-iN .  '03'ns.  ''t2J"-lK  ; 
see  Steinschneider.  "Cat.  Bodl."  col.  1.5;i2;  Luz- 
zatto,  "Hebr.  Bibl."  1S62,  pp.  22,  46;  now  Girgenti); 
A  town  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicily  ;  was  the  seat  of 
a  large  .Jewish  congregation  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (.590-601)."  There  is  no 
information  of  the  origin  and  age  of  this  settle- 
ment and  of  its  further  history,  and  only  the  most 
meager  details  arc  available.  Its  internal  manage- 
ment (see  I.  Loeb,  in  "  Revue  des  fetudesjuives,"  xiii. 
187  et  seq.,  xiv.  262  cl  strj.)  and  its  relations  with 
the  non-Jewish  population,  as  well  as  the  .social 
standing  and  moth'  of  livelihood  of  its  members. 
Avere  no  doubt  identical  with  those  prevailing  all 
over  Sicily.  In  the  tiflecnth  century  this  congrc 
gation  was  still  ri'ckoned  one  of  the  most  im])ortant 
in  the  island  (Ziinz.  "Zur  Geschichte,"  p.  4!).j.  and 
GVidemann,  "  Erziehuugswesen,"  ii.  290).  At  that 
time  it  seems  to  have  had  an  active  intellectual 
life.  The  names  and  writings  of  several  authors, 
whose  chosen  field  was  the  Cabala,  liave  come  down 
to  us.  David  of  Agrigentum  wrote  a  mystical  com- 
mentary upon  a  special  prayer  ("Codex  Oxford," 
696,  8);  and  we  have  from  Joscjih  ibn  Shraga  an  ex- 
tensive cabalistic  commentary  on  passages  from  the 
Bible,  Talmud,  and  Zohar,  and  on  certain  jiravers 
("Codex  Bodl."  1663,  3.  4,  1666,  2221,  7,  and  "Co- 
dex British  Museum,"  addition  27.014:  compare 
Luzzatto).  Ibn  Shraga  certainly,  and  Daviil  prob- 
ably, had  emignited  from  Spain.  With  the  year 
1492,  in  which  all  .lews  were  banished  from  the 
island,  the  history  of  this  congregation  came  loan 
end. 

Bibliography:  Giovanni  di  Giovanni,  L'EhrcMnn  dclla  Si- 
cilm.  I>alernio.  174M:  Zunz.  Z.Cl.  pp.  4.S.-.,  4!m96.  rM: 
fiirtlier  literary  note.s  in  (iiideniann.  (iisfliU-hte  ilrx  Kr- 
zichunfisjnsriis  u.ilirCulturdirJnden  in  Italicn  wdhrcml 
den  MilleUdlrrx.pp.  ais-ae;.  ;i:i7-:Mi,  Vienna,  IKM:  Picime, 
Memorie  Slorirlie  Agrigcnlini.iiirgenlU  Isiii;  Kav^erlini.'. 
Gcsch.  d.  Judcn  in  Part.  p.  70. 

M.  Bn. 

AGRIPPA  I.  (M.  JULIUS  AGRIPPA,  also 
known  as  Herod  Agrippa  I.):  King  of  Judi  a.  born 
about  the  year  10  li.c.  ("Ant."  xiv.  9,  i;  2);  assassin- 
ated in  44.  His  career,  with  its  abundant  and  ex 
treme  vicissitudes:  illustrates  in  a  remarkable  man 
ner  the  complete  dependence  of  the  royal  family  of 
Judca,  even  for  the  means  of  subsistence,  upon  the 
favor  of  the  Roman  emperors  of  the  first  century. 


His  descent  and  posterity  are  shown  in  the  following 
table : 

SkKTCII    PiCDKiltKE   OF   THE   HeIIODI.\NS. 
Anlipater:  d.  4;i  B.C. 

I i 1 

Ptiaiiael ;  Hemd  ttie  Great :  d.  4  B.C.      Salome :  d.  10 

d.  411  B.C.  ni.  Marlainne:  d.  2!)  B.C.       n.c:  in.  fosio- 

I  bar:  d.  '£t  ii.c. 

' i  I 

PhiL'iael;  Alexander:  Arlslobulus:  | 

ni.  Salainpslo  m.  (ilapliyru  lu.  Ben-nice        Berenice 

I  I                               ■ ■ 

Cyprus :  Agrippa  I. 

ni.  Atrrlppa  1.  in.  Typros 


I  i  i  i  I 

AGRIPPA  II.    Dnisus    Berenice    Mariamne    DnisUla 

When  six  years  of  age  lie  was  si'Ut  to  Rome  for  his 
education,  and  there  enjoyed  the  companionship  of 
the  gifted  Drusus  Ca>sar,  "son  of  Tiberius.  The  ex- 
travagance of  court  life  accustomed  him  to  splen- 
dor and  luxury,  and  his  prospects,  which  were  bril- 
liant, were  the  means  of  furnishing  him  with  ancver- 
failing  supply  of  money,  of  which  he  availed  himself 
in  the  style  of  a  spendihrift.  But  his  circumstances 
were  changed  in  the  year  23,  when  his  friend  and 
patron.  Drusus,  died  suddenly,  Fnmi  that  hour  the 
emperor  declined  to  receive  the  high  s))iriled  young 
man,  and  very  soon  his  boon  companions  also  for- 
sook Agrippa.  Destitute  of  all  resources,  he  medi- 
tated suiciilc:but  at  thereiiuest  of  his  wife.  Cypros, 
his  sister  llerodias,  who  had  been  since  about  the 
year  2.5  the  wife  of  the  tctrarch  Herod  Aniipas, 
took  pity  on  Agrippa  and  secured  for  him  the  ap- 
pointment of  market  overseer  in  her  new  capital, 
Tiberias.  But  even  this  new  fortune  did  not  last; 
his  brother-in-law  took  every  opportunity  to  make 
Agrippa  feel  his  dependent  position.  This  Agrip]>a 
found  too  much  to  endure.  He  re- 
Early  signed  his  post,  and,  after  many  ad- 
Career,  ventures,  returned  to  Rome  in  36. 
Here,  once  again,  he  succeeded  in  over- 
coming ill  fortune  by  securing  the  patronage  of  the 
heir  apparent,  Caligula.  AVitli  this  return  to  pros- 
perity his  extravagant  ideas  resumed  sway  over  him 
and  brought  him  to  want.  Deeming  himself  free  from 
listeners,  he  was  one  day  thoughtless  enough  openly 
to  wish  for  the  time  when  Caligula  would  ascend  the 
throne  of  the  C.Tsjirs.  AVhen  tliis  rciuiirk  was  carrie<l 
to  the  aged  Tilicrius.  he  had  him  loaded  with  chains 
and  cast  into  prison.  He  sufTercd  here  for  six  months 
in  constant  terror  of  death,  until  Caligula,  having  be- 
come emperor,  freed  him  with  his  own  hands,  and 
appointed  him  to  the  tetrarchy  of  his  uncle  Philip, 
and  to  that  of  Lysanias,  giving  him  the  title  of  king. 
To  thes<'  honors  the  senate  addeil  the  rights  and  title 
of  pretor. 

This  wonderful  change  in  his  fortune  excited  the 
undisguised  envy  of  his  sister  llerodias,  and  led 
her  to  urge  her  incapable  husband  to  secure  for 
himself  at  least  equal  rank  and  titles  from  the  em- 
peror. But  Agrippa  defeated  her  purpose.  Her 
petition  to  the  emperor  was  forestalled  by  a  mes- 
sage from  Agrippa.  containing  half-veiled  intima- 
tions that  his  brother  in-law  was  nieilitating  treason 
and  independence.  This  was  sutlicient  to  destroy 
Herod  Antipas.  Land  and  throne  were  taken  from 
him,  and  the  districts  of  Galilee  and  the  south  of 
Perea,  administered  by  him,  were  transferred  to  the 
charge  of  Agrippa  (39). 

The  king  soon  found  opportunity  to  gain  the 
gratitude  and  good  wishes  of  his  coreligionists, 
if'aligula.  whose  extravagant  desires  and  cruelty  sa- 
vored of  insanity,  conceived  the  idea  of  ordering  that 


271 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ag-ri^entum 
Ag^rippa  n. 


his  statues  be  set  up  in  all  temples  and  receive  di- 
vine honors.  The  Jews  alone  dared  to  offer  resist 
ance  to  this  decree.  They  iiiduced  the  Syrian  gov- 
ernor, Petronius,  to  postpone  tliis  desceralion  of  the 
sanctuary  for  a  long  time,  and  he  at  lust  determined 
to  inform  the  emperor  that  the  execution  of  his  order 
•would  be  impossible  without  terrible  ma.ssiicres. 
Agripjiu  happened  to  be  in  Home  at  that  time,  and 
liad  succeeded  in  getting  from  Caligula  a  repeal  of  his 
odious  edict  (Philo,  "Legalio  ail  Cidum,''  ^^  ;iO-4:!i. 
But    when   I'etroiiius'   report  arrived 

Agrippa      that   the   Jews    would   rather   sutler 
and  death  tlian  permit  the  erection  of  the 

Caligula,  imperial  statues  in  tlicir  Temple,  the 
emperor  canceled  his  repeal,  and  or- 
dered the  forcible  execution  of  his  command.  Fortu- 
nately, the  tidings  that  the  imbecile  tyrant  had  been 
nuirdVred  by  his  body-g\ianl  arrived  before  his  in- 
slructi<ins  to  |iut  his  commands  into  elTect  (11). 
His  successor,  Claudius,  showed  himself  grateful 
to  Agrippa  for  important  services  rendered  him, 
and  upon  his  accession,  jilaced  luider  his  rule  the 
remainder  of  Palestine,  the  territories  of  Samaria, 
Judea,  and  Idum.va,  formerly  governed  by  Arche- 
laus.  Loaded  with  honors  and  titles,  Agrippa  re- 
turned home,  and  the  few  remaining  years  of  his 
benevolent  sway  afforded  the  people  a  brief  iieriod 
of  peaceand  i^rosperity.  The  evil  consequences  of  a 
ruler's  unbridled  passionsand  tyranny  had  been  suf- 
ficiently evident  to  him  in  ijome,  and  they  had 
taught  him  moderation  and  strict  self-control.  His 
people  regarded  him  with  love  and  devotifni,  be- 
cause he  liealcd  with  tender  hand  the  deep  wounds 
inllicted  upon  the  national  susce]ililiililics  by  brutal 
Honian  governors.  He  ruled  his  subjects  with  C'om 
passion  and  friendliness.  I>il<e  the  anceslnil  Asmo- 
neans  from  whom  he  siirang  through  his  noble 
gniiKlmoiher  Mariamnc.  he  honored  the  Law.  Like 
the  merest  commoner,  he  carried  liis  basket  of  first- 
fruits  to  the  Temple;  with  the  people  he  cele- 
brated appropriately  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  and 
Le  devoted  to  the  sanctuary  a  golden  chain  with 


CopptT  I 


'      liw  I.  CVIebrotlnnTr'  I'i 

(  Prflm  Maadcn,  "  Cdtia  of  the  Jswa.*') 


Itome. 


which  Caligida  liad  honoreil  him.  On  one  occasion, 
xvlnle  in  the  street,  lie  met  a  bridal  iiroeession  which 
drew  up  to  let  him  jiass.  but  he  halted  and  bade  it 
take  ]irecedence.  He  sought  to  liglilen  la.\alion. 
renulting  thi'  impost  on  houses  in  .lerusidiru.  On 
the  coins  minted  by  him  hi'  carefully  avoided  pla- 
cing any  syndmls  «hiih  could  olTeiid  the  people's 
religious  sentiment.  Thus,  prosperity  and  comfort 
seemed  to  be  dawning  anew  for  the  Jews. 

The  Homans,  however,  became  jealous  of  this  ri- 
sing prosperity,  and — sometimes  covertly,  .sometimes 
openly — laid  all  nuinner  of  obstacles  in  his  way. 
\Vhen  he  began  to  repair  the  fort itieat ions  of  the 
capital,  he  was  abruptly  bidden  to  cea.se.  Ills  at- 
tempts to  fraternize  with  neighboring  peoples — vas- 
sals of  Homi — Were  conslrned  as  portending  rebel- 


lion. His  assassination  at  the  games  in  Ctcsarea,  44, 
must  l)e  considered  as  a  strok(>  of  Roman  politics. 
His  death,  while  in  the  full  vigor  of  his  years,  was 
deeply  laineuteil  by  his  people,  uotw  ithstanding  the 
fact  that  he  had  made   many  considerable  conces- 


Copper  Coin  of  ARrippa  I.  ShowinR  Royal  Umbrtlla. 

(From  MadJirH,  "  C-ins  '■(  the  Jews.") 

sions  to  heathen  manners  and  cu.stoms.  The  Chris- 
tians looked  upon  his  death  as  a  judgment  for  his 
\nidisguisi'd  hostility  to  their  j'oung  community 
(Acts,  xii.). 

BiBi.ioiiKAPliv:  Jnseplius,  Ant.  xvlll.  fi.  xlx.  6-!l;  II.  J.  II., 
ix.,  xi.  it  «!'(/. ;  Ptillii,  fn  Ciiutrn  Flaaitm,  .Vi,  .'jli;  Arts,  xii. 
Knr  'ralinuiUi-al  n-fereni-es.  see  Keri'iiUiiirtr.  En.<ai  .vwr  VHi.^t- 
Inin  ,1  III  (if'nifrai^hif  d,  hi  /'(i(.  ,«(iii.  ,  pp.  LlHI  UM'.I;  N.S.  LllX)- 
wir/.  Ilitnil  iinil  .tiiriiijHi.  iil  e.l..  New  Yurk,  Isiis.  Coins,  In 
yiuMi-n's  ruins  nf  til,-  ,/,  ti<.  |ns|,  pp.  l:.".i  |:i;);  Inscriptions,  In 
Zcit.f.  H'iji.»r;i.M7i<if(li(/e  Tin  "l"iiir,  \s':i.  pp.  L'ls  iV):  (Jratz, 
Gcsch.  (I.  Jwlcn,  lit.  31S-:ii;i :  K.-iiii.  hi  s.lunkil's  llihi  l-Lcxi- 
fiin.  111.  •!!)-.■)«:  Schurer,  d'l.sr/i.  1.  4.')!i  471 ;  lluii.s.sli-u,'t.  In  Her- 
/op  anil  Hanrk,  ltcah'ncukhipiliik\  1.  2.Vi  tt  «i'i/. ;  IK-ssau, 
/Vvj,-ny*o(/rii)i/iiii  Imperii  Homani^  ed.  H.  Des.saii.  11.  \&i; 
lielnuch.  In  III  r.  Et.  Jiiivis,  xxxl.  lill  <:t  »<•(;.,  x.\xll.  IWI, 
X.X.N1V.  I'.m.  yi      ,5„ 

AGRIPPA  II.  (or  in   full  MARCUS  JULIUS 

AGRIPPA;  known  also  as  Herod  Ag-rippa  II.): 
Son  of  .\grippa  I.  lie  was  born  in  the  year  •-.'.'^,  and.  ui 
cording  to  a  statement  that  is  not,  uncontradicted 
(Photius.  "  liibliotheca,"  cod.  38),  it  is  said  that  he 
died  in  the  year  1(10.  He  was  educated  in  Home, 
where  he  saw  much  of  the  court  life  that  had  been 
so  harmful  to  his  father.  It  proved  just  as  detri- 
mental to  him,  fur  he  reached  maturity  just  at  the 
time  that  Miss:ilina  and  Agri]i]iina  dared  to  ttannt 
llie  most  fearful  di'ptbs  of  prntligacy  in  public.  On 
llie  sudden  ilealli  of  his  father,  the  emperor  Clau- 
dius desired  him  to  enter  into  the  full  inheritance  of 
all  his  rights  and  titles,  but  upon  the  advice  of 
court  favorites  he  refrained  from  doing  so.  Once 
again  Judea  was  handed  over  to  the  care  of  procura- 
tors, and  for  the  time  being  the  young  man  was  de- 
laiiied  at  cimrt.  Here  he  had  the  opimrlunity  of 
being  heliiful  to  his  coreligionists  from  time  to  lime 
(.losephus.  ••.\nl."  XV.  11.  5=  4;  XX.  1,  ^ '2)  and  of  ac- 
iiuiriiig  proliciency  in  all  the  arts  of  courtly  tlattery. 
On  the  death  of  Herod  11.,  Agrippa  succeeded  in 
having  the  former's  post  promi.sed  Inm.     In  the  vear 

.Vl,  witliout  regard  to  the  rights  of  the 
Succeeds  heir  to  the  throne,  he  had  himself  ap- 
Herod  II.     pointed  ("H.  J."  ii.  I'J.  ^  I  ;  "Ant."  xx. 

o.  S  'i:  !1,  j;  T)  to  the  luincipalitv  of 
Clialeis  by  the  emperor,  and  also  to  the  supervisor- 
ship  of  the  'I'emple  at  Jerusjdem.  which  carried  with 
it  the  right  of  nonunating  the  high  priest.  Within 
thri'c  years — possibly  before  he  h'ft  Home  to  assume 
the  dignity  of  his  olliee — tlie  ein]ieroi-  presented  him 
with  larger  territory  in  exchange  for  Chaleis.  giving 
him  the  tetnirchy  of  his  great  uncle  Philip — over 
which  .\grip]ia's  father  liad  also  ruled — together 
with  that  of  l.vsanias  (.Vbileiie).  and  the  district  of 
Varns(".\nt,""xx.  T.  S;  1  ;  "11.  J."ii  IS.  S  >*»  Nero, 
when  he  became  emperor,  added  to  this  territory, 
giving  iiim  coiisideruble  tnicts  of  (iaiilee  and  Perea. 


A^rippa  II. 
AKuilar,  Diego  d' 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


272 


Those  tninsfiTs  took  ])l!i(i-  probably  in  the  years  53 
and  til.  and  llivis  enabled  him  to  inseribe  ilie.se  two 
years  on  liis  eoins  as  the  dates  of  the  bejihining  of 
Lis  reign  ("Wiener  Nuniisniatisehe  Zeit. "' 


CopiHT  t'i)ln  of  Agripim  II.,  lOlb  year. 

(Frnm  Mfti]i)i;ii,  "  ColDS  of  the  Jews.") 

In  the  stam|)in<;  of  these  eoins  lie  showed  no  consid- 
eration whatever  for  the  reliurious  scrajjles  of  the 
Jews.     Kearly  all  of  them  bear  the  names  and  effi- 
gies of  the  reigning  emjieror  (lOtli  year,  sometimes 
his  own  also),    and   even   heathen   emblems   (lltli 
year).     He   abused    the   right    to  appoint   and  re- 
move the  high  priests,  and  in  hisselee- 
Coins  of       lions   rarely   took    the    litness   of   the 
Agrippa.     appointeeintoeoiisideralinn.    He  lived 
inconstant  strife  and  (luurrel  with  the 
priests.     At  one  time  he  eneroaehed  on  their  priv- 
ileges by  ordering  the  Leviles  to  assume  garments 
similar  to  those  of  the  priests  (see   Bilehler,   "Die 
Priester  u.  der  Cultus."  p.  144).    At  another  time  he 
added  a  watch-tower  to  the  Herodian  palace  in  Jeru- 
Siilem.  which  permitted  him  to  see  into  the  Temple 
courts;  but  in  defiance  the  priests  raised  the  Tem- 
ple wall. 

He  gratitied  his  desire  for  the  erection  of  he.iuti- 
ful  buildings,  es])eciaUy  in  his  capital.  Ca'sarea  Phi- 


Copper  Coin  of  Agrippa  II.,  11th  year. 

(From  MaiMen,  "  Coins  of  the  Jews,") 

lipjii.  which  he  adorned  withmagniticent  edifices,  and 
which,  in  order  to  flatter  Nero,  he  called  Xeronias 
("Ant."  x.\.  9,  §  4).  He  led  a  lordly  life,  devoid  of 
care,  without  a  thought  for  the  unhappy  destiny 
of  his  people,  who  were  inevitalily  hastening  toward 
their  national  downfall.  Unlike  his  father,  whom 
lie  otherwise  emulated  in  all  things,  he  abandoned 
all  attempt  to  secure  political  independence  for  the 
Jews  from  their  Roman  master.  When  the  final 
struggle  broke  out  he  Siiw  safety  and  .salvation  for 
his  people  only  in  blind  submission  to  the  emperor, 
and  employed"  his  biilliant  elociuencc  to  warn  the 
inflamed  leaders  against  extremes,  and  counseled  the 
return,  so  far  as  possible,  to  calmness 
Joins  the  and  deliberation.  But  his  wonis  were 
Bomans.  without  avail("  I?.  J.'Mi.  10.  s;^ 4.  .5);  he 
barely  escaped  from  Jerusalem  with  his 
life.  From  that  time  he  stood  unreservedly  on  the 
side  of  the  Romans,  and  even  assisted  them  with 
his  troops.     He  actually  went  so  far.  after  the  cap- 


ture of  Jolajiata.  as  to  deliberately  invite  Vespasian 
and  his  army  to  his  capital,  to  celebrate  the  occasion 
of  the  con(|Uest  of  the  Jews.  The  drunken  festivi- 
ties and  unrestrained  debauchery  that  ensued  lasted 
for  three  weeks.  He  then  joined  the  conquerors  iu 
their  victorious  march  onwaril. 

As  a  reward  for  this  valuable  aid  against  his  own 
brethren  the  Hoiimns  spared  his  beautiful  city. 
Tiberias.  On  receipt  of  the  news  of  the  downfall  of 
Nero,  Vespasian  sent  his  ,son  Titus,  accompanied 
by  Agrijipa,  to  Italy  to  pay  homage  to  the  new  em- 
peror. While  on  their  journey  the  tidings  reached 
them  that  the  new  emperor  had  already  birn  niiir- 
<lere(l;  Titus  turned  back,  but  Agrippa  continued 
his  journey  to  Rome  ("  15.  J."  iv.  !•.  ^  2).  He  left 
liomeonly  when  he  heard  that  Vespasian  hail  been 
exalted  to  the  imperial  throne  (Tacitus.  "Hist."ii. 
HI),  and  joined  Titus,  to  whom  Ves|)asian  had  en- 
trusted the  continuation  of  the  war.  and  remained 
with  him  until  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  (Taci- 
tus, "Hist."  V.  1).  In  com- 
l)ensation  for  this  new  aid 
against  the  Jews,  Vespa- 
sian enlarged  his  dominions 
(  I'holiiis,  "  IJibliotheca," 
cod.  ;i3),  and  conferred 
u|)ou  him,  in  the  year  7.j, 
the  rank  of  prctor(DioCas- 
sius,  Ixvi.  1.)). 

Of  his  religions  life  very 
little  that  is  ])raiseworthy 
can  be  mentioned.  It  is 
true  that  he  insisted  that 
the  heathen  princes  who 
wooed  his  handsome  sister 
should  undergo  circumcision  ("Ant."  .\.\.  7.  ^§  1,  3), 
and  that  once,  sulTering  from  a  revulsion  of  feeling, 
lie  shed  tears  before  the  assembled  con- 
Character,  gregation  on  t  he  reading  of  t  he  jiassilge 
Deut.  xvii.  l.ViJOtseeToscf.,  Sotah.vii. 
I.'):  Ver.  Sotah.  2',':  Bab.  Sotah.  7.  8).  But  the'people 
hated  him  for  his  arbitrary  treatment  of  the  liigh- 
)iriesthood.  and  tor  the  adoption  of  the  heathen  em- 
lilemson  his  coins.  He  certainly  never  desired  to  em- 
brace Christianity,  for  the  utterance  attributed  to  him 
in  Acts.  -xxvi.  2^.  is  evidently  to  be  taken  as  a  jest. 
His  privati'  life  seems  to  have  been  anything  but 
creditable.  T\u-  worst  of  reiiorts  wen'  current  at 
home,  as  well  as  in  Rome,  concerning  his  relations 
with  his  beautiful  but 
profligate  sister  Berenice, 
afterward  the  mistress  of 
Titus  ("Ant."  .\.\.  7,  §3; 
Juvenal,  "  Satires,"  vi. 
l.")3).  He  died  childless 
(10(1),  surviving  thedown- 


Copper  Coin  of  AiJrippa    II 
14lh  year,  under  Vespasian. 

(From  MsiJ,!en,  *'  Coins  of  the  J, 


'•)  ' 


Copper  Coin  of  ,\prippa  II.. 
It'll  ti  year,  with  .sfenatus] 
('[onsultuin]. 


fall  of  .Judea  only  a  few 
(h'cades.  Jose]ilius.  the 
historian,  was  indebted  to 
him  for  numerous  correc- 
tionsand  additions.  Prob- 
ably Agri])pa  gave  him 
these  for  the  purpose  of 
justifying  and  defending 

iiis ow"n  acts  ("  Vita,"  §  G'>:  comiiare  Eusebius,  "Hist. 
Eccl.  "  iii.  !)).     With  him  the  race  of  Herod  ends. 

Bini.ioc.RAPiiY  :  Joseplius,  ^iif.  xix..  xx.;  Idem.  B.  X  U.,  vll. 
led.  Nifse,  see  index* :  -t'■^«!.  xxv.  i:i  ir^  .^f</. :  on  inscriptions 
SVC  Sfhiirer  in  IlilL'.-nfi-l.l's  /.'  itsilirift  flir  mKinisi)iii(tUche 
rhrithMlU,  IS7:i.  pp.  -4S,  f  >..,.  :/.,  it,  DuiImiIi.  I'ah'ist.  I'fl-.vii. 
l-'l  ct  sni.:  MiiiKltssilirill.  XiX.  tW  rt  saj..  rai  rt  ,viv;..  XX.  I3(t 

«'/. ;  KirwaM.Jnsfphu.''  ill  (iiitihlci  ».  .v.  in  Vnhilltiiixi  zu 
ilrn  Piiiii  iiiiii.  Breslaii.  1S77;  (ii-.itz.  Grxrii.il.  Jinliii.  iii.  4th 
ed.,  14  ct  ncq.;  Lilxiwltz,  Herod  and  Auripiia  (Uebrew),  2d 
ed..  New  Tork,  1898. 

M.  Bit. 


273 


THE  JEWISH  E^X"YCLOPEDIA 


A^rippa  II. 
A^uilar,  Diego  d' 


AGKIPPA,  CAIUS  JXTLItrS:  Jlciitiomd  as 
pnipntnr  ,i|  tlir  Ifiini^in  |ini\  imc  of  Asia  in  an  in- 
scription at  Epliesus;  was  pmljaldy  a  (k'scendarit  of 
thf  royal  house  of  Heroil.  His  father,  referred  to  in 
the  inscription  in  (jucstion  as  Kin^  Alexander,  was 
doubtless  the  Alexander  appointed  l)y  Vespasian  as 
"kinj;  of  an  island  in  C'ilieia"  (.loseplms.  "Ant." 
-wiii.  '>,  i;  4)  anil  would  thus  he  irreat  irrandson  of 
Alexander,  son  <]f  Herod  the  llreat.  by  Marlanine 
(see  genealoirical  abstract  l)elow).  His  descendants 
soon  lost  all  connection  with  Judaism  and  disap- 
peared in  healhendoni  (Josephus,  ibiil.  141). 

Herod  the  Great,  d.  4  B.C. 
buaband  ut  Murlaiiiiie.  d.  :iU  B.C. 

I 
Alexander 

I 

Tigraneis  kini;  <if  .\mieDia 

.Alexander,  husband  of  Jotapa,  king  In  rillcia 

C.  Julius  Agrlpfia 

BIBI.IOC.RAPHY :  rircfk  Tiiscyiittitinn  in  tlir  Hritiifli  Mitscnm, 
111.  l.s".  i>17 :  PrttMi^i^p-aiiUui  liniterii  liimiatiL  ed.  H.  Des- 
sau. II.  lie,  ST;  Sihfirer,  (ti^ih.  I.  2.  [mrt  4i>S;  Monim.sen, 
In  Hermes.  187(1,  Iv.  l'.«i, 

M.    I5k. 

AGKIPPA,   SIMONIDES:    Younjiest    son   of 
Flaviu^i  .loseplius.  the  lii'^liirian,  by  his  second  wife, 
a  Jewe.ss  of  distiuguishiil   taniily  from  the  island  of 
Crete;  born  about  the  ^ear  S2. 
BiBLiOGR.\riiY  :  Jiisi'phus.  t'ifa,  STii;  coiupnn'81. 

M.  Br. 

AGRIPPINA  :  The  depraved  daughter  of  Ger- 
maiiicus  and  wife  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  who  at 
times  interested  herself  in  the  inlcriuil  alfairs  of 
Juden.  Upon  the  pres.sing  representations  of  Agrippa 
H.,  .slie  succeeded  in  inducing  the  emperor  to  dismi.s.s 
the  governor  Cr.M.\NUS  for  his  oppre.s.sion  of  the  Jews, 
and  he  was  sent  into  exile  (Josephus,  "Ant."  xx.  6. 
§3;  Schlirer,  "Gesch."  2<1  ed..  i.  47C;  see  Griitz. 
"Ge.sch.  d.  Juden."  iii.  7"2."i).  How  far-reaching  her 
influence  was  may  be  gleaned  from  the  fact  that 
her  name,  with  tjial  of  her  imperial  husband,  is 
frequently  met  with  on  I'alestiniau  coins. 

BiBLinriR.\riiv:  Madden.  fV/diii  i>(  the  Jcim.pp.  IW  ct  iscq.; 
SihDn-r.  (ItMli.  1.  4TH,  note  111. 

y\.  Bit. 

AGUDAT  AlflMi-rniled  Brethren  "):  A  name 
adopted  by  many  .lew  ish  societies  throughout  tlie 
world,  the  members  of  which  pledge  themselves  to 
brolherlv  love,  and  to  mutual  as.sistance  in  time  of 
need,  fn  the  I'nited  States  the  name  of  the  birth- 
place of  the  majority  of  the  ineinbers  is  addi-d  to 
till-  above  designation,  as:  Agudat  Ahim  Aiishe 
AVilna.  mc^aning  "  I'liited  Brc'tlinn  of  the  Men  of 
^Vilna."  The  object  of  most  of  tln'se  societies  is  the 
allevialionof  theimmediate  neeessilicsof  theirmem- 
bers.  .Many  of  them  have  their  own  synagogues, 
where  the  members  as.sembli-  for  worship  on  the  Sab- 
bath and  festivals,  or  even  week-days.  Soineof  Ihein 
al.so  own  burial  places.  .\  rabbi  is  engageil  by  some 
societies  to  liclureon  Sabbathsor  holidays.  In  (!ali- 
cia  there  is  a  society  of  this  nanu'.  the  aim  of  w  liich 
does  not  correspond  with  that  of  llu'  above  men- 
tioned societies,  its  purpose  being  to  dis.seininale  cul- 
ture among  the  Jews  of  (ialicia.  It  has  alreaily  ac- 
coinpli.she<i  much  ginxl  in  coiiibtiting  anli-Si'milism. 

J.  L.  S. 

AGtriLAK  lealled  also  Aguilar  de  Campo) : 

Adistrici  ill  till'  Spanish  province  of  Valiiieia.  which 
slii'llend  i>  cousidenilde  .lew  ish  congregalion  in  the 
Middle  Ages,     In  conseniience  of  the  persecution 
I,-1S 


by  the  Alniohailes,  many  of  the  Jews  resident  there 
pretended  for  a  time  to  embrace  Ishim,  In  the  year 
V-iW  the  Jews  of  the  community  \kiUI  8.0OI)  maravc- 
dis(.S'.i9.240  =  .f5.H48)  in  taxes.  '  In  the  civil  war  be- 
tween Don  Pedro  the  Cruel  and  his  brother,  Don 
Henry,  the  Jews  of  Aguilar  suffered  severely,  and 
many  of  them  were  slain.  A  tombstone,  with  a 
Hebrew  inscription  dating  from  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, is  to  be  found  above  the  gate  of  Beinosa.  The 
beaulitul  bniss  lamp,  which  towaid  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century  still  hung  in  the  church  of  San 
Miguel  in  Aguilar.  belonged  originally  to  the  syna- 
gogue there.  It  bears  on  its  rim  a  Hebrew  inscriji- 
tion.  stating  that  it  was  made  !)}•  Samuel  ben  Pinhas 
Caro  of  Paredes.  Many  Spanish  families  have  taken 
their  name  from  this  district. 

itiiti.KKiK.MMiv  :  Samuel  Ziirza.  in  MeJior  ITawiini,  reprinted  In 
HIener'.s  nl.otShilnt  yrhuilah.  p.'  V.ti;  Uiihtiit  de  la  Heal 
Acaiiemia  de  la  Historia.  xxxvi.  MO. 

M.  K. 

AGUILAR,  ANTONIO  T>\    See  Coiikn,  F,\v.\. 

AGUILAR   (AVELAR),    DAVID    UZZIEL 

D'  :  Friend  and  conteiiiponiry  of  De  Barrios,  and 
praised  liy  the  latterinthe  "  Belacion  de  los  Poetas." 
lie  is  known  for  his  translation  into  Spanish  of  the 
works  of  Philo.  The  mauuscript  of  this  translation 
seems  to  be  lost. 

liiiti.iocRAPiiv:  Kayserling,  Sephardim.  p.  252,  and  note  33.); 
Itrr.  El.  Juives.  xviU,  2SS. 

\V.   M. 

AGUILAR,  DIEGO  D'  (or  MOSES  LOPEZ 
PEREIRA)  :  .\  Maiaiio  who  tlourished  in  the 
eigliliriith  eeiitmy  ;  born  jirobably  in  Spain;  died  at 
I.onilon  in  17.")!t.  In  17-'2  he  went  from  Lisbon  to 
London,  and  thence  to  Vienna.  From  17"2.")  to  1747 
he  held  the  tobacco  monopoly  in  Austria,  and  had  the 
power  to  estaldish  factories  and  regulate  prices. 
\Vhen  in  1747  he  besought  the  government  to  re- 
t  urn  to  him  a  part  of  the  money  that  he  had  deposited 
on  ai  <ount  of  the  revenues,  the  empress  .Maria  The- 
res;i  replied  ;  "This  appears  to  me  just.  1  owe  him 
much  more;  therefore,  return  it  to  him."  Aguilar 
was  a  great  favorite  with  the  impress,  who  commis- 
sioned him  to  rebuild  and  enlarge  the  imperial  palace 
at  Schonbruini,  and  lie  advanced  ;1UO,000  florins  for 
the  work.  In  recognition  of  his  services  Maria  The- 
resa created  him  a  iiaron  and  privy  <onncilor  to  the 
crown  of  the  Netherlands  an(l  Italy.  Aguilar.  who 
together  with  his  family  enjoyed  the  greatest  free- 
dom of  belief,  was  the  founder  of  the  Spanish  or 
Turco-Jewish  coinmiinily  in  Vienna,  and  succeeded 
in  obtaining  many  conce.s.sions  for  the  relief  of  his 
oppressed  coreligionists.  As  a  result  of  his  cITorls 
the  Jews  of  Monivia  were  protected  from  pillage  in 
1742.  and  the  intention  of  Maria  Theresa  to  expel 
the  Jews  from  the  w  hole  of  the  Austrian  empire,  in 
174Sor  174!l.  was  abandoned.  He  left  Vienna  sud- 
dcnlv  in  1  T4!l.  beeause  the  Spanish  goveriimiMit  de- 
maiiili  (1  hiscxlradilioii.  He  went  to  London,  where 
he  ha<l  a  brother,  who,  like  himself,  was  reputed  to 
be  very  wealthy  (see  Aoi  II..VU,  Eniii.MM  Loi'KZ). 
Ilefore"  leaving  he  ]ircsented  the  community  which 
he  had  founded  theic.  as  well  as  the  Spanish-Jew- 
ish coinmunity  of  Temesvar,  with  beautiful  silver 
crowns  for  the  scrolls  of  the  Law,  upon  which  his 
name  was  inscribed.  On  the  Day  of  Atonement  a 
prayer  is  still  said  for  the  repose  of  his  soul  by  the 
Turco  Jewish  community  of  Vienna, 
Hini.ioiiR.»rilv:    Zcnilln-skv,    /fixl..r(ii  <(<•  la  romuniilail  /»- 

KKlil/i-Kx/xiii"''!  rii  I'lV'i'i.  Vienna,  isss':  Krankl.  In  .ll/j/. 

'/.ril.  il.  Juil.  IX'A.  p.  <V«1  .  (  .■«..(,.  llVi .  (  «  .(.;  C  Wnlt.  Ilcrrh. 

ilrrjiiilru  In  Hii-n,pp.ivs,  •-VT  ;  WIUnui.  It  nmlfr^il  (Vmiiif- 

""*•"•*••  M,  K. 


A^uilar 
'AKunah 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


274 


AGUILAR,  EPHRAIM  LOPEZ  PEREIRA, 
BARON  D' :  Snond  liarnn  ilAjruiliu  ;  liorii  in 
Vieiiua  in  1739;  ditd  al  I^nuion.  1.SU2.  In  1757  lie 
was  natiimlizfd  in  England,  where  lie  had  seltK'd 
with  his  father.  He  married  in  17o8the  daughter 
of  Moses  blendes  da  Costa,  who  is  reported  to  have 
brought  him  a  fortvme  of  i'l.")l).()(IO.  He  sueeee<led 
lo  his  father's  titk'  and  fortune  in  \~')',).  and  for  a 
time  lived  in  luxurious  styh-  with  twenty  servants 
at  Broad  Street  Hnildings."  But  by  tlie  Hevohition- 
ary  War  in  Ameriea  he  lost  an  estate  tliere  of  l."),0(M) 
acres,  and  subsequently  beeaiue  known  as  a  miserly 
and  eccentric  person,  giving  up  his  man.sion  in  Broad 
street  as  well  as  his  eimntry  houses  at  Betlnial  Green. 
TAvickenham.  and  Sydenham.  His  establishment 
al  Colebrook  Kow,  Islington,  was  popularly  styled 


Baron  d'Airuilar  on  Starvation  Farm. 

(From  Wilson,  "  Wonilerftil  Ch.iracters.") 

"Starvation  Farm,"  because  of  tlie  scanty  food  pro- 
vided for  the  cattle.  He  died  there  in  1802,  leaving, 
hidden  in  vario\is  pans  of  his  dwelling,  a  fortune 
valued  at  £200,000  to  his  two  daughters  who  sur- 
vived him. 

D'Aguilar  held  various  positions  in  his  own  com- 
munity, and  served  as  treasurer  of  the  PortugiU'se 
Synagogue;  the  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
Mahamad  liear  the  signature  of  Ephraini  d'Aguilar. 
He  was  elected  warden  in  l~(>'>.  but  he  declined  to 
serve,  and  refused,  on  technical  grounds,  to  pay  the 
fine.  Eight  days  were  given  him  to  accept  or  to 
submit  to  the  penalty.  He  evidently  submitted,  for 
in  1767  he  married  the  widow  of  Benjamin  Mendes 
da  Costa,  which  he  would  not  have  Ijeen  able  to  do 
had  he  been  lying  under  the  ban.  When  he  took  up 
his  eccentric  life  the  couple  separated.  After  twenty 
years  a  partial  reconciliation  took  place  between  the 
baron  and  his  wife,  but  only  for  a  short  time.    He  was 


again  electi-d  to  ollice  in  1770,  and  for  some  years 
thereafter  remained  a  member  of  the  synagogue. 

Bini.ioc.RAruT:  .liif;l<>-Jri/i«)i  //W.  Krbih.  <'iilnli>iiiif.  ISST; 
Jiu:  Chrtiu.  Jan.,  1S74  :  Wilson.  Wmulcrtul  nidriictcn,  pp. 
114-iS* :  IMcloIto.  ^■)ll7c/ll,v  III  Anolu-Jcwuli  Hirt'irii. 

G.    L.— .1. 

AOTJILAB,  GRACE:  English  novelist  and 
writer  on  .Jewish  history  and  religion  ;  born  at  Hack- 
ney, Lomlon,  .Iiiiie  2,  ISIO;  die<lat  Krankfort-on-the- 
Main,  September  1(5,  1847,  where  her  remains  were 
buried  in  the  .Jewish  cemetery.  She  was  the  oldest 
child  of  parents  descended  from  Portuguese  Manuios 
who  sought  asylum  in  England  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. To  strengthen  liir  constitution,  which  from 
infancy  had  been  feeble,  she  was  taken  lo  the  .sea- 
shore and  to  various  rural  localities  in  England. 
Her  love  of  nature  was  cultivated  by  these  experi- 
ences; and  at  the  age  of  twelve  .she  devoted  herself 
of  her  own  accord  to  the  study  of  natural  science, 
augmenting  a  collection  of  shells  begun  by  her  at 
Hastings,  when  only  four  years  old,  and  supple- 
menting it  by  miiienilogicai  and  botanical  collec- 
tions. 

Grace  Aguilar  was  educated  mainly  by  her  pa- 
rents.    Her  mother,  a  cultivated  woman  of  strong 

religious  feeling,  traiiu'd  her  to  read 

Early        the    Scriptures    systematically ;     and 

Training,     when  she  was  fourteen  her  father  read 

aloud  to  her  regularly,  chiefly  history, 
while  she  was  occuiiied  with  drawing  jind  needle- 
work. She  wasan  assiiluous musician  till  her  health 
became  impaired.  Her  reading,  especially  in  his- 
tory, was  extensive;  her  knowledge  of  foreign  liter- 
ature was  wide.  She  evinced  a  literary  tendency  at 
the  age  of  seven,  when  she  began  a  diary,  which  she 
continued  almost  uninterruptedly  tuilil  her  death. 
Before  she  was  twelve  she  had  written  a  drama. 
"Gustavus  Vasit."  Her  first  verses  were  evoked 
two  years  later  by  the  scenery  about  Tavistock  iu 
Devonshire.  The  first  products  of  her  ])en  to  be 
published  (anonymously  in  1S3.>)  were  her  collected 
poems,  which  .she  issued  under  the  title  "The  JIagic 
Wreath.''  Her  productions  are  chiefly  stories  and 
religious  works  dealing  with  .lewisli  subjects.  The 
former  embrace  domestic  tales,  tales  founded  on 
Marano  history,  and  a  romance  of  Scottish  history. 
"The  DaysofBruce"  (1«'>2).  The  most  popular  of 
the  .Jewish  tales  is  "The  Vale  of  Ced;irs.  or  tlie 
Martyr:  ASloryof  Siiaininthe  Fifteenth  ('cnturv," 

written  before  18.3."),  jjublished  in  18"")0, 

Literary      and  twice  translated  into  German  and 

■Works.       twice  into  Hebrew.     Herother  stories 

founth'd  on  .Jewish  episodes  are  in- 
cluded in  a  collection  of  nineteen  tales,  "Home 
Scenes  and  Heart  Studies";  "The  Perez  Family" 
(1843)  and  "The  Edict,"  together  with  "The  fcs- 
cape,"  had  appeared  as  two  separate  volumes;  the 
others  were  reprinted  from  magazines.  Herdoniestic 
tales,  of  which  new  editions  still  appear,  are  "  Home 
Influence"  (1847)  and  its  sequel,  "The  Mother's 
Kecompensj  "  (18.50),  both  of  them  written  early  in 
1S30,  and  "Woman's  Friendship  "  (18.-)1). 

The  first  of  Miss  Aguilar's  religious  works  was  a 
translation  of  the  French  version  of  "Israel  De- 
fended," by  the  .Marano  Orobio  de  Castro,  printed 
for  private  circulation.  It  was  closely  followed  by 
"The  Spirit  of  .Judaism."  the  publication  of  which 
was  for  a  lime  prevented  by  the  loss  of  the  original 
manuscript.  Sernions  by  Rabbi  Isaac  Leeser,  of 
Philadelphia,  had  fallen  into  her  hands  and,  like  all 
other  accessible  .Jewish  works,  had  been  eagerly 
read.  She  requested  him  to  revise  the  manuscript 
of  the  "  Spirit  of  .Judaism,"  which  was  forwarded  to 
him,  but  was  lost.     The  authoress  rewrote  it;  and 


275 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


A^uilar 
'A^unah 


(inu't*  Apiillar. 


in  1842  it  was  publislicd  in  Pliiliuielpliiii,  willi  notes 
by  Lceser.  A  second  eilition  Avas  issued  in  1S49 
l)y  the  first  American  .Icwisli  I'liblieation  Society  ; 
and  a  thinl  (Cineiniiati,  lNf)4i  bas  an  appciKlix 
containitif;  tbirty-two  poems  tbearinj,'  dale  \KiH- 
1H47),  all  but  two  reprinted  from  "Tbe  Occi- 
dent." Tbe  editor's  notes  servo  mainly  to  mark 
dissent  from  Miss  Aj^uilur's  depreciation  of  Jewish 
tradition — due  prol>ably  to  her  Marano  ancestry  and 
to  her  country  life,  cut  off  from  association  with 
Jews.     In  1845  "Tin;  Women  n{  Israel  "  ai>peari(l — 

a  scries  of  portraits 
delineated  accordini; 
to  tbe  Scriptures  and 
Josepbus.  This  was 
soon  followed  by 
"The  Jewish  Kaith; 
Its  Spiritual  Conso- 
lation. -Moral  Guid- 
ance, anil  Immortal 
Hope."  in  thirty  line 
letleis.  the  last  ilated 
Septemlier,  1M4(>.  Of 
this  work — adilres,sed 
to  a  Jewess  under  the 
spell  of  Christian  in- 
Ihienee,  to  demon 
strate  to  her  the  spiri- 
tuality of  .Itidaism — 
the  hirger  part  is  devoted  to  immortality  in  the  Old 
Testuinent,  Miss  Ai;uilar's  other  relif;ious  writinfjs 
— some  of  them  written  as  early  as  1880 — werecol- 
Iccted  in  a  volume  of  "  Kssjiys  and  jMiscellanies" 
(IHol-W).  The  first  part  consists  of  "Sal)bath 
Thoujj:bts"  on  Scriptural  pa.ssafres  and  prophecies; 
the  second,  of  "('ommuninirs  "  for  tbe  family  circle. 
In  her  relii;ious  wrilinjrs  Miss  Afj;uilar's  attitude 
was  defensive.  Despite  her  almost  exclusive  inter 
course  with  Christians  and  her  utter  lack  of  preju 
ilice.  her  purpose,  apparently,  was  to  ei[uip  Knf;- 
llsh  Jewes-ses  with  arirumentsajrainst  conversionists. 
She  inveij;hed  airainst  fornialism,  and  laid  stress 
upon  knowleilge  of  Jewish  Idstory  and  the  Hebrew 
language.  In  view  of  the  nesli'it  of  tbe  latter  by 
women  (to  w  bom  she  modestly  contineil  her  expos 
tulations).  she  constantly  pleadeil  for  the  readinj;  of 
the  Scriptures  in  the  Knglish  version.  Her  interest 
in  the  reform  movement  was  deep:  yet.  despite  her 
attitude  toward  tradition,  she  observed  ritual  ordi 
nances  punctiliously.  Ibr  last  work  was  a  sketch 
of  the  •■  History  of  the  Jews  in  England,"  written 
for  "Chambers's  Miscellany  "  In  point  of  style  it 
is  tbe  most  linisbed  of  her  pioductions.  free  from 
the  exuberances  and  redundancies  that  distigure  the 
tales — published,  fur  ibe  most  pari,  pnstbumously 
by  her  mother.  The  defects  of  her  style  are  mainly 
chargeable  toyoulh.  With  bercxlraonlinary  iiiilus 
try — she  rose  early  ami  employed  Ibe  day  system 
ntieally — and  her  growing  ability  of  concent  rat  inn 
she  gave  promise  of  noteworlby  productions. 

Miss  Agiiilar's  later  years  were  full  of  family 
trials.  In  ls;),"(slie  had  an  attack  of  illness,  fromthe 
elTeet  of  which  she  never  recovered.  Kinallv  her  in 
creasing  weakness  and  sulTiring  necessilateil  change 
of  air.  and  in  1M|7  a  Continental  Irip  was  arninged. 
Hefore  her  ilepiu'l  lire  .some  Jewish  ladies  of  London 
presented  her  with  a  gift  anil  a  touching  address 
recounting  her  acbieveinenls  in  behalf  of  Judaism 
and  Jewish  women.  She  visited  her  elder  brolher  at 
Kmnkforl.  and  at  lirsl  seemed  to  benelit  by  the 
change;  but  after  a  few  weeks  she  bad  to  resort  lo 
the  baths  of  Si'hwalbacb.  Alarming  symptoms 
necessilateil  herielurii  to  Frankfort,  and  Ibere  she 
(lied.     Her  last  words,  spelled  uu  her  lingers,  were. 


"Though  He  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  Him,"  and 
lier  epitaph  is  the  verse  Prov.  xxxi.  31. 

liiBLiofiRAPiiv :  .1/iniiiii- preflxed  W  Home  Influence.  1849 ;  Tlie 
Hrlirlif  /I'.ruir  Innw  siTk-s).  Februarj',  ls.58,  pp.  i:J4,  i:Vi: 
The  All  fiiiim.  Ni.vemlMT.  IMT.  p.37S:  The  Ail  Ji.iirimt, 
-May,  IM.^>1.  p.  IM:  Ccjlici-iwl  Works,  s  vols..  l.i)iulim.  Istil : 
MoiTils.  KiiiiiH'iit  Israditifi  iif  the  yinctccnih  CVaturj/. 
s  v.;  Uul.  yat.  Diiiii.,  s.  v. 

H.    S. 

AGUILAB,  JACOB  DE :  Pupil  of  Abraham 
lie  Fonseca  at  Hamburg,  and  hakam  in  one  of  the 
lirazilian  communities,  about  1040,  M.  K. 

AGUILAR  (AGUYLAR),  MOSES  RA- 
PHAEL DE  (m.t  Kaphuelm.r  Kapbarl  .\b.ses)  linrn 
probably  in  Portugal;  died  in  Amsterdam.  Dec.  I."), 
1()T9.  He  was  hakam  and  principal  of  the  Talmud 
Torah  at  Amsterdam.  In  l(i42  he  went  with  Isaac 
.Vboabda  Fonseca,  as  hazan.  to  IJrazil.  where  he  re- 
mained till  the  reconquest  of  that  country  by  the 
Portuguese,  when  he  returned  to  .Vmsterdam  and 
was  reappointed  to  bis  former  position.  -iVt  the 
Talmud  Torah  he  taught  Talmud  and  Hebrew  gram- 
mar. His  mastery  of  Hebrew  was  so  complete  that 
be  used  this  language  in  conversations  with  his  im 
jiils.  He  was  a  friend  of  the  wealthy  Ahh.mi.vm 
Isit.vF.i.  Pki{I-;vh-V.  for  whose  chief  literary  work  he 
wrote  an  apiuobation  (hasktiinah).  For  .several years 
they  were  but b  adherents  of  Shabl)ethai  Zebi.  Agui- 
lar  continued  in  bis  ollice  for  forty  years  until  his 
death.  Hi>  left  a  large  library,  the  catalogue  of 
which  was  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  KiSO.  He  pub- 
lished "  KpitoniedaGraminatica  Heluayca"  (Ley den, 
KitiU),  a  second  edition  of  wbich  appeared  at  Amster- 
dam in  I ()()!,  under  the  title  "Com|>endio  da  Epitome 
(Irammatica,"  with  a  treatise  on  Hebrew  poetry. 
He  also  winte  "  Diniiu  de  Sebita  e  Bedica."  wbich 
was  published  at  Amsterdam.  ItiSl.  It  is  sjdd  tliat 
be  left  about  twenly  Spaidsh.  Portuguese,  and  He- 
brew works  in  manuscript.  "Tmtado  da  Immortali- 
dade  da  Alma  "  (nmuuscripl  of  twenty  pages  ipiarto) 
being  among  them.  .M.   K. 

'  AGTJNAH  :  .V  woman  whose  husband  has  cither 

abandoned  her  or.  being  absent,  bas  not  been  beard 
from  for  some  time.  Having  no  proof  of  her  bus- 
banil's  death,  or  being  without  a  bill  of  divorce  from 
him,  berstalusasa  wife  remains  forever  unchanged; 
for  Jewish  law  does  not  admit  Ibe  presumption  of 
death  from  a  prolonged  absence  merely,  nor  can  a 
wife  obtain  a  divorce  from  an  absent  husband. 

In  order  to  mitigate  the  hardship  arising  from 
such  cases  the  rabbinical  law  relaxed  the  strict  rules 
regarding  evidenet — wbieb.  to  istablisb  a  fact  le- 
gally, riiiuircd  Ibe  lesliniony  of  I  wo  competent  wit- 
nesses— and  accepled  lesliuioiiy  that  in  other  cases 
would  not  have  been  deemed  competent.  If  llieab- 
sent  husband  sent  a  bill  of  divorce  to  his  wife,  the 
nns.senger  was  permitted  lo  testify  that  it  was  written 
and  signed  in  bis  presence;  and  this  testimony  was 
deemed  ciiuivalcnt  to  that  of  two  wilnessi's  ((ii(.  2A). 
.\nolher  concession  was  made  in  iiermittiiig  tbe  wit- 
nesses to  altest  the  bill  of  divorce,  allbougb  they 
couhl  neither  read  nor  write  The  bill  was  reail  to 
them,  and  a  tnicing  was  made  for  their  signature 
(Oit.!!^;  Maimonides.  "  Hilkol  Ccrushin."  i.  '.'S). 

In  case  the  huslianil  died  whili-  abst'Ut  from  his 
wife,  the  testimony  of  one  witiK'Ss  was  deemed  suf 
ticient  to  pri>ve<lealli  (Yeb  PJ'JAK  so  that  Ibe  woman 
might  not  become  an  '.Vgunab  (Yeb  ss<it.  it  being 
almost  impossible  in  most  cases  to  obtain  two  wit 
nesses  to  prove  death  in  a  fonign  land.  In  Ibis  ease 
even  biarsiiy  I'videnie.  as  well  as  the  testimony  of 
per-ons  oibirwise  utlirly  incom|ieteiil,  was  riieived 


Aeur  ben  Jakeh 
A^a  b.  Isaac 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


276 


>Iuiiii<mi>I('s  ("llilkot  GiTusliin."  xiii.  29)  sums  up 
the  iimttiT  in  tlit'se  words; 

"  I*t  It  nol  w-ein  Imnl  to  tlieo  thnt  the  sages  have  permitted 
retniirrlndi'  "t  llii'  wife  iip<m  the  ti'stlmnny  nf  a  nniiian.  or  a 
sluvi'  (imileor  t»Miiule].(ii-unl'lnl;it'T  |»|>.'uklnt.' wlthoul  inollvrj, 
or  uiKin  hearsiiv  or  diK-iiiiu'ntaiy  eviih-in-c,  und  without  rross- 
exainlimlicm;  for  the  Tonili  In.si.siM  upon  the  tt-stiiiiony  ot  two 
Hitni'siSfs  ami  upon  ilie  olhi-r  ruli-s  of  cvliU'ncT  only  when  the 
matter  can  not  Ih'  otherwise  ilctennined— ilm,  for  instanee,  to 
|)rove  Miurdor.  or  lo  prove  a  loan-  liut  where  the  matter  can  lit> 
otlnTNVIsr  ilcteniilneil  ami  the  testimony  of  u  witness  I'an  Ix'  re- 
futed, as  In  the  case  when'  he  Icstllles  that  some  one  Is  dead.  It 
Is  nol  lo  U'  ini'sutnert  th:it  he  will  iH'ar  false  witness.  Hence, 
the  rule  Is  iclaxed  so  thai  Jewish  women  shall  not  In-  'AKunot." 

For  •Aguuali  in  liistory  see  Gkt;  Social  Like. 

D.  W.  A. 

AGUR  BEN  JAKEH.— Biblical  Data:  Tlio 
cimiiiilir  111  11  <iillcctiiiii  cif  ]irii\  itIis  riHiiiil  in  Prov. 
xxx.  The  text  (vir.  1|  seems  tn  siv  thul  lie  was  a 
"Massaite,"  the  geiitilie  teniiinalimi  imt  liein,u;  iii- 
(licateil  in  the  tniilitiDiial  writing  "  lla  ^Nlassa  "  lenin- 
pare  Ovn.  xxv.  14).  Tliis  jilaee  has  l)een  identilied  by 
some  As.syri()logisls  wilh  tlie  luml  (if  Mash,  a  dis- 
tinct between  Palestineaiid  Babyhniia.  and  the  traces 
of  nomadic  or  scniiiiciniadic  life  and  thought  found 
in  Gen.  xxxi.  and  xxxii.  give  some  .supiiort  to  tlie 
liypolhesis.  (Jraetz,  followed  by  I{iel<elland  Chcyne. 
conjectures  that  the  original  reading  is  "  HaJIoshel." 
"the  collector  of  i)roycrbs."  The  true  ex])lanatiou 
is  still  uncertain.  J.  F.  McC 

In    Rabbinical    Literature:     "Agur,"  and 

the  enigmalieal  names  and  words  winch  follow  in 
Proy.  XXX.  1,  are  interpreted  by  the  Ila.iigadali  as 
epithets  of  .Solomon.  ])laying  upon  tlu'  words  as 
follows:  "Agur"  <lenoles  "tlie  compiler;  the  one 
^yho  first  gathered  maxims  together."  "The  son  of 
Jakeh"  denotes  "the  one  who  spat  out,"  that  is, 
"despised"  (from  Xip.  "to  spit").  h-Ithiel,  "the 
words  of  God"  ("^  "word";  Kl,  "God"),  exclaim- 
ing, "I  can  [iikiil]  transgress  the  law  against  mar- 
rying many  wives  \vithout  fear  of  being  misled 
by  them."  Another  cx|iosition  is  that  "Agur" 
means  "the  one  who  is  brave  in  the  pursuit  of  wis- 
dom " ;  "  the  son  of  Jakeh  "  si.snifies  "  he  who  is  free 
from  sin"  (from  iKilii,  "pure");  /(i/-»Hrt,i(.w  ("  the  bur- 
den"), "be  who  bore  tlie  3-oke  of  God";  le-Ithiel, 
"he  wlio  understood  the  signs"  (ot.  "sign")  and 
deeds  of  God.  or  he  who  understood  the  alphabet 
of  God.  that  is  the  creative  "letters"  ("f.  "letter") 
(see  Ber.  5.5^);  ve-Uhd.  "the  master"  (Tau..Wacra. 
ed.  Buber,  2,  p.  18;  Midr.  Prov.  xxx.  I;  Valk.  on 
the  jiassage,  §  962).  L.  G. 

ABLA.  or  A^LA.1 :  The  name  of  nearly  fourscore 
rabbis  qnotcd  in  the  Talmud  and  in  niidrashic  liter- 
ature. Some  of  these  are  misnamed  throujrh  the 
errors  of  copyists;  others  ajuiear  hut  once  or  twice. 
and,  consequently,  can  not  be  identified  witli  any 
de.grec  of  certainty.  Those  mentioned  below  embrace 
the  most  prominent  teachers  of  their  respective  gen- 
erations; and  the  foremost  of  themarethe  following 
three  sa.ffcs,  who  are  always  quoted  by  that  name, 
alone,  witlunit  any  patronymic  or  cognomen. 

S.  M. 

AHA  (AHAI)  I.:  A  tanna  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, junior  contemporary  of  Simon  ben  Yol.iai.  with 
whom,  as  well  as  with  others  of  the  fourth  and  liftli 
taunaitic  generations,  he  appears  in  halakic  dispu- 
tations. Wliile  he  is,  therefore,  best  known  as  a 
lialakist.  he  is  occasionally  met  also  in  the  lield  of 
the  Ilaggadah.  Thus,  commenting  on  Ex.  xiv.  1."). 
"  Wherefore  criest  thou  unto  nie  ?  speak  unto  the 
children  of  Isniel.  that  tliey  .eo  forward."  he  quotes 
Ps.  cvi.  2:3.  "  Therefore  he  siud  that  he  would  destroy 


them,  had  not  Moses,  Ids  chosen,  stood  before  him 
in  the  lireach.  to  turn  away  his  wnith.  lest  lie 
should  destroy  thi-nr';  and  ii'inarks.  "The  I.ordsidd 
to  Moses,  'Wliy  criist  thou  unto  me?  For  thy  sjike 
I  will  save  Isniel.  Had  it  not  been  for  tliy  prayers 
I  should  have  destroyed  tlieiu  ere  this,  because  of 
their  idolatry'"  (Mek.,  Beshallal.i.  3).  Elsewhere 
he  derives  from  Deiit.  vi.  7  ("And  tliou  shall  talk  of 
them  [llieeoinniandmeiitsl  when  thou  sillesl  in  thine 
house,  and  when  Ihuu  walkesi  by  the  way  ")  the  duly 
of  man  to  have  set  hours  for  the  study  of  the  Torah, 
and  not  to  make  it  subject  to  <ipportiiiiil  v  (Yonia, 
1W-;  Tosef.,  Ber.  2.  2;  Tosef.,  Shab.  1"),  "iT;  Bab. 
Shab.  Vi~,<i;  Tosef..  Yeb.  14.  4;  Tosef.,  Git.  3,  1; 
Tosef.,  Niddah,  (1,  13;  Bab.  Niddah,  21^). 

S.  31. 

AHA  (A^AI)  II,  :  A  I'alislinlan  amora  of  the 
first  amoraic  genenition  (third  century),  surnamed 
Berabhi,  Ha-Gadol  or  Roba  ("  tlie  Great ").  He  sys- 
tematized Baniitot  at  tlie  Academy  of  I.Iiya  ha- 
Gadol.  and  was  teacher  of  Samuel  ha  Ziil>en  (Ber. 
14((  ;  Yer.  Ber.  ii.  ')ii  ;  Yer.  Sanh.  ii.  20'-.  iv.  22''. 
V.  22r-;  Bek.  24/y).  The  Midrash  preserves  the  fol- 
lowing homily  of  his  on  Num.  xiii.  2;  "Send  thou 
men.  that  tliiy  may  search  the  land  of  Canaan, 
which  1  give  linto  the  children  of  Israel."  the  last 
clause  of  which  appears  to  be  superfluous.  Prefa- 
cing this  homily  with  a  quotation  from  Isa.  xl.  8. 
"The  grass  withereth,  the  flower  fadeth:  but  the 
word  of  our  God  shall  stand  forever,"  he  illustrates 
his  subject  with  the  following  simile; 

"  A  king  once  had  a  friend  Willi  whom  he  made  a  covenant 
.savinK,  '  Kollow  me  and  1  will  licstow  a  pift  upon  thee.'  The 
friend  obeyed  the  royal  sunnnons,  but  S(Kin  after  died.  Then 
the  k'lnj?  siKjke  to  his  friend's  son,  saylnpr, '  AlthoiiRh  thy  father 
Is  dead.  I  shall  not  canc-el  my  proiulse  of  a  gift  to  him ;  come 
thou,  and  n-ceive  It.'    The  klnt'  Is  the  Holy  due— blessed  Iw  He  I 

and  the  friend  is  Aliraham,  as  it  is  said  in  Isa.  xll.  S,  Mlie  s 1 

of  Aliraham  my  friend,'  To  him  the  Holy  One  bad  said,  '  Fol- 
low me,'  as  we  read  In  Gen.  xii.  1,  *  (iet  thee  out  of  thy  country 
unto  a  land  that  I  will  shcuv  thee. '  And  to  him  the  Ixird  prom- 
ised a  (rift:  as  It  is  said  [(ien.  xiii.  IT),  "Arise,  walk  tlmiuKh 
the  land;  for  I  Hill  iiivc  it  unto  thee":  andafiain  (<ien.  xiii.  l.";). 
"  .\11  the  land  which  lliou  seest,  to  thee  1  will  plve  It.  and  to  thy 
seeil  forever.'  ,\braliam.  Isaac,  and  ,Iacob  were  ih'ad :  but  the 
Ixird  said  t<i  Mosc*8,  '  Although  I  prnmiscd  In  L'i\c  the  land  to 
Israel's  fathers,  who  are  now  dead,  I  shall  imt  cancel  my  jinim- 
ise,  but  fullll  It  to  their  children ' :  thus  we  understand  the  text, 
'The  word  of  our  God  shall  stand  forever'"  (Tan.,  Sbelati,  3; 
Num.  U.  xvi.). 

S.  3L 

AHA  (AHAI)  III. :  A  Palestinian  amora  of  the 

fourth  century  and  associate  of  the  most  prominent 
tea<'hers  of  the  fourlh  amoraic  generation,  H.  Jonah 
and  H.  Yose  II.  He  was  a  native  of  I.,ydda  in  .south- 
ern Palestine,  but  settled  in  Tiberias,  where  Huna 
II..  Judah  bar  Pa/.i,  and  himself  eventually  consti- 
tuted a  bet  din,  or  court  of  justice  (Yer.  Ter.  ii.  Ahl; 
Yer.  Shab.  vi.  8'/;  Yer.  B.  B.  viii.  \%a;  Yer.  Sanh.  i. 
18r,  end).  Like  his  elder  namesakes,  he  was  a  rec- 
ognized aulhority  on  Ilalakah;  but  in  Haggadah  he 
surpassed  them,  being  by  far  the  most  frequently 
quoted  by  hag.iz-adists  of  his  own  times  and  of  sub- 
Secpient  generations.  Commenting  on  Abraham's 
attempt  to  sacrilice  Isaac.  Aha  tries  to  jirove  that 
the  patriarch  misunderstood  the  divine  call.  He  re- 
fers to  Ps.  Ixxxix.  3.5  [A.  V.  34],  "  My  covenant  will 
I  not  break,  nor  alter  the  thing  that  is  gone  out  of 
mj-  lips,  "  which  he  construes  thus: 

"  Mv  covenant  will  I  not  break,  even  that  covenant  in  which  I 
have  a.ssured  Abnibam  :  '  In  Isajic  shall  thy  seed  be  called '  [lien, 
xxi.  VS\.  mir  alter  the  ihlng  which  is  pone  out  of  my  ll|is.  when 
I  said  to  him.  '  Take  now  thy  son '  [Gen.  xxil.  i].  This  may  be 
compared  to  a  king,  who  expressed  to  his  friend  a  wish  to  see  a 
lender  child  put  on  his  table.  His  friend  iinniediately  went  forth, 
and  returned  with  his  own  child,  whom  he  iilaced  on  the  table 
liefiire  the  klnjf.  He  again  went  forth,  and  returned  with  a 
sword  to  slay  the  child,  wheretipim  the  king  exclaimed.  '  What 
art  thou  doiiig  V  '    '  Sire,'  replied  the  anxious  friend,  *  didst  thou 


277 


THE   .IKWISII    ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Ag-ur  ben  Jakeh 
A^a  b.  Isaac 


not  express  a  desire  for  a  tender  child  on  thy  tahle  'l '  To  which 
the  kine  answered. '  Have  I  asketl  for  a  dead  ( lillil  ?  It  Is  a  live 
one  I  desire.*  Kven  so.  said  the  Holy  One  hlesseil  bt^  He  I— to 
Abraham  :  *Take  now  thy  son.  and  (/iTer  hliti  tliere  for  a  hnmt 
otTi'Tlrii;;  *  wheretifKin  .\tiriihain  built  an  alt^ir.  and  placed  his  sun 
U|>oii  It.  Hut  when  he  stretched  forlli  his  hand  for  tlie  knife,  the 
au^'ei  cried  out.*  Lay  not  thine  liand  uiioti  ilie  yuutli.'  And  when 
Ahnitiaui  iniiuirefl,  'Dtdst  thou  not  t^di  nie  to  olTer  my  son?'  the 
annel  reU>rted,  *  Did  I  tell  thee  to  kill  him  V  '  "  (Tan.,  Wayera. 
ed.  ltui)cr.  4U;  (;en.  u.  hi.). 

One  i)f  Al.iii's  ciiiu^ranis  reads,  "  The  Jpw  needs  pri- 
vations to  lead  him  bat  k  to  CJod  "  (t'aiit.  U.  i.  4;  Lev. 
I{.  .\iii.).  His  gratitude  to  tlie  defenders  of  his  jieo- 
pie  lie  e.\pres.sed  by  s;i\iiijr.  "To  liini  wlio  speaks  a 
good  word  for  Israel,  the  l.oiil  will  assiiriian  e.xalted 
station  ill  the  world;  for  it  is  written  |lsa.  x.\.\.  IS], 
'  lie  will  exalt  him  who  has  pity  on  yoti  '  "  (Pesik.  R. 
'■Vi,  li)(i'().  Por  other  hoinilelie  ob.servations.  see 
I'e.sjk.  I{.  4.  3%,  xiii.  \\\h,  xvii.  VMn.  \mh,  xxi.  l4o./, 
XXX.  191i;  Tan.,  cd.  Ruber,  index  of  aulhors;  Midr. 
Teh.,  ed.  Huber,  index  :  Pesik.  ]{.,  ed.  Friedmaiin,  in- 
dex; .see  also  a  full  account  in  liaclier,  '*Ag.  Pal. 
Amor."  iii.  lOC-163.  S.  JI. 

A^A:  Urother  of  Abba,  the  father  of  .Jeremiah 
li.  Abba;  a  cfinlemporary  of  Abba  Arika  (third  cen- 
tury). The  latter  sjiid  that  in  the  history  of  the 
world  there  never  had  been  a  man  so  penitent  as 
King  .losiah.  and  after  him  came  Aha.  the  brother 
of  Abba  (.Shall.  miA.  S.   .M. 

A^A  B.  ADDA:  An  a  mora  of  the  foiirlh  cen- 
liny  ;  bcdii  and  educiited  in  Palestine,  lie  emigrated 
io  liidiyhiiiia.  wheic  he  becami'  a  disciple  of  Kali  .lu- 
dah  ben  Ezckicl  and  of  Kali  Ilaniiiiiiia  II.  He  fre- 
ipienllyrcporti'd  decisions  of  his  Palestinian  lea<'hers. 
lb*  survived  all  his  associates  of  the  third  amoraic 
general  ion.  As  he  grew  old  he  became  weak  and  his 
hands  trembled;  and  it  is  relatx'd  that,  to  imitate 
his  signaliire  in  a  judicial  document,  a  forger  made 
his  own  hand  tninbic  like  that  of  the  aged  scholar 
(Kid.  ;!0./;Sanh.  i)0/':.Suk.  iXh.  211./ ;  B.  15.  lOT-O.  That 
Aha  loved  virtue  for  virtue's  .sake  may  be  inferred 
from  the  eonstruelioii  he  put  on  Mai.  iii.  \X.  He 
says:  ** '  Then  shall  ye  return,  and  discern  between 
the  righteous  and  the  w  icked. '  This  means  between 
the  Ix'liever  and  the  unbeliever.  '  Petweeii  hini  that 
srTvelh  (!oil  ior  God's  sake  and  him  that  .sorveth 
Him  not  for  His  sake;'  that  is.  man  should  not  use 
his  knowledge  of  the  Law  as  an  ax  lo  cut  with  oras 
a  crown  wherewilh  to  crown  himself "  (.\Iiilr.  Teh. 
lo  Ps.  xxxi..  I'd.  liiiber;  compare  .\b.  iv.  .">). 

s.  :\i. 

A^A  AREKA.     Sr,.  Ai.i\  (Ai.iai)  15.  Papa. 

A^A  B.  AWYA  or  'AWA  :  A  Babylonian  hal- 
nkisi  of  the  third  generation  of  Amoraim.  \\r  once 
visited  Palestine,  where  he  attended  the  Iccliires  of 
Kjib  .Vssi  (Yasii  I.),  and  seems  to  have  met  liabbi 
.lohanan.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Uab  llisda  in  liaby- 
lonia,  and  appears  frei|iientlv  in  conlrovcrsy  with 
Uidi  Ashi  I.  (Pes.  33A;  Veb.  U7<j;  B.  15.  3<(,  4(iA.  5(i« ; 
Hill.  3bf,  TM).  S.   M. 

A^A  BARDALA:  .\  liabylimian  amora  of  the 
llrst  geneialion.a  luiiiemporarv  of  Abbii  Areka(Suk. 
2tl'(;  lie/all,  ll.»;  (!i!.  14-0.      '  S.   >[, 

A9A  OF  DIFTI:  .V  Babylonian  amora  of  the 
sixth  genernlioii  ilifib  century  1.  ficcpienily  found  in 
halakie  discussion  wilh  IJabina  II.  Kor  a  time  he 
acted  ns  counselor  (liakam)  of  the  exilaiili  (ivi/(  gn- 
I'll'i)  .Mar  Zu|ra  I.  (lIl-loO).  Afler  the  dealh  of 
Nal.iiiian  b.  Huna  he  would  have  been  elected  to  tin* 
position  of  rector  of  the  academy  at  Sura  (once  held 
i>y  .\slii)  but  for  Ihcslnilegy  of  liis  friend  Mar  b. 
Ashi  ('Pabyomi).  wlio  considiiccl  himself  entitled  to 
the  honor  of  lilling   the  seat    formerly  ciccupiecl  by 


his  own  father.  While  the  memlx>rs  of  the  acad- 
emy, resolved  to  elect  Aha,  were  within,  awaiting  the 
appointed  hour  for  voting,  Jlar  had  himself  elected 
outside-  theacndemv  (B.  B.  1*2//;  'i'eb.  8/( ;  Ned,  23/(; 
Naz.  4*2'/;  tsanh.  4'2./;  Men.  5*;  GrUtz,  "Gesch.  d. 
.Itiden,"  iv.  4(i.'),  n.  08).  S.   M. 

A^A  (A^AI)  B.  IIANINA :  A  Palestinian 
amora  of  the  third  and  lourili  centuries.  He  col- 
Ic'cted  rare  I5araitot  among  the  leading  scholars  of 
Daroma  in  southern  Jiidea,  w  hich  he  communicated 
lo  his  eollciigues  elsewhere,  even  as  far  ;is  the  Baby- 
lonian academies.  Often  he  reports  Ilalakot  on  be- 
half of  .loshua  b.  Levi  (Bet*.  8i;  8uk.  541/:  Yeb.  5"rt; 
Sotah,  24//;  IIul.  13*2*);  also  many  Haggadot  (see 
Bacher,  **  Ag.  Pal.  Amor,"  iii.  .540"-.540).  R.  Levi, 
the  famous  haggadist  of  the  second  and  third  amo- 
raic generations,  received  from  Aha  li.  Ilanina  the 
reason  for  the  cc/llocation  of  the  ninth  and  tenth 
lieiiedietions  in  the  Prayer  of  Benedictions,  known 
by  the  namc>  of  **  .Shcmonch  '  Esreh  "  (Ycr.  Ber.  ii.  .")</). 
lie  reccimmends  visiting  the  sick  as  a  means  of  fa- 
cilitaling  a  cure,  declaring  that  every  one  who  calls 
on  a  patient  relieves  him  of  one  sixtieth  part  of  his 
sulTering  (Xed.  :!il/.i.  y.   M. 

A^A  BAR  HTJNA:  A  Babylonian  amora  of  the 
fourth  gcdicration.  disciple  of  Kabbah  b.  Xal.iinaui 
and  of  Shcshct.  Hisda.  another  teacher  of  Aha.  em- 
ployed him  for  his  halakie  correspondence  wilJi  Ruba 
ben  .loseph.  who  recognized  in  him  a  great  and  wise 
num  (Pes.  47-/.  Yeb.  89//,  Xed.  iW<(.  B.  B.  TO,/.  .Sanh. 
43./.  Shebu.  3G//).  It  haiipeueil  in  his  days  that  Ifm- 
Ormuzd,  the  C|ueen-mother  of  Sapor  II.  of  Persia, 
sent  to  Raba  an  animal  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  Jew- 
ish God  and  according  to  ancient  Jewish  rites  ;  but 
as  the  sacriliees  had  ceased  with  the  destruction  of 
Jcrusalcin,  Raba  deputized  Aha  b.  Iluna,  together 
wilh  Rab  .Sifra,  to  burn  the  i/rofTercd  Siicrifice  on  a 
sand-bank  bv  the  sea,  on  a  pyre  prepared  of  new  ly 
fc-lled  wood  (Zeb.  IK)//). 

S.  JI. 

A^A  B.  I^A:  ,V  Babylonian  amora  of  the  fourth 
century,  juijioi- c  iintem|iorary  of  Raba,  and  nephew 
of  Aha  b.  Jacob.  He  is  frecjuently  ciuoted  in  halakie 
discussions  by  hiscontemporarics  and  successors. iind 
received  the  title  of  Bar  be-Rab  (Fellow  of  the  Acad- 
emy) from  his  uncle  Aha,  with  whom  he  carried  on 
halakie  controversies  ('Er.  (13//,  Ket.  74./,  Sanh.  4*2./, 
Naz   42,/).  S.   M. 

AIJA  OF  IRAK:  .\.  Babylonian,  who isallc\ged 
to  have  invented  llie  A.s.syrian  or  Babylonian  (super- 
linear)  system  of  vowel-points  and  accents  (lipj). 
He  is  known  otily  from  Karaite  sources,  whicli  arc 
somewhal  unreliable.  Pinskcr  (**  Likkute  Kadmo- 
rtiyot  ")  thinks  .\ha  is  idenlical  wilh  Nissi  ben  N'oali, 
Ihecontcinporarv  of  Anan  ;  and  (Jraelz  partly  follows 
that  opinion.  But  later  investigators  have  proved 
that  Nissi  (if  he  cxisIcmI  at  all)  must  have  lived  in  the 
thirtcctilh  ccdilury;  his  idcnlily  wilh  Aha  is,  there- 
fcdc.  out  of  Ihe  t|iiestion.  FUrst  places  Aha  in  the 
lirst  half  of  the  .sixth  century,  and  thinks  he  may  be 
identiciil  with  the  Saborean  Aha  bai  .\blnihu,  who 
died  in  "/1 1. 

nini.locitl.H'llv  :  Filrst,  Gtuch.  d.  Ktirilirl.  I.  I.'..  I.Cl;  Gott- 
loher.  :*N'>,-'-i  .-i-'''i-'»  r->V3  :  Fninkl.  CmircTiiiiiy  .vdii/Ki 
I'tiinkrr.  In  lln-SlMlfiir.  vlll.;  Harkuvy,  jN'o(«  d.  Hit  llcl.nw 
i-iKIInn  tif  Urilti,  IKiKli.  <l.  Judcii,  III.:  Jctv.  Uuart.  lUv. 
I.  24:t. 

I'.  Wi. 

A^A  B.  ISAAC:  .V  P.deslinian  nmorn  of  the 
lliird  gciicnition  (fcnirtli  century),  junior  c-onteinpn- 
niry  of  Zcira  I..  Ami  I.,  and  Abba  (Bn)  b.  Maniol 
(Ver.  Shab.  iii.  U</,  vi.  8.().     Speaking  of  the  ghiries 


Al>a  b.  Jacob 
A^a  of  Sbab|>a 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


278 


of  Solomon's  Temple,  he  relates  tlint  when  Kiiij; 
Solomon  constructed  the  Siicred  eilitice  lie  placeil 
in  it  all  kinds  of  trees  made  of  u;old:  and  whenever 
any  kind  of  tree  Ulossonied  outside,  the  correspond- 
ing one  inside  hlossonicd  also.  In  proof  of  this, 
Aha  (piotes  the  Biblical  imssjijie  (Isji.  xxxv.  2).  "It 
shall  blossom  aliunilaiilly,  ami  rejoice  even  with  joy 
and  singing:  the  glnry  of  Jjcbanon  shall  be  given 
unto  it,  the  excellency  of  Carinel  and  Sharon, "  Leb- 
anon was  the  svnibolic  name  of  the  Temple  (Yer. 
Yoma.  iv.  -Wil).'  S.  JI. 

A'ffA  B.  JACOB:  A  Babylonian  amnra.  senior 
contcmpoiary  of  Abaye  and  Uaba  (1$.  K.  40/1).  and 
a  disciple  of  lluna,  head  of  tlie  academy  at  Sura. 
So  inc(S.sant  was  his  application  to  study  that  it 
undermined  his  health,  and  brouglit  on  a  serious 
illness,  from  which,  however,  he  recovered.  Seeing 
some  of  his  former  schoolmates,  who  had  contracted 
similar  ailments  and  Ii.'kI  become  chronic  sulTerers, 
he  applied  to  liimself  the  Scriptural  Siiying  (Eccl. 
vii.  li).  "  Wisdom  giveth  life  to  them  that  have  it  " 
(Yell.  aVt).  Nor  did  he  long  remember  the  warning 
of  his  early  exiierience.  He  devoted  all  his  days  to 
the  study  of  the  Law  ;  and  when  worldly  avocations 
compelled  him  to  "borrow"  part  of  the  day.  he 
would  "repay"  it  by  studying  at  night  CEr.  0.")i/). 
After  his  ordination  as  teacher  he  estahlislied  him- 
self at  l'aphuuia(Epiphania;  supjiosed  to  be  on  the 
Euphrates),  where  lie  became  an  authority  on  ritual 
matters,  as  well  as  a  distinguished  haggadist.  By 
degrees  he  earned  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
foremost  men  of  his  age  (Er.  G'ia).  lie  is  also  re- 
ported to  have  been  a  skilful  writer  of  Torah  scrolls 
(B.  B.  14((;  Kid.  3.>(;  B.  K.  54/<;  Xiddah,  G7/»:  Sanh. 
464).  Fragments  of  his  homiletic  sayings  are  jirc- 
served  in  Sliab.  >ir>it:  'Er.  54/7 :  Pes.  'Sn;  Yoma.  194. 
754  ;  Hag.  13'/  ;  Kid.  40rt.  In  halakic  discu.ssion  he 
isquotedin  Yer.  Sheb.  vi.  364;Pes.  1164,  1174;Yoma, 
76r(;  Kid,  35rt;  Sanh.  364;  Hor.  54.  64;  Ker.  .54. 

In  addition  to  his  diligent  pursuit  of  halakic  and 
haggadic  studies  Aha  appears  to  have  apjilied  him- 
self to  philosophy  and  mysticism  (Ber.  ti{)a,  Sliab.  664. 
B.  B.  75<().  and  legend  represents  him  as  an  adejit  in 
the  occult  sciences.  It  relates  that  a  demon  had  es- 
tablished himself  in  the  neighborhood  of  Abaye's 
academy,  and  greatly  hanissed  the  frequenters  of 
the  school,  even  when  they  walked  together  in  day- 
light. No  one  seemed  able  to  dislodge  him.  When 
Abaye  was  informed  that  Aha  bar  .lacob  was  on  his 
way  to  Pumbedita,  he  arranged  with  the  inhabitants 
of  the  city  to  refuse  to  accommodate  him.  so  that 
he  should  be  compelled  to  lodge  in  the  academy. 
Aha  arrived,  and  no  sooner  had  1»'  comjileted  his 
arrangements  for  his  night's  rest  than  llie  demon 
appeared  to  him  in  the  shape  of  a  seven-headed 
hydra.  Aha  immediately  betook  himself  to  prayer; 
and  at  each  genuflection  one  of  the  heads  of  the 
hydra  dropped  off.  In  the  morning  Aha  reproach- 
fully .said  to  Abaye.  "Had  not  heaven  .seen  fit  to 
work  a  miracle,  my  life  would  have  been  endan- 
gered "  (Kid.  294;  see  Bacher,  "  Ag.  Bab.  Amor."  pp. 
137-139).  S.  M. 

AHA  B.  JOSEPH :  A  Babylonian  amora  who 
flourished  in  the  fourth  anil  fifth  centuries.  His  life 
was  an  luuisually  long  one;  for  in  his  youth  he  at- 
tended Hisda's  lectures  (306).  an<l  in  his  old  age  dis- 
cussed halakic  matters  with  Ashi  II.  (died  427f.  It  is 
stated  that  he  was  afflicted  with  asthma,  for  which 
Mar  Ukba  jirescribed  three  onncesof  asafetida  to  be 
taken  in  the  course  of  three  days.  During  another 
severe  attack,  he  was  treated  niedicallv  bv  Kahana 
(Shab.  1104.  140«;  B.  M.  Hoi.  1094  ;  Men, "354  ;  'Er, 
296;  Yeb,  314;  B.  M,  1094;  Hul.  lOofl),  S.  M, 


A?A  (AgAI)  B.  MINTOMI:  A  Balndonian 
amoni  of  the  fourth  geueralion  (fourth  century), 
disciple  of  Nahman  b,  Jacob,  and  conteniporaryof 
Abave.  Aha  b.  Minvomi  was  probablv  a  broiher 
of  Adda  b.  Minvomi"  (Yeb.  94'( ;  Kid.  66.(  ;  B.  K. 
106.:;   B.    I',.    IISA.    l.->94;  'Ab.  Zai-ali'.  74).       S.   M. ' 

A^A  (A]g;AI)  B,  PAPA  or  PAPI :  A  Pales- 
tinian amora  of  tlie  third  genei-ation  (fourth  cen- 
tury). He  was  the  contemporary  of  Abbaliu  ("  Die 
Ag.  der  Pal.  Amor."  iii.  .546),  Zeira  I.,  and  Abba 
II.  He  was  surnamid  Arika,  an  appellation  of  dis- 
|)Uted  meaning  (compare  Jastrow,  "Diet."  under 
Sa'IN.  and  Ann.v  AniK.\;Shab.  lll'(.  WAi  :  Yer, 
H.  II.  iv.  594;  Yer.  Yeb.  viii.  94).  Keferring  to  re- 
pentance. Aha  is  (juoted  as  saving.  "Great  indeed 
is  the  power  of  repentance!  It  counteracts  heav- 
enly decrees,  and  even  annuls  heavenly  oaths!" 
The  same  sentence  is  attrilmted  to  Abba  b.  Papa 
(Pesik.  XXV.  Ifi3((,  Buber's  note;  see  Bacher.  "  Ag. 
Pal.  Amor."  iii.  651).  That  repentance  counter- 
acts heavenly  decrees,  he  proves  from  the  life  of 
Jeconiah.  "Write  j'e  this  man  [Coniah]  eliildlcss" 
(Jer.  xxii.  30);  yet  we  find  (I  Chron.  iii.  17)  that 
Jeconiah  was  the  father  of  no  less  than  eight  sons, 
among  them  Shealtiel.  That  repentance  annuls 
heavenly  oaths  he  deduces  from  the  sjime  message 
by  Jeremiah  (xxii.  24).  "As  I  live,  sjiith  the  Ijord, 
though  Coniah.  the  son  of  Jehoiakim  king  of  Judah. 
were  the  signet  upon  my  right  han<l.  yet  would  I 
pluck  thee  thence  "  ;  but  at  a  latcrdate  Haggai  (ii.  23) 
says,  "In  that  day,  sjiith  the  Lord  of  hosts,  will  I 
take  thee.  O  Zerubbabel.  my  servant,  the  son  of 
Shealtiel.  saith  the  Lord,  and  will  make  thee  as  a 
signet"  (Cant.  H.  to  viii.  6).  S.  M, 

AHA  B.  RAB :  A  Babylonian  amora  of  the 
third  and  fourth  generations  (fourth  century).  He 
was  a  contemporary  of  lijibina  I.  and  the  .senior  of 
Aha  b.  Jacob.  His  opinions  were  sujjported  by  his 
grandson,  Mesharshcva  (Sanh,  766,  77«;  Hul,  33(i). 

S,  M. 

AHA    (AHAI)     B.    RABA :      A    Babylonian 

amora,  son  of  Kali.-i  li.  .Joscjib,  ,'ind  a  coiitemjiorary 
of  Amemar  II.  and  of  Ashi;  tlicil  in  419.  During 
the  last  live  years  of  his  life  he  filled  the  rectorate 
of  the  academv  at  Pumbedita  (Sliab,  934;  Yeb,  46«; 
B.  B,  1246:  Men.  34;  "Letter  of  Sherira";  Grfltz, 
"Gesch.  d.  Juden,"  2d  ed.,  iv.  379).  S.   M. 

AHA  S AR  HA-BIRAH  ( ' '  CASTELLAN  ")  : 

A  Palestinian  anioni  of  the  third  generation  (fourth 
century),  contemporary  of  Taiihum  b.  Hiyya  of  Ke- 
far  Acco.  No  original  decisions  or  doctrines  are  re- 
corded under  his  name  in  the  Talmud;  but  in  behalf 
of  others  he  reported  several  Halakot  and  prece- 
dents. If  his  surname  did  not  come  to  him  by  inher- 
itance (compare  Jonatii.vn  S.\u  ii.\-BiK.\in.  the 
social  position  indicated  by  it  enabled  him  to  be 
helpful  to  his  unfortunate  coreligionists.  On  one 
occasion,  with  the  assistance  of  Tanhuin,  he  ran- 
somed some  Jewish  captives  who  were  brought  to 
Tiberias  (Yeb,  45).  From  the  fact  that  he  is  .said  to 
have  twice  submitted  Halakot  to  the  sages  at  Usha. 
it  seems  probable  that  this  place,  a  former  seat  of 
the  Sanhedrin,  was,  even  down  to  Aim's  days,  a 
center  of  attraction  for  learned  Jews  (Ket.  22'»,  88rt; 
B.  B,  146'(:  'Ar.  224).  But  it  is  more  likely  that  the 
reporter  fif  the  Halakot  in  Ket.  2"2'f  and  B.  B.  /.<: 
was  a  tanna  of  the  same  n,-inie.  .S,  M. 

AHA  (AHAI)  OF  SHABHA:  A  prominent 
Babylonian  Talmudist  of  the  eighth  century.  He 
enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  rabbinical 
author  known  to  historv  after  the  close  of  the  Tal- 


279 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Al^a  b.  Jacob 
A^a  of  Sbablja 


mud.  Tilt"  ;;aoii  of  Puiiibi'dita  liaviiiij;  died,  Aha 
was  universally  acknowledged  to  be  tlie  fittest  man 
to  succeed  him.  But  a  i)ersonal  Krudire  entertained 
by  the  t.xilarch  Solomon  l)ar  Hasdai  induced  the 
latter  to  pass  over  Aha.  and  to  appoint  Natronai. 
Al.ia's  secretary,  a  man  considerably  his  inferior 
in  learnin};  and  jreneral  ac(iuirements.  llijjhly  in- 
censed at  this  sliL'ht,  the  eminent  scholar  left  lialiy- 
Ionia  and  settled  in  Palestine,  about  T-li-To:!,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death.  Notwithstjuidini;  Stein- 
Schneider  ("Cat.  IJodl."  s.r.),  who  erroneonsly  as- 
sijrns  TGI  as  the  year,  the  e.\act  date  of  his  demise 
is  unknown.  It  must  have  bivn  in  Palestine  that 
Aha  wrote  his  book  eiitillcd  nin>XL"  C IJua'sliones " 
in  the  sense  of  dis(iuisitions),  as  the  title  evinces; 
for  this  Aramaic  word  is  employed  in  the  sense  of 
qiiimti'i  (the  scientific  investif,'ation  of  a  matter)  by 
Palestinians  oidy  (Sliab.  ;iOr/).  ■'Sheilta"  is  of  Pal- 
estinian orijrin.  as  is  shown  by  the  words  bnzinn 
and  hinliK,  which  accompany  it.  S.  Mendelsohn  is 
quite  correct  in  hise.\|)lanati(mof  the  term  ("  Rev.  fit. 
Juives,"  .\x.\ii.  .">(i).  If,  therefore,  Simon  Kahira 
made  use  of  the  "Sheillot  "  in  his  Ilalakot.  as  is  now 
certain,  the  statement  of  Abraham  ibn  Daiul  (accord- 
int;  to  whom  Simon's  work  was  compleleil  in  7")0) 
must  be  erroneous,  since  Aha  <lid  not  leave  Palestine 
before  7.52;  and  we  know  that  Samuel  Gaon,  whose 
succes.sor  he  was  to  have  become,  di<l  not  die  before 
7,')l-7-52.  There  are  also  other  evidences  of  Pales- 
tinian intiin^nce  in  Aha's  work.  For  example,  his 
treatise  indicates  that  besides  theBabylonian'1'alinud 
(which,  in  the  nature  of  things,  was  his  chief  author- 
ity) he  made  frequent  use  of  the  Yerushalini.  and  of 
Palestinian  Midrashim.  Leviticus  Kabbah,  Kcclesi- 
astes  Kabbah,  and  Tanhuina,  all  of  which  at  this  time 
were  (|uite  luiknown  in  Babylonia  (indeed,  even 
Sttiidia  Gaon,  almost  two  lumdred  years  later,  knew 
comparatively  little  of  them). 

The  whole  (-haracter  of  the  "Sheiltot"  is  Palestin- 
ian; and,  as  such,  they  are  quite  distinct  from  the 
contemporary  synopses  of  Judah  Gaon  and  Simon 
Kiihira,  which  confine  themselves  to  important  deci- 
si<ins  of  the  Talmud,  with  the  oinis- 
Al^a's  sion  of  all  discussions,  anil  with  the 
"  Sheiltot."  addition  of  short  elucidations  of 
words.  Aha's  method  is  (|uite  dilTer- 
enl  from  that  of  the  Babylonian  rabbis,  who,  caring 
little  for  the  instruction  of  the  common  peoi>le, 
wrote  scholastically.  The  "Sheiltot,"  on  the  con- 
trary, were  written  for  thoughtful  laymen.  Aim's 
treatises  upon  Biblical  and  rabbinical  jirecepts, 
numbering  1!M)  or  lill  (see  Mendelsohn,  I.e.  .VJ),  with 
additions  from  later  writers,  were  written  with 
special  reference  to  the  practise  of  such  moral  duties 
as  benevolelii'e,  love,  respect  for  parents,  and  love 
of  truth.  Tiny  are  ba.-ied  ui)on  the  order  of  the 
pardK/iiil,  the  weekly  readings  from  the  Law. 

The  beginning  of  the  fourth  "Sheilta."  which  is 
basi-d  upon  the  weekly  les.soii  on  "  Noah,"  may  .serve 
as  a  specimen  of  the  "Sheiltot."  Stealing  or  rob- 
bery was  explicitly  forbidden  to  the  Israelites;  and 
the  divine  pimishment  for  the  transgression  of  this 
command  is  nioresevire  than  forothercrimcs  Thus, 
ills  foimd  that  in  I  lie  history  of  Noah,  tlioseof  Ihegeli- 
enitionof  the  DeluiresulTered  their  hard  fate. solely  on 
account  of  their  violence,  as  it  is  said  (Gen.  vi.  lit), 
"The  end  of  all  llesli  is  come  before  me;  for  the 
earth  is  filled  with  violenci'  through  them."  This 
moral  comleinnation  is  elaborateil  by  Aha,  who 
<|Uoles  from  the  Talmiiil  and  Midrash  many  pas- 
sages concerning  the  baseness  and  godlessne.ss  of 
such  crimes.  He  follows  this  statement— preci'ded 
by  the  introductory  formula.  "It  is.  howevi-r.  (|Ues 
tiotiable"  {/l,nim   -.r/'/Vi  —  willi  ca-.uislie    ini|uiries: 


as,  for  example,  whether  it  is  proper  to  include  in 
the  designation  of  robbery,  for  which  the  Law  or- 
dains a  twofold  restitution,  the  case  of  a  theft  com- 
mitted in  the  interest  of  the  victim 

This  illustration  serves  to  show  that  the  work  is  not 
intended  for  scholars  alone,  but  also  for  popular  in- 
struction; and  that  the  statement,  so  often  repeated 
since  the  time  of  Meiri.  that  the  "  Sheiltot "  was  a  bo(jk 
merely  for  the  instruction  of  youth,  is  also  baseless. 
It  is  more  probable  that  it  is  a  collection  of  haggadic- 
halakic  si-rmons,  which  Aha  delivered  in  Palestine, 
w  here  i-erlainly  he  was  held  in  high  regard.  With 
tlu'  decline  of  rabbiiucal  knowledge  in  Palestine, 
Aha  would  have  found  but  few  pujiils  for  pure  hala- 
kic  instruction;  and  he  therefore  endeavored  to  add 
haggadic  elements  to  his  lectures,  in  obedience  to  the 
general  disposition  of  the  Palestinians,  who  just  then 
favored  Ilaggadah.  This  view  best  explains  the  word 
ilinix/iii/i  (lecture),  which  occurs  about  thirty  times  iu 
the  "  Sheiltot."  in  connection  with  the  citation  of  pas- 
sages from  the  Talnuid.  If  the  supjiosition  be  true 
that  the  "  .Sheiltot  "  were  derived  from  sermons,  they 
may  properly  be  considered,  in  the  form  in  which 
they  appear,  as  extracts  or  abstracts  of  such  ser- 
mons, giving  the  introduction  and  the  conclusion  of 
the  original  derashah;  while  of  the  derasliah  proper 
— which  no  doubt  consisted  of  haggadic  and  halakic 
([Uotalions  from  Talmud  and  Midrash — oidy  the  head- 
ing is  mentioned.  Considering  them  as  portions  of 
sermons,  the  frequent  repetitions  that  occur  in  the 
"Sheiltot  "  are  not  strange,  as  this  would  happen  to 
the  best  of  jjieachers;  wldle  it  would  be  dillicidt  to 
explain  them  if  they  were  found  iu  the  strictly  liter- 
ary productions  of  one  man.  Of  course,  there  can 
be  no  certain  conclusions  concerning  the  composi- 
tion of  the  "Sheiltot  "  until  the  manuscript  has  been 
examined.  The  printed  text,  while  it  contains  much 
matter  of  later  dale,  lacks  much  that,  according  to 
older  authorities,  was  formerly  included.  An  accu- 
rate edition  of  the  "  Sheiltot  "  wotdd  be  verv  valuable 
for  textual  criticism  of  the  Babylonian  'I'almud,  as 
indeed  for  .Vramaic  philology  in  general,  since  Aha 
wrote  in  the  Aramaic  vernacular. 

Aha's  work  very  soon  won  great  esteem;  and  the 
work  "Ilalakot  Gedolot,"  which  does  not  date  from 
the  year  7.')(),  but  belongs  to  the  oldest  literature  of 
the  gaonic  times,  copies  no  less  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  passages  from  the  "  Sheillot."  Sherira  Gaon  and 
his  son,  Ilai  Gaon,  mention  the  book  by  title;  and  it 
was  likewise  freely  consulted  by  liashi  and  the  au- 
thor of  the  "'Aruk." 

(l)The  first  edition  of  the  "Sheiltot"  appeared 
in  Venice,  l.">tli,  and  was  succi-eded  by  the  follow 
ing  (2)  .\ii  edition  with  a  short  commentary  by 
Isaiah  Berlini  Dylnriifurth,  IT.'^li);  i:l)aiiother  inider 
the  title  DX")  nibv^n.  with  the  conuneiitary  of  Isaac 
Pardo,  Salonica,  lsild-01;  (4)  with  aiuxlended  com- 
mentary by  Xaphtali  Zebi  .luilah  Berlin  (Wilna, 
IHtil.  isti4.' 18(17).  which  latter  edition  contains  the 
conuneiitary  of  Lsaiah  Berlin,  as  well  as  a  numberof 
variant  readings  taken  from  a  manuscript  of  I  he  year 
14(ilt,  and  a  short  coinmiiitary  by  Saul  bi-n  .loseph, 
w  ho  piiibablv  lived  ill  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth 
eciiliiry.  Manuscripts  of  the  "Sheiltot."  but  with 
essential  divergences  from  the  priiiteii  text,  are  to  be 
found  among  the  llibrew  nmiiuscripis  in  the  Bib 
liotheque  Nationah',  Paris,  Xos.  SDS.  ;tltil,  and  in  the 
Boilhian  Library.  Oxford,  Nos.  .'iSU,  .VIU,  IHIT.  In 
the  latter  libniry  may  be  found  also  the  hitherto  un- 
printed  commentarii'S  bv  Solomon  Ikmi  Shabbellmi 
(,'>41).  and  .lohanan  ben  Aeuben  (.'VI2V 

UMilliMiUAl-llv  :  ll'ltninlin.  Ill  llrl  Til/iiiiiil.  III.  ai -"n,  .''i2  ."iC 
71  ;\>.  IIH  117:  IliiUr,  i/.i.(.  J«>  •.■1">:  WiM.-w. /fc.r.  Iv.il  ai.ninl 
llio  piuisuKia  uh.-uUuui.h1  Iu  the  liiili'X  ;  lliirtuvy,  .s"(iiiI(<ti  iokI 


Aba  T}.  Shila 
Ahabah  b.  Zeira 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


280 


.V«(Jif  (fiiiiUf  II,  Iv.  xxvl.  and  p.  ICT:  Isaac  Halevy, />>ri)«  ha- 
Uinhcitim.  pp.  1S8.  LMl-L'U.  I'reshuiv.  IWC;  Ilai)op<irt,  IJih- 
kun-  Uit-'llliin.\.  ai  .(  w<(. ;  Kiirst,  Liltniliiihlall  il.  Ori- 
<ii(*.  xll.  :ii:!:  SMns<liiii>liliT.  Cut.  /*"■».  N".  ««';  Ji'lliiirk, 
Isuiiliiii  /i(i-.U(i(;i;i</.  p. -II.  Vienna.  l.'<7.'<;  !-.  Mi'mlilsiilin,  In 
Kf  r.  M.  JiiiiY",  .x.x.vli.  .Vi  iL'.  j^    q 

AHA  B.  SHILA  OF  KEFAR  TAMBATA  or 
TEMARTA :  .V  lia^'^'adist  of  tin-  .scnjiul  iimoniic 
j;iiiiiiitiiiii  (lliiul  (.tiilmy).  ('oininciiliiiL:  (in  Estli. 
ii.  'i'S,  "Ami  it  was  writtiii  iu  tlif  bonk  of  llii'  chioii- 
ick'S  before  the  king.'"  be  is  lepoiteil  to  liave  poiuteil 
out  therein  a  le.s.sou  of  encoiimgcnient  to  tlie  God- 
fearing. If  the  ehronieles  written  by  mortals  assure 
rewards  for  good  deeds,  how  iniuh  more  ought  we 
to  be  assured  that  the  i)ious  will  be  duly  rewarded, 
wlien  the  Holy  One — blessed  be  He! — shall  jiroduee 
His  book,  coneerning  whieh  it  is  .said  (.Mai.  iii.  l(i). 
"And  the  Lord  hearkened  and  heard  it,  and  a  book 
of  remembranee  was  written  before  him"  (Esther  H. 
to  ii.  'iA:  eonijiare  Meg.  16/()-  S.  >I. 

AHA  B.  TA^LIFA  :  Babylonian  amora  of  the 
fourth  and  lillh  ({iiluries;  disciple  of  Haba.  friend 
of  Aha  b.  Ika,  and  .senior  colleague  of  Habina  II. 
(Sanh.  '24/(.  'Er.  (Yi<i,  Git.  73</).  S.  M. 

AHA  B. 'TJLLA:  liabylonian  ainora.  who  flour- 
ished'in  the  fourth  century;  disciple  of  llisda  (Sliab. 
544,  60" ).  lie  emigrated  to  Palestine,  where  R.  .lonah 
gave  him  tithes,  saying,  "Xot  because  Aha  is  of 
priestly  descent,  but  because  he  is  assiduous  in  the 
study  of  the  Torah,"  (luoting  II  Cliron.  .\.\.\i.  4  in 
support  of  this  action.  Aha  himself  represents  King 
David  as  faithfully  discharging  the  duty  of  tithe- 
giving,  quoting  Ps.  .\1.  9.  implying  that  David  took 
care  that  nothing  which  was  not  duly  tithed  should 
enter  his  body.  The  enforcement  of  this  resolution 
was.  according  to  Aha.  David's  object  in  ajiixiinting 
.lonathan,  son  of  U/ziah,  "over  the  store  houses  in 
the  fields,  in  the  cities,  and  in  the  villages,  and  in  the 
castles"  (I  Chron.  xxvii.  2.5;  Pesik.  §9,986;  Tan., 
Reeh  14). 

For  another  Aha  b.  'Ulla,  see  Bacber,  "Ag.  Pal. 
Amor."  iii.  6'yl  ft  xtq.  S.  M. 

AHA  B.  ZEIRA.  See  Aii.\n.\ii  (.\ii.\\v.\ii)  n. 
ZKrii-\. 

AHAB, — Biblical  Data:  King  of  northern  Is- 
rael, S7.')-.S53  n.c.  He  was  the  .son  and  successor 
of  Omri.  the  founder  of  Samaria,  and  the  tirst  king 
of  the  Ten  Tribes  who  was  alih'  to  maintain  a  strong 
and  stable  government.  Ahab  inherited  his  father's 
military  virtues  and  defended  his  country  a,!rainst 
the  powerful  Arameau  (Syrian)  kingdom  of  Damas- 
cus. Though  often  hard  jiressed  by  the  Syrian.s,  he 
defeated  them  in  .several  battles  and  forced  them  to 
concede  trading  privileges  in  the  great  cmiiorium  of 
Damascus  (8.>i  B.C.),  It  was  toward  the  end  of  his 
reign  that  his  foreign  relations  became  most  trying. 
At  this  period,  when  hard  pressed  by  Damascus,  he 
lost  the  suzerainty  over  .Moal),  with  the  possession 
of  valuable  territory  in  the  northern  portion  of  that 
kingdom,  all  of  which  had  been  ac(|uired  by  Omri. 
This  expulsion  of  Israel  is  recorded  by  Mesii.v.  the 
contemporary  king  of  Moab,  on  the  famous  Mo.\u- 
ITE  Stone  now  in  the  I.ouvrc  in  Paris. 

Ahab  was  the  first  king  of  Israel  who  came  into 
conflict  with  Assyria,  and  he  is  also  the  first  whose 
name  is  recorded  on  the  Assyrian  monuments  (see 
Schrader,  "  K.  A.  T.'').  It  w-as  in  8.'>4  n.c.  that  a 
combination  was  formed  by  eleven  of  the  princes 
of  the  Jlediteiranean  coastland  against  Shalmancser 
II.,  who  made  sevend  invasions  into  the  west  coun- 
try during  his  long  and  warlike  career.  In  this  alli- 
ance the  king  of  Israel  found  himself  for  once  light- 
ing by  the  side  of  the  king  of  Damascus  (Benhadad 
II.).     Shalmancser,  who  tells  of  the  affair  iu  three 


distinct  inscriptions,  gives  a  list  of  the  kings  in  the 
longest  account  (on  his  monolith  inscription).  Be- 
sides Israel  and  Damascus,  it  is  stated  that  Hamath, 
Amnion,  and  .Vrabia  .sent  contingents.  Ahab  jmt 
2,011(1  chariots  and  10,000  .soldiers  into  the  field.  The 
confederacy  was  soondi,ssolvcd  by  the  battle  of  Kar- 
kar,  where  the  Assyrians  were  victorious,  though 
Shalmaneser  could  not  follow  up  his  sviceess.  The 
As-syiian  invasions  of  the  lands  bordering  on  Pales- 
tine were  repeated,  but  it  was  long  before  either 
northern  or  southern  Israel  was  directly  attacked. 
In  the  next  year  (H'Vi  n.c.)  the  war  with  Damascus 
was  renewed.  .\hab  secured  the  help  of  .lebosha- 
jihiit.  king  of  .ludah.  and  the  two  kings  fought  side 
by  side  at  Uanioth  in  Gilead.  In  this  battle  .Vhab 
disguised  liimself  as  a  common  soldier  so  as  not  to 
become  a  mark  for  the  enemy,  but  an  arrow,  "shot 
at  a  venture,"  mortally  wounded  him,  and  be  died 
at  the  close  of  the  day. 

Besides  the  aliove mentioned  wars,  certain  events 
of  great  importance  marked  the  reign  of  Ahab,  One 
of  these  was  the  establishment  of  close  relations  be- 
tween the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  .ludah,  a  iiolicy 
which  jiut  an  end  to  the  rivalry  that  had  existed 
between  them  since  tli(!  days  of  the  great  schism. 
Another  was  the  encoum.irenient  afforded  by  Ahab 
and  his  ipieen,  .Iezebki.,  to  the  woi-ship  of  the  Phe- 
nician  Baal.  .lezebel  was  a  daughter  of  Elhbaal, 
king  of  Tyre,  and  the  family  alliance  thus  cemented, 
w  liile  it  was  of  ]iiilitieal  and  commercial  advantage 
to  Israel,  resulted  in  great  moral  an<l  religious  in- 
jury through  this  idolatrous  and  sensual  cult.  A 
third  noteworthy  event  was  Ahab's  cruel  and  o|>- 
pressive  dealing  with  X.\both  of  Jezreel  whose 
property  the  king  wished  to  secure,  and  who,  upon 
Ins  refu.sid  to  sell  it,  was  put  to  death  by  false  ac- 
cusation at  the  instigation  of  .lezebel.  For  thisout- 
ra.sre  uiioii  the  rights  of  a  freeholder,  the  prophet 
Ei.i.t.Mi  luedicted  a  violent  death  for  .\hal)  an<l  .leze- 
bel and  the  destruction  of  their  dynasty.  Notice- 
able also  is  the  increase  of  lu.xury  in  Israel,  in  con- 
sequence of  foreign  trade  and  the  ambition  of  the 
king  and  nobles.  .\lial)"s  palace  of  ivory  (I  Kings, 
xxii.  39»is  an  indication  of  the  fashions  of  the  time. 
Finally  there  was  inaugurated  in  the  reign  of  Ahab 
the  regime  of  the  iireaching  prophets,  of  whom  Eli- 
jah was  the  first  and  greatest  example  (see  1  Kings, 
xvii.-xxii.).  .1.  F.  >IcC. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:  One  of  the  three 

or  four  wicked  kings  of  Israil  singled  out  by  tradi- 
tion as  being  excluded  from  the  future  world  of  bliss 
(Sanh.  X.  2:  Toscf. ,  Sanh,  xii,  11).  Midrash  Konen 
places  him  in  the  fi  fth  department  of  Gehenna,  as  hav- 
ing the  heathen  under  his  charge.  Though  held  up 
as  a  warning  to  sinners,  .Vhab  is  also  described  as  dis- 
playing noble  traits  of  character  (Sanh.  lOiA;  Yer. 
Sanh.  xi.  29//).  Talmudic  literature  represents  him 
as  an  enthusiastic  idolater  who  left  no  hilltop  in  Pal- 
estine without  an  idol  before  which  he  bowed,  and  to 
whieh  he  or  his  wife,  .lezebel,  brought  his  weight  in 
gold  as  a  daily  offering.  So  defiant  in  his  aposta.sy 
was  he  that  he  had  inscribed  on  all  the  doors  of  the 
city  of  Samaria  the  words,  "Ahab  hath  abjured  the 
living  God  of  Israel."  Xevcrtheless,  he  iiai(I  great  re- 
spect to  the  representatives  of  learning,"  to  the  Torah 
given  in  twenty-two  letters, "  for  which  rea.son  he  was 
permitted  to  rei.gn  for  twenty-two  successive  years. 
He  generously  supported  the  students  of  the  Law 
out  of  his  royal  treasury,  in  conseqtience  of  which 
half  his  sins  were  forgiven  him.  A  type  of  worldli- 
ness  (Ber.  01//),  the  C'riesus  of  his  time,  he  was,  ac- 
cording to  ancient  tradition  (Meg.  11").  nder  over 
the  whole  world.     Two  hundred  and  thirty  subject 


i\ 


I   I   f 


jFsia^" 


7 


FIUGMEST  OF  A.N  ANCIENT  MANCSCRIPT  PRATER-BOOK.  SHOWING  THE  "  AHABAH  EABBAH.' 

(Trom  the  C.lro  G«DlJ»h,  through  the  coorte.7  of  PBOF.  S.  ScBECBTKB.) 


281 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


A^a  b.  Shila 
Ahabab  b.  Zeira 


kings  had  initiated  a  rebellion ;  but  lie  brought  their 
sons  as  hostaires  to  Samaria  and  Jerusalem.  All  the 
latter  turned  from  idolaters  into  worshipers  of  the 
(iod  of  Israel  (Tanna  delie  Eliyahu,  i.  U).  Each  of 
his  seventy  so;is  had  an  ivory  jialaee  built  for  him. 
Since,  however,  it  was  Ahab's  idolatrous  wife  who 
was  the  chief  instijjator  of  his  crimes  (B.  .M.  59((), 
some  of  the  ancient  teachers  gave  him  the  same 
|)osition  in  the  world  to  come  as  a  sinner  who  had 
reii<iit<'d(Sanh.  104/'.  Num.  K.  .\iv).  Like  .Mana.s.seh, 
he  was  inadca  type  of  repentance  (I  Kings,  .\.\i.  29). 
Accordingly,  he  is  described  as  undergoing  fasts  and 
peiumces  fora  long  time ;  praying  thrice  a  day  to  God 
for  forgiveness,  until  his  jirayer  was  heard  (I'irl<e  H. 
El.  .\liii).  Hence,  the  name  of  Ahab  in  the  list  of 
wicked  kings  was  changed  to  Aha/.  (Ver.  Sanh.x.  28i; 
Tanna  debe  Eliyahu  IJabba  i.\.  Zutta  x.\iv.).      K. 

AHAB,  SON  OF  KOLAIAH.— Biblical  Data  : 

One  of  Ihi-  lir^l  I  a  pi  i  MS  (l(  porlc  d  liy  ,Ncli\i(  liadnez- 
zar  Ici  lialiylonia.  As  a  lulsc  proiihct  lie  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  Jeremiah,  who  wrote  to  the  e.xiles 
denouncing  him.  lie  was  to  be  "  roasted  in  the  tire  " 
(Jer.  .xxix.  21,  22)  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  p<'rhaps  for 
inciting  the  ]ieople  to  revolt.  J.  F.  JUC. 
In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  According  to  rab- 
binical Iraililinn  (Sanh.  !i:if( ;  Tan,.  Lev.  ed.  Bubcr.  p. 
7;  Pirke  H.  El.  x.xxiii.  ;  I'esik.  2.")).  the  false  proidiet 
who  together  with  Zedekiah,  son  of  Maasey ah.  wanted 
to  lure  Semiramis,  the  wife  (or  the  daughter)  of  King 
Nebuchadnezzar,  to  sin  under  the  pretext  thai  she 
woidd  become  themolher  of  great  kings  and  jirophets 
hostile  to  Israel.  I'onsi-iiucntly  Ahab  and  Ze(likiah 
were  cjist  by  the  king  inlo  the  furnace  and  "  roasted 
alive."    See  BrUU's  "Jahrb."  iii.  9,  a. v.  "Susanna." 

K. 
AH  AB  AH  KABBAH  i  nai  nanx. "'  Great  Love  ") 

and  AHABAT  -OLAM  loi'lJJn^nN,  "Everlasting 
Lov(?"):  The  iinlial  words,  and  hence  the  names, 
of  the  two  liiiK-dictions  that  lireeede  the  Sukma' ; 
the  former  used  In  the  morning  service  of  the 
German  ritual,  the  latter  in  the  evening  service  of 
both  rituals  and  in  the  morning  service  of  the  Seph- 
ardic.  The  dilference  in  the  formulas  goes  back 
to  the  time  when  Hal)  and  Sannnl  arranged  (not 
composed,  as  is  ofliii  erroneously  staled  I  the  prayers 
for  the  Babylonian  schools;  for  we  lind  Samuel  in- 
sisting on  that  of  Aliabah  Habbah,  against  the  gen- 
eral lannailic  tnidition,  whi<h  favored  the  Ahabat 
'Olani  formula,  claiming  that  the  Ahabah  Habbah 
was  lh<>  i)niyer  recited  by  the  jiriesls  in  the  Teniide 
at  the  morning  service  after  the  lyider's  call,  1313, 
and  bifore  the  deealogiu'  and  the  Siiema'  (Ber.  ll/<. 
Mid  V.  1 ).  According  to  Tos.  Ber.  1  l/i,  Ahabah  Kab- 
bah was  the  formula  adopted  for  the  morning  service, 
Ahaliat  'Olam  for  the  evening.  Thus  it  is  also  found 
in  Ihi'  Siddurof  Amram  Gaon  ;  but  the  Mahzor  Vilry, 
following  the  Sephardic  ritual  and  the  (ieoniin,  has 
Ahabat  'Olam  also  for  the  morning.  The  jdiraseol- 
ogy  of  the  latter  seemed  prefimble,  it  being  more  in 
accord  with  the  Bililical  verse (.ler.  xxxi.  .'il.as  pointed 
out  in  Bit.  1  W»;  still,  to  distinguish  the  evening  from 
the  niornin!,'  prayer,  the  (ierman  rilind  adhered  to 
Ahabali  Halibah.  The  beneiliclion  itsilf.  like-  Yozer 
Or,  the  one  that  precedes  it,  is  very  old  anil  probably 
dates  from  the  time  of  the  institution  of  the  Sliema' 
by  the  founders  of  the  Syiaigoguc' (the  men  of  the 
Great  Svnagogue),  Yo?.er  Orbeini.'  the  thanksgiving 
for  the  iighl  of  the  day.  Ahabah  Hidibali  thi'  tjianks- 
piving  for  the  spicial  iovi' of  (iod  lor  Israel,  mani 
fested  in  the  liirlit  of  Hevelation  (ToniliV  Asher  of 
Lunel,  (pioled  by  "  Kol  Bo."  viii.and  by  Abudraham, 
says:  "The  sun  gives  light  only  in  the  daytime,  the 
Tondi  by  day  and  by  night;  as  Ps.  .\ix.  iinii.sis  Go<l 


first  for  the  sun  and  then  for  the  Torah  which  en- 
lightens the  nnnd,  so  should  we  also  give  praise  in 
these  two  benedictions."  Compare  Philo,  "De  Vita 
Contemplativa"  (On  a  Contemplative  Life),  ed.  Man- 
gey,  ii.  475: 

"  They  [tlie  TherapcuUp]  are  accustomod  to  pray  twice  every 
day :  at  inorninc.  wlifii  the  sun  rls(-s.  Itiey  pray  (e  (icid  ft>r  tlie  day 
tit  traehu|'|>iiu'>.s.  iKM-au.se  tlielr  minds  art*  Illl'ed  wiUi  tlie  Hvlii  of 
lieaven  :  and  at  sutisel  they  pray  tliat  thi'irsuul.  l>elntf  altotfcther 
ll^rliteiied  ami  relleveii  of  the  burden  of  tlie  .senses  and  oidward 
thinirs.  Ije  all  tin-  more  able  to  trace  out  truth  lu  Its  own  resort 
and  iduucll-chauil)er." 

There  isa  strain  of  profound  love  and  zeal  for  God 
and  the  Law  echoed  in  the  benediction,  which  could 
only  emanate  fmui  souls  the  very  keynote  of  whose 
life  is  love  and  piety,  such  as  was  that  of  the  ancient 
Ilasidim.  lheKssenes(Hapoport,"Bikkiircha-lltim," 
x.,  on  Kalir,  119).  But,  as  is  the  case  with  all  the 
pray(^rs,  inilividuals  and  geniTations  occasionally 
added  a  word  ora  sentence,  and  the  sixty-two  words 
which  Ziinz  ("(!.  V."  ]).  ii(J9)  claims  for  the  original 
Ahabah  Habliah  were  increased  to  one  Imndred  and 
two  in  the  German,  one  hundred  and  forty-one  in  the 
Sephardic  .Siddur,  and  one  hundred  and  forty  two  in 
the  Mahzor  Vitry.  A  Genizah  fragment  from  Cairo 
(Egypt),  reproduced  here,  contains  the  Ahabah  Rjib- 
bah  version,  which  has  some  (Jernian  and  some  Seph- 
ardic features,  and  aggregates  one  humired  and 
seventeen  words.  The  following  is  a  translation  of 
the  main  benediction,  the  later  iutcrpoluliuus  being 
omitted: 

Moii.NiNO  BENEniCTION:  "With  ahoundinK  [Sepharrlle  rit- 
ual: "with  everlasting"]  love,  hast  Thou  loved  us,  c)  l.ord  oiu- 
(iod  [Jit.  xxxi.  S].  With  (Treat  and  i'xreiilim;com)ias.sion  hast 
Thou  taken  I'ompassion  on  ns  [i-oiupare  Isa.  1x111.  y].  our 
Father,  our  Klnc,  (or  the  sake  of  our  (atliiTs  who  tnisted  in 
Thee  and  whom  Thou  tauKhte.st  I  In-  statutes  of  life,  be  (.Taelous 
unto  us,  and  U'  Thou  also  our  teaeher.  Knll^rhten  our  eyes  In 
Thy  law,  and  mako  our  hearts  eli'ave  to  Thy  eommandments ; 
render  our  hearts  one  that  we  may  love  and  fear  Thy  name,  and 
not  be  ashamed.  For  In  Thy  holy  name  wi*  tmst :  we  n'Joli-e 
and  exult  in  Thy  salvation,  kor  Thou  art  the  (iwl  who  worketh 
salvation,  ami  Thou  hast  eliosen  us  from  all  fxsiples  and  tonffues  / 
and  bnicarht  us  nlsrh  unto  Thy  (treat  name  (Si-lah)  In  truth,  (bat 
we  ylve  jiral.se  unto  Thee  and  pru-laiin  Thy  unity  In  love. 
Blessed  art  Thou.  I)  IxTd.  who  hast  i-tioseii  Thy  people  Israel  Id 
love"  [compari'  the  high  priest's  benedietlon,  Yoma,  vii.  1, 
Itashl  and  Asherl]. 

EvKxixii  BE.NKnicTiox  [probably  of  later  ori(rtn.  as  shown  by 
(lie  dllTerence  In  style,  and  iaek  of  rhythm] :  "  With  evi-rlastinK 
love  hiust  Th.m  loved  the  house  of  Isniel  Thy  iHiiple;  the  Ijiw  and 
the  Comiiianilnients,  the  statutes  and  orilinane»*s  ha.st  Thou 
tau(;ht  us.  Therefoiv,  (I  I^ird  our  (loil,  when  we  lieilttwn  and 
when  we  rise  up.  we  will  meilUate  on  Thy  statutes  and  n-Joii*© 
In  the  words  of  Thy  law  aial  In  Thy  eonmuuidiueiits  foi>'ver. 
For  (hey  are  our  life  and  (he  lenjjth  of  our  days  :  and  on  them 
we  shall  meditate  day  and  niifht.  Let  not,  therefore.  Thy  love 
ever  full  us.  Blessed  ait  I'hou,  o  Loid,  who  lovest  Thy  juxiplo 
ismel." 

Bini.iDiiiiAriiY  t  Ilertzfelil.  (IikcIi.  (I.Viilhfs  Israrl.  II.  llVi ;  Bacr, 
Si'litur.   pp.  so.   KM.   |{i«'delllelm.   ls«is;  Ijuulshnlh,  llmwn 


L:  h.  |i.  (1 


o  I.    {iiiil  111  II  iiiiiiiii;    iii:^   iiiiiM  I    :i  lllt" 

time  Ababa  Imnsndtted  the  |>iiternal  llalakot  to  hi.4 
colleagms  ('Er.  91^..  H.  II.  ;t(l/.).      He  is  also  favor- 


colleagues  (  r.r.  \nv>.  u.  ii.  ■loc).  Jie  is  also  lavor- 
ablv  known  in  midrashic  lilemlure.  Comnienling 
on  I's.  xxviii.  ;!,  he  lioints  out  it  clmnicterislic  differ- 
ence between  Josi-l>h's  brtdhers  and  Absjiloni.  He 
remarks  thai  the  good  i|Unlities  of  the  sons  of  Isme 
•ii.i,-  1...  .r,i I i,.>f-,.,i  r,..,,,i  111.,  ■■>>,i>f i.xt  j.r  ill. .if  r.>>>itd 


lie 

may  be  gathered  froiii  the  mention  of  llieir  faults. 
Thus,  it  is  said  of  them  ((!eii.  xxxvii.  4).  "And  they 
hated  him  jjosephl.  iinil  could  not  speak  peace- 
ably unto  hull."  which  shows  that  what  they  felt  in 
their  hearts  they  expie.s.seil  with  llieir  niouihs.     Of 


Ahadboi 
Aharouim 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


282 


Absuloni,  lidwi'vcr.  it  is  sniil  (II  Siiiii.  xiii.  22).  "  Alisa- 
lorn  spokf  to  Amnon  neitlicr  uood  nor  lm<i."  Iii(liii<^ 
his  fet'liiijts  in  his  liwirt  (Midr.  Teh.  xxviii. ;  Gen.  U. 
Ixxxiv. ;  Yiill>.,  Oen.  s?  141).  On  Solomon's  com- 
pnrison  of  liis  beloved  to  the  apple-tree  (Song  Sol. 
ii.  3)  lie  reniiirks  :  "as  the  apple  tree  sends  forth  it.s 
buds  before  the  appearance  of  its  leaves,  .so  Israel 
expressed  faith  before  liearinjr  the  purport  of  the 
divine  nicssasre.  Thus  it  is  written  (Ex.  iv.  31).  'And 
the  iieo])le  l)elieved  and  heard.'  Also  at  Sinai  (E.\. 
xxiv.  7).  they  promised  tirst  to  do  all  the  Lord  should 
command  and  then  to  hearken  to  His  voice"  (Cant. 
H.  ii.  3).  Other  liomiletic  remarks  of  liis  occur  in 
Yer.  Ber.  v.  Sil:  Gen.  K.  Ixxxiv;  Lam.  H.  ii.  17; 
Eecl.  H.  iii.  II.  ix.  11. 

Bibi,ioi;r.\piiv  :  Krsnkel,  Mchu,  63a  ;  Baeher,  .It/.  Ptil.  Amor. 
111.  aiiWKy. 

S.  M. 

AHADBOI :  Babylonian  nmora  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh  f;eni  rations.  He  was  president  of  the  acad- 
emy of  Sura  in  its  deeliuinfr  days,  but  tilled  the  otliec 
for  only  six  months.  His  death  was  then  caused  by 
an  earthquake  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  in  the  year 
822  of  the  Seleueidan  era  =  511.  The  name  is  a 
contraction  of  Aha  de-Abba  or  De-Abboi  ("  Father's 
Brother  ")  and  corresponds  with  Ahab  of  the  Bible. 

Bibliography:  Lctlrr  of  Shrrira,  ed.  Ncubauer,  In  Mrdircval 
Jew.  Chnin.  I. ;  Brull's  Jalirlj.  II. :!»;  Jastrow,  DM.  s.  v. 

S.  M. 

AHADBOI  B.  AMMI :  Babylonian  amora  of  the 

fourth  frc'Mcnitiou  (fourth  and  fifth  centuries),  a  dis- 
ciple of  Hal)  Hisda  and  UabShesliet  (Pes.  7.">-(;  B.  M. 
91'(;  Sanh.  "lot;  Bek.  39'(:  Mddah.  37/-).  While  the 
latter  was  discu.ssing  some  intricate  point  of  ritual, 
Ahadboi,  by  facetious  remarks,  confused  his  teacher. 
The  teacher  felt  grieved,  and  the  discijde  suddenly 
lost  his  power  of  speech.  This  was  considered  as 
a  visitation  from  heaven  for  jiultiii!;  his  master  to 
shame.  Thereupon  Ahadboi's  mollier.  who  had  been 
Hab  Sheshet's  nurse,  appealed,  on  behalf  of  her  af- 
flicted son,  to  her  former  foster  child  to  pardon  the 
indiscretion  of  his  pupil  and  pray  for  his  recovery. 
At  first  Hab  Sheshet  refused  her  petition:  but  after 
she  had  pointed  to  her  breasts,  wliiih  formerly  nour- 
ished him.  and  entreated  him  to  be  merciful  on  their 
account,  he  complied,  and  soon  afterward  Ahadboi 
recovered  his  speech.  His  collea.irues  then  stigma- 
tized Ahadboi  as  "the  babe  that  confounded  his 
mother's  ways"  (B.  B.  9i  ;  see  Tos.  ad  Inc.  Accord- 
ing to  Rashi  it  was  Hab  Sheshet's  own  mother  who 
interceded  in  behalf  of  Al.iadboi).  Ahadboi  reports  in 
H.  Eleazar's  name  an  observation  calculated  to  en- 
courage beneficence  toward  the  poor.  Quoting  the 
prophet's  metaphor  (Isa.  lix.  17).  "He  put  on  right- 
eousness [zediikiih — used  in  later  Hebrew  for  "char- 
ity "]  as  a  breastplate."  he  says:  "That  coat  is  com- 
posite in  its  nature ;  scale  being  joined  to  scale  till  the 
armor  is  completed.  Similarly,  with  regard  to  zeda- 
kah,  farthing  is  added  to  farthing;  and  ultimately 
there  is  a  large  amount  to  the  giver's  credit  in 
heaven's  register  "  (B.  B.  0/-).  S.  M. 

AHADBOI  B.  MATNAH :  Babylonian  anlon^ 
of  the  fourth  generation,  and  contemporarv  of  Haba 
b.  Joseph  (Shab.  2-4<(.  CM).  His  sister,  bein.irill.  willed 
her  belongings  to  a  brother.  Hab  Tobi.  it  being  cus- 
tomary to  give  a  learned  heir  the  preference  over 
one  unlearned.  Ahadboi  represented  to  her  that 
the  world  would  siiy,  "That  one  isa  learned  man; 
this  one  [himself]  is  not !  "  So  the  sister  altered  the 
will  in  his  favor.  The  story  ends  with  the  statement 
that  a  lawsuit  followed,  and  Hab  Xal.iman  decided 
that  as  the  testatrix,  in  the  event  of  her  recovery, 
would  have  had  the  right  to  annul  her  will,  she  had 


alsfitbe  right  to  change  it  during  her  illnes-s;  hence. 
Ahadboi  was  declared  the  legitimate  heir  (B.  B. 
loh/).  S.  M. 

A^AI :  An  appellation  given  to  several  rabbis 
who  ordinarily  bear  the  pra'nomeii  Aha.  under  which 
name  they  are  grouped;  while  otlaM-s  better  known 
by  the  name  of  <nN  (or  'XriN)  are  as  foUows:  1. 
A  Palestinian  anioni  of  the  third  century,  contem- 
porary of  H.  Ainnii  and  H.  As.si.  He  was  judgeof  a 
divorce  court  ((iit.  .">/<)■  2.  A  distinguished  Baby- 
lonian teacher  w  ho  nourished  during  t lie  closing  days 
of  the  amoraic  period  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sabonde  epoch.  During  his  time  the  comiiilaliou  and 
editing  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  begun  by  liab 
Ashi,  gradually  neared  comi)letion.  His  fame  wa.s 
not  confined  to  his  birthplace.  Be-Hatini,  or  to  his  na- 
tive country  ;  foreven  in  Palestine  he  was  recognized 
as  a  great  authority.  Thus  when  the  substance  of 
a  ritualistic  controversy  between  him  and  Samuel  b. 
Abbaliu  was  submitted  to  a  Palestinian  academy  for 
final  ad,jiidication.  th<'  rabbis  ilccided  in  favor  of  the 
latters  opinion  :  but  they  added  the  significant  warn- 
ing, "Be  careful  of  the  views  of  H.  jVl.iai.  for  he 
is  the  light  of  the  diaspora"  (Hul.  094).  So,  while 
but  few  of  the  sayings  an<l  teachings  of  his  contem- 
poraries are  quoted  in  the  Talmud,  not  less  than  ten 
distinct  o))inionsof  Hab  Ahai  are  incorporated  in  its 
pages  (Yeb.  24'(,  4(i''  ;  K<'t.  24.  10,/.  47,(  ;  Kid.  13'(  ; 
Shebu.  414;Zeb.  1024;  Hul.  6.5A;  Bek.  5.(,G,/ ;' Xiddah, 
33,/).  l{jib  Ahai  died  in  ."lOO  ("  Letter  of  Slierira  " : 
Griltz.  "Gesch.  d.  Ju(Uii."  1st  ed.,  iv.  473).  Brtill. 
"Jalirb."  ii.  2')  tt  tti-q.,  identifies  him  with  Hab  Al.iai 
b.  Hanilai:  but  the  great  ma,iority  of  ancient  and 
inotlern  rabbinical  chronicles  identify  him  with  Hab 
Ahai  1).   II una.  S.  iM. 

AHAI  B.  JOSIAH:  Tanna  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  geiii-ratii  IMS  (sfCdiid  century).  His  father.  Josiah, 
was  probably  the  wiU-known  tanna  H.  Josiah,  a 
pu])il  of  H.  Ishniael.  The  following  legend,  intended 
to  demonstrate  the  consciousness  of  the  dead,  and 
citing  a  conversjition  between  an  amora  of  the  fourth 
century  and  Ahai's  ghost,  incidentally  points  out  the 
place  of  Ahai's  sei)ulchcr: 

rirave-rc)t)liers  enpaireil  In  rilirfrlng  In  soil  belnnglng  to  Hab 
Natunan  sudilenly  ln-anl  a  jrroan  ls.suln(r  frfini  tlie  pround. 
They  hastciu'd  !•'  r**pnrt  tliis  to  R.  Nal.nnun  W\\  Isiuic  [see  MS. 
M.  iu  "Dikilukr'  Snf,*i-iin,"  ,i,t  t,»'.l,  wtio  Immediately  n-palred 
to  the  sceiie.  "  The  followlnt'  diaI^^^I^■  tt-Ils  the  rest ;  Nahnian  : 
Who  art  thou,  sir  ?  (HniKt :  I  itiii  Aliai  lien  Josiah.  A'.  l>ld  not 
Itab  Marl  declare  that  the  IxKlit-.s  of  the  pious  dead  returned  to 
dust?  r.'/i.  Whots  Marl?  I  know  him  not.  A'.  Well,  then,  It 
is  written  In  the  Bible  [Eccl.  xll.  7] :  The  dust  shall  return  to 
the  earth  as  It  was.  Gh.  Evidently  he  who  liatli  tau)/ht  thee 
the  B,Htk  of  F'eclesixsti'S  did  not  teach  Ihee  the  Book  of  l'it)yerl)3. 
There  It  is  stated  [.\iy.  :JOl ;  Envy  Is  rottenness  of  the  lx)nes. 
Whoever  cherishes  envy  in  his  breast,  his  t>ones  will  become  rot- 
ten :  but  he  who<loth  not  nourish  envy  In  his  breast,  his  boot's 
shall  not  n>t.  [Here  Nahuian  touched  ttie  phost,  and  Unding  It 
sut)stantial,  addressed  itl :  Arise,  my  master^  and  come  Into  my 
house,  (ih.  Thou  Ix-tniyest  thy  lunorance  even  ot  the  Books  of 
the  Propliets;  for  there  It  is  sjild  [Ezek.  xxxvii.  i:ij ;  Ve  shall 
know  that  1  am  the  Ixird,  when  I  have  oi)ened  your  (rraves,  (>  my 
people,  and  lirought  you  out  of  your  graves,  t'ntil  then  the  dead 
can  not  rise.  iV.  But  is  it  not  written  [(ien.  iii.  U*] :  Dust  thou 
art  and  unto  dust  shall  thou  return  ?  Gh.  That  will  come  to  pass 
shortly  l)efore  the  Uesurrection  [Shab.  I'lih]. 

Sow,  as  Xahman  ben  Isjiac  (compare  "  Dikduke So- 
ferim  "  to  l.r. )  was  a  Babylonian,  and  his  land  lay  in 
Babyloniii.  Ahai's  body,  resting  in  Xahman'sgi'ound. 
was  also  in  Babylonia.  Jloreover,  there  is  other  evi- 
dence of  Ahai's  having  been  in  Babylonia  during  the 
course  of  his  life.  Judali  I.  states  that  there  were 
some  fishiTinen  who  violated  the  Sabbath  by  plying 
their  trade  on  that  day;  and  that  Ahai  b.  Josiah.  ob- 
serving this,  excommunicated  them.  This  happened 
in  Birta  de  Satia.  in  B.-iby  Ionia  (Kid.  72,/).  Furthei-. 
we  arc  informed  that  he  liiid  some  jiersonal  property 
in  Babylonia,  while  he  himself  was  in  Palestine;  for 
the  Talmud  relates:  R.  Ahai  b.  Josiah  owned  a  vessel 


283 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ahadboi 
Anaronim 


of  silver  wliicli  was  in  Ni-haniea.  He  conmiis- 
sioni'd  Dositiii  !)cii  Janiiai  and  Jose  bon  Kipjjar  Id 
reclaim  it  and,  im  their  return  to  Palestine,  to  bring 
it  to  liini  (Git.  14'M.  From  all  these  data  it  is  evident 
that  Al.iai  ben.Iosiali  was  bu.'  'd  in  Babylonia,  wliere 
he  had  spent  his  last  days;  that  he  had  been  in  thai 
<oiintry  bel'cire  the  deaih  of  .Iiidah  1.,  and  that  Iw' 
had  siinic  (lersonal  prnperty  in  Babylonia,  even  while 
lie  himself  was  in  Palestine.  'I'hi  re  is,  in  fact,  little 
donbt  that  Ahai  spent  his  riper  yearson  Babylonian 
.soil  and  with  Babylonian  seliolars.  This  aeeonnis 
fur  the  failure  to  tind  him  mentiiined  in  the  Pales- 
tinian Talmud  or  the  Palestinian  Midiashim;  whil<> 
he  is  r<'ferred  to  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  and  in 
the  halakie  Midnishim  compiled  bv  the  disciples  of 
Bab  (BeHab)in  Babylonia  (Kr.  l;i/(.  Git.  4.w,  Mek. 
Bo,  ;i — twice;  ihiti,  liahoilesh,  g  7;  compare  ibid. 
KiTi.ssa;  Sifre,  Num.  l()tj,  12(1). 

As  an  ethical  teacher,  Ahai  tried  to  impress  the 
strictest  morality  on  the  people.  "Whoever  eyes 
woman  will  eventually  fall  into  sin;  and  whoever 
watches  her  stej)  will  rear  unworlhy  children  "  (Ned. 
20«).     On  domestic  economy  he  observed : 

"WI111S0  purchiuips  breudstulT  In  tlip  niarket  Is  like  the  Infant 
whose  iitotlicr  l(*  dead,  and  who  l.s  therefcirc  carried  from  door  to 
diMir  t<)  stit-kle  at  .stranirern'  brea.st.M.  never  irettiny  il.s  UN.  Who- 
»->  purcha.ses  hreud  In  the  market  Is  like  one  Interred.  Hut 
whoso  eal.s  of  hi.s  own  store  Is  like  the  rhild  rulst'rl  on  It.s  own 
mother's  brettsts."  He  al.so  remarked,  "  As  lontf  us  a  nmn  sup- 
IK'rts  himself  he  enjoys  pi-aee  of  mind  ;  but  when  he  Is  depend- 
eta,  even  on  his  own  parents  or  on  his  own  children,  he  luus  no 
(n'are  of  ndnd  :  still  less  so  when  he  depends  on  stnuiifei's" 
(.\li.  11.  N.  .\xxl.  [ed.  Sehechter,  xxx.];  compare  Men.  Mil>,  Ver. 
She!;.  Ill,  5k(,  and  parallels). 
Bibliography  :    Bacher,  Ag.  Tan.  11.  393,  .m. 

S.  M. 

AHALI-TAUBAT  ("People  of  the  Tonih"): 
The  name  adopted  by  the  Persian  .Tews  of  Hamadan, 
Deniavend.  Tehenui,  ami  othi'r  districts,  in  contra- 
distinction to  Persian  .lews  of  Indian  origin,  who  arc 
called  "Israeli."  They  are  not,  however,  remarkable 
for  their  knowledge  of  the  Torali. 

BinLiOGRAPilv  :  VoQ  der  Hoven,  U  I'TuKMarn  t  Xanliijimli- 
churn  Axinlfkikh  Ycvreyev,  In  Slmriiik  UiitlUKliiliuiind, 
l!««i,  I.  i^'l 

II.  u. 
AHARAH.     Si  e  .Viiiit.wi. 

ANARONIM  iD'OnnN  "Thi'  Later  Ones"):  A 
technical  term  used  in  later  rabbinical  literature 
generally  to  indicale  authorities  who  are  contem- 
poranes  of  the  person  (pioling  them  or  who  belong 
to  the  generation  immediately  preceding  him.  It  is 
especially  applied  to  the  rabbinical  aulhors  following 
the  age  of  the  "Shulhau  'Aruk" — the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

The  religious  mind  is  prone  tonccejit  the  testimony 
of  the  past,  and  remoteness  in  time  adds  weight  to  an 
authority.  Even  in  the  time  of  Ecch'siasti's  there  were 
people  will)  believed  "that  the  formerdays  wen'bel 
ler  than  these"  (Eccl.  vii.  10).  In  lh<'  Talnunlic  lit 
erature  we  nirely  tInd  an  attempt  to  set  aside  the 
authority  of  former  teachers.  For  example,  none  of 
the  .\moraiin  is  permilled  to  contradict  the  wordsof 
the  Tannaim  It  is  said  that  Babs  words  maycon- 
tnulict  a  .Mishnah  Ixiause  he  is  a  tanna(Ket.  H<i). 
As  II  rule,  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  past  genera- 
tions were  superior  to  the  present.  The  following 
from  the  Talmud  may  si-rve  to  illustnile  this; 

Soys  Ilnltbl  Zelni  In  the  name  of  Raba  barZlmiaia:  "If  our 
anei'stors  l:'rJ'K-v|  were  anuels,  we  an' hninan  lielnvs;  and  If 
they  wi'H' human  iM'lnirs.  wi-  ao'  h-v-m's"  tshab.  llL'/o.  Says 
KabblJohanan  :  "The  iiiiirer  nallof  ihennresliirs  Is  beiiiM' Ihan 
till'  wlii>le  iHidy  of  the  dixendanls."  Said  Uisli  Ijiklsh  l.i  him  : 
"On  Iheeonlniry.  the  de.<u'endanUiin*  ^n'lin-r:  for.  In  spite  of 
their  oppn*s,Hton.  lliev  sindv  the  Ijiw."  Said  hf  (.lobanan)  (<i 
Ilesh  tiiklsh  :  "Tlu'  Tenipli'  » 111  (bslili>  ibe  ipiesiloa  ;  fur  II  wiw 
H'slored  Ii»  (be  aneeslors  anil  not  In  the  ib'seentlants"  lYoma. 
W"i.    Says  Kab  I'apu  to  Aluiye:  "Why  wen-  nilnieles  ilone  t4i 


the  uneestors  [D'JS'.mt]  and  not  tnus?"  Said  Abave:  "The 
aneeslors  saerllli'ed  their  lives  for  the  sanetifleation  of  "the  Name 
[the  service  of  tiod],  and  we  do  not "  (Ber.  aOa). 

With  reference  to  the  Mishnah  (Mid.  i.  2).  which 
speaks  of  the  heavy  punishment  meted  out  to  the 
guards  of  the  Teinjile  who  were  found  sleeping 
while  on  duly,  .lohanan  Siiys:  "  Blessed  are  our  ances- 
tors|D'jt,"xn|.  who  were  p'unished  even  for  succumb- 
ing to  sleep  "  (Tamid,  iHa).  From  all  these  passages 
it  is  ai)parent  that  even  in  Talmudic  times  the  an- 
cient authorities  were  considered  superior  in  relig- 
ious conduct  to  those  of  later  generations. 

This  lielicf  in  the  authorilv  of  the  past.  and.  con- 
sc(|uently.  the  lack  of  confidence  in  the  present  age 
and  ils  iimneiliate  predecessors,  arc  .strongly  ujjheld 
in  the  age  of  the  Geonim  and  by  the  more  strict  ob- 
servers down  to  our  own  era.  Shidira  Gaon,  in  the 
tenth  century,  says:  "  One  who  opjiosesa  single  word 
of  the  teachings  of  the  Talmud  is  like  one  opposing 
God  and  His  Law;  for  the  words  of  the  rabbis  are 
th(?  words  of  the  living  God"  ("Sha'are  Zedek." 
introduction;  sec  Weiss.  "Dor."  iv.  100),  In  the 
twelfth  century  K.  Tani  writes  toB.  .Samson  of  Sens, 
who  obje<-led  to  a  ]iassage  in  Bashi's  works:  "God 
forbid  that  one  should  think  for  a  moment  of  oppo 
sing  the  angel  of  our  Creator"  ("Sefer  ha-Yashar," 
(pioted  by  Azulai  in  "Shem  haCicdolim"  under 
"Samson  of  Sens").  Israel  Isserlein  of  Marburg  iu 
the  tifteenth  century  says:  "  No  one  has  a  right  to 
contradict  tlie  rabbinical  works  that  have  been  ac- 
cepted by  the  majority  of  Israel"  ("Terumat  lia- 
Deshen,"  Pes.  No.  241).  Similar  expressions  of  a 
strict  belief  iu  the  authority  of  the  jiast,  on  the 
ground  that  past  ages  were  always  sui)erior  to  all 
suceeetling  generations,  are  found  in  rabbinical  liter- 
ature.* 

A  typical  e.vpression  of  the  deference  shown  to 
the  earlier  authorities  is  found  in  a  letter  of  Aarou 
Samuel  Kaidanower  (seventeenth  century)  to  Sam- 
uel ha  Levi  of  Bamberg.      He  writes: 

"  You  have  Riven  allentlon  to  the  later  anthnrltle.s.  Da\1d  ha- 
lA-vl  of  (Mrnn  [died  llKiTl  and  Shabbethal  Cohen  [died  atn.ut 
lt)li:il.  This  Is  n<tt  mv  method.  Mv  st utiles  are  llndted— thank 
God  I— to  theTalimei  and  older  authorities  [2':l",s-'-i  C'|1Dib]. 
And  why  should  we  nibble  at  the  Ismes  of  the  later  authors 
when  we  ran  feast  on  the  meat  u|)on  the  golden  table  of  IheTal- 
niibl.  Alfiuil.  Mainionides,  Asher.  the  nails  on  whteh  evervthim; 
hantrs  [see  Isa.  xxll.  23];  for  the  later  writers  [::"J"viNJ  mn- 
fnse  man's  mind  and  memory.  The  Rood  which  Is  fouml  In 
their  works  comes  frt>m  our  teacher.  Kal)ltl  Htn'M-hl  of  craeow 
fdled  li'iU:)) ;  and  In  that  which  Is  their  own  I  can  show  any  num- 
Iter  of  ndstakes  <m  every  patfe.  You  would  thei>'fore  tlo  Ix't- 
ter  to  sell  their  iKMiks  anil  buy  an  edltlitn  i>f  the  "Tin"'  with  Jo. 
.seph  Cani's  eomnienuiry  "  ("Nahalal  Shib'ah."  N'o.  .'lU;  Filnn. 
"  KIrvah  Nei'inanah."  p.  81 ;  Denibltzer,  "  Kelllat  Yotl,"  p.  i»i. 
Criieow.  18.s(i). 

The  absence  of  a  dictionary  covering  the  post- 
Talmudic  Hebrew  and  rabbinical  literature  renders 
it  impossible  lo  trace  the  usage  of  the  Word  "Aharo- 
nim  "  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  now  understood; 
but  the  only  exception  which  can  be  found  is  in  the 
work  on  Talmudic  methodology.  "Halikot  Eli."  by 

•  .See  Klljah  lie  Vlihus  Islxiivntl nlurv).  "Ileshll  l.lokmah." 

pd.  KQrIh.  11.  4  In;  Joseph  (am  lUlti  loT.'o,  In  his  notes  on  "fur 
Yore  iPi-a.  '  eil.  Warsaw,  l.ssl.  MIS.  p.  ir7(i.  who  attacks  Jaiob 
Ih'm  Asher  for  tds  eritleism  t>f  sdomoii  tH*n  Adn*!.  "to  whom  all 
the  paths  of  hi'avi'i)  wen*  known  "  :  Menahem  Mendel  KnH'hmul 
Idled  imill.  "/.enud.iZ<'<le^.".\o.  II:  l.lpmaiin  Heller  ilTiTT  lil'm. 
Ill  Ills  eomini'iitarv  on  the  Mishnah  'Kdtiv.  v.  1.  who  gays: 
"  Kvery  ndlRloiis  authority  Is.  as  a  matter  of  ci'iirse  (2.'0T  jc], 
suiMTlor  to  the  siii-eefdliiR  fenerations  "  :  Menahem  dl  l.onzano 

<d]ed    I1LII1.   Ill   Ills  prefliee  to  "  l>i-n'k   hll-KllVVlm."  quoted    bV 

liaild  I'aido  In  Ihe  pnfaee  to  "  MIzmor  b--fiavld  "  (LeRhorn. 
Islsi.  ami  bv  s..lomon  Hii/aii  In  '  lla-Ma'alot  ll-Sbelomoh" 
lAh-xandila.  IsiMi,  p.  mn  :  A/iilal.  "Sh.iu  ba-iiedollm."  under 
"  .Mosf>  Is-n  Niihman  "  ;  Israel  Liiiiiliiu.  In  Ihe  "  '.Knik."  emitted  by 
his  son.  M.  I.  IJiiKlau,  under  Ibe  lltlf.  "  UabblnlHeh-.\minftl.si>li- 
lleut.si-hes  WorttTbueh  "  iPniRiie.  ISTVii.  II.  :S»l:  Moses  Sofer 
ilTit.*  IKfih.  In  Ills  responsii  on  "  Klu-n  ba-'K/iT."  II.  I.Vl;  Lu- 
iH'l/kl.  rabbi  III  Paris,  In  bis  "  nidk,e  llallm  "  (Piirl.s,  IstW).  n. 
Uli;  Kllezer  }'n\*:  III  his  dietloiuiry  of  ri'llRlous  ethics  "  IVln 
Yo'e;f."  under  "  KpHionn." 


Ahasuerus 
Ahaziah 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


284 


Solomon  Aljiiizi  (No.  20(i,  Smyrna,  UifiU),  wlicrp,  ac- 
(onliii!:  to  Isjuic  Lamproiiti's  Talimulic  diclionary, 
"Pahiul  Yizlml>,"  under  "  Al.iaronim,"  llie  word  is 
usi'd  with  ri'ffrcncf  to  tlie  Tosatists.  On  tlic  ques- 
tion of  the  relative  value  of  the  Al.iaronim  in  the 
Ilalakah,  whieh  differs  somewhat  from  the  mere  def- 
erence shown  to  the  Kishonim,  see  notes  to  Samuel 
ha-Nagid's  ".Mebo  ha-Talmud,"  and  Altiiouity. 

D 

AHASUERUS.  — Biblical  Data:  1.  Persian 
kinjr.  identical  with  Xerxes (41*0-41)5  n.c. ).  The  Hook 
of  Estlier  deals  only  with  one  period  of  his  reij;n. 
It  tells  us  thill  he  ruled  over  one  hundred  an<I  twen- 
ty-seven provinces — 
"from  liKlia,  even 
luilo  Ethiopia"  (Esth. 
i.  1).  In  tlio  thinl 
year  of  his  reign  he 
iiiude  a  feast  to  show 
his  riches  and  splen- 
dor; "the  power  of 
Persia  and  Media,  the 
111)1  lies  and  ])rinces  of 
the  provinces,  being 
before  him  "  {ihid.  i. 
3i.  After  this  feast, 
Avhich  lasted  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  days, 
he  made  another  of 
seven  days,  to  which 
"all  the  jieople  .  .  . 
great  luid  small " 
were  invited.  At  the 
siuiie  time  Yashli  the 
queen  gave  a  banquet 
to  the  women  (i.  9). 
On  the  seventh  day  (i. 
10)  Ahasuerus  sum- 
moned the  queen  to 
appear  before  him. 
and  the  banqueters, 
too,  so  that  all  might 
see  her  beauty.  This  Vashti  naturally  refused  to  do 
(i.  12);  but  the  king,  angered  at  her  disobedience,  took 
the  advice  of  his  counselors  and  set  the  queen  aside. 
At  the  same  time  he  sent  proclamations  throughout 
the  land,  declaring  the  husband  the  ruler  in  every 
household  (i.  22).  Between  the  events  of  the  tir.st  chap- 
ter and  those  of  the  second  some  years  may  be  sup- 
posed to  intervene,  during  which  Ahasuerus  is  busy 
with  bis  attenijit  at  enslaving  Greece.  lie  fails,  and 
returns  to  Persia.  On  his  return  a  second  consort  is 
found  for  liini,  and  in  the  tenth  month  of  the  seventh 
year  of  his  reign  (ii.  K!)  Esther  becomes  queen.  The 
Biblical  account  then  introduces  what  must  have 
been  a  very  common  episode  in  the  life  of  Persian 
monarchs.  Two  eunuchs,  Bigthan  and  Teresh  (Per- 
sian, Bagatanaand  Tiris:  Jules  Oppert,  "Conuuen- 
taire  Ilistorique  ct  Philologiiiuedu  Livre  d'Esther," 
p.  22),  form  a  conspiracy  against  Ahasuerus,  which 
might  have  succeeded,  had  not  Mordecai  (through  a 
Jewish  slave  of  one  of  the  conspirators,  suggests  Jo- 
sephus,  "Aut."xi.  6,  §  4;  but  through  Mordecai's 
knowledge  of  seventy  languages,  suggests  the  Tar- 
gum)  discovered  it  to  Esther,  who  in  turn  told  Ahas- 
uerus. The  conspirators  are  hanged,  and  the  account 
of  the  conspiracy  ami  its  di.scoverv  entered  in  the 
chronicles.  Later  on  the  king  rewards  Jlordccai  for 
his  lidelity  (Esth.  vi.  2-12).  Hamau  now  coiucs  to 
the  front  as  the  chief  adviser  of  Ahasuerus  (iii.  1). 
Mordecai  will  not  do  reverence  to  Hanian,  who 
thereupon,  scorning  to  lay  hands  on  Mordecai  alone, 
plots  to  destroy  all  the  Jews  throughout  the  kiug- 


AhiliaMci  Vii.-f  with  Niiiiii'  of  ,\i-rxi>s 
ill  IVrsiun,  susiun,  Assyrian  Cuiiei- 
furm  and  Egyptian  Hieroplypliics. 

{From  the  Louvre,  Paris.) 


dom.  The  king  gives  his  consent  (iii.  11),  but  with- 
draws it  on  the  intercession  of  Esther,  ])uts  Hamau 
to  death,  and  raises  Mordecai  to  the  position  that 
Hainan  held.  Fresh  proclamations  are  sent  out 
ordering  the  Jews  to  defend  themsi'lves  and  to  take 
vengeance  on  their  enemies  (viii.  13).  No  further 
information  about  Ahasuerus  is  given  in  the  Bible. 
Only  once  more  is  he  mentioned — in  Ezra,  iv.  0.  See 
EslHKU,   Ha.MAN,  JlOKDECAI,  PlUI.M. 

2.  Ealher  of  Darius  the  Mode  (Dan.  ix.  1). 

G.  B.  L. 

In   Rabbinical   Literature:    Ahasuerus,  the 

Persian  king  iif  the  Book  of  Esther,  being  identitied 
by  the  rabbis  with  the  one  mentioned  in  Dan.  i\.  1  as 
father  of  Darius,  king  of  Media,  and  with  the  one 
mentioned  in  Ezra,  iv.  6.  is  counted  as  one  of  the 
three  kings  of  Biblical  history  %vho  ruled  over  the 
entire  globe,  the  other  two  being  Ahab  and  Nebu- 
chadnezzar (Meg.  11<(;  Targ.  Sliciii  on  Esth.  i.  2  has 
four,  coiuiting  also  Solomon  among  them;  see  .Meg. 
IIA).  He  was  wicked  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  his  reign.  Upon  the  slanderous  rejiort  of  the 
Samaritans  he  stopped  the  work,  begun  underCyrus, 
of  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  (Ezra.  iv.  G  ;  Esther 
K.  intro. ).  \Vhether  he  was  a  wise  ruhr  or  a  foolish 
one  is  a  matter  of  dispute  between  Pab  and  Samuel 
(Meg.  12(').  According  to  H.  Gamaliel  il..  he  was 
simply  whimsical  and  vacillating  (ih.  12/');  according 
to  another  tradition  which  was  handed  down  by 
Abba  Goiion.  he  was  so  unstable  that  he  sjicritieed 
his  wife  to  his  friend,  and  his  friend  to  his  wife  (Mid. 
Abba  Gorion  i.  1),  probably  meaning  the  emperor 
Doiuitian,  of  whom  this  statement  was  true  (compare 
Bacher,  "  Ag.  Tan."  i.  9(5  it  mr/.).  In  his  ambition 
Ahasuerus  wanted  to  sit  on  King  Solomon's  wonder- 
fid  throne,  descrilicil  in  the  Midnish  and  thcTarguni 
to  Esther,  but  he  could  not.  His  "  showing  the  riches 
of  his  glorious  kingilom  "  to  his  princes  (Esth.  i.  4) 
was  esiieeially  sinful,  as  he  had  all  the  sacred  vessels 
from  t he  Siinct uary  taken  out  of  his  royal  treasure- 
house  to  the  banquet  in  order  to  boast  of  these  pos- 
sessions, thus  coiiunitting  an  offense  against  God 
and  the  Jews.  He  heaiied  up  great  treasures  and 
in  his  miserliness  hid  them.  Cyrus,  his  succes,sor, 
found  them,  and  offered  them  to  the  Jews  in  order 
that  they  might  rebuild  the  Temple  therewith.  These 
are  "the  treasures  of  darkness"  promised  to  Cyrus 
iuLsa.  xlv.  3(EstherB.  i.  4|.  The  restlessness  of  Ahas- 
uerus on  that  night  which  decided  the  fate  of  the 
Jews  was  caused  by  the  archangel  Michael  (Gabriel), 
who  knocked  him  to  the  ground  3G(i  times,  and  then 
brought  before  him  a  comjiany  of  butchers,  bakers, 
and  liutlers.  to  wlifmi  the  king  in  bis  anger  said  :  "You 
have  poisoned  me!"  They  replied:  ".See  whether 
Estherand  Ilaman,  who  ate  and  drank  with  you,  are 
poisoned."  When  Ahasuerus  found  that  they  were 
well  he  sent  for  the  book  of  the  chronicles,  and 
there  learned  of  Mordecai's  unrewarded  act(.Midr. 
Abba  Gorion). 

Pirke  Uabbi  Eliezer,  xi..  in  accordance  with  Targ. 
Sheni  on  Esther,  at  the  beginning,  counts  ten  kings  as 
rulers  over  the  entire  globe:  God,  Nimrod,  Jo.seph, 
Solomon,  Ahab,  Ahasuerus,  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
Alexander  the  Great;  then,  as  the  ninth,  the  Messiah  ; 
and  last,  God  Himself  again.  It  is  also  said  there 
that  Ahasuerus  was  the  wealthiest  of  all  the  kings 
of  Persia  and  Media;  that  he  is  luentioned  in  Daniel 
(xi.  2),  where  it  is  said:  "The  fourth  shall  be  far 
richer  than  they  all  " ;  and  also  that  he  set  up  couches 
of  gold  and  silver  in  the  thoroughfare  of  his  capital 
to  show  all  the  world  his  riches;  all  the  dishes  and 
vessels  he  used  were  of  gold,  while  the  iiavement  of 
his  palace  was  entirely  of  precious  stones  and  pearls. 

K. 


285 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ahasuerus 
Ahaziah 


Critical  View  :    Despite  tlic  I'iict  Hint  both  .lo- 

seplms  (••Am."  xi.  (J)  iiinl  the  Septuajriiit  refer  to 
Ahiisiienis  us  Artii.xerxes,  modern  seholurs,  such  as 
Keil  (•■Coiuineiitary  to  Esther"),  HerllK'aii,  anil  Hys- 
sel  C'Coniiiieiitary  to  Esther"),  Wilileliocr  ("•  Kurzer 
HaiulKoiniiieiitar."  1898),  Sayce  ("•lliijher  Crilicisrn 
anil  tlie  .Moiiunieiits."  \t.  41)11),  anil  SchradiT  {"K.  A. 
T. "  p.  ;!T.)),  are  a.yi'eed  that  Xerxes  and  noneollieris 
meant  by  Ahasuerus,  and  tliis  fur  vaiimis  reasons:  (1) 
Alia.suenis  is  tin-  attempt  of  tlie  llelirew  to  re])re- 
sent  the  Persian  Khsliayarslia,  the  alipli  tieinff  pros- 
thetic just  as  it  is  in  Ahasliilar|ienim  (Kstli.  iii.  V2), 
where  the  Persian  is  Ksehatrapuwan  (  Wildelioer, /« 
Iwo).  Tlie  Ureek  represents  it  by  Xerxes.  (2)  The 
(Icscriptiou  that  Ileiodotus  gives  of  the  character  of 
Xerxes  corresponds  to  the  IJil)lieal  and,  later,  the 
midrashic  iiiclure — vain,  foolish,  tickle,  and  liol- 
tein))ered,  (i!)  The  kinj^  must  he  a  Persian;  for  the 
whole  atmosphere  is  Persian.  The  court  is  at  Shu- 
shan,  and  the  ollicers  are  Persian.  (4)  Ik'tween  the 
third  and  seventh  years  of  his  rei,!;n  Ahasuerus  is 
lost  to  view  in  the  Biblical  account;  hut  that  was 
just  the  time  when  Xerxes  was  engaged  in  the  inva- 
sion of  Oreece. 

There  can  therefore  he  no  doubt  that  tlio  monarch 
Avliose  name  jiassed  among  the  Hebrews  as  Ahasu- 
erus was  the  one  known  as  Khshayarsha  in  the  i'er- 
siuii  inscriptions  and  among  the  Greeks  as  Xerxes. 
The  Habylonian  tablets  spell  his  name  Khisiarshu. 
Akhshivarshu,  etc.  An  Aramaic  inscription  fC.  1. 
8."  ii.  1,  Vi-i)  spells  it  L"lN"L"n. 

Whelher  there  are  any  references  to  Ahasuerus  in 
the  Old  Testament  which  are  really  historical  is  a 
serious  question.  The  Ahasuerus  of  Dan.  ix.  1.  the 
father  of  Darius  "of  the  seed  of  the  Aledes."  is  as 
unknown  to  history  as  is  his  sou.  Probably  Ijoth  are 
the  confused  ideas  about  Persian  kings  of  a  badly 
informed  writer(see  "Journal  of  IJibl.  I,it."xvii.  71). 
In  like  manner  the  reference  to  Ahasuerus  in  Ezra, 
iv.  6  occurs  where  Canibyses  or  Darius  is  to  be 
expected,  if  Hie  statement  is  historical,  and  is  no 
doubt  the  result  of  the  igiionince  of  a  late  w  riter. 

Concerning  the  references  to  Ahasuerus  in  the  Hook 
of  Esther  various  opinions  are  entertained,  and  ulti- 
mate judgment  depends  upon  the  estimate  of  the 
Ixiok  itself.     See  Estiikk,  Book  of. 

G.  B.  L.— G.  A.  U. 


AHASUERUS, 

W\Mii  i:iM.  ,Ii-.w. 


THE    LEGEND    OF. 


See 


AHAVA  :  .\  river — possibly  a  canal  or  Inancli 
of  the  Kuplirales — upon  the  banks  of  which  Ezra 
halted  his  expedition  on  its  march  from  IJabylon  to 
Jerusalem  (Kzra,  viii.  l.")-IJl),  to  fast  and  to  humble 
themselves  lie  fore  the  Lord.  Prom  I  he  tifli  riilh  verse 
of  tlie  .same  chapter  one  might  infer  thai  Ahava  was 
niso  the  name  of  a  villaire  or  town.  In  1  Ksd.  viii, 
41,  (11,  it  isc.illed  Theras.  (J.    H.   L. 

A9AWA.      See    Al  IIAW.\. 

AHAZ,  King  of  Judah  (T:tr>-7in  ii.r.).— Bib- 
lical Data:  Son  of  Kinir  Jotliam.  His  reign  is 
meinonilile  as  that  ill  which  Judah  tirsi  became 
vassal  to  .\ssyria,  and  .Vssyriaii  (Kabyloiiian)  modes 
(if  worship  were  tiist  inlroiluced  into  the  ollicial 
worship  at  Jerusjilein.  The  Hebrew  anthorilies 
know  only  the  form  of  his  nami'  given  atiove.  but 
the  .Vs.syriaiis  called  him  Vaiil.mzi  (  =  Jilioahaz : 
"Whom  YHWH  has  held  fast");  the  former  name 
being  a  eontraelion  of  the  hitler,  like  Nathan  for 
Elnathan  or  .loiiathaii.  Immediately  upon  his  iie- 
eession  .Vliaz  had  to  meet  a  conibiiiiilioii  formed  by 
northern  Isniel.  under  Pekiili.  and  Damascus  (Syria), 


under  Uezin,  These  kings  api)arently  wished  to 
compel  him  to  Join  them  in  opposing  the  Assyrians, 
who  were  arming  a  force  against  Syria  and  Palestine 
under  the  great  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  (Pul).  To  pro- 
tect himself  he  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Assyrians. 
Through  their  interference,  and  as  a  result  of  their 
invasion  and  subjection  of  the  kingiloin  of  Damas- 
cus and  of  Palestine  outside  of  Judah,  Aliaz  was  re- 
lieved of  his  troublesome  neighbors;  but  his  pro- 
tector henceforth  claimed  and  held  suzerainty  over 
his  kingdom.  This  war  of  invasion  lasted  two  years 
(7:i4-T;i^2  li.c),  and  ended  in  the  cajilure  and  annexa- 
tion of  Damascus  to  Assyria  and  of  the  territory  of 
Israel  north  of  the  border  of  Jezreel.  Aliaz  in  the 
meanwhile  furnished  auxiliaries  to  Ti.iilatli-Pile.scr. 
This  apjieal  to  Assyria  met  with  stern  opposition 
from  the  prophet  Isjiiah,  who  counseled  .Vliaz  to  rely 
ujion  the  Lord  and  not  ujion  outside  aid.  The  sequel 
seemed  to  Justily  the  king  and  to  condemn  the 
projihet.  Afiaz.  during  liis  wliole  reign,  was  free 
from  troubles  with  which  the  neighboring  rulers  ivere 
harassed,  who  from  time  to  time  revolted  against 
A.ssyria.  Thus  it  was  that,  in  722,  Samaria  was  taken 
and  northern  Israel  wholly  incoriiorated  into  the  As- 
syrian eni]iiie.  Hut  what  was  externally  a  bles,siug 
proved  to  be  inwardly  a  curse.  Aliaz,  who  was  irres- 
olute and  impressible,  yielded  readily  to  the  glamour 
and  prestige  of  the  Assyrians  in  religion  as  well  as 
in  polities.  In  732  he  went  to  Damascus  to  swear 
homage  to  Tiglath-Pileser  and  his  gods;  and,  taking 
a  fancy  to  an  altar  which  he  saw  there,  he  had  one 
like  it  nuiile  in  Jeriis;ilem,  which,  with  a  corre- 
sponding change  in  ritual,  he  made  a  jiermanent 
feature  of  the  Temide  worship.  Changes  were  also 
made  in  the  arrangements  and  furniture  of  tlieTem- 
|>le,  "becauseof  tlie  king  of  Assyria"(ll  Kings,  xvi. 
18).  Furthermore,  Aliaz  litted  up  an  astrological 
observatory  with  accom]ianyiug  sacrifices,  after  the 
fashion  of  the  ruling  peo])le.  In  other  ways  Aliaz 
lowered  the  character  of  tlie  national  worship.  It  is 
recorded  that  lie  even  offered  his  son  by  lire  to  JIo- 
loch.  His  government  must  be  considered,  on  the 
whole,  disastrous  to  his  country,  especially  in  its  re- 
ligious aspects;  and  a  large  jmrt  of  the  reforming 
work  of  his  son  Hezekiali  aimed  at  undoing  the  evil 
that  Aliaz  had  wrought. 

ISiiii.inoKAi'iiv:  See  tlie  C"iiiiiientarli>s  nn  II  Klncs,  xvl.,  II 
Ctiron.  xxviii.,  ami  Isu.  vfl,,anil  lliestiinitant  histories  of  Israel 
(or  tile  period  in  (lui'stion.  For  tlie  reliidoiis  with  .Assyria  ami 
itj»  ponsequeni'es.  sif  Si'liniiier,  t\  I.  (i.  T.  2il  ciI..  pp.  i'»7  t-t 
ffC'/. :  Mcriirei.v.  Itistni'it,  /'roM/jcr;/.  (iHii  thr  ,V"/Mi»lfllM. 
I.  I'liaps.  ivaliil  vli.,  e.si>e(iall.v  Sf  lilTit  .«<<(.:  rriie.  The  Mmili- 
minix  mill  llii    did  Tii'lumcut,  pp.  ito  ct  ini.:  Seliniilcr. 


K.  Ii.  11.  2(1. 


J.   F.   McC. 


In    Rabbinical    Literature:    According    to 

the  rabbis,  who  reler  lo  II  Chron.  xxviii.  19-2.'i, 
Ahaz  was  the  king  who  persisted  in  his  wick- 
edness even  in  the  face  of  all  the  (rials  to  which 
lie  was  subjected,  and  would  not  repent  (Saiih.  IdSii. 
Meg.  llii).  Woi^se  llian  this,  he  threatened  Israel's 
religion  lo  its  very  foundation,  in  order  to  destroy 
all  hope  of  regeiiemtion.  He  closed  the  schools  and 
houses  of  worship  so  that  no  instruction  should  be 
possible,  and  the  Siiekinah  (or  Glory  of  God)  should 
abandon  the  land.  It  was  for  Ihisrea.soii  that  Isaiah 
had  to  leach  in  secret  (Ver.  Saiih.  x.  28/i;  Gen.  H. 
xlii),  tliongb  .\liaz  always  humbly  submilted  lo  the 
prophet's  rebukes — hisonlv  reileeming  feature  (Snnh. 
104.1).  "  K. 

AHAZIAH,  King  of  Judah :  Son  and  succes- 
sor lit  .lib>'i:iiii  and  irniiidsoii  of  .li'hoshaphat.  His 
reign,  like  that  of  his  namesake  of  Sjiinariii.  was 
very  brief,  lasting  but  a  year  (S-13-842  ii.f.).    Shortly 


Ahaziah 


THE  JEWISH    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


286 


after  his  nccossioii  lie  went  to  the  help  of  .loram, 
king  of  Isnifl,  iii;ainst  tlie  Syrians  of  Uaniasciis. 
Ik'iiijr  related  lo  the  kingly  house  of  Israel  llirougli 
liis  niotlier  Allialiali,  the  daughler  of  .le/.eliel  anil 
Ahab,  he  was  fully  in  sympathy  with  it.  polilieally 
and  religiously,  jorani,  having  been  wounded  in 
tiattle.  returned  to  Je/.reel  to  recuperate.  Ahaziah 
also  left  the  tield  of  conflict  in  Gilead.  and.  after  a 
visit  to  .lerusjilein.  came  to  Jezrcel  for  a  conference 
uitli  .loram.  Meanwhile  the  great  uprising  under 
Jehu  had  begiui.  Joram  was  suri)rised  by  him  and 
slain.  Aha/iah  tied  by  way  of  the  "house  of  the 
garden,"  He  was  overtaken  by  Jehu's  soldiers  and 
wounded  in  his  chariot;  but  the  stroke  was  not  im- 
mediately fatal.  Ahaziah  escaped  southward,  and 
(lied  on  reaching  Mcgiddo.  His  body  was  taken  to 
Jerusaleiu  and  buried  in  the  royal  scpulcher  there 
(II  Kings,  viii.  '2'>  it  iter/.-,  ix.  27.  Si'). 

Such  is  the  accoimt  given  in  the  Rook  of  Kings, 
which  is  more  credible  and  consistent  than  the  par- 
allel narrative  in  H  Chron,  xxii.  The  anarchy  which 
followed  the  death  of  Ahaziah  greatly  weakened  the 
monarchy  of  .ludah;  but  it  was  a  necessjiry  step  in 
the  purgation  of  the  kingdom  from  the  taint  of  Baal- 
worshiii.  J.   F,  McC, 

AHAZIAH,  King  of  Israel :  Son  and  successor 
iif  Aliali.  king  of  northern  Israel.  In  his  brief  reign 
of  less  than  two  years  (HoS-HoS  n.c)  he  continued 
his  father's  military  activity.  He  hoped  also  to  in- 
crease tlic  wealth  of  Israel  by  taking  part,  with  Jc- 
lioshaphat.  king  of  Judah.  in  the  lU'd  Sea  traflic  with 
the  land  of  Ophir.  By  hisclose  relations  with  Pheni- 
cia  he  was  in  a  position  to  furnish  the  king  of  Jiidah 
with  better  seamen  than  those  that  had  suH'ered  ship- 
wreck at  the  head  of  the  Elamitic  gulf.  Jehosha- 
pliat  declined  the  partnership,  and  the  enterprise 
ap])ears  to  have  been  given  up  (I  Kings,  xxii.  48, 
4!l:  Hebrew  text.  40,50).  The  early  death  of  Aha- 
ziah was  due  to  a  fall  from  a  window  of  an  upper 
room  of  his  palace  in  Samaria.  In  his  .sickness  he 
sought  counsel  of  the  oracle  of  Baalzebub  in  Ekron. 
For  this  imjiious  and  disloyal  act,  as  it  appeared  to 
Elijah,  the  prophet  deuovineed  him  three  times  and 
jiredicted  his  death.  His  readiness  to  resort  to  an 
alien  god  and  his  persistence  in  foreign  cults  show 
the  traits  which  marked  the  rulers  of  the  house  of 
(Imri,  and  more  than  neutralized  their  energy  and 
])olitical  patriotism,  J,  F.  McC. 

AHER.     See  Elisha  ben  Abuyah. 

AHIAB.     See  Herod, 

AHIAH.     See  Ahltah. 

AHIAM  :  Son  of  Sharar  the  Hararite.  He  was 
one  of  the  thirty  mighty  men  of  David  {II  Sam. 


xxiii.  33). 
of  Sacar." 


In  I  Chron.  xi.  3.5.  he  is  called  "  the  son 
G.  B.  L. 


A^IASAF  :  .V  Hebrew  anntial.  published  in'War- 
Kiiw  by  tlie  "  Ahiasaf  "  Publication  Society.  It  was 
founded  in  IHDS.  and  had  immediate  success,  both 
literary  and  financial.  Though  an  almanac  in  form, 
its  chief  merit  rests  upon  the  literary  portion  forming 
the  bulk  of  the  annual. 

The  "Ahia.saf "  is  one  of  the  agents  at  work  in 
Russia  aiming  to  bring  about  a  revival  of  the  ancient 
Hebrew  tongue  and  to  bviild  up  a  modern  Hebrew 
literature.  Most  of  the  best  Hebrew  writers,  men 
like  "  jUiad-ha-'Am"  (A.  Ginzberg).  Lillienblum, 
Brainin.  and  others,  are  among  its  regular  contrib- 
utors. M.  Ra. 

AHIEZERf"  Kinsman  is  Help"):  1.  Sonof  Am- 
mishaddai.  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  in  the  second 


year  after  the  Exodus  (Num.  i,  12).  who  brought  his 
offering  to  the  dedication  of  the  Tabernacle  on  the 
tenth  day  (Num.  vii.  (>t>-Tl).  2.  Chief  of  the  men 
who  came  to  David  at  Ziklau  (I  Chron.  xii.  3). 

G.  B.  L. 

AHIJAH  (THE  PROPHET  ).— Biblical 
Data  :  .\  projilicl  Untn  ShiloM.  \vli.>  fnnlipjil  lo  .li'ro- 
boam  thai  lie  would  become  kiiigil  Kings,  xi.  i'J). 
Laler  he  prophesied  I  he  downfall  of  Jeroboam's  house 
aiidof  thekiiigdomof  Isniel  (I  Kings,  xiv.  1-18),  Be- 
ginning with  the  latter  passage,  the  iirophet'sname  is 
written  in  the  Hebrew  text  "Ahijahu."  Bothnarra- 
lives  seem  lobe  derived  from  a  series  of  "Tales  of  the 
Prophels"  by  various  hands.  It  is  not  clear  whether, 
in  II  Chron.  ix,  2!l.  rererence  is  maile  to  these  tales 
or  to  a  later  work  ascribed  to  Ahijah.        J.   D,   P, 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:  Aliijah.thci>roiihct 

of  Sliiloh,  instigated  .broboams  secession  and  pre- 
dicted the  downfall  (it  his  kingdom.  The  Jlidrasli, 
basing  itself  on  the  fact  that,  according  to  II  Chron. 
ix.  29,  Ahijah  is  described  as  extremely  aged  in 
Jeroboam's  time  (I  Kings,  xiv,  4),  and  w  ith  no  pedi- 
gree, identified  him  with  Ahiah.  son  of  Ahitub,  the 
oraele-giving  priest  at  Shiloh  in  King  Saul's  time 
(I  Sam.  xiv.  3),  He  is  accordingly  singled  out  by 
rabbinical  tradition  as  one  of  tlie  seven  long-lived 
saints  whose  successive  lives  extend  over  the  whole 
history  of  mankind;  each  having  transmitted  the 
S!tcre(l  lore  from  his  i)redeccs,sor  to  the  one  succeed- 
ing him,  while  shielding  the  generations  of  his  time  by 
means  of  his  piety.  These  saints  are:  (I )  Adam;  (2) 
Metliu,s<lali ;  (3)  Shem(Tannadebe  Eliyahu  H,  xxiv.  i; 
(4)  Jacob  (Gen.  K.  xciv.);  (."i)  Serah,  the  dauglit<T 
of  Asher,  or,  as  otiiirs  have  it,  Amram.  the  father  of 
Moses;  ((i)  Ahijah  of  Shiloh;  (7)  Elijah  the  pmiihet, 
who  lives  until  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  ( Ab.  B.  X. 
version  B,  xxxviii,.  Seder 'Olam  H.  i.and  B.  B.  121/i). 
For  the  underlying  idea,  see  Hag.  12//,  and  ■\'oma,  38A, 
with  reference  to  Prov,  x,  25,  J/tli. ,  "  The  righteous  is  • 
the  foundation  of  the  world,"  and  Prov,  ix.  1,  "'Wis- 
dom hath  hewn  seven  jiillars."  According  to  this 
tradition  Ahijah  lived  ipvcr  six  hundred  years,  hav- 
ing received  jiis  "  wisdom  "  from  either  Amram.  the 
father  of  Moses  (see  Ami!.\m),  or  from  Serah,  the 
daughter  of  Asher  (.see  Sf.rah). 

If  from  Serah,  his  age  was  considerably  less,  since 
she  was  supposed  to  have  lived  for  more  than  four 
hundred  years,  until  the  days  of  David  ('\'alk.,  Sam. 
i;  152).  The  reason  why  Ahijah  was  regarded  as  hav- 
ing attained  so  iiniisual  an  age  .seems  to  be  that,  ac- 
cording to  11  Chron.  ix.  2i).  the  history  of  Solomon's 
reign  was  written  by  him  ;  and  that  he  was  supposed 
to  l)c  identical  with  Ahijah  the  Levitc,  who  was 
Iilaced  by  King  David  in  charge  of  the  treasures  of 
the  house  of  God  and  of  the  treasures  of  the  dedicated 
thin.ss  (I  Chron.  xxvi.2();  see  B.  B.  121/-.  Rashi). 

Simon  ben  Yohai  is  reported  to  have  sjiid;  "The 
world  must  have  thirty  righteous  men  to  serve  as 
its  pillars.  I  and  my  son  are  couiite<l  among  these 
.  .  .  and  if  Abraham  would  carry  the  jiast  genera- 
tions liy  his  merit.  I  will  carry  the  future  generations 
until  the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  And  if  Abraham 
would  not,  I  would  count  Ahijah  of  Shiloh  with 
me,  and  we  together  would  carry  the  world  by  our 
merits"  (Gen.  R.  xxxv.  ;  sec  Siik.  45').  in  which  King 
Jotham  is  given  in  place  of  Abraham  and  Ahijah). 

That  Ahijah.  though  one  of  the  pillars  of  right- 
eousness, slioidd  have  been  sent  to  Jeroboam  with  a 
divine  message  inducing  him  to  estalilish  his  idola- 
trous kingdom  is  explained  by  the  rabbis  in  the 
following  manner:  They  say  that  he  was  entrapped 
by  a  ruse  of  .Jeroboam's  idolatrous  friends,  who  cir- 
culated a  document  requesting  Jeroboam  to  become 


287 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ahaziah 
Aljijfar 


king  and  stipulating  that,  if  he  were  elected,  he  set 
up  a  golden  calf  at  Dan  and  Heth-El.  Ahijah  signed 
thisdiKunient,  believing  tirndy  tliatJerohoani  «(ndil 
not  belie  his  trust.  Herein  hi' was  mistaken  in  his 
liupil.  Jeriibiiani  had  shown  great  wisdom  and  learn- 
ing, and  api)eared  to  Ahijali  "as  i)ure  as  the  new 
garment "  he  wore  when  Ahijah  sjiw  him  coming 
ovit  of  Jerusidem  (I  Kings,  xi.  29).  Moreover,  as 
he  exeelled  all  the  rest  of  the  Jiupils,  he  had  been 
initiated  liy  Ahijah  into  the  innermost  secrets  of  the 
Ijiw  (..Sanli.  U)lh  cl  i«(/.).  .lust  as  the  words  said  of 
Isjiac,  "his  eyes  were  dim,  so  that  he  could  not  see" 
(Gen.  x.wii.  1),  are  tiikeii  to  refer  to  spiritual  blind- 
ness, because  he  favored  his  wicked  son  Esau,  so  the 
words.  "  Ahijah  could  not  see.  for  Iiis  eyes  were  set 
by  reason  of  his  age"  (I  Kings,  xiv.  4).  imply  spiri- 
tual l]lindn(S.s  on  the  Jiart  of  Ahijah,  who  favored  a 
wicked  jiupil  and  set  him  uji  as  rider  (Gen.  K.  Ixv.). 
It  was.  however,  only  .leroboani's  son  Ahijah,  and 
his  friends,  who,  starting  the  rebellion  against  Helio- 
boam.  followed  Ahijah  and  called  themselves  "  the 
children  of  Belial"  (II  Chron.  xiii.  7),  as  if  Ahijah 
were  IMial.  For  this  reason  Ahijah  was  stricken 
with  the  plague  (Gen.  H.  lxv.,Yer.  Ycb.  xvi.  \'>c  and 
paridlels). 

Maimonides,  in  his  introduction  to  "  Yad  ha-Haza- 
kah."  says,  rather  inaccurately: 

"  Abljali  wail  a  l/>vlte.  a  dlsolple  of  Moses,  one  of  those  who 
went  out  iif  EiOT'—'he  tribe  cit  I.«'vl  not  belnft  Included  In  the 
dlUlie  decree  cit  death  In  the  wlhlerness  [si'e  It.  li.  l:iW<l,  and 
al»p  a  dlsilpie  of  David  ( Abnihain  U-n  David  uf  IVisiiuieres.  in 
his  niites,  riirreit.s  thi.s.  and  sa.vs  Instead,  "a  nienilH-rot  Davhl's 
court  (if  Jastlce"];  and  llnally  tie  Iwame  tlie  teacher  of  Elijah 
before  his  death." 

K. 

AHIJAH,  AHIAH,  AHIJAHU (in'nK.  H'nN): 
Etymology  of  the  name  uncertain.  1.  Youngest 
son  of  .lendimeel ;  or  it  is  ])os,sible  to  take  the  name 
as  that  of  his  lirst  wife;  Atarah.  the  second,  being 
given  in  the  next  verse  (I  Chron.  ii.  25).  2.  A  Hen 
janiite  chief  (I  Chron.  viii.  7).  3.  I'riesI  at  Shiloh. 
son  of  Ahituli.  and  gn'rtt -grandson  of  Kli;  was  with 
Suul  at  Gibeah  in  the  battle  with  the  Philistines 
(I  Sam.  xiv.  8.  18);  he  had  charge  of  the  Ark  of  the 
Lord.  4.  The  Pelonite.  one  of  the  "thirty  "  of  Da- 
vid (I  Chron.  xi.  36).  S.  A  L<'vili'.  who  "was  over 
the  treasures  of  the  liou.se- of  Go<l  and  over  the  treas- 
ures of  the  dedicated  things"  (I  Chron.  xxvi.  20). 
The  text  here  is  corrupt  and  the  Septuagint  reading, 
"the  Levites  their  brethren."  is  jinfendile. 

6. — Biblical  Data  :  Son  of  Shisha.  scribe  for  Sol- 
omon, llisbriiiher  Elihoreiih  held  a  similar  iiosition 
(I  Kings,  iv   :ti  G.   B.   L. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:   Concerning  the 

deaths  of  Ahiali  and  his  brolher  Elilioiepli.  the  two 
scribes  of  Solomon,  the  Ilaggadah  relates  that  Solo- 
mon once  met  the  Angel  of  Death,  who  was  very  sad. 
Being  asked  for  the  nason  of  his  sadness,  the  nngel 
replied  that  he  had  been  commanded  to  lake  the  lives 
of  his  (Solomon's)  two  Klhiopians  (Ahijah  and  his 
brother).  As  soon  as  Solomon  heard  this  he  dis- 
palchid  the  brothel's  to  Liiz,  where  the  Angel  of 
Death  was  supposed  to  have  no  power  (see  Lt'z). 
Ahijali  and  his  liiother  were,  however,  overtaken  by 
dealh  when  just  at  the  gates  of  the  town.  The  angel 
nflerwarils  explained  to  Solomon  that  it  had  been  a 
ruse  on  his  (the  angel's)  part  to  iinlucc  the  kiiii:  to 
send  the  brothers  I o  Luz;  it  having  been  destined 
that  they  should  meet  their  death  at  its  gales,  and 
that  there  only  he  could  fultil  his  task.  To  this  ex 
planation  Solomon  replied  "The  f<'et  of  man  lire 
his  fate:  wherever  he  is  wanted,  thither  do  they  lead 
him'"  (Silk.. '■A/).  L."  G. 

7.  Father  of  lioasba,  who  conspired  against  Nadab, 


killed  him,  and  reigned  in  his  place  (I  Kings,  xv. 
27,  33;  xxi.  22).  He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar. 
8.  One  of  the  men  who  sealed  the  eovenant  with 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  26). 

G.  B.  L. 

AHIJAH  :  A  leader  among  the  Babylonian  .Tews 
of  the  second  century,  perhaps  a  re^/i  i/nlnln  (exil- 
arch).  He  was  the  chief  ally  of  Hananiah,  the 
nephew  of  .loshua  ben  Hananiah,  in  his  endeavor  to 
emancipate  the  .Jews  of  Babylonia  from  the  intellec- 
tual domination  of  those  of  Palestine.  The  follow- 
ing words  of  the  mcs.sengers  sent  by  the  Palestin- 
ian jialriarch  Simon  ben  Gamaliel  from  Palestine  to 
Babylon,  to  dissuade  the  leaders  there  from  their 
intention  of  introducing  a  calendar  independent  of 
that  of  Palestine,  refer  to  this  activity  of  Ahijah : 
"  If  ye  persist  in  your  intention,  seek  for  yourselves 
another  hill,  where  Ahijah  can  build  you  another 
temple,  where  Hananiah  can  play  the  harp  for  you 
[he  was  of  the  Levites  who  were  the  musicians  of 
the  Temple],  and  confess  openly  that  ye  have  no 
more  share  in  Israel 's  God  "  (Ber.  63'/ ).  Since  Ahijah 
figures  here  as  the  sjircastically  proposed  builder  of 
an  illegal  tenijile,  and  Hananiah  as  the  priest  in  the 
same,  it  would  seem  that  the  former  was  considered 
as  representing  political  rather  than  spiritual  power. 
Geiger's  suggestion  ("  I'rschrift."  p.  ir)4),  based  upon 
Yer.  Ned.  vi.  40(/,  and  Y'er.  Sanh.  i.  19(/,  where  the 
name  is  read  Neliunian,  that  this  is  a  reference  to 
Oiiias,  the  builder  of  the  well  known  temple  bearing 
his  name,  does  not  seein  to  be  well  founded  (see 
ll.\NA.M.\ii,  iK'phew  of  .Joshua).  A.  Kroclmial's 
suggestion("Seholia,"  p.  8,  Lemberg,  1881).  that  this 
Ahijah  was  the  father  of  the  celebrated  tauua  K. 
Nathan,  also  lacks  foundation. 

BiBLiOGRAPliv:  fieiper,  L'rxchrift.pp.  \M  rt i>rq.;GTiU,Ge»cli. 
,1.  Juileii,  Iv.  MB,  4rfi;  Baeher.  Au-  Tan.  1.  3S0. 

L.  G. 

AHIKAM  :    Son  of  Shaphan.    the  scribe,   and 

father  of  Gedaliah.  He  was  sent  by  King.Iosiah  to 
consult  Hiildah.  the  propjietess.  about  the  liook  of 
the  Law.  Later,  in  the  reign  of  .lehoiakim.  he  pro- 
tected .Jeremiah  from  the  handsof  the  enraged  people 
(.Jer.  xxvi.  24;  II  Chron.  xxxiv.  20;  II  Kings,  xxii. 
12,  14,  and  xxv.  22).  G.  B.  L. 

ATTTT^ATt :  Hero  of  a  wide-spread  le.ccnd,  and 
supposed  author  of  a  number  of  proverbs.  His 
name  has  been  variously  distorted,  but  proliably  wa.s 
originally  np»nxni5'"'nX  or  li^'TlS  A  v"i''i;"'C:  com- 
pare Ip',  the  name  of  a  tosjitist.  which  survivesamong 
.lews  today  ;  the  name  Np'S.  in  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud, is  probably  an  ablireviation  of  ill. 

The  earliest  mention  of  Al.iikar  is  in  the  Book  of 
Tobit  (i.  21  <f  *<-7..  ii.  10.  xi.  18.  xiv.  lOcf*^.).  Ac- 
cording to  these  pas,sages.  Al.iikar  was  a  relative — 
the  texts  vary  as  to  the  precise  relationship— and 
friend  of  Tobi't.  and  at  the  same  time  was  lord  chan- 
cellor of  the  Assyrian  empire  under  Semiaiherib. 
Mention  is  also  iniide  there  i>f  a  certain  Nadab  whom 
.\liikar  adopted,  and  who  sought  to  repay  the  hitter's 
kindness  by  burying  him  alive ;  "  Imt  God  made  good 
Ids  dishonor  in  His  sight  and  Al.iikar  returned  to  the 
light,  but  Nadab  went  into  darkness 
Mentioned  everlasting"  (Tobit.  xiv.  10.  11,  acconl- 
in  ing  to  the  Codex  Sinaiticus).     Ahil<ar 

Greek  is  not  unknown  in  the  literature  of  tlic 
Literature.  Greeks.  Clement  makes  ihestatement 
("Stromata."i.  ITi;  ed.  Migne.  p.  772) — 
whether  correcllv  or  not  is  immaterial  here — tliat 
Di'mocrittis  obtained  his  wisdom  in  part  from  the 
Babylonian  Akikarus.  Proliably  identical  with  this 
Akikarus  is  the  Achiakarus  who.  according  to  Strabo 


AV^^ar 


THE  JEAVISH   EXCYCXOPEDU 


288 


("Gi'Dfimpliy."  xvi.  2.  S  •*t'.  P-  "fi-),  received  almost 
divine  honors  from  the  inliahitunts  of  liorsippa 
(,?o(XT(TTr/i™  should  undoubteiilv  be  read,  witli  Hendel 
Harris,  instead  of  tlie  imiiossible  form  ,3o<i-o/>vi'i)i).  A 
work  of  Theophrastus  ("DioL'enes  Lacrtius."  v.  5(1) 
also  bears  lli<'  name  of  Akielianis — prciliably  another 
reference  to  the  IJalnlonian  sa;re.  Finally,  in  a  mo- 
saic at  Treves  ("Antike  Dcnkmiller  des  Archilolo- 
pischen  Inslituts."  i.  47).  at  the  side  of  llie  muse  Poly- 
liymnia.  there  is  the  form  of  a  man  hi>lding  a  scroll 
ill  his  hand,  whose  name  was  deciphered  by  Stude- 
mund  (•■  Archilologische  Jahrbik'her,"  v.  2  et  acq.)  as 
'■  Accicar. " 

None  of  the  above  statements  by  Oroek  writers 
concerninjr  Ahikar  aHonls  an  e.xiilanalinn  of  the  cir- 
cumstances referred  lo  in  the  Hook  of  Tobil,  It 
was  reserved  for  recent  research  lo  discover  that 
the  Arabic,  Armenian,  Kumanian.  Slavonic,  and  !Syr- 
iac  literatures  have  preserved  references  to  a  certain 
Ahikar.  which  ari'  not  only  of  value  for  the  conipre- 
bensifin  of  the  references  in  Tobil.  l)ul  are  important 
in  the  considenition  of  the  whole  ranire  of  .Jewish 
apocryphal  literature,  and  also  of  the  whole  fund  of 
Jewish  folk-lore  and  Iej;end.  The  credit  of  demon- 
strjitinj;  the  connection  between  the  Al.nl>ar  of  the 
Book  of  Tobit  and  the  hero  of  the  Oriental  Icj^ends 
grouped  around  the  sjime  name  belongs  to  Georg  Hoff- 
mann ("AusziVsreausSyrischenActen  PcrsischerMilr- 
tyrer,"  pp.  183  et  >»•</.).  who  was  closely  followed  by 
Meissner  and  Lidzbarski  with  further  investigations. 
Thanks  to  the  publication  and  translation  of  the 
Oriental  te.\ts  of  Ahikar  by  C'onybeare,  Hendel  Har- 
ris, and  Mrs.  A.  S.  Lewis  {"The  Story  of  Ahikar," 
London,  1898),  and  t..  the  critical  introduction  to  the 
last-named  book,  the  siibject  may  now  be  more  fully 
discussed.  The  legend  of  xVl.iikar,  as  current  in  the 
above-mentioned  languages,  is  somewhat  as  follows : 

Ahikar  was  the  wise  and  powerful  chancellor  of  the 
As.syrian  king  Sennacherib,  son  of  Esar-haddon  (in 
H  Kings.  .\ix.  S~  Esar  haddou  is  the  son.  and  not  the 
father,  of  Sennacbe..'.):  but  compare,  for  a  similar 
anachronism,  Sanh.  94</ ;  indeed  the  later  Jewish  leg- 
end did  not  always  adhere  strictly  to  Biblical  ac- 
counts). He  was  si.vty  years  of  age,  had  sixty  wives 
(compare  Cant.  vi.  8;  in  the  Aramaic 
ChanceUor   folk-lore  of  the  Talnuid  the  nund)er 

of  Sen-  si.My  is  a  favorite  one  and  usually  de 
nacherib.  notes  anv  larire  nundier:  15.  K.  OH/. 
twice;  IJ.'B.  iti./;  Sanh.  7*;:  Hui.  58M. 
and  no  child  had  been  born  to  him.  The  gods,  to 
whom  he  brought  many  otTerings.  announced  to  him 
at  last  that  he  would  never  have  a  child ;  and  they 
therefore  desired  him  to  adopt  bis  sister's  son.  the 
lad  Xadan  (meaning  "gift."  like  Nathan,  but  also 
possibly  with  a  contcnii)tuous  secondary  meaning,  as 
in  Ezek.  xvi.  Xi).  Hearing  him  tciulerly.  Ahikar 
himself  undertook  the  lad's  instruction. 

Nadan  seemed  a  ])romisiug  youth  indeed,  physic- 
ally and  intellectually,  and  Ahikar  might  have  re- 
joiced at  such  return  for  all  his  care;  but  morally 
the  lad  was  thoroughly  corrupt,  and  paid  not  the 
slightest  heed  to  the  wi.se  counsels  and  maxims  of 
his  uncle.  Not  only  was  he  offensively  donn'neering 
in  Ahikar's  household — so  much  so  indeed  that  the 
latter  had  eventually  to  forbid  him  the  housi — but 
at  court,  too,  where  Ahikar  had  presented  him  as 
his  future  successor  in  oliice.  he  used  his  influence 
with  a  view  to  destroying  his  benefactor.  By  means 
of  forged  letters  and  subtle  intrigues  Nadan  suc- 
ceeded in  having  Ahikar  accused  of  high  treason 
and  condemned  to  deatli.  Only  through  the  friend- 
ship of  the  executioner  Nabusamak  (compare  the 
Hebrew  name  "Elisamak'')  did  .iVhikar  escape. 
Nabusamak  coucealed  him  in  a  subterranean  hiding- 


place,  and  showed  the  body  of  a  de<apitated  slave 
as  that  of  Al,dl>ar.  Nadan's  triumph,  however,  was 
of  short  duration.  The  king  repeatedly  deplored 
the  loss  of  the  wise  counsel  of  his  former  chaucellor. 
Wailing  his  opportunity.  Nabusamak  came  forward 
and  declared  himself  able  to  produce  the  missing 
sage.  This  was  done,  much  to  the  king's  gratiticu- 
lion :  and  the  latter  received  his  lost  friend  witli  great 
honor. 

liut  Ahikar  had  then  no  time  to  punish  his  rascally 
nephew:  for  he  had  to  build  for  the  king  of  Egypt 
a  castle  between  heaven  and  earth,  besides  giving 
him  other  illustrations  of  A.s.syrian  wisilom.  It  aji- 
pears  that  Pharaoh  had  demanded  of  Sennacherib 
an  arcliilect  coiniietent  to  cre<-|  such  a  caslle,  and 
had  prondsed  to  ])ay  a  large  sum  annually  for  several 
yeai's  if  he  could  provide  one;  failing  which,  Sen- 
nacherib was  to  pay  him  tribute.  Al.ukar  not  only 
performed  his  task  in  Egypt  successfully,  but  at  the 
same  lime  gave  so  many  instances  of  his  superior 
wisdom  that  Pharaoh  declared  he  could  not  comiiete 
with  him.  and  dismissed  him  with  rich  rewards  for 
himself  and  handsome  presi'nts  for  his 
Architect  master.  On  his  return  home  the  king 
for  delivered  Nadan  into  Al.nkar's  hands 

Pharaoh,  for  punishment.  Ahikar  loaded  him 
with  chains  and  threw  liini  into  prison, 
where,  in  contrast  with  the  scanty  food  doled  out 
to  him,  he  was  richly  regaled  witli  .selections  from 
his  uncle's  wise  proverbs — the  same  that  he  had  so 
s))urued  in  his  youth,  and  for  the  |ir,»'tical  utilizatiim 
of  which  he  had  now  no  opportunity.  He  died  mis- 
erably in  prison:  "for  he  who  digs  a  pit  for  his 
brother  shall  fall  into  it;  and  he  who  sets  up  traps 
shall  be  caught  in  them"  (Arabic  text,  end;  com- 
pare Ps.  vii.'^lG:  Eccl.  x.  8). 

The  foregoing  brief  abstract  of  the  legend  is 
nearly  the  same  in  all  the  above-mentioned  versions. 
But  there  is  great  diversity  as  regards  the  maxims 
and  fables  that  form  the  beginning  and  the  close  of 
the  legend,  so  that  it  is  desirable  to  consider  the 
development  of  the  legend  apart  from  tliat  of  the 
maxims. 

It  is  evident,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  Arabic 
version  has  come  directly  from  the  Syriac.  and  that 
it  retains  many  Syriac  expressions  (compare,  for 
instance,  inn  71t2ri-  "Thou  slialt  have  patience," 
p.  '2.  end.  which  is  a  literal  translation  of  the  Syriac 
■inn  -iiH.  p.  y'J,  line  Vi:  and  p.  27.  line  4  from' bot- 
tom, the  Syriac  wont  J'D  is  transliterated  into  the 
Arabic  anil  left  untranslated).  The  Armenian  text 
also  is  derived  from  the  Syriac:  while  the  Slavonic 
version,  from  which  the  Rumanian  is  a  tran.slation. 
has  the  medieval  Greek  version  for  its  foundation. 
Much  more  intricate  is  the  problem  of 
■Versions  of  the  connection  with  the  so  calleil  "  Life 

Legend  of  .Esop."  by  Maxinnis  Planudes  (ed. 
Compared.  Ebcrhard,  "Fabuhr  Komanen.ses."  i, 
225  ft  sig.).  which  relates  of  .-Esop 
events  similar  to  those  ascribed  to  Ahikar.  Meiss- 
ner, therefore,  maintains  that  the  Ahikar  legend  in 
its  present  form  is  simply  an  elaboration  of  Planudes' 
"Life  of  ^-Esop,"  and  claims  to  have  detected  traces 
of  its  Greek  origin  in  the  Semitic  version.  The  nature 
of  these  supposed  traces,  however,  is  sufficiently  in- 
dicated by  one  example.  In  the  riddle  of  thej'cars. 
occurring  in  both  the  Ahikar  legend  and  the  "  Life  of 
/Esop,"  mention  is  made  of  two  cords,  one  white  and 
one  black,  representing  day  and  night.  Meissner 
claims  that  this  proves  the  Indo-GeiTiianic  origin  of 
the  story;  for  Semites  would  have  said  "one  black 
and  one  white,"  because  they  commence  the<lay  with 
the  evening.  Unfortunately  for  this  ingenious  hy- 
pothesis, in  the  Old  Testament — the  Semitic  character 


289 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Al)i]^ar 


I 


of  which  probably  no  one  will  deny — the  expression 
'"  (lay  and  uijilit  "  occ\irs  nearly  fifty  times ;  while  the 
inverted  jihrase  is  found  only  fourteen  limes.  In- 
deed, if  one  were  to  judjje  sinii)ly  from  such  external 
evidence,  the  Syriac  version  would  undoubtedly  be 
recognized  as  a  direct  translation  from  the  Hebrew; 
for  in  the  whole  ranjre  of  Syriue  literature  there  is  no 
work  of  such  strongly  marked  IIel)rew  cast  as  this 
Al.iikar  legend.  The  following  examples  will  illus- 
trate this:  In  the  Syriac  the  expression  "  15at  Kol  "  (p. 

38.  line  4)  is  exactly  the  Neo-IIebrew  •)'\p  ri3  (a  voice 
from  heaven),  meaning  in  Syriac  simply  a  word;  on 
p.  38.  line  10.  "if  thou."  etc..  is  an  imitation  of  Gen. 
XV.  3.  the  Hebrew  |n  of  which  is  ba<lly  rendered  by 
the  Syriac  |K;  on  p.  38,  line  16,  "linen  and  purple" 

is  a  reminiscence  of  Esth.  viii.  15;  on  p.  39.  line  1. 
there  is  a  trace  of  Dan.  ii.  4.  and  on  j).  ,")(>.  line  9. 
one  from  Dan.  ii.  11.  Such  exanii)les.  which  ini.irht 
ea.sily  be  multiplied,  show  at  least  how  closely  the 
Sj'riac  version  follows  liihlical  style.     In  view  of  the 

fact  that   the  nurnitive  itself   has  no 
Syriac  Fol-  point  of  contact  with  Biblical  litera- 
lows  ture,  this  close  resemblance  can  be  ex- 

Hebrew       plained  only  by  the  assumption  that 
Original,      the  author  of  the  Syriac  version  had  a 

Hebrew  ori,i:inal  before  him.  This  as- 
sumption becomes  almost  a  certainly  when  it  is  per- 
ceived how  deeply  the  Ahikar  legend  is  indebted  to 
Jewish  literature  for  many  of  its  essential  features, 
though  it  is  by  no  means  meant  to  be  implied  that 
the  work  itself  is  genuinely  Jewish. 

In  its  details  the  contest  of  wits  between  Ahikar 
and  the  Egyptian  sages  resembles  closely  that  in  the 
Talmud  (Hek.  H/j)  between  Rabbi  Joshua  ben  Hana- 
niah  and  the  Athenian  wise  nun;  and  this  resem- 
blance exists  not  only  in  th<'  inili\  iilual  details,  but 
likewise  in  the  general  fashion  of  replying  to  one 
question  impossible  of  solution  with  another  inies- 
tion  of  exaggerated  impossibility.  For  instance,  the 
wise  men  of  Athens  reipiire  Joshua  to  sew  together 
the  fragments  of  a  broken  millstone  and  receive  in 
reply  tlie  request  for  a  few  threads  made  of  I  hi'  fiber 
of  the  stone  (see  also  Lam.  I{.  to  i.  1 ) ;  exactly  tlu'  same 
question  and  answer  are  reiMirded  of  .\hikar  in  the 
Syriac  version  (p.  (i."))and  in  the  Arabic  (  p.  '..'4).  The 
incident  of  the  ropes  of  .siuid.  mentioned  in  all  the  ver- 
sions of  the  Ahikar  legenil.  is  found  in  its  simplest 
form  in  the  Talnuid;  Joshua  declares  himself  ready 
to  transport  an  outlying  well  into  the  city  if  his  ques- 
tioners will  sup  ply  him  with  ro]iesof  bran.  The  form 
of  Ahiljar's  repartee  seems  a  liltle  loo  artificial.  The 
resemblaneebitwei'n  the  account  (jf  Pharaoh 'sin<lel)t- 
edness  to  Sennacherib  and  a  similar  pleasjuitry  related 
of  Joshua  haslicin  pointeil  out  by  .Sleissner.  who  also 
demonstrates  that  Ahikars  greatest  triuni|)h  — the 
boys,  upborne  by  eagles,  who  were  to  build  a  tower 
l)etween  heaven  and  earth — is  also  related  of  Joshua, 
though  in  a  strongly  Judai/.ed  form.  The  construc- 
tion of  n  similar  air  castle  plays  a  great  part  also  in 
the  Hiram  legend  (Valk.  to  E/.ek.  xxviii.  2.  ^  'Mu  : 
"IS.  II  '  V.  \\l  ,1  M,!/.).  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the 
Ahikar  legend  is  in  many  respects  similar  to  that 
concerning  Hiram;  thus.  I  lirain's  s<'lf  deification  (see 
Gin/berg,  in  "  .Monalsschrift,"  xliii.  .'i4'.i  (7  m-q.)  seems 
to  be  mildly  i)arallelecl  in  the  collo(|uy  between  Ahi- 
kar and  I'iiaraoh.  where  the  former  refers  to  tlie 
Egyptian  monarch's  weakness  and  insignificance  as 
compared  with  his  almost  divine  liabylonian  master. 
Sennacherib.  The  sarcasm  of  this  comparison  is  in- 
tensified when  one  recollrelslhat.  aeeordini;  lo.liwi-.h 
legend,  it  was  Ihe  Egyptian  king  who,  like  Ilintm. 
cliiimed  divine  honors  for  hinisi'lf  (Mek.,  Shinih.  g  8; 
Tan.,  cd.  Huber,  ii  31) 
I. -lit 


Investigation  as  to  the  sources  of  the  proverbs  and 
fables  in  the  Al.iikar  legend  is  more  difficult.  Xot  only 
do  the  <lilfcreut  versions  ditfer  widely 
Sources      in  mimber  and  contents,  but,  from  the 
of  the        very  nature  of  legends,  such  material 
Proverbs     is  extremely  liable  to  modification  and 
and  Fables,  elaboration.    Taking  those  in  the  Syr- 
iac  version,  the  following  numerous 
jiandlels  to  Ahikar 's  maxims,  culled  from  the  Bible  anil 
Talmud,  may  throw  sotue  li.irht  upon  the  connection; 

No.  1.  Ab.  Iv.  17.  Eiil.  It.  to  xll.  n. 

No.  3.  Ecelus.  (Slnii-h),  xlx.  10  isvrlac)  ;  Ab.  II.  14. 

No.  .5.  EiTlus.  (Slruc-h).  xxv.  21  (Syriac).  Tlie  Ahikar  text 
probal)ly  iiei^iis  rortfiijnn  here. 

No.  7.  This  IS  prnlpichly  a  pun  upon  the  Hebrew  word  '^i''!',  which 
means  biitli  "aliiiornl-iri'f"  and  "to  hasten." 

No,  H.  Hi-re.  t4x>,  aci-ortlln);  to  Hali'vy,  is  a  play  upon  the  He- 
brew words  "i"i'    (eityi  and  TJ' las-si. 

No.  9.  A  i)lay  upon  the  words  a'iiy  rfa  (to  split  wood)  and 
nnii'D  I'^p  do  sit  down  to  a  meal). 

No.  10.  For  the  expression  "  to  pour  wine  upon  graves  "  com- 
pare Ecrlus.  (Siraeh),  xxx.  18. 

No.  1«,  Compare  Pn)V.  xlli.  19,  a  maxim  widely  prevalent  In 
various  forms  IhrouKliout  Jewish  llteniture;  see  Dukes,  "Rab- 
blnisi-lie  Ulumenlese,"  Nos.  ISO.  Isl.  iloii. 

No.  13.  Found  literally  In  tien.  R.  xllv.  12. 

No.  15.  Orlglnidly  contained  a  play  upon  p^"  (portion)  and 
p'i'H  (to  quarrel). 

No.  111.  In  place  of  "evil  eye"  (Prov.  xxiti.  ft)  we  have  "a 
shameless  one";  probably  throuffh  confusion  of  the  late  He- 
brew Is;Dn  (seeKld.  .>t<ii  withtheSyrlacV'^"'"'*'  (to  be  ashamed). 

No.  ao.  Matt.  v.  -H. 

No.  ~l.  Prov.  xxlv.  lt>. 

No.  21.  Ecclus.  (Slnich),  xxx.  12  (compare  S.Trlacl. 

No.  :W.  "Son"  should  probably  be  read  here  instead  of 
"slave"  (see  Armenian  version.  No.  -lat,  in  airreement  with 
Shall.  Wli. 

No.  40.  ".Mphabet  of  Ben  Slra,"  letter  Lnmedli:  "The  wise 
man  ni*eils  a  nod  :  the  fool  requires  a  blow." 

No.  4;i.  Ecclus.  (Slnich),  XX.X11.  11. 

No.  44.  Eccl.  Ix.  111. 

No.  4<1.  Ii.  B.  9S/<,  quoted  as  a  saying  of  Siraeh  ;  Identical  with 
the  .Mukar  maxim  as  to  substance,  but  contradictory  in  form. 

No.  40.  Prov.  xxvll.  10. 

No.  .'iOo.  Ecclus.  (SIniclil.  xxx.  17,  xli.  2. 

No.  .'iO/».  Eccl.  vil.  2-4  :  the  divergence  Is  probably  owing  to  an 
erroneous  contraction  of  Die  verses  In  Eccleslastes. 

No.  ,'>1.  To  Eccl.  H.  Iv.  I),  quoted  as  a  popular  adage;  see 
also  a  similar  maxim  In  Pes.  li*i. 

No.  .52.  Ecclus.  (SIracli),  xxvll.  Hi. 

No.  .W.  Ecclus.  I.sii-ach),  xx.  IS,  xxi.  10. 

No,  .'>4.  Ecclu.s.  (SIrachi,  xlx.  10. 

No.  .Vi.  Mek.,  Mlsh|>a|lm.  i  li. 

No.  ,')7.  Prov,  xxvll.  10,  ilie  word  "  not "  is  to  l)e  supplied. 

No.  iVt.  All.  vl. ."). 

No.  111).  Prov.  xxlv.  17,  .\b.  iv.  28 ;  compare  also  No.  17  of  the 
Ahikar  maxims. 

Nil.  1)1.  Lev.  xlx.  ;il. 

No.  r>2.  PIrke  Kabbenu  ba-Kadosh,  ed.  SebOnblum,  p.  22b;  ed. 
Griinhiit,  p.  ft.'). 

No.  Ik).  Ecclus.  (Slracli),  iv.  21!,  according  to  the  text  given  In 
"  Wisdom  of  lien  Slni,"  ed,  Schechler;  compare  also  lien.  K.  xllv. 
1."),  Meg.  IW),  Her.  71). 

No.  lift.  Eccl.  1.  S.  a  play  u|wn  Ihe  Hebrew  word  Ti".  which 
means  iKith  "eve"  and  "  fountain  "  ;  compare  'i'aiiild,  ;i2/i. 

No.  71.  "Alpiiabet  of  Hen  Slra,"  end,  where  llie  U'Xt  needs 
correction. 

No.  ~l.  Ps.  cxll.  a.  probably  according  to  the  Scptuaglnt. 

.No.  74.  Prov.  xxv.  17. 

The  exhortations  at  Ihe  end  of  the  .\liikar  legend, 
which  borrow  their  imagery  mainly  from  ihe  animal 
world,  may  be  also  panilleled  in  rabbinical  litera- 
ture. The  following  is  an  illiislration :  Ahiljiar  re- 
fers to  the  relations  between  himself  and  his  nephew 
when  he  says.  "  I  have  seen  colls  that  were  Ihe  slayers 
of  their  parents"  (Syriac  text.  p.  70).  The  context 
seems  to  demand  an  opposite  sentence;  namely,  that 
young  colls  sometimes  die  before  their  |)arents — a 
form  Which  is  actually  found  in  Sanh.  .VJ<i,  Lev. 
I{.  XX.  10.  A  eomparison  with  the  latter  pa.ssage 
shows  that  the  .'^yriac  translator  read  the  word  pn'Ow' 
erroneously  as  j'tSmC  (slayei-s).  thus  giving  it  the 
opposite  si'use.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  almost 
eomplele  agreement  between  Ahikar(Syriac,  p  19) 
and  tien.  H.  xxvi.  ').  The  fable  of  the  man  and  the 
wood,  known  both  to  Greeks  and  Indians  (see  .Esops 
Faiii.ks),  is  al.so  found  in  all  forms  of  the  AIiil>ar 


Ahimelecb 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


290 


lejri'iKi  as  well  as  in  Gon.  R.  v.  10.  It  may  also  he 
mentioned  that  those  miixims  tlmt  do  not  occur  in  the 
Syriiie  version.  li\it  are  nut  with  in  the  others,  may 
also  be  pariiUeleil  hy  ral)liinieiil  siivings  (compare,  for 
instance,  the  Shivonic  version.  i\o.  27.  with  Sanh. 
112/<.  and  the  Armenian.  No.  100,  with  Pes.  ^9/-). 

From  all  the  precedinjr  it  seems  fair  to  conclude 
that  the  Ahikar  nia.xiins  represent  some  ancient  col- 
lection of  .lewish  iKijiwlar  proverbs,  which  at  a  later 
period  were  combined  with  the  legend  of  the  liaby- 
lonian  sji.ses.  Lejiemls  anil  jiroverbs  then  traveled 
together  Ihrouirh  Europe  and  Asi.i.  In  addition  to 
the  abovc-menlioneil  versions  of  the  Ahikar  stcvry. 
the  Hindus,  like  most  of  the  European  nations,  pos- 
sess the  legend,  as  Heiifey  has  shown;  altliough  he. 
unac(|uainted  with  the  true  facts,  dcs- 
Relation  to  ignated  India  as  the  original  home  of 
the  Hindu  the  story.  It  is  reinarkalile  in  this 
Version,  connection  tliat  thi'  ilinilu  version  be 
trays  many  iiointsof  resemblance  with 
the  Talmudic  luaterial — points  whicli  obtain  in  no 
other  forms  of  the  story.  Thus,  for  instance,  one 
of  Vicaklia's  problems  was  to  det<'rmiue  the  se.\  of 
two  serpents  whicli  had  no  dislinclive  marks  about 
them:  botli  task  and  solution  are  found  in  the  Mid- 
rash  on  Proverbs  (i.  1)  related  of  King  Solomon.  In 
the  Hindu  form  of  the  legend  and  in  cognate  forms, 
it  is  coMsiilered  tlie  higliest  trium]ili  of  the  sage  to 
distinguisli  which  cud  of  u  wooden  rod  was  situated 
downwaril  in  the  tree  in  which  it  grew,  and  which 
end  ujnvard.  In  the  Jewish  Solomon  legend  the 
same  question  is  <lescribed  as  being  tlie  last  and  the 
most  dillicult  of  those  i)ropounded  by  the  queen  of 
Sheba  to  the  king,  and  its  solution  is  exactly  in  ac- 
cord with  tliat  of  the  Hindu  version  (see  the  Yemen 
Midrash  described  by  Schechter,  in  "Folk-Lore," 
189(1,  pp.  349-3.58). 

Although  the  weight  of  the  preceding  testimony  is 
in  favorof  the  suggestion  that  the  Ahikar  legend  and 
the  system  of  legends  and  maxims  connected  there- 
with point  to  a  Jewish  substratum,  the  material  ex- 
tant hardl_v  warrants  the  conclusion  that  it  is  a  [jrod- 
uct  of  genuine  Jewisli  folk-lore.     For  a  purely  Jewish 
work  I  here  is  too  little  religious  material  in  it ;  a  fact 
which  in  the  postexilian  period — for  this  is  the  earli- 
est date  ])o.ssible — is  somewhat  surpri- 
A  Jewisli   sing.    The  Ahikarof  the  Book  of  Tobit 
Sub-        and  the  Ahikarof  t  he  legend  have  man)' 
stratum,     points  of  similarity;  but  it  can  not  be 
said  with  certainty  that  they  are  iden- 
tical.    That  the  Ahikar  legend  tinds  employment  in 
the  New  Testament  is  true  only  to  the  extent  that 
some  proverbial  sayings  of  the  Ahikar  collection  a])- 
pear  in  the  latter  in  a  somewhat  moditied  form,  which 
may  really  only  show  the  extent  to  which  the  legend 
had  spread,  and  not  a  strictly  literary  connection. 
Of  the  Ahikar  legend  proper,  the  New  Testament 
contains  absolutely  no  traces,  Halevy  and  Heudcl 
Harris  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

BIHLIOCRAPHT  :  Benfey,  Dii-  Klmic  Dirnr.  in  AuxJnnil,  18.'>fl. 
lip.  4.'>"  I't  .va/.,  and  espeeiully  .511  ct  sci/.;  Conybeare.  IteinJel 
Harris,  and  Agnes  Smith  Lewis,  The  Stifrw'f  Ahikar^  Lon- 
don, ISiW  (contains  tlie  Aniltic,  Smar.  Armenian, 'and  Greeic 
te-xt.s,  witli  a  transljition  of  the  t1r>;t  ttiree.  as  well  as  a  Slavonic 
versiun  and  an  c.xhaustive  iiitntduction):  C<)squin,  in  licruf 
Itihlitmr^  viii.  .Td  it  ,s* */.,  .'ilo  ft  .^t  (/.;  (ijuster. in  Jimrual nf  thf 
UiiUKl  Aniittk'  Siiriilji.  l;»«i,  p|i.  ;iiil  ii  M'l.  ii-ontaiiis  a  Ru- 
manian version  and  an  Fhi:!ish  tnilisliiliori);  Halevy,  in  Ufviw 
Snttitifiucviii.'^itt .'<tii.:  .lairic,  in  /f,i/;<(Nh';o>(7i«  '/i  it.<fhrift, 
1.  107  ct  ncu-:  Kuhn,  ihid.  pp.  V^  ct  seq.i  Lidzbai^lii.  in 
Z.  D.  3/.  G.  xlviii.  tj71  ct  .vc*/.:  LMc  Xcu-A  rnm<Iif<cbcti  }Ia)nl- 
iichriftcn.  I.  ii.;,Meissner,  in  Z.  D.M.  U.  pp.  171  c(  mi;.  ;  Kei- 
nach,  in  liev.  Kt.  Jiiu'cs,  x.\xviil.  1  ct  sea. 

L.  G. 

AHIMAAZ  {•' Brother  of  Anger"):  1.  Father  of 
Ahinuam,  wife  of  Saul  (I  Sam.  xiv.  50).     2.  Com- 


mis.snry-gcneral  of  Solomon  in  Naphtuli,  who  mar- 
ried Basmath.  the  daughter  of  Solomon  (I  Kings 
iv.  1.")).  3.  Son  of  Zadok,  who,  with  Jonathan,  the 
son  of  Abiiithar.  brought  David  the  news  from  the 
camp  of  Absalom  luid,  after  the  battle  between 
the  king's  forces  under  .loab  and  those  of  Absidom, 
ha.stiMied  to  tell  David  of  the  victory,  outrunning  the 
Ciishite  who  had  started  some  time  befoic  him  (H 
Sam.  XV.  36,  xvii.  17-20,  xviii.  19  ftxei/.;  I  t'hron. 
V.  34  et  seq.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  list  of  liigh 
pri(sts\  G.  B.  L. 

AHIMAAZ  BEN  PALTIEL :  Liturgical  poet, 
and  author  of  n  family  chronicle:  born  in  Capua, 
Italy,  1017;  died  about"  KMIO  in  Oria.  Yery  little  is 
known  iibout  his  life.  He  came  of  a  family  some 
of  whose  members  are  well  known  in  Jewish  litera- 
ture as  .scholars  and  poets:  for  example,  Hanancel, 
and  his  nephew  Amiltai  ben  Shephatiah.  Ahimaaz 
had  two  sons.  Palliel  ami  Samuel.  The  following 
family  tree,  reaching  up  to  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century,  is  based  on  data  given  by  Ahimaaz  in  his 
"Chronicle  ": 

Amiliai  I. 


Shepballah ;  d.  c.  88« 


I 


Papolconl. 
(Vila,  23) 


Auiiltui  II.    Kassia  m.  Ha.sadyab  I. 


AInliel 


Paltlel  I 

I 


Sbabbetbal  I. 


Hanani'cl  II. 

I 


I  I  I  I  I  I 

(A  daugbter)    Paltiel  II.;    Samuel,    Shah-      Papo-    Ha-sadyab 
a.  iW9        d.  inns,  betbai  II.  leon  II.        II. 
I        m.  Allmvcni. 
I  i 

Samuel  II.    PamellII.:b.  988;  d.  10« 

1 
AHIUAAZ;  b.  1017;  d.  about  1060 

I 


Paltlel  IV.;  b.  1088 


Samuel  III.;  h.  1014 


Benjamin  of  Tudela  mentions  an  Aliimiuiz  ben 
Paltiel  in  Amalfi  in  southern  Italv,  in  the  vcar 
11()2  (see  his  "Travels."  ed.  Asher,  i.  13,  14).  this 
may  well  have  been  a  descendant  of  his  earlier  name- 
sake :  for  it  is  known  that  two  brothers  of  the  grand- 
fat  her  of  Ahimaaz  ben  Paltiel  were  sent  with  presents 
to  Paltiel  by  the  prince  of  Amalfi  (see  "Rev.  Et. 
Juives,"  xxxii.  147)  In  a  list  of  twenty-two  Ki/i/iah 
(elegiac)  poets  (Italy,  fifteenth  century?),  Ahimaaz 
ben  Paltiel  is  mentioned  as  the  author  of  two  jioems; 
and  a  Mahzor  of  the  Koman  rite  attributes  to  him  a 
.selihah  for  the  Feast  of  Esther. 

Ahimaaz  is  better  known  as  the  compiler  of  the 
"Chronicle"  mentioned   above,   which,   though   in- 
tended merely  to  glorify  his  own  immediate  ances- 
tors, gives  much  important  information  in  regard  to 
the  history  of  the  early  Jewish  settlements  in  such 
towns  as  Oria,    Bari,  Otranto,    Gaeta,    Benevente, 
Capini,  Amalfi,  and  Pa  via  in  southern 
The  Chron-  Italy,     AVritten    about    one   himdrcd 
icle  of       years  before  Abraham   ibn  Daud,  it 
Ahimaaz.    covers  a  [jcriod  (8.50-10.54)  our  knowl- 
edge of  which   is  extremely  scanty; 
the  only  information  hitherto  having  been  obtained 
from  a  few  inscriptions  and   from  notices  in  the 
works  of  Shalibethai  Donolo,  who  also  was  a  na- 
tive of  Oria.     Only  one  manuscript  of  the  "Chron- 
icle "  is  known  to  exist ;  it  is  in  the  library  of  the 


291 


THE  .JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ahimelech 


catlicdral  at  Toledo,  Spain.  It  bears  the  title  "Se- 
fcr  Yuhasin"  (Bonis  of  Genealogies;  compare  Neu- 
bauer's  ed.,  pp.  111-113,  132,  133),  and  is  written  in 
the  peculiar  rimed  pro.se  which  the  Arab  Al-IIumdani 
hail,  in  tUt;  hki/lii/iihI,  broujilit  into  jironiineiice  til'ty 
velars  before  Ahimaaz,  and  which  Hariri  perfected 
"tifty  years  after  him  :  the  same  style  that  in  Hebrew 
literature  was  allectcd  by  Jiidah  Alharizi  and  Im- 
maniiel  of  Hdme. 

Accordliii;  to  the  traditions  preserved  by  Ahimaaz, 
his  family  had  its  oriirin  amoiij?  the  captives  wliom 
Titus  bnjiiirht  to  Italy  after  tlie  destruction  of  the 
Temple.  The  first  per.sou  lie  mentions  is  Amittai 
of  Oria.  whom  he  calls  kiiMkii-  and  j/hi/i/hI.  a  man 
versed  in  Talmudic  law  and  a  writer  of  lit urjrical 
])oetry.  In  the  "Cliroiiicle  "  are  .niveii  the  lirst  au- 
thentic data  concerninir  the  Wdiider  workinjr  Aaron 
of  IJabyInn,  the  reputed  teacher  of  Kalonymus  of 
Luica;  also  throu{;li  an  accnunt  liy  It.  Silaiio  addi- 
tional iiifornialion  is  fjleaned  alioul  the  Jewish  com- 
munity of  Veiiosji,  some  epitaphs  frfun  which  [ilace 
liad  iireviously  been  published  by  G.  .1.  A.scoli.  (^f 
thesonsof  Amittai,  the  "  Chidiiicle''  dwells  especially 
upon  Sheplialiah,  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  jirolitic 
liluri,'ical  jioels  (abnul  S.")(l-M()0),  and  i^ives  scime  re- 
liable data  on  the  perscculiims  which  the  Hyzantine 
.lews  had  to  sulTer  under  Basil  1.  ;  on  the  Sanicen 
invasion  of  Sicily  and  Italy  (H'i)  ;  on  another  li- 
turjiical  Jioet,  Amittai  ben  Sliepliatiah ;  and  on  the 
disputation  which  Ilananeel  ben  Amittai  was  forced 
to  hold  with  the  archbishop  of  (Iria.  The  author  is 
obviously  proud  of^ilie  honor  done  to  his  family  by 
one  of  its  luemliers,  I'altiel.  the  vizier  of  Al  .Muizz 
and  'Abd  al-Manzur  (!M)i_l)!)-,'|  of  Efrvjit ;  jierliaps 
the  lirst  of  th(.  Efrvptian  iniijidx,  whom  I)e  (Joeje 
has  tried  to  iilentify  with  .lauhar  al-Hunii  or  al  Sak- 
labi.  Ahimaaz  closes  with  short  accounts  of  Ilana- 
neel, of  his  son  Samuel  in  Capua,  and  of  I'altiel  ben 
Samuel  (!)HH-1(143),  father  of  the  author  himself. 

The  unii|ue  inaiiuscript  in  Toledo  bears  the  name 
of  .Menahem  ben  Benjamin  in  its  siirnatnre.  It  is 
uncertain  whethc-r  the  word  used  there.  D^C'O  ("lin- 
islied''),  refers  to  the  composition  or  to  the  <'opy- 
inj;  of  the  work.  This  siirnature  is  also  in  rimed 
prose;  ami  it  .seems  probable  that  at  least  part  of 
pairi'  133  (lines  li-03)  in  Neiibauer's  edition  is  by 
.Minalic-m  ami  not  by  Aliimaaz.  for  it  contains  an  ac- 
count of  the  author  in  IanLrua,s;e  that  one  would  not 
expect  an  author  to  use  of  himself. 

There  is  no  evidence  that  Ahimaaz  made  use  of 
any  lileniry  records;  he  simply  iralhered  toirether 
Iradilions  that  had  been  current  in  his  family.  In 
diMTibliii;  the  activity  of  the  vizier  I'altiel.  he  re- 
fers to  the  ■■  (  hidiiiilesof  Egypt"  ascoutainiiii;  fur- 
ther data  on  the  subject.  Even  in  this  case  it  is 
improliable  that  he  liasany  imlividiial  work  in  mind. 
The  body  of  the  "  ('hroni(  le  "  contains  no  dates;  a 
few  are  to  be  fouiiil  in  the  last  t  wo  si.ctions,  part  of 
which  may  be,  as  slaleil  above,  a  later  addition. 

The  "Chronicle  of  Ahimaaz  "  is.  however,  of  inter- 
est from  another  pcpjnt  of  viiw.  It  is  full  of  accounts 
of  wonderful  deeds  and  of  superhu- 
PopularBe-  man  ell'orts;  and  gives  an  interesting 

liefs  and     pi<lureof  the  popular  beliefs  and  sii- 

Supersti-  perstitionsof  Iheauthor'sday.  It  nur- 
tions.  rates  the  exploits  of  Aaron,  who  is  able 
to  lock  up  an  evil  spirit  in  a  chest  liy 
mean-sof  the  .S7i(/;i  (inelTable  name  of  God);  how  his 
pupil  Sheplialiah  is  able  miraculously  to  cover  a 
gnat  ilislance  in  a  viry  short  time  so  as  to  avoid  pro- 
faning the  Sablialh  dav;  how  Sliepliatiah  is  able  to 
save  llic  llfr  of  a  chilil  I  hat  two  IVmali'  demons  had 
ileterniined  to  put  to  dial  h;  how  Haimiieel  is  able  to 
bring  bis  cousin  to  life  again;  how  heaven  directly 


helps  the  same  Hananeel ;  and  how  the  moon  re- 
mains oliscured  fora  whole  night  in  orderto  cover  up 
an  error  made  in  an  astronomical  calculation.  The 
tale  is  told  of  the  "  Seferha-Merkabah,"  a  wonderful 
book  from  which  Shephatiah  draws  his  knowleilgi'  of 
heaven's  mystiTies-  before  this  book  a  light  burned 
upon  the  Sabbath  day.  In  order  that  the  book  should 
not  fall  into  the  hands  of  those  that  were  unworthy 
to  use  it,  it  was  put  into  a  case  of  li'ad  and  throw  n 
to  the  waves,  which  receded  ]ierceplil>ly  and  carried 
away  the  mysterious  gift.  The  power  of  Paltiel  as 
an  astrologer  is  dwelt  upon  ;  it  was  this  i>ower  which, 
in  a  measure,  insured  for  him  the  frieiidship  of  the 
comiueror  of  Egypt.  In  this  "Chronicle"  are  also 
found  thelirst  traces  of  the  story  of  the  "  Wandering 
.Jew."  Filled  as  it  is  with  these  le.irends.  one  would 
be  tempted  lo disregard  the  "Chronicle  "  as  a  histor- 
ical source.  But  the  naivete  with  which  the  slory 
is  told  shows  thai  there  is  no  attempt  at  historical 
reconstruction:  and  one  can  feel  certain  that  the 
basis  upon  which  ^Uiiinaaz's  work  rests  is  reliable 
family  tradition. 

The  language  in  which  the  "Chronicle"  is  written 
bears  out  this  view.  In  its  formation  of  new  nouns 
and  verbs,  in  its  biliteral  roots,  its  ])eeuliar  plural 
endings,  and  in  its  use  of  the  construct  state,  it  re- 
calls the  style  of  Donolo  ami  of  the  liturgical  poets 
of  the  school  of  Kalir.  Xor  are  evidc-nces  wanting  of 
the  influence  of  the  Arabic  and  the  Romance  lan- 
guages. From  the  rime  one  can  also  learn  the  pro- 
nunciation of  Hebrew  in  the  days  of  the  aullior. 
The  "Chronicle  "  contains  a  poetical  I'legy  on  I'altiel, 
which  has  a  double  alphabetic  acrostic,  as  well  as 
an  acrostic  upeai  the  full  name  of  the  author. 

BiBLiOfiUAPIiV:  Ker  Ahimaaz  as  a  UturKleal  (xiet,  see  Zunz, 
Littruluriimili.  pp.  ;*i4,  liSi.  The  lirst  uremints  of  the  manu- 
se.Tlpt  of  the  ("hriinivlf  (Xos.  SH.  i'»  in  the  eatahipue  of  the 
library,  of  the  Cathi'dnil  of  Ttfledo)  were  iriven  l>y  .Neiihaiier.  in 
Rcv.Kt.Jiiirix.wHi.'ZW:  idem,  in  ./.  ir.  (,)ii,irf./Vfr.  iv.t!14r( 
KCij.  Neiibauer  piiblislu.cl  tho  fall  tf.\t  in  his  Mfiiitrval  Ji  n\ 
Chrnn.  ii.  111-1;!;;,  fn>m  a  faesiinile  and  a  photo^niph  uf  Ihe 
orisftnal.  A  coinpU'li'  n'sume  of  thi-  eontent,<  is  piven  bv  Kauf- 
iiiann,ln  Mniiiil.wrhritI,  l.sim.  pp.  4ic;  4~l,  4ilil-.')0'.l.  .iitt  .>M, 
to^relhe^wilh  rliit'lulaliniis  of  the  text,  a  diseu.sslon  of  its  lln- 
jniistlc  pi'enliaritii'<.  and  a  reprint  of  the  elt'if>-  in  a  peK-lioal 
form  (not  reroirni/i'tiasMiiti.  howovtT,  byNenbauer).  Further 
corrections  t>f  the  ti'.xi  may  Im-  found  in  tin'  review.^  by  BnKlv, 
Zeit.f.  H'hr.  mill.  111.  l.Vli(.M.(. ;  na.hiT,  in  ;>■.  r.  El.Juirrs. 
xxAil.  144  1;">1.  un  the  idcntilv  of  Pattii-1.  s(.i'  Kaufuiann.  iii  i- 
tl(7|/(  2»r  (Jr/teh.  Amujili  ns  tiimjllil.  (Jiiillni,  In  '/..D.M.ll. 
II.  4;!tl-»4;i ;  DetiiH'Je, />(rl/u(-/>j(iH/(io-,  iU.  \\i."r-m.  on  Ihu 
trenenil  value  of  the  Chronicle^  see  Steinsehuelder's  reuuirk 
In  Mimat.vrlirifl.  .vllv.  239. 

AHIMELECH  ("Brother  is  King  ").— Biblical 
Data:  1.  S(pn  of  Ahitub,  grainlson  of  I'hinchas, 
and  great -granilson  of  Eli.  He  was  priest  at  Nob 
during  David's  halt  in  his  High!  from  Saul  (I  Sam. 
x.\i.  1-!)).  Owing  to  his  friendship  for  David  he 
was  slain  bv  Doeg  the  Edomite  by  order  of  Saul 
(I  Sam.  xxii."  ll-l!l).  The  identity  df  Ahiah  (I  Sam. 
.\iv.  3.  IX)  w  itli  Ahimelech  is  not  established. 

I.  >I  P. 
In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  The  interview  be- 
tween Ahimelech  aiol  |)a\  i<l  eoneerniiig  tlii'  hallowed 
bread  hingis  upon  the  following  Halakah:  Daviil 
reached  the  priestly  city  on  the  Sabbath,  and.  linding 
the  priests  baking  this  bread,  remarked  to  them  that 
such  work  was  littin.ir  for  the  week  days  only  tth<' 
nibbinical  iiiter|)retation  of  the  wonis  ^n  ^^^  Nim  . 
"anil  it  is  in  a  manni'r  common,"  1  .Sun.  x.xi  ."i.  (1); 
for  the  setting  up  of  Ihe  showhread  was  perniitled  on 
the  Sablialh  day  (l,ev.  xxiv.  S),  but  not  the  baking 
of  it  (.Men.  It.Vi.  Yalk.  Sam.  1311).  Concerning  Aliim- 
elich's  hesitation  to  give  up  the  bread,  tradition 
states  that  David  informed  the  priest  that  he  was 
famisliing.  and  thai  in  such  extri'inity  all  food  was 
perniitled  lo  him  (/.<•.). 


Ahin 
Ablwardt 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


898 


Similarly,  the  inU-rview  betweeu  Aliimt'lech  and 
Sjiul  twriiAl  upon  ii  lialakie  point.  Saul  was  of  the 
opinion  tliiit  the  ri.i;lit  to  interrogate  tlie  Urim  and 
Thununim  lielouged  to  the  liini;  exclusively,  so  that 
Ahimeleeh  had  made  himself  liable  to  the  death 
penalty  when  lie  consulted  them  in  David's  twhalf. 
Ahinielecli.  on  the  contrary,  mainlained  tliat  inter- 
rogation by  anyliody  was  justitii'd  when  tlie  alfairs 
of  stale  demanded  il,  and  that  David,  as  general  of 
the  Jewish  army,  certainly  had  the  right  to  inter- 
rogate them.  Tins  question  divided  the  scholars  of 
Saul'scourt:  Abnerand  Amasa  sided  with  tlie  priest, 
Doeg  against  him.  The  last-named  was  accordingly 
deputed  to  execute  the  sentence  upon  Ahimeleeh 
(YaHc.  Sam.  S  131)-  1-  G. 

2.  A  Ilittite  officer  in  the  service  of  David  (I 
Sam.  .\xvi.  6).  I.  M.   P. 

AHIN.     See  HAVvi>r. 

AHIN,  BENDICH  (D"n  "]n3):  Mathematician 

and  physician  at  Aries  during  the  second  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Nostradamus  says  that  Ahin 
was  an  excellent  mathematician,  well  versed  in  Ara- 
bic, (}reek,  and  Latin ;  that,  because  he  was  prudent, 
loyal,  and  very  experienced  in  the  art  of  medicine,  he 
was  appointed  physician  to  Joanna  of  Anjou,  queen 
of  Naples  (13()9),  was  lodged  in  the  royal  palace,  and 
was  exempted,  both  for  himself  and  his  posterity, 
fromall  special  taxes  laid  ujion  the  Jews.  Ahin  seems 
also  to  have  busied  himself  with  astrology,  as  it  is 
s;nd  that  he  predicted  the  tragic  end  of  the  (|Uccn. 
M.  Kayscrling  has  tried  to  identify  Hendich  with 
d33  '^Dt^'X^^  (Maestro  Benditl,  one  of  the  ten  men 
to  whom  Kalonymus  ben  Kalonymus  dedicated  his 
"  Eben  Bol.ian  " ;  but  the  identification  is  by  no  means 
certain. 

BiBLioORAPnY:  Noslmrtamus,  L'Histnirr  et  Clm^iiiqur  dc 
I'nivence,  l>,  427;  Ku.vseiiinj;,  Kliin  D'lhan.  Biulapi'sl,  ISTT; 
Di'liplng,  7/i'.<  JiiifK  itaiix  U;  M'Hini  .-Uir,  p.  XH;  CiiniKily, 
m.^'lnire  ((,,s  ^[nlrl■illsJuifs.  p.  HIS:  Landau,  (ir^rh.  <l.  Jlhl. 
Airztc,  p.  4.'):  Niililingr,  Jmktigemeimlni  ihs  Mith  Uilti  r^^ 
p.  Sii.  IQ  Ihesf  liu»t  authorities  tlie  name  is  \vruiiglys))elled 
"Aliin."    Compare  Gross,  Galiia  Judaica,  p.  85.  q 

AHINOAM  ("  Brother  is  Pleasantness"):  1. 
Daughter  of  .Vliiiiiaaz  and  wife  of  Saul,  first  king 
of  Israel  (I  ,Sam.  xiv.  ,")()).  2.  The  Jezreelitess  cap- 
tured by  Da\id  while  at  war  with  Saul  (I  Sam. 
XXV.  43)";  she  became  his  wife.  The  Amalekites  sub- 
sequently carried  her  away  from  Ziklag,  but  David 
soon  rescued  her  (I  Sam.  xxx.  .5,  18).  At  Hebron 
Ahinoam  gave  birth  to  Amnou,  David's  first-born 
(II  Sam.  iii.  2).  I.  M.  P. 

AHIKAM  ("Brother  is  Exalted"):  Son  of  Ben- 
jamin (Num.  xxvi.  3S;  called  Elii  in  Gen.  xlvi.  21). 
In  the  corresponding  list  of  I  Chron.  viii.  1  he  appears 
as  Aharah.  His  family  is  referred  to  as  that  of  the 
Ahiramites  (Num.  xxv'i.  38).  G.  B.  L. 

AHISHAB:  The  overseer  of  Solomon's  house- 
hold (I  Kings,  iv.  G),  whose  position  was  one  of  re- 
sponsibility similar  to  that  of  Joseph  in  Potiphar's 
house  (Gen.  xxxix.  4)  and  of  Obadiah  in  Ahab's 
palace  (I  Kings,  xviii.  3).  I.  M.  P. 

AHITHOPHEL.— Biblical  Data :  A  native  of 

Gilnh  in  the  highlands  of  Judali.  and  privy  councilor 
to  David.  He  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  sagacity 
and  insight  in  political  atTairs  (II  Sam.  xv.  12.  xvii. 
21-23),  but  showed  himself  devoid  of  principle  by  his 
participation  in  the  rebellion  of  Absjilom  and  by  his 
evil  counsel  regarding  the  royal  harem.  His  advice 
to  pursue  the  fleeing  king  in  hot  haste  was  wise  from 
a  military  point  of  view,  but  was  not  accepted  by 
Absalom ;  and  the  preference  then  shown  to  Hushai's 


counter-recommendation  of  delay  offended  liim  so 
sorely  that  he  withdrew  to  Ms  native  city,  Giloh, 
where  he  hanged  himself.  I.  M.  P. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:  TlieTalmud  speaks 

of  this  iiuincilcir  of  David  as  "a  man,  like  Baliuim, 
whose  great  wisdom  was  not  received  in  humility  as 
a  gift  from  heaven,  and  so  became  a  stumbling-block 
to  him  "(Num.  K.  xxii.).  He  was  "one  of  tho.se  who, 
while  casting  longing  eyes  uiion  things  not  belong- 
ing to  them,  lose  also  the  things  they  possess" 
(Toscf.,  Sotah,  iv.  19).  Ahithophel  was  initiated  into 
the  magic  jiowers  of  the  Holy  Name,  by  means  of 
which  he  could  replace  the  foundation-stone  of  the 
world,  removed  by  King  David  in  his  search  for  the 
great  abyss, in  the  exact  spot  above  which  the  Temiile 
wa.s  to  be  built.  And  being  thus  familiar  with  all  the 
secict  lore  as  imparted  through  the  Holy  Spirit,  he 
was  consulted  as  an  oracle  like  the  L  rim  we-Tum- 
niim  (H  Sam.  xvi.  23,  Yer.  Sanli.  x.  2!((/.  Suk.  H'ia 
(t  Kiij. ).  But  he  withheld  his  mystic  knowledge  from 
King  David  in  the  hour  of  ])eril.  and  was  therefore 
doomed  to  die  from  strangulation  (Taiina  debe 
Eliyahu  K.  xxxi.,  Mid.  Teh.  iii.  7;  Ex.  H.  iv., 
Mak.  llrt).  "Ahitophelof  the  house  of  Israel  and 
BaUmm  of  the  heathen  nations  were  the  two  great 
.siiges  of  the  world  who.  failing  to  show  gratitude 
to  God  for  their  wisdom,  perished  in  dishonor.  To 
them  the  [irophetie  word  tindsaiiplication:  '  I^et  not 
the  wise  man  glory  in  his  wisdom,'  Jer.  ix.  23" 
(Num.  K.  xxii.).  Socrates  was  said  to  have  been  a 
l>upil  of  his.  K. 

The  Ilaggadah  states  that  Ahithophel, who  was  the 
grandfather  of  Bath-sheba  (Sanli.  (iO'/).  was  misled 
by  his  knowledge  of  astrology  into  believing  him- 
self destined  to  become  king  of  Israel.  He  there- 
fore induced  Absalom  to  commit  an  unpardonable 
crime  (II  Sam.  xvi.  21).  which  sooner  or  laterwould 
have  brought  with  it,  according  to  Jewish  law.  the 
|)enalty  of  ileath;  the  motive  for  this  advice  being  to 
remove  Absalom,  and  thus  to  make  a  way  for  him- 
self to  the  throne.  His  astrological  information  had 
been,  however,  misimderstood  by  him ;  for  in  real- 
ity it  only  predicted  that  his  granddauglit<'r.  Batli- 
sheba.  the  daughter  of  his  son  Eliam,  would  become 
queen  (Sanli.  101//.  Yalk.  Sam.  ^  l,")!)).  David,  during 
his  reign,  had  many  disagreeable  encounters  with 
Ahithophel.  Shortly  after  his  accession  the  king 
seems  to  have  overlooked  Ahithophel  in  his  appoint- 
ments of  judges  and  other  officials.  Consequently, 
when  David  was  in  despair  concerning  the  visita- 
tion upon  Uz/.ah  during  the  attempted  transport 
of  the  ark  (II  Sam.  vi.  C;  see  l'/.7..\ii)  and  sought 
counsel  of  Ahithophel,  the  latter  mockingly  sug- 
gested to  liiiii  that  lie  had  better  apply  to  his  own 
wise  men.  Only  upon  David's  malediction,  that 
whoever  knew  a  remedy  and  concealed  it  should 
surely  end  by  committing  suicide,  did  Ahithophel 
otter  him  some  rather  vague  advice,  concealing  the 
true  solution,  which  was  that  the  ark  must  be  car- 
ried on  the  .shoulders  of  men  instead  of  upon  a 
wagon  (Num.  H.  iv.  20.  Yer.  Sanh.  x.  '2%i). 

Ahithophel  rendered  a  service  to  David  upon  an- 
other occasion ;  not. however. until  he  bad  been  again 
threatened  with  the  cur.se.     It  appears 
Curse  upon  that  David  excavated  too  deeply  for 

Ahitho-      the  foundations  of  the  Temple,  with 
phel.  the  result  that  earth's  deepest  floods 

(Qinn)  broke  forth,  and  nearly  inun- 
dated till'  earth.  None  could  help  but  Ahithophel, 
who  withheld  his  counsel  in  the  hope  of  seeing  David 
borne  away  upon  the  flood.  AVIien  David  again 
warned  him  of  the  malediction.  Ahithophel  coun- 
seled the  king  to  throw  a  tile,  with  the  ineffable 
name  of  God  written  upon  it.  into  the  cavity ;  where- 


293 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abin 
Ablwardt 


upon  the  waters  began  to  sink.  Ahitliophel  is  said 
to  liave  defended  his  use  of  the  name  of  (lod  in  this 
emergency  by  reference  to  the  [iractisi'  enjoined  1)V 
Scripture  (Num.  v.  28)  to  restore  marital  liarmony ; 
surely  a  matter  of  small  importance,  lie  argued, 
compared  with  the  threatened  destruction  of  the 
world  (Suk.  'hill,  li).  David's  repeated  malediction 
that  Ahith<iphcl  would  lie  hanged  waslinaliy  realized 
when  the  latter  handed  himself. 

Ahithophel's  death  was  a  great  loss  to  Pavid;  for 
his  wisdom  was  so  great  that  Scripture  itself  (II  Sam. 
.\vi.  2.'i)  avoids  calling  him  a  man;  in  the  passage 
quoted  the  Hebrew  word  for  man,  t,'"X.  is  omittcil  in 
tlie  text,  being  sujiplied  only  by  the  Masoiah.  Indeed, 
liis  wisdom  bordered  on  that  of  the  angels(Yer.  Sanh. 
.X.  2;  Yalk.  II  Sam.  S  l-l-)-  His  learning  in  the  Law 
was  also  extensive,  so  that  David  did  not  scruple  to 
call  him  "  master  "  (.\bot.  vi.  2;  the  two  things  w  bieh 
David  is  there  said  to  have  learned  from  Ahitlio- 
phel are  more  closely  described  in  "Kallali."  Wm 
(ed.  N.  Coronel).  Ahithophersdispositioii,  however, 
was  a  jealous  one;  and  he  always  sought  to  wound 
David  by  mocking  remarks  (I'esik.  ii.  1(W;  ^lidr. 
Teh.  iii.  'i,  and  parallel  passages  in  Hulicr,  note  (JM). 
His  devotion  to  I  he  study  of  the  Law  was  nut  founded 
on  worthy  motives  (,Sanh.  UMi//).  Ahitliophel  was 
thirty  lliree  yeai-s  old  whiii  he  ilicd  (/.i\).  In  his 
will  he  lelt  warning  to  his  children  never  to  side 
against  the  royal  Davidie  family,  and  to  take  no  iiart 
in  their  dissensions  (Yer. /.<■.).  Ahitliophel  is  counted 
among  those  that  have  no  share  in  the  world  to 
come  (Sanh.  xi.  1  ;  15.  IJ.  14~'M.  L.   G. 

AHITHOPHEL  LOOSBUCH:  A  book  of  fate 
used  ill  pii|iiilai'  di\  nialiiui  and  naiiied  after  Ahitho- 
pliel.  ill  Jewish  legends  of  the  ^Middle  Ages 
Aliilhophel  plays  a  role  somewhat  similar  to  that  of 
!Mepliisloplieli's(seeSteinscliiieidcr,"  Pseudepigraph- 
isclie  Literatur,''  ]).  8(1,  note  2).  Cassel  wmild  even 
translate  "  Aliitliopliel  "  as  "the  Hrotlier  of  the  Evil 
One";  regarding  ti>J'ti  as  an  ancient  formation  of  din- 
Ixiltis.  in  support  of  which  he  cites  the  (iernianic  tin  ml 
and  (itrtl-ti  iifil  (compare  "  .Misclilc  Sindbad,"  p.  380. 
Berlin,  IHSH).  l\.  Jloses  Isserles.  again,  relates  having 
read  in  a  "very  old  book,"  in  which  were  contained 
the  philoso]iliiesand  the  ])ortrailsof  various  thinkers, 
that  Socrates  had  received  his  wisrlom  from  Asaf  the 
Ki.raliite  and  .Miithophel  ("Torat  lia Olah,"  i.  xi.). 
In  aecoidanee  w  itii  the  po|)ular  view  of  Ahithoiihers 
character,  as  being  at  once  diabi)lic  and  omniscient, 
in  the  Middle  Ages  the  authorship  of  a  cabalistic 
work,"Sefer  Goralot"  (Book  of  I^ots),was  attributed 
to  him.  According  to  its  preface,  it  discloses  the 
"great  secret  of  securing  an  answer  without  the  draw- 
ing of  lots  or  conipiitatioii,  by  iiidilTerently  putting 
one's  hand  on  a  tablet  eoiilaiiiiiig  the  iiiiiiibersdiie  to 
ninety,oreiglit y  nine  "  The  Imok  fiirlberinoicissaid 
to  have  lain  liiddiii  in  .Vlexaiidiia,  and  afterward  to 
have  been  used  in  Tiberias  and  elsewhere,  "the  usual 
legend  concerning  ])seiidepigrapliic  writings,"  as 
Steinschneider  puts  it.  Compare  Lots,  Books  OK. 
nnii.I(ii;R.\riiv  :  Slcliiwiim'tcler.  Ihlir.  f'<f«iii.  p.  sTd. 

H.  O.  E. 

AHITUB:  1.  Fath.r  of  Ahimehch.  priest  of 
Nob  (I  Sam.  xxii.  It-Ut).  The  name  Aliitiib  means, 
properly,  "gond  friend,"  "good  brother":  and  is 
sigiiiticant  in  connection  with  the  fact  that  the  house 
of  Aliitub,  Ihroiigli  the  acting  ]>rie>^l,  Ahiiiielecli, 
was  friiiiillv  to  David  at  the  ri^k  of  incurring  King 
Saul's  displeasure  (('/'/(/.  HI).  Aliitub  was  a  son  of 
I'hinelias  and  an  elder  brother  of  Ichabod,  of  the 
hoiis*'  of  Eli,  anil  a  dirc'ct  descendant  of  Aaron  (ihiil. 
xiv.  3).  It  is  dciublful  whether  Ahilub  was  ever 
high  priest,  since  that  is  nowhere  ineutiuued;   but 


his  house  xvas  certainly  of  higli  dignity — so  much 
so  that  Saul,  king  of  Israel,  had  to  reckon  with  it — 
and  it  was  a  power  in  aiding  David  to  secure  the 
throne  of  the  Hebrew  nation, 

2.  Possibly  the  same  as  No.  L  He  is  referred  to 
in  11  Sam.  viii.  17  as  the  father  of  Zadok.  a  priest 
in  the  time  of  David.  Aliitub  is  mentioned  in  sev- 
eral genealogical  lists  a.s  the  son  of  Amariah  and 
the  father  of  Zadok  (I  Chron.  v.33,34;  ibid,  xviii.  16; 
Ezra,  vii.  2). 

3.  A  priest;  descendant  (in  the  seventh  genera- 
tion) of  the  preceding.  He,  also,  had  a  son  named 
Zadok  (I  Chron.  v.  3»,  30). 

4.  A  priest;  father  of  Meraiotli.  In  the  time  of 
Nehemiah  he  was  "  the  ruler  of  the  house  of  God  " 
(I  Chron.  ix.  11.  Neli.  xi.  11). 

5.  Ancestor  of  Judith  (Judith,  viii.  1.  H.  V.  :  A. 
v.,  "Acitho").  C.   A.   I). 

AHLAB  :  A  city  which  Ashcr  failed  to  conquer 
(Judgis,  i.  :!1).  Perhaps  this  is  identical  with  the 
later  Gush  Halab.  which  is  the  sameasGischala  (see 
Neubauer.  "G.  T."  p.  230).  G.  B.   L. 

AHLWARDT,  HERMANN:  One  of  the  most 

notorious  iif  anti-Semitic  agitators;  born  December 
21,  lS41i,  at  Krieii,  near  Aiiklam,  in  the  jiroviiice  of 
I'omerania,  Prussia.  After  having  tilled  various  po- 
sitions as  a  teacher  he  was  in  l^yi  apiiointed  rec- 
tor (.school  principal)  in  Berlin.  His  inability  to 
manage  his  alTairs  involved  him  in  financial  diflicul- 
ties,  from  which  he  tried  to  extricate  himself  by  the 
aid  of  moneylenders.  lie  was  extricated  from  these 
and  other  dilliculties  liy  Jew  ish  friends  and  lawj-ers, 
and  for  a  tiiiii'  claimed  to  be  a  friend  of  the  .lews. 

In  a  letter  dated  January  2.").  liSHo,  published  in 
'■  Jlittlieilungen  aus  dem  Vcrein  ziir  Abwelir  dcs 
Antisemitismus,"  1893,  p.  192.  he  says;  "Antisemi- 
tism  is  illogical;  I  have  always  condemned  it,  and 
shall  continue  to  condemn  religious  intolerance  until 
my  last  breath."  As  he  did  not  find  w  it  bin  the  ranks 
of  the  Conservative  party  that  success  which  he  had 
hoped  for.  Ahlwardt  joined  the  aiiti  Semitic  move- 
ment. ]mblishiiig  such  venomous  panijihlets  against 
the  Jews  as  "  Der  Verzweifiiingskamiif  der  Arischen 
Volker  mit  den  Juden."  1890;  "  Eid  Lines  Jiiden," 
1S91;  and  "Jildische  Taktik."  1892.  These  pam- 
phlets did  not  rise  abo  vet  he  average  ant  i  Semitic  liter- 
ature; but  an  immense  sensation  was  created  by  his 
two  ]iamphlets,  " Jiidentlinten."  1892.  in  which  ho 
made  the  statement  that  Liidwig  LoeweiV  Company 
had  furnished  worthless  guns  to  the  army,  and  had 
been  hired  by  the  "  Alliance  Israelite  rniverselle  "  to 
cheat  the  comniissary  department  in  order  to  defeat 
Germany  in  her  next  struggle  with  France. 

Ahlwarilt's  object  was  to  demonstrate  that  the 
Jews  posse.s.sed  no  patriotism;  and  the  charges 
seemed  the  weightier  since  Ludwig  Loewe,  the 
founder  of  the  tiriii  in  question,  had  been  a  member 
of  the  Heiehstag.  .Vlthough  Clianccllor  von  Caprivi 
declareil  these  charges  to  be  unfoundeil.  and  the 
leaders  of  all  parties  in  the  Keiehstag  ex]ires,sed  their 
condemnation  of  the  laities  which  destroyed  the 
eonlideiice  of  the  soldiers  in  their  leaders,  Alilwanit 
gained  steadily  in  popularity.  In  sjiite  of  the  pro- 
test of  the  Conservative  party,  he  was  nominateil  as 
a'ri'presenlalivi'  for  the  Heiehstag  from  the  district 
of  Kriedeberg-.Vrnswalde;  and  he  was  elected  De- 
cember 5,  1.1112,  while  still  on  trial  for  libel  in  a  suit 
brought  against  him  by  Luilwig  Lwwe  &  Company. 
Four  <lays  later  .Milwardt  was  sentenced  to  five 
months'  imiirisoiimeiil. 

Neither  tiiis  punishment  nor  BuKsoquent  senfenres 
for  libeling  public  ollicials  sirmed  to  injure  his 
popularity.     His  public  U'clures  on  "Jewish  (iuiis" 


Al^med  Hamdi 
Ahriman 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


894 


and  similar  9iiV)ji'Cts.  for  whidi  an  admission  fee  was 
cliarjifd.  Avercattcndi-il  1)V  larirc  aiKliiiiccs:  and  iu 
till'  jn'iii'ral  t'li'Ctions  of  IS'jy  he  was  returned  to  the 
Heichstajr  by  two  constituencies.  In  l^i*.")  lie  visiti'd 
America  witli  the  view  of  starting  an  anti  Semitic 
agitation  there ;  but ,  althiiugli  he  remained  in  tlie  coun- 
try about  a  year,  he  failed  in  his  object.  Discharged 
from  his  ])osition  as  rector.  Ahlwardt  edited  various 
newspa|)ers.  among  others  the  "  IJuudschuli" ;  but 
neither  his  journalistic  nor  his  conuiiercial  enlcr- 
jirises  were  successful,  though  he  employed  the  un- 
scrupulous tactics  which  he  claimed  were  practised 
by  prominent  Jews  in  the  business  world.  He  con- 
ducted a  cigar-store  under  the  name  of  his  son-in- 
law  in  order  to  avoid  attachments  by  creditors.  In 
Germany  his  name,  like  that  of  Druuiiuit  in  France, 
symbolizes  the  worst  fonn  of  anti-Semitism. 

BlHMOfiRAniY:  Mittlii:Uniiiir}i  aun  fh-m  ^'^^^rin  zur  Ahitrhr 
(Irs  Antisemifijitnus^  IsiKt;  Kayser.  liUchcr-LrxiCftn,  xxvll. 

and  icf  i>tt'r  1*1  x.w  il.  and  x.wiii.  .s-r.  D. 

AHMED    HAMDI,    PASHA.      See    Hamdi, 

AlIMl-Il- 

A^MED-PASHA  :  Turkish  vizier  and  viceroy 
of  Egyi)t  imder  Solyman  II..  the  JIagniticent  {1.520- 
15(i()).  He  received  these  honors  as  rewards  for  valor 
displayed  at  the  comjuest  of  HIkjcIcs  (l.'JS:!).  Hut 
Ahmed  had  hoped  to  be  made  grand  vizier,  and  in 
his  disappointment  iilanned  to  detach  Egypt  from 
Turkey  and  to  declan' himself  its  independent  ruler. 
He  sought  to  induce  the  Jewish  farmer  of  the  mint 
Abraham  de  Castro  to  place  his  name  on  the  coins. 
De  Castro  pretended  compliance,  and  obtained  a  writ 
tenoider  to  that  effect  over  Ahmed's  signature.  'With 
this  evideuce  he  secretly  left  Eg_V|it  for  Constanti- 
nople and  informed  Solyman  of  Ahmed's  treason. 
Foiled  thus  in  his  plans,  Ahmed  avenged  himself 
upon  the  .Jews  of  Cairn;  he  imprisoned  some  of  them, 
and  gave  over  the  Jewish  quarter  to  the  JIamelukes 
to  pillage,  but  recalled  this  permission  when  his  ad 
viser  ^Nluni  reminded  him  tliat  the  Jews"  property 
should  by  right  belong  to  him  and  not  to  the  plun- 
derers. He  then  summoned  to  his  palace  twelve 
prominent  Jews  and  onlered  them  to  jiay  an  exorbi- 
tant sum  of  money  (200  silver  talents)  within  a  short 
time,  imder  penalty  of  death  to  all  the  Jews  of  the 
city.  For  security  he  retained  tliem  as  hostages.  To 
a  request  for  delay  he  gave  no  heed,  but  reiterated 
his  threats.  In  this  desperate  conilition  the  Jews  in- 
stituted a  public  fast  and  day  of  prayer  and  jieiii- 
tence.  Samuel  Sidillo  gathered  children  under  the 
age  of  twelve  to  pray  in  the  synagogue.  In  the  mi'an- 
while  a  large  sum  of  money,  amoimting  to  about  a 
tenth  part  of  the  sum  demanded,  was  colleited  and 
offered  as  payment  on  account.  Ahmed's  private 
secretary  Zada.  in  reply,  gave  orders  to  put  the  col- 
lectors in  irons,  and  announced  that  they  and  all  the 
rest  of  the  .lews  would  be  put  to  death  as  soon  as  the 
viceroy  should  leave  the  bath  where  he  then  was.  At 
the  very  moment  when  this  threat  was  uttered,  Ah- 
med was  attacked  in  the  bath  and  severely  wounded 
by  a  band  of  conspirators  headed  by  one  of  his  viziers, 
Mohamed  Bey.  Ahmed  escaped  from  his  assailants, 
but  was  subsequently  captured  aial  beheaded  (in  He- 
biul-Achir).  These  events,  taking  |ilace  in  JIarch. 
I."i24  (.\ilar  27,  28),  were  long  afterward  commeni 
orated  by  the  Eg_vptian  Jews  as  the  Cairo  Ptu'im 
(Puinm  al  Mizriyin).  A  "  Megillah  "  (Purim  narra- 
tive) detailing  them  was  drawn  up. 

BlBLiOGRAi'iiY ;  Solomon  ihn  Verca,  fllirhit  Yclmilali,  German 
translation  by  M.  Wii'iier.  iiji.  228,  2L''.t.  Hanover,  18.56; 
Josepii  tia-Kohen.  ^Enuk  ha-BaJio^  German  translation  hv 
M.  Wiener,  p.  7a,  Leipsic',  1».'>S;  (iriitz,  (Jmrh.  <l.  Juileii,  M 
ed..  Ix.  20  ('(  sea. :  .Joseph  von  Hammer- I*urKstall,  fii\'<ch.  tics 
Osmanlnchen  Reiehis.  Hi.  35  t'(  .•«:<;.,  Pestlj,  ItSJS:  Conforte, 
Sore  ha-LxtruU  pp.  32/)  et  »;ij.  H    K 


AHOIilBA.     See  Onoi.iAU. 

AHOLIBAMAH.     See  Ohoi.ibamah. 

A^OT  5ETANNAH,  njDP  mm  ("The  Lit- 
tle Sister."  Song  .Sol.  \iii.  Sj:  A  /iizni'Hi  (ritual 
poem)  of  eight  stanzas,  signed  with  the  acrostic  of 
Abniham  Hazan,  and  sung  in  the  Sephardic  ritual 
before  the  commencement  of  the  New-year's  eve- 
ning prayer,  he  refnun  running,  "Jlay  the  year  end 
with  her  woes!  "  changed  in  the  last  stanza  to  "May 
the  year  begin  with  her  blessings!  "  The  author,  a 
cantor  who  was  born  in  Salonica  in  l.")*},  was  prob- 
ably also  the  composer  of  its  beautiful  melody  in 
the  hypo  ilorian  mode  (minor  scale  without  the  lead- 
ing note)  which  has  been  slightly  developed  iu  the 
course  of  tradition. 

This  meloily  has  many  stinking  points  of  similar- 
ity to  eontenii)orary  airs  from  the  region  of  the 
Greek  archipelago,  such  as  those  analyzed  by  Bour- 
gault-Dueoudray,  which,  he  remarks,  i)o.ssess  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  Italian  coloring.  In  the  present 
melody  the  Italian  Jews  have  obviously  modified 
the  original  air  in  the  direction  of  a  more  ditiiiite 
coloring  of  this  nature,  but  tlu'  Dutch,  Knglish.  and 
West  Indian  Sephardim  have  retained  .some  Oriental 
l)eculiarities  that  give  their  version  the  appearance 
of  a  more  faithful  tradition  thiin  the  Italian.  The 
music  follows  on  ]iage  2"J.j.  F.  L.  C. 

AHRIMAN  ( Angro-mainyush  ;  identical  with 
Satan,  the  Devil,  Armilus) :  In  the  .Mazilian  re- 
ligion, the  evil  deity,  who  has  his  real  opposite  in 
Spi'iita  Mainyii,  "tlu^  beneficent  [holy]  spirit."  The 
latter  was  identilied  at  a  later  jieriod,  if  not  origi- 
nally, with  Ahur.-imazda.  Ahriman  would  seem  to 
have  existed  as  long  as  Ahuramazda:  for,  according 
to  the  conceptions  of  the  Mazdian  religion,  immeas- 
urable space  has  always  existed,  with  its  two  hemi- 
spheres of  light  and  darkness;  each  with  its  jiartic- 
ular  spirit:  the  one,  that  of  light  or  life,  ami  the 
other  that  of  darkness  or  death — the  spirits,  in  short, 
of  good  and  of  evil.  Ahunimazda,  however,  is  the 
real  originator  of  this  |)resent  world,  for  Ahriman 
created  only  the  harmful  and  unclean  animals,  dis- 
eases, evil  s]iirits  (da'vas),  sin  and  death;  and  he 
seeks  continually  to  destroy  the  whole  good  creation. 

Ahrim.in's  might,  too,  is  very  terrible  in  the  eyes 
of  the  faithful  believer  of  the  Mazdian  faith;  for  he 
jjos.sesses  a  whole  kingdom  of  evil  beings,  who  are 
obedient  tools  in  his  hands  for  annihilating  the  crea- 
tiiais  of  Ahuramazda  and  for  briniring  men  to  vio- 
lent ilest  ruction.  Among  these  evil  spirits  there  arc 
six  that  are  in  intimate  <'oiitact  with  his  pei-son. 
just  as  there  are  six  Ameshaspentas  that  surround 
Ahuramazda.  The  number  six  may  be  an  inven- 
tion of  a  later  period  for  the  sake  of  arriving  at  a 
counterpart  to  Ahuramazda's  body-guard,  lint  it 
is  certain  that  .\liiiman,  too,  according 

Ahura-  tt)  the  testimony  of  tiie  Mazdian  relig- 
mazda  and  ion  in  its  earliest  epoch,  is  surrounded 
AJiriman.  by  an  army  of  evil  beings  like-minded 
with  himself.  The  whole  history  of  the 
world  is  one  long  continued  struggle  between  Ahura- 
mazda and  Ahriman.  The  course  and  outcome  of  the 
struggle  are,  however,  settled  beforehand.  The  con- 
flict is  to  proceed  for  12.000  years,  divided  into  four 
l)eriods  of  3.000  years  each. 

At  the  close  of  the  last  period,  the  Saoshyat  or 
Sosiosh,  the  Messiah  of  the  Parsees,  will  arise  and 
make  an  end  of  Ahriman's  dianinion,  not,  however, 
until  he  has  been  allowed  to  exercise  his  sway  to  an 
extent  before  unknown.  Sosiosh  will  at  the  same 
time  raise  all  the  dead  to  lifi'.  hold  final  judgment 
upon  the  earth,  and  inaugurate  the  regeneration 
of  the  present  world. 


295 


THE  .JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Abmed  Hamdi 
Ahrizuan 


This  tend  of  I  lie  IVisiaii  rrlifiion  lias  not  l)oen 
without  its  iiilliR'iicc  upon  the  icU-as  of  later  .Iu(hi- 
isni.  As  late  a  writer  even  as  the  Deutero-Isaiah 
(Isa.  xlv.  T)  e.\|)resses  himself  in  sueh  a  way  as  to 
exclude  beyond  question  any  dualism  in  religion,  if 
we  are  not  to  interpret  his  words  as  beini;  a  direct 
attack  on  the  Parsee  doctrine,  a  god  of  light  and  a 
god  of  darkness. 

But  after  tlie  Exile  the  Jewish  mind  liecomes  un- 
able to  refer  to  God,  as  formerly,  everytliing  that 


whole  of  the  history  of  the  non-Jewish  world,  from 
the  |)oint  wlien  the  Habyloniau  power  first  conies  into 
contact  with  Israel  down  to  Aiitiochus  Epiplianes, 
constitutes  merely  an  outburst  of  the  ill  will  and 
enmity  of  the  kingdoms  \ipon  the  earth  against  God 
and  His  chosen  people. 

Dualism  is  even  more  clearly  marked  in  the  Book 
of  Daniel  than  it  is  in  tlie  Parsee  religion,  for  the  divine 
and  the  .secular  kingdoms  are  iniubli'  to  exist  side 
bv  side.     The  use  that  is  made  in  1  Chron.  xxi.  1  of 


AHOT    KETANNAH 


mf  Lento,  con  tenerezza. 


A 

67ie 


hot       ke 


i^^ 


=* 


t:m 

call    •  (d     "  the 

mf 


nah, te 

lit     -    He      muiJ"     halh 


fil 
set. 


lo 
be 


I&iZIziL 


i:^ 


szt 


m 


& 


te        -        -        -        -    hn         'o  -  re    -    kah      wa    -   'o        -        -         -         nah 

/ore      Tliee  her       prayer,    TUat  the  love     which     guard  -  ed        her  ten    -    der    youth 


g^^gg-^z^^^ 


:4:^5: 


na!     re  -  la 

God!  heal  licr,     heul      her 


na le 

now from 


ma 
all 


lia    -  lo    .      te 

lliat      may        bring.  .      de 


SI^^^^^EE: 


ga^^^i^^g^n 


ba:     Tik      - 
ipitir:  Tliat  the 


leh sha      -      -    nah . . 

year  which  j>as.i-rlli  hence. 


ha.t  happi'iiecl  and  enntinues  to  happen  in  tlie  world. 
As  early  as  the  prulnLnie  to  llie  Hook  of  Job.  anil  in 
Zech.  ill..  Satan  is  spnUeii  of  in  terjiis  lliat  show  that 
he  is  no  lunger  merely  a  servant  of  VIIW'II.  but  is. 
rather,  a  persecutor  of  man,  actuated  by   personal 

motives  in  making  mankind  evil  anil 
"Satnn"  in  in  checking  (Jod's  work.  In  I  Chron. 
the  Bible,    xxi.  1.  where  the  word  "Satan"  ap- 

pi'ai-s  without  the  artiile,  we  have  it 
new  step  in  the  development  of  his  characler.  in  that 
the  ttgure  of  Satan  is  employed  to  explain  a  matter 
hilherlo  asiribiil  without  further  thought  to  God 
(compare  11  Sam.  x.\iv.  I).  Satan  acts  (according  to 
I  I'hron.  xxi.  1)  entirely  on  his  own  account  in  enti- 
cing David  lo  commit  sin.  According  lo  the  Hook 
of  l)uniel^'om posed  about  the  year  ItW  ii.c. — the 


■    le    -   lo    -  te ha. 

.lior  -  roic.s'     <i    -    way.,     mai)  bear. 


the  figure  of  Satan  as  an  explanation  of  a  certain 
historical  event  is  continiieil  in  such  passages  as 
Honk  of  Wisdom,  ii,  ''I.  where,  in  allusion  to  (ieti. 
iii..  it  is  stated  that  "by  the  envy  of  the  devil  death 
entered  into  tile  world."  In  agreement  therewith 
the  serpent  in  the  (iarden  of  Eden  loo 
becomes  identitied  with  Satan  or  the 
devil,  or  is  said  to  have  been  his  tool 
(compare  the  Jewish  portions  of  Kev. 
xii.  !t,  XX.  2).  ThusSatan(llieilevil>ishireem)>loyeil 
as  an  I'xptanation  of  theoriiiin  of  eviljn  mankind.  In 
conjunetion  wilh  this,  and  as  a  development  from  I 
Chron.  xxi.  1,  we  have  the  version  given  in  the  lliM)k 
of  Jubilees  of  the  story  in  (tenesis;  for  there  Satan 
(or  Mastenm,  as  he  is  tiiere  named)  has  n'peatedly  — 
w  heiiever  it  is  in(es.sary  to  remove  any  fentiin.'  thai 


Kise  of 
Dualism. 


Ahriman 
Ahrweiler 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


296 


might  give  ollense  tn  Jewish  concpptions  of  that 
later  time — to  assume  a  part  that  in  Genesis  was 
assigned  to  God  Himself.  At  the  same  time  he  is 
given  an  everinoreasing  army  of  evil  spints  to  serve 
him:  the  ancient  popular  belief  in  liarmful — not 
exactly  evil — spirits  becomes  Irausformed  into  a  be- 
lief in  a  dominion  of  evil  \uider  the  sway  of  its  head, 
the  devil. 

Consequently  Satan  (or  tlieilevil)obtain(d  for  Jew- 
ish ideas  almost  the  sjinie  sigiiilicance  as  Ahriman  for 
Persian.  Indeed,  in  certain  respects  he  developed 
greater  power  than  his  Persian  counteriiart,  inasmuch 
as  he  succeeded  in  corrupting  the  immediate  follow- 
ers of  Gml,  whereas  Ahriman,  in  his  contest   with 


The  Abriman  Dragon. 

(From  FerguBson,  "  Hintory  of  Arthiteclure.") 

Ahuramazda.  did  not  achieve  such  success.  The 
Jews  tried  to  preserve  the  monism  that  was  their 
original  view  by  explaining  the  rise  of  dualism  as 
due  to  a  fall  among  the  originally  good  spirits.  The 
author  of  the  Book  of  Enoch  (chaps,  vi.  ct  scr/.)  at- 
tributed the  question  of  the  origin  of  evil  to  the  con- 
ception of  a  fall  of  tlie  angels  who  seduced  the  daugh- 
ters of  men  (compare  Gen.  vi.),  becoming  thus  the 
authors  of  all  earthly  sins,  and  especially  of  the  de- 
mons, who,  according  to  the  same  author,  are  de- 
scended from  tlie  giants  which  the  daughters  of  men 
bore  to  the  fallen  angels.  In  accordance  with  an- 
other doctrine,  the  devil  was  said  to  have  been  ac- 
tively present  in  the  Serpent  in  the  Garden  of  Eden 
(see  above);  while  still  another  maintains  that  the 
principles  of  good  and  evil  were  opposed  to  each 
other  from  the  very  beginning. 

Just  as  the  dominion  of  the  evil  spirits  was,  in  the 
P'arsee  theory,  to  come  to  an  end  with  the  advent  | 


of  Sosio.sh,  so  is  the  Messiah,  according  to  the  Jew- 
ish  faith,  to  destroy  the   devil   and  his  kingdom. 
Just  as.  again,  Ahriman,  in  the  Persian  belief,  was 
to  do  mankind  terrible  injury  .shortly  before  his  end, 
so  too,  in  the  .lewish  view,  great   tribulations  were 
to  precede  the  Messiah's  coming.     The  Jews  would 
seem  to  have  cxjiected  an   evil   Messiah,  an   Anli- 
chrisl ;   conse(|uently.  the  teai  hing  of 
Antichrist   the  Xew  Testament  in  this  direction 
the  Incar-    does  not  imply  anything  new.     This 
nation        Antichrist  is,  moreover,  to  be,  on  the 
of  Satan.     Iiypulheses  of  sevend  writers,  nothing 
else  than  an  incarnation  of  the  devil 
himself.    In  consequence  of  the  hat  red  of  the  Jews  to- 
ward Rome,  even  after  it  had  acce|)te(l  C'liristianily, 
this  Antichrist  was  also  called  Akmii.is.  a  Jewish 
rendering  of  Konudus;  thus,  in  I'seudo-. Methodius, 
"Romulus  (jui  est  Arniilus"  (compare  W.  Bousset, 
"Antichrist,"  pp.  33,  G7). 

niRi.TOCRArHV :  E.  Stave.  KiiifluM  d.  Pnntifimua  auf  ilan  Jh- 
i/(il(lim.  IS'.IS;  W.  Bousset,  JJrr  >4ll(lr;irW,  ISiB;  Slelten, 
Antichrii't.  (n  A.  Ilimek's  Itrakni-iikliii'iiilir  fllr  Prnto't- 
autii<i-iir  TliaAtiiiif  u.  Kirrhe;  J.  Diiniiesteter.  (trmuzd 
rt  Ahrimon^  Purls.  1S77:  Jueksen.  Ininlhin^  in  (Jelyer  and 
Kuhne.  (initnlrU'*  tli  r  Iranisrhm  I'liiltilotjic,  ji.  ti:ilHWl. 

E.  S. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  Ahriman  (Angro- 

mainyush)is  mentioned  in  Sanhedrui.  3'J():  Amemar, 
on  being  told  by  one  <  if  the  Mngi.  "The  tipper  half  of 
thy  boily  belongs  to  Ormu/.d  [t'0^1^1.  the  good  prin- 
cijile;  the  lower  to  Ahriiuaii  H'DlinN).  the  evil  |)rin- 
ciple."  rejilies  siitirically.  "  Wliy,  llicn,  does  Ahriman 
permit  Ornuizd  to  carry  the  water  (the  excreta) 
through  his  province?"  Tlie  whole  conception  of 
Ahriman  as  the  antagonist  of  the  divine  princi- 
jile  of  goodness  permeated  Judaism  in  many  ways. 
Just  as  Ahriman  appeare  in  the  guise  of  a  serpent 
and  casts  poison  into  man  with  the  aid  of  Jeh,  the 
persouitication  of  menstrual  impurity  ("  Bundahish," 
iii.:  in  West,  "Sacred  Books  of  tlie  East,"  vi.  6; 
'Windischniann,  '"Zoroastrische  Stndien,"  p.  61),  so 
does  Sanuiel.  the  falli'U  angel-prince,  select  the  Ser- 
lieut  as  the  seducer  of  Adam  (I'irke  K.  El.  xiii.),  and 
the  poison  of  inijiuritv  in  Eve  is  his  work — znJuimo 
kIkI  n<ihiiiih—{%\\i\h.  UCki;  Yeb.  103«;  'Ab.  Zarah, 
22«).  "In  the  future  the  Holy  One— bles.se(l  be  His 
name — shall  bring  the  Evil  Spirit  and  slay  him  in  the 
presence  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked  ones:  the 
righteous  will  shed  tears  of  joy  at  their  victory  over 
the  gigantic  foe,  ami  the  wicked  will  weep  at  their 
inability  to  defeat  so  small  a  power  as  he  will  then 
ajipear  to  them  "  (Suk.  h'lti). 

This  end  of  the  archliend  goes  back  to  an  older 
form  than  is  jiresented  in  "Bundahish."  xxx.  30- 

33,  according  to  which  Ahuramazda  at 

Defeat  of   the  last  day  with  his  seven  archan- 

the  Arch-   gels  goes  to  war  with  Ahriman  and 

fiend.       the  seven  archfiends ;  each  archangel 

crushing  the  arclitieiid  opposed  to  him, 
until  tinally  only  Ahriman  and  the  Serpent  remain. 
Against  these  Ahuramazda  rises  as  liigli  priest  with 
tlie  magic  girdle  in  his  hand,  and.  assisted  b}'  Sra- 
osha,  brings  final  defeat  upon  theni;  so  that  the 
Serpent  is  burned  in  the  molten  metal  of  the  nether 
world,  into  which  Aliiiinan.  too.  casts  himself  to  be 
consumed  along  with  the  whole  infernal  region, 
which  is  then  purified  and  added  to  the  regenerated 
world  of  Ahuramazda.  The  older  view  of  the  de- 
feat of  Ahriman  may  be  learned  from  the  .sculptural 
presentations  of  Darius  and  Xerxes,  in  which  there 
is  the  image  of  Aliuramaz<la  stabbing  a  monstrous 
animal  called,  as  a  rule,  the  Alirimanian  beast,  but 
which  is.  in  point  of  fact,  Ahriman  himself.  This  is 
a  repetition  of  the  old  Babylonian  myth  of  Bel 
Marduk  and  the  Tiamat  (see  illustrations  from  the 


297 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ahriznan 
Ahrweiler 


Perscpolis  hall  of  one  liunilred  columns,  in  >Imc.  Ra- 
gozin's  "  Mtdiii."  p.  402,  and  in  .Tusti'.s  "  Pcrsicn,"  p. 
108,  followint;  Ker  Porter's  "Travels  in  Georgian 
Persia";  compare  Nuldckc,  "Oescli.  d.  Artaclisir  i 
Papakan,"  pp.  29,  S'tef  ««/. :  tlie  story  of  Bel  and  tlie 
Dragon  isrc|)eated  in  the  legend  of  the  Persian  king). 
This  Kvil  Spirit  was  helieved  to  l)e  alluded  to  also 
in  Joel,  ii.  20:  "  I  will  remove  far  olT  from  you  <31SVn 
[the  Concealed  One — in  the  human  heart  ;  not.  as  the 
A.V.  ha.sit,"the  northern  army"|,  and  drive  him  into 
a  land  Imrren  and  desolate,  with  his  face  toward  the 
ea.st  sea,  and  his  hinder  jjart  toward  the  utmost  sea. 
and  his  stink  shall  come  uii,  and  his  ill  savor  shall 
como  U]),  because  he  hath  done  great  [in.solent] 
things"  (Suk.  Hiir,  .see  llcr.\.  "Die  Prophetic  des 
Joel,"  p.  2Ki,  who  finds  a  Juda'o-Mohammedan  tra- 
dition identifying  the  "Morthern  One"  with  the  JIo- 
hammedan  Antichrist,  Al-Dajjal — the  Liar).  But 
there  is  direct  proof  that  the  big  monster  slain  and 
cast  olT  as  ollensive  is  none  other  than  Ahriman. 

According  to  Targ.  Yer.  Deut.  x.\.\iv.  3,  Moses 
was  before  his  end  shown  the  history  of  Israel's 
Iribidations,  ending  with  the  iiunishment  of  Armal- 
gus  the  Wicked  (NyC'l  DIJ7OIX).  the  war  of  Gog 
and  ^lagog,  and  tlw^  appearance  of  Jliehael  as  his  tri- 
umphant combatant.  Compare  with  this  the  battle 
of  Gabriel  with  the  Leviathan  at  the  end  of  days 

(B.B.  74/'),  and  the  Antichrist  storiesm 

His  Death  Jellinek,  "15.  II."  v.  127;  "Assumptio 

Fulfils       5Iosis,"10.   Thus  the  Messianic  proph- 

Prophecy.  ecy  (in  IhcTargumtoIsji.  xi.4),"AVith 

the  breath  of  jiis  li]is  [mouth]  will  he 
slay  the  wicked,"  refers  to  Armalgus — as  the  manu- 
scripts have  it,  or  as  our  printed  edition  has  it,  Ar- 
milus,  which  is  the  s;ime  as  Armaly  us  =  Armainyus. 
Bachcr  ("Targum  zu  den  Prophclen."  in  "Z.  D. 
M.  G."  1873,  p.  31,  note)  has  .shown  that  all  theman\i- 
scripts  to  Isa.  xi.  4  have  the  J,  either  pj^DIX  or  Jlj^ons 
or  DIJ^OIX-  He  lias  also  calleil  csjiecial  attention  to 
the  tyrant  Armalinus,  the  mythical  builder  of  Mem- 
jihisin  Arabian  folk-lore, who.according  to  Professor 
Fleischer,  is  Armalgus,  whom  Baeher  also  identities 
with  Angromainynsh.  Jellinek,  "  B.  II."  vi.  xxx., 
found,  in  the  Leipsic  manuscript  containing  "Milha- 
mot  ha-.Mashial.i,"  the  name  written  DUBOIS-  Saadia 
("  Annmat,"  ed.  Landauer,  p.  239)  calls  him  DV^JDIX 
Armnlyos. 

Owing  to  the  identification  of  Home's  angel  with 
Sania<l,  chief  of  the  evil  spirits,  Arnnhis  in  the  course 
of  time  was  identiticd  with  Konudus  (see  Bousset's 
"Antichrist,"  pp.  6(>,  07).  Tln'  name  given  to  Ar- 
mainyusli  in  other  Jewish  escliatologies  was  Belial 
(Bcliar,  II  Cor.  vi.  14;  Sibylline  Books';  ii.  0.1,5,111.63; 
Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  Dan.  v.),  the 
same  as  "spirit  of  hcU"  (see  Ps.  xviii.  .'>  and  Bilthgen's 
Comm.),  hence  the  "son  of  pi'rdition  " ( 1 1  Thess.  ii.  3) 
and  the  "man  of  sin,"  that  is.  nm/tu',  "  the  Wicked  " 
(Isa.  xi.  4).  Thus  the  Serpent  is  spoken  of  as  JIn- 
Tttuhii',  "the  Wicked  One,"  in  f!en.  IJ.  xx.,  Bek.  8(( 
(compare  Targ.  Yer.  Gen.  iii.l3);  and  Home  as  the 
wicked  kingdom. -!/((//•'///(■(  /■<«//i/'(;/((Gen.  H.  Ixxvi.). 
In  the  Hebrew  apocalvptie  literature  (Midr.  Wa- 
yosha':  Book  of  Zerulilia'lMl ;  (Itot  hiiMasliiah ;  Th<> 
Secrets  of  Simon  b.  Yohai;  and  the  Klijaii  Apoca- 
Ivpse  in  Jellin.k,  "  1$.  II  "  i.  ".0.  ii.  .M!.  tlti.  iii.  0.>-8(l) 
Ahriman  appears  in  many  forms  that  gavi'  rise  to 
all  kinds  of  conjectural  interpretations:  D1XTD"1X. 
explained  by  Jellinek  ("  H.  11."  iii.  xviii.)  as  llere- 
niolaos;  according  to  Griltz,  in  Levy,  "  Wdrlerbucli 
zu  lien  Targumim,"  «.c,  u  supposed  translation  of 

Djr^a.  Hala  am  =  "  Destroyer  of  I  he  people"  ;Dl!'»mX 
explained  bv  Zunz,  "(f.V."  p.  29.'i  (who  declaris  the 
passage  in  'l\irg.  Yer.  to  Isa.  \i.  4  to  bealaic'  inlerpo 


lation),  as  a  combination  of  Homidus  and  Hcmus:  and 
by  Hitzig(in  his  "Commentary  on  Daniel,"  p.  12.')) as 
referring  to  Caligula,  whom  Suetonius 
His  Guises  (chap,  xxv.)  represents  as  appearing 
and  Names.  (n7«iW</^!/x.     Then  there  are  also  the 

forms  nPDin  and  Np'onn.  which  con- 
vey no  sense  at  all;  and  linally  lie  is  inlrodueed  as 
"  Armilus  whom  the  natioiisot  the  w<ii-ld  willeall  An- 
tichristus."  a  name  which  appears  a^'ain  in  distorted 
forms  as  niCOn  and  NDCL'Timn  (see  Elijah  Apoca- 
lypse in  Jellinek,  "  B.  II. "iii.  0.51.  lie  is  described  as  a 
monstrous  figure  of  immense  size,  with  one  small  and 
one  large  eye;  with  leprosy  on  his  forehead;  with  one 
ear  open  and  one  closed;  the  left  arm  small,  and  the 
right  very  long;  and  of  his  origin  the  strange  story  is 
given  that  he  is  the  son  of  Satan,  and  that  a  stone  is 
his  mother.  There  is  in  Home  a  marble  block  "not 
made  by  human  hanils,''  in  the  sha]ie  of  a  beautifvd 
maiden;  and  under  the  guiles  of  Satan  the  youths  of 
Homo  are  tilled  with  lust  at  sight  of  it;  the  stone 
gives  birth  to  the  monstrous  giant  who  becomes  king 
and  Messiah  of  the  Homans.  It  is  he  who  leads  the 
whole  army  of  heathendom  in  battle  against  the 
Messiah,  the  son  of  Ephraim,  and  eonipiers  him.  His 
reign  lasts,  however,  only  forty  or  forty-five  days, 
and  he  is  al  last  defeated  by  the  .Messiah  from  the 
III  luse  of  I  )avid,  with  the  aid  of  Michael  the  archangel 
and  Elijah. 

That  this  legend — evidently  connected  with  that 
of  Virgil,  and  with  the  stone  of  Hhea,  brought  to 
Home  in  204  li.c. ,  and  the  impure  cult  of  Sabazius, 
whose  symbol  was  the  ser|ient  (see  Preller,  "Grie- 
cIiIscIk'  .Mythologie.  "i.  531,  070,  .")7.'S) — has  nothing 
to  do  with  Homulus  is  clear.  Nor  can  the  .Vrmilus- 
Anliehrist  legend  be  the  product  of  the  Arabic-gaonic 
age,  as  Zunz  ("G.  V."  2d  cd.,  p.  2'J.'>)  thought,  for 
Boussct  in  his  work  on  Antichrist  has  clearly  shown 
that  it  is  of  i)re('hristian  origin.  Already  Saadia  (in 
"  Emunot  we-l)eot,"  viii.  Vi'itt  sifj.)  speaksof  it  as 
an  ancient  tradition.  The  Maniheaiis  also  speak  of  an 
Antichrist,  Adm  .l/fA-rtrt,  as  one  full  of  lasciviousucss 
and  stricken  with  leprosy  ("  Kiglit  Geiiza,"  section  ii., 
11.  .")',!;  Brandt,  "  Mandaische  .Schriflcn."  pji.  O.").  il7  it 
.1(1/.).  w  ho.  with  thciiid  of  Hidia,  his  mother,  casts  the 
spirit  of  lust  and  fornication  into  the  world.  He  is 
called  the  deceiver  or  Homan  (Ni'ildeke  prefers  the 
latter  translation;  see  Brandt,  "  .Mandilische  Relig- 
ion," p.  228,  and  "  Mandilische  Schriften,"  p.  9.5,  note 
2).  lie  is  identical  with  the  .Mohammedan  Al-Dajjal 
(The  Deceiver  or  Liar),  whose  reign  lasts  forty  days 
(sec  Boussct,  p.  74,  andcomiiare  Anticiikist). 

Buu.uiiat.H'nv:  Zunz,  CI.  I'.p.-W;  lliuntninfcr,  R.H.  T.s.y. 
Arnlihij':  (iunlii-l.  .Si/irilitioiy  loiil  (Viil-i.",  iip.  i.'l-2at ; 
Itmis.s,I,  D'f  Aiili'liri.-il.  tSlfi  ;  KnIlliT.  Ill  Z.  ;>.  .V.  (.'.  1SI19, 
n.it'.i:!;  llriHI.  In  Knhiik's  Jr.s<'hiirioi.  Mil.  II;  Kiiiiriiiiinn,  In 
^[|||lllt.1y|■ltl■ifl.  isim.  pp.  i:H  1/  Ni;.;  (aldeiiiiiuu,  t.'t«7iio;i((((. 
Kyzitliunusiri.s, ,  ,-i.„  IsM.  pp.  iii),  it!.  j^_ 

AHRONY,  ISAAC.     Sec  Colhi,.\nd. 

AHR'WEILER:  Town  of  Hhcnish  Prussia, 
twenty  three  iiiilis  northwest  of  Coblenz,  on  the 
river  Ahr.  It  is  mentioned  in  lh<'  year  r24S  as  con- 
taining a  Jewish  colony.  In  I'-'i.")  and  1202  a  luiinber 
of  Jews  of  Ahrweiler ac([uiied  property  at  Cologne; 
.some  of  them  arc  referred  to  as  living  at  Bacharach  at 
the  bi'ginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Wolfram, 
archbishop  of  Cologne  in  13:i."i,  ordered  the  sjimc 
measures  to  be  appliid  to  the  Jews  of  Ahrweiler.  in 
regulating  the  meat  trade,  as  were  already  in  force 
among  the  Jiwsof  Bonn.  The  conimimily  sulTend 
gieallv  from  the  persecutions  which  broke  out  in  tlio 
|{hiiic"distriets  in  1348,  during  the  iirevalence  of  tlto 
blaik  death,  and  in  the  archbishopric  of  Cologne 
alone  no  less  than  forty-four  lonuiiunities  were  anni- 
hilated.     .\t  the-  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century 


Ahrweller 
Aix 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


298 


Alirweilcr  was  attacked  by  the  soldiery  of  Brabant 
niul  Holland,  and  tbe  Jewish  rommunity  biin-ly  cs- 
ciiped  destruction.  Of  its  ndibi.s.  a  tirtniii  Isaac  of 
Ahrweiler  addressed  ritual  <iuestious  to  Jacob  -Miilin 
(it  Worms  (d.  14-7).  aii<l  wrote  a  coMimeiitary  on  the 
Piiitateueli.  Ill  Alirweilcr  was  also  Halibi  Issjiehar. 
wlmse  daUL'litiT  Fidiiiiiiet.  the  wile  of  Kalilii  Samuel 
ben  Jloses,  was  ,so  leanieil  that  she  copied  .Samuel 
Schlettstadts  "Kiz/.ur  Jlordeeai,"  in  UM.  for  her 
husband.  The  manuscript  is  now  in  the  BibliothOiiuc 
Kationale  in  Paris.  In  the  "  Jiidenschreinsbuch  der 
Laureiizpfarre"  of  Cologne  there  are  mentioned  as 
coniiufr  from  Ahrweiler;  Joseph  and  his  wife.  Hiclia. 
r248-.Vi;  Gunipert,  son  of  the  ]irecedinjr.  r.JTO-T.'i; 
fSauland  his  wife,  Hesrixelin.  181S-2(i:  Joseph  and  his 
w  ife.  Geiiaiiiia.  IJiU-Cjyii.  In  the  Palatinate  records 
are  to  be  found  in  addition  ;  Simon,  son  of  Vifanz  {  — 
llayyim),  KUO;  Hanne  (in  Hacliaracli).  i:i(iT,  widow 
of  the  precedinjr;  to  which  may  be  added  Harueh  ben 
Simon,  physician,  poet,  and  glossarist  (tlourished  in 
the  tift<'entli  century).  I.Iayyim  Treves,  son  of  Jo- 
luuian  Treves  who  wrote  a  conunentary  upon  the 
Ulahzor  and  who  succeeded  Kuben  Fulda  in  the  rab- 
binate of  Coloirne.  died  at  Ahrweili-r  in  l.jlis.  llis 
.son-in  law,  Isjiac  ben  llayyim.  also  lived  there.  Dur- 
ing the  seventeiMith  century  (1041  it  siq.)  we  find  the 
Diime  of  Herz  Ahr'weiler  as  one  of  the  "  Hablii- 
uatsassessori'ii  "  at  FranUforton-llie-Main.  His  son 
m.VTTiTlll.vir  AllltWKll.Kit  became  rabbi  of  Heidel- 
berg in  1708.  The  family  name  Ahrweiler  occurs 
also  at  Prague  and  Worms.  After  this  every  trace 
of  the  conuniinity  disajipears. 

The  present  Jewish  community  dates  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1899  there  were 
eighty-two  Jewish  families  there.  The  new  syna- 
gogue was  built  in  1895. 

BiBLiOGRAPIIV  :  Das  Jiulnixctirriitstiucji  fh-r  Lntarnziifnrn' 
211  Ki'ilii.  eii.  Stern  anrl  HoiMiip-r.  p.  !«.•<;  Ikix  Miirtjiinli,- 
flixim  ik.i  XUrnhcrtiir  Mi  inurhiirJirx.  fd.  Siilteld.  pp.  -T:!, 
287;  Lrnvensteln.  (ioifi.  il.  Jiuh  n   in  il.  Kiniifalz,  p.  in:. 

A.  F. 

AHRWEILER,  MATTITHIAH :  German 
r;ibl)i:  born  about  1051)  at  FranUrort-on-the-Main ; 
died  at  ileidellierg.  September  19.  17iS.  At  the  time 
of  his  birth  his  father,  Herz.  was  dayyan.  Matti- 
thiah  ofliciated  as  rabbi  at  Bingen  (Jacob  Pojiper, 
■■  Responsji."  ii..  No.  8.  Frankfort.  1742).  and  subse- 
quently at  Mannheim,  where  he  taught  in  the  college 
(see  Ki..\t"s)  founded  by  Lemie  Moses.  In  1708  he 
took  part  in  the  dedication  of  the  Lemle  Institute. 
Shortly  afterward  he  was  called  to  Heidelberg  as 
rabbi  to  the  congregation  of  that  city,  with  jnri.sdic- 
tion  over  all  the  congregations  in  the  Palatinate, 
which  position  he  held  until  his  death.  The  local 
memorial  book  praises  his  piety  and  learning. 

niBLioGRAPHY :  I^iwenstein,  Geaclt.  O.Juilcii  iii  d.  Kvr)>falz, 
1S95.  pp.  137  el  ntq. 

D. 

AHTTB  BEN  MEIR  HAN  ASIA.  See  II.\- 
^.\sI  \,  .\in  r.  r.i  n  Mkik 

AHCDI,  SOLOMON.  See  Soi.oMox  b.  J.vcon 
liiX   Avi  r., 

AHTJRAMAZDA.     See  Okmczd. 

AI  lor  HA-'AI,  jirobably  from  '5;="  The  Ruin  "): 
A  royal  Cauaanitisli  (own,  eastward  from  Beth-el  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  territory  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  the  seat  of  a  king,  destroyed  by  Joshua 
(.losh.  viii.)after  one  unsucccs.sful  attack  (Josh.  vii. ). 
In  Josh.  viii.  28  it  is  described  as  "a  ruin  unto  this 
day."  It  must  have  been  rebtnlt  before  the  time  of 
Isaiah,  as  it  is  mentioned  in  Isa.  x.  28.  where  the 
name  is  given  as  Aiath.  "  Men  of  Beth-el  and  Ai  " 
are  mentioned  after  the  Exile  (Ezra.  ii.  28);  Aija  and 


Beth-el  were  peopled  by  Beiijamitcs  (Neli.  xi.  31). 
Ayya  (as  in  many  Hebrew  manuscripts  and  the  belter 
Septuagint  manu.scripts,  instead  of  Azzah-Gaza), 
in  the  latter  passage,  is  a  border  city  of  Ephraim, 
I  Chron.  vii.  28.  Aiath  may  be  understood  thus  or  as 
the  northernmost  city  of  Judea,  According  to  Gen. 
xii.  8.  xiii.  'A.  Alir.diam  eneanipeil  on  a  mountain  be- 
tween Ai  and  Beth  el;  and  in  Josh.  vii.  11  Joshua's 
army  is  said  to  have  pitched  on  the  north  side  of  Ai 
with  a  valley  between  that  place  and  Ai.  Ai  is  gen- 
erally identitied.  according  to  Van  de  Velde,  with 
the  modern  Tell  el  llajar,  between  Betin  and  Dilr 
Diwan;  and,  according  to  Hobinsou.  with  Kliirbet 
Hayan,  directly  south  of  the  latter. 

BiuLKXiR.vpiiY:  Robinson,  UihUiiil  Htnearchcs  in  Palestine, 
11.  U'.i,  312(1  «c</. 

W.  M.  M. 

AIBTJ  (IBU) :  By  this  name,  unaccompanied  by 
])atroiiyniie  or  cognomen,  are  known  four  amoraim, 
three  of  whom  wen-  membirs  of  the  family  of  Abba 
Arika  (Kab)  in  Babylonia,  ami  the  remaining  one 
was  a  ilistinguisheil  Palestinian.  1.  The  father  of 
Rah.  and  elder  half-lirother  of  Hiyya  the  Great,  a  lin- 
eal or  lateral  dese<ndant  of  the  roval  hou.se  of  David 
(Ket.02'';  VerTaanit,iv.OS„;Gen.  R. -xeviii.).  After 
the  birth  of  .Vibu,  his  father,  having  become  a  wid- 
ower, married  a  widow  who  had  a  (laughter,  and 
from  that  union  came  I.Iiyya.  Aibu  married  his  step- 
sister, and  was  thus  related  to  Hiyya  as  both  half- 
brother  and  brother-in-law  (Sanh.  .5.f,  Pes.  4'/).  Aibu 
was  a  diseiide  of  Eleazar  b.  Zadok  (.Suk.  44i);  and 
Hiyya,  speaking  to  Rab,  often  addressed  him  as  Bar 
Pai.iiite  (Son  of  Xobles;  Ber.  V.'Ji).  thus  testifying  to  the 
noblegiftsof  his  elder  half-brother.  2.  A  son  of  I{!ib, 
who  iidierited  his  name  from  his  grandfather,  but 
not  his  scholarly  capacity.  His  father,  seeing  that 
Aibu  was  not  endowed  with  great  mental  gifts,  ad- 
vised him  to  turn  his  attention  to  secular  |)ursuit.s. 
and  furnisheil  him  with  a  number  of  practical  rules 
of  conduct.  Aibu  became  a  farmer;  and  some  had 
occasion  to  criticize  him  for  not  observing  a  rab- 
binical enactment  (Pes.  11.^';  B.  M.  9:»;  'Ab:  Zarali. 
35/y).  3.  A  grandson  of  Rab  (Suk.  U'l).  So  little 
was  he  known  as  an  authority  on  the  Halakah.  that 
the  name  of  his  Palestinian  contemporary  Abbaliu 
was  sometimes  substituted  for  his  (Pes.  40i',  Hul. 
122/)  ct  Mfj. ).     4.  See  following  article.  S.  JI. 

AIBU  (IBTJ) :  A  prominent  haggadist  of  the 
fourtli  amoraic  generation  (fourth  century),  contem- 
|)orary  of  Judah  (Juilan)  b.  Simon  (b.  Pazzi;  Midr. 
Teh.  to  viii.2,cxiii.  1).  Hewas  versed  in  the  Halakah, 
in  which  he  often  reported  opinions  in  behalf  of  Rabbi 
Yannai  (Ket.  54/*,  104/<;  Kid.  Ifl-/,  ;»/ ;  Zeb.  Wifi); 
but  noorigiii.'il  decisions  have  come  down  from  him. 
In  the  tieldof  the  Haiigadah.  on  the  contrary,  while 
we  tiiid  him  repeating  observations  of  his  predeces- 
sors (Gen.  R.  xliv.,  Ixxxii. ;  Jlidr.  Teh.  toci.  8|,  he  is 
generally  original  in  his  remarks.  Commenting  on 
Jacob's  order  to  Josei)h,  "Go  and  .see  whether  it  be 
well  with  thy  brethren  and  well  with  the  flock" 
(fien.  xxxvii.  14).  the  fiuestion  is  raised.  Do  flocks 
of  sheep  ajiprcciate  human  greetings?  Wherenuto 
Aibu  replies:  "It  is  m;in's  duty  to  pray  for  and  look 
after  the  well-being  of  the  dumb  animal  that  con- 
tributes to  his  welfare"  (Tan.,  Wayeslieb.  l.i.  ed. 
Bulier;  see  Gen.  R.  Ixxxiv.).  In  specifying  the  num- 
ber of  men  that  escorted  .Vbraham  on  Ins  journey  to 
Moriah  (Gen.  .xxii.  3),  and  Saul  on  his  visit  to  the 
witch  of  En-dor  (I  Sam.  xxviii.  8).  Scripture,  ac- 
cording to  R.  Aibu.  intends  to  convey  the  practical 
les.son.  that  man  when  traveling  should  be  accom- 
panied by  at  least  two  servants,  or  else  he  may  him- 
self become  his  servant's  .servant  (Lev.  R.  xxvi.). 


299 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ahrweiler 


In  his  Biblical  exegesis,  he  aims  to  reconcile  varia- 
tions in  Scripturalexpressions.  Tims,  Aibu  explains 
the  reason  assigned  for  God's  mercies  in  the  i)as- 
sage,  "The  Lord  will  not  forsake  his  iieojjle  for  his 
great  name's  sake  "  (I  .Sam.  xii.  22).  and  the  oniis 
sion  of  that  reason  in  the  similar  message,  "The 
Lord  will  not  cast  oil  his  peoi>le  "  (Ps.  xciv.  14).  by 
ajiplying  tlie  latter  to  the  times  of  the  people's 
piely,  and  the  former  to  the  days  of  heedlessness. 
God  is  always  gooil:  when  the  people  are  deserving 
of  His  goodiiess  He  .showers  it  upon  them  for  their 
own  sake:  when,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  not  de- 
serving. He  forsiikes  them  not  for  His  great  name's 
sake  (Kuth  H.  to  i.  (i».  Similarly,  he  ex|ilains  the 
variation  in  the  version  of  the  Fourlli  Command- 
ment, "Hcmemberllie  Sabbath  day  "  (Ex.  xx.  fS),  and 
"Keep  the  Sabbath  day  "  (I)eut.  v.  12).  According 
to  Aibu  (on  behalf  of  Uesh  Laki.sh)  the  term  "re- 
member" applii-s  to  cases  when  one  is  not  able  to 
rest  on  the  Sabbath  day,  as,  for  instance,  when  one 
is  on  a  sea  voyage,  and  only  remembering  is  possi- 
ble; the  terni  "keep"  a|iplies  to  ordinary  circum- 
stances, when  "  keeping  "  is  obligatory  (Pesik.  H. 
xxiii.). 

Dwelling  on  the  ver.se  (Ps.  viii.  4  [A.  V.  3]),  "  When 
I  consider  thy  heavens,  the  work  of  thy  fingers," 
etc.,  Aibu  remarks: 

*'There  are  thrt'c  cla,»wi*s  of  men  :  (1)  those  wlio  are  contented 
with  adiiilrinK  tlif  unmili-ui'  of  tlif  sky,  with  tlie  moon  ami  stars 
and  piani't.s;  cit  tlion*-  whi>  pmy  to  (iod  to  reserve  all  llie  p<«>d 
due  to  (lu'in  fiir  heaven  In  the  hi-ivufter:  and  I'i)  a  rla.<s  of 
lazy  worklncnnen  who  say.  "  WhatevcT  Ihoii  wilt  give  us,  (rive  us 
now,  iMith  what  may  t)*-  oiu"  flue  anil  \vhal^*ver  may  l>e  liestowed 
U|)on  us  through  our  fathei-s'  merits  :  (tlve  us  whatever  thy  lin- 
gers have  wrought '  "  (.Miilr.  Teh.  to  I's.  vlll.  4). 

Elsewhere  he  stiys:  "No  man  departs  from  this 
world  having  reali/eil  even  half  of  his  desires. 
When  a  man  has  aciiuired  a  hundred  pieces  of  gold. 
he  hmgs  to  increase  them  to  two  liundred;  and 
when  he  has  two  hundred,  he  is  anxious  to  double 
these  again"  (Eecl.  H.  i.  Vi.  iii.  lb).  Aibu's  homi- 
letic  observations  are  numerous,  both  those  related 
in  his  own  name  and  those  reported  in  his  beluilf  by 
the  haggadisls  of  his  own  and  subse(iuent  genera 
tions  (compare  Pesik.  i..  iii.,  v.,  xvii.,  xxv.,  xxvii. ; 
Pesik.  K.  c-d.  Friedman,  index;  Tan.,  eil.  Huber,  in- 
dex; Jlidr.  Teh.  ed.  Buber,  index;  Bacher,  " Atx.  Pal. 
Amor."  iii.  63-79).  S."  M. 

AIBTJ  (IBU)   B.    NAOGARI :    A  Palestinian 

amoni  of  tlir  ti>urlh  :;(noi;iiii>ri  (fovirth  century), 
disciple  of  llila.  ami  coiitc'Mi|ini:iiy  of  .ludali  b.  (Si- 
mon b.  )Pa/./i.  He  reports  llalukot  in  behalf  of  many 
of  his  predeces.sors  (Yer.  Sink.  iv.  AXr.  Yer.  Jleg.  i, 
70((,  Yer.  Yeb.  i.  2r).  and  also  advances  opinions  of 
his  own.  Several  of  his  homiletic  observations  are 
preserved.  One  of  these  makes  the  scriptural  verse 
"When  he  shall  be  judged,  let  him  be  condemned" 
(Ps.  cix.  7)  the  basis  for  the  often-cited  rabbinic  doc- 
trine that  Satan  is  always  ready  to  accuse  at  a  man's 
critii-.il  moment  (Yer.  Sliab.  ii.  'tfi;  Yalk.,  (!en.  S  31). 
Another,  and  tli<>oiie  umst  fie(|Ueiitly  (pioted.  is  that 
which  exidierates  David  fruiii  tlii'  imputation  that 
he  really  "sat  before  the  Lord  "  (<-nmpare  H  San\.  vii. 
IM),  whi-reas  sitting  in  the  Temple  was  strictly  pro- 
hibiteil.  Aibu  interprets  the  Hebrew  term  iriii/mhih 
("he  sjil  ")  as  if  it  were  irni/iiK/nli  ("hr  .settled."  or 
"prepared  himself"),  and  interprets  it  as  signifying 
that  David  composed  himself  forpniying  before  lh<' 
Lord  (Yer.  Pes,  v.  end.  ;i2(/ /f  </'.  ;  the  reading  Htm 
I).  Nagili.  in  .Midr.  Sam.  xxvii,,  is  obviously  a  copv- 
ist's  error).  That  .\ibu  received  instructions  di- 
rectly from  .lohainin.  as  seems  to  be  inlimati'cl  iu 
the  Babylonian  Talmud  (U.  II.  2|.i).  is  d.>ublful, 
since  he  was  known  I"  have  been  a  disci|ile  of  Hila 


(see  Frankel,  "Mebo,"  pp.  63a,  754;  Bacher,  "Ag. 
Pal.  Amor."  iii.  559-560).  S.  M. 

AIN  ("Fountain ''):  1.  Acity  given  to  theLevites 
in  the  tribes  of  .Judah  and  Simeon  (Josh.  xv.  33, 
xix.  7,  xxi.  10;  Xeh.  xi.  29).  The  Septuagint  read- 
ing connects  Ain  and  Riminou  and  gives  them  as 
one;  although  the  context  of  I  C'hron.  iv.  32  is  in 
favor  of  the  supposition  that  they  at  least  were  re- 
garded as  distinct.  The  place  corresponds  to  the 
modern  Ummer  Uammamiu  (Buhl,  "  Oeogr,  d.  Alteu 
Palest  ilia."  p.  1M3|.  2.  .V  i>laeer>ii  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  t'anaan,  west  of  Hiblali.  Its  identity  is  the 
subject  of  much  dispute.  Both  the  Jerusalem  Tar- 
gums  refer  it  to  the  fountain  in  the  grove  of  Daphne, 
near  Antioch.  I^atir  geographers  prefer  the  source 
of  the  Orontes:  others  identify  it  with  a  well  at  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Hernion  (Xum.  xxxiv.  11;  Bacher,  "  Ag. 
Pal.  Amor."  iii.  O.-.'J  it  *<'?.).  G.  B.  L. 

AIN  KADES  :  A  well  near  the  Arabah,  first  seen 
by  Kou  lands  in  1S42.  He  idenlitied  it  with  the  K.\- 
DKsii  B.\u.NK.\  of  the  Bible.  It  was  not  seen  again 
by  Europeans  till  1S81,  when  it  was  visited  by  Trum- 
bull, who  has  shown  conclusively  that  Ain  Kades 
and  Kadesh  Baruea  are  the  same.     See  Kadesii. 

Bibliography:  Trumbull,  Kadesh  Bamea,  pp.  2T2-275,  309- 
Kl.  New  York,  18,si. 

G.  B.  L. 

AIN  MTJSAc  Spring  [or  "Sprin.ss"]  of  Moses"): 
A  small  oasis,  about  seven  or  eight  miles  southwest  of 
Suez,  Egypt.  It  is  about  2.")0  acres  in  extent,  with 
luxuriant  gardens  and  groups  of  imlms  and  tama- 
risks. The  water  of  some  of  its  springs  is  unilrink- 
able.  wliih'  that  of  others  has  only  Inices  of  salt,  so 
that  the  popularidentilicalion  of  it  with  M.vnvii  (Ex. 
XV.  23)  is  not  very  plausible.  Modern  .scholars  have, 
more  freiiueutlv,  conuected  Ain  Musji  with  Ei.i.M 
(Kx.  XV.  27).     ■  W.  M.  M. 

AIRE :  A  fortified  town  on  the  river  Adour,  in 
snuiJK  111  France.  There  is  no  certainty  that  a  Jewish 
cniiiiiiunity  ever  existed  here  :  but  about  tin'  iiiiildle 
of  the  thirteenth  ceiitury  a  Hebrew  poet  composed  a 
eulogy  on  his  native  town  which,  from  its  Hebrew 
sjieliiiii;  CJT'Xl,  would  seem  to  have  been  Aire. 
This  poet  was  Is.v.vc  liKX  Aiiii.vii.vM  ii.v-GouM.  The 
apiiellation  HaGorni  ("he  of  the  threshing-Hoor ") 
is  derived  from  the  modern  name  of  Aire,  which 
signifies  a  barn  or  threshing-lloor;  and  by  a  play  on 
words,  the  poet  iiiijilies  this  name  to  his  native  iilace. 
He  nicMlions  .seviial  of  his  I'ellowtowiis  men:  one 
Samuel,  whom  he  describes  as  "  prophet,"  and  Aaron, 
a  learned  Talraudist,  besides  a  number  of  private 
individuals. 

nini.io(;R.vpiiv :  .Voii,7(«.»fhri7(,  ISTS.  n.  4:«:  ISTfl.  p.  IT:  1S82. 
pp.  ."dll-.'i:;!:  .linlalah  Itedersl.  Hnttiiil  Tithnil.  \h\.  Stelnsehnel- 
der,  Intnid.  p.  -':  (in>ss.  tjiillin  Jin/iiicii,  p.  41':  Sleliisalinelder, 
C(i(.  Munich,  Nos.  12Si(  xfi/. 

M.    S. 

AIX,  or  AIX-EN-PROVENCE:  A  town  in 
the  department  <<<  Bmii  br^  dii  Klniiie,  Fnmci',  the 
A<iu;e  Sextiie  of  the  Pomaiis,  and  for  a  short  |)eri<Ml 
tln'  capital  of  Provence.  It  is  variously  trans<-rilied 
ill  Hebrew,  ami  is  somelinies  tniusluted  iu  Hebrew 
literature  by  "'Ir  liaMayiin." 

The  first  "mention  of  Jews  in  Aix  appears  in  a  doc 
nmiiit  of  the  year  12s:i.  pie-^rvi.l  in  tin-  annals  of 
the  Chunh  of  Aix,  wherein  it  is  stated  that  the  com- 
luuuily,  in  return  for  the  yearly  payment  of  two 
pounds  of  i>epper,  was  |)erinilted  to  have  a  syna- 
gogue and  n  cemetery.  The  greater  part  of  I  la- 
Jews  of  Aix  inhabited' the  rue  Veiiel.  in  the  (|uarter 
of  Saint -Sanveur,   which  was  then   known   as   the 


Aix 
Ajalon 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


300 


"Jews'  Street."  Theircliicf  tnulc  seems  to  have  been 
in  spices,  silks,  ami  wax.  The  exact  rmmber  of 
Jewisli  families  tliat  made  \ip  tlic  community  can  not 
be  ascertained,  except  for  tlie  year  VUl,  wiien  Aix 
contained  1.".211  Jews,  of  wliom  203  were  landed  pro- 
prietors. The  ordinances  ajrainst  tlie  Jews  througli- 
out  Provence  were  rigorously  apiilied  to  those  of 
Aix,  and  were  the  cause  of  many  complaints  on  the 
part  of  the  Jewish  connnunity.  They  could  not,  for 
instance,  testify  against  a  Christian;  nor  were  tliey 
allowed  to  visit  the  public  l)aths  on  any  day  durinsr 
the  week  but  Friday,  which  was  set  aside  for  their 
exclusive  use:  they  were  forbidden  to  do  work  on 
Sundays;  no  Jew  could  embark  for  Alexandria,  and 
only  four  could  take  jiassiige  by  the  same  boat  for 
any  of  the  other  ports  of  the  Levant.  This  latter  en- 
actment often  compelled  Jewish  merchants  to  send 
Christian  messengers  on  their  conunercial  expedi- 
tions. The  failure,  on  the  part  of  Jew  or  Jewess,  to 
wear  the  distinguishing  yellow  toque,  or  the  round 
patch,  was  severely  punished.  A  local  ordinance 
prohibited  the  Jews  from  engaging  in  dice-throw- 
ing with  Christians.  It  is  probable  that  the  in(|uisi- 
torial  commis.sion  of  Dominican  friars,  instituted  in 
1198  by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  against  the  Albigenses. 
became  likewise  a  source  of  annoyance  to  the  Jews 
of  Aix  andof  the  other  large  cities  of  Provence;  for, 
in  1276,  Charles  I.  of  Anjou  promulgated  an  edict 
which  abolished  the  right  of  this  commission  to  mo- 
lest the  Jews  within  his  territory. 

With  Charles  I.  the  Jews  of  Aix,  together  with 
those  of  other  towns  of  Provence,  lost  their  pro- 
tector. Charles  II.  (t28.")-180i))  issued  ordinances  ac 
cording  to  which  the  Jews  were  forbidden,  on  pain 
of  a  fine  of  two  silver  marks,  to  have  a  Christian  serv- 
ant, to  hold  a  public  otlice,  and  to  lay  aside  the  dis- 
tinguishing yellow  badge.  The  tirst  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century  was  relatively  a  happy  epoch  for 
the  Jew\s  of  Aix,  under  the  reign  of  Robert  of  An- 
jou, who  showed  them  every  kind  of  jn'otection;  but 
the  second  half  was  a  very  "dark  one.  The  presence 
of  the  wicked  Joanna  on  the  throne  of  Provence  gave 
scope  to  the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  and  the  most  liar- 
barons  rescriplions  were  issued.  In  Ui44  the  .lews 
of  Aix  had  much  to  suffer  from  the  riots  following 
the  blood  accusation  against  Samson  of  Reylhane. 

An  incident  fraught  with  frightful  consequences 
to  the  Jews  of  Aix  and  PiTtuis  took  jilace  in  the  year 
143(5,  during  the  otherwise  tmnquil  reign  of  Rene 
of  Anjou.     A  Jew  of  Aix,  Astrue  de  Leon,  was  ac- 
cused of  having  blasphemed  the  name  of  the  mother 
of  Jesus,  and  a  fine  of  100  livrcs  was  imposed  upon 
him  for  this  crime.      But  the  poimlace  considered 
this  punishment  too  light,  and  demanded  and  ob- 
tained his  death;   and,  not  content  even  with  this. 
a  wholesale  massacre  of  the  Jews  was  begun  which 
extended  over  a  considerable  area.     The  execution 
of  Astrue  took  place  near  the  Church 
Execution  of  the  Oratory,  as  proved  by  a  com- 
of  Astrue    memorative  column  said  to  have  been 

de  Ij€on.  still  in  existence  at  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  In  the  account  given 
by  Dcpping,  it  is  related  that  20.000  livres  were  of- 
fered by  tile  Jews  to  Rene  as  a  ransom  for  the  ac- 
cused, and  that  finally  he  was  executed  by  disguised 
noblemen  of  Aix ;  but  these  statements  are  based 
chiefly  upon  very  unreliable  doe\nnents.  Joseph 
ha-Kohen,  in  his  "Emck  ha-Baka,"  speaks  of  a  mas- 
sacre of  the  .Tews  of  Aix  during  the  year  1430,  and 
states  that  in  this  uprising  of  the  populace  seventy- 
four  Jews  accepted  baptism ;  but  it  is  highly  prob- 
able that  there  is  an  error  of  dates  here,  and  that 
the  massacre  mentioned  by  Joseph  ha-Kohen  is  the 
same  as  the  incident  of  1436.     This  massacre  is  also 


lentioned,  though  vaguely,  in  the  "  Shebet.  Yehu- 
ih  "  of  Solomon  ibn  \  erga;  but  Wiener,  in  his  edi- 


mer 

dah ''  of  Solomon  U)n  Verga; 

tion,  i>.  114.  erroneously  has  "Agen"  for  "Aix." 

On  the  Kith  of  May,  1484,  a  band  of  marauders 
from  the  Daupliine  and  Auvergne  provinces  pil- 
laged the  Jews  of  Aix  ("Rev.  Et.  Juives."  xxxix. 
IIU).  When,  in  14112,  a  convoy  of  Spanish  Jews  was 
brought  to  Jlarseilles  to  be  sold  into  slavery,  the 
Jewsdf  Aix  associated  themselves  with  those  of 


Tlie  Synagogue  at  Aix-la-Ohapelle  (see  p.  301). 

(From  »  pboto^sph.) 

that  city  and  iirocured  their  relea.se,  becoming  in 
part  responsible  for  them  ("  Rev.  fit.  Juives."  ix.  67). 

Aix  now  belongs  to  the  Consistory  of  Marseilles. 
It  has  also  an  aid  association. 

Among  the  few  more  or  less  eminent  persons  asso- 
ciated with  the  town  of  Aix  may  be  mentioned:  R. 
Isjiiah  ben  Samuel,  poet  and  savant,  who  lived  about 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  who  main- 
tained a  lively  controversy,  largely  ujion  i>ersonal 
matti'rs.  with  the  poet  Lsaac  Gorni;  Abraham  ben 
Joseph  ben  Neriya.  rabbi  at  Aix  toward  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth,  whosct  rejiutation  for  learning  and  wis- 
dom spread  tliroughout  Provence,  and  who  sided 
with  Abba  ^lari  ben  IHoscs  of  Lunel  and  Solomon 
ben  Adret  in  the  theological  conflict  that  took  place 
in  the  south  of  Prance,  from  1303  to  1306;  Solomon 
ben  Nathan  Orgueiri,  who,  according  to  Johanan 
Alemanno,  translated  from  the  Latin  into  Hebrew  a 
book  of  mysticism  and  superstition  by  "  Apollonius  " 
(about  1390);  and  Simon  ben  Joseph, "alearned  rabbi, 
originally  of  Perpignan.  who  settled  at  Aix  during 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  northern  Prance 
(1306).  The  term  "of  Aix"  is  appended  to  names 
found  in  various  manuscripts,  as,  for  instance,  "Don 


801 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ajalon 


Rendig  of  Aix,"  in  manuscript  No.  2550  of  the 
Bodkiau  Library,  Oxford.     Set-  also  NosTRAD.VMrs. 

BtBi,io(jRAri!  Y :  Josppli  Iiii-Kohen.  *Kfni'k  )ia~Baka.  ed.  Wii-tifT, 
p.  t«);  Gniss,  anlliil  Jwttika.  pi).  M.  'M,  4.>4».  14«,  14!).  HM  ; 
Di'pping,  IHeJuilen  iin  Mittilnlln;  pp.  ii2  ft  wij.;  MhimIs- 
schrift^  1S7H,  pp.  Vtt>  I't  «*•'/.,  1H79,  pp.  17  ft  tti'tj.;  Ilunanel 
Crt'mleux,  lu  La  Fmnilk  dc  Jiuuli,  vil.  m. 

AV.   M. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE    (AACHEN):    A  city 

iii  I{lii'iiish  I'liissiii.  ill  wliicli  a  .liwisli  sctllcniciit 
floiiri.slicd  d\iriu.i;  tlic  time  of  the  Hoinau  eiiipiro. 
In  thu  Carli)vini;iaii  |)iTiod  there  was  a  colony  of 
Ji'Ws  near  tlie  royal  jialaee;  and  tlie  .lewisli  nier- 
cliantsof  Aix-la-Cliapelle  are  referred  to  in  a  caiiitii- 
lary  of  the  <i,i;hth  century.  In  Wr3  Isajie,  -who  had 
accompanied  the  anilias,sador  of  Charlemagne  to  the 
calif  Haruii-al-l{aseliid,  made  his  ceremonial  entrance 
into  the  royal  residence  of  Aix  la-Chapelle.  Among 
the  Jews  of  Aix-laChapelle  in  H'.i8,  u  certain  David  is 
mentioned,  who  liad  admired  the  woiulerfid  cures  of 
Eiuhard(Kgiiilianl).  For  the  next  four  hundred  years 
the  records  are  silent  concerning  the  Jews;  and  not 
till  1-27  is  there  another  important  entry.  In  that 
year  Frederick  II.  presented  the  Jews  to  Count  \Vil- 
lielm  of  JUlichasan  imperial  lief.  The  records  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary  show  many  Jew  ish  converts  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  In  1247  a  Jew  of  Aix-Ia- 
Cliapelle,  Mannis  (also  called  Troist),  acquired  half 
a  house  called  "Aiiuis"  (that  is.  Aachen)at  Cologne. 


is  certain  that  Jews  resided  at  Aix -la-Chapelle  dur- 
ing the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  and  that 
they  contributed  largely  to  the  state  trcasurj'.  The 
expulsion  of  the  Jews  in  102!)  cau.sed  the  serious  loss 
to  the  city  in  tax  receipts  of  1^(5  gold  guilders.  In 
1007,  against  the  iirotest  of  the  city  council,  six  Jews 
were  allowed  to  return.  In  1777,  the  duke  of  Jillich 
yielded  to  thecity  of  Aix-la-Cliapelle  the  Jewish  tax, 
which  had  been  his  prerogative.  (Jn  May  10,  1815, 
the  Jewish  congregation,  dating  from  about  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  otlered  homage  in  its  syn- 
agogue to  the  Prussian  king  Fiiedrich  Wilhelni  III. 
The  iiresent  synagogue  was  built  in  1800  (see  illus- 
tration op])osite).  A  cemetery  was  acquired  in  1851. 
The  otlice  of  rabbi  was  held  bv  Dr.  Rothschilil  from 
1847  to  1859;  by  Dr.  Wolllsohri,  1801  to  1875;  and  by 
Dr.  Taubes,  1870.  Dr.  Jaulus  is  the  present  rabbi. 
In  l!»00  there  were  2,100  Jewish  residents  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

BliiLiOGUAPiiv:  (>.  Drcsemann.  Die  Judeu  in  Aarhcn,  1887; 
Stern  aiKl  HcM*nl^rt*r.  />«.■(  Jmlfm^chreiiiMlmch,  Nos.  'St,  28, 
lis,  nil.  IL1).  141-14:1;  AriMiius,  Reue^tcn  zur  Uenchichte 
ilcf  Jiiiiin  in  DiiUscldand,  p.  240. 

J.  F. 

AJALON:  A  city  in  Palestine,  from  which  the 
adjuceiil  "Valley  of  A.ialon"took  its  name  (Josh. 
X.  12).  Its  location  is  identical  with  that  of  the  pres- 
ent Yiilo,  a  small  village  on  the  western  spur  of  the 
.south  E])hruimitic  mountain  range  (Kobinson,  "Re- 


(iE.NKK.ll.   VlKl\    Ut    VaLO— TIIK   A.S'CIKXT   AJAI.U.N- 


An  Isaac  of  .\achc>n  and  his  son  Jacob  are  mentioned 
in  the  "  Judenschreinsbueh  "  of  Cologne,  1270-75; 
also  a  Snlnmim  of  Aachen  and  his  son  Vivis,  1280—81. 
In  the  fourteenth  cnitury  the  pri'seiii-e  of  Jews  at 
Aix  la-Chapelle  is  prolmlilc.  though  not  certain.  At 
the  coronation  <<(  .Slaxliiiillan  I.  (llsOi.the  .lews  of- 
fered homage  and  gave  him  maguitkeut  presents.     It 


searches."  ii.  253;  iii.  145;  OmVin.  "  l^ft  Jtidec,"  i. 
2itO  ;  Pal.  Explor.  Fund.  "Memoirs."  iii.  1111.  The 
valley  of  Ajalon  is  either  the  fertile  plain  Merj  ibn 
I'mar  or  the  valh'V  Wady  Salman,  which  lies  west  of 
(fibeon  and  leads  to  .Vjalon.  The  city  is  mentioned 
ill  the  El  .\marna  tablets  under  the  names  Aialuiia 
and  laliiimi  Winckler.  ill  "  Keillusehrift.  Uibliothek," 


i^ 


as 
haltzyk 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


302 


vol.  v.,  Nos.  173,  lyO).  Aceortiinj;  to  Juiljji-s,  i.  35, 
the  Danitt'S  failed  to  coniiuiT  Ajalon;  and  it  re- 
iimincd  Cannanitic  until  subdued  by  the  El>hniiiu- 
ites.  It  is  ineluded  in  the  Dnnite  territory  referred 
to  in  Josh.  .\i.\.  42.  x.\i.  24  (couii>are  I  t'hron.  vi.  .j4); 
but  in  I  Chron.  viii.  13  it  a]>|)ears  as  a  city  of  the 
Benjamites.  I'nder  tlie  name  of  Aijurun  it  is  men- 
tioned by  the  Eiryptian  l^ing  IShisliak.  in  tlie  list  of 
eities  concpiered  by  liitn  in  the  time  of  lielioboam 
( W.  M..Mllller.  "  Asien  und  Curopa."  p.  Ifiti).  A(  cord- 
in!;  to  II  Chron.  .\i.  HI  it  was  fortilied  by  Kehoboani. 
and  II  (Indn.  .xxviii.  lis  states  tliat  it  was  taken  by 
the  I'bilistines  from  Alia/..  Whetlier  it  occurred  in 
the  original  text  of  I  Sam.  .xiv.  31  is  ilonbtfnl. 
Ajalon  must  not  be  confused  with  Aijalon  in  the 
territory  of  Zebulun  (Judges,  .\ii.  12).  F.  Br. 

AJAS.     See  Ay.\s. 

AKABAH,  PALESTINE.     See  Eloth. 

'AKABIA  BEN  MAHALALEL :  A  reliirious 
teaclier.  pnilialily  of  the  second  taunuitic  generation 
(first  and  second  centuries).  Of  his  early  liistory 
notlnng  is  known:  his  teacliers  are  nowhere  named; 
and  of  his  .sjiyings  comparatively  few  have  been  pre- 
served (.Mislmali  Kduy.  v.  0,  7;  Mislmah  B<k.  v.  4; 
Mishnah  Niddah,  ii.  6 ;"  Jlishnah  Neg.  i.  4,  v.  3).  Tlie 
Mislmali  portrays  him  as  a  man  who.  even  in  cases 
where  different  traditions  were  held  by  tlie  majority 
of  liis  colleagues,  fearlessly  and  persistently  main- 
tained opinions  on  some  Ilalakot,  because  tliose  opin- 
iiuis  were  f(niuded  on  traditions  he  had  received 
from  liis  learned  predecessors.  On  one  occasion  the 
majority  demanded  that  he  renounce  his  divergent 
opinions,  but  lie  refused.  It  was  even  intimated  to 
him  that,  in  the  event  of  his  compliance,  he  would 
be  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  Ab  bet  din  (president 
of  the  court):  but  'Akabia  rejected  the  proposition, 
remarking,  "I  would  rather  be  called  a  fool  all  my 
lifetime  than  be  a  sinner  for  one  moment." 

In  the  course  of  the  discussion  of  the  Ilalakali 
concerning  the  administration  of  "the  water  of  jeal- 
ousy "  (Num.  V.  11-31).  'Akabia  declared  that,  if  the 
subject  of  the  test  was  not  a  free-liorn  Jewess,  tlie 
test-water  was  not  to  be  administered :  while  the  ma- 
jority declared  a  jiroselyle  or  an  emancipated  slave 
to  be  the  equal  of  a  free-born  daughter  in  Israel.  In 
support  of  their  view  the  majority  cited  a  ease  in 
point,  where  the  former  as.sociate  presidents  of  the 
Sanhedrin.  Sheniaiahand  Abtalion.  hail  the  test  made 
on  a  freed  woman:  wbereupon  'Akabia  disdainfully 
exclaimed,  '  Dngma  liislikulia."  This  might  mean 
"To  one  like  tlieinselves  they  gave  to  drink,"  and 
may  be  construed  as  an  allusion  to  an  old  rumor 
to  the  effect  that  these  associate  presidents  were 
themselves  lineal  descendants  of  proselytes  (Git. 
57//):  or  it  might  mean  "They  gave  her  a  sham  to 
drink."  The  memory  of  those  chiefs  being  held  in 
esteem,  'Akabia's  insinuation  gave  offense;  where- 
fore the  sentence"  of  nidilnji  (isolation,  excommuni- 
cation) was  passed  on  him.  This  he  bore  to  the  end 
of  his  days  rather  than  violate  his  convictions. 
However,  before  his  deatli,  he  admonished  his  son 
to  submit  to  the  views  of  the  majority,  even  in  the 
cases  where  he  himself  had  shown  such  ]iersistent 
opposition.  Ilis  son  expressing  surprise  at  so  ap- 
parent an  inconsistency,  the  dying  sjige  replied:  "I 
have  received  my  tradition  from  a  tnajoiily  of  a 
school  in  my  days,  and  so  have  my  opponents.  I 
was  bound  to  conform  to  the  tradition  I  had  re- 
4-eived;  and  ,so  are  they  bound  by  their  tradition. 
But  thou  hast  heard  the  traditions  both  from  myself 
and  from  my  opponents:  from  a  minority  and  from 
a  majority,  and  it  is  proper  for  thee  to  reject  the 


opinions  of  the  individual  and  adopt  the  views  of 
the  majority"  ('Eduy.  v.  7). 

Another  characteristic  trait  of  'Akabia  was  the 
great  stress  he  laiil  on  personal  merit.  When,  on 
his  deathbed,  he  was  requestiMl  by  his  son  to  recom- 
mend him  to  the  sages,  he  declined  to  do  ,so.  His 
.son  ini|uired  whether  his  father  had  discovered  in 
him  any  trait  which  rendered  him  unworthy  of  such 
recoininenilalion  ;  and  'Akabia's  reply  was,  "No!  but 
I  hine  own  ileeds  will  make  t hee  w  clconie,  or  thine  own 
deeds  will  make  thee  obnoxous"  (Eduy,  v.  7l. 

Akabia's  motto  in  life  was;  "  Remember  whence 
thou  hast  come,  whither  thou  gocst,  and  before 
whom  thou  must  be  prepared  to  render  an  account 
of  thy  doings"  (Ab.  iii.  1:  compare  Ab.  H.  N.  xix; 
Yer.  Sotali.  ii.  I'^ic  Derek  Krez  K.  iii).  Beyond  this 
ni:ixini  and  the  Halakot  enumerated  above,  nothing 
from  him  has  bci'n  transmitted.  As  to  his  ejioch 
scholars  are  divided.  Wliili'  some  place  him  in  the 
patriarchate  of  Ilillel  I.  (3l)  n.r.  to  10  of  the  ]iresent 
era),  and  even  somewhat  earlier,  others  bring  him 
down  to  the  first  tannaitie  generation  (10-.'<()):  still 
others  believe  that  he  flourished  during  the  patri- 
archate of  G.vm.m.iki,  II.  (HO-IH).  The  circumstan- 
ces and  scholastic  achievements  of  the  second  tan- 
naitie generation  render  'Akabia's excommunication 
more  rea.sonabIe. 

The  decree  of  e.xcomtnunication  failed  to  obscure 
'Akabia's  merited  fame :  for  his  name  reached  subse- 
quent generations  surrounded  by  such  a  halo  of  glory 
as  to  throw  doubt  on  the  decree  itself.  "  God  forbid," 
exclaims  JuD.Mi  n.  Il,.\i,  one  of  the  tannaim  of  the 
fourth  generation  (139-163),  "that  we  should  think 
that  'Akabia  was  excomniunicated,  for  the  Temple 
gates  were  never  closed  behind  a  man  in  Isniel  so 
great  in  wi.sdom  and  in  the  fear  of  sin  as  was  'Akabia 
ben  Mahalalel  "  ('Eduy.  I.e. ).  This  expression,  which 
is  based  on  the  law  forbidding  an  excommunicated 
person  to  enter  the  Temple  court,  was  in  later  daj'S 
taken  literally,  and  gave  ri.se  to  forced  halakic  dis- 
cussions and  comments  (Ber.  lOi/,  Pes.  ()4A),  as  well 
as  to  hypothetical  speculations  about  the  age  of '  Aka- 
bia. El.sewherc  (Sifre.  Num.  U)."))  it  is  sjud,  "Who- 
ever asserts  that  'Akabia  was  ever  excommunicated 
will  have  to  answer  before  the  tribunal  of  heaven." 
This  observation  is  wrongly  attributed  to  Jndah  b. 
Betera  I.  (compare  Sliab.  97(0 :  and  conclusions  as  to 
'Akabia's  early  age  are  erroneously  deduced  there- 
from. 

BiiiLKifiRAPHV:  Brull,  .Vchn  ha-Mixhnah.  I.  W;  FranliPl, 
hiiiht:  }nt-Mij*hnalt,  pp.  !iHcl  H'li- :  *iralz,  (icucli.  </.  Jmhn.  2d 
eil..  jv.:i1i:  iiiiX,  Gcxai.  fics  JwicnthxLinit  rind  sfimr  Srhten 
ii. :»  ;  Weiss,  iJnr.  i.  176;  Hamburorer,  K.  It.  T.  II. :«:  Deren- 
himrpr,  Kf*f<ni  sur  VHiMnirr  lU'  la  PiiU'iftinc^  p.  483;  Mendel- 
sohn, rt<:r.  Jit.  Jiiivcf.  .lili.  31-H. 

S.   M. 
AKBARITES.     See  0kb.\rites. 

AKDAM'D'T  (niDTpS):  Amystical  poem,  written 
in  Araniiiie  liy  ^leir  ben  Isaac  Neliorai.  which  is  in 
the  Ashkenazic  usage  interpolated  after  theo])eiiing 
verse  of  the  lesson  from  the  Law  on  the  first  day  of 
the  Feast  of  Weeks.  It  is  tniditioually  associated 
with  two  melodies  of  different  dates.  The  older  (A) 
is  a  chant,  used  also  for  "  calling  up  "  the  hulnn  Tornh 
(bridegroom  of  the  Law)  on  tlie  Feast  of  the  Hejoi- 
eing  of  the  Law.  It  is  an  interesting  example  of 
the  eighth  (hypomixolydian)  mode  in  the  medie- 
val, or  plain-song,  system,  which  is  the  tonality  of 
much  of  the  older  recitative  music  of  the  Synagogue. 
The  other  traditional  melody  (B)  for  this  iiyinn  is  of 
much  later  origin.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  it 
other  than  the  composition  of  a  hazan  of  Middle 
Germany  in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  has  been 
elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  representative  theme  for 
the  festival  (compare  Addiu  Hi),  and  as  such  is 


303 


THE  .JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ajas 
Akhaltzyk 


quoted  extensively  in  tlie  rendering  of  tlie  Hallei. 
(Ps.  cxvi.  KV-IO.  cxvii. ).  Probably  its  finest  nuisieal 
treatment  has  been  that  by  J.  1..  Monibafh.  wrillcn 
about  1870  for  the  Great  Synagogue  of  London — a 
composition  of  great  interest. 

BlBLIOdRAPllv:  Zunz,  GottcMlioiMiche  Vnrtrfigc,  p.  396. 

F.  L.  C. 

'A^EDAH,  rtTp)!  (  "  The  l)inilinij;  or  sacrifiee  of 
Isaac  "i:  This  I'.iblical  inii(k-nt  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  .Jewish  liluri;y.  The  earliest  allusion  to 
it  in  [iniyer  oeeurs  in  the  Mishnah  (Ta'anit.  ii.  4) 
in  the  litany  for  |)ublie  fast-days,  '"  Jlay  lie  wlio 
answered  Ai)raham  on  Mount  Moriah  listen  to  our 
supplieation."  In  the  Geniara  (  H.  H.  Kiif)  the  tiscof 
a  ram's  horn  on  New-year's  Day  is  explained  as  a 
reminder  of  tlie  ram  which  was  otTered  in  place  of 
Isaac.  Hence  the  following  passiige  was  inserted  in 
the  mimif  arranged    by  l{ab  in  the  third   century 


nation  of  its  conception  as  a  claim  to  atonement. 
The  injunctions  in  Jer.  xix.  .")  and  in  Jlicah,  vi.  7 
against  the  sacritice  of  chihlren  are  exjilained  as 
referring  to  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac  (Ta'anit,  4i( ;  Yalk., 
Micah,  g  .5.55). 

These  i>rotests  were  silenced  by  the  persecutions 
in  which  Jewish  fathers  and  mothers  were  so  often 
driven  to  slaughter  their  own  children  in  order  to 
save  them  from  baptism.  This  saeriljce  is  regarded 
as  a  parallel  to  that  of  Abraham  iZunz,  "S.  P."  pp. 
130-iys).  The  inlluence  of  the  Christian  dogma  of 
atonement  by  vicarious  sulTering  and  death.it  has 
been  suggested,  induced  the  .Jews  to  regard  the  will- 
ingness of  Isaac  also  to  be  .sacrificed  in  the  light  of  a 
voluntary  olfering  of  his  life  for  the  atoneiiient  of 
his  (lescendants(Geiger's"Jild.  Zeit."x.  170;"Nach- 
gelas.sene  Schriften,"  v.  3.52). 

From  the  i)oint  of  view  of  some  advocates  of  re- 
formed Judaism  the  great  importance  of  the  Biblical 


AKDAMUT 


A.. 


I 


izsz: 


^^ 


I 


P 


Andante,  f 


=c 


4 — rJ        •- 


q*=*= 


(Zunz.  "S.  P."  p.  81;  B.  Beer,  "Leben  Abraham's," 
p.  1M(>)  for  that  day  (see  Gen.  H.  Ivi. ;  Lev.  R.  xxxvi.): 

"  Ri>inemh<'r  In  our  favor.  O  I.ord  our  Ciod.  the  onth  which 
Thuu  hiu*t  sworn  to  our  futlter  Abraham  on  Mount  Mnriuh  :  con- 
ntilt-r  the  hlndlnt-r  of  hi.s  son  Isiuii-  u[H)n  the  altar  wht'n  tie  su|>- 
preswil  his  love  In  onler  lo  do  Thy  will  with  a  whole  heart  I 
Thus  may  Thy  Uive  8uppn.ssThy  wrath  ainilrist  us.  and  thnxiKh 
Thy  irn-at  »fo<Klii<.ss  may  the  heai  of  Thine  anirer  Ik*  turiUHl  away 
fnun  Thy  peiiple.  Thv  etty.  ami  Thy  herltjiKe  I  .  .  .  Hememlier 
lu-day  in  men-y  in  fuvor  of  hlsw'eil  the  hlnillni?  of  Isaac.'* 

Gen.  xxii.  was  taJien  as  the  Biblical  lesson  for  the 
second  day  of  the  New-year  festival  (Meg.  Slrt; 
compare  l{aslii.  ml  Inr.). 

In  till'  course  of  lime  ever  greater  importance  was 
nttribiiled  lollie  '.Vkedah.  The  liagiriulislic  litera- 
ture is  full  of  allusions  to  it;  the  claim  to  forgive- 
ness on  its  account  was  inserted  in  the  ilaily  morn- 
ing prayer;  ami  a  piece  calleil  "  Akedali  "  wasaiided 
to  till'  lituriry  of  each  of  the  penitential  days  among 
the  (lernian  .lews. 

B<fore  the  first  blasts  of  the  shofar  are  souniled 
there  is  sung  in  the  .Sephardic  liturgv  a  hymn  which 
narrates  the  '.\kedali;  this  was  wrllten  by  Jiidali 
ben  Samuel  ibn  Abbas,  rabbi  in  Fez  in  the  twelfth 
century. 

This  turn  given  lo  the  attempted  .sacrifice  of  Isaac  is 
certainly  in  conllict  with  the  prophetic  spirit.  The 
occurrence  is  never  again  mentioned  in  the  Bible; 
and  even  in  the  Talmud  voices  are  raisi'd  iiieondem 


6t<iry  of  Abndiam's  attempted  sacrifice  of  Isaac  con- 
sists in  the  lesson  that  God  does  not  desire  such  a 
sacrifice;  accordingly  many  American  reform  rituals 
have  abolished  the  'Akeilah  jirayers.  At  the  same 
time  stress  is  laid  even  by  reformers  on  the  typical 
character  of  the  story  as  expressing  the  spirit  of 
martyrdom  which  permeates  Jewish  history  and 
has  maintained  the  Jewish  faith. 

liliu.iocR.vpiiv:  I..  Dukes.  ZurKrnulniioil.  X'liliehr.  Piitiiie, 
ims,  pp.  'u,  W>:  A.  wiener,  Oic  Op/ir- und  Akcdauchcte, 
Brmlau,  lS«iU.  -.    . 

AKEHMAN,  RACHEL:  The  earliest  Jewes,s  to 
wriieGi  rinaii  poetry;  born  probably  at  Vienna,  lo'i'i; 
died  at  Iglau.  .Monivia,  1.544.  She  apiiears  to  have 
received  an  excellent  education,  having  studied  both 
Latin  and  Greek.  She  soon  exhibited  poetical  pow- 
ei"s,  and  began  to  exercisi-  tiniii  at  an  early  age.  On 
account  of  her  poem.  "Geheimniss  des  llofes"  (The 
Mystery  of  the  Courts),  in  which  she  ilescribed  the 
iniriL'ucs  of  courtiers,  lijichel  and  her  father  were 
expelled  from  Vic'iina,  where  they  had  lived.  She 
died  heartbroken  at  this  treatment.  M.   K. 

AKHALTZTK  (meaning,  in  the  Georgian  Ian- 
giuiLie."  Niw  Castle"):  .\  fortified  town  of  Transcau- 
casia, in  the  i.'overnment  of  Tifii.s.  on  an  afiluent  of 
the  Kur.  11"  miles  west  of  Tifiis.  Of  the  'JlVIMH) 
inhabitants  about  li.OtHi  are  Jews;    some  of   them 


Akiba  Baer  ben  Joseph 
Akiba  ben  Joseph 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


304 


Vicing  very  old  settlers,  wliile  others  emigrated  from 
Abas-Tuman  in  tlie  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, owing  til  peiserulidii  liy  the  Muliiunnicdans  of 
that  region.  They  Imve  a  synagogue  and  schools, 
and  are  mainly  coiton-weavefs  and  small  traders. 

Bibliography:  Cbemy,  Sefcr  ha-Masa'nt.  l.s.14,  pp.  348-254 ; 
Senienov.  Slurnr  ltniwi»koi  Imjierit,  liXiS,  vol.  1. :  A.  Katz,  Die 
Jmlcn  iin  KnuhUKm,  18il4. 

II    R. 

AKIBA     BAEB    BEN    JOSEPH    (SIMON, 
AKIBA  BAEB) :   Son  of  Jo.seph  HanoUs.  a  Tal- 
niuilisi   and  lalialistie  writer,  one  of  the  refugees 
who.  at  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Vienna  in 
1670.  went  to  iJavaria,  to  promote  Talmudii  ul  learn- 
ing among  their  brethren  in  their  new  hoiiie.     ]5e- 
ing  thus  reduced  in  circumstances  he  at  first  had  to 
wander  from  town  to  town  through  liohemia  and 
parts  of  Germany  as  a  teacher,  highly  reputed  for 
his  Talmudic  and  cabalistic  knowledge  as  well  as 
for  his  eloquence  as  a  preacher.    As  the  son-in-law  of 
Veitel  Isserlcs,  rabbi  of  Kremsier.  nejihew  of  Gerson 
Ashkenazi  and  David   ben  Isserles  in  Trebitsch,  a 
relative  of  Aaron  Teomim  of  Worms  and  Jlenahem 
Jlendel  Bacharaeh  in  IJamberg,  he  was  received  every- 
where with  open  arms.     For  six  years  he  occupied 
the  positi<in  of  rablii  in  the  small  community  at 
Zeekendorf  near  IJamberg,  and  having  found  iu  the 
learned  Parnes,  Isaac  Seligman  ben  Meir  Levi,  a  con- 
genial coworker,  he  iiublished  as  the  fruit  of  their 
common   studies  a   small    midrashic   encyclopedia, 
based  on  the  .Alidiashim  Rabbot,    under"  the    lille 
(taken  from  II    Kiiiirs.  ii.  9)  of  "Pi  Shenayim  "  (A 
Double  Share;   Sul/.liach.  1702).  printed  by  Aaron 
ben  Uri — al.so  a  Vienna  refugee  and  friend  of  Akiba. 
His  reputation  as  author,  however,  is  due  chiefly  to  a 
cabalistic  commentary  on  the  daily  prnyers,  entitled 
" 'Abodat  ha  Boieh""( Worship  of'the  Creator;  Wil- 
mersdorf,  108.S),  and  divided  into  Ave  sections  corre- 
sponding with  the  five  letters  of  his  name  A  K  I  B  A. 
at  which  he  worked  for  a  year  while  rabbi  at  Burg- 
prepjiach.  Bavaria  ( 168S).     The  book  met  with  such 
general  approval  that  he  felt  encouraged  to  issue  a 
second  edition  (Berlin.  1700),  and  finally  an  enlarged 
third  edition,  comprising  also  a  commentary  on  rhe 
Sabbath  and  holy  day  prayers  (Sulzbaeh,  1707).     lie 
then  accepted  a  call  to  the  rabbinate  of  the  large  com- 
munity of  Sehnaitach,  extended  to  him  tliroiigh  the 
influence  of  Chief  Kabbi  Baeinian  of  Aiisbach  ;   but 
owing  to  the  political  turmoil  he  failed  to  lind  there 
the  looked-for  rest.     Upon  a  false  accu.sation  he  was 
cast  into  prison,  but,  being  soon  released,  he  left  and 
became  rabbi  of  Gunzenluiusen  and  assistant  rabbi 
of  his  relative  and  benefactor,  Habbi  Baermau  at 
Ansbach,  where  lie  also  won  the  friendship  of  Jlodel 
Marx,  the  wealthy  court  Jew.    Akiba  was  eminently 
a  writer  for  the  people,  cotnpiling   rabbinical   anil 
cabalistic  legends,  and  not  even  disdaining  the  use  of 
the  Juda'o-Gcrman  vernacular  for  the  ]iurpose  of  dis- 
seminating this  iiuaiut  knowledge.     The  two  works 
of  this  class  that  he  published  arc:  "  Abir  Ya'akob." 
a  haggadic  history  of  the  Patriarchs,  based  ujioii  the 
first  forty-seven  chaptersof  Genesis  (Sulzbaeh, 1700). 
siiiee  reedited  many  times,  and  "^^la'aseh  Adonai  " 
(The  Deeds  of  the  Lord),  a  collection  of  miraculous 
tales,  compiled  from  the  "Zohar."  Isaac  Luria,  and 
other  cabalistic  writers  (Frankfort -on-the-Main.  lOill ; 
afterward  republished  with  addenda).    His  son  Jo 
seph  was  rabbi  of  Schaffa  and  Gewitsch  in  Moravia, 
then  rabbi  of  the  .schoolhouse  at  Cleves,  and  after- 
ward assistant  rabbi  at  Amsterdam, 

Bibliograpbt:  Kaufmann,  Df*  LclzttVertreibungderJuden 
aus  Wien.  1889,  pp.  303-205;  Steinschnelder,  Cat.  Bodl.  No. 
i310;  Beajacob,  0j<ir  ha-Sefarim,  pp.  3,  355. 

K. 


AKIBA  EGEB  THE  ELDER,  OF  PBES- 
BXJBO.    See  EoKii.  Akih.v,  the  Eldku.  ov  Pres- 

IIUHO. 

AKIBA     EGER     THE     YOUNGER,     OF 

POSEN.     Si  e   Ki.i;n.  Akiua,  tiii:    Vol  NoKit,   ok 

I'liMN 

AKIBA    FRANKFTTRT.      See    Fraxkfcrt, 

Ami:  \. 

AKIBA  BEN  JOSEPH:  Palestinian  fanna; 
lioin  :ilii>ul  .">0;  nmrlMid  alioiit  i;{'.>,  A  full  historv 
of  Akiba.  based  upon  authentic  .sources,  will  prob- 
ably never  be  written,  allliougli  he,  to  a  degree  be- 
yond any  other,  lieserves  to  lie  called  the  father  of 
rabbinical  Judiiism  (  Ver.  Sliek.  iii  471").  H.  H.  i.  56rf). 
Legend,  which  delights  in  endjcllishing  the  mem- 
ory of  epoch-marking  personages,  has  not  neglected 
Akiba  (see  Akiba  ben  Josei'Ii  in  Leoend)  ;  but, 
despite  the  rich  ma.ss  of  material  afforded  by  rab- 
binical ,sources,  only  an  incomplete  portrait  can  be 
drawn  of  the  man  who  marked  out  a  path  for  rab- 
binical Judaism  for  almost  two  thousand  vears. 

Akiba  ben  Joseph  (written  XTpV  in  the  Babv- 
loniiin  style,  and  na'PV  ">  "'i^^  Palestinian— another 
form  for  r\^2Pil).  who  is  usually  called  simply  Akiba. 
was  of  comparatively  humble  parentage  (Yer.  Bcr. 
iv.  '7(1,  Bab.  ihiil.  27?;).*  Of  the  romantic  story  of 
Akiba  s  marriage  with  the  daiiirhter 
Parentage  of  the  wealthy  Jerusjdemite.  Kalba 
and  Youth.  Sabua.  whose  she])herd  lie  is  said  to 
have  been  (see  Akiba  hen  Joseph  in 
Legend),  only  this  is  true,  that  Akiba  was  a  shep- 
herd ( Yeb.  HO/;;  comjiare  iliifl.  Uix).  His  wife's  name 
was  Rachel  (Ab.  R.  X.  ed.  Schechter.  vi.  29).  and 
she  was  the  daughter  of  an  entirely  unknown  man 
named  .loshua.  who  is  specifically  mentioned  (Yad. 
iii.  o)  as  Akiba's  father-in-law.  "  She  stood  loyally 
by  her  hu.sband  during  that  critical  period  of  his 
life  in  which  Akiba,  thitherto  the  mortal  enemy  of 
the  rabbis,  an  out  and-out  'iim  Im-dnz  (ignoramus) 
(Pes.  49i),  decided  to  place  himself  at  the  feet  of 
those  previously  detested  men.  A  reliable  tradition 
( Ab.  R.  X.  I.e. )  narrates  that  Akiba  at  the  age  of  forty, 
and  when  he  was  the  father  of  a  numerous  family 
dependent  ujion  him,  eagerly  attended  the  acailemy 
of  his  native  town,  Lydda"  presided  over  by  Eli- 
ezer  ben  Ilyrcanus.  The  fact  that  Eliezer  was  his 
first  teacher,  and  the  only  one  whom  Akiba  later 
designates  as  "rabbi,"  is  of  importance  iu  settling 
the  date  of  Akiba's  birth.  It  is  known  Ihiit  iu 
9.">-9()  Akiba  had  already  attained  great  prominence 
(Gratz,  "Gesch.  d.  Juden."  id  ed.,  iv.  121),  and,  fur- 
ther, that  he  studied  for  thirteen  years  before  be- 
coming a  teacher  himself  ( Ab,  R,  N.  I.e.).  Thus  the 
beginning  of  his  years  of  study  would  fall  about 
7.5-80.  Karlier  than  this,  Johailan  ben  Zukkai  was 
living;  and  Eliezer,  beini;  his  pupil,  would  have 
beenheldof  no  authority  in  JolKiMan's  lifetime.  Con- 
sequently, if  we  accept'the  tradition  that  Akiba  was 
forty  when  beginning  the  study  of  the  Law,  he  must 
have  been  born  about  40-.50.  ftesides  Eliezer,  Akiba 
had  other  teachers — principally  Joshua  ben  Ilana- 
niah  (Ab.  R.  N.  I.e.)  and  Nairiim  of  Gimzo  (Hag. 
12(/).  With  Rabban  Gamaliel  II..  whom  he  met 
later,  he  was  upon  a  footing  of  ermality.  In  a  cer- 
tain sense,  Tarphon  was  considered  as'one  of  Aki- 
ba's masters  (Ket.  84«);  but  the  pupil  outranked  his 
teacher,  and  Tarphon  became  one  of  Akiba's  greatest 
admirers  (Sifre,  Num.  75).  Akiba  probably  remained 
in  Lydda  (K.  H.  i.  6),  as  long  as  Eliezer  dwelt  there, 

•  A  misunderstanding  of  the  e.xpresslon  "Zekut  Abot"  (Her. 
(.r.).  Joined  to  a  tradition  conierniDg  Sisera,  captain  of  the 
araiy  of  Hazor  ((iit.  57b,  Sanh.  966),  is  the  source  of  another 
tradition  (Nissim  GaoQ  to  Ber.  I.e.),  which  malies  Aliiba  a  de- 
scendant of  Sisera. 


805 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Akiba  Baer  ben  Joseph 
AUba  ben  Joseph 


and  tlicn  removed  liis  own  school  to  Bene  Berak, 
five  Koman  miles  from  Jalla  (Sanh.  32A;  Tosef., 
Sliab.  iii.  [iv.]  3).  Akiba  also  lived  for  some  time 
at  Ziphrou  (Xiim.  xxxiv.  !)),  the  modern  Zafrau 
(Z.  P.  V.  viii.  28).  near  Hamatli  (see  Sifre.  Num. 
iv. ,  and  the  parallel  pas-sjifres  (juotcd  in  the  Tal- 
mudieal  dietionaries  of  Levy  and  Jastrow).  For 
another  identitieation  of  the  place,  and  other  forms 
of  its  name,  see  Xeubauer,  "Geographic,"  p.  391, 
and  Jastrow,  I.e. 

The  greatest  tannaim  of  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  came  from  Akiba  s  school,  notably  Meir, 
Juilah  ben  Ilai,  Simeon  ben  Yoliai,  Jose  ben  Halafta, 
Kleazar  1).  SImnwnai,  and  Xehcmiah.  Besides  these, 
who  all  attained  great  renown,  Akiba  undoubtedly 
had  many  di.scijiles  whose  names  have  not  been 
handed  down,  but  whose  number  is  variously  stated 
bv  the  Haggadah  at  12.0(H)  ((!en.  R,  Ixi.  3)"  24.000 
(Yeb.  62i).  and  4.S.000  (Xed.  .")(),;).  That  these  fig- 
ures are  to  be  regarded  merely  as  haggadic  exag- 
gerations, and  not,  as  some  modem  historians  insist, 
as  the  actual  numbers  of  Akil)a's  political  followers, 
is  evident  from  the  passjige,  Ket.  106(/,  in  which  there 
are  similar  exaggerations  conceniing  the  disciples  of 
otlier  rabbis.  The  part  which  Akiba  is 
HisRela-  said  to  have  taken  in  the  Bar  Kokba 
tions  with  war  can  not  be  historically  determined. 
Bar  Kokba.  The  only  estalilishcd  fact  concerning 
his  connection  with  Bar  Kokba  is  that 
the  venerable  teacher  really  regarded  the  patriot  as 
the  promised  Messiah  (Yer.  Ta'anit,  iv.  G8rf);  and 
this  is  absolutely  all  there  is  in  evidence  of  an  active 
participation  by  Akiba  in  the  revolution.  The  numer- 
ous journeys  which,  according  to  rabbinical  sources, 
Aliiba  issaidto  have  made,  can  not  have  been  in  any 
way  connected  with  politics.  In  ll.VJG  Akiba  was  in 
Rome  (Griltz,  "Gescli.  d.  Judeii."  iv.  121).  and  some 
time  before  110  he  was  in  Xehardea  ( Yeb.  xvi.  7); 
which  jfmrneys  can  not  be  made  to  coincide  with  revo- 
hilionary  plans.  In  view  of  the  mode  of  traveling 
then  in  vogue,  it  is  not  at  all  im])robable  that  Akiba 
visited  en  route  numerous  other  places  having  im|ior- 
tant  Jewish  conununities  (Xeuburger  in  "Monals- 
sehrift,"  1873.  p.  3i)3);  but  informalicm  on  this  point  is 
lacking.  The  statement  that  hedwelt  in  Ga/.aka  in 
Media  restsupona  false  reading  in  Gen.  R.  xxxiii.  h, 
and  'Ab.  Zarali,  34",  where  for  "Akiba"  should  be 
read  "'  I'kba,"  the  Babylonian,  as  Rjishi  on  Ta'anit, 
ll/(,  points  out.  Similarly  the  pas.sageiuBcr.  8// should 
read  "Simon  b.  (iamalii  1"  instead  of  Akiba.  just  as 
the  Pesikta  led.  Buber,  iv.  3;V<)  has  it.  A  sutlicient 
ground  for  refusingcre<lence  in  any  parficii)ation  by 
Akiba  in  the  political  anti-Roman  movemetitsof  his 
day  is  the  slatemcntof  the'  l!aiaila(Ber.  (il/<).  that  he 
sulTered  martyrdom  on  account  of  his  transgression 
of  I  lai  Irian's  edicts  a  gainst  Iheiiractiseand  the  tcach- 
ingof  the  Jewish  religion,  a  religious  and  nota  po- 
litical reason  for  his  death  being  given. 

Akiba's  death,  which,  according  to  Sanh.  12*/,  oc- 
curre<l  after  several  years  of  imprisonment,  nuist 
have  taken  place  about  132,  before  the  suppression 
of  the  liar  Kokba  revolution:  olhi'rwise,  as  Frankel 
(■■I)arke  ha  -Mishnah."  p.  121)remarks.  thedilay  of 
the  Romans  in  e.vccuting  him  would  tw  (|uite  iiu  x- 
l)licable.     That  the  religious  interdicts  of  Hadrian 

iireeedcd  the  overthrow  of  Bar  Kokba.  is  shown  by 
)Iek.,. Misli pat im.lH,  where  Akiba  reganlsthe  martyr- 
dom of  two  of  his  friends  as  ominous  of  hisown  fate. 
After  the  fall  of  Ii<'tliar  no  omens  were  needed  to 
pri'dict  evil  days.  Legends  concerning  thi'date  and 
manner  of  Akiba's  death  are  numerous;  but  they 
nnist  all  be  disri'i^arded.  as  bcini;  without  histmieal 
foimdation  (see  Akiii.k  hkn  Joski-ii  in  Lkok.mi). 
Before  pna'ceding  to  a  con.siderntinn  of  Akilm's 
1-20 


teaching,  a  word  or  two  a.s  to  his  personal  character 
will  be  in  place.     According  to  the  customary  con- 
ception of  the  Pharisees,  one  would  imagine  him  as 
being  a  typically  jiroud  and  arrogant 
His   Per-     rabbi,  looking  down   with   contempt 
sonal  Char-  upon  the  common  people.    How  mod- 
acter.         est  he  was  in  reality  is  shown  by  his  fu- 
neral address  over  his  son  Simon.     To 
the  large  assembly  gathered  on  the  occasion  from 
every  quarter,  he  said  : 

"  Bri'tliren  ot  tlie  lioiise  of  Israel,  listen  to  me.  Not  because  I 
am  a  scliolar  buve  ye  appeared  liere  so  numerously :  for  ther« 
are  tlmse  bere  more  learned  than  I.  Nor  t>eeause  I  am  a  wealtby 
man ;  for  there  are  many  mi)re  wealtliy  Itian  I.  The  pefiple  o'f 
tlip  south  know  Alvllia  :  hut  whenie  sliiiuld  the  peoiile  of  Ualllee 
l(now  lilm  'I  The  men  are  acquamieil  with  hlni ;  but  bow  shall 
the  women  an<l  children  1  see  lit-n-  1m-  said  to  hear<iualnl*'d  with 
him  ':*  Still  I  know  that  your  reward  shall  W  great,  for  ye  have 
Klven  yourselves  the  tn>uble  to  come  simply  In  onler  to  do  honor 
to  the  Torub  aud  to  fullll  a  ri'll^^ious  duty"  (Sem.  vlU.,  M.  K. 
21/1 1 . 

Modesty  is  a  favorite  theme  with  Akiba,  and  he  re- 
verts to  it  again  and  again.  "  He  who  esteems  him- 
self highly  on  account  of  his  knowledge,"  he  teaches, 
"is  like  a  corpse  lying  on  the  wayside:  the  traveler 
turns  his  head  away  in  disgust,  and  walks  quickly 
by"  (Ab.  R.  X..  cd.  ^chechter,  xi.  46).  Anotherof  his 
sayings,  quoted  also  in  the  name  of  Ben  ■Azzai(Lev. 
R.  i.  5),  is  specially  interesting  from  the  fact  that 
Luke,  xiv.  8-12,  is  almost  litendly  identical  with  it: 
"Take  thy  place  a  few  seats  t)elow  thy  rank  until  thou 
art  biiiden  to  take  a  higher  place;  for  it  is  better  that 
they  should  .say  to  thee  '  Come  up  higher '  than  that 
they  .should  bid  thee  'Go down  lower'"  (see  Prov. 
XXV.  7).  Though  so  modest,  yet  when  an  important 
matter  aud  not  a  merely  personal  one  was  concerned 
Akiba  could  not  be  cowed  by  the  greatest,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  his  attitude  toward  the  patriarch  Gamaliel 
II.  Convinced  of  the  necessity  of  a  central  authority 
for  Judaism,  .\kiba  became  a  devoted  adherent  ami 
friend  of  Gamaliel,  who  aimed  at  constituting  the 
patriarch  the  true  sjiiritual  chief  of  the  Jews  (R.  H.  ii. 
9).  But  Akiba  was  just  as  firmly  con- 
Akiba  and  vineed  that  (he  jiowerof  the  patriarch 
Gamaliel  II.  must  be  limilcd  both  by  the  wiittcn 
and  the  oral  law,  the  interpretation  of 
which  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  learned;  and  he  was 
accordingly  brave  enough  to  act  in  ritual  matters  in 
Gamaliel's  own  house  contrary  to  the  decisions  of 
Gamaliel  himself  (Tosef. .  Ber.  iv.  12). 

Concerning  Akiba's  other  pei-sonal  excellences, 
such  as  benevolence,  and  kindness  toward  the  sick 
and  needy,  see  Xed.  40'(,  Lev.  R.  xxxiv.  Ift.and  Tosef.. 
Meg.  iv.  16.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  Akiba  filled  theoltice  of  an  overseer  of  the  poor 
(Ma'as.  Sh.  v.  9.  and  Kill.  27rtl 

Eminent  as  .Vkiba  was  by  his  magnanimity  and 
moral  worthiness,  he  was  still  more  so  by  his  intel- 
lect mil  capacity,  by  which  he  secured  an  enduring  in- 
lluence  upon  hiscimtiniporariisand  upon  posterity. 
In  the  first  jihue.  .Vkiba  was  the  one  who  definitely 
fixed  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  books.  He 
protested  sti'ongly  against  the  canonicily  of  certain 
of  the  .\pocrvpiia.  E<cle,siasticus.  for  instance  (Sanh. 
X.  1,  Bab.  il'iii.  UWh,  Yer.  ihi'l.  x.  28.1).  in  which  pas- 
sages Knp  is  to  be  explained  according  to  Kid. 
49.1.  and  D'OIVTI  according  toils  .\ramaiceciuivalent 
Xn""l3:  so  that  .Vkiba's  utterance  reads.  "He  who 
reads  <i^<i/</in  the  synagogue  from  bixiks  not  belong- 
ing to  the  canon  as  if  they  were  canimic-al."  etc.  He 
has,  however,  no  objection  to  the  private  reading 
of  the  .VpcH-rypiia,  as  Is  evident  fmm  the  fact  that 
he  himself  makes  frec|Uent  use  of  Ecclesiasticus 
iBacher,  ".Vir.  Tan.  "  i.  277:  Griltz.  "Gnoslicismus." 
p.  120).  .Vkiba stoutly  defended,  however,  thecancm 
ieity  of  the  ijong  of  Sougs,  ami  Esther  (Vad.  iii. 


Akiba  ben  Joseph 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


806 


5,  Meg.  7rt).  GrStz's  statpments  ("Shir  Im-Sliirim," 
1>.  lir>.  ami  "  IJohcli't."  1).  109,  lospcctiii','  Akiba'satti- 
tude  toward  the  canonicity  of  the  Song  of  tSoiigs  aiv 
miscouteptious,  as  Weiss  ("  Dor,"  ii.  97)  Ims  to  sonu; 
extent  showu.  To  tlie  sjime  motive  uuderlviiig  liis 
antagonism  to  the  Apocrvplui,  namely,  tlie  desire 
to  disarm  Christians — especiiilly  Jewisli  Cliristians — 
who  drew  tlieir  "  proofs  "  from  the  Apoiry  plia.  must 
also  lieiittrilmted  his  wish  to  emaiM-ipate  the.Iewsof 
the  Dispersion  from  thedominationof  the  t>eptuagint, 
the  errors  and  inaeeiiraeies  in  whieh  freiiuenlly  dis- 
torted the  true  meaning  of  Scripture,  and  were  even 
used  as  argnmenls  against  the. lews  by  the  Christ  ians. 

Aquila  was  a  man  after  Akiba's  own  heart ;  under 
Akiba's  guidance  he  gave  the  Greek-speaking  Jews 
a  rabbinical  Bible  (Jerome  on  Isa.  viii.  14,  Yer.  Kid, 
i.  59(0.  Akiba  probably  also  provided  for  a  revised 
text  of  thcTargums;  certainly,  fortlie  essential  base 
of  the  so-called  Targum  Onkelos,  wliicli  in  matters  of 
Halakali  reflects  Aliiba's  opinions  completely  (F.  Ro- 
senthal, "Het  Talmud,"  ii.  280), 

Akil)a's  true  genius,  however,  is  shown  in  his  worlv 
in  the  domain  of  the  Ihiliikah;  both  in  his  systemati- 
zation  of  its  traditional  material  and  in  its  further  de- 
velopment. The  condition  of  the  Ilalakah,  tliiit  is.  of 
religious  pra.xis,  and  indeed  of  Judaism 
Akiba        in  general,  wasa  very  iirecariousoneat 

as  Sys-  Ihelurniif  the  lirst  Christian  century. 
tematizer.  The  lack  of  any  systematized  collection 
of  tlie  accumulated  Halakot  rendered 
impossible  any  presentation  of  them  in  form  suitable 
for  practical  ]inri)Oses.  Means  for  tlie  theoretical 
study  of  tlie  Ilalakah  were  also  scant :  both  logic  and 
exege.sis — the  two  props  of  the  Ilalakah — being  dif- 
ferently conceived  by  tlie  various  ruling tannaim, and 
differently  taught.  According  to  a  tradition  which 
has  historical  confirmation,  it  was  Akiba  who  system- 
atized and  brought  into  methodic  arrangemcul  the 
MisiiNAii.or  Ilalakah  codex  ;tlic  Minu.vsii,  or  the  exe- 
gesis of  the  Ilalakah  ;  and  the  IIal.vkot,*  the  logical 
ampliticatioii  of  the  Ilalakah  (Yer.  Shck.  v.  4Hr.  ac- 
cording to  the  correct  text  given  by  Kabbinowicz, 
"Dikdnke  Soferim,"  ji.  42;  com]iare  Git.  (iT(/  and 
Di\nner,  in  "Monatsschrift,"  xx.  4.53,  also  Baclicr, 
in  "Rev,  fit.  Juives,"  xxxviii,  215,) 

The  feiTtpuaei;  rov  Ka'/.oviiivov  'Pa.?/3£  'AKi^d\  men- 
tioned by  Epiplianius  ("  Adversus  HiTieses,"  xxxiii, 
9,  and  xv.,  end),  as  well  as  the  "great  jMishnavot  of 
Akiba"  in  the  Jlidr,  Cant,  U.  viii.  2,  Eccl.  R.'vi.  2, 
are  probably  not  to  lie  understood  as  independent 
Mishnayot  (Arrrpwuffc)  existing  at  that  time,  but  as 
the  teachings  and  opinions  of  Akiba  contaiiK'd  in  the 
officially  recognized  Mishnayot  and  Midi-.ishim,  But 
at  tlie  same  time  it  is  fair  to  consider  the  Mislinah  of 
Judah  ha-Nasi  (called  simply  "the  Mishuah  "las  de- 
rived from  the  school  of  Akiba;  and  the  majority  of 
halakic  Midrashim  now  extant  are  also  to  be  tlms 
credited.  Johanan  bar  Xappaha  (199-2T0)  has  left 
the  following  important  note  relative  to  the  compo- 
sition and  editing  of  the  Mishnah  and  other  halakic 
works:  "Our  Mishnah  comes  directlv  from  Rabbi 
Jleir,  the  Tosefta  from  R.  Xeheiniah,  the  Sifra  from 
R,  Judah,  and  the  Sifre  from  R.  Simon;  but  they  all 
took  Akiba  for  a  model  in  their  works  and  followed 
him"  (Sanh.  86«).    One  recognizes  here  the  threefold 


♦  For  ttils  meaning:  of  Hahikah,  see  especially  Tosef..  Zah.  1.  5. 
riD^n  niDD  means  to  And  logical  foundation  for  ilie  Halakot. 

+  In  the  second  passage  Itabhi  .Akiiia  has  been  corrupted  into 
Barakiban,  as  also  in  Jerome's  "  Epistola  ad  Al^fiislam,"  1-1. 
where.  Instead  of  Harachit>a,s,  Itab  .\chibas  should  Ix*  read.  The 
statement  in  Epiphanius's  "Adversus  Hieri'ses,"  xlii.  (cd.  .MiKne. 
p,  744 ».  that  Akiba  was  iKim  shortly  before  the  IJabylonian  exile,  is 
based  upon  the  confusion  of  Akiba  with  Ezra,  who'was  considered 
by  Jewish  authorities  the  founder  of  tradition  (Suk.  3iki(.  and  as 
whose  successor  Akiba  Is  designated  (Silre,  Deut.  48). 


division  of  the  halakic  material  that  emanated  from 
Akiba:  (1)  The  coditied  Ilalakah  (which  is  Jlishnah); 
(2)  the  Tosefta,  which  in  its  original  form  contains  a 
concise  logical  argument  for  the  .Mishnah,  somewhat 
like  the  "  Lebusli  Of  Mordecai  Jafe  on  the  "  Shulhau 
•.\ruk";  (;i)  the  halakic  Midrasli.  The  following 
may  be  mentioned  here  as  the  halakic  Miilrasliim 
originating  in  Akiba's  school:  the  Mekilta  of  Ralilii 
Simon  (in  manuscript  only)  on  Exodus;  Sifiii  on  Le- 
viticus; Sifre  Zut.ta  on  >i'iinibers  (excerpt.s  in  Yalk, 
Shimoni,  ami  a  nninuscript  in  Midni-sh  liaGadol, 
edited  for  the  lirst  time  by  B.  Koenigsberger,  1894); 
and  the  Sifre  to  Deuteronomy,  tlie  halakic  portion  of 
which  belongs  to  Akiba's  scliool. 

Adminiblcas  is  the  systematizationof  the  Ilalakah 

by  Akiba,  his  hcrmeneutics  jind  halakic  exegesis — 

which  form  the  foundation  of  all  Tal- 

Akiba's  mudic  learning — surpassi'il  it.  The 
Halakah.  eni>rmc)us  dilTcrcnce  between  the  Ilala- 
kah before  and  after  Akiba  may  be 
briefly  described  as  follows:  The  old  Ilalakah  was, 
as  its  name  indicates,  the  religious  practice  sanc- 
tioned as  binding  by  tnidition  ;  to  which  were  added 
extensions,  and,  in  some  cases,  limilalious,  of  the 
Torali,  arrived  at  by  strict  logical  deduction.  The 
o]>iiosition  olTci'ed  by  the  .Sidducees — which  became 
especially  strenuous  in  the  last  century  B.C.— origi- 
nated the  halakic  Midrasli.  whose  mission  it  was  to 
deduce  these  amplifications  of  the  Law,  by  tradition 
and  logic,  out  of  the  Law  itself.  It  might  be  thou.irht 
that  with  the  destruction  of  the  Temple — which 
event  made  an  end  of  Sad<lucceism — the  halakic 
Midi'ash  would  also  have  disappeared,  ,sceing  that 
the  Ilalakah  could  now  dispense  with  the  .Midrasli. 
Tills  probably  would  have  been  the  case  had  not 
Akiba  created  his  own  Midrash,  by  means  of  which 
he  was  able  "  to  discover  thin.irs  that  were  even  un- 
known to  Closes"  (Pesik,.  Parali,  cd,  Buber.  39^). 
.\kiba  made  the  accumulated  treasure  of  the  oral 
law — which  tmtil  his  time  was  only  a  subject  of 
knowledg<',  and  not  a  science — an  inexhaustible  mine 
from  which,  by  the  means  he  jirovided,  new  treasures 
might  be  continually  ex  Iraeted.  If  the  oliler  Ilalakah 
is  to  be  considered  as  the  product  of  the  internal 
stniggle  between  Pharisceism  and  Sadducceism,  the 
Ilalakah  of  .\kiba  must  be  conceived  as  the  result  of 
an  external  contest  between  Judaism  on  the  one  hand 
and  Hellenism  and  Hellenistic  Christianity  on  the 
other.  .Vkibano  doubt  perceived  that  the  intellectual 
bond  uniling  the  Jew.s — far  from  being  allowed  to 
disapjiear  with  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  state 
— must  be  made  to  dniw  them  closer  together  than 
before.  He  pondered  also  the  nature  of  that  bond. 
The  Bible  could  never  again  till  the  jilace  alime;  for 
the  Cliristians  also  regarded  it  as  a  divine  revelation. 
Still  less  could  dogma  serve  the  purpose,  fordogmas 
were  always  repellent  to  rabbinical  .ludaism,  whose 
very  essence  is  development  and  the  susceptibility  to 
develo]nnent.  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
fact  that  Akiba  was  the  creator  of  a  nibbinieal  Bible 
version  elaborated  with  the  aid  of  his  pupil,  Aquila. 
and  designed  to  become  the  common  jiroperty  of  all 
Jews;  thus  Judaizing  the  Bible,  as  it  were,  in  oppo- 
,sition  to  the  Cliristians,  But  this  was  not  sufficient  to 
obviate  all  threatenin,?  diuiger.  It  was  to  be  feared 
that  the  .Tews,  by  their  facility  in  accommodating 
themselves  tosurrouuding  circumstances — even  then 
a  marked  characteristic — might  become  entangled 
in  the  net  of  Grecian  philosophy,  and  even  in  that 
of  Gnosticism.  The  example  of  his  colleagues  and 
friends.  Ei.isHA  bex  ABuyAii,  Ben  'Azzai,  and  Ben 
ZoM.\  strengthened  him  still  more  in  his  conviction 
<if  the  necessity  of  providing  some  counterpoise  to 
the  iutellectuaf  influence  of  the  non-Jewish  world. 


807 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Akiba  ben  Joseph 


Akiba  souglit  to  apply  the  system  of  isolation  fol- 
lowed by  the  Pharisees  (D'CTIB  =  those  who  '•scpu- 
rutu  "  themselves)  to  (loctrinc  as  they 
Akiba's  did  to  practise,  to  the  intellectual  life 
Henneneu-  as  they  did  to  that  of  <laily  intercourse, 
tic  System,  and  he  succeeded  in  furuishinj:  a  firm 
foundation  for  his  system.  As  the  fun- 
damental principle  of  his  system,  Akiba  euunclalcs 
his  conviction  that  the  mode  of  expression  used  by 
the  Torah  is  (|uile  diirerent  from  that  of  every  other 
book.  In  the  lunsjruajfe  of  the  Torah  nothing  is  mere 
form;  everythinj;  is  essence.  It  has  nothing  super- 
fluous; not  a  word,  not  a  syllable,  not  even  a  letter. 
Every  peculiarity  of  diction,  every  particle,  everj' 
sign,  is  to  be  considered  as  of  higher  importance,  as 
having  a  wider  relation  and  as  being  of  deeper  mean- 
ing than  it  seems  to  have.  Like  Philo  (see  Siegfried. 
"Philo."p.  Itisi,  who  .saw  in  the  Hebrew  construc- 
tion of  the  infinitive  with  the  finite  form  of  the  ssime 
verb — which  is  readily  recognizable  in  the  Septua- 
gini — and  in  cerlain  particles(adverbs.  prepo.sitions, 
etc. )  some  deep  reference  to  philosophical  and  eth- 
.  ical  doctrines.  Akiba  perceive<l  in  them  indications  of 
many  imjiorlant  ceremonial  laws,  legal  statutes,  and 
ethical  tiaehltigs  (lompare  ilolfniann,  "ZurKinleit 
ung,"|ip.  .")-rj,and(!rill/.."Gesch."iv.  4i7).  He  thus 
gave  the.Iewish  mind  not  <mly  a  new  field  forits  own 
employment,  but,  convinced  both  of  the  unchange- 
ableuess  of  Holy  Scripture  and  of  the  necessity  for 
development  in  .Judaism,  he  succeeded  in  reconciling 
Ihesetwoappanntly  hopeless  opposites  by  means  of 
his  remarkabli-  method.  The  following  two  illustra- 
tions will  serve  to  make  this  clear:  (1)  The  high  con- 
ception of  wcjman's  dignily,  which  Akiba  shared  in 
conunon  with  m<psl  oilier  Pharisees,  induced  him  to 
abolish  the  Orienlal  cusium  that  banished  women  at 
Cerlain  periods  from  all  social  intercourse.  He  suc- 
ceeded, moreover,  in  fully  justifying  his  interpreta- 
tion of  those  Scri|)tural  passjiges  upon  which  this 
ostnicism  hail  lnen  foun<leil  by  theolderexpoimders 
of  iheTondi  (Sifni,  >Ie/.ora'.end,  and  Sbab.  (i4//|.  (2) 
The  l$iblical  liirislation  in  K.\.  \\i.  7  could  not  be 
reconciled  by  .\kiba  with  his  view  of  .Jewish  ethics: 
forhima  ".lewish  slave  "  isa  contradiction  interms; 
for  every  .lew  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  iirince  (15.  M. 
1134).  Akiba  therefore  teaches,  in  opposition  to  the 
old  Halakali,  that  the  s;de  fif  a  daughter  underage 
by  her  father  conveys  to  her  purchaser  no  legal  title 
to  n)arriage  with  her,  bui,  on  the  contnirv,  carries 
with  it  the  tlnli/ tit  keep  the  femah'  shnc  until  she  is 
of  agi',  and  lln-n  to  marry  her  (Mik..  ^lishpatim.  ;!). 
How  .\kilia  endeavors  to  subslantiale  this  from  the 
Hebrew  te.\t  is  shown  bv  Geiger  ("  L'rschrift,"  p. 
1M7).  How  little  he  cared  for  the  letter  of  the  Law 
whenever  he  conceives  it  to  Jie  antagonistic  to  the 
spirit  of  .luilaism,  is  shown  by  his  attitude  toward 
the  Samaritans.  He  considered  friendly  inlercourse 
with  these  semi-.Iews  as  desirable  on  political  as  will 
as  on  riligious  grouiuls;  ami  he  permit  tiil — in  oppo- 
sition to  tnidilion — not  only  eating  their  breail  (Sheb. 
viii.  1(1)  liut  also  evintual  intermarriage  (Kid.  7.V<). 
This  is  q\nte  remarkable,  seeing  that  in  matrimonial 
legislation  he  went  so  far  as  to  declare  every  for- 
biddin  union  as  absolutely  void  (Yeb.  i(2'i)  and  the 
olTspring  as  illigilimate  (  Kid.  tiS<;).  For  similar  rea- 
sons .Vkiba  comes  mar  abolishing  the  IJiblical  orili- 
nance  of  Kilaim  ;  nearly  every  <hapter  in  the  treatise 
ot  that  name  contains  a  miliiration  by  .^kiba.  Love 
for  the  Holy  Ijmd,  whiih  he  as  a  genuine  na 
lionalist  freiiueiitly  and  warmly  expre.s.sed  (sic  Ab. 
H  N.  xxvi).  was  so  powerful  with  him  that  he 
would  have  exempted  agriculture  from  much  of  the 
rigor  of  the  Law.  These  examples  will  sullice  to 
Justify  the  opiuion  that  Akiba  was  the  man  to  whom 


Judaism  owes  preeminently  its  activity  and  its  ca- 
pacity for  development. 

Goethe's  sjiying,  that  "in  self-restraint  is  the  mas- 
ter shown,"  is  contradicted  by  Akiba,  who,  though 

diametrically  oppo-sed  to  all  philosoph- 

Religious     ical   speculation,  is   nevertheless    the 

Philoso-      only  tanna  to  whom  we  can  attribute 

phy.  something  likea  religious  philosophy. 

A  tannaitic  tradition  ( Hag.  144 ;  Tosef. . 
Hag.  ii.  3)  mentions  that  of  the  four  who  entered 
l)ani(li.se,  Akiba  was  the  only  one  that  returned  un- 
scathed. This  serves  at  least  to  show  how  strong 
in  later  ages  was  the  recollection  of  Akiba's  philo- 
sophical speculation  (see  Elisu.\  b.  Abuva).  Akiba's 
utterances  (Abot,  iii.  14,  15)  may  serve  to  present 
the  essence  of  his  religious  conviction.  They  run : 
"How  favored  is  man,  for  he  was  created  after  an 
image:  as  Scripture  says,  'for  in  an  image,  Klohim 
made  man  '  "  (Gen.  ix.  6).  "Everything  is  foreseen ; 
but  freedom  [of  will]  is  given  to  every  man. "  "  The 
world  is  governed  by  mercy  .  .  .  but  the  divine 
decision  is  made  by  the  preponderance  of  the  good 
or  bad  in  one's  actions."  Akilia's  anthropology 
is  based  upon  the  principle  that  man  was  created 

D7Y3.  that  is,  not  in  the  image  of  God — which  would 

be  D'nPN  D?V3 — but  after  an  image,  after  a  pri- 
mordial type;  or,  philo.sophically  speaking,  after 
an  Idea — wliat  Philo  calls  in  agreement  with  Pal- 
estinian theology,  "the  first  heavenly  man"  (see 
Ai).\.M  Iy.\l>.\lON  j.  Strict  monotheist  that  Akiba  was, 
he  protested  against  any  compari.son  of  God  with 
the  angels,  and  declared  the  traditional  interpreta- 
tion of  1JD0  TnX3  (tien.  iii.  'J'Jias  meaning  "  like  one 
of  us"  to  be  arniiit  blasphemy  (.Mek.,  Heshallah,  6). 
It  is  ([uite  instructive  to  read  how  a  contemporary 
of  Akiba,  Justin  Martyr,  calls  the  old  interpretation 
— thus  objected  to  by  Akiba — a  "Jewish  heretical 
one"  ("  Dial,  cum  Tryph."  Ixii.).  In  his  earnest  en- 
deavors to  insist  as  strongly  as  pos,sible  tipon  the  in- 
companible  nature  of  God,  Akiba  indeed  lowers  the 
angels  somewhat  to  the  realms  of  mortals,  and,  al- 
luding to  Ps.  Ix.wiii.  •J."),  maintains  that  mamia  is  the 
actual  food  of  the  angels  ( Voma,  7.V/).  This  view  of 
Akiba's,  in  spite  of  the  energetic  protests  of  his  col- 
league Ishmael,  became  the  one  generally  accepted 
by  his  contemporaries,  as  Justin  Martyr,  I.e..  Ivii., 
indicates. 

Airainst  the  .Tudico-Gnoslic  doctrine  ("R<-cognit." 
iii.  3l»;  Sifre,  Num.  103;  Sifra,  AVayikra.  'i).  which 
teaches  that  angels — who  arc  spiritual  beings — and 
also  that  the  departeil  juous,  who  are  bereft  of  their 
llcsh,  can  see  God,  the  words  of  Akiba,  in  Sifni.  I.e.. 
must  be  noticed.    He  insists  that  not  even  the  angels 

can  see  God's  glorv ;  for  he  inter|irets 
Freedom  the  expression  in  kx.  xxxiii.  '20,  "no 
of  'Will.      man  can  si'c  me  and  live  "  ('ni>.  as  if  it 

read  "no  man  or  any  living  immortal 
can  see  me."  Next  to  tlu'  tnuiscendeiilal  nature  of 
God,  .\kiba  insists  emphatically,  as  has  bien  men- 
tioned, on  the  freedom  of  the  will,  to  which  heallows 
no  limilations.  This  insistence  is  in  opposition  to 
the  Ciiristian  doctrine  of  the  sinfulness  ami  depmvity 
of  man.  and  apparently  controverts  his  view  of  di- 
vine predestination.  He  derides  those  who  lind  ex- 
cuse for  their  sins  in  this  supposed  innate  depravity 
(]\id.  !^1</).  Hul  .Vkiba 's  opposition  to  this  genelic- 
ally  .lewish  doctrine  is  probably  diricted  mainly 
against  its  Christian  correlative,  the  doclriui' of  the 
grace  of  God  coniingent  upon  faith  in  Christ,  and 
ba;itism.  Heferring  to  this,  .\kiba  sjiys.  "Happy  an- 
ye.  O  Israelites,  that  ye  Jiurify  yourselves  through 
your  heavenly  Father,  as  it  is  said  (Jer.  xvii.  13, 
J/eb. ),  ■  Israel's  hope  is  God  '  "  (Mishuah  Youm,  cud). 


Akiba  ben  Joseph 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


308 


This  isa  plaj-  on  the  Hebrew  -n-onl  ropD("  I'f  pe  "  and 
"Imth").  In  opposition  to  the  Christian  insistence 
on  God's  love,  Akiha  upliolils  God's  rrlrihutive  jus- 
tice elevated  above  all  chance  or  arbilnirincss  (Me- 
kilta.  Beshallah,  (i).  Hut  he  is  far  from  rcprcscntinjr 
justice  as  tlic  only  attribute  of  God:  in  airriMincnt 
with  the  ancient  PaUsliuian  thcolojiy  of  the  j'Tn  mO 
("the  allribule  of  justice'')  and  rno 
God's  Two  D'Dmn  fthe  attribute  of  mercy") 
Attributes.  (Gen.  H.  xii.,  end;  the  x"l""'"<'/  and 
KolacTiaij  of  Philo.  "Quis  Rer.  Div. 
Heres,"  34  Mangey,  i.  49ti),  lie  teaches  that  God 
combines  goodness  and  mercy  with  strict  justice 
(Hag.  14aj.  The  idea  of  justice,  however,  .so 
strongly  dominates  Akiba's  system  that  he  will 
not  allow  God's  grace  and  kindness  to  be  under- 
stood as  arbitrary.  Hence  his  ma.\im,  rcfcrnd  to 
above,  "God  rules  the  world  iu  mercy,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  preponderance  of  good  or  bad  in  human 
acts." 

As  to  the  question  concerning  the  frequent  suffer- 
ings of  the  pious  and  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked 
— truly  a  burning  one  in  Akiba's  timi — this  is  an- 
swered 1)V  the  explanation  that  the 
Eschatol-  pious  are  punished  iu  this  life  for  their 
ogy  and  few  sins,  in  order  that  in  the  next 
Ethics.  they  may  receive  only  reward;  while 
the  wicked  obtain  in  this  world  all  the 
recompense  for  the  little  good  they  have  done,  and  in 
the  next  world  will  receive  only  punishment  for  their 
misdeeds  (Gen.  K.  xxxiii. ;  Pesik.  ccl.  Buber.  ix.  "I'iiii). 
Consistent  as  Akiba  always  was.  his  ethics  and  his 
views  of  justice  were  only  the  strict  consequences  of 
his  i)liilosophieal  system.  .Justice  as  an  attribute  of 
God  must  also  be  exemplary  for  man.  "  No  mercy 
in  [civil]  justice!  "  is  his  liasic  principle  in  the  doc- 
trine concerning  law  (Ket.  ix.  3);  and  he  does  not 
conceal  his  opinion  that  the  action  of  the  .lews  in 
taking  the  spoil  of  the  Egyi)tiaus  is  to  be  con- 
demned (Gen.  R.  xxviii.  7).  From  his  views  as  to 
the  relation  between  God  and  man  he  deduces  the 
inference  that  he  who  sheds  the  blood  of  a  fellow 
man  is  to  be  considered  as  committing  the  crime 
a.gainst  the  divine  archetype  (JIIDT)  of  man  (Gen. 
R.  xxxiv.  14).  He  therefore  recognizes  as  the  chief 
and  greatest  principle  of  .Judaism  the  couunand, 
"Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself "  (I^ev.  xix. 
18;  8ifra,  Ivedoshim,  iv. ).  He  docs  not,  indeed, 
maintain  thereby  that  the  execution  of  this  com- 
mand is  eipiivalent  to  the  i)erformanee  of  the  whole 
Law;  and  in  one  of  his  polemic  interpretations  of 
Scripture  he  protests  strou,gly  a.gainst  the  contrary 
opinion  of  the  Christians,  according  to  whom  .Juda- 
ism is  "simply  morality  "  (Jlek..  Sliirah,  3,  44(7.  cd. 
'\\''eiss).  For,  in  sjiite  of  his  ]ihilosiiphy.  Akiba  was 
an  extremely  strict  and  national  .Jew.  His  doctrine 
concerning  the  .Mes.siah  was  the  realistic  and  thor- 
oughly Jewish  one,  as  his  declaration  that  Bar  Kokba 
was  the  Messiah  shows.  He  accordingly  limited  the 
Messianic  age  to  forty  years,  as  being  within  the 
scope  of  a  man's  life — .similar  to  the  reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon — against  the  usual  conception  of  a  mil- 
lennium (Midr.  Teh.  xc.  1,5).  A  distinction  is.  how- 
ever, to  be  made  between  the  Jlessianic  a.ire  and  the 
future  world  (Xan  D^IV-  This  latter 
The  Messi-  will  come  after  the  dcsi  ruction  of  this 
anic  Age  world,  lasting  for  1.01)0  years  (R.  H. 
and  31rt).     To  the  future  world  all  Israel 

the  Future  will  be  admitted,  with  the  exception 
■World.  of  the  generation  of  t he  Wilderness  and 
the  Ten  Tribes(Sanh.  xi.  3.  1106).  But 
even  this  futtue  world  is  painted  by  Akiba  in  colors 
selected  by  his  nationalist  inclinations:  for  he  makes 
Messiah  (whom,  according  to  Ezek.  xxxvii.  24.  he 


identille.s  with  David)  the  judge  of  all  the  heathen 
world  (Hag.  14<i). 

A  man  like  .\kiba  would  naturally  be  the  subject 
of  many  legends  (see  Akih.\  m;x  .Joskimi  i.s  Lkg- 
KXD),  The  following  two  examples  indicati'  iu 
what  li.nht  the  ])ersonality  of  this  great  teacher  ap- 
peared to  later  generations.  "  When  Moses  ascended 
into  heaven,  he  saw  God  occui)ied  iu  making  little 
crowns  for  the  letters  of  the  Torah.  L'pon  his  in- 
tiuiry  as  to  what  these  might  be  for,  he  received 
the  answer,  '  There  will  come  a  num.  nameii  .Vkiba 

ben  Joseph,  who  will  deduce  Halakot 
Le^nds.      from  every  little  curve  and  crown  of 

the  lett<'rs'of  the  J^aw.'  Moses'  re- 
(|uest  to  be  allowed  to  see  this  man  was  granted; 
but  he  beeanie  nuich  dismayed  as  he  listened  to 
Akilm's  teaching;  for  he  could  not  tmderstand  it" 
(.Men.  'i'Mi) .  This  story  gives  in  naive  style  a  i)ic- 
ture  of  Akiba's  activity  as  the  father  of  Talmud- 
ical  Judai.sm.  The  following  acc<iunt  of  his  mar- 
tyrdom is  on  a  somewhat  higher  jilane  an<l  contains 
a  proper  appreciation  of  his  principles:  When  Rii- 
fus — "Tyraniuis  Hiifus,"  as  h<-  is  calleil  in  Jew- 
ish .sources — who  was  the  pliant  tool  of  Hadrian's 
vengeance,  condemned  the  venerable  Akiba  to  the 
hand  of  the  executioner,  it  was  just  the  time  to 
recite  the  "Shema'."  Full  of  devotion,  Akiba  re- 
cited his  prayers  calmly,  though  sud'ering  agonies; 
and  when  Rufus  asked  him  wlielher  he  was  a  .sor- 
cerer, since  he  felt  no  ])ain.  Akiba  replied.  "I  am 
no  sorcerer;  but  I  rejoice  at  tlie  opportunity  now 
given  to  me  to  love  my  God  '  with  all  my  lifi-,'  see- 
ing that  1  have  hilherto  been  able  to  love  Him  only 
'  with  all  my  means  '  and  '  with  all  my  might, '  "  and 
with  the  word  "Onel "  heex|)ired  (Yer.  Ber.  ix.  Mb, 
and  somewhat  moditied  in  Bab.  61i).  Pure  niono- 
tlieism  was  for  Akiba  the  essence  of  Judaism:  he 
lived,  worked,  and  died  for  it.     See  also  Akiba  ben 

JOSKI'II  IN  I^IiOKXD. 

Bini.iocRAPiiv  :  FrankPl.  Dmlic  ha-MiKhnah,  pp.  111-123;  J. 
liriill,  MettKlut-Mi.-ihmOi.  pii.  llli-li.':  Weiss,  Jxir.  11. 107-llS; 
H.  oppi'iilifiin,  In  lift  rnlmuit.  11.  :J(r  2411.  ai!l  271 ;  I.  liast- 
freuml.  liiinimiihif  dffi  1{.  Akiha^  I.cmlH'r(r.  1871 :  J.  S.  nii>ch, 
In  Mimizmh  ii-Miina'arah,  IS'M,  pp.  il-'A;  (inltz,  Ofxeh. 
il.  Judciu  iv.  (see  index);  Ewulti.  Ocxch.  </.  l*o?)icv*  I)<nn:t, 
vii.  367  ft  scf/. :  Derenbourg,  Ktfstii,  pp.  ."MKKJl,  395  ct  ttrq,, 
418  et  neq. ;  Hamburger,  li.  B.  T.  li.  ;ti-)3 ;  Baclier,  vly. 
Tan.  1.  271-:WS:  .tost,  (ifsch.  dfn  .Tudcnthumi*  unit  Seiner 
Sihtfu.  ii.  .V.I  rt  sfij. ;  I.andau.  in  Miiiutt.'<^fltrift.  1H>4,  pp.  4.^- 
51, Sl-W.  i:iii  14.'*:  Iiiinn.T.  i''Ml.  ls:i.  pp.  4.'il  4."il;  Ni-nliUnrer. 
ihiit.  lS7:i.  pp.  ■.I'i-i  ;i!ir.  4:1:1  41.-).."i-1i-.".:icl:  O.  IldfTniiinn.  Z»r  Kui- 
leituuii  in  ilie  llnim  in.-^tfini  Miilrnsriiiui,  pp.  .'rl2;  (Iriitz, 
(inotttici^mnn,  pp.  .s:i-i:,ii;  y.  Rnsi-nlluil.  ]'ii  r  .iimhritph.ltH^ 
Cher  .  .  .  K.  Akihci\.  esp.'.iiillv  pp.  Ifi-lici,  124-i:il ;  S.  Kiink, 
Akilia  (Jena  DlssiTUiUcMii.  l.s'.Ki;  ,M.  1'o|«t. /'ir/.f  li.  Akihu. 
Vifinia.  1H(IS;  M.  l,*'hinann, -4/i'i7*a.  Histori.«}ir  Krz<'iliinn<i, 
Fninktort-on-the-Main.  LSSd;  J.  Wittklnd,  IJnt  }i„-M...clnibi.-'h, 
Wilna,  1877 ;  Braunsi-tiwelger,  Die  Lchrcr  i/i  1  Jii«)i  nah,  pp. 

i«-ii«-  L.  G. 

In  Legend :  Akiba.  who  sprang  from  the  ranks 

of  the  "]ilain  jieople."  loved  the  people;  and  they 
testified  their  ailmimtion  of  his  extraordinary  accom- 
plishments in  the  language  of  the  peopU — in  legend. 
The  Haggadah.  embodying  the  rabbinical  legend — 
beginning  with  that  iill-imixirtant  change  in  Akiba's 
life  when,  in  the  prime  of  life,  he  commenced  to 
study — dwells  upon  every  jihase  of  his  career  and 
does  not  relin(|uisli  him  even  in  death.  Legendary 
allusion  to  that  change  in  Akiba's  life  is  made  in 
two  slightly  varying  forms,  of  which  the  following 
is  jirobably  the  older: 

Akiba,  noticing  a  stone  at  a  well  that  had  been 
hollowed  out  by  drippings  from  the  buckets,  .said : 
"  If  these  drii)pings  can.  by  continuous  action,  pen- 
etrate this  solid  stone,  how  much  more  can  the  [ler- 
sistent  word  of  (iod  penetrate  the  pliant,  fleshly 
human  heart,  if  that  word  but  be  presented  with  pa- 
tient insisteucv"  (Ab.  R.  X.  ed.  Schechter,  vi.  28). 


809 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Akiba  ben  Joseph 


According  to  another  legend,  it  would  appeur  thai 
Akiba  owed  almost  everything  to  his  wife.     Akilia 
was  a  shepherd  in  tlie  employ  of  the  rich  and  re- 
spected Kalba  Sabu'a,  whose  daughter  took  a  liking 
to  him,  the  modest,  conscientious  servant.     She  con- 
sented to  secret  betrothal  on  the  condition  that  he 
thenceforth  devote  himself  to  study.     When   the 
wealthy    father-in-law    learned    of   this    secret    be- 
trothal, he  drove  his  daughter  from  his  house,  and 
swore  that  he  would  never  help  her  while  Akiba  re- 
mained her  husband.     Akiba,  with  his  young  wife, 
lived  perforce  in  the  most  straitened 
Akiba        circumstances.     Indeed,    so    poverly- 
and  stricken  did  they  become  thatthe  bride 

His  Wife,  had  to  sell  her  hair  to  enable  her  hus- 
band to  pursue  his  studies.  Hut  these 
very  straits  only  served  to  bring  out  Akiba's  great- 
ness of  character.  It  is  related  that  once,  wlien  a 
bundle  of  stniw  was  the  only  be<l  they  pos.sessed, 
a  poor  man  <ame  to  beg  some  straw  for  a  bed  for 
his  sick  wife.  Akiba  at  once  divided  with  him  his 
scanty  possession,  remarking  tohis  wife,  "  Thou  seest, 
my  child,  there  are  those  poorer  than  we!"  This 
pretended  poor  man  was  none  other  than  the  prophet 
Elijah,  who  had  come  to  test  Akiba  (Ned.  .5(l((). 

By  agreement  with  his  wife,  Akilia  spent  twelve 
years  away  from  her.  iiursuing  his  studies  under 
Eliezer  ben  llyreanus  and  Josliua  ben  Hananiah. 
Returning  at  the  end  of  that  time,  la-  was  just  about 
to  enter  his  wretched  home,  when  he  overheard  the 
following  answ'er  given  by  his  wife  to  a  neighbor 
wlio  was  bitterly  censuring  him  for  his  long  ab- 
sence: "If  I  had  my  wish,  he  should  stay  another 
twelve  years  at  the  academy."  Without  crossing 
the  threshold,  Akiba  turned  about  and  went  back  to 
the  academy,  to  return  to  her  at  the!  expiration  of  a 
further  perioil  of  twelve  years.  The  second  time, 
however,  he  came  back  as  a  most  famous  scholar, 
e.scorted  liy  24,000  disciples,  who  reverently  fol- 
lowed their  beloved  master.  When  his  poorly  clad 
wife  was  about  to  embrace  him,  some  of  his  stu- 
dents, not  knowing  who  she  was,  sought  to  restnun 
her.  But  Akiba  e.\claime<l,  " IaX  her  alone;  for 
what  I  am,  and  for  what  we  are,  to  this  noble  woman 
the  thanks  are  due  "  (Ned.  SO^,  Ket.  (j'ih  tt  xq.). 

Akiba's  success  a.s  a  teacher  put  an  end  to  his 
poverty:  for  the  wealthy  father-in  law  now  rejoiced 
to  acknowledge  a  son-in-law  so  distinguished  as 
Akilia.  There  were,  however,  other  circumstan<es 
which  made  a  wealthy  man  of  the  former  sbciiherd 
lad.  It  appears  that  Akiba.  authorized  by  certain 
rabbis,  bdrrowed  a  large  sum  of  money  from  a 
prominent  heal  hen  woman — a  miilnniii,  ssiys  the  leg- 
end. As  bondsmen  for  I  he  loan,  Akiba  named  God 
and  the  sea,  on  the  shore  of  which  the  niatrona's 
hous(;  stood.  Akiba,  being  sick,  couUl  not  return 
the  money  at  the  time  appointed:  but  his  "bonds- 
men "  did  not  leave  him  in  tlii'  lurch.  An  imperial 
princess  suddenly  became  insane,  in 
Akiba  and  which  condition  she  threw  a  chest 
the  containing  imperial  treasures  into  the 

Matrona.  sea.  It  was  cast  upon  the  shore  close 
to  the  house  of  Akiba's  creditor:  so 
that  when  the  matrona  went  to  the  shore  lo  demand 
of  the  sea  the  amount  she  hail  lent  Akiba,  the  ebbing 
tide  left  boundless  riches  at  her  feet.  Later,  when 
Akiba  arrived  to  ilischarge  his  indebtedness,  the  ma- 
trona not  only  refused  to  accept  the  money,  but  in 
sisted  upon  Akilia's  receiving  a  large  share  of  what 
the  sea  had  brought  to  lier  (("ommenturies  to  Ned. 
I.e.). 

This  was  not  the  only  (Kcasion  on  which  Akiba 
was  ma<le  to  feel  the  truth  of  his  favorite  ma.\im 
C  Whatever  God  doeth  He  doeth  for  the  best").  Once, 


being  unable  to  And  any  sleeping  accommodation  in 
a  certain  city,  he  was  compelled  to  pass  the  night 
outside  its  walls.  Without  a  nuirmur  he  resigned 
himself  to  this  hardship;  and  even  when  a  lion  de- 
voured his  ass,  and  a  cat  killed  the  cock  whose  crow- 
ing was  to  herald  the  dawn  to  him,  and  the  wind 
extinguished  his  candle,  the  only  remark  he  made 

was,"  This,likewise,nuist  be  for  a  good 

His  inirpose!"    When  morning  dawned  he 

Favorite     learned  how  true  his  words  were.     A 

Maxim,      band  of  robbers  had  fallen  upon  the 

city  and  carried  its  inhabitants  into 
captivity,  but  he  had  escaped  because  his  abiding 
place  had  not  been  noticed  in  the  darkness,  anil 
neither  beast  nor  fowl  had  betrayed  him  (Ber.  GOi). 
Akilia's  many  journeys  brought  numerous  ad- 
vi'utures.  some  of  which  are  embellished  by  legend. 
Thus  in  Ethiopia  he  was  once  called  \ipon  to  decide 
between  the  swarthy  king  and  the  king's  wife;  the 
latter  having  been  accused  of  inlidelily  because  she 
had  borne  her  lord  a  white  child.  Akiba  ascertained 
that  the  royal  chamber  was  adorned  with  white  mar- 
ble statuary,  and.  basing  his  decision  upon  a  well- 
known  physiological  theory,  he  exonerated  the  queen 
from  suspicion  (Num.  R.  ix.  'M).  It  is  related  that  dur- 
ing his  stay  in  Rome  Akiba  became  intimately  ac- 
(Hiainlcd  with  th<'  .Icwish  proselyte  Ketia'  bar  Sha- 
lom, a  very  inlluenlial  Roman — according  to  some 
scholars  identical  with  Flavins  Clemens,  Domitian's 
nephew,  who,  before  his  execution  for  pleading  the 
cause  of  the  Jews,  betiucathed  to  Akiba  all  his  pos- 
sessions ('Ab.  Zarah,  lOi).  Another  Roman,  concern- 
ing whose  relations  with  Akiba  legend  has  nuich  to 
tell,  was  Tiuuius  Rufus,  called  in  the  Talmud  "Tyr- 
aiwius"  Rufus.  One  day  Rufus  asked;  "Which  is 
the  more  beautiful — God's  work  or  man's?  "  "Un- 
doubtedly man's  work  is  the  better,"  was  Akiba's 
reply  :  "  for  while  nature  at  God's  comtnand  supplies 
us  only  with  the  raw  material,  human  skill  enables 
us  to  elaborate  the  same  according  to  the  require- 
ments <if  art  and  good  taste."  Rufus  had  lioped  to 
drive  Akiba  into  a  corner  by  his  strange  question; 
for  he  expected  (|uitc  a  dilTcrent  answer  from  the 
sage,  and  intended  to  compel  Akiba  to  admit  the 
w'iekedness  of  circumcision.  He  then  put  the  ques- 
tion," Why  has  God  not  made  man  just  as  He  wanted 
him  to  be'?"  "For  the  very  reason,"  was  Akiba's 
ready  answer,  "  that  the  duty  of  man  is  to  perfect 
himsVlf"  (Tan.,  Tazri'a.  .5,  ed.  Ruber  7). 

A  legend  according  to  which  the  gates  of  the 
infernal  regions  opened  for  Akiba  is  analogous  to 
the  more  familiar  tale  that  he  entered  (laradise  and 

was  allowed  to  leave  it  unscathed. 
Akiba  and  (Hag.  14/<).  There  exists  the  following 
the  Dead,    tradition;  Akiba  once  met  a  coal-black 

man  carrying  a  heavy  load  of  wood  and 
running  with  th<' speed  of  ahorse.  .Vkiba  slopped  him 
and  in(|uired;  "  My  son.  wherefore' ilost  thou  labor  so 
hard'?  If  lliou  art  a  slave  and  hasi  a  harsh  master, 
I  will  i>urchase  Iheeof  him.  If  it  be  out  of  poverty 
that  thou  doi'st  thus.  I  will  care  for  thy  recpiin?- 
menls."  "It  is  for  neither  of  these,"  the  man  re- 
plied ;  "  I  am  dea<l  and  am  comi>elled  because  of  my 
great  sins  to  build  my  fuiund  pyre  I'verv  day.  In 
life  I  was  a  tax-gatherer  and  oppi-e,sse<l  the  poor. 
Let  me  go  at  once,  lest  the  demon  lorlure  nu'  for  my 
delay."  "Is  there  no  help  for  thee'/"  askeil  .\kiba. 
".Mmost  none,"  replied  the  decejised;  "for  I  under- 
stand  that  my  sulTerings  will  end  only  when  I  have 
a  pious  son.  When  I  ilicd,  my  wife  was  pregnant; 
but  I  have  liltle  hopi'  Ihal  she  will  give  my  chilli 
proper  training."  .\kiba  ini|inred  the  man's  name 
and  Ihal  of  his  wife  and  her  dwelling  place;  and 
when,  in   lh<'  course  of   his  Inivels.  he  reached  the 


Akiba  ben  Joseph 
Akiba  ha-Koheii 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


310 


place,  Akiliii  soiiglit  for  information  concorning  the 
man's  family.  Tlie  nciirliliors  very  freely  ex])resse<l 
their  opinion  that  l>oth  the  <l<'eease<l  and  his  wife 
deserved  to  inhahit  the  infernal  rej;ions  for  all  time 
— the  latter  l)eeause  she  had  not  even  initialed  her 
child  into  the  Abralianiie  covenant.  Akiha.liowcvir. 
was  not  to  be  turned  from  liis  jmrposu;  lie  sowirht 
the  son  of  tliu  ta.x-ijatliererand 
hil)ore<l  long  and  as.siduously 
in  leaching  liim  the  word  of 
Ciod.  After  fasting  forty  days, 
and  praying  to  God  to  bless  his 
cITorts,  he  heard  a  heavenly 
\  ojee  (/ml  hit)  iisUing,  "  Where- 
fore gi  vest  thou  thy. self  so  much 
lroul)le  concerning  tliis  oneV" 
■■  Because  lie  is  just  the  kind  to 
work  for."  was  the  prom|it  an- 
swer. Akiba  persevered  until 
his  i>iipil  was  alile  to  otliciale 
as  reader  in  the  synagogue ;  and 
when  there  for  the  first  time  he 
niiird  llie  ])niyer,"  HIessye  the 
Lord  !  "  the  father  suddenly  a])- 
]iiared  to  Akiba.  and  over- 
wlieliued  him  with  thanks  for 
his  deliverance  from  the  pains 
of  hell  tlirou.trh  the  merit  of  his 
son  (  Kallah.  ed.  Coronel.  4/;,  and 
see  (piotations  from  Tan.  in 
Alioab's  •■  .Mcnonit  hu-^laor."  i. 
1,  'J,  S  1,  ed.  Fiirstenthal.  j).  82; 
also  Mul.izor  Vit  ry ,  p'.  Wi).  This 
legend  has  been  somewhat 
elaborately  treated  in  Yiddish 
under  the  title,  "  Ein  ganz  neie 
Maase  vim  dcm  Taiuia  R.  Aki- 
ba." Lemberg.  1.^93  (compare 
Tanna  debe  Eliyahu  Zutta.  xvii.,  where  Johauan  b. 
Zakkai's  name  is  given  in  jdace  of  Akiba). 

Akiba's  martjrdom — wldeh  is  an  inijiortant  his- 
torical event — gave  origin  to  many  li'gends.  The  fol- 
lowing describes  his  supernatural  interment: 

Contrary  to  the  vision  (Men.  2!W'),  which  sees  Aki- 
ba's body  destineil  tobee.vposfd  for  sale  in  the  butch- 
er's shop,  legend  tells  how  Elijah,  accompanied  by 
Akiba's  faithful  servant  Josluia,  cn- 
Akiba's      tercd  unperceived  the  prison  where  the 
Death.      body  lay.     Priest  though  he  was,  Eli- 
jah took  up  the  corpse — for  the  dead 
body  of  such  a  sjiint  could  not  delile — and.  escorted 
by  many  bands  of  angels,  bore  the  body  by  ni.irht  to 
Cffisarea.     The  night,  however,  was  as  liright  as  the 
finest  summer's  day.   When  they  arrived  t  here.  Elijah 
and  Joshua  entered  a  cavern  which  contained  a  bed. 
table,  chair,  and  lamp,  and  deposited  Akiba's  liody 
there.     Ko  sooner  liad  tliey  left  it  than  the  cavern 
closed  of  itsown  accord,  so  that  no  man  has  foun<l  it 
since (Jellinek,"  Bet  ha-Midrash,"  vi.  2T,  28;  ii.  67,  68; 
Braunschweiger,  '"  Lehrer  der  Misehnah,"  192-2(16). 

I..  O. 

AKIBA    BEN    JOSEPH,    ALPHABET    OF 

(called  uUo  Otiot  de-Rabbi  Akiba,  Midrash  or 
Haggadah  de-R.  Akiba) :  The  title  of  a  Midrash 
on  the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphaliel. 
Two  versions  or  portions  of  the  same  e.\ist :  'Version 
A,  considered  by  Jellinek  to  be  the  older  form,  by 
Bloch  thought  to  l>e  of  a  much  more  recent  origin, 
introduces  the  various  letters  as  contending  with 
each  other  for  the  honor  of  forming  the  beginning 
of  creation  (herfshit).  It  is  based  upon  Gen.  R.  i. 
and  Cant.  R.  on  v.  11,  according  to  which  Alrpli 
complained  before  God  that  Bit/i  was  preferred  to  it, 
l)Ut  was  assured  thai  the  Torab  of  .Sinai,  the  object 


Akiba  ben  Josepli. 

(From  the  Mantuii  UaggH^lah, 
1860.) 


of  creation,  would  begin  with  AU-p/i  (Anoki  =  I  am); 
it,  however,  varies  from  the  Midrasli  Rabbot.  The 
lett<'rs,  beginning  with  the  last.  'J'nr.  and  ending  with 
/A///,  all  assert  their  claim  to  priority.  First  Tin\n<, 
being  the  initial  letterof  Torali:  it  is  tohl  that  it  will 
be  the  mark  on  the  forehead  of  the  wicked  (Ezck. 
i.\.  4,  Shah.  ,"),>/).  Then  Sliin.  as  the  initial  letterof 
.S/((  (/)  (■■  the  Name  ")and  S/iiulilniC  Almighty  ").  puis 
in  its  claim:  it  is  told  that  it  is  also  the  (irst  letter 
of  .s/iiktr  (••  falsehood  ").  Id.ili  as  the  initial  letter  of 
vik/i  ("  Ihe  beginning  of  thy  word  is  Irulli,"  Ps.  cxix. 
lOOjand  of  Itithitm  ("  the  Merciful  One  ")  next  makes 
its  demands;  but  it  is  told  that )'«/;  or  llmh  also  oc- 
curs in  evil  things  (Num.  xiv.  4.  Dan.  ii.  32,  Iltb.) 
and  is  the  initial  also  of  im/i'd  ("  wickedness  ").  Next 
comes  Kojili,  as  the  beginning  of  kudush  ("holy"); 
but  it  is  also  the  first  letter  of  kehiluh  ("curse"). 
So  all  the  rest  complain;  each  having  .some  claim, 
which  is,  however,  at  once  refuted,  until  ISith,  the 
initial  letterof  kniknh  ("  blessing  "  and  "  praise  "),  is 
chosen.  Whereupon  Aleph  is  asked  by  the  Hlost 
High  why  it  alone  showed  modesty  in  not  cinnplain- 
ing;  and  it  is  assured  that  it  is  ihe  chief  ^' all  let- 
ters, denoting  the  oneness  of  God,  and  that  it  shall 
have  its  place  at  the  beginning  of  the  Sinaitic  revela- 
tion. This  competition  is  followed  by  a  haggadie 
explanation  of  the  form  of  the  various  lettersaiid  by 
interpretations  of  the  dilTereiit  compositions  of  the 
alphabet:  AT  BSH,  Al.IS  liT'A,  and  AL  BM. 

Version  B  is  a  compilation  of  allegoric  and  mystic 
Haggadahs  su.;rgi'sled  by  the  names  of  the  various 

letters,  Ihe  component  consonants  be- 

■Version  J5    ing  used  as  acrostics  (w/^/WAwn).  Thus 

of  "Alpha-  .-1/,/,/,    (Cl^K  =  "I'D    ncis    nOX.  "Thy 

bet."         mouth  learned  truth  ")  suggests  truth, 

pnuseof  God,  fait lifiilness(('»i ;/;«//(),  or 
the  creative  Word  of  God  (iinnih)  or  God  Himself 
as  vl /<•;)//,  Prince  and  Prime  of  all  existence;  at  this 
point  chapters  from  mystic  lore  on  Metatron-Enoch, 
etc.,  are  inserted.  JSith  (here  named  aftcrthe  Arabic 
form  />V)  suggests  house  (/'ni/it),  blessing  l/irnrka/i). 
conteniplalion  (liimili).  which  is  prized  as  superior 
to  the  study  of  the  Law.  (^inicl  suggests  r/cmibit 
hitmidiin  (benevolence),  especially  God's  benevolence, 
and  the  rain(,7<',>i/»»0of  God's  mercy  and  His  majesty 
{l/iiriirit/i)  in  the  heavens.  />«/(7/ (Arabic,  instead  of 
the  Hebrew  form  Dnhlh)  sug.iresls  care  for  the  poor 
((''(/).  He  recalls  God's  name,  so  does  Vnin  (see 
Shall.  ll)4(/),  Xiijiiii  Ihe  key  of  sustenance  Unn)  in 
God's  hand  (also  Shall.  l(lh().  and  a  chapter  follows 
on  Zerubbabel  at  the  iinloekiiig  of  the  graves  for 
the  resurrection.  Here  follows  a  chapter  on  Hell 
and  Paradise  continued  in  ]Iit  =  h,t  =  sin  ;  Tcth  sug- 
gests iit,  the  clay  of  earth  ami  hence,  resurrection; 
J(id  ("the  hand")  suggests  the  reward  of  the  right- 
eous; Ciijih  ("hollow  of  the  hand" — "palm"),  the 
clapping  of  hands,  and  the  congregation  of  Israel 
{/.ritifct)  led  liy  Metatron  to  Eden.  Laiiierth  recalls 
hh  ("the  heart  ");  Mttn,  the  mysteries  of  the  inerhi- 
hah  ("the  heavenlj'  chariot")  and  God's  kingdom 
'(uidlktit):  Nvn,  rier,  "the  light  (ner)  of  God  is  the 
'.soul  of  man"  (Prov.  xx.  27,  TTeh.);  Samek,  "God 
sustaineth  (mmek)  the  falling"  (Ps.  cxiv.  14,  Heb.), 
iir  Israel,  the  Sanctuary  or  the  Torah,  inasmuch  as 
Ihe  \xori\iiiimek  has  several  difterent  meanings.  Ayin 
("'  the  eye  ")  suggests  the  Torah  as  light  for  the  eye; 
Pe  recalls  ;/c//.  the  mouth,  as  man's  holy  organ  of 
speech  and  jirai.se:  Zmh'  suggests  Moses  as  Zurldik. 
the  righteous;  Koph,  also  Moses  as  the  one  who 
circumvented  the  stratagems  of  Pharaoh.  Ueith  sug- 
gests God  as  the  ronh,  the  head  of  all;  Hhix.  the 
iireaking  of  the  teeth  (ahtn')  of  the  wicked  (Ps.  iii. 
8.  //</<.)  and  Tnv  the  insatiable  desire  fif  man  (taa- 
iriili)  unless  he  devotes  himself  to  the  Torali.  the  Law. 


311 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIxV 


Akiba  ben  Joseph 
Akiba  ha-Kohen 


Bf)th  versions  are  given  as  a  unit  in  tlie  Amster- 
dam edition  of  1708,  as  they  proliably  originally 
belonged  togetlier.  Version  A  shows  more  unity 
of  plan,  and,  as  Jellinek  {"B.  H."  vi,  40)  lias  shown, 
is  older.  It  is  directly  ba.sed  upon,  if  not  eocval 
with,  iShab.  104'(.  uecording  to  which  the  school- 
children in  the  time  of  .Joshua  b.  Ijcvi  (the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century)  were  taught  in  such 
nmemonic  forms  which  at  the  sjime  time  suggested 
moral  lessons.  Jellinek  even  thinks  that  the  Mid- 
rash  was  composed  with  the  view  of  aci(uainting  the 
clilldren  with  the  alphabet,  while  the  Shabuot  fes- 
tival (IVntecost)  furnishetl  as  themes  Goil,  Torah, 
Israel,  and  Moses.  On  the  other  hand,  version  /? 
(\vhicliGn'll/."Monat.sschrift."  viii,  70 

Critical  it  nirj.,  considered  as  being  the  orig- 
Estimate  of  inal,  and  the  Hebrew  "ImiocIi,"  and 

Versions,  the  ".Shi'ur  IConiidi  "  as  seclions  of  it) 
shows  no  inner  unity  of  plan,  but  is 
simply  a  compilation  of  haggadic  passa.ges  taken  at 
random  from  these  and  other  cabalisli(r  and  mid- 
rashic  works  without  any  other  connection  than  tla^ 
external  order  of  the  letters  of  the-  alphabet,  l)ut 
also  based  on  Shab.  104((.  Jellinek  has  shown  the 
time  of  its  com|>osiii(in  to  becuMiparatixcly  modern, 
as  isevidenced  by  tbcAraliic  fornicd'  the  letters  and 
other  indications  of  Arabic  life.  It  has,  however, 
become  especially  valuable  as  thc>  depository  of  these 
very  cabalistic  works,  which  had  come  near  falling 
into  oblivion  on  account  of  the  gross  anthropomor- 
phic viewsof  the  Godhead  cxpressi'd  therein,  which 
gave  olfenso  to  the  more  eidightencd  mindsof  a  later 
age.  It  was  on  this  acco\uit  that  the  Alphabet  of  K. 
Akiba  was  made  an  objeit  of  si'vcre  attack  and  rid- 
ieide  by  Solomon  ben  Jeroham,  the  Karait<'.  in  the 
first  Imlf  of  the  tenth  century.  Version  A  was 
likewise  known  to  Juilah  lla<lassi,  the  Karaite,  in 
the  thirteenth  century  (see  Jellinek,  "15.  II."  iii., 
.wii.  ."»). 

As  to  Akiba's  authorship,  this  is  claimed  by  the 
writers  of  lioth  versions,  who  begin  their  composi- 
tions with  the  words,  "  1{.  Akiba  hath  said."  The 
jnstilication  for  this  pseudonymous  title  was  found 
in  the  fact  that,  according  to  theTalnuid  (.Men.  2!i/<i, 
Moses  was  told  on  Sinai  that  the  ornamental  crown 
of  each  letter  of  the  Torah  would  be  made  the  ob 
ject  of  lialakie  interpretation  by  Akiba  ben  Joseph, 
and  that  according  to  Gen  K.  i.,  he  and  U.  Eliezer 
as  youths  already  knew  how  to  derive  higher  mean- 
ing from  the  double  form  of  the  letters  "]SVJO 

In  fait,  there  exists  a  third  version,  called  .Midrash 
<lc  I{.  Akiba  'al  ha  'I'ag.gin  we  Ziyunim,  a  Midrash 
of  I!.  Akiba  trealiiiiron  the  ornamentations  of  the 
letters  of  (he  alphabet  with  a  view  to  linding  in 
fucli  of  them  sonu'  .symbolic  expression  of  (iod, 
Creation,  the  Torah,  Israel,  and  the  .lewisli  rites  and 
ceremonies.  This  version  is  published  in  Jellinek's 
"B.  II."  V.  31-33. 

Rini.irtoRAPnY  :  Bl<N-lt.  la  WIiHit  uml  \VtaiwlH''M,/tJW.  Lit.  III. 
:^'>  Ztii.  wtiiTi'  Mpeclirienslii  (irriimii  iiretrlvcn  :  on  Die  viirlinis 
ihIIIImiib  see  Slelliwlinclilir,  (Vlf.  Ili«ll.  i.il.  .'ilH:  S.  WliMliT. 
Ilihiliitliiiii  /'•nVi»<i/u/miiii.  p.  71  ;  ImjIht,  I.illrninf  Itiil'lii 
Ahil'ii  ;  or,  Ihi-  Jiirinh  I'riinrr  an  it  IVnn  I'xnt  ill  tin-  I*uttHr 
Sflumln  Tii'n  Thi'lisiiHil  Yntri*  .l(/'i.  Itl  lii  in'ii  of  t'.  S,  I'ltm. 
inlnKliinir  vf  f^iliiitiliini,  wi,v.'«;,  iip.  7(ll-Tlt',  WilsIiIiii!!"!!. 
IWC. 


AKIBA  [BEN  JOSEPH]'S  BOOK  ON  LET- 
TER-ORNAMENTS (  p:nn  Di-  Arcrding  to 
the  llaggadah  (Men.  'i\»i),  Akiba  found  a  signiti- 
cance  in  everv  little  ornament  or  llourisli  upon  the 
letters  of  the  Tonili ;  to  lum  theri'fori'  a  .Midnish  lias 
iM-eii  ascribed,  which  treats  of  the  little  curves  or 
cnibelllshinents  iipcMi  tin-  e\treniilies  of  Hebrew  h'l- 


ters,  and  also  of  the  single  letters  found  in  the  He- 
brew te.xt  of  Scripture  of  a  different  size  from  the 
others.  This  small  Midrash  forms  a  kind  of  supple- 
ment to  AKiiiAs  Ai.I'IIAHET,  which  treats  of  tin; 
names  and  shapes  of  the  letters,  and  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  both  of  them  are  portions  of  a  larger 
work  of  whieli  other  |)arts  are  lacking. 

The  date  of  this  Midrash  can  not  be  later  than  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  seeing  that  a  Ka- 
raite, Si>lomon  ben  Jeroham — Saadia's  opponent — 
attacked  the  authenticity  of  the  "  All>liabet."  The 
book  itself  does  not  give  the  slightest  indication  of 
its  date;  nor  does  its  literary  style.  The  following 
may  serve  as  a  sample  of  its  method; 

"3  (Itt'tlii  liii.s  two  strnUi's  rniiiifctcd  liy  11  stalk.  r*'presentln|f 
tlieejirlhly  aii'l  tht-  hi-avi-iilv  jinik'iin-nt  iilaci",  Mx-t  dliii.  wlilrh. 
despite  llUiTvcniiar  liiin-  arnl  spaci-,  aiv  v<-l  tiut  out*. 

"  '^  (Luinedli),  the  tallest  letter,  lias  lt.s  head  Iwnt  downwanl, 
thus  reprHSeiitlnp  (iod,  who  Is  exalted  above  all  and  utilt  lo<jk» 
down  upon  us. 

"Why  la  the  •■  (Yod)  In  ''"'J'  (Num.  xlv.  17 1  written  large?  In 
order  to  tndleate  that  GtMl's  merey  Is  so  (freut  thai  It  extends 
overall  the  Inhabitants  o(  the  earth." 

The  lirst  edition  apjieared  in  Abrsdiam  Portaleone's 
"Sliilte  ha  Giblioriin."  p.  177.  Mantua,  1()13.  with  an- 
notations by  the  editor.  It  is  also  to  be  found  in 
Harlolocci's"  Bibliotheca  Kabbiniea,"  iv.  27."i,  edited 
from  a  manuscript  heUmging  to  the  duke  of  Parma. 
These  two  editions,  together  with  that  published  in 
Jellinek's  "  B.  II."  v.  31-33,  from  a  nianiiscriiit  of  the 
year  1308.  contain  only  the  portion  eoiiceriiiiig  the 
ornaments  of  the  letters.  It  has  been  |uiblished  com- 
|dete,  and  with  an  iiitifaluction  by  Senior  Sachs, 
from  a  manuscript  belonging  to  Baron  Glinzburg,  in 
"Sefer  Taghin,"  by  J.  L.  Barges,  Paris,  18fi(i. 

L.  G. 

AKIBA    BEN    JTTDAH    LOEB :    A  German 

rabbi,  who  lived  at  Lihreii  ■Sleiiisfelil.  Wilrttem- 
lierg.  in  the  bcirinning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
He  wrote  "Ila-t^hel  'Oiam  "  (Everlasting  Tent),  con- 
laiuiiig  iiovelhv  on  the  Talmudic  treatise  Ketubot 
(Frankfort-on-the-^Iain.  17141.  Appended  to  it  are 
four  responsa  as  well  as  an  essay  from  his  unpub- 
lished works,  on  Seder Zenv'im.  In  addition  to  tlie.se 
he  left  two  books  on  Seder  Taharot,  which  are  still 
extant  in  manuscript. 

Ilini.inoR.\PHY:  Stelnsehnelder.  Cat.  Bmll.  col.  7'X);  Benjacob, 
(nar  lui-Sifariiii,  p.  124. 

D. 

AKIBA  HA-KOHEN,  OF  OFEN  ;  An  eminent 
scholnr,  wbn  li\i(l  in  llungarv  iiiid  Hoheiiiia  in  the 
.second  half  of  the  lifleenth  century  ;  died  al  Prague 
14!»i.  His  learning,  wealth,  and  benevolence  secured 
for  him  the  title  "Nasi  "  (Prince),  and  an  inlluential 
position  at  the  court  of  King  Matthew  of  Hungary 
about  IfsO.  This  promotion  exiited  the  envy  of 
Ihe  Hollies  to  such  a  degric  that  they  slandereil  him 
to  the  king,  and  he  was  compelhil  to  leave  tin-  idun- 
Iry.  He  settled  at  Prague  and  there  establisln'il  a 
large  Taliiiudic  college,  al  which  he  him,self  lee- 
tiireil.  Here,  too,  jeajous  eiiemiis  persecuted  him, 
and  even  attempted  his  life.  In  grateful  memorial 
of  three  fortnnati'  escapes,  he  ])reseiited  three  of  the 
synagogues  of  Prague  with  costly  curtains  for  the 
.\rk  of  the  I.aw.  Akilia,  who  was  a  kolun  la  de- 
scendant of  .\aron.  the  high  ]iriest).  had  Iwelvi'  .sons 
and  thirteen  daughters;  Iwclveof  the  latter  he  gave 
in  marriage  to  kohens.  He  was  proud  of  Ihe  fact 
that  with  his  sons  and  sonsin-law,  aggregating, 
with  hiiiiself.  twenty  live  (which  number  is  n'pre- 
seiiled  by  the  Hebri'w  wurd  n3.  "thus"),  he  coiiKl 
fnllil  literally  Ihe  coniiiiaiidment  of  Ihe  priestly  lieii- 
eilielinii  (Num.  vi  03.  Heb  versimil;  "  Tli)i\  shall 
thou    bless   Ihe    people."       His  daughter  JiHliebed. 


Akiba  Trani 
Aksakov 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


312 


•who  married  Shabbetliai  b.  Isaiah  Hurwit?,,  became 

the  ancestress  of  a  family  renowned  for  its  learned 
men ;  and  his  son  (Jcrsoii  was  the  progenitor  of  a 
notewortliy  family  of  printers  of  that  name. 

BIBLIOCKAPIIY:  Kniinkln.  Mifii  Shfinuel,  pp.  Ill  f(  nrq.;  S. 
Kubn,  A  Zsiiluk  Tr>r  TrncU  Maffiiurnnatiunn,  I.  :S7  c(  fiq. ; 
Ha-iVfj*/i<r.  Iv.  110  c/  urtj.  Concerning  Aklba's  desfendants, 
see  Melr  Perels,  ileoiltat  Yuhasin. 

M    K 

AKIBA  TRANI    B.   ELIJAH    OF    METZ : 

Glossjirist  \vh(i  lived  in  the  eighteenth  century.  A 
collection  of  hi.s  casuistic  glos-ses  to  tlie  Tulniiidic 
treatises  Zehahim  and  Meuahot.  still  extnnt.  was  pub- 
lished in  Metz,  1T67,  under  the  title  "  ila'yan  Ganim  " 
(The  Fountain  of  Gardens;  Cant.  iv.  15).  Carmoly 
("Itinerarium."  p.  225)  writes  the  name  "Trenel." 
probably  because  it  occurs  amonjr  French  Jews 
(Steinscimeider,  "Cat.  Bodl."  col.  729). 
Bibliography  :  Benjacob,  f>zar  ha-Scfarim,  p.  349. 

D. 

AKKAD.     See  Acc.\D. 

AKKERMAN:  District,  town,  and  village  in  the 
government  of  Hessiinibia,  l{iissia,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Dniester  estuary,  twenty-seven  miles  south- 
west of  Odessa.  The  Jewisli  population  in  the 
town  in  1897  was  4,840,  in  the  village  1,186,  in 
the  district  5,241.  Akkerman  has  two  public  syna- 
gogues, three  private  prayer-hotises,  and  seven  He- 
brew schools.  II.  TJ. 

AKKEZ.     See  Hakkez. 

AKKTJB  :  1 .  Son  of  Elioenai,  of  the  Judean  royal 
family  (I  Chron.  iii.  24).  2.  A  Levit<>,  porter  at  the 
east  gate  of  the  Temple  (I  Chron.  i.\.  17:  Neh.  xi.  19, 
xii.  25).  Children  of  Akkub  are  found  (Ezra,  ii.  42, 
45;  Neh.  vii.  45)  in  the  list  of  the  Levites  and  their 
olBces.  Akkub  is  called  Dacubi  in  I  Esd.  v.  28.  3. 
A  Levite  who  helped  Ezra  expound  the  Law  (Neh. 
viii.  7),  and  who  is  mentioned  in  the  account  of 
I  Esd.  ix.  48,  where  he  is  called  Jacubus — perhaps 
the  same  as  the  preceding.  G.  B.  L. 

'AKKTJM  (m'35;):,  An  abbreviation  formed  by 
the  initial  letters  of  ni7T!D1  D'aaO  1311?  ("worshiper 
of  stars  and  constellations").  'Akkum  therefore 
came  to  be  the  Talmudical  designation  for  heathen 
or  idolater,  and  was  originally  applied  to  Chaldean 
star-worshipers.  The  term,  however,  plays  quite  a 
conspicuous  role  in  the  history  of  the  calumniation 
of  the  Jews;  for  it  has  frequently  been  claimed  that 
wherever  harsh  expressions  or  intolerant  rules  are 
given  in  the  Talmud  touching  the  'Akkum,  it  is  the 
non-Jew  in  general  who  is  intended,  and  therefore 
the  Christian  as  well.  This,  however,  is  erroneous, 
and  every  edition  of  the  Talmvid  bears  upon  its  front 
page  the  solemn  declaration  of  contemporary  rabbis 
that  wherever  either  of  the  terms  "  'Akkum "  or 
"  Nokri"  ("  Stranger  ")  was  used,  it  referred  only  to  the 
idolatrous  nations  of  antiquity  or  of  distant  lands, 
but  never  to  such  as  believe  in  divine  revelation  and 
worship  the  Lord  who  created  heaven  and  earth, 
among  whom  the  Jews  would  live  at  peace,  recog- 
nizing their  righteousness  and  praying  for  their 
welfare.  Censors  often  substituted  "  'Akkum  "  for 
"  Nokri  "  or  "  Goy , "  and  thus  the  attacks  were  chiefly 
directed  against  the  former  word.  But  calumniators 
persisted  in  their  malevolent  misrepresentations  of 
the  Talmud.  An  instance  of  the  extent  of  such  mis- 
representations wa.s  afforded  bj*  Professor  Kohling 
of  Prague,  who,  in  his  pamphlet  "  Meine  Antwort  an 
die  Rabbinen  "  (1883),  p.  18,  had  the  effrontery  to  de- 
clare that  'Akkum  in  the  "  Shulhan  ' Aruk  "  is  the  ab- 
breviation of  'Obed  Christum  u-Maria  ("worshiper 
of  Christ  and  Mary").  'Akkum  is,  according  to  H. 
L.  Strack  in  article  "Talmud"  in  Herzog's  "Ency- 


clopedia," xviii.  320,  note,  and  "Nathaniel,"  1900,  p. 
V2^,  note,  not  found  in  the  oldest  edition  or  manu- 
scripts of  the  Mishnah,  Talmud.  "  Yad  hal.Iazakah," 
and  "Shulhan  'Aruk.''  Imt  has  been  put  there  by 
the  censiirs  in  jilace  of  the  words  "Goy,"  "Nokri," 
and  " 'Aliodah  Zarah." 

BiBi.iocuAi'iiv  :  Fninz  IVlltzsoh,  n<i;i!iii|;"«  Tnlmniljurtf.  1881. 
Till  i'lj.:  !«tein.  It'd-v  lir.  AimtiM  liuhlimi  litjicliwtircn  Hat 
inidHisihiiunn  U'lVI,  LSS).  rr 

AKNIN,  JOSEPH  BEN  JtTDAH  IBN.    See 

JosK.i'ii   ni  N  .liuMi   ir.N   .Vknix. 
AERA,  ABRAHAM  IBN.   See  Abraham  ibn 

Ak|!V 

AERABAH  (nnpy):   A  city  situated  one  day's 

journey  nortli  from  Jerusalem  (Ma'as  Sheni,  v.  2; 
IJezah.  .5<;.  where  the  spelling  is  Nlipj;).  It  is  prob- 
ably identical  with  Akrabattene  mentioned  by  Jo- 
sephus  ("B.  J."  iii.  3,  t^  5),  which  in  the  years 
preceding  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  was  the 
scene  of  many  sanguinary  conflicts  between  the 
Judeans  and  the  Samaritans.  The  Munich  manu- 
script and  early  editions  have  DDIpV  (Akrabat)  for 
na'ipv  (Akrabah). 

Tliis  district  must  not  be  confused  with  the  Bib- 
lical Akrabbim,  which  lies  on  the  southeastern  border 
of  Judea. 

BiBlTOORAPHT :  Neubauer,  «.  T.  pp.  76,  159;  Gr&tz.  Gcsch.  d. 

Jiiilni,  M  I'd.,  11.,  second  part,  p.  354. 

M.  B. 

AKRABBIM  ("The  Scorpion  Ascent  "):  This  is 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  southeastern 
boundary  of  Judah  (Num.  xx.xiv.  4;  Josh.  xv.  3; 
Judges,  i.  36).  It  is  probably  one  of  the  passes 
which  lead  from  the  northern  sloi)e  of  the  great 
"Wadi-el-Fikre  to  the  desert  plateau  and  which  afford 
communication  between  Edomand  Judah.  Though 
it  is  not  po.ssibIe  to  identify  it  absolutely  with  any 
particular  pass,  the  suggestion  that  it  is  identical 
with  the  Nakb-el-Safa  has  two  jioints  in  its  favor; 
viz.,  (1)  the  evident  antiquity  of  the  pass,  and  (2) 
the  traces  of  a  path  cut  in  the  rock  (Robinson,  "Re- 
searches," ii.  120).  Akrabbim  may,  however,  be  the 
Nakb-el-Yemen,  which  lies  farther  to  the  west,  but 
is  apparently  an  easier  road  (Trumbull,  "Kadesh- 
Barnea,"  plate  III.).  From  this  pass  the  surround- 
ing region  derived  the  name  of  Akrabattene  (,Iose- 
phus,"  Ant."xii.  8,  §  1 ;  "B.  J."ii.  22,  §2;  iv.  9.  §4;  I 
JIacc.  V.  3).  This  region  must  not  be  confused  with 
the  mountiiin  district  of  Akrabattene,  which  lies  to 
the  north  of  Bethel  (Josephus,  "B.  J."  ii.  20,  §  4; 
iii.  3,  tJS:  iv.  9.  ^9;  Eusebius,  "Onomastica  Sacra," 
ed.  Lagarde,  214-261).  F.  Bu. 

AKRISH,  ISAAC  B.  ABRAHAM :    Scholar, 

bibliophile,  and  eiliior;  born  in  S|iain  about  1489; 
died  after  1578.  The  Arabic  form  of  the  name,  as 
Steinscimeider  has  pointed  out,  occurs  in  a  manu- 
script of  Algiers.  In  a  list  of  forty-eight  Jewish 
families  living  at  Saguntum  in  1352  (published  by 
Chabret,"Hist.  deSagunte,"  ii.  186)  the  name  I<pach 
Acri.x  occurs,  which  Loeb  ("Rev.  Et.  Juives,"xix. 
1.59)  rightly  interprets  as  Isaac  Akrish.  No  mention 
of  Akrish  is  found  in  the  medieval  Jewish  chroni- 
cles; not  even  in  Sambari's  historic  sketch,  where  al- 
lusion to  him  in  the  annals  of  Egyptian  Jewry  might 
be  expected.  Some  autobiographic  data,  however, 
are  contained  in  his  writings.  The  introduction  to 
his  edition  of  a  triple  commentary  on  the  Song  of  Sol- 
omon informs  us  that  he  belonged  to  those  exiles  from 
Spain  (1492)  who,  having  settled  at  Naples,  were 
afterward  compelled  to  leave  it  also  (1495).  Though 
lame  in  both  legs,  he  was  a  wanderer  well-nigh 
throughout  his  life,  among  peoples  "  whose  tongues 
he  knew  not,  and  who  regarded  neither  old  men  nor 


313 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Akiba  Trani 
Aksakov 


children."  Tlio  course  of  his  tiresome  travels  at 
length  brouglit  liim  to  Cairo.  Egypt.  There  he  was 
taken  into  the  house  of  H.  David  ibn  Abi  Zimni,  an 
immigrant  who  had  attained  to  a  high  communal 
position.  For  about  ten  years  (about  1.543-53)  Ali- 
ri.sh  remained  at  Cairo  as  private  tutor  to  David's 
eliildren  and  griind<liil(ln'n,  until  his  jiatron's  end- 
gnitiiin  to  Palestine  caused  him  again  totalie  up  the 
wanderer's  stall.  Thistinie  Constantinople  was  ap- 
jiarently  his  goal;  but  before  he  reacheil  it  he  nuisl 
have  rested  a  while  at  Caiidia.  According  to  his  own 
testimony  in  tlie  preface  to  Efodi's  "  Letter, "he  was 
alCandia  wlien  Ids  beloved  library  wascontiscated  by 
llie  Venetian  goverMiiient  "  in  the  year  of  tlu-  liiirning 
of  the  Talnnid  "  (the  latter  part  of  l-iri'-i). 

"Will  II  ConstantiMople  was  tinally  reached  Akrish 
found  in  it  a  haven  cd'  safety  and  rest.  The  Jewess 
Esther  Chiera,  philanthropist  and  patron  of  art  and 
letters,  became  his  benefactress,  and  supjiorted  the 
wayworn  Akrish  liberally,  especially  after  the  ex- 
tensive fire  at  Constantinople  (1569),  whiih  devoured 
almost  the  whole  Jewish  (piarter.  Liiter  Akrish  was 
taken  into  the  house  of  Jo.seph,  duke  of  Xaxos,  where 
his  scholarly  inclinations  and  hislov<'of  books  at  last 
found  ample  tii'ld  foractivity.  Record  exists  of  his 
stay  there  as  late  as  the  year  157i:<,  when  Jacob  Cata- 
lain  Shem-Tob  copied  for  him  Ibn  Shaprut's  polemic 
work  "Eben  Bohan." 

Jewish  literature  is  indebted  to  Akrish  for  the 
preservation  of  several  important  historic  treasures. 
While  at  Constantinople,  about  1577.  he  edited  a  col- 
lection of  ten  documents  (afterward  callcil  "Kobe/. 
AVikkidiim  "),  containing  notably  the  siitirical  letter 
addressed  by  Profiat  Duran  (Efodi)  to  his  former 
friend  David  Kn-Bonet,  "Al  tehi  ka-Abot<'ka  "  (Be 
Not  Like  Thy  Fathers),  which,  as  Akrish  points  out 
in  his  introduction,  was  so  deceptive  in  its  irony 
that  Christians  for  a  long  while  considered  it  a  vin- 
dication of  Christianity,  citing  it  as  "  Alteca  Boteca." 
The  same  volume  contained,  also,  the  pro.selyting 
epistle  of  the  apostate  Astruc  Kaimuch  (Knmcis- 
cus  Dioscarne)  to  his  young  friend  En-Slialtiel  Bon- 
fas,  as  well  as  the  sjitirical  reply  to  it  by  Solomon 
Bon  fed. 

He  then  edited  (about  1577)  a  second  collection  of 
documents,  largely  of  a  historical  character.  The 
first  part  bore  the  title  "  Ma'a.sch  Bet  David."  and 
contained  the  history  of  Bostanai,  the  exilarch;  the 
second,  that  of  "Kol  Jleba.sser."  This  last  com- 
prised the  correspondence  between  Ilasdai  ibn  Sliap- 
rul  and  the  king  of  the  Chazars;  an  account,  by  a 
certain  Mohanumdan  named  Ali,  of  tlu^  Jews  who 
lived  near  the  Sandialion  river  (.see  N<'ubauer.  in 
"Jew.  Quart.  Rev."  i.  420),  translated  into  Hebrew 
by  Moses  Ashkenazi  of  Crete ;  and  the  letter  of  F.lijah 
of  Ferrara.  ((ierman  translalions  of  this  work  ap- 
peared at  Basil,  lti(H)-(l;  Amsterdam,  1(>M5;  Prague, 
17(15;  a  Juda'o  (Jerman  one  made  its  a]ipeantnce 
under  the  title  "  Kill  Wunderlicli  (Jescliilclitniss  .  .  . 
voneinen  der  hoi  (ielieisseii  Hoslaiiai,"  Prague,  about 
1080-90.)  In  adililioii  toother  works,  Akrish  is  .said 
to  have  edited  a  triple  commentary  upon  the  Song 
of  Sougs. 

Bini.KicRAniv :  fJriltx,  rietrh.  <l.  Juitrn.  3d  ed.,  1x.  8  ct  itrq.. 
3W,  ;tlC,  .'<Ct,  .VIS  rl  «(■</.:  Ili'njiui>li,  (»^ir  ha-Srfiirim.  pp.  11, 
Kl:  SleliiaihncldiT.  ( <i(.  Il-xll.  i<il.  li«M:  Azuliil,  Sluin  lin- 
fVriliilliii,  uniler  yxirlil  i/>ii  Alii  /.iiitrii ;  llrflll.  Jii'ir/iiirli, 
lHH7,pi).S3-,Y>;  Ji-ic.yiKirf.  Un:  xL.^i,  xll.  atl;  Ziiiiz,  (l.S. 
1.  Ml. 

11     C.    E. 

AKKOX,  Ohio  :  Capital  of  Summit  cimnty,  forty 
mills  from  ( 'leviian<l.  This  city  was  first  setth'd  by 
Jews  in  IH.MI.  The  Akron  Hibrew  Congregation 
(Hefonn)  wils  organized  on  .\pril  'i.  1H05.  and  was 
iDCorpomted  September  It!,  IHtiO.    C)n  the  latter  date 


the  burial-ground  was  purchased ;  the  present  syna- 
gogue building  was  acquired  in  April,  1885,  and  it 
was  dedicated  August  30  of  the  same  year.  The 
rabbis  of  the  congregation  were :  Nathan  llirsch,  Oc- 
tober 1,  1865;  N.  L.  Holstein,  August  15,  1867;  T. 
Jesselson,  1869;  A.  Schreier,  1876;  D.  Burgheini. 
1878;  S.  M.  FleLschman,  1880;  B.  Rabbino,  1886; 
:M.  Wasserman.  1889;  B.  Wohlberg,  189'2;  D.  Klein. 
1894;  Isadora.  Philo,  1896todate.  Othercommuiial 
organizations  are:  the  Schwesterbund  (benevolent 
society),  organized  1865 ;  Montefiore  Society  (literary 
and  social),  organiz.ed  1883;  Chautauqua  Circle,  or- 
ganized 1899;  Akron  Hebrew  Sablmth  School  (free); 
Francis  Joseph  Society,  and  a  Hungarian  Charity 
Association.  Akron  has  also  an  orthodo.x  congrega- 
tion, which  in  1900  purchased  a  lot  on  which  to  erect 
a  synagogue. 

lH  a  total  of  about  50.000  Akron  has  225  Jewish 
families.  The  vocations  followed  are  those  of  mer- 
chant, bookbinder,  public-school  teacher,  mining  en- 
gineer, cigarmaker,  physician,  lawyer,  foundryinan, 
ami  bookkeeper.  A. 

AKSAI  (TASHKICHA):  A  village  in  the  prov- 
inteof  Tcrsk.  in  the  Caucasus,  which  has  a  Jewish 
community  of  about  1,000  persons.  These  Jews 
claim  to  be  descendants  of  the  exiles  of  Shalmaneser. 
Their  progenitors  emigrated  in  early  days  from 
Persia  to  Daghestan.  and  thence,  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  to  the  village  of  Andrei,  where  their  old 
burial-grounds  are  to  be  found  on  the  Dzuhot-tuba. 
"the  hill  of  the  Jews."  As  they  sulfered  much  from 
the  persecution  of  the  Mohammedans,  they  moved  to 
Aksju  in  1844.  They  are  mainly  merchants,  butch- 
ers, and  tanners. 

Bliii.HKiKAi'iiv  :  rhemy,  Scftr  ha-Masa'nt,  see  Index;  W. 
Miller.  MiihfiiiJu il>vn Izni-lii  niiin.  He..  St.  Petersburc.  1S83; 
.\.  Katz.  IH>-  Judcn  im  Kauha.-<tl,-<,  IHtH.  p.  7.  tt     r> 

AKSAKOV,      IVAN      SERGYEYEVICH : 

Russian  Pauslavist  leader;  born  tJctolier  7.  1823; 
died  at  JIoscow.  February  8,  1886.  Aksakov  was 
one  of  the  founders  at  Moscow  of  a  circle  of  Slavo- 
phils, whose  aim  was  to  restore  Rus.sia  to  the  posi- 
tion it  had  held  in  the  days  prior  to  Peter  the  Great 
— a  position  independent  of  all  West  European  civi- 
lization. As  a  logical  consequence,  they  were  op- 
posed to  all  the  foreign  elements  in  the  population 
of  Ru.ssia — Germans,  Poles,  and,  above  all,  Jews. 
Though,  at  first.  Aksakov  showed  some  signs  of  a 
liberal  attitude  toward  the  Jews,  he  as  early  as  1862 
protested  in  his  paper,  the  "Den,"  against  the  ad- 
mission of  Jewish  graduates  to  the  civil  service; 
but  at  that  time  he  was  willing  to  grant  them  full 
civil  rights,  including  that  of  residence  through- 
out Russia.  Later,  his  editorials  in  the  same  paper 
discussed  the  Jewish  question  from  the  religious 
(August  8,  1864)  and  econonnc  (July  15,  1867)  points 
of  view.  Aksakov's  attention  was  again  drawn  t<i 
llie  Jewish  (|Uistiou  by  the  riols  in  South  Russia  in 
l.HMl ;  and  he  became  leaderof  the  reactionary  move- 
ment which  followed  thc^  death  of  Alexander  II. 
He  regarded  the  persecutions  as  a  just  revenge  for 
the  privileges  granted  to  the  Jews  ("  Rus,"  July  1, 
1881),  and  vehemently  supported  the  policv  of  Gen- 
end  loNATiEV  in  promulgating  the  May  Ijiws  ( I'i. 
June,  1HS2). 

At  this  lime  Aksakov's  inlliience  was  paramount 
with  both  the  government  and  the  pre.ss;  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  hisattitude  towanl  the  Jewsiussisted 
Russia  in  her  stubborn  resistance  to  thi'  protest  of 
civilized  Europe  and  America  against  her  treatment 
of  lier  Jewish  population.  One  incident  of  Ak.sa- 
kov's  campaign  against  the  Jews  deservi-s  to  be 
l)articularly  mentioned.     In   1S83  he  published  in 


Aksenfeld 
Alabarch 


THE  JEWISH   E^•CYCLOPEDIA 


314 


"Rus"  (No.  21)  an  article  on  the  "  Yevrciskaya  In- 
tornatzionalka  i  Borba  s  Ycvrcist vom  v  Ycvropye  " 
(Till-  Jfwisli  Intoinatinnal.  ami  llic  Stnitrjrle  witli 
Judaism  in  EuiopiO.  in  which  he  accused  tlie  Alli- 
ance Israelite  of  liein;;  a  secret  or^iani/.atinn  of  the 
whole  Jewish  world  to  obtain  control  of  nil  jrov- 
crnnients.  This  naturally  aroused  a  considerable 
amount  of  protest ;  and  the  Alliance  published  a  de- 
tailed refutation, which  Aksakov  reprinted  in  "  Rus," 
No.  24. 

BiBLioORAPnT:  S.  I.  Aksakov,  Pobiof  Riiliranic  ffncMnaii, 
Yevreinki  Vnnm>.  vol.  Hi.,  Moscow,  Itvii:  Vhk.  Feb.,  1SK7; 
SMematichcKki  Vkmatil  Statei,  eti\.  St.  Petorsburp,  IHie. 
Nos.  ami.  Oiua,  twiw;  VcnKcrov.  KritiHo-liUiunitichcKhi 
Sli'rar,  vol.  1.,  St.  Pett-rsburtr,  1«(<9. 

IT.  R. 

AKSENFELD,  ISRAEL :  A  Judivo  German 
writer:  born  in  Russia  in  the  la.st  quarterof  the  eiiiht- 
eenth  century;  died  about  18(i8.  He  passed  the  lirst 
period  of  his  life  among  the  Hasidini.  liciuj;  himself  a 
disciple  of  R.  Nahinau  Bratzlaver  (of  Bratzlav)  and 
the  companion  of  Nathan  Bratzlaver.  the  editor  and 
publisher  of  Nahman's  works.  Later  he  abandoned 
his  early  associations,  and  removed  to  Odes.sa.  B}' 
self -education  he  acquired  a  wide  knowledge  of  law. 
literature,  and  science.  He  practised  as  a  notary 
public,  and  wasalso  a  prolilic  writer  of  fiction.  Like 
nearly  all  Russo-Jewish  novelists,  Aksenfeld  was  a 
realist.  He  derived  the  themes  of  his  works  from 
contemporary  Jewish  life,  describing  with  the  pen 
of  an  artist  the  conditions,  manners,  and  customs  of 
the  Russian  ghetto  at  the  lieginuing  of  the  eventful 
reign  of  Czar  Nicholas  I.  lie  was  the  author  of  about 
twenty  works,  of  which  only  five — one  novel  and 
four  dramas  —  were  printed;  the  others  are  still  in 
manuscript,  in  the  pos.session  of  a  Polish  family  in  St. 
Petersburg;  and  it  is  hoped  they  may  soon  be  pub- 
lished. The  most  important  of  his  dramatic  works 
is  "Der  Erste  Jiidische  Rekrut,"  1862.  a  tragedy 
which  presents  a  remarkably  vivid  picture  of  the 
terrible  conmiotion  in  the  Russian  glietto  when,  in 
1827.  the  ukase  compelliMg  the  Jews  to  do  military 
service  was  enforced  for  the  first  time.  His  novel, 
■■  Das  Sternti'ichel,"  describes  the  seamy  side  of  H^si- 
dism.  its  intolerance,  bigotry,  and  hypoeri.sy,  and 
contrasts  it  with  the  fair-miudeduess  and  honesty  of 
progressive  Judaism. 

Bibliography  :  Gottlobcr,  in  JMUche  Volkshiblinthelt,  Kiev, 
1S.SS,  p.  a>s;  I,emiT,  Kritiche.'<kiJ  Raztmr  Sochineni  I  Ak- 
(■cnf././,  Odessa,  IStW;  L.  Rosenthal,  Tolnlnt  Hcl)rat  Marbc 
Haehalah,  1.  «.  U-  ~1,  St.  Petersburg,  1»S5-189U. 

H.  R. 

AKTLAS.     See  Aqitl.a. 

ALABAMA:  One  of  the  southern  states  of  the 
United  States;  admitted  Dec.  14.  1819;  seceded  Jan. 
11.  1801 ;  and  was  readmitte<I  July.  1868. 

No  definite  date  can  be  assigned  to  the  first  settle- 
ment of  Jews  in  the  state  of  Alabama.  It  is  known, 
however,  that  Jews  were  settled  in  the  district  of 
Mobile,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state,  as  early 
as  1724.  Mobile  was  then  one  of  the  nine  districts  of 
the  Freneli  colony  of  Louisiana,  over  which  Bienville 
had  been  placed  as  governor.  In  JIarch.  172-1.  lie.  in 
the  naiue  of  the  king,  issued  his  celebrated  "  Black 
Code,"  one  of  the  provisions  of  which  was  that  all 
Jews  must  leave  the  colony,  and  that  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  would  be  tlie  only  religion  tolerated 
there. 

A  searching  investigation  has  been  made  with  a 
view  to  discovering  records  referring  to  the  Jews  of 
the  Mobile  district,  but  no  such  records  have  been 
found.  Not  until  about  a  balf-century  later  is  the 
name  of  a  Jew  found,  and  then  in  connection  with 


incriminating  charges  preferred  against  Governor 

Farmer.     By  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1768.  the  Mobile 

district  became  a  part  of  the  British  jxissessions  of 

Nnrth  America:  and  tlii"  British  au- 

Early  Set-    thorities     appointed     Majnr    Farmer 

tlements.     governor  of  the  district.     He  held  the 

otiice  initil  1776.  whcii  he  was  charged 

with  being  guilty  of  ".sending  Hour  for  tlie  king  to 

New  Orleans  or  attempting  to  sell  it  there  by  means 

of  Pallachio,  a  Jew."     Nothing  has  been  found  in 

these  accounts  which  would  incriminate  Pallachio. 

In  178.1  Abnim  Mordecai  left  i'ennsylvania  tosettle 
in  Alabama,  in  Montgomery  county,  where  he  was  the 
pioneer  Jewish  settler.  Albert  James  Pickett,  in  his 
■■  History  of  Alabama,"  refers  to  Jlordecai  as  an  "  in- 
telligent Jew,  who  lived  fifty  years  in  the  Creek  ni- 
tion."  Hecstablished  a  trading-post  two  mihs  we-^t 
of  Lino  creek,  carrying  on  extensive  trade  with  the 
Indians,  and  "exchanging  his  goods  for  pinkroot. 
hickory-nut  oil.  and  peltriesof  all  kinds,"  Mordecai 
believed  thatthe  Indianswereoriginally  Jews.  Pick- 
ett is  authority  for  Jlordecai's  assertion  that  in  their 
green-corn  dances  ho  had  often  heard  the  Indians 
utter,  in  grateful  tones,  "Yavoyahal  Yavoyaha!" 
He  was  always  informed  by  the  Indians  that  this 
lueant  Jehovah,  or  the  Great  Spirit,  and  that  they 
were  then  returning  thanks  for  the  abundant  harvest 
with  which  they  had  been  blessed.  In  October,  1S02. 
Abram  Mordecai  established  a  cotton-gin,  which  was 
the  first  built  in  the  state  and  which  seems  to  have 
been  constructed  by  two  Jews.  Lyons  and  Barnett  of 
Georgia,  "who  brought  their  tools,  gin-Siiws,  and 
other  material  from  that, state  on  packhorses." 

Jews  settled  in  the  townsof  Claiborncnnd  L^nion- 
town  as  early  as  1840,  and  in  Selma,  lluntsville. 
and  Demopolis  about  1850.  There  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  a  concerted  movement  toward  the  forma- 
tion of  a  congregation  in  Alabama  until  1841,  In 
that  year  a  uuiuber  of  Jewsof  .Mobile  united  for  the 
purpose  of  purchasing  a  plot  of  ground  for  a  ceme- 
tery. The  court  records  show  that  the  congregation 
Sha'arai  Shomayim  purchased  from  thecity  authori- 
ties four  lots  for  burial  purjioses  at  thirty  dollars 
each.  Thedeed  was.signed  by  themayorof  the  city, 
Edward  Hall,  and  attested  by  "the  clerk"  1 1.  P.  Ensign, 
Junc22,  1841.  Religious  services  were 
The  First  held  by  the  members  of  this  congrega- 
Con-  tion  during  the  years  1842  and  184'! 
gregation.  at  the  residence  of  B.  L.  Tim;  but 
not  until  Jan.  2'},  1844,  was  the  congre- 
gation duly  incorporated.  Its  constitution  and  by- 
laws, with  the  name  of  the  organizatiim  printed  in 
Hebrew  letters,  were  then  recorded  in  the  probate 
court  at  Jlobile. 

Montgomery  was  the  next  city  to  foi-m  a  permanent 
congregation,  which  was  organized  and  incorporated 
under  the  name  Kahal  Montgomery,  April  12,  18.52. 
It  dedicated  its  first  synagogue  March  8,  1862.  Ac- 
cording to  G.  Jacobson,  of  Moliile,  a  congregation 
with  an  otliciating  rabbi  was  organized  in  t'laiborne 
in  1855.  3Iost  of  the  Jews  left  Claiborne,  however, 
and  the  congregation  passed  out  of  existence. 

Jewish  congregations  have  since  been  formed  in 
Selma,  Birmingham,  lluntsville,  Demopolis,  Aimis- 
ton.andUniontown.  AUof  them  have  well-equipped 
Sabbath-schools  and  organized  benevolent  societies, 
which  distribute  annuall  v  among  the  poor  more  than 
810,000,  During  the  yearlOOOthecitiesof  lluntsville 
and  Selma  dedicated  new  synagogues ;  and  in  Mont- 
gomery one  was  in  course  of  construction. 

Educational  and  literary  societies  are  connected 
with  the  congregations  in  Bimiingham,  Slontgom- 
ery,  and  ^Mobile,  each  of  which  cities  has  a  local  .sec- 
tion of  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women.     The  aim  of 


315 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDLV 


Aksenfeld 
Alabarch 


the  congregational  sorieties  and  the  sections  of  the 
Council  of  Jewisli  Women  is  to  foster  a  closer  study 
of  till'  Hible  and  a  deeper  knowledge 
Educa-       of  Jewish  history  and  literature.     The 
tional  In-    order   Hue   B'rith  is   represented    in 
stitutions.    Binniiii-'huin,     .Moiiti^oniery.     .Mobile, 
Sehiia,  lliiiitsville,  Annistoii,  Pcnio|)o- 
lis,  and  Uuiontown.     Shellield,  with  about  3.()()0  in- 
habitants, has  a  Jewish  cemetery  and  a  Sabbath- 
school. 

When  Shedield  was  laid  out  in  18H4by  a  landconi- 
patiy,  two  Jewish  brolliers  by  llii'  name  of  Moses,  of 
Montfiomery,  vere  amonir  the  prime  movers  in  the 
enterprise.  Capt.  Alfred  II.  Moses,  who  had  been  in 
the  Confederate  service,  wasthc  first  nianaLTcrof  the 
company;  and  underliis  ublradministrntiou  the  ini- 
dertakiil.i?  prospered.  At  the  outset  lots  were  set 
apart  for  a  Jewish  house  of  worship;  and  separate 
grounds  for  a  Jewisli  cemetery  were  laid  out.  The 
first  postmasterof  Slietiield  was  Morris  Nathan,  who 
received  his  apiwintment  from  President  Cleveland. 
Philip  Phillips  was  u  prominent  Jew  who  lived  in 
Alabama  aljoul  twenty  years.  He  was  a  native  of 
Charleston,  S.  C.  and  removed  to  Mobile  in  1^35. 
He  was  elected  to  the  le.irislature  in  lS-14;  the  ne.vt 
year  he  published  a  (bluest  of  the  decisions  of  the 
supreme  court;  in  I80I  he  was  returned  to  the  legis- 
lature, and  two  years  later  was  elected  to  Congress 
over  Hon.  Elihu  Loekwood,  of  Mobile  county.  Mr. 
William  Garrett  in  his  "  Keminiscenees  of  Public 
Men  in  Alabama"  .says  that  "Philip  I'hillips  left 
Congress  with  a  nalionid  repulalii>u  of  which  any 
man  nii.uht  feel  proud."  .ludah  P.  Bcnjainin  was 
a  resident  of  MonlgomiTV  during  the  years  ISOi-ti."). 
He  was  aiipoinled  attorney-.i;eneral  of  the  provi- 
.sional  government  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  in 
1861,  and  in  August  of  the  sameyearwas  appointed 
acting  secretary  of  war;  but  on  being 
Prominent  censured  by  a  congressional  commit- 
Jews.  tee  he  resigned  his  otlice  after  having 
held  it  for  si.v  months.  He  continued 
to  ritain  the  confidence  of  JelTersoii  D"vis,  and  was 
by  him  appointed  secretary  of  stale.  Solomon  Iley- 
denfeldt,  who  was  a  native  of  Charleston,  S.  C., 
moved  to  Alabama,  Tallapoosa  county,  when  that 
county  was  tirst  settle(l.  He  was  chosen  jud.ije  of 
the  county  court  of  Tallapoosa  in  1840,  and  soon 
after  moved  to  Kussell  county,  where  he  i»ractised 
law  for  several  years.  He  then  went  to  California. 
where  he  became  justice  of  the  supreme  court.  His 
brother,  Elkin  Heydenfehlt.  was  also  an  attorney  of 
some  standing  in  Tallupciusa  ci>uiity.  Adnlph  Pros- 
kauer.  who  liad  been  major  in  the  ( 'onfeilerate  army, 
served  one  term  in  the  legislatur<'  in  the  year  ISd.s. 
as  did  Nathan  Straus  in  ImTO.  Solomon  Block,  of 
Camden,  was  a  meml)erof  the  slate  senate  for  sev- 
eral terms. 

Jews  of  Alabama  have  been  appointed  to  the  high- 
est oHlces  in  the  gift  of  their  respective  eomnuuiilies. 
They  are  found  as  mayors,  presidents  of  ehand)ers 
of  ciinuneree  and  of  cotton  e.\ehaiii.'es.  of  the  boards 
of  education  an<l  of  the  public  schools,  members  of 
the  council,  and  in  many  similar  important  positions. 
Benjamin  M.  Mayer  was,  in  I'.ioO,  editorof  the -"Bir- 
mingham Age-Herald."  and  Kmil  Lesser  was  editor 
of  tile  '•  Birmiii!;hani  Ccnirier"  ((!erman).  Knniiuiel 
Ix'hman,  the  philanthropist,  lived  for  many  years  in 
Montgomery,  Ala.  Bolxrt  I.rfiveman,  a  resident  of 
Tusealoosji  during  18!M)-i»;t,  is  a  lyric  poet  of  aikiiowl 
edged  merit.  During  his  residence  at  Tuscaloosa  the 
Burton  Printing  Company  of  that  city  printed  tor 
him  two  small  collections  of  poeuis;  see  Steilmuu's 
■■American  Anthology,"  1900. 

lu  his  hook,  ■■  The  American  Jew  as  Patriot,  Soldier. 


and  Citi/en,"  Simon  Wolf  has  recorded  the  names  of 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  Jews  of  Alabama  who 
fought  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  of  more  than 
forty  Jews  who  volunteered  in  the  state  regiments 
during  the  Spanish-American  war  of  1898.  Philip 
Stern,  of  Montgomery,  has  held  various  posts  in  the 
regular  anny,an<l  is  now  (1901)  captain  of  the  Twenty 
ninth  Alabaina  infantrv.  serving  in  the  Philippines. 

The  population  of  Alabaina,  according  tn  the  een- 
susof  1900,  is  1, SOS. 097,  which  total  includes  (i.OOO  to 
7.000  Jews.     Jews  are  found  in  almost 
Statistics,     every  occupation  in  which  other  citi- 
zens of  the  state  arc  engaged. 

Very  few  articles  and  no  books  are  ])ubli.shed 
which  bear  upon  the  Jews  or  the  Jewish  congrcga 
tions  and  institutions  of  Alabama;  and  the  early 
congregational  records  have,  in  the  majority  of  in- 
stances, been  lost.  In  cases  where  the  latter  have 
been  preserved  they  have  been  so  imperfectly  kept 
that  few  correct  or  important  data  can  be  gathered 
from  them. 

BiBi.KKiRAPHV:  In  ISIK  Petfr  J.  Hamilton,  In  anartlilenn  Thf 
Piitucir  tliurchrs  <>t  Mul>il>\  in  Uie  Hii  SIni  A"f/,  a  puhlit-a- 
tlnn  nf  the  Youns.'  Men's  <'lirlstian  A.'SK-iatlijn  ef  McMiili'.  re- 
puWishi'd  In  the  M'lliih  It'ijisler,  makes  pu-tKlnt'  refi-nMiie  i" 
the  foniiatkin  ami  it-ilm^-ss  of  the  Jewl.sli  cfni^rreirullon  at 
Miiliile.  Tlip  JiiiM,  h'flfi.r  iif  New  Orleans,  May  ill.  is'.r.i. 
pnbiished  a  Mot*iie  eiiiliun  i.f  its  paiMT.  euntainiiiK  arlieies  h\ 
HeniT  Hanan.  s.  Rietianis,  ami  Iir.  Mark  J.  L4*liman  on  tlie 
early  history  of  ihe  siia'anil  Slioinaylm  rontrretraiion  ami  on 
tile  Work  of  Its  various  ortranizatit»ns.  'I'iie  Jnri.-<h  Liil^itr. 
In  a  Birmlnsrham  eciitlon.  May  Is,  1!«IU,  descrllied  tiie  relicloiis, 
charitable,  and  other  orfjaiiizalions  of  x\w  .lews  of  Hirinini;- 
liam:  se^aiso.sVoh.sh.-.-of  (/o  J,  i/.<o(  l]i,  riiih<l  .s7o(..«.  pub- 
lished by  the  liilon  of  .yiiii-rican  Hol.rew  Coni.'reifati.ijis.  tSSJ ; 
and -i»itnVtoi  JiirMi  YrarUiwh  for  ")iitxiand  SBill. 

T.  S. 

ALABARCH  :  The  title  of  an  ollicial  who  stood 
at  the  head  of  the  Jewish  population  of  Ale.\aniiria 
during  the  Grecian  period.  The  etymology  of  the 
word  !Oxifiai>x>K(iiliihiirclu-i<),  and,  therefore,  the  orig 
inal  nature  of  the  office,  is  obscure.  In  former  times 
it  was  customary  to  derive  it  from  d/f  (huh,  sea), 
which  derivation  might  indicate  dominion  over  the 
sea.  The  word  is,  however,  also  written  apa,iiipx'ic. 
and  in  Latin  iiriihuirfiin.  for  which  reason  some  think 
the  term  indicates  dominion  over  Arabia — the  old 
name  of  the  i>art  of  Egypt  east  of  the  Nile.  It  is 
hard  to  undeistand  how  a  Jew,  even  if  he  were  the 
most  prominent  man  of  the  congregation  of  Alexan- 
dria, could  be  called  ruler  of  Arabia.  The  trend  of 
modern  o])ini(m  is  to  connect  it  with  the  Greek 
term  for  ink,  a'/n.la  {nhilni).  taking  ink  in  the  sense 
of  writing  i.vriptnni).  which,  in  those  days,  was  a 
token  for  ta.x  (rertir/nl).  Such  a  derivation  would 
im]ily  that  the  Alabarch  was  a  farmer  of  taxes,  cer- 
tainly from  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies;  anil,  judging 
liy  inscriptions  which  giv<'  a  similar  title  to  an  ofiice 
of  the  Thebaid  in  Egypt,  he  must  also  have  collected 
the  toll  on  animalspassing  through  the  country. 
Stnibo(iiuoteil  by  Josephus,  •■  .Vnt."  xiv.  7.  ^  'Ji.wlio 
was  in  Egypt  about  'iX  li.t-.,  calls  the  governor  of 
the  Jews  ■■ethnarch"(t''iii/<iw).  and  remarks  that  he 
ruled  over  the  Jews  as  over  an  autonomous  commu- 
nitV  ("C  oi» -o/.irtinf  tiiwuv  airnrchir^).  If  the  term 
as  used  by  Strabo  is  correct,  then  the  Alabarch  must 
have  been  known  among  the  heathen  as  ethnarch; 
so  that  one  would  surmisi'  that  the  tiTui  <i/ii.Ja()t'/C 
was  used  oidy  by  the  Jews.  Stndio's  ethnarch  is 
tismilly  identified'  with  the  Alabarch.  without  fur 
ther  (|Uesticin  ;  liut  Fninz  is  of  Iheopinion  (■■('.  I  O." 
iii.  ■.i91.()  that  the  Alabarch  was  only  a  subordinati' 
functionary  of  I  he  ethnarch  Grilt/.C"  JIonat.s.sclirift," 
.x.xx.  "JOCi)  considers  the.alabarchs  to  be  descendants 
of  the  priest  Onias,  whoemigniled  to  Egypt ;  and  he 
includes  the  gcHerals  Hilkias  and  Ananias  among 
the  alaharchs,  though  authority  for  this  is  laekim; 


Alabaster 
Alatino 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


316 


The  foUowinjr  alaburchs  are  known  by  name:  1. 
Alexander  Lvsimaciius.  2.  Jruis  Alexanher 
Lysimachts,  son  of  the  preceding.  Tlie  name  .lu- 
lius  was  also  borne  by  liis  brotlier  TiuKim:s  (Ju- 
lius) Ai.i;xani)eu(  who  afterward  became  prefect  of 
Eirypt).  probably  in  honor  of  the  imperial  family 
of  the  Julii.  The  llrnuliaus  belonged  also  to  the 
pens  Julia:  and  Derenice.  daughter  of  Agrippa  I,, 
who  bore  the  cognomen  Julia,  was  married  to  Mar- 
cus, son  of  the  Alabarch  Alexander.  This  Marcus 
appears  to  have  died  early  ("Ant."  xix.  5,  §  1),  for 
Berenice  immediately  after  married  another.  3.  De- 
metrius (•■  Ant."  XX.  7.  t;  3). 

Philo  relates  that  after  the  death  of  one  of  tlie 
Alabarchs.lhe  Emperor  Augustus  appointed  a  Coun- 
cil of  Elders  () fpmwfa )  for  the  Jewish  community  of 
Alexandria:  but  in  an  edict  of  Claudius  it  is  stated 
that,  after  the  death  of  one  of  the  Alabarchs,  he  per- 
mitted the  appointment  of  a  successor.  Pliilo  was 
himself  descended  from  the  .Vlabarch  family  ("Ant." 
xviii.  8, 55  D.and  was  either  the  brother  or  the  nephew 
of  Alexander  Lysimaehus.  It  is  impos,sible  to  tix 
the  date  of  either  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  the 
line  of  Alabarchs.  It  may  have  ceased  during  the 
disturbances  imder  Trajan.  The  brothers  Julianus 
and  Pai)pus,  the  leaders  of  the  Jews  during  this  re- 
volt, were  indeed  natives  of  Alexandria,  but  were 
not  Alabarchs.  Tanuaites  of  the  second  centur)- 
woidd  appear  to  allude  to  the  Alabarchs  (see  Sifre. 
Dcut.  1.  end ;  Yalk.  Deut.  §  792).  In  the  Talmud  there 
is  no  mention  of  them.  Griltz  has  made  it  prob- 
able that  the  Nikauor  after  whom  certain  gates  of 
the  Temple — often  mentioned  in  the  Mishnah,  Tal- 
mud, and  Midrash — were  named,  and  who  was.  there- 
fore, a  public  benefactor  and  undoubtedly  a  wealthy 
man,  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Alabarchs. 

Bibliography  :  Haecljermann,  tn  Jahn's  A'ctio  Jahrhlirher 
fllr  Kla.'iiiwche  l*}iUnbmi<\  1H4!*,  xv.  suppl..  pp.  4.tO-oC6: 
Griltz,  rHe  Jlldv<r}u  u  Ellnmrchen  odtr  Alai^tarchi'n  in 
Alrjrandrien,  In  Mmtiilstirlirifl,  18Tt!;  SchuriT,  Die  Ahihar- 
chtrn  in  ^^Q]fptcn  iZcit.  filr  ^yiiififn8chaftJi<■hr  Thrahtaie^ 
xviii.  i:j);  Marquardt,  linmischc  Sta<Utiv>ru-i(Uun{i.  1.  a*9; 
Berliner,  3/<i)/a2i»,  xx.  IW;  Willrich,  Juikn  iimi  /jricchen, 
p.  141;  Siegfried,  Philo  von  Alcxandricn^  p.  5,  note  3;  Tb. 
Reinach, in  Rir.  £t.Juivai,  1893,  xxvll.  M. 

S.  Kr. 

ALABASTEK :  The  Alabaster  of  the  ancients 
was  the  stalagmitie  variety  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  differed  from  what  now  is  commonly  known  as 
Alabaster,  which  is  sulphate  of  lime.  From  this 
material  vases  were  made  to  hold  unguents  (see 
Matt.  XX vi.  7:  Mark,  xiv.  3;  Luke,  vii.  37).  Grad- 
ually the  vases  themselves  were  called  Alabasters; 
and  this  is  the  explanation  of  the  Septuagint  trans- 
lation,rt?«i(M<TOH. in  II(IV)  Kings,  xxi.  13.  Alabaster 
is  still  obtained  from  mines  in  the  province  of  Oran 
in  Algeria ;  it  was  found  also  in  Thebes  and  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Tigris.  In  Assyria  it  was  used 
in  bas-relief  and  was  called  p/hi.  though  this  term 
was  a  general  one  applied  to  various  kinds  of  hard 
stones.  Its  employment  can  be  traced  back  beyond 
the  ninth  century  B.C. ;  and  it  may  be  assumed  that 
even  at  an  earlier  period  there  was  trade  in  Alabaster 
in  Babylonia,  since  the  mineral  isnot  found  in  south- 
ern Jlesopotamia.  It  was  usually  grayish  and  stri- 
ated in  appearance.  G.  B.  L. 

ATjATSH  :  The  name  of  a  Spanish-Jewish  fam- 
ily, which  occurs  in  various  forms:  usually  preceded 
by  "abu. "  Abu-al-'aish  mejins  in  Arabic  "Father 
of  Life  "  or  "Father  of  Bread."  In  the  form  Bolaix 
(compare  the  Arabic  Bclcasem  for  Abu  al-Kasim)  it 
oceure  in  the  list  of  Barcelona  Jews  of  the  year  1391 
("Rev.  fet.  Juives,"  iv.  70).  A  (Jag  Abenayx  (Lsaac 
ibn  al-Aish)  was  almojariff  of  Queen  Maria  {ib.). 


A  Solomon  ibn  Aish  is  cited  in  a  manuscript  which 
once  belonged  to  Carmoly,  as  well  as  in  Samuel 
Zarza's  "  Mekor  Hayyiin  "  (fol.  54).  He  is  probably 
identical  with  the  physician  Solomon  ibu  Gais  ben 
Barueli,  who  dii-d  in  Seville,  Si  wan,  .'ilO.")  (=  1345) 
("  Ilebr.  Bilil."  xix.  93).  Joseph  ibn  Alaish  was  rabbi 
in  Aleala  ("Algaish"  of  Wiener  and  Kayserling). 
Menal.iem  ben  Aaron  ben  Zeiiih  tells  us  in  his  "  Zedah 
la-Derek  "  that  he  "studieil  with  Joseph  particularly 
the  To.safotof  R.  Pere/.. which  were  greatly  in  vogue 
in  his  day  "  (Gro.ss,  "  Gallia  Judaica."  pp.  566  et  srg.). 
According  to  the  text  in  Neubauer  ("Medieval  Jew- 
ish Chronicles."  ii.  244),  .loseph  died  in  the  year  1349, 
and  not  1301  (Wiener,"  'Emek  ha-Baka,"  p. 185;  Kay- 
serling, "  Juden  in  Navarni."  p.  84).  An  Abolays  is 
the  supposed  translator  into  Arabic  of  a  Chaldean 
book  on  the  magic  powers  of  various  stones  (Stein- 
sehneider. "  Hebr.  Uebers. "  p.  238 ;  "  Z.  D.  M.  G. "  xlix. 
268).  The  modern  form  of  the  name  is  Belais  or 
Balaiss. 

Bini.ioORAPnT:    Stelnscbnelder,  Hchr.  Bihl.  xvl.  81;    Jew. 

Quart.  Rev.  xl.  4^1.    On  a  somewbat  similar  name,  Yaez, 

see  Hcbr.  Bibl.  xix.  93. 

G. 

AXAMAN,  ASHKENAZI,  or  DEUTSCH: 
Naini'  (if  a  iiiany-liiaii(h<(l  and  wide-spread  Jewish 
family  in  the  Turkish  em|)ire,whose  ancestor,  Joseph, 
ben  Solomon  of  Ofen  (Buda),  Hungary,  is  said  to 
have  been  at  the  head  of  a  deputation  to  hand  over 
the  keysof  the  citadel  of  Ofen  tothe  sultan  Snlyman 
I.,  who  was  then  advancing  against  it  with  his  army 
(1.529).  Joseph,  who  afterward  settled  in  Constan- 
tinople, received  for  himself,  his  sons  Satina  and 
Joseph,  and  their  posterity,  the  privilege  of  exemp- 
tion from  all  taxes  and  duties,  and  from  compulsory 
service  for  all  time  to  come.  The  privilege  was  con- 
firmed by  a  firman,  and  has  been  successively  rati- 
fied by  all  Ottoman  rulers  up  to  the  present  time 
(1901).  Descendants  of  the  Alamans,  numbering 
about  four  hundred  and  fifty,  still  live  in  Constanti- 
nople, Adrianople,  Brusa,  Damascus,  Grallipoli,  Cairo, 
and  several  places  in  Bulgaria. 

BiBLIOGRAPnY :  YoKcf  Da'al  nr  El  Progreso.  a  Spanlati-He- 
hrew  Journal,  publlsbcd  by  Abrabam  Uanon,  Comitantinuple, 
1.  No.  1  cl  srq. 

M.  K. 
AXiAMETH :    .Son  of  Becher  and  grandson  of 
Benjamin  1 1  (  luiiii.  vii.  8).  G.  B.  L. 

ALAMI,  SOLOMON:  An  ethical  writer  who 
lived  in  Portugal  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies: contemporary  of  Simon  ben  Zemah  Duran 
(}•  3Cn).  lie  is  known  through  his  ethical  treatise 
"  Iggerct  Musar,"  which  he  addressed,  in  the  form  of 
a  letter,  to  one  of  his  disciples  in  1415.  He  was  an 
eye-witness  of  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews  of  Cata- 
lonia, Castile,  ami  Aragon  in  1391.  Alami  considers 
these  and  other  severe  trials  intiicted  upon  the  Span- 
ish Jews  as  the  effect  of,  and  a  puni.shment  for,  the 
moral  and  religious  decadence  into  which  his  core- 
ligionists had  fallen;  and  he  holds  before  his  breth- 
ren a  mirror  of  the  moral  degeneration  extending 
through  all  circles  of  Jewish  society. 

"  Let  us  sejirch,"  he  says  in  his  lx>olf,  "  for  the  source  of  all 
these  trials  and  sufferings,  and  we  shall  And  that  a  state  of  dis- 
solution prevails  in  the  midst  of  us ;  that  an  evil  spirit  pen'ades 
our  camp,  which  has  split  us  into  two  parties.  There  are  those 
of  our  lirethren  who  expend  all  their  energies  in  solving  Tal- 
mudic  problems  and  in  writing  numberless  commentaries  and 
novella?  dealing  in  minute  distinctions  and  int^Tiin-tations,  full 
of  useless  subtleties  as  thin  a-s  cobwetis.  They  dilTuse  diirbness 
instead  of  light,  and  lower  respect  for  the  Law.  in  tiers,  again, 
clothe  theTorah  in  sti*anpe  gannents,  de<'k  it  with  (irriian  and 
other  anti-Jewish  ornaraent-^.  and  endeavor  to  harmonize  it  with 
philosophy,  which  can  only  be  detrimental  to  n_'Ilgion  and  lead 
ultimately  Ui  its  decay.  Worse  than  these,  however,  are  the 
frivolous  persons  who  liave  not  acquired  substantial  knowledge, 
but,  relying  upon  the  smattering  of  Greek  that  they  posse&s, 
venture  to  ridicule  tradition  and  to  contemn  the  commandments 


317 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alabaster 
Alatino 


of  the  Holy  Law.  Siu'h  frivolity  prpvalls,  nlmvc  Hll,  ariiDni.'  Ihi- 
wealthy.  We  Ilnd  Ihi-ae  evil  iiiuilllh's  ^iruuiit'  llie  pruiMl  r.pTv- 
sentatives  of  the  conjrrejfutton.s.  \vhi»  liuv)- t.'r"wn  r'irh  tlii"iii.'h 
dealing  In  iii'tnev.  'I'hev  rtist  niT  t*\«'rylliliiL'  that  nMiiiml.s  tlit-ni 
of  their  .Iiiihilsiii  ;  thev  s>'i-k  toilazzle  hy  priiiciMy  luxury  ;  their 
wlve,s  iinil  iliiiik'hi'M^  arniv  nH'Mi^^ehcs  in  Jrwi'N  'like  pr1ni'es.ses  ; 
and,  swelU-il  WIIU  l.lMir,  lln-v  ilirm  llii-UiM'lve^  Ihi'  prinee.sijf  the 
land.     Ther-efure  (h«-  L'nal  plinishnient  rjiliie  :  it  Wll.'<  lne\it)lhle. 

How  inueh  our  ricit  e.iM-iik'i..rilst.s  ri.uld  l<*ani  fmni  tht-lr  rliris- 
tlan  nelt'himrs  I  'I'lie  riiri.sthm  prinees  ami  ^'niiulees  rival  one 
jmnther  In  riTniis  lo  prunioie  and  nphuld  their  reilKl'jn  and  t+» 
tniin  tlii-M-  Vdutli  In  tlie  pious  .sentlmenLs  of  their  ancestois. 
Our  Jewish  rl4'h  d<'s|)l.se  their  faith,  and  pennit  the  teachers  of 
religion  to  eat  the  bread  of  .sorrow  and  poveity." 

The  llcbrow  style  of  the  letter  is  dignified  auil 
impassioned;  niui  its  nionil  aihnoiiition  reveals  tlie 
noble  courage  of  Alami.  Eaeh  seetion  of  the 
"Iijgeret  Jliisar"  is  preceded  by  a  Biblical  verse 
suggestinii  its  contents. 

Zunz  iMililishcd  an  abridged  German  translation  of 
part  of  il  ill  Hiiscli's  ".Jalirbuch  fiir  Isracliteii,"  iv. 
(Vienna,  18-14).  and  this  also  appeared  in  his"  (Jcsain- 
melteSchriften,"  ii.  177.  An  earlier  edition  appeared 
in  Venice  in  171'^,  as  "Iggeret  IiaHoliinah  welia- 
Emunah  "  (Letter  on  "Wisiiom  and  Faith);  but  the 
name  of  the  author  was  corrupted  to  Solomon  ben 
Lahmi.  The  best  edition  now  e.xtant  of  Alami's  work 
is  liiat  issued  by  .lelliuek  (Vienna,  1870).  Kxtraels  of 
the  "Iggeret"  are  given  in  "Or  ha  Hayyiin  "  of  .lo- 
se|ih  .laabezand  in  Reggio's  "  lla-Torah  welia-l'liiio- 
Sophia,"  On  the  name  Alami,  see  Steinschneider, 
"Jew.  Quart,  Uev."  si.  486.  S.  h. 

ALASHKAR:  A  Spanish  Jewish  family  whose 
name  was  |irobably  derived  from  an  Arabic  word 
meaning  "  reil." 

The  tirst  member  of  the  Alashkar  family  whose 
name  litis  been  handed  down  is  Samuel,  the  jihysi- 
<-ian,  who  lived  at  Seville  towanl  llic  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  His  son  Judah,  idso  a  physi- 
cian, and,  like  his  father,  an  intbieiilitil  memlier  of 
the  Jewish  community  of  Seville,  ciniincd  to  have 
received,  in  a  dream,  a  visit  from  an  angel,  who  jire- 
dicted  for  the  monlh  of  Siwan.  .'il.'il  (  =i:iiH),  the 
downfall  of  the  town  and  the  ruin  of  till  the  Jews  in 
Spain.  On  the  ailvice  of  this  angel,  Jiididi  emi- 
grated, wilh  his  ,son  Moses,  to  "  Mtilaea  on  the 
seacoast  " — that  is,  to  Mtilagti — tind  his  family  re- 
mained there  until  the  (Ximlsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Spain.  In  140'J  Judah  and  Joseph,  sons  of  Moses, 
emigrated  to  Ali,'eriii;  the  lornier  settling  at  !Mos- 
taganem,  and  the  latter  tit  TIemcen,  where  he  soon 
became  the  chief  of  the  rabbinical  school.  Josejih 
is  the  author  of  several  treatises  and  commentaries, 
of  which  one  has  been  lost;  the  others  are  still 
unimblished. 

Moses  b.  Isaac  Alashkar,  member  of  anolher 
bninih  of  the  laiiiily.  livid  in  Egypt,  but  subse- 
quently resided  in  Jcrusidein,  dining  the  latter  jmrt 
of  the  fifteenth  century  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteeulh.  He  was  prominent  among  contem- 
poraneous rabbis;  and  Ids  opinions  were  held  in 
esle<iii  throughout  the  Levant,  and  even  in  Iltily. 
In  a  letter  to  Elijah  ha  Levi  —  the  teacher  of  Klijidi 
IMiznihi — he  complained  that  his  large  <-orrispoiid- 
enc<'  deprived  him  of  much  of  the  time  due  to  his 
]>rofissional  dulies.  The  two  following  are  the 
most  imjiortant  of  his  works:  (I)"  Hassagot  "  (Crit- 
ical Notes),  in  which  he  demolishes  tin'  whole  (li>g- 
inatical  structure  built  up  in  Slieni-Tob  ben  Slieni- 
Tob's  "Sefer  lia  Emumd";  fi)  "  Hesponsa,"  VJl  in 
number.  Both  were  piinted  to^'etheral  .Salibionella, 
l.V>:t.  A  si'parale  ediliciu  of  llie  "  Hassagol  "  a|i- 
peanil  threi'  years  laler  at  Ferrara.  This  collection, 
which  leached  ev<'n  dislanl  Jewish  communities,  is 
of  imporliinc(-  for  the  geographical  iiumes  iu  rab- 
binical writings  ami  in  liills  of  divorce. 


Abraham  b.  Moses  Alashkar:     A  Talmudic 

scholar;  lived  iu  Egypt  in  the  tirst  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  He  carrieil  on  a  correspondence  on 
ritual  topics  with  his  father,  Moses  Alashkar,  in 
whose  '■  Hesponsa"  he  is  often  mentioned;  and  like- 
wise with  Joseph  Caro.  who  answered  him  in  his 
"  Hesponsii  Ebeu  ha-Ezer  "  and  in  the  "  Abkat  Uokcl. " 

BlBLiOGKAi'iiY:  Jew.  Quart.  Rev.  vi.  400,  x,  l.TS,  xll.  lift; 
Oziir  XilLimuU  III.  Iffi;  Stelnsclmelder,  IM.  limil.  eol.  17(B; 
Kiirst,  liihl.  Jml.  I.  ;3U;  Miehael,  Or  ha-Haiim>i>.  No.  Hi. 

W,  M.— M.  B. 

ALATINO  :  A  notable  family  of  Jews  that  set- 
tled in  Italy  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  occupied  an  important  position  in  the 
liistory  of  literature  and  of  science.  Its  prominence 
originateil  with  three  brothers,  .Tehiel,  Vitale,  aiwl 
Jloses,  who  dwelt  in  the  city  of  Spoleto.  where  they 
distinguished  themselves  iu  the  practise  of  medicine, 
and  also  pursued  the  study  of  iihilosophy.  Both 
Viliile  and  Moses  are  favorably  mentioned  in  Tira- 
boschi's  "Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiiina." 

Bonajuto  (Azriel  Pethahiah)  Alatino  was  not 
only  a  distingiiished  physician,  but  he  also  ac(|Viired 
no  inconsiderable  reputation  as  a  rabbi,  which  ollice 
he  accepted  in  IGOO.  His  notes  tipon  the  "Shulhau 
'.\ruk"  are  quoted  as  authoritative  ("PisVe  Keca- 
ntili  ha-Aliaronim."  xxiv.).  He  also  showed  hiin- 
si'lf  a  valiant  defender  of  the  faith  by  advocating 
the  Jewish  siile  in  a  public  debate  on  the  immutti- 
bilily  of  the  Mostic  law.  This  disputation,  which 
took  iilace  in  April,  l(il7,  was  ordered  by  the  pontif- 
ical legate  in  Ferrara;  and  Alatino's  ojiponent  was 
the  Jesuit  Alfonso  Ceracciolo.  When  the  writer  of 
the  jiresent  article  tirst  published  this  debate.  "  Wik- 
kuah  'id  Nizhiyulha-Toiah"  (Debate  on  the  Eternity 
of  ilu'  Law),  Leghorn.  1871).  he  was  not  able  toiih'ii- 
lify  the  Iciirncd  Israelite,  but  a  few-  years  hiter,  when 
he  removed  to  Ferrara,  he  hail  the  good  fortu'ie  to 
find  another  copy  of  the  manuscript.  ii|)on  which  was 
noted  •'  A  Debate  held  at  Ferrtiiii  by  the  learned  phy- 
sician Babbi  Azriel  AUilino  •)  VI"  (The  memory  of 
the  righteous  be  blessed!).  In  1021  Alatino  was  a 
member  of  a  delegation  sent  by  the  Jewish  commu- 
nity of  Ferrara  to  the  legate,  with  the  view  of  pre- 
venting the  closintr  of  the  Ghetto. 

Nep'i-Gliiiondi  ("  Toledot  Gedole  Yismel,"  p.  290), 
the  authority  here,  referring  to  Alatino's  death  by 
the  formulit  ■)  Vt.  mentions  among  his  works  one 
under  the  title  "Tortit  hti-Mukzeh."  dealing  with  the 
laws  of  Siibbalb  and  festivals,  and  a  ;)(.«;<■  (rabbin- 
ical decision),  in  which  he  opposes  the  opinion  of 
H.  Nathaniel  Trabotti.  No  other  notices  of  him 
are  known  to  exist.  His  son  Moses  Amram  ap- 
parently succeeded  him  in  the  rtibbjniral  ollice;  for 
in  the  list  of  nibbis  of  Ferrara  there  oieurs,  under 
dale  of  11148,  the  name  of  Moses  Amram.  .son  of  K. 
.\zriel  .\  hill  no.  rnilerdaleof  ll>4,"i  wilead  the  name 
nf  Moses,  the  son  of  Hiiyyim  Alatino.  who  appears 
to  have  been  the  son  of  tiie  above-mentioned  Vitale, 

Two  membei-s  of  this  family  disiinuruished  them- 
selves in  the  eighteenth  century:  Giuseppe  Bene- 
detto Alatino  idied  17:!(i)  eslid)lished  ii  fund  from 
which  iwii  ,lcwish  women  of  Ferrara  were  to  receive 
annuidiv  a  dower  d'esaro,  "  .\ppcndice  idle  Memorie 
Storiche."  etc.,  p.  HI);  while  Bonajuto  Alatino 
wius  a  inucli-ndmired  |ireacher  in  I'adua,  in  the  >y: 
agogue  of  B.  Isaac  Baphael  Finzi. 

DiDLioiiRAriiY  :  Sleliim'hnelder,  Ihhr.  Vebtm.  p.  VX.  note  lis ; 
Ne|il-(iblnin(il,  lelotof  litiMe  Yisvacl,  p,  \i». 

G,  J. 

Jehiel  Alatino,  probably  the  eldest  of  the  three, 
eslalilished  himself  in  Todi.  where  his  nephew  David 
de  Pomis  found  him  iu  15H2  in  comfortalde  circum- 


Alatino 
Alatrini 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDLV 


318 


stances,  as  he  states  in  the  preface  to  liis  Hehrew 
"Zemah  David."  He  describes  Alatino  as  a  re- 
nowneti  physician,  and  states  tlmt  he  learned  a  jjreat 
deal  through  intercourse  with  him.  When  l)e  Fomis 
wrote  this  (l"i87),  Jehiel  was  iilready  dead,  since 
lie  a(Uls.  in  nienliouing  bis  name,  p't  ("of  blessed 
nuinory  "). 

Moses  Alatino,  born  in  1529.  was  the  half- 
brotlur  of  .lehiel  (see  ]irefaee  to  "Zcniah  David''). 
Mo.ses'  version  of  Theniistius'  i)araplirase  of  the  four 
books  of  Aristotle's  "  De  Coelo,"  printed  at  Venice. 
1574,  by  Siinone  Oalignano.  gives  several  important 
facts.  In  the  dedication  to  Cardinal  I..ui.iji  d'Este 
(Ai;g.  1,  15T3)  Jloses  relates  how.  at  the  time  that 
lie  studied  philosophy  at  Perugia  under  Francesco 
I'iccokirrrini.  he  came  into  possession  of  an  ancient 
llebrew  manuscript,  containing  a  version  of  Aris- 
totle's "  De  C'ado."  and.  overjoyed  by  so  precious  a 
discovery,  showed  it  to  Uartolomeo  Eustaccliio.  the 
professor  of  medicine,  who  was  also  a  Hebrew 
scholar,  and  to  his  own  brother  Vitale.  Both  were 
greatly  pleased  with  Xho.  discovery. 

In  the  course  of  the  iie.\t  ti  ve  years  (1568-73).  Moses 
applied  himself  to  the  task  of  translating  this  He- 
hrew paraphrase  into  I^alin.  fully  (-(mlidcnt  that  he 
would  thereliy  produce  a  work  of  much  value  to 
students.  Owing,  however,  to  protracted  ill-health, 
lie  was  unable  to  coni|ilete  the  work.  On  his  re- 
covery he  was  urgetl  by  several  scholars  to  finish 
his  task,  among  whoni  I5enedetto  JlangioUi  of  Mo- 
dcna.  then  in  the  service  of  Cardinal  d'Este.  may  be 
mentioned.  Following  the  dedication  of  this  work 
is  a  preface  addressed  particularly  to  students  of 
lihilosojihy.  Here  Alatino  gives  brielly  the  history 
of  this  important  paraphrase,  which  in  the  time  of 
Averroes  (Ilin  Uoslid)  was  translated  into  Arabic 
and  afterward  into  Hebrew.  He  referred  also  to  the 
many  dillieulties  overcome  in  turning  it  into  Latin, 
particularly  the  finding  of  clear  interpretations  for 
obscure  passjiges,  as  well  as  for  the  Arable  expres- 
sions used  by  the  Hebrew  translator.  Fortunately 
Alatino  obtained  the  assistance  he  desired  from  a 
physician  and  ithilosopber.  Elia  Xolano.  or  Elijah  ben 
Joseph  of  Isola,  as  has  been  shown  by  Kaufmann 
("Rev.  6t.  Juives,"  xxxv.  296  ct  ««/.").  N.  Briill 
lias  published  some  fragments  of  this  dedication, 
together  with  the  preface  ("Central-Anzeiger  filr 
Ji'idiseho  Litterafur."  Frankfort-ontlie-JIain.  1891. 
pp.  V)r>ftiicf/. ).  lint  he  omits,  among  other  things,  the 
beginning  of  the  preface,  which  reads;  "  Last  year  I 
went  to  tlie  hot  sjiriugs  of  Padua  in  company  with  my 
illustrious  and  most  worthy  master,  Camillo  Varani. 
for  the  [lurpose  of  freeing  myself  of  a  peculiar  and 
chronic  disease,  and  when  the  cure  was  effected 
nothing  was  more  agreeable  to  mo  than  to  go  to  the 
magniiieent  lord  Francesco  Piccolomini,  the  philos- 
opher earned  in  every  species  of  science  and  my 
most  renowue(l  and  l)eloved  teacher  of  philo.sopliy, 
in  order  to  greet  him."  Some  time  jireviously  Pic- 
colomini had  been  transferred  from  Peiugia  to 
Padua,  and  Alatino,  his  old  jiupil,  visited  him,  in 
order  to  show  him  his  version  of  Themistius'  "De 
Cirlo,"  although  as  yet  not  corrected,  and  to  obtain 
his  opinion  of  it.  Piccolomini  examined  a  number 
of  pas.S!iges  and  encouraged  Alatino  to  complete 
the  work.  Camillo  Varani  was  one  of  the  sons  of 
Ercole  (Hercules),  last  duke  of  Camcrino;  and  it  is 
significant  that  Jfoses  Alatino  always  earned  the  re- 
spect of  his  masters  and  the  confidence  of  distin- 
guished persons.  De  Pomis  states  that  all  Ferrara 
lield  Alatino  in  great  esteem,  and  that  he  also  derived 
much  satisfaction  from  his  own  son.  The  son.  whom 
De  Pomis  does  not  mention  by  name,  was  doubtless 
the  learned  physician  and  rabbi  Bonajuto.    Eman- 


uel Alatino,  also  a  .son  of  Moses,  can  only  have  been 
a  child  at  this  time,  since  he  died  a  young  man  in 
l(i()5("  Liihot  Abanim,"  p.  125).  The  version  of  the 
Canons  of  Avicenna  (Ibn  Sina)  does  not  appear  ever 
to  have  bi<n  comphted.  but  Moses  and  Bonajuto 
were  still  busily  occupied  with  it  in  July.  1592,  as 
is  slated  in  the  licmlia  iiuiliiidi  (physician's  di- 
ploma) conferred  upon  each  of  them  by  Pope  Clem- 
ent VIII.  ("  Hev.  £t.  Juives."  xix.  135).  Moses  sub- 
seciiicntly  became  intimate  with  Josef  Zarphati,  a 
Moroccan  Jew,  who  afterward  renounced  Judaism, 
and,  as  Andrea  de  Monte,  became  one  of  the  most 
notorious  ini|uisilors.  Helving  upon  their  former 
friendship.  Alatino  in  1577  wrol(' to  the  monk,  tell- 
ing him  of  his  own  studies,  and  suet  ((mIi  il  in  in- 
ducing De  Jloule  to  deal  more  magnanimously  with 
Hebrew  book.s.  This  letter,  with  two  others  written 
subse(iueiilly,  is  in  the  possession  of  Dr.  S.  H.  Jlar- 
gulies,  of  Florence. 

A  certain  Moses  Amram  Alatino  writes  to  his 
brother  Baruch  Abram  in  such  a  manner  as  to  con- 
vey the  idea  that  he  was  a  Maiaiio  and  desired  to 
enter  the  Abrabamic  covenant,  even  at  an  advanced 
age.  But  ill  all  probability  he  is  not  to  be  identi- 
fied with  tl»;  celebrated  physician  ami  iihilosopher. 
Moses  Alatino.  the  brother  of  Vitale  and  Jehiel,  must 
be  identical  with  the  Moses  Amram  whose  epitaph 
is  given  in  "  Luliot  Abanim,"  No.  45.  The  date  of 
the  ejiitaph.  Nisan  29,  ,5365,  corresponds  with  the 
date  April  17,  1005,  in  the  mortuary  record  of  the 
Jewish  community  of  Venice,  which  mentions  a 
Moses  Alatino.  Alatino  translated  the  commentary 
of  Galen  on  the  work  of  Hippocrates.  "  De  AOre 
A((uis  et  Loeis,"  from  the  Hebrew  of  Solomon  b. 
Nathan  ha-Meati  into  Latin.  Several  editiousof  this 
translation  have  been  published  (Steinsclmeider, 
"Cat.  Bodl."  No.  1768). 

'Vitale  Alatino  was  known  as  of  high  repute  in 
Spoleto.  and  tlirougliout  I'mbria,  as  De  Pomis  states 
in  his  "  De  Medico  Hebra'o."  where  he  records  that 
among  the  various  persons  treated  by  Vitale  were 
Pope  Julius  III.  (1.5.5(l-,55)  and  a  certain  Bartolomeo 
Eustaccliio,  a  physician  and  anatomist,  who  called 
Vitale  to  Perugia!  G.  J. 

ALATRI,  CRESCENZO:  Italian  writer;  born 
at  Komi',  IS-,'.");  (lied  Frliruary  12.  IsilT.  He  wasedu- 
cated  in  the  Talmuil  Torali  of  his  native  city,  and 
gmduated  as  rabbi,  but  never  held  any  ollice.  Ala- 
tri  was  the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Jews  in 
Rome."  several  <'Xtracts  of  which  were  published 
in  the  "Educatorc'  Israilita"  (18.50).  pp.  202  it  teq. 
This  work  is  still  extant  in  manuscript.  He  is  often 
mentioned  as  the  Italian  and  French  translator  of 
Moses  Hazan's  Hebrew  poems,  and  as  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Societa  di  Fiatellanza.  the  aim  of 
which  was  to  educate  poor  Jewish  children  and  to 
promote  arts  and  handicrafts  among  the  Jewish 
population. 

Binr.iooRAPnT :  Vogelsteln  and  Rieger,  Qe*ch.  der  Jxiden  in 

limn.  li.  \r.i.  -tW. 

3L  B. 

ALATRI,  GIACOMO  :  Italian  hanker  and  lihi- 
lanthropist ;  son  ol  S;imu(l  Alatri;  born  at  Rome  in 
\m?r.  died  there  March  9,  1S89.  He  was  for  several 
years  president  of  the  Banca  Roraana.  which  posi- 
tion he  resigned  when,  in  18sl,  his  propositions  for 
the  reorganization  of  the  bank  were  rejected.  The 
.subsequent  history  of  that  institution,  its  ultimate 
bankruptcy  in  1893,  and  the  grave  political  disturb- 
ances occasioned  by  it  tlirougliout  Italy,  fully  justi- 
fied the  courageous  stand  taken  by  Alatri.  His 
chief  ]ihilanthropic  efforts  were  directed  toward  or- 
ganizing kindergartens  for  the  Jewish  poor,  to  the 


810 


THE  JEWISH  E^'CYCLOPEDIA 


Alatino 
Alatrizti 


successof  which  lie  devoted  all  his  energies.  Alatri 
died  at  the  age  of  fifty-six^two  inontlis  lufoie  his 
father.  His  work  on  hank  reform,  entitled  "Siil 
Riordinaniento  delle  Banehe  d'Eniissiouu  iu  Italia," 
was  puhlished  in  Home  in  1888. 

BiBi.iO(iRAPiiY:  Berliner,  Oesch.  dcr  Juihn  in  Ronu  II.  1S3, 
auii,  2ia  L'i:t. 

M.  B. 

ALATRI,  SAMTTEIi:  Italian  iiolilician.  com- 
munal worker,  and  orator;  born  at  Home  in  ISO,");  died 
there  Jlay  2(*.  18H!(.  For  more  than  sixty  years  he 
led  the  .Jewish  community  of  his  native  city,  and 
bore  the  brunt  of  its  contests  for  religious  and  polit- 
ical freedom.  1 1  is  public  career  bejran  at  an  early  age. 
'Whenonly  twenty-three  years  old  he  was  called  u]>on 
to  enter  the  council  of  the  community,  the  material 
and  spiritual  interests  of  which  he  thereafter  served 
with  Zealand  devotion. 
From  1840  to  IMO.")  he 
made  annual  tours  to 
foreign  countries,  com- 
ing thereby  in  contact 
with  prominent  Jews 
in  France  and  in  Kng- 
land,  whoins]>ired  him 
with  new  hoiies  and  cn- 
courjiged  him  to  per- 
severe iu  th(!  struggle 
for  justice.  Knowing, 
however,  that,  in  order 
to  lead  to  liappiness, 
freedom  must  be  sup- 
)ili'mente(l  by  educa- 
1  ion,  A-latri  <lcvoteil  his 
special  atteiiliiin  to  for- 
eign scholastic  institu- 
tions, accumtdating  ex - 
.siiiiinei  .\iiitrl.  ]ierience  which  he  used 

for  the  bcnelit  of  the 
Talmud  Tondi  in  Home.  TheHnman  Jews  looked 
upon  him  as  their  legitimate  leader  and  chose  him 
spokesman  of  the  deputjitious  that  anmially  waited 
on  the  poi)e(Gregory  XVI.).  The  latter,  tliough  hos- 
tiletoall  progress,  could  not  help  Ik  in;,' cliarmed  by 
the  oratorical  gifts  of  Alatri,  whom  he  nicknamed 
"our  Cicero," and  to  whom,  on  one  occasion,  he  sjiid  : 
"  Whenever  you  have  to  defend  a  case  of  liberty  and 
humanity,  come  to  me."  Alatri's  iiitluence  with  the 
pontilT  proved  cfTeclive  only  in  individual  cases,  the 
geiii-ral  position  of  the  Jews  remaining  as  precarious 
as  before. 

With  lheacce.s.sionof  Pius  IX.. who  at  fii-st  showed 
himself  a  friend  of  progress.  Alatii  redoubled  his  ac- 
tivities and  cnteri'd  into  association  with  some  of 
the  most  inlluential  men  of  Home.  In  appreciation 
of  liis  intellictual  and  moral  (|ualilies  he  was  elected 
u  director  of  the  l'i>pi's  naid<.  later  the  Hanca  Ho 
mana;  and  it  is  an  iindispuliil  fact  that  the  crisis 
which  threatened  that  institution  iu  1M.")I!  was  warded 
oil  by  Alatri's  foresight. 

Alatri's  elTorts  on  behalf  of  his  brethren  were 
crowned  with  success  in  187lt,  when  King  Victor 
Knimanuel  entered  Home  and  put  an  cml  to  the 
temponil  power  of  th('  pope.  On  Oct.  2  of  that 
vear  n  depulalion,  of  which  Alatri  was  a  mimber. 
iianded  over  to  the  king  the  result  of  the  ph'biscile 
by  which  theinhabitanlsof  Ihi'  I'apal  Ti'rritories  de- 
clared in  favor  of  annexation  l4)llie  kingdom  of  Italy. 
Alatri  was  then  appointeil  one  of  the  commis.sioners 
to  reduce  to  order  the  chaotic  li nances  of  the  city.  lie 
acrpiilted  hiniMlf  w  ith  conspicuous  success,  and  was 
elected  to  I'arliamint  by  the  second  ilistrict  of  the 
city  of  H(mie.  Here  he  was  entrusted  with  the  task 
of  adjusting  the  Italian  budget.     Party  life,  how- 


ever, was  not  congenial  to  liim.  and  after  a  few  years 
of  parliamentary  activity  he  returned  to  the  narrower 
sphere  of  the  city  and  the  Jewish  community. 

The  services  rendered  by  Alatri  to  his  native  city 
were  acknowledged  by  the  syndic  of  Home  who  at 
Alatri's  funeral  sjtid:  "The  city  fif  Home  loved  him 
like  a  father,  and  now  she  mourns  his  death  like  that 
of  a  father."  The  following  are  some  of  his  published 
siieeclies:  "Biscorsi  al  Dottor  Alliert  Cohn,"  1M70: 
"  Discorso  Pronunziato  nella  8cuola  del  Tempio  il  23 
-Vprile,  is8r' ;  "  Paroh-  in  Occasione  della  Proi'essione 
di  Fede,"  1SH.3;  "  Per  la  Inaugunizione  del  CoUegio 
Habbinico  Italiano  C'elebrata  il  \'i  Gennaio,  1887, 
nella  Scuola  del  Tempio." 

BiBi.in(;R.\pnv  :  Berliner,  Clcsch.  Orr  Juilcn  in  Rom,  II.  139, 
141.  i;ii,  ■M>--^\2:  Viitrelstein  and  Kleger,  Ocsch.  der  JiuUn 
in  liiniu  vol.  il.  lindex). 

M.  B. 

ALATRINI :  Name  of  a  distinguished  Jewish 
family  in  Italy,  derived  from  the  name  of  the  town 
.Matii,  It  has  been  often  transcribed  as  Alterini 
and  Aletrini.  Alatrino  and  Degli  Alatrini  are 
other  lorins  often  occurring. 

The  following  are  the  known  luembers  of  this 
family ; 

Menabem  Jebtel 

I  I 

Josepb 


Abraham 


I 
Matlattaiali  <.\v.  cent.) 


Soloiiidii 

I 
Jfihanaii  Juduli  (.wl.-xvll.  cent.) 

I 
( Daut'hter) 


I 


Ella 


Isaac  (xvil.  cent.) 


N'atban  (Jedldlali) 

The  first  known  mention  of  an  Alatrini  is  that 
of  Menahem  ben  Solomon,  who  lived  at  Fermo, 
a  small  town  in  the  viiiniiy  of  Ancona.  in  129.5. 
Abraham  ben  Menahem  Alatrini  is  mentioned 
in  manuscript  souk  is  as  liviuLr,  between  1420  and 
14:!:!.  in  ceiitrid  Italy. 

£lia  ben  Joseph  ben  Jehiel  Alatrini  :  Habbi  at 
Macenita.  Italy,  during  the  second  half  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  He  wrote  (1372)  a  work  on  educa- 
tion, "Sefer  ha-IIinnuk."  still  in  manuscript ;  and  in 
13Mi)  he  cojiied  a  manuscript  for  Mosi'S  ben  Daniel 
at  Forli. 

Isaac  ben  Abraham  Alatrini  :  Habbi  at  Cingoli. 
in  the  vicinity  ol  Macerata.  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century;  teacher  ami  friend  of  Kliakira 
b.  Samuel  Sanguine.  During  the  Easter  holidays, 
100."),  he  ])reaehed  at  Jlodena  a  sermon  on  the  Song 
of  .Solomon,  which  was  used  by  him  later  as  a  basis 
for  his  "  Kenaf  Heiianim  "  (The  Song-birds'  Wing). 
The  work  is  a  sort  of  haggadic  philosoiihical  com- 
mentary, in  live  parts,  on  the  Song  of  Solomon.  As 
the  author  states  in  the  preface,  he  has  incorporated 
in  his  work  parlsof  the  "  Dialoghi  di  Amore"  of  the 
"learni'il  man  and  philoso])her  Juilah  Hofe."  that  is. 
I/oIIebneus.  The"  Kenaf  Henaniin  "  is  still  unpub- 
lished :  a  niauuscript  copy  isiu  the  Bodleian  Library, 
Oxford. 

Hilu.lodiuPiiY:  Benjiwol).  (<{>ir  lia-Srfnriin,  p.  '2U:  Neu- 
liiiiiiT.  Ciii.  U'-ll.  lUlir.  MSX.  i-iilH.  TiVV  .117:  Lilmi- 
luihliill  il>j<  on.  Jitx.  v.  4ir;.  •!:«<;  Mertiini,  /ii.Kr.-  .Iir.i- 
/..()<",  |i.-";  N.|.l-i,liln.ndl.  ■i'.il<.(..(  (,'.</"/<   r(.->r.i.l.  p.  I'll. 

Johanan  Judah  (Angelo)  Alatrini  ben  Salo- 
mon :  I'oet  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  s*-venleenth 
centuries.  Uc  was  the  author  (l")<>3i  i>f  a  Hebrew 
poem  on  the  commentary  of  bis  gruudfather  .Malta 


Alba,  Jacob  di 
Albany 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


820 


tliiuli  Alatrini,  to  the  "Bt'liiniit  "Olam."  Several  of 
liis  otluT  Hebrew  poems  are  iu  manuscrmt  in  the 
Bodleian  Lil)rarv.  Oxford  (see  Neubauer.  "  Cat.  Bodl. 
Hebr.  MSS."  col.  CHOi.  Hi.s  chief  work  is  the  adap- 
tation into  Italian  verse  of  Bahva's  famous  jirayer, 
'L"Q3  '313  or  nnsin.  whieh.  together  with  tlie  text 
of  the  oriirinal  anil  a  Hebrew  tr.iiislalion  of  the 
Italian  version  by  the  author's  jrrandson.  Nathan 
(.ledidiah)  b.  Elie/.er  of  Orvieto.  was  publislied  at 
Venice  in  1628.  This  poem.  calle<i  by  Angelo  in  a 
pun  on  the  Italian  fonn  of  his  ])r;vnomen,  "  L'An- 
gclica  Tromba "  (The  Anjrel  Tnnni)et),  seems  to 
have  enjoyed  a  certain  popularity  in  the  Jewish 
communities  of  Italy.  It  is  written  in  the  terza- 
rima.  and  it  renders  into  graeefid  and  almost  fault- 
less meter  the  sentiment,  llioui;li  nut  always  the 
sense,  of  Bahya's  prayer.  In  the  Hebrew  translation 
by  Isaac  Alatrini's  grandson,  called  "Shir  Barki 
Nafshi,"  an  attempt  was  made  to  preserve  in  the 
Hebrew  the  metrical  construction  of  the  Italian  i)oem. 

Bibliography:  Stelnschnolder,  Cat.  nttlt.mh.  783.  i:t07,  atli; 
Henjac*^b,  nzar  ha-Si'fnrim,  pp.  87,  .578 ;  Motiaiufchrift, 
.\liii.  <m  :  Miirlani,  Indicc  Alfoln'ticit,  eU\,  ]>.  ™, 

Mattathiah  ben  Abraham  Alatrini :  Rabbi 
in  Italy  iluring  the  .second  half  of  the  tifteenth 
century,  calU'd  the  "Gaon,"  in  the  preface  to  the 
"  Kenaf  Henanim  "  of  Issiac  Alatrini.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  Penini's  "Behinat  'Olam,"  a  manu- 
script copy  of  which  is  in  the  Bodleian  Library, 
Oxford  (Mortara,  "  Iiidice  Alfabetico,"  p.  2). 

Bibliography:  Steinsctmelder.  llebrilischc  Bihlingraphie, 
X.   104. 

^\^.  M. 

ALBA,  JACOB  DI :  Italian  rabbi;  lived  at  the 
end  of  the  si.Meenth  and  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  He  was  rabbi  in  Florence,  and  au- 
thor of  homilies  on  the  Pentateuch,  entitled  "  Tolcdot 
Ya'akob  "  (Generations  of  Jacob),  Venice,  1609. 

Bibliography:  Wolf.  Bild.  Hibr.  i.  ,580,  fill;  lii.  440.  .513; 
Stelnscbneider.  Cat.  Budl.  eol.  1179:  Mortara,  Iwllcc  Alfa- 
betico, p.  3. 

W.   M. 

ALBAGAL.  SOLOMON  IBN  (called  also  Don 
Culema  aben  Albagal):  A  Spanish  farmer  of  taxes 
who  lived  in  Villa-Heal  or  Ciudad-Real,  and  held 
office  during  the  reign  of  Maria  de  Molina  (1300-10). 
He  was  the  owner  of  a  large  fulling-mill,  named 
"Batanejo,"  in  Giiadiana,  which,  when  disposed  of 
by  the  Knights  of  Calatrava.  brought  the  sum  of 
1.1.000  gold'maravedis  (about  S.-jl.OOO,  or  £10,200). 
For  many  years  he  was  in  litigation  with  his  partner. 
Israel  Alhad.ad.  with  regardto  alarge  sum  of  money. 
The  queen  tinallv  referred  the  dispute  for  settlement 
to  U.  Asher  ben  Jehiel  of  Toledo  ("Resp."  §  107,  No. 
6).  The  name  of  Albagal's  wife  was  Joanila.  Of 
Ihcir  two  children,  a  son,  Samuel  ibn  Albagal,  lived 
in  Villa-Real,  and  a  daughter,  Dinah,  was  married 
to  Abraham  ben  Xuxen  (Susiin),  also  a  farmer  of 
taxes,  and  died  of  the  plague  at  Toledo  in  the  vear 
1349. 
Bibliography  :  Hcvnc  dcs  Etudes  Juivcn,  xxxix.  314. 

M.  K. 

ALBALAG,  ISAAC  :  A  philosopher  of  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  who,  according 
to  Steinschneider  ("Helir.  Uebers."  pp.  2!)!)-3l)6). 
probably  lived  in  northern  Spain  or  southern  France. 
Graetz,  without  good  reason,  makes  him  a  native  of 
southern  Spain.  Ills  liberal  views,  especially  his 
interpretations  of  the  Biblical  account  of  the  Crea- 
tion in  accordance  with  the  Aristotelian  theory  of 
the  eternity  of  the  world,  stamiJed  him  in  the  eves 
of  many  as  a  heretic.  Apart  from  this  he  showed 
little  originality,  and  was  eclectic  iu  teudenc}'.    This 


is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  though  he  was  an  un 
reserved  follower  of  Aristotle,  he  showed  a  leaning 
toward  the  Cabala,  the  exces.ses  of  which,  however, 
he  energetically  opposed,  especiall}'  its  arbitrary 
Biblical  interpretations  based  on  the  assumed  nu- 
merical values  of  the  letters  (see  0f.m.\tiiia).  His 
most  characteristic  work  was  a  translation  (1202)  of 
a  part  of  Al  Ghazzali's  "  Makazid  al-Falasifa  "  (Tend- 
encies of  the  Philosophers),  which  embraces  only 
two  parts  of  the  original;  namely,  logic  and  meta- 
physics. Albalag  did  not  conlinir  himself  therein 
to  the  work  of  a  translator,  but  often  corrected  the 
views  of  other  philosophers  as  formulated  by  Al- 
Ghazzali,  who  intended  to  refute  tliem  himself  in 
his  later  work  entitled  "Tahafut  al-Falasifa"  (De- 
struction of  the  Philosophers).  Albalag  remarked  that 
AlGhazzali  did  not  refute  the  philosoi)hers.  but  his 
own  errors,  into  which  h<'  had  fallen  by  obtaining 
information  not  from  Aristotle  himself,  but  from  his 
commi'iitators.  such  as  Ibn  Sina  (Avicenna)  and  oth- 
ers. According  to  Albalag,  this  charge  applies  also 
to  Maimonides  when  attempting  to  refute  Aristotle, 
as,  for  instance,  on  the  eternity  of  the  world. 

In  the  compositiim  of  his  work  Albalag  made  it 
his  main  object  to  counteract  the  wide-spread  popu- 
lar prejudice  that  philosophy  was  undennining  thi' 
foundation  of  religion.  Religion  and  philosophy 
agree  on  the  fundamental  principles  of  all  ])ositive 
religion — which  are  "  the  belief  in  reward  and  pun- 
i.shment,  iu  immortality,  in  the  existence  of  a  just 
God,  and  in  Divine  Providence" — and  they  both  fol- 
low the  .same  aim  ;  namely,  to  render  mankind  hap|\v. 
It  is,  no  doubt,  (|uite  true  tliat  pliilosojihy,  which  ad- 
dresses itself  to  the  individual,  dilTers.  in  its  mode  of 
establishing  those  truths,  from  religion,  which  ap- 
peals to  the  great  masses.  Philosojihy  dcmonstratc's; 
religion  only  teaches.  Albalag. liowever.bv  no  means 
asserts  that  the  doctrines  of  the  philosoi)hers  must 
entirely  coincide  with  tlio.se  of  religion;  and  it  is  ex- 
actly in  his  conception  of  their  nuitual  relation  (hat 
his  peculiar  standpoint  manifests  itself.  The  idea, 
alreadyexpresseilby  ^Iaimiinides,that  the  naked  phil- 
osophical truth  is  often  harmful  for  the  mas.ses,  and 
that  therefore  the  Holy  Scriptures  had  often  toadapt 
themselves  to  the  intellectual  level  of  the  people,  was 
so  stnmgly  emphasized  by  him  that  it  is  ))robable  he 
was  influenced  by  Ibn  RosIkI  (Averroes),  who  made 
this  idea  the  central  point  of  his  l)ook,  "Theology 
and  Philosophy  " — "  therefore,  he  errs  doubly  who  re- 
jectsa  philosophical  truth  on  account  of  its  apparent 
contrailiction  of  Scrii)ture:  first,  because  he  misses 
the  true  meaning  of  Scripture;  second,  because 
thereby  he  declares  the  real  arguments  of  philoso- 
ph}'  to  be  inconclusive." 

In  cases  where  an  adju.stment  is  absolutely  im- 
possible Albalag  brings  forward  a  very  strange  solu- 
tion; namely,  that  the  teaching  of  the  philosopher 
is  true  from  the  speculative  standpoint,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  utterance  of  Scripture  is  true  from  a 
higher,  supernatural  point  of  view — the  philosoph- 
ical mode  of  knowledge  being  altogether  different 
from  the  ]iroplictic.  And  as  the  philosopher  is  only 
intelligible  to  his  compeers,  so  the  prophet  can  be 
understood  only  by  prophets.  This  view  resembles 
the  theory  of  double  truth  (the  theological  and  the 
l>hilosopliieal),  originated  and  cliietly  developed  in 
the  thirteenth  century  at  the  University  of  Paris 
(Lange,  "Gesch.  des  Materialismus,"  3ded.,  i.  181). 
There  is  no  evidence,  however,  of  any  direct  influ- 
ence of  the  Parisian  thinkers  on  Albalag,  as  he  could 
liave  come  to  his  view  by  a  more  natural  process; 
viz..  by  combining  the  two  opposite  influences  of  Ibn 
Roshd  and  AlGhazzali.  whose  itiea  of  the  difference 
between  philosophical  and  prophetical  knowledge 


321 


THE  JE\S'ISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alba,  Jacob  di 
Albany 


is  at  the  bottom  of  tlie  liittor's  work,  tlie  "Miin- 
kill."  Acfri>tinj,'  tlicse  two  iiitluincfs,  the  view  of 
till'  (loublf  truth  nccfssiirily  follows.  It  may  be 
lidded  that  Albala^  interpreted  the  Hiblieul  account 
of  the  Creation  as  siirnifyius;  that  the  six  days  repre- 
sent the  relative  order  of  tlunjis,  while  he  conceives 
the  seventh  day  as  pointing  to  tlie  world  of  ideals. 

BiBLIOOBAPnv:  Hi-Hnluz,  Iv.  s;>-!l»,  vl.  K-'i-M.  vll.  l.iT  liW; 
(iriltz.  Gincli.  il.  Ji(((i)i,  vll.  23ti,  ai7;  StfloscbnelJer,  Hclir. 
Vcliem.  pp.  29i>-:!i>;. 

S.   Ho. 

ALBALIA :  Name  of  one  of  tlie  more  ancient 
.lew  ish  families  in  Spain.  The  Irailition  among  its 
members  was  that  I  hey  were(h'scended  fiom  Baruch, 
the  friend  and  eiJm|)auion  of  the  prophei  .leremiah. 
<ir.  according  to  more  numerous  and  also  more  i>lau- 
silile  accounts,  from  a  noble  family  of  .ludea.  one  of 
whose  inemticrs,  Baruch.  was  sent  l)y  the  em|ieror 
Titus  to  Jlerida  at  the  r<M|Uest  <if  the  Roman  pro- 
<(insid,  in  onhT  to  establish  silk-culture  there.  The 
family  at  a  very  early  period  .settled  in  Cordova. 

The  name  Albalia  may  be  the  Aral>ie  al-Bali 
("Jew.  Quart.  Kev."  x.  iST).  A  Solomon  Allmla 
is  mentioned  in  a  Barcelona  document  (.lacoljs. 
"Sources,"  p.  20).  Kaufmann  (".lew.  Quart.  Kev." 
viii.  222)  suggests  that  there  may  tie  some  connec- 
tion between  the  names  Alhalia  and  Ahnibalia.  A 
.Toseph  and  a  David  Albali  are  iirobahly  meant  in 
Schiller-.S/.incssy's  "Catalogue  of  Helir.  .MSS.  in  the 
University  Library  of  Cainljridge  "(No.  19,  p.  30). 
wiiere  the  spelling  is  '^y^^X  The  following  two 
nienilK'rs  of  the  family  were  conspicuous: 

Baruch  ben  Isaac  Albalia  :  Talniudist,  born  at 
Seville  in  lliT?  ;  died  in  1  rjti.  After  the  death  of  his 
father,  anil  liy  his  advice,  he,  being  then  only  seven- 
teen years  old,  went  to  Isaac  Alfasi.  who  conducted 
a  large  rabbinical  school  at  Luceiia.  Alfasi  had  long 
lieen  hostile  to  Lsaac  Albalia  ;  but  he  received  liis  son 
Baruch  with  the  utmost  friendliness  and  promised  to 
he  a  father  to  him.  Baruch  was  not  averse  to  the 
secular  sciences.  He  was  a  fellow  pujiil  of  .loseph 
ibii  Migasli;  and,  like  the  latter,  became  the  head  of 
a  celebrated  rabbinical  school. 

Isaac  ben  Baruch  Albalia:  .Mathematician,  as 
tronoiner,  and  Talmudist ;  horn  at  Cordova.  103.1; 
died  in  Cranada.  10'J4;  father  of  Baruch  ben  Isaac 
Alhalia. 

He  was  educated  by  a  .lew  from  Perigord.  His  fa- 
vorite subjects  were  Tahuudic  literature,  iiiathe- 
niutics,  and  astronomy.  When  barely  thirty  yearsold 
Isaac  began  to  write  D'^ann  nSIp  ("The  Store  of  the 
.Merchant  ").  a  commentary  nn  the  most  dillicult  pas- 
sages of  the  Talmud.  He  wastlevotcil  to  the  st inly  of 
matliematies  anil  astronomy.  Among  his  patrons 
were  Samuel  ihii  N'agdilah  and  his  son  Joseph  Nag 
ililali,  to  whom  in  10t>.'i  he  diilicated  his  astronomical 
work  "  Ibbur,  "  on  the  principles  of  tlic>  .lewish  cal- 
endar. After  the  death  of  .Joseph  Nagdilah,  Albalia 
settled  at  Cordova,  where  he  be<ameac(|Uainted  with 
.Mohammed  Abu  al  Kasim  alMiitamid,  the  Arab 
ruler,  who  appointed  him  astrologer  at  his  court  in 
Seville  and  made  him  nasi  of  all  the  .lewish  congre- 
gations of  his  realm.  Isjiae  also  acted  as  rabbi  of 
the  .lewish  congregations  of  Seville;  and.  with  the 
hooks  that  he  ac(|uired  from  his  patron  tloseph  as  a 
nucleus,  uceumulated  a  large  libniry.  thus  making 
Seville  a  center  of , lewish  learning.  M.    K. 

ALBANY,  New  York  :  Capital  of  the  state  of 
New  Vnrk  and  of  Albany  county,  situated  on 
llii-  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  river.  As  early  as 
Ultll,  wlieii  Albany  was  but  a  small  tniding  post,  a 
.Iiwish  trailer,  named  Asskii  Li;vi(or  Ix-evi),  became 
L-21 


the  owner  of  real  estate  there.  Then  the  .settle- 
ment was  known  both  as  Fort  Orange  and  Bever- 
wyck.  To  trade  in  the  colony  in  those  days  it  was 
necessary  to  acquire  burghers'  rights,  and  one  of  the 
conditions  essential  to  the  acquisition  of  such  rights 
was  the  ownership  of  real  estate.  This  probably 
accounts  for  the  ownership  at  that  time  of  real  estate 
in  Albany  by  this  .lewish  trader  (see  S.  AV.  Uosendale 
in  "  Publications  of  Am.  .Tewish  Historical  Society." 
No.  3.  ]^p.  (il  et  «Y/. ;  Daly's  "Settlement  of  the  .Jews 
in  North  America  " — edited  by  M.  .J.  Kohler — note. p. 
22)._  'While  .Vsser  Levi  seems  to  have  been  a  resident 
of  New  'i'ork  city,  his  carryingon  tradeat  Albany  at 
that  early  ilatc  in  the  history  of  the  American  colonies 
is  worthy  of  note. 

But  the  promiscuous  trading  of  Asser  Levi  has 
little  or  no  connection  with  the  .settling  of  a  .Jewish 


.••  ?l  ill  ,. 

nil  ''   ::^ll  ^ 


,1 


AllMiiy  SyuugoKUc 

(From  a  photof^rsph.) 

community  at  Albany.  For  the  foundation  of  a 
.Jewish  settlement  there  one  must  look  to  much  more 
recent  times.  During  the  early  years  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  a  number  of  German  Jews,  princi- 
pally from  Bavaria,  settled  there;  hut  it  was  not 
before  lH38tliat  the  Congregation  Beth -El  was  organ- 
ized (March  2.')),  having  its  meeting- 
First  Con-  place  first  in  Basset t  and  afterward 
gregation.  in  Herkimer  .street.  The  congrega- 
tion hail  no  nibbi  regularly  olHeiating 
al  its  services  until  the  fall  of  IS-ili.  when  the  Kev. 
Isiuie  M,  Wise,  then  just  entering  upon  his  career, 
was  gladly  welcomed  to  the  place.  He  remained 
at  Albany  eight  years,  during  which  time  lie  intro- 
duced many  reforms  in  the  service  of  the  syna- 
gogue. These  reforms,  and  the  frank  uttenuices  in 
liis  si'rmons  in  defense  of  them,  produced  such  vio- 
lent opposition  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  members 
of  the  congregation,  that  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
year  of  his  ineiimbeiiey  the  ojiposition  had  grown 
very  bitter,  even  to  personal  violence,  and  caused  a 
division  in  the  <-ongn'gation.  The  adherents  of  Dr, 
Wise  orguni/.eil  the  Congregation  Auslie  Emetli  ou 


Albany 
Albertus  Magnus 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


322 


Ortobor  11,  IHOO,  and.  Imvinfr  sovcntyscvpn  nicm- 
lifis.  iippointfil  liijii  ils  nil)l)i.  This  coiifircgiilkm 
purclmst'il  a  pioic  cif  i>ro|HTt_v  i>ii  Smitli  I'carl  strict, 
formerly  used  as  ii  eliunli,  and  coiivciied  it  into  a 
synagogue.  Dr.  Wise  continued  here  until  April 
I'W.  1854.  when  he  accepted  the  jiosition  of  rabbi 
of  the  line  Yesliurun  Congrcgulion  at  Ciiieinnati,  O. 
It  was  (luring  his  last  year  at  Albany  that  Wise 
published  the  tirst  voluine  of  "The  History  of  the 
Israelilish  Nation  from  Abraham  to  I  he  I'nsmt  Time. 
Derived  from  the  Original  Sources."  He  was  sue 
cceded  bv  the  Uev.  Elkau  C'ohu.  who  remained  until 
1863,  and  was  followed  by  Dr.  Jlyer.  In  18C4  the 
Rev.  Jlax  Schlesiuger  succeeded  the  latter.  With 
Dr.  Schlesinger  as  iis  rabbi  the  Anshe  Emelli  Con- 
gregation continued  until  1880,  when  it  consolidated 
with  that  of  Beth-Kl,  the  united  congregation 
being  named  Hie  Beth  Kmelli.  This  merging  of  the 
two  congregations  necessilating  a  larger  place  of  wor- 
ship, a  handsome  synagfigue.  costing  S14").U()0,  was 
built  at  the  corner  of  Lancaster  and  Swau  streets, 
and  it  was  dedicated  on  May  24,  1889. 

The  members  of  the  old  Heth-El  Congregation  who 
would  not  follow  Dr.  Wise,  nor  adopt  the  reforms 
advocated  by  him,  remained  in  IlerUimer  street  un- 
til 180.1,  when  they  built  a  .synagogue  at  the  corner 
of  South  Fi'rryand  Franklin  streets.  There  they  con- 
tinued until  188o,  when  they  joined  with  the  Anshe 
Emeth  Congregation  as  stated  above.  During  that 
time  their  religious  services  were  conducted  by  Kevs. 
S.  Falk,  Gotthold.  11.  Birkenthal.  Son,  and  Friedman. 

The  principal  charitable  societies  of  the  Jewish 
community  of  Albany  aie:  The  Hebrew  Benevolent 
Society,  a  general  charity,  organized  September  20, 
185.5,  and  incorporated  April  5.  1809;  two  clicrnin. 
or  societies — one  for  men  and  the  other  for  women 
— being  nuitual  aid  associations,  giv- 
Eleemosy-  ing  aid  in  cases  of  sickness  and  death ; 

nary  In-  the  J^adies'  Sewing  Society — also  a 
stitutions.  general  charity;  the  Jewisli  Home, 
having  a  permanent  fund,  and  caring 
mainly  for  the  aged  poor  by  p.-iying  their  board  in 
faiuilies  whose  ciieumstances  are  such  that  they  also 
need  aid,  thus  helping  both ;  the  Albany  Branch  of 
the  Alliance  Israelite  I'niverselle, established  in  180,5; 
the  local  branch  of  the  C'otuicil  of  Jewish  Women, 
which  raised  a  fund  to  be  devoted  to  defraying  the 
expenses  of  establishing  and  maintaining  a  school  for 
the  education  and  training  of  children. 

Although  in  the  Jewish  conuuunit}'  of  Albany 
merchants  ])redominate,  a  great  many  persons  are 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  anilin  dyes,  potash, 
and  clothing.  In  the  legal  and  medicd  professions 
the  Jewish  community  of  Albany  has  had  many  dis- 
tinguished representatives.  Joseph  Lewi  practised 
medicine  for  many  years  in  the  city,  and  exerted  a 
wide  influence  in  the  comnumity.  The  population 
of  Albany  (lODU)  is  about  100,000,  of  which  upward 
of  4.000  are  Jews.  G.   II.  C. 

ALBARGELONI,  ABRAHAMBEN  HI  YYA. 

See  Ani;AU ANT  r.KN  llivi  \. 

ALBARGELONI,  ISAAC  BEN  REUBEN. 
See   Isaac  iu;n   I{i;i  iii;N. 

ALBARGELONI,  JTJDAH  BEN  BARZI- 
LAI.     See  Juu.\ii  bex  Bauzh.ai. 

ALBAS,  MOSES  BEN  MAIMON :  Cabalist 
of  the  sixteenth  cent\iry  ;  lived  in  northwest  Africa, 
lie  was  the  author  of  the  cabalistic  work  "llekal 
ha-Kodesh "  (The  Holy  Temi)le).  which  he  began 
in  1575.  It  is  a  commentary  on  the  prayer-book, 
compiled  from  the  Zohar  and  other  cabalistic  works, 
and  was  published  with  an  introduction  by  Jacob 
Sasportas,  in  1653,  at  Amsterdam.  31.  K. 


ALBAS,  SAMTTEL:  Habbi  at  Fez;  born  lfi!)T; 

died  17411       He  was  well   read  in  the  Talnuid  and  in 

rabbinical   literatiu'e.  and   was  highly  esteemeil   by 

Hayyim  ibn  Atar  and  other  of  his  contemporaries. 

He  composed  novella'  on  the  treatise  'Abochih  Zarall 

of  the  Babjdonian  Talmud,  which  still  exist  in  luuuu- 

script. 

UiULXxiKAI'nv:  Azului,  Shcm /i(i-(i'c(l»Iini,  11.  No.  fiS. 

JL  IC. 
AL-BATALJUSI.     S(c  Batat,.iisi,  Al-. 

ALBELDA(  formerly  Albeilda) :  A  town  of  Old 
Castile,  in  the  vicinity  of  Logrofio,  which  was  in- 
habited by  Jews  as  early  as  the  eleventh  (entury. 
The  Jewish  congregation  there  was  subject  to  the 
authority  of  the  bishop  of  Calahorra,  and  by  order 
of  Alfonso  X.  il  jiaid  taxes  either  to  the  bishop  or  to 
the  chajitcr.  In  the  thirleenlh  century  the  conirre- 
gation,  consisting  of  thirty-live  families,  was  obliged 
to  deliver  to  the  chajiter  thirteen  hens  three  days 
before  each  Ash  Wednesday;  and  to  the  bishop, 
whenever  he  vi.sited  the  city,  a  sullicient  (|uanlily 
of  linen  for  himself  and  his  suite.  The  clia]iter,  to 
whom  belonged  all  tines  imposed  upon  the  Jews, 
occasionally  had  them  imprisoned.  The  Jewish 
congregation  of  Albelda.  togellier  with  that  of  Alfa- 
eel.  was  obliged  to  pay  an  anniud  lax  of  11.04M  sil- 
ver maraveilis.  Several  Jewish  scholars  bore  the 
name  of  Albelda. 

BiBi.rocRAiMiv  :  liiiXelin  delaReaX  Academiade  laHMitria, 
xxvitl.  4SU  ct  SCO. 

M.  K. 

ALBELDA  (sometimes  erroneously  written 
Albilda  and  Albeylda),  MOSES  :  A  Bible  com- 
mentator (died  1.54!))  who  took  his  name  from  the 
town  of  Albelda,  whence  it  is  thought  he  or  his 
ancestors  must  have  come.  Alxnit  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century  he  settled  al  .Saloniea,  Turkey, 
where  he  resided  until  his  death  at  an  advanced 
age.  A  supereommentary  upon  Kashi's  Pentateuch 
commentary  was  written  by  him  and  )iublished.  jire- 
sumably  at  Constantinojde,  about  1.52.5,  though  nei- 
ther place  nor  dale  of  publication  is  mentioned  in  the 
work.  M.   K. 

ALBELDA,  MOSES  BEN  JACOB:  Preacher 
and  philosopher,  grandson  of  the  preceding;  nour- 
ished in  Turkey  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  a 
distinguished  preacher,  first  at  Valona,  Turkey,  and 
afterward  at  Salonica.  After  ten  years  of  service  in 
the  community  at  Valona,  one  of  his  pupils  disre- 
S])ectfidly  demanded  permission  to  deliver  a  relig- 
ious disconrse  in  one  of  the  four  syna,i;ogues  not 
occui)ieil  al  the  lime  by  Albelda;  the  latter  refused. 
The  congregation,  which  revered  its  rablii,  there- 
upon referred  the  matter  to  Abraham  <le  Boion  at 
Salonica,  and  he  advised  that  the  young  man  shoidd 
not  be  jicrmitted  lo  preach  (see  Abraham  d(!  Bolon's 
responsa  "  I.ehem  Bab,"  Xo.  73).  Albelda.  who  as  a 
preacher  was  rather  verbose,  with  a  marked  inclina- 
tion to  philosophizing,  was  al.so  a  very  jirolific  wri- 
ter. He  ]uiblished  a.seriesof  theological  treati.seson 
providence,  repentance,  and  similar  themes  (Venice, 
1.583).  rnxler  the  title  "Reshit  Da'at"  (Beginning  of 
Knowledge);  and  an  ethical  work,  entitled  "  Sha'are 
Dini'ah  "  (The  Gates  of  Tears),  on  the  vanity  of  the 
world  and  the  sulTerings  of  human  beings,  together 
with  a  <'ommentary  on  Lamentations  (Venice,  1586). 
After  his  death  his  sons.  Judab  and  Abraham  Al- 
belda. published  under  the  title  "  '  Olat  Taraid  " 
(The  Perpetual  Offering)  his  commentary  upon  the 
Pentateuch  (Venice,  1001);  and  one  year  later  his 
only  surviving  son,  Judah,  published  under  the 
title  "Darash  Mosheh"  (What  Jloses  Preached)  his 


82S 


THE   JEWISH   K.NCYCLUl'EDlA 


Albany 
Albertus  Magnus 


sermons  <lclivi'ioil  in  various  synagogues  on  Sal)- 
batlis,  festivals,  anil  oilier  occasions  (Venice,  lOO'J). 

Biiii.in(;RAiMiv  :  De  Doion.  ItcxiMiiim  Lrhnn  Ilnli,  Nos.  73  cl 
M(/.;    Itot'st,  CutiiUniur  It/ iht   liitmtilhiil  lAiiraiy,   1.  KTil : 
Stelnschni'iiliT,  Cut.  ll'titl.  No.  IHS7  ;  KuufiuuDU,  Uic  SUtne, 
littKiUu  (see  Index),  Lelpsic,  1884. 
^^  M.  K. 

ALBERTI,  CONKAD  (pseudonym  for  CON- 
RAD SITTENFELD) :  Girnian  novelist,  dram 
alisl,  erilie.  and  actor;  born  al  Breslau.  ,Iuly  U. 
IHIi'i.  Having  tinislied  his  education  in  his  native 
city,  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  became  an  actor. 
After  a  few  years  he  returned  to  his  studies  and  de- 
voteil  himself  entirely  to  literary  work.  He  was  one 
of  the  jiioneers  of  naluralism  in  Uermany.  which 
introduced  realism  inin  literature,  sociological  as- 
pects into  literary  criticism,  and  which  culminated 
in  Sudcrmann  and  Hauptmaim. 

Among  Alberti's  many  critical  books  and  pam- 
phlets niav  be  mentioned :  "  Gustav  Freytag"  (1884 ; 
2d  ed.,  1S8(>),  "Bettina  von  Arniin"  (1885),  "Lud- 
wig  Biirne"  (188G),  "Ohne  t^chminke"  (1887),  "  Der 
Jloderne  Healismus  in  der  Dcutschen  Eitteratur" 
(1889),"Xalurund  Kunst  "  (18".»1);  among  his  novels: 
"Riesen  und  Zwcrge"  (188T;  2d  ed.,  1889),  "  Plebs  " 
(1887),  "  Der  Kami)f  ums  Dasein  "  (a  .series  of  nov- 
els, 1888-94),  "Fahrende  Fran"  (1895);  among  his 
dramas:  "Brot!"  (1888),  "Ein  Vorurleil "  (1891), 
"BlulT"  (1893),  "Die  Franziisin"  (1894);  and  among 
his  political  writings:  "  Norddeutsche  Heichspolitik  " 
(1896),  "TUrkische  Zuslilnde"  (1896). 

Buii.KxiKAPiiv:  Meyer,  Konvenatiims-Lcxihon,  alb  ed.,  un- 
der Sittenfthl. 

M.  B. 

ALBERTUS  MAGNUS  (Count  of  Boll- 
stadt) :  Till'  most  eminent  (icrnian  ]ihilosoplicr 
und  theologian  of  the  .Middle  Ages  and  the  real 
founder  of  the  .scii'niilic  tendency  within  the  ordi-r 
of  Dominicans;  boiii  at  Laiiingen,  Bavaria,  1193; 
(lied  at  Cologne  on  the  Rhine  in  I2HI).  During  his  so- 
journ in  Paris,  whither  he  went  in  1345  to  acquire 
the  degree  of  master  of  theology,  he  took  part  in 
the  conference  ordered  by  I'ope  Innocent  IV.  in  1248, 
which  decreed  the  burning  of  the  Talmud,  a  work 
which  Albertus  .Magnus  utilized  tlirough  tlic'  instru- 
mentiilily  of  .Jewish  authors,  and  to  whieli  he  owed 
many  useful  suggeslions  (,IoOl,  "  Verhilltniss  di'S 
Albertus  .Magnus  zu  Maimonide.s,"  p.  .\iv.).  In  wide 
reading  and  vei-satility  of  knowledge  he  was  hurilly 
8«rp«.s,sed  by  any  of  his  contemporaries.  Albertus 
Magnus  devoleil  special  attention  to  Jewish  litera- 
ture so  far  as  it  was  accessible  to  him.  The  famous 
Jewish  physician  and  philosopher  Isaac  Israeli  the 
elder,  w  hos<!  views,  mostly  tiiki'ii  from  his  works, 
"  De  Dilinitionibus"  and  "  De  Klenunlis."  .\lbertus 
often  cpiolis,  and  to  whom  hi'  ascribes  the  identilica- 
tion  a<li>pted  by  the  philosophei-s  of  ethereal  spirits 
with  the  angels  of  th<-  Bible  ("Summu  Theologiie," 
ii.  2,  (|uaslii)  8;  ed.  Ix'yden,  1651.  xviii.  7(i),  is  con- 
sldereii  by  him  as  a  chief  representative  of  tin- 
Jewish  philosophy  of  iMaimonides  ("  Metaphysica," 
.\iii.  (|U,islio  76;  ed.  Eeydin,  iii.  375). 

AllK'rtus  .Magnus  devoted  special  study  to  the 
"  Kons  Vilie  "  of  Avkkiiuon  (Solomon  iun  G.\m- 
liol.).  In  II  critical  survey  of  the  views  of  the  elder 
philosopher.s,  which  is  found  at  the  begininng  of  his 
work  "  De  Causis  et  I'rocessu  I'niversitatis."  not 
only  the  doctrines  of  the  Epicuri'ans,  of  the  Stoics, 
of  Socrates,  and  of  Plato,  b\it  also  those  of  Avice- 
bron.  are  thoroughly  examined. 

.Mthough  he  contesis  very  strongly  most  of  the 
vicwsof  .Vvicebron.  from  the  Peripat<>tic  standpoint, 
he  recognizes  theoriginalily  of  the  system  sketched 


out  ill  the  '■  Fons Vit.e."  According  to  Avicebron's 
philosophy,  the  unity  of  the  tirst  principle  which 
lienctrates  the  universe  was  succeeded  by  a  duality; 
namely,  (</)  the  tirst  form,  identical  with  the  intel- 
ligence, and  (/))  the  first  matter,  by  w  hich  the  form  is 
supported  [if/ii/.v.  .532).  Form  can  neither  exist  with- 
out matter,  nor  matter  without  form  {i/jt'd.  p.  .562). 

Alliertus  Magnus  not  only  recognizes  the  origi- 
nality of  Avicebron  in  his  doctrine  of  the  tirst  matter 
and  the  first  form,  but  also  in  his  doc- 
Attitude      trine  of  human   free-will;   he  shows 

Toward  this  by  calling  Solomon  ibn  Gabirol 
Avicebron.  the  only  iihilo.so])lier  who  represents 
the  tirst  princi|)leasactin,g  thnnigh  an 
inilivjdual  will  (j/<.  p.  549).  The  stran,i:e  impression 
which  the  doctrine,  as  outlined  in  the  "Fons  Vitic," 
produced  upon  him  led  him  even  to  suspect  that 
this  book  was  not  written  by  Avicebron  him.self, 
but  was  foisted  upon  him  by  some  sophist  (p.  5.50; 
compare  "Sunima  Theologiie,"  i.  quieslio  20;  "De 
Intellectu  et  Intelligibili."  I.  i.  chap.  6).  This  did 
not  hinder  him.  however,  from  apiiropriating  in  cer- 
tain points,  as  for  instance  in  the  division  of  forms, 
the  doctrines  outlined  in  that  w  ork  ("  De  Natura  et 
Origine  Animiv,"  i.  chap.  2;  compare  "  Fons  Vitie," 
ed.  Bilumker,  iv.  32,  255).  Quite  dilTcrent  from  his 
attitude  toward  the  doctrine  of  Gabirol  is  his  atti- 
tude toward  that  of  Maimonidcs.  the  Rabbi  Jloyses 
-Egyiitus.  as  he  calls  him.  from  whose  "Jloreh 
Xebukim,"  which  he  quotes  uniler  the  title  "Dux 
Neutrorum."  he  not  only  took  single  pa.ssages.biit  en- 
tire .sections,  and  incorporated  them  into  liis  works. 

Like  Maimonides,  st^uiiling  essentially  upt>n  the 
ground  of  Arabic  .\ristotelian  philoso|)hy,  Albertus 
Alagniis,  in  his  etTort  to  harmonize  the  doctriiKS  of 
Biblical  revelation,  followed  in  many  points  the  au- 
thorof  ■  .MoreliNc  Inikim."  But.  nevertheless,  being 
inferior  to  the  Jewish  thinker  in  the  energy  and 
solidity  of  his  conception  of  (he  world,  he  was  not 
able  to  estalilish  even  aiiproxinmtely  harmonious  re- 
lations between  reason  and  revelation  as  Maimonides 
had  done.  The  fundamental  principle  of  his  doc- 
trine of  the  knowledge  of  God  was  that,  as  between 
the  finite  and  the  inlinite  there  exists  not  the  least 
analogy,  therefore  the  same  attribute,  applied  to  the 
finite  and  to  the  inlinite.  does  not  signify  the  same 
thing  ("  D('  Causis."  p.  .551).  He  was  undoubtedly 
influenced  by  Maimonides  ("  Moreli."  i.  56)  when  he 
agrees  expressly  with  his  allegalion  that,  except  by 
divine  griue.  there  is  no  other  knowledge  of  God  pos- 
sible than  bv  negative  qualilications  ("De  Causis," 
p.  593  ;  "  M<">reh,  "  i.  .58). 

Albertus  Magnus  follows  Maimonidi's  in  the  theory 

of  Creation  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  one  would 

suspect  cviii  from  the  lengthy  verba- 

Follower     tim  ipiolations.    World  beginning  and 

of  Mai-  eternity,  Biblical  and  Aristotelian  cos- 
monides.  mog<my,  arc  two  systems  of  philoso- 
phy that  are  irreconcilable.  Albertus 
Magnus  follows  the  guidance  of  Maimonides  the 
more  willingly  on  this  point,  since  the  latter  had 
succeeded  in  shaking  the  .Vristotelian  proofs  of  the 
eternity  of  the  world,  without  departing,  however, 
from  the  principles  of  Aristotelianism  t"Morch,"  ii. 
13-25;  compare  i.  74). 

What  .Mbertussjiysabout  this  matter  in  his  "  Phys- 
ics" (viii.  1,  chaps,  xi..  XV.)  is  derived  partly  fnuu  the 
ideas  con  taini'd  in  the  "  .Moreh."  partly  from  long  tex- 
tual selections  taken  from  the  same  work.  Follow- 
ing .Maimonides.  who  refutes  the  proofs  prodiiced 
by  the  Peripatetics  concerning  the  et<'rnily  of  the 
W'orld  ("  Physics. "  viii.  1,  chap.  xi.  ;  "Summa  Theo- 
logiie." ii.  1,4.  3;  compare"  MonOi,"  ii.  14),  Albertus 
Is  of  opinion  that  the  eternity  of  the  world  must  be 


Albinus 
Albo,  Joseph 


THE  .lEWlSII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


894 


rejected  priiK-i|mlly  for  this  reason,  tliiit.  if  any  one 
nccepts  the  views"  of  the  IVripatcties.  the  world 
would  Imve  bien  evolved  hy  imtunil  foree.  anil  would, 
ther<fore,  nol  lie  Ihe  work  of  a  Creator  acting  with 
liherty  and  iiitenlion  ("  Physics,"  viii.  1,  chap.  xiii.  ; 
compare  "Moreli,"  ii.  19,  24). 

Concerning  the  laws  of  a  world  already  in  exist- 
ence, Arisloile  conunitted  the  error  of  raisiiiir  the 
question  whether  Ihe  world,  and  conseipicntly  these 
laws,  lie  eternal  or  lie  simply  evolved;  a  point  ex 
plained  more  fully  liy  a  famous  simile  of  Mainionidcs 
(••  Phy.sics,"  viii.  1.  chap.  xiv. ;  cinniiarc-  "  Moreh,"  ii. 
IT).  Albert  us' attitude  toward  Maimonides'  doctrine 
of  prophecy  wa.s  iieculiar;  he  could  scarcely  avoid 
lieinjr  powerfully  influenced  by  Maimonides'  ingen- 
icMis  exposition  of  this  problem.  Albert  us'  explana- 
tions concerninir  the  dill'erencc  between  divination  in 
Ihe  dream  and  vision,  as  well  as  his  explanations  of 
the  fundamental  diversities  in  the  natural  disposi- 
linns  of  men.  by  which  also  Ihe  varyin.i;  capacity  of 
(lilTerent  pcoide  f<ir  kuowiLij;  the  future  and  hitldeu 
tliinsis  is  accounted  for  ("De  Divinationc,"  chap, 
iii.  ft  Her/.),  are  undoubtedly  taken  from  the  "Jloreh 
Nebukim." 

Hut.since,  nccordiuK  to  his  distinction  between  nat- 
tiral  and  supernalural  knowledge,  pro]ihecy  ]U'opcr 
can  not  beloug  to  the  Inmi  ii  iinl'inilc.  lie  adopls  llii' 
view  of  Maiiniiuidcs  for  Ihe  explaiialion  of  natural 
]ii'oiihecy  only,  as  it  occurred  also  in  the  pagan 
worlil.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  .Maimonides'  pro- 
found and  penetrative  m<'thod  of  bringing  nearer 
to  our  understanding  the  historical  phenomenon  of 
]irophecy,  and  of  rc|)resenting  many  visions  of  Ihe 
pro)ihcts  as  merely  iisychical  phenomena — which 
Maimonides  sup|Hirtcd  on  jiassages  of  the  Bible — 
apjiears  to  .Mbrrlus  but  a  frivolous atteinpl  to  Iracc 
back  the  <ipinions  of  Ihe  pliilos<iiiliers  to  the  Bible 
("Summa  Theolngia',"  xviii.  Tti;  "De  Causis,"  v. 
~)i'>'S).  Of  the  writings  of  Allierlus  which  did  not  es- 
cape the  attention  of  Italian  and  Spanish  Jews,  some 
were  transhited  into  Hebrew  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century  (Slciu.schneider,"  Hebr.  Uebers." 
Jip.  277  et  piisitnii). 

BIBI.IOCRAPHY:  M.  Joel.  TfWi'7/(lli.«  Alliirl  tlix  Granirn  zu 
A/o.vc.s  jt/(7tmo?i(VI/'8  (jahrcfitn'richt  dru  Jllilificli-Tlieiiht- 
yisvhfH  Sttiiinars),  Bri-sluii,  isti;!;  I.  Hatrk.  Ihs  AUH-rtus 
Maguuif  Verlulttniss  zur  KrkrymtiiissltJnr  thr  UrUchtn^ 
Lateiner,  Arahi-r.  undjwltn.  Vienna,  Issi  ;  ,1,  (Jnttnian,  Dii: 
PhiloscphU  tlfs  ^'a/OHiea  ihn  (Jabirnl^  tiuttingen,  IKSU. 

J.  G, 

AliBINXTS  :  Uoman  procurator  of  .ludea  from  Gl 
to  ti-t  (Jos.  "  Am."  XX.  i),  S  1  )■  While  on  his  way  from 
Alexandria  to  his  new  post  he  was  met  by  a  dele- 
gation of  Jews,  who  demanded  Ihe  inmishmcnt  of 
the  high  priest  Ananias.  Albinus  sent  him  a  threat- 
ening letter,  and  three  months  later  deposetl  him, 
Albinus  endeavored  sincerely  to  restore  peace  in 
Jerusidem,  and  had  many  of  the  Picarii  executed. 
Some,  however,  he  permilled  to  go  free  on  iiayment 
of  a  ransom.  In  thedispute  between  Joshua (Je.sus) 
ben  Damnai  and  Joshua  (.lesus)  ben  Gamla  concern- 
ing the  ollice  of  high  iiriesi,  Albinus  sided  with  the 
former,  who  sent  him  ]iresents  every  day.  This 
description  of  Albinus  by  Josephus  in  Ihe  "  Anliqtn- 
tates"  is,  as  Griitz  ("Gesch.  d.  Jiulen."  4th  ed..  iii. 
445)  remarks,  much  milder  than  that  in  the  "De 
Bello  .Tudaico,"  according  to  which  Albinus  admin- 
istered his  ollice  far  worse  than  even  his  ]ireileces- 
sor,  Festus.  There  was  no  wickedness  he  would 
not  commit.  Me  robbed  individuals  of  llieir  ]irop 
erty,  and  impo.sed  oppressive  taxes  ii]ion  the  people. 
On  receipt  of  bribes,  he  liberated  Homan  decurions 
who  had  been  imprisoned  for  deeds  of  violence. 
Even  the  revolutionary  elements  of  the  land  were 


able  to  buy  his  friendship,  so  that  their  number  con- 
slanlly  increased.  Josephus  ("Ii.  .1."  ii.  14,  si  1) 
does  not  ,scruple  to  call  him  the  robber  eliief 
{n(j^v/.;/<Tr//r)and  Ihe  tyrant  of  the  wicked.  Ilegesip- 
piis("I)e  Excidio  llierosolymilano,"  ii.  H)  says  of 
liini  that  to  the  poor  he  was  a  tyrant  and  to  the  rich 
a  slave.  Zonaras,  in  his  "Chronicle"  (ed,  Pinder,  vi, 
17).  judges  him  nioi'e  leniently. 

Both  jiisiphus  and  llegesippus  admit  that,  when 
comi>areil  with  hissiK'Ci'Ssor,  Gessius  Florus,  Albinus 
iiultIiI  be  coiisidei-ed  good,  were  it  not  that  through 
his  connivance  wilh  Ihe  roblieis  he  sowed  the  seed 
of  the  sulise(|nenl  rebellion.  When  a  certain  Jesus, 
son  of  Ananias(or  Ananosi,  predicted  Ihe  dcst ruction 
of  Jerusalem,  he  was  brought  before  Albinus,  who 
had  him  cruelly  tortured;  liut  when  the  ]iidcnnitor 
.saw  thai  the  prophet  would  not  recant,  he  allowed 
him  to  go  free  as  a  harmless  madman  (.losephus,  "  H. 
J."  vi.  ,"1,  s;;!;  llegesippus,  v.44i.  Liicceius  Albinus, 
who  was  aiipointed  to  the  governorship  by  Nero  and 
subse(|uently  to  thai  of  Tingilana  by  (!alba,  and  pre- 
viously by  Nero  to  thai  of  the  province  of  JIauretania 
Ca'Sariensis  (Tacitus,"  llisloria,"  ii.  5S.  riO),  and  who, 
together  with  his  wife  and  intimate  friends,  was  exe- 
cuted by  order  of  Vitellius,  is,  according  to  all  ae- 
coimls.  identical  with  Albinus.  S.  Kit. 

ALBO,  JOSEPH  :  Spanish  preacher  and  theo- 
logian of  llie  lifleenlhcenlury  ;  known  chietiy  as  the 
author  of  the  work  on  Ihe  fundamentals  of  Judaism 
"  Ikkarim"  (Princijiles).  l.illlcisknown  of  the  details 
of  his  life.  Monreal,  a  tow  n  in  Ara.gon,  is  generally 
assumed  to  have  been  his  birlli|ilace;  but  this  sur- 
mise rests  upon  doubt  ful  evidence.  Aslnic,  in  his  re- 
port of  Ihe  prolonged  religions  debate  held  at  Tor- 
losa  in  I4i;!-14,  mentions  Albo  as  one  of  the  Jewish 
partici|)ants,  and  siiys  that  he  was  the  delegate  of 
the  congregation  of  Monreal.  But  in  the  Latin  ac- 
ciiuni  of  the  great  verbal  liallle  no  reference  is  made 
to  this  locality;  and  there  is,  conseiiuenlly,  good 
ground  for  doubling  the  eorreclness  of  Ihe  assertion, 
Giael/  believes  that  Albo  could  not  have  been  less 
than  thirty  years  of  age  when  he  was  sent  to  lake 
part  in  the  clisputalion  referred  to,  and  he  accord- 
ingly places  the  date  of  Albo's  birth  not  later  than 
KMl".  It  seems  to  be  certain  that  he  died  in  1444, 
although  some  have  been  of  the  opinion  that  his 
death  occurred  in  148(1.  He  is  mentioned,  however, 
as  iireachin,g  at  Soria  in  1483. 

The  n.se  Albo  makes  of  medical  illuslrations  cre- 
ateslhe  iircsumplion  that  he  was  an  adept  in  medical 
science,  which  suggests  that  he  may  have  practised 
medicine,  llius  emulating  the  excellent  tradition  of 
earlier  Jewish  writers  on  iihilosopliical  subjects.  He 
shows  himself  also  fairly  well  versed  in  the  systems 
of  Arabic  Aristotelians,  though  liis  knowledge  of 
their  wiirks  was  in  all  iirobabilily  only  .second-hand 
and  obtained  through  Hebrew  translali<ins.  His 
teacher  was  Hasdai  Crescas.the  well-known  author 
of  a  religio-spcculativebook,  "Or  Adonai."  Whether 
Cre.scas  was  still  living  when  Albo  published  his 
"'Ikkarim"  has  been  one  of  Ihe  disputed  ]ioinls 
among  Ihe  recent  expounders  of  his  jihilo.sophy. 
Albo's  latest  critic,  Tilnzer("Die  Beligionsphiloso- 
phie  des  Joseph  Albo,"  Presbnrg,  lH9(j),  clearly  es- 
tablishes the  fact  that  the  first  part  of  the  work  must 
hav{!  been  composed  before  the  death  of  Albo's 
master. 

The  opinions  of  modern  students  of  medieval 
Jewish  ]ihilosophy  are  divided  as  to  the  intrinsic 
worth  of  .Mbo's  ex|iosili<ins.  Miiiik,  while  conceding 
that  "  'Ikkarim''  marks  an  epoch  in  Jewish  theol- 
ogy, is  exceedingly  careful  to  accentuate  its  lack  of 
value  as  a  philosoidiical  production  (see  JIunk,  "Me- 
langes," p,  507).    Graetz  is  still  more  pronounced  in 


S2S 


THE  JEWISH   KNCVfLoi'EDI.V 


Albinus 
Albo,  Joseph 


his  refusal  to  credit  the  book  witli  signiil  (lualilics 
falling  for  recognition.  He  charges  tlie  author  with 
shallowness  and  a  fondness  for  long-s|)un  platitudes, 

due  t(i  his  honiiletic  idiosyncrasies. 
His  Sig-  which  wnuld  replace  strict  accuracy 
nificance.    of  logical  process  by  superabundance 

of  verbiage  (Griltz,  "Gesch.  d.  Juden," 
viii.  l.")7).  Ludwig  8chlesinger,  who  wrote  an  intro- 
duction to  his  brother's  Gennan  translation  of  the 
"  'Ikkarim"  (Fmnkfort-on-the-Main,  1844).  avers  that 
Albotlid  little  more  than  .schedule,  on  a  new  ])hin.  the 
articles  of  failli  nf  Mainionides.  On  the  other  hand. 
S.  ISack,  in  his  ilissirtalinn  on  .loseph  Albo  ( Hres- 
lau,  1809).  places  him  (in a  high  pedestal  as  "the  tirst 
Jewish  thinker  who  had  the  courage  to  coordinate 
philosoi)hy  and  religion,  or  even  to  make  both  iden- 
tical." "Albo,"  says  liack,  "did  not  merely  give  the 
Jewish  religion  a  philosophical  foundation;  he  made 
philosophy  preeminently  religious  in  its  contents." 
The  purpose  of  the  book  was  neither  to  coordinate 
religion  and  philosophy  nor  to  build  up  a  strictly 
logical  system  of  dogmatics.  Much  fairer  to  the  vital 
intentions  of  the  author  is  tln'  theory  developed  by 
Tilnzcr,  that  the  "  Ikkarim  '  constitutes  in  reality 
a  well-conceived  contribution  to  the  apologetics  of 
Judaism. 

The  work  wa.s  not  composed  in  its  entirety  at 
once.  The  tirst  part  was  |)ul)lished  as  an  independ- 
ent work.  It  develops  the  gist  nf  Albn's  thought; 
anil  it  WHS  oidy  when  its  |iid)lication  brought  down 
upiiM  hiiM  a  perfect  delugeof  abuseand  criticism  that 
he  fell  impelled  to  add  to  it  three  more  sections — by 
way,  as  it  were,  of  amplitication  and  commentary 
on  the  views  advanced  in  the  tirst.  In  his  preface 
to  the  s<-con(I  part  Albo  <lelivers  himself  of  a  vigor- 
ous sermon  on  the  subject  of  his  censors;    "  He  that 

would  criticize  a  book  should,  above 

His  "'Hl-  all,  know  the  method  employed  by  its 

Ifarim."      author,  ami  should  judge  all  tlie  pas 

Siiges  on  a  certain  subject  as  a  wlioh-." 
He  castigates  the  haslv  and  careless  procedure  of 
tho.se  who  will  i)ass  judgment  on  an  author  withoul 
reniembering  this  fundamental  reciuirement  of  soun<l 
criticism.  Albo'sopponentscerlainly  did  not  handle 
him  delicately.  He  wasaccustvl.  among  other  things, 
of  plagiarism.  It  was  maintained  that  he  appropri- 
ated the  thoughts  of  his  teacher  < 'rescas  especi;illy. 
without  giving  him  due  credit.  Thisaccu.sjition  has 
Ix'en  repeated,  even  in  nio<lern  times,  by  no  li'ss  a 
st'holar  than  .M.  JoCl.  K.xaminatiou  of  the  incrimi- 
nating evidence,  however,  does  not  substantiate  the 
indictment.  Crescas  having  Ix'en  Albo's  teacher,  the 
similarities  are  only  such  as  might  be  riasnnably  ex- 
peil<cl  in  the  wri  rings  of  both  preceptor  and  disciple. 
l'o[iular  as  the  loose  statement  is.  that  Albo  was 
actuated  to  write  his  "' Ikkarim  "  by  a  desire  to  re 
(luce  to  a  more  handy  nundier  the  thirteen  articles 
of  faith  drawn  up  by  .Maimonides,  it  must  be  dis 
mis.sed  as  erroneous.  The  enumeration  of  fundamen- 
tal dogmas  or  principles  of  religion  is  an  incidental 
result  of  Albo's  imiuiry,  not  the  primary  and  essen- 
rial  motive.  It  is  an  open  i|Ueslion  how  far  the 
claim  may  be  pres.sed  that  Judaism  ha-^  )iroduci'il  an 
indepenilent  philosophy  of  religion.  Ihil  whatever 
labor  was  devoted  to  this  tield  by  Jewish  thinkers 
wa.s,  in  every  case,  primarily  promi>led  and  inspinrl 
by  the  ardent  desire  to  difiiid  thi'  ciladel  of  Jewish 
faith  against  the  as.siiulls  of  its  enemies.  Taking  a 
broad  survey  of  the  whole  held,  it  may  safely  bi' 
said  Ihjit  at  f<iur  dilTerent  pi'riods  Judaism  must 
have  been  umhr  the  stress  of  this  duly.  When,  in 
.Vlexandria.  (Ireek  thought  laiil  siege  to  the  fortress 
of  Judaism,  the  consei|Uent  urgeia-y  of  asutllcienl 
resistuucf  pnxluciHl   Fhilo's   system.      Tlie   second 


rea.soned  exposition  of  Judaism  was  produced  at 
the  time  of  the  controversies  with  Karaism  and  under 
the  influence  of  the  polemics  of  the  Mohammedan 
schools.  -Maimonides,  in  turn,  repre- 
Philosophy  senis  the  reaction  exerted  by  the  Arabic 
and  Aristotelian  schoolmen.    And,  tinally, 

Apologet-    Albo    enters    the    lists    as   Judaism's 
ics.  champion  under  thechallcugeof  Chris- 

tian doctrine.  This  characteristic  ele- 
ment, in  the  genesis  of  whatever  system  of  philosoph- 
ical dogmatics  Judaism  evolved, must  he  constantly 
borne  in  mind  in  judging  any  pha.se  or  feature  of  the 
system,  and  especially  in  ioiniing  an  estimate  of 
Albo's  method. 

Times  of  controversy  concerning  spiritual  things 
c-all,  naturally,  for  the  systematizatiou  of  one's  own 
fund  of  philosophy.  Much  has  been  written  on  the 
subject  of  the  dogmatic  or  undognuitic  nature  of 
Judaism.  Certain  it  is  that  the  inclination  for  elab- 
orating creeds  has  tempted  the  Jewi.sh  theologians  to 
frame  dogmas  only  in  critical  tinus  of  heated  con- 
trover.sy.  Albo  had  many  predeces,sors  in  this  tielil, 
both  among  the  Rabbiniles  and  the  Karaites.  But, 
strange  as  it  may  seem,  he  only  followed  the  exam- 
Jile  of  Abba  Mali  ben  Moses  ben  Josi-ph  of  Lunel,  one 
of  the  most  outspoken  leaders  of  the  anti-.Maimimi.sts 
(in  his  "Minl.iat  Kenaot "),  and  of  Simon  ben  Zemah 
Oumn  (in  his  "' Magen  Abot"),  in  limiting  the  fun- 
damental "roots  "  to  three — namely,  the  belief  in 
I  he  existence  of  God;  in  revelation;  and  in  divine 
retribution,  or.  if  it  be  preferred,  in  immortality.  In 
the  fornuilaliou  of  other  articles  of  faith  the  con- 
troversies to  which  the  compilers  ha<l  been  exposed, 
and  in  which  they  had  taken  part,  influenced,  to  a 
large  extent,  both  the  selection  of  the  specific  princi- 
|)les  to  be  accentuated  and  the  verbal  dress  in  which 
I  hey  weri'  arrayed.  Similarly  in  the  case  of  Albo,  his 
se'iction  was  ma<le  with  a  view  to  collect  the  scheme 
of  Maimonides  in  thosi-  points  w  here  it  seenuil  to  sup- 
port the  contentions  of  the  Christian  dogmatists  and 
controversialists.  Maimonides  himself  had  been  in- 
fluenced by  a  desire  to  obviate  certain  Christian  and 
Mohammedan  <i>ntentions.  Hisempha.sis  upon  the 
absolute  inc(uporeality  of  God  only  linils  its  true 
light  when  the  doctrine  of  the  incarnation  is  borne 
in  mind.  His  Messianic  expectalicai,  with  the  stress 
upon  the  constancy  with  which  its  future  fultilment 
is  lo  be  looked  for,  had  also  an  anti-Christian  bear- 
ing. But  this  very  point,  the  Mes,<iianic  dogma,  had 
in  turn — soon  after  Maimonides — become  a  source 
of  grave  anxiety  to  the  Jews,  forced,  as  they  were,  to 
meet  in  public  disputations  the  champions  of  tlie 
regnant  ami  militant  Cliunh  Among  the  spokes- 
men of  the  Church  not  a  li w  were  converts  from 
Jinlaism.  These  wire  not  slow  to  urge  this  Mes- 
sianic dogma  of  Maimonides  as  far  as  they  might,  to 
embarra.ss  the  defendei-s  of  Judaism. 
Before  Maimonides  the  ipieslionof  tlie 
corporeality  of  the  Messiah  appears  not 
to  have  been  among  the  problems  dis- 
cussed and  di'bated  in  the  polemics  be- 
tween theChurih  and  the  Synagogue. 
But  half  a  century  after  him.  when  his  Mes,sianie 
dcMtrine  had  bei'ii  acceptiil  as  one  of  the  es.senlial 
articles  of  the  faith,  it  is  this  very  point  that  is  pushed 
into  till'  foreground  of  the  discussions.  Having  par- 
ticipated in  one  of  these  piiblii-  disputations.  AIIm) 
must  have  become  constious  of  riie  einlmrrassmeiit 
which  Ihi-  Maimonidean  position  could  not  but  oc- 
casion lo  the  (lifeiiders  of  Judaism.  In  his  scheme, 
theiefon-.  the  Messiah  is  elimiimled  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  Synagogurs  faith  In  itssleail  he  la\s 
stress  upon  I  he  doctrine  of  divine  relributiou.  (iraetz 
has  argued  that  AIIk)  was  prom])te<l  by  a  desire  to 


Distinctive 

Features 

of  Albo's 

Scheme. 


Albo,  Joseph 
Alcau,  F^liz 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


326 


Chrisluuiizc  Judaism.  The  coiiti-ary  is  tin-  truth.  In 
onlcr  111  deprive  llie  C'lirislisin  dispuliinis  of  their 
fiivorite  wenpim.  and  with  llie  clear  purpose  of  iieu- 
tmli/injr  Mainioiiides  in  tliis  respect,  Alho  ignores 
the  Messianic  hope. 

This  apolojfelic  interi'St  marks  his  dis(piisition 
in  its  intirety.  Tlie  title  of  his  hook  indicates  his 
method  at  the  very  outset.  Basic  to  his  investijra- 
lion  is  the  rccosrnition  that  "human  happiness  is 
conditioned  by  knowieilije  jp'yl  and  conduct."  Hut 
"human  intellect  eau  not  allaiuunio  perfect  kiiowl 
edfie  ami  ethical  conduct,  since  its  power  is  limited 
anil  soon  exhausted  in  the  <'outemplation  of  the 
things  the  truth  of  which  it  would  tiiid;  therefore, 
of  necessity,  there  must  he  somethini;  above  hiuuan 
intellect  throujrli  which  knowledge  and  conduct  can 
attain  to  a  degree  of  excellence  that  admits  of  no 
doubt.'"  The  insuflicirncy  of  human  intellect  pos- 
tulates the  necessity  of  divine  guidance;  and  thus 
it  is  the  duty  of  every  man  to  know  the  God-giveu 
hiw.  But  to  know  it  is  possible  only  if  one  has 
established  the  true  principles,  without  which  Ibi're 
can  be  uodivine  law.  Seeing  that  on  this  vital  theme 
tlurearesomuch  divergence. confusion, and  shallow- 
ness, Alho  resolves  to  erect  a  structure  for  the  true 
religion. 

His  great  criterion  in  this  his  search  is  the  ques- 
tion. What  principles  are  indispensable  to  a  religiim 
that  is  both  divine  and  true/  All  revealed  religions 
— and  it  is  in  behalf  of  revealed  religion  that  he  sets 
out  (m  his  excursion — recogui/e  three  fundamental 
principles.  But  would  the  identity  of  these  three 
jirineiples  in  revealed  religions  not  entitle  the'  devo- 
tees of  each  to  claim  their  own  as  the  one  true  relig- 
ion? No,  replies  Albo:  these  three  principles  may  be 
alike  indispensable  to  the  so  called  revealed  religions, 
and,  therefore,   basic   to    any  religion 

Funda-      claiming  to  be  revealed;  but  only  that 

mental  religion  is  the  true  one  that  under- 
Principles.  stands  these  l)asic  thoughts  correctly. 
And  the  test  for  this  correctness  of  un- 
derstanding he  holds  to  be  the  further  recognition  of 
certain  other  truths  and  inferences  that  must  fol- 
low logically  from  the  acknowled.gnicut  of  the  three 
fundamentals.  Unless  a  revealed  religion  accept  all 
of  these  inferences,  it  is  not  to  be  recognized  as  the 
one  true  religion.  Now  Judaism  is  not  only  l)ased 
upon  the  three  fundamental  principles,  but  it  ac- 
knowledges also  the  binding  force  of  the  inferences 
from  them.  As  a  cou.sequenee,  Juilaism  is  the  true 
revealed  religion.  Having  drawn  this  conclusion. 
Alho  has  attained  the  end  for  which  he  undertook 
his  investigation.  His  purpose,  as  this  analysis  of 
his  introduction  shows,  was  not  to  place  Judaism 
upon  a  solid  philosophical  founilation,  but  to  vindi- 
cate for  Judaism,  as  opposed  to  the  other  revealed 
religious,  the  right  to  the  distinction  of  being  the 
true  revealed  religion.  His  argument  may  be  ojien  to 
serious  objection.  It  is  certainly  true  that  he  starts 
vvitli  a  petitiu  priiuipii.  He  assunu'S  th;it  religion 
is  revealed  ;  and  writes  as  a  theologian,  not  as  a  phi- 
losopher. But  his  theology  is  triumphant.  Grant- 
ing his  premises,  one  can  not  but  concede  the  con- 
sistency of  his  deductions. 

Albo's  terminology  is  probablj'  original  with  him. 
The  three  fundamentals  he  designates  'ikknriut.  or 
roots  cikkiir  g/it/mn/iim;  Dan.  iv.  10  (l.-)|,  2il  I'^ti]). 
Hence  the  title  of  his  work.  The  (eight )  derived  and 
neccssjiry  truths — upon  the  recognition  and  correct 
application  of  which  depends  whether  the  revealed 
religion  prove  itself  to  be  the  true  religion — he  calls 
K/ioras/ihn.  or  secondary  roots.  Both  of  these — the 
'ikkarim  and  the  shorashim — are  indispensable  to  the 
subsistence  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree.    The  branches. 


however,  are  not  in  this  category.  Traditional  cus- 
toms and  other  outgrowths,  of  which  there  are  H 
great  number  in  every  religion — the  'ninijuii  (twigs), 
as  he  calls  thiin — are  not  absolutely 
His  Pecul-  neces.sary  to  the  lifeof  religion.     They 

iar  Ter-     may  be  removed  or  may  die  olT.  and 

minology.  still  the  trunk  will  subsist.  Since  the 
three  ikkarim  are  the  same  in  all 
religions.  Albo  calls  them  also  the  'ikhirini  hililiin 
(the  universal  principles  or  roots;  see Tilnzer's  work 
(|Uoted  above).  The  eight  shorashim  he  styles  some- 
times 'ikkarim  itenitii/iiii,  as  well  as,  in  some  cases. 
'ikhiriiii  iiiei/iihiKliiii  (specialized  or  jiarticular  roots). 
But  his  terminology  is  not  consistent  throughout  the 
work. 

In  the  elaboration  of  his  Bchenie  Albo  finds  ample 
opportunity  to  criticize  the  opinions  of  his  prede- 
ces.sors.  He  seems  to  be  anxious  to  keep  all  heresy- 
hunting  within  proper  bounds.  Accordingly,  he 
endeavore  to  establish  the  boundary -lines  between 
which  Jewish  skepticism  may  be  exercised  without 
risk  of  forfeiture  of  orthodoxy.  His  canon  for  dis- 
tinguishing heterodoxy  from  orthodoxy  is  the  recog- 
nition of  the  truth  of  ilie  Toi-ah.  But  a  remarkable 
latitude  of  inlerprelation  is  allowed;  so  much  so, 
that  it  would  indeed  be  dillicull  under  Albo's  theo- 
ries to  impugn  the  orthodoxy  of  I'ven  the  most  lib- 
eral. He  rejects  the  assumption  that  creation  ex 
iii/iilo  is  an  es.sential  implication  of  the  belief  in  the 
Deiiy;  and  criticizes  with  a  free  hand  the  articles 
of  faith  by  JIaimouides,  and  also  the  six  that  C'rescas 
had  evolved.  He  shows  that  neither  Maimonides 
nor  Crescas  keeps  in  view  his  own  fundamental  cri- 
terion; nanu-ly,  the  absolute  indispensiibility  of  a 
princijilc  without  which  the  trunk  of  the  tree  could 
not  sulisist ;  and  on  this  score  he  rejects  most  of 
their  creed. 

According  to  Albo.  the  first  of  his  fundament;il 
root-principU's — the  belief  in  the  existence  of  God — 
embraces  the  following  shorashim.  or  .secondary  radi- 
cals: (1)  God's  unity;  Ci)  His  incorporeality :  (3)  His 
independence  of  time;  and  (4)  His  perfection:  in  Him 
there  can  be  neither  weakness  nor  other  defect.  The 
second  root  principle — the  belief  in  revelation,  or  the 
communication  of  divine  instruction  by  God  to  man 
— leads  him  to  derive  the  following  three  secondary 
radicals:  (I)  The  appointment  of  prophets  as  the  me- 
diums of  this  divine  revelation ;  ("J)  the  belief  in  the 
unicpie  greatness  of  Moses  as  a  prophet ;  and  {'.i)  the 
binding  force  of  the  Mosaic  law  until  another  shall 
have  been  divulged  and  proclaimed  in  as  public  a 
manner  (before  six  hundreii  thousjindmen).  No  later 
prophet  has,  conse(piently,  the  right  to  abrogate  the 
Mosaic  dispensation.  Finally,  from  the  third  root- 
priuciiili — the  belief  in  divine  ret  ril)Ution — he  derives 
one  secondary  raili<'al:  the  belief  in  bodily  resurrec- 
tion. According  to  Albo,  therefore,  the  belief  in  the 
Messiah  is  only  a  twig  or  branch.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
the  soundness  of  the  trunk.  It  is.  lieuce,  not  an  in- 
tegral part  of  Judaism.  Nor  is  it  true  that  every 
law  is  binding.  Though  every  single  ordinance  has 
the  power  of  conferring  happiness  in  its  observance, 
it  is  not  true  that  every  law,  or  that  all  of  the  Law, 
must  be  observed,  or  that  through  the  neglect  of  one 
or  the  other  law,  or  of  any  part  of  the  Law,  the  .Tew 
violates  the  divine  covenant.  The  anti-Paulinian  drift 
and  point  of  this  contention  are  palpable. 

The  style  of  Albo's  work  is  rather  homiletic.  His 
lihraseology  suffere  from  i)rolixity ;  and  his  argu- 
mentation is  at  times  exceedingly  wearisome.  Never- 
theless, his  book  has  come  to  be  a  standard  popular 
treatise,  and  notwithstanding  the  .severe  polemics 
against  Albo.  made  by  Isimc  Abravanel  and  others, 
it  has  wielded  considerable  influence  in  shaping  the 


327 


THE   .IKWISII   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Albo.  Joseph 
Alcan,  F^Uz 


rclijti'niH  thoughts  aud  confirming  the  religious  bc- 
lit'ls  of  tho  Jews. 

[The  liist  edition  of  tlic  '"Ikkarim"  appeared  at 
.Siiiicino.  HM;  it  was  piihlislied  with  a  ooniinentary 
oiider  tile  title  of  "Olicl  Ya'akoli."  by  Jacob  ben 
8aiiiucl  Koppilnian  lien  Huiiein.  of  Brzese  (Kuya- 
via),  Freiburg,  loS-t,  and  with  a  larger  commentary 
('■  v./.  Slialwl  ")  by  (Jcdeliali  ben  Solomon  Lipschitz, 
Veniee.  lOlS.  From  tb<'  later  editions  the  passages 
conluiiiiMg  eritieismson  the  t'hristiun  creed,  in  Book 
JII.  eliaps.  x.w.,  xxvi.,  have  been  e.vpunged  by  the 
ciiisor.  while  Gilbert  Geiiebrard  wrote  a  refutation  of 
the  sime  with  valuable  notes.  This  refutation  was 
jiublished  with  his  own  remarks  by  the  renegade 
.lew  Claudius  Mai,  Paris.  lotiO  (see  .S<hlesinger's 
translation,  notes  on  p.  (i(ili).  The  "'Ikkarim"  has 
been  translate(l  into  (ierman  by  Dr.  \V.  Schlesinger, 
rabbi  of  Sul/liach.  and  his  brother,  L.  Schlesinger, 
wrote  an  introduction  to  tlic  same,  Fraiikfort-ou-the- 
Main,  \><U. 

A  very  favorable  view  of  Albo's  work  is  expressed 
hv  L.  Liiw,  "  IlaMafteah "  (Gross-Kanizsa),  pp. 
2ilC.--.M)S ;  Karpeles,  "Gescli.  der  .lild.  Lit."  pp. 
t<ir.-)H18;  Brami,  "Geseh.  der  Juden."  ii.  208,  and 
Bloeh,  in  Winter  and  Wilnsche,  "Gesch.  der  J  lid. 
I,it."  ii.  78T-T!)1).  As  to  Albo's  dependence  on 
Creseas,  Simon  Duran,  and  others,  see  ,M.  Joi'l.  "  Don 
Cha.sdai  Creseas"  Keligionsphilosopliische  Leliren," 
])]).  7(i-7H,  81,  Breslau,  1860;  Jaulus,  in  "Jlonats- 
schrift,"  1874.  pp.  4t)2  rt  wq. ;  IJrUll.  in  his  ".lahr- 
bUelier,"  iv,  52;  and  Seheehter,  in  "Studies  in  Juda- 
ism," pp,  107,  171,  :!)2,  and  notes  19  aud  24.       K.] 

Ilii(i.iof;R,\rMV;  TiinztT.  Dt*'  IttlitjiouitithiUntnphU'  iIca  Jnufph 
Alliii.  I'resliuiK.  I«»l:  Muiik.  .Wl(iii(;r,«.  p,."iOi  ;  (iriitz,  Gc.<c;i. 
il.Jwhn.M  iil..vill,  ll.i  .(  .V.  7,.  t,i;-I«7 :  M.  ELslpr,  IVrff. 
™ii(;i  II  lll„r  ilii-  Jli.l.  I'hilnx'iiihdi  ilc.1  Mitti:UttUrs.  111.  1S« 
lY  Hfi/.',  Kaufiiiiinii.  (it'tcit,  ilt'v  .tttri/iiiffii/t/irf.  Index.  «.r.; 
liliTii,  liii  Siiiiii:.  iiiili'.x.  ,s.i'.;  s.  Ilu(k,  Jtmcph  Alim.  Iln»lau, 
IStlB;  Slcwhtcr,  The  D<niina»  of  Judaiism,  111  Jew.  yi«i7-f. 
Her.  I.  13) <(  «<■</. 

E.  G.  H. 

ALBY  (ALBI) :  Ancient  cathedral  town,  capital 
of  the  (Ii  paitiiiriii  111  Tarn,  France,  forty -two  miles 
northeast  of  Toulouse.  It  gave  its  name  to  tho 
famous  Christian  .sect,  the  Albigenses,  wiiose  strug- 
gles against  the  Church  of  Koine  were  so  fatal  to  the 
Jews  of  ,southern  France.  At  the  council  licld  at 
Alby  in  12.")4  for  the  purpose  of  exterminating  the 
adherents  of  that  .sect,  the  most  barbarous  decrees 
were  promulgated  against  the  Jews.  In  1321)  the 
ginall  Jewish  community  of  Alby.  together  with  the 
communitiesof  Bordiau.x  and  othertowns.  wasanni- 
liilated  during  the  I'vsriii  ui;\rx  riots.  The  Jews, 
informed  of  the  advance  of  the  I'astoureaiix.  took 
refuge  in  C'astel-Narbonnais.  Hearing  that  the 
I'astoureaiix  hud  been  arrested  liy  the  <ount  of 
Toulouse,  they  left  the  cjistle.  The  mayor  des- 
patched to  them  a  relation  of  his  in  orih-r  to 
«helt<r  them  in  the  forlilied  town  of  Carcas.sonne ; 
but  tile  messenger,  animated  by  a  Imtri'd  of  the 
Jews,  delivered  tliem  to  their  enemy,  who  slaugh- 
tered them  all. 

Bini.ioiiK.irilY  :  Miiniliiri.  .Srr(ji(iir<»  Umim  Ilnlicnnim,  HI. 
(aV;  •t:mrk  lia-ltitliii.  e.l.  WK-ikt,  p.  tii. 

I.  Bii. 

ALCALA  DE  GUADAIRA :  .V  town  seven 
mills  I  asi  iif  Sivillr,  Spain  \{  one  lime  it  had 
II  small  Ji-wish  coininunity.  whose  synagogue  was 
ra/ed  liy  order  of  .Vrchdeacon  Fermnd  Marline/,  in 
Decenilier,  llilMl.  Its  members  snon  after  were  put 
to  the  sword.  JI.   K. 

ALCALA  DE  HEN  ARES  :  A  walled  town  in 
New  Casiilr,  Spain,  silimlid  uii  the  right  bank  of 
the   Ileuares.  about  seventeen  miles  from    .Mailrid; 


birthplace  of  Cervantes  (1547).  In  the  Middle  Ages 
its  Jewish  community  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  aichliishoii  of  Toledo,  who  exercised  the  right 
to  nominate  its  rabbis  aud  appropriated  part  of  the 
tjixes  thai  t  he  Jews  were  obliged  to  contribute,  which, 
in  1291.  amounted  to  0.800  maravedis  (about  §23,000) 
in  gold.  The  Oidiiianccof  Alcala, issued. in  1348,  by 
Alfonso  XI.  of  Castile,  is  well  known  for  its  impor- 
tant inlluciice  on  Spanish-Jewish  history.  The  com- 
munity of  Alcala  pos.ses.se(l  several  synagogues;  the 
largest  stood  on  the  Callede  la Xinoga  ("Synagogue 
Street"),  in  which,  as  well  as  in  the  Calle  jlayor 
("High  Street"),  the  .Jews  had  their  dwellings.  In 
the  courtyard  of  a  large  house  in  the  Calle  Mayor 
was  a  small  synagogue;  and  between  the  Calle  Jlayor 
and  the  Calle  de  Santiago  the  Jewish  slaughter-house 
was  situated.  Jlenahera  b.  Zerah  lived  here  as  rabbi 
from  l;!lil-08. 

A  convert.  Peio  Ferrus,  who  delighted  in  writing 
satirical  verses  u|ion  his  former  coreligionists,  once 
lampooned  the  rabbis  of  Alcala.  Ecjual  to  the  oc- 
casion, the  rabbis  answered  him  in  good  Castilian 
poetry  (Kayserling.  "  Sepliardini."  ]).  73;  Griltz, 
"Gesch.  (I.  Juden,"  2ded.,  viii.  82|.  From  the  Uni- 
versity of  Alealil  the  famous  Polj-glot  Bible  was 
issued  during  the  years  1514-17.  JIany  renegade 
Jews  had  a  share  in  the  compilation  of  tliis  extraor- 
dinary work,  which,  from  the  proximity  of  Com- 
plutum — an  ancient  Komau  town — was  called  also 
the  Comjilutensian  Bible.  The  most  prominent 
among  the  Jewish  collaborators  were  Alfonso  de 
Zainora.  who  lived  here  from  1514  to  1544  ;  and  Paulo 
('oronel  and  Alfonso  de  Alcala,  who  made  the  Latin 
translation.  The  inagniticent  palace  built  hereby 
Cardinal  Ximenez  of  Cisneros.  at  whose  expense  the 
work  was  undertaken,  until  recently  contained  the 
state  records;  and  in  its  spacious  halls  were  to  be 
found,  admirably  arranged,  the  records  of  the  vic- 
tims of  the  Iiu|iiisitiiin.  There  are  several  other 
cities  in  Spain  that  bear  the  name  Alcala. 

HiBLionR,iriiv  :  Ziinz,  In  Zcilfchrift  f.  <1.  WiMicnKcliaft  ilea 
Jwlt  tithiDit.f.  1.  l:iS:  Jai\t\Ki^  Simrefs (if  SiHtnush-Jewinh  Hi*- 
tiir//,  pp.  l-ll;  lifilctin  de  hi  Ileal  AeailemUi  ile  hi  Ilttt- 
liiria,  .wll.  1.S4  ct  Kca.;  Asher  b.  Jeblel,  Ite.-ptituxt,  No.  L'.  S  UW. 

M.   K. 

ALCALA  LA  REAL:  .V  town  in  Jaen.  Spain, 
which  sheltered  a  few  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
was  the  birthplace  of  Alfonso  de  Alcala.  so  piomineut 
in  the  preparation  i>f  the  Polyglot  Bible.      M.   K. 

ALCAN,  EUGENE:  French  litterateur,  painter, 
and  poet,  whoembraceil  Christianity;  born  in  Paris 
in  1811 ;  died  about  1898.  Ile  was  "a  brother  of  Al- 
plionse  Alkan;  but  the  reason  for  the  ililTereiiee  in 
the  orthography  of  the  family  name  has  never  been 
explained.  .Vlean  was  the  author  of  the  following 
works;  (l)"La  Legeiide  des  .\iiies  :  Souvenirs  de 
(^uehiues  Conferences  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul" 
(1879);  (2)  "  lji  Flore  Prinlaniere:  Souvenirsdu  Ber- 
ceauel  de  la  Premiere  Knfance"(  18.82);  (3)"  Ui  Flore 
du  Calvaire:  Trails  Canicteristii|Ues  de  (juel(|iies 
Voies  Douloureusi's"  (18.84);  (.()  "  Les  Cannibalesct 
Leiir  Temps:  .Souvenir  de  la  Campagnede  rOceiinle 
sousleCommandmit  .Marceau.  Capilainede  Fregato" 
(1887);  (5)  "Lestininds  Devouemenlsi't  I'lmpol  du 
Sang"  (I8!K));  and  (0)  "  Hecits  luslructifs  du  Pero 
Balihazar"  (|8!»2). 
niiii.i«iiii.\iMiv  :   I>e  (iulx-niutbi,  DIctlotniaIre  Inlcriiallunal 

ilei  AVriiioiii  ilii  Jiiiir,  s.v. 

V.U.  V. 

ALCAN,  FELIX  :  French  publisher  and  .scholar; 
born  at  Metz.  March  18.  IK-U  ;  gnindson  of  Gersoli 
Levy,  autiior  of  "Orgiie  el  Pioutim,"  and  son  of  a 
well'kuowu  publisheriil  Jlet/..     1  laving tluished  his 


Alcan,  Michel 
Alchemy 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


328 


stufiii's  lit  the  lyceum  of  liis  native  city,  he  entered 
the  fecole  Normnli'  Siiperieure  of  Paris  in  18(>2. 
When  he  left  it  in  ISti")  lie  beemne  a  lecturer  on 
mathematics  till  ISO!),  when  he  undertook  the  man- 
agement of  his  father's  piil)lisliin!:l)iisin<'ss  at  Metz. 
In  1872  he  went  to  Paris,  where  in  the  followinu;  year 
he  entered  the  oUl  ptihllsliinir-house  of  Girmerliail 
lifre,  of  which  he  became  the  head  in  ISsy.  In  l.SHO 
he  orijrinaled  a  series  of  school  hooks  for  use  in  the 
lyccmns;  this  series  embraced  works  on  science,  his- 
tory, ami  philosophy.  The  ]iiil)lications  of  his  firm 
include  the  most  considerable  works  on  iihilosophie 
subj<'(-ts  published  in  France.  In  189,")  he  was  cre- 
ated knij;ht  of  the  Leirion  of  Honor,  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Central  Committee  of  the  Alliance  Israel- 
ite Universelle, 

BiBI,iooR,»rilv  :  Gnbemalls,  Dictiniitiairr  Internalinnal  (hi 
i'ri-iniiiis  (In  Ji»«r,  1.  35,  3B. 

ALCAN,  MICHEL:  French  engineer,  politi- 
cian, and  author,  lioni  at  Donnelay,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Meurthr  el  .Mo.sellc,  France,  18(d  ;  died  at 
Paris,  1877.  Durin;;  his  youth  his  merits  as  a  mc- 
clianical  ciiirinecr  were  recofrni/.cd  l)y  the  Society 
of  the  Friends  of  Labor,  which  awardcil  to  him  its 
silver  medal.  In  Paris  he  took  part  in  the  polit- 
ical events  connectc<l  with  the  revolutions  of  18^0 
and  1848,  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  to  the 
National  Assembly,  and  voted  with  tin'  advanced 
political  party  called  "The  Mountain."  After  a 
brilliant  iiolitical  career,  he  resumed  his  early  studies 
and  graduated  from  the  ficole  Centraie  as  engineer. 
In  184,'«  he  was  appointed  [irofcssor  of  the  arts  of 
spinning  and  weaving  in  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts 
et  Metiers,  which  position  he  occupiecl  until  hisdeath. 
In  18,')9  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Jewish  Con- 
sistory of  Paris;  in  1867,  a  mendxr  of  the  CentiiU 
Consistory  in  place  of  Salomon  .Miuik. 

Amoni;  hi.s  works  are:  "Essid  sur  I'lndiistrie 
des  Matitres  Textiles."  1847;  2d  ed.,  18.59;  "La 
Fabrication  des  fetolTes,  Traite  Complet  de  la  Fila- 
ture du  Colon,"  1H64;  "Traite  du  Travail  des 
Laines,"  1866;  "Traite  du  Travail  des  Laines  Pei- 
gnees,"  1873,  etc, 

BlBLiooRAPHT:    La   Grntide   Encyclnpfdie,  s.v. ;  Archive." 
Isratlitc*,  1»77. 

J.  W. 

ALCAN,  MOYSE:  French  I'ublisherand  litter- 
ateur- born  in  1S17;  died  in  .Mc-I/,  May  14,  1869; 
father  of  the  Parisian  publisher  Feli.x  Alcan.  lie 
was  a  member  of  the  Jewish  consistory  of  Metz  and 
one  of  the  judges  of  the  Tribunal  of  Commerce.  Al- 
can contributed  to  the  "  Archives  Israelites  "  and  the 
"  Hevue  d'Aiistnisic"  a  number  of  poems,  sonatas, 
and  cantatas,  such  as  "Noema"  (1841);  "Ruth,"  a 
Biblical  hymn,  (h'dicated  to  Carmoly  (1843);  and 
"  Spartacns, "  a  cantata  performed  at  the  public  con- 
cert of  th(!  Sociele  de  I'Union  des  Arts,  at  Met/,  in 
18.52,  and  at  Damascus,  1860.  J,  W, 

ALCANIZ :  A  town  in  the  province  of  Teniel, 
Aragon,  Spain;  sitmited  sixty-three  miles  southeast 
of  Saragossa,  As  early  as  the  thirteenth  century 
Jews  were  resident  there.  The  grand  master  of 
the  Order  of  Calalrava,  to  whom,  in  1306,  the  king 
of  Aragon  had  ijresented  the  town,  received  under 
his  care,  with  the  king's  permission,  thirty  Jewish 
families,  presumably  refugees  fnmi  France  (Jacobs, 
"Sources,"  No.  914,  p.  .52,  and  the  other  documents 
listed,  il/id.  p,  24.5),  To  aid  in  the  conquest  of  Na- 
ples, the  .lews  of  Alcaiiiz  loaned  KiuL'  Alfonso  V.  the 
sum  of  2,22,5  florins  (ab(mt  SI, 120,  or  £224*  in  gold. 
At  the  disputation  in  Tortosa,  in  1413,  they  were  rep- 


resented by  Don  Josepli  Ardot  and  Don  Meir  Alcoya, 
In  Alcaniz  there  existed  a  law  which  imjiosed  a  line 
of  seven  suehlos  upon  any  Jew  who  wished  to  leave 
the  city  for  the  i)iirpose  of  settling  elsewhere, 

M,  K. 

ALCHEMY  :  The  undeveloped  chemistry  of  the 
.Middle  .\ges,  (  hamcteiized  by  belief  in  the  transnni- 
latioii  of  ba.se  metals  into  gold,  the  diseovery  of  a 
panacea,  etc,  Tnices  of  Ihe  connection  of  Jews  with 
the  science  of  Alclxniy  are  very  scanty  in  Hebrew 
lilenilure.  Not  a  singli' disiinginshed  adept  is  found 
who  has  left  in  a  Hebrew  form  traces  of  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject.  There  is,  however,  scarcely  a 
single  im])ortant  ancient  work  upon  the  science  which 
is  not  directly  related  to  the  Jews,  with  their  tradi- 
tions anil  their  science.  Alchemy,  like  others  of  the 
exact  ,scienccs,  sulTcredfrom  Ihe  introduction  of  for- 
eign elements,  and  developed  from  a  more  or  less 
secret  science  belonging  to  a  partictdar  craft,  into  a 
mysterious  science  dealing  with  changes  in  the  or- 
ganic as  well  as  the  metallic  world.  From  the  art  of 
gihling,  it  became  that  of  the  gold maker;  passing 
from  the  simple  solutions  and  chemical  baths  useil 
in  the  goldsmith's  workshop,  it  aimed  atcom|)ound- 
ing  the  elixir  of  life  and  the  philoso|dier's  stone.  In 
the  evolution  of  Alchemy  there  ar(^  at  least  thrive 
epochs:  The  first,  the  (iieek  and  Egyptian  period; 
the  secon<l,  Ihe  Ambic  of  the  Middle  Ages;  and  the 
last,  or  modern,  period,  extending  from  the  sixteenth 
century  to  the  present  day.  Undoubtedly  the  home 
of  Alchemy  was  Egypt;  an<l  the  researches  of  I5er- 
tlielot  show  conclusively  that  the  ancient  Egyjilian 
tradition  conceriung  Alchemy  has  survived  ])olilical 
changes  and  been  preserved  in  asuiprisingly  correct 
form  in  Greek,  ohl  Uoman.  and  medieval  tradition. 

Alchemy  had  already  in  the  second  or  third  cen- 
tury assumed  a  mystical  and  magical  character, 
exempliticd  in  such  recijies  as  appear  in  the  ma.iric 
papyii.  The  whole  syncretism  of  the  East — Jewish 
and  Egyptian  gnosis.  Greek  mysteries,  and  Ophite 
s|)cculations  —  combineil  to  produce  a  cMrrenI  of 
thought  which  atTecled  every  mental  jiroducticin  of 
the  age.  They  were  all  thrown  into  the  sanuL'  ali'in- 
bic;  and  the  result  was  ex])ected  to  be  another  kind 
of  philosopher's  stone — a  stone  that  could  change 
this  base  mundane  life  into  one  of  ethereal  spiritu- 
ality. Alchemy  partook  of  the  same  iieculiarity, 
Gods  of  the  Pantlieon,  with  Hermes  at  their  head, 
the  godsof  Egypt.  Ihe  patriarchs  and  ]u-ii|iliets  were 
pressed  into  the  service  of  magic  and  Alchemy.  .V 
whole    series    of    so-called    pscudepi- 

Pseud-  graphic  writings  exist,  though  th<-y 
epigraphic  are  not  all  of  a  purely  religious 
■Writings,  character.  To  be  great  in  one  depart- 
ment meant  to  be  great  in  every  de- 
partment— in  the  knowledge  of  all  th<'  mysteries. 
Hence  all  of  the  sa.ffcsof  the  past  were  credited  with 
such  knowledge,  and  were  considered  as  authors  of 
books  containing  the  information  sought.  Ailaiu  luid 
Abndiam  have  in  their  turn  been  described  as  authors 
of  aUhenustic  treatises,  and  Moses  is  repeatedly  met 
with  as  the  author  of  such  works.  To  Moses  are  as- 
cribed the  Greek  treatise  known  as  "Diplosis"  (that 
is,  the  art  of  doubling  the  weight  of  gold),  and  the 
treatise  "The  Chemistry  of  Jlo.ses "  (dealing  with 
metallurgy  1.  publisheil  by  Berthelot  in  his  "Collec- 
tion des  Anciens  Alchinustes  Grecs,"  Paris,  18x7-88. 
ii,  3(t0-315,  iii.  287-301.  In  the  Greek  manuscript 
of  St.  Mark  of  the  ninth  century  Z':simos  quotes  long 
passages  from  "The  Chemistry  of  Moses." 

More  important  than  these  texts  is  the  one  pre- 
served in  tlie  magical  papyri  of  Leyden,  especially 
papyrus  11'  which  contains  many  such  chemical 
recipes,  probably  the  oldest  known.     Among  other 


329 


THE  Jf:\VISII  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alcan,  Michel 
Alchemy 


powers  and  ti^iis  are  mentioned  Abraham.  Isjiae. 
Jacob,  the  an.ircl  Michael,  and  th<' Temple  of  Jeni- 
Siileni.  This  work  is  lh<-  so  called  "Kiirlilh  Hook  of 
Moses."  or  "The  Kej'  of  Moses":  the  prototype  for 
so  many  subse<|uent  mairical  cliiririihr,  containinj; 
recipes  intei  ininirled  with  invocations  and  iiican- 
talions.  These  recipes  in  the  papyrus  and  in  llie 
"  Book  of  Moses  "  are  identical  with  those  attributed 
to  Pseiido- Demetrius,  and  belong  to  a  imrticular  class 
of  practical  recipes  (Hertlielot.  l.r.  iii.  2M8.  notel. 
Many  of  these  recipes  of  practical  metalluriry  are 
to  be  found  in  the  Latin  ci/nijiimilii'iHx  of  the  eijrhth 
century.  The  dale  of  the  above-naniid  pa|)yrus  is 
of  the  second  or  third  century  (eoni|iare  liiithelot. 
"  La  Chimie  au  Moyen  Ajre."  i.  OTi.  Berlhelot  refers 
to  this  work  and  lo  similar  ones  in  order  to  show 
the  Jewish  oriu'ln  of  .some  portions  of  it  (Hertlie- 
lot, "  Lcs  Oriirines  de  I'Alehimie."  pp.  53-57.  F'aris. 
1885).  Kin^r  Solomon  also  comes  in  for  a  share  in 
the  history  of  Alchemy  ;  and  his  "  Labyrinth  "  is  one 
of  iIk'  old  formula'  wliich  have  survived.  Johanan 
Alemanno.  in  his  "llcshek  Shelonioh "  (Solomon's 
Desire)  mentions  a 
book  of  Alchemy  as 
the  work  of  Solo- 
mon (.see  Steinschnei- 
der,  "Cat.  Bodl." 
under  "Solomon," 
col.  2296).    One  who 

lived     mudi    larlier      cs-r~\-^  '-^^        Li£ 

had     been     credited        > — - — <  r,^^     y\        f\ 
with    the  knowled-e        \JLS<I^ d-^<i  ^X 

of    chanfiin,!;   copper  ~       r"Qy~l  f"^^ 

into  j;ol(i ;    The  name        Jt  ^i,,.^-^      j        \  Q_Lj 
of  Me-zahab.   H.    V.  ~  ■-- ^  ^ 

("Waters  of  Gold"; 
Gen.  xxxvi.  39),  was 
interpreted  to  mean 
— according  to  Ibn 
E/ra  in  his  conunen- 
lary  on  the  passajje 
— that  "he  trans- 
muted copper  into 
gold." 

Of  a  far  less  legend- 
ary character  than  all 

tliese  seems  to  have  been  the  .Jewess  Mahia.  who. 
nccording  to  Iloefer.  madeon<-  of  the  most  important 
discoveries  in  chemistry,  for  she  is  said  lo  have  dis- 
eoviTed  hydrochloric  acid.  Her  name 
Maria  the    survives   in    the  /inluiiiiii  nmriiv,  the 

Jewess.  lull II -mil He — a  waler-bath  extensively 
used  in  chemical  jirocesses  in  which 
Rentle  heat  is  necessary  ;  see  cut.  page  331.  Jlanfjct, 
in  his  "  HibliotheeaChenncaCuriosa  "  (Geneva.  1702), 
imblishes  (vol.  ii  .  plate  x  iii  .  lig.  (i)  Ihe  njiiiihiliin  of 
"Maria  llebnea  .Moysis  Sornr  "  (si'ecul  on  ne.\l  page). 
She  is  thus  identi lied  with  .Miriam,  Ihesisler  of  Moses. 
On  the  other  liaiiil.  Oslanes.  one  of  Ihi'  oldest  (ireek 
writers,  mentions  her  as  "the  daughter  of  the  king 
of  Saba"  (Hirt  helot,  "  IjiChindeau  Moyen-Age.  "  iii. 
125).  Ill  the  .Mexaniler  book  (2(1  pari)  of  the  Per- 
sian poet  Ni/aini.  Maria,  a  Syrian  primcss.  visits 
IIk' court  of  .\le\ander  the  Great,  and  learns  from 
Arislotli'.  among  other  things,  the  art  of  nniking 
gold  (see  ISaclxr.  "  I.ebeii  und  Werke  Ni/.ami's."  ed. 
1871,  p.  7(1).  Whatever  the  epoch  of  Maria  may  have 
l>een,  her  existence  is  a  positive  fact;  anil  since  she 
was  mentioned  by  Ostanes,  she  beUings  lliiis  to  Ihe 
Urst  period.  Very  extensive  abslmcts  of  h<T  alclie 
mistic  works  are  given  by  Zosimiis.  the  greatest  of 
the  Greek  alclieiuist.s. 

Syriac    translations   from  tlie  Gre<'k   (Berlhelot, 
"ColU-ction  lies  Aneiens  Alchiinistes  Gifcs,"  ii.  107, 


Appamtus  U 

(From  iiiaiiuM-rl|it  Id 


iii.  252),  and  then  into  Arabic — or.  as  it  is  often 
Stat  I'd.  into  Hebrew — lead  from  the  tirst  to  the  second 
perind.  Kalid  b.  Ja.siki — that  is.  Khalid  b.  Ya/.id 
(died  708) — figures  as  the  oldest  alchemist :  and  Ber- 
lhelot does  not  question  liis  exi.stencc.  The  follow- 
imrwork  is  attributed  to  him:  "Liber  Secretorum 
Arlis  .  .  .  ex  Ilebraoin  Araliicum  ct  ex  Arabico  in 
Latinuni  versus  Incerto  Interprele."  This  treatise 
has  often  been  n-jiriiited :  in  Manget,  "Bibliotheca 
C'heniica."  ii.  1H3,  and  in  the  "Thealrum  f'heinicum," 
V.  18(5.  Strasburg,  IGliO.  Steinschneider  ("  Hebr. 
Uebers."  pj).  852.  853)  doubts  the  existence  of  a 
translation  from  "the  Hebrew  into  Latin."  as  he  has 
not  seen  it.  and  believes  the  slaleiiieiit  to  be  an  in- 
vention of  the  alchemists.  Such  a  translation  may 
have  belli  made  from  the  Arabic  into  Helircw.  as 
other  treatises  are  in  existence  of  which  heretofore 
not  the  slighlesl  indication  had  been  found. 

The  Jewish  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  ac- 
((uainted  with  this  science.  Judali  ha  Levi  mentions 
it  in  his  "Cuzari  "  (iii.  chap.  liii.).  Maimonides  knew 
the  writings  of  Hermes  ("  Moreli."  iii.  chap,  xxix., 

w  herealsoothersinii- 
lar  pseudepigniphic 
treatises  are  men- 
tioned); in  the  sjime 
chapter  Maimonides 
speaks  of  the  Sa- 
beans,  whose  statues 
of  Ihe  planets  corre- 
si)oiiiI  to  the  seven 
iiicials  and  the  seven 
cliiiiales. 

Gerson  b.  Solomon, 
the  author  of  Ihe 
compendium  "Sha'ar 
ha  Shamavim."  gives 
a  succinct  description 
of  the  fundamental 
theory  of^".Mkinii- 
iiiya "  (ii.  chap,  ii.), 
being  the  science  of 
changing  base  metals 
into  gold.  Gerson  de- 
rived all  his  knowl- 
cd.sre  on  the  subject 
from  Hebrew  translations  of  Arabic  writings  (see 
Steinschneider.  "  Helir.  I'lbers."  pp.  9  tt  xei/.). 

Of  the  next  important  Arabic  writer.  .Mail  Kasim 
Majrili  (tenth  century),  only  a  fragment  of  the  He- 
brew  translation    has  been    l>reserved 
till-    Munich   niannscript.  Xo.  214, 


^  I        '       —^Uiuiiv-ii^Mliltj^-* 

CD.. 


sod  In  Alchemy. 

poMVMli'n  -f  Dr.  Guter.) 


Known 
to  Jewish 
Writers. 


D:nn  n'^sn  ( "  The  .vim  of  the  Wise  ") 
— a  kind  of  a  compendium  made  by 
an  anonymous  writer  of  the  four- 
teenth century  containing  merely  the  magical  por- 
tion, and  omitting  the  first  part,  which  dealt  with 
.VIchemy  (see  Steinselineider,  "Zur  Pseiidepigni- 
pliischen  Literatnr. "  pji.  28-51.  and  "Hebr.  rebers." 
pp.  8.")3-8.")-l\.  This  manuseript  contains,  in  addition, 
an  alcheinistic  treatise  ascribi'd  lo  Maimonides.  and 
brielly  described  by  Steinschneider  ("/ur  Psi'ud- 
epignipliisehen  Litenitur."  pp.  2(l-27i.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  letter,  as  so  many  alehenii.'ts'  writings 
often  are. 

.\l  the  bottom  of  the  last  page  (the  wliole  number- 
ing four  leaves:  folio,  29/1-3.1/1)  there  is  a  note  by 
tin-  Spanish  owner  of  the  niaiiuseripl  describing  ii 
met  111  M I  of  tmnsinutalioii  of  silver  into  gold.  «  hicb  he 
i-laims  lo  have  taken  from  an  old  book.  This  nianu- 
.scripl — which,  according  to  SteiiiHclmeider.  belongs 
to  the  lifteenlh  eenlurv — contains,  furthermore,  a 
treatise  on  divination  i>y  means  of  the  palm-ln-e, 
ascribed  to  a  certain  .Mm  .Mtah  al  Samkiisti;  il  is 


Alchemy 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


330 


Abul 

Kasim 

and 


describvtl  in  Uelail  by  bU'iuscliueitU-r  (p.  IJ).  He 
was  known  in  the  fourleentli  century  to  I'roliat 
Diinui  anil  cspciiiilly  li>  .lolianan  Alrniamiu.  the 
teacher  of  Piei>  di  .Mii'!in(h)h;.  of  the  lifteenlh  cen- 
tury. Abu  Allah  states  thai  he  derived  his  knowl- 
edge from  the  writings  of  King  Solomon  the  Jew, 
thus  connecting  his  science  with  old  Ilihrew  tradi- 
tion. From  the  same  author  a  trealisc  on  Alchemy 
is  mentioned,  by  Alemanno,  of  wliich  he  made  a 
copy  in  his  "Likiiutim"  (Collectanea) 
in  the  Hebrew  translation.  From  this, 
Abraham  Jagil — end  of  the  si.xteenlh 
century;  afterward  called  Camillo  Ja- 
Abu  Afiah.  gel.  author  of  the  well-known  Hebrew 
catechi.sm  "Lekal.i  Tob "  (The  Good 
Doctrine  ) — made  an  abstract  in  his  manuscript "  Bet 
Ya'ar  ha-Lebanon."  I.  S.  Keggio.  the  lirst  possessor 
of  this  manuscript,  published  a  portion  of  thisalche- 
mistie  treatise  of  Abu  Allah  in  "  Ken m  Hemed,"  ii. 
-4(>— !8.  V.  41-.'):5,  limiting  himself  to  the  historical  in- 
troduction, in  which  it  is  set  forth  that  the  work  is 
really  that  of  a  certain  "  Sum  "  (JOD)  who  had  married 
the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Saba;  his  widow  is  the 
Biblical  queen  of  Shcba.  and  she  brought  the  knowl- 
edge of  this  stone — or  other  material  which  changed 
cverj'thing  into  gold — to  Solomon,  who  then  wrote 
it  down  in  the  book  now  translated  by  Abu  Allah. 

.Jagel  also  wrote  a  chapter  on  the  philosopher's 
stone  in  the  s;ime  work,  part  iv.,  quoted  above  (see 
"Bikkure  ha-Ittim,"  1828,  i.\.  14).  The  transla- 
tion of  the  book  on  the  palm-tree  was,  according  to 
Steinschneider  ("Hebr.  Ucbers."  p.  849),  made  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  It  is  dated  1391,  and  the 
author  may  have  been  the  sjime  who  translated 
Majriti's  work  (i'A.  p.  854);  in  both  cases  the  trans- 
lation has  evidently  been  made  from  the  Anil>ic. 
The  treatise  ascribed  to  Plato  in  the  same  Munich 
manuscript  is  of  a  magic  character.  Steinschneider 
mentions  furlher,  in  "Code.v  Berlin,''  70.  2,  a  short 
treatise  of  oidy  three  pages  on  a  subject  somewhat 
akin  to  Alchemy,  "jialeket  Me  ha  Zahab "  (The 
Art  of  the  Waters  of  Gold).  See  "Cat,  Berlin,'"  i. 
46,  and  Steinschneider.  "  Ilebr.  Uebcrs. "  p.  9(i7. 

The  "Codex  Paris."  Xo.  1'20T.  contains,  on  some 
blank  leaves,  made  by  a  late  author,  a  Hebrew  trans- 
lation of  the  treatise  "  Quinta  Ks.sentia,"  written  by  a 
certain  "Honian."  Stein.schneicler("  Hebr.  I'ebcrs." 
p.  824)  thinks  it  identical  with  the  I  realise  of  P.seudo- 
Baymond  Lully,  "  Liber 
de  Secretis  Xatura',"  or 
"Quinta>  Essenti.T."  His 
aUhemistic  writings — that 
is  to  say,  those  ascribed  to 
him — are  printed  in  full 
by  Mangel,  "Bibliotheca 
Chemica  Curiosa,"  i,  707- 
911.  With  Abraham  de 
Portaleone's  "De  Auro, 
Dialogi  Tres"  (Venice, 
l.")14),  the  end  of  all  that 
has  hitherto  been  written 
on  tlie  subject  is  appar- 
ently reached. 

An  important  manu- 
script has,  however,  come 
into  possession  of  the  wri- 
ter of  this  article  which 
turns  out  to  be  a  complete  collection  of  alchemistic 
works.  This  manuscript — written  in  1690,  some- 
where in  the  East  or  possibly  Moroeco.in  a  tine  Span- 
ish hand — isas  complete  a  hihli'tithten  (ih-lumirn  Jiida- 
ica  as  one  could  desire.  It  is  evidently  a  copy  of  a 
much  older  manuscript,  as  the  copyist  hasoften  sug- 
gested corrections  on  the  margin.  "  It  consists  of  two 


Mm\HEBMA 

M^j'lf  Joror 

The  Inventor  of  the  Bajn- 
Marie. 

(From  MaoKvt,  *'  Blbliothrca 
Chemica  Curloaa.") 


parts:  the  first  embracing  the  Greek-Arabic  period, 
with  possibly  one  exception  ;  the  second,  the  alche- 
mists of  the  Latin  world.  A  l;irge  luimber  of  alche- 
mists are  mentioned  here  of  whom  no  mention  is  made 
el.se  where,  and  the  identiticalion  either  of  the  authors 
or  of  the  works  of  which  abstracts  are  given  in  the 
Hebrew  compilation  is  extremely  dillicult.  In  not 
few  cases  I  hey  have  defied  ideutilicat  ion.  The  trend 
of  the  work  is  more  in  the  direction  of  pmctical 
chemistry  and  of  precise  indications  of  the  manner  iu 
which  chemical  operations  are  conducted.  It  resem- 
bles the  so-called  ".Vviccnna"  of  medieval  Ijitin  texts. 
Its  completeness  nK-rits  a  tolerably  full  description. 
Pa.ssing  through  many  hands,  the  original  names  have 
been  corrupted,  and  "thus  the  dilliculty  of  idenlitica- 
tiou  is  increased.  That  this  compilation  is  old  is  shown 
by  the  fact  also  that  we  find  here  the  alchemistic 
treatise  of  .Vbu  .Mlah  al  .Sarakusti.  of  which  Ale- 
manno had  made  llie  abstract  mentioned  above.  It 
agrees  absolutely  with  the  manuscript. 

The  manuscript  begins  with  a  short  note  about 
the  "Moon.''  In  alchemistic  terminology  the  moon 
is  equivalent  to  silver,  and  the  sun  to 
An  Impor-  gold.  The  ne.xt  chapter  deals  with 
tant  Man-  ".Moon  and  Sun";  not  a  few  treatises 
uscript.  ascribed  to  (ieber  have  the  same  title 
(compare  "  Dc  Mas.sa  Solis  ct  Lume," 
"Thcatrum  Chemicum,"  v.  429).  Then  follows  a 
prescription  entitled  "La'alot  ha-Zahab"  (evidcntlj' 
a  recipe  for  making  gold,  a  "chrvsopoia'a  ").  Now 
comes  the  treatise  oi'  Abu  Allah  in  full,  with  nil  the 
details  that  Reggio  omitted  when  publishing  Jagel's 
abstract.  The  next  chapter  is  by  tlie  author  of  many 
anonymous — and.  as  a  rule,  old — treatises  found  in 
Manget  and  in  the  "Theatrum  Chemicum."  The 
chapter  followin,!;  is  ascribed  to  a  certain  Johanan 
"  -Vshprniantt. "  This  curious  name  seems  to  indicate 
the  Greek  alchemist  "  Johamies  Archipresbytcr,"  or 
according  to  medieval  Greek,  "  Archiprett."  After 
these  follows  a  compendium  of  fourteen  books, 
counted  as  such,  and  each  one  taken  from  a  different 
author.  The  first  is  called  "Asluta."  a  name  else- 
where iniknown,  but  which  may  be  identical  with  the 
mythical  "Sastiton"  mentioned  in  connection  with 
another  alchemistic  or  mystical  work  ascribed  to 
King  Solomon  and  quoted  bv  Alemanno  (see  Stein- 
schneider, "Cat,  Bodl."  col.  2297).  This  "Sastiton" 
is  probably  "Ostanes."  the  great  alchemist,  whose 
name  is  often  written  in  medieval  Latin  te.xts  "  As- 
tanes."  The  last  twoletters  were  afterward  misread 
in  the  Hebrew  into  one  by  the  copyist  or  by  the 
writer  of  the  older  original.  In  this  treatise  is  men- 
tioned a  master  called  "Humash"  or  "Homcsh"; 
unquestionably  Hermes  is  meant.  The  corruption 
wasdiie  to  the  Hebrew  transliteration  (K'0')n=cj^n). 
About  Ostanes,  see  Berthelot  ("Chimie  au  Moyen- 
Age,"  iii.  13,  116).  Book  ii.  is  ascribed  to  "Aliberto 
JIanyo  "  (Albertus  Magnus).  The  oldest  Latin  man- 
uscript of  Alchemy  of  the  fourteenth  century — 
studied  in  detail  by  Berthelot  (I.e.  vol.  i.) — shows 
a  marked  similarity  with  this  compilation  (ibid.  pp. 
•2mct  m/.). 

Book  iii.  is  ascribed  to  "Spros"  (unknown);  Book 
iv..  to  "Aristotle";  Simon  Duran  (died  142."))  knew 
a  treatise  written  by  Aristotle  on  four  hundred  stones 
and  chemical  iireparations  (see  Steinschneider,  "Zur 
I'seudepigraph.  Lit."  p.  82,  Nos.  1  and  8).  For  a 
treatise  of  "Aristotle  "  agreeing  more  with  this  text, 
see  Manget  ("Bibliotheca."  i.  638-6.50;  and  also 
"Theatrum  Chemicum."  v.  880-893).  The  sixth 
book  is  ascribed  to  "Yebcr,"  the  Pseudo-Geber 
(compare  Manget,  "  Summa  Perfectionis  ^lagisterii," 
i.  519;  and  also  Berthelot.  "Chimie  au  Moyen-Age," 
iii.  149).     Of  the  authors  of  the  following  books. 


331 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alchemy 


"Arctunis"  (book  vii.)i8  unkuown.  "  Arclieliios  " 
(l)i«)k  viii. )  is,  ou  tliu  cohiiuit,  often  riieiilioiii'd 
\>y  ancient  alelieniisls.  Book  i.\.  is  the  book  of 
'■  Light."  It  may  l)e  the  transhition  of  ■■f>|)eeiiluni," 
u  name  borne  by  many  works,  sucli  as  Hoger  Bacon's 
and  Geber's;  or  it  may  be  tlie  "Liber  Lweis"  of 
.Joan  (le  Hiipescissa  (Manget,  ii.  S4-f<T ;  and  "Thea- 
trnni  Chemieum,"  1059,  iii.  •2M4-2!I2).  13onk  x.  is  by 
"Irimans  (if  Kostantina'" — probably  Morienus,  or 
liy  his  full  name,  Morienus  Romanus.  Book  xi.  deals 
with  the  "'riiirly  Paths."  Book  xii.,  "Avisiua,"  is 
Avii(  una.  A  methodical  practical  treatise  in  the 
old  F-atin  manuscript  of  the  fourteenth  century 
bears  liis  name  (Berthelot,  I.e.  i.  293).  This  Latin 
text — which  i.s,  according  to  Berthelot,  the  source  of 
the  aldiemistio  sections  in  Vincenlius  of  Beauvais's 
work  ■■  Speculum  Xaturale" — is  of  special  interest, 
as  in  it  is  found  an  interpolated  list  of  alchemists, 
amotiL'   wbcim  arc  "Isaac  the  Jew,"  and  a  certain 


A  double  glossary  of  Arabic  and  Gre«»k  words  con- 
cludes this  lirsi  part  of  the  manuscript,  in  which,  with 
the  e.\cei)tion  of  Albertus  Magnus,  all  the  authors 
mentioned  belong  to  the  Greek-Arabic  period  as  re- 
flected in  compilations  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
To  a  later  peri(«l  belong  the  authors  of  the  second 

"  Collection  "  (?7l3).  as  it  is  called  in  the  manuscript. 
It  must  sullice  to  mention  mereh'  the  names,  as  only  a 
few  of  them  are  prominent  and  known  elsewhere  as 
authorities  in  Alchemy.   The  list  begins 
Contents      with   "Mcstre   Arnafdes"  —  Arnaldus 
of  Second    de  Villanova  (flourished  130(1).    Many 
Collection,    of  his  works  have  been  translated  into 
Hebrew    (sec   Stcinschneider,   "  Hebr. 
Ucbers. "  pp.  77«  el  acq. ,  under  "  Arualdes  "  in  the  in- 
dex), but  outside  of  this  manuscript  no  trace  has  been 
found  of  the  alchemistic  writings.      For  the  Latin 
texts,  see  Manget,  I.e.  i.  6G2-70G ;  "  Thealrum  Chemi- 
eum," 1(559,  iii.  118-130,  and  iv.  515  (7  «7.     "Joane 


1)A1.\-M.\RIK   AS   rSKD   DY   ALCMKMISTS 

(FrcHii  Man^i't,  "  Bibli.ilhrc*  ChemlcA  Curi(«a.  "i 


"Jacob,  a  philciscjpher,"  who  played  important  roles. 
A  pdpe  is  also  inenti(med;  anil  among  the  authors 
in  the  manuscript  is  also  "The  I'ope." 

The  1 k  of  "  Ka/.is  "  —  here  book  xiii.  —  is  found 

also  in  the  oM  Latin  manuscript:  only  the  text  has 
been  divided  into  I  wo  sections,  of  which  the  lirsI  is 
ascribed  to  ".Vbubaiar"  and  the  si'ciind  to  "Ra/.is" 
(Berlhelot,  l.r.  i.  300-310,  311).  The  second  treatise 
is  identical  with  the  one  that  goes  iinderthe  name  of 
Aristotle  in  "Theatrum  Chemieum"  (iii.  50)  as  "Do 
Perfeelo  Magisleriii,"  while  Bazis'  treatise  has  the 
title"  Lumen  huminis."  anil  I  hat  of  .\bubacar  "  Liber 
Secnlorum."  The  last  bonk,  xiv.,isas(ril)e<l  lol'lato. 
In  the  l.alin  mainiscripl  of  the  fourteenth  century 
analehi'mislic  Inatise  wasas(  libed  lol'latounilcTthir 
name  of  "  Anagnensis,"  i)r(>bably  conni'cted  with  the 
"  .N'limes"  of  I'lato  (sc>e  St<iii.schneider,  "Ziir  I'seud- 
c'pigraphischen  Lileratiir,"  p.  52.  and  his  "Hebr.  Uc- 
bers." p.  S|9).  In  "Theatrum  Chiniicum."  V.  101  e< 
»>/..  is  also  published  "I'lalnnis  I.ibri  (jualuor  cum 
Conunenti)  llebuhabes  Hameil:  K\plicalus  ab  Hes- 
tole."  It  dilTers  somewhat  fnun  the  llebrew  text,  and 
is  menliiined  hiir-  In  le.use  l!i  rlhc'lol,  in  speaking  cif 
this  treatise  of  i'lalo  (fi>unit  also  in  the  ohl  Uitin 
manu.scripl ).  pointed  to  the  "Aron  nosier."  referred 
lo  in  the  comnienlary  as  bi'ing  a  Jew.  This  is  doubt  - 
f«l.  however,  as  lie  Is  not  nientioneil  as  "Judieus." 


Ashkenazi  "  is  then  mentioned;  perhaps  "Theodoni- 
cus"  or  "Theotonicus."  whose  name  was  afterward 
changed  liy  jKipular  etymology  into  "Teutonicus" 
(see  Berlhelot,  l.r.  i.  71)."  "Me.s.sir  I'iero  Dabano  "  is 
none  niherlhan  the  famous  Petrus  Bonus,  aulhorof 
the"  MargaritaPretiosa"(Mauget,/.c,  ii.  1-79;  "Thea- 
trum Chemieum,"  1000.  V.  507).  Less  known,  or  per- 
haps unknown,  are  the  following  names  mentioned 
in  this  part  of  the  manuscript  (accompanying  each 
some  short  abslmct  is  given):  Nieolo  d'lnglitera. 
"  who  had  left  Kngland  together  with  his  art  "  ;  Mes- 
lero  r.rni.mo  de  Normandia;  Slesser  Andrea  dc  Na- 
piili ;  BarlnlomiMidalTempio;  ^lesser  (iuasparedelln 
Bdlonva:  Crislofano  della  Bcilonya;  Mes.ser  Joane 
liolrici;  Kniti'  Klia  ("llilia,"  "Alia,"  occurs  very 
ofl<'n;  a  certain  Ylia  is  mentioned  in  Plato's  "Quar- 
loriim"!:  Mes.ser  Siinone  I{eco,  who  had  "niailethc 
white  vestmelil  "  ;  (lUlielmoda  .Monte  Pola.seno.  The 
la.ston  th<'  list  is  a  certain  "  Boniilo,"  who  speaks  on 
the  "  Parlikolare."  This  name  is  the  only  om-  that 
might  help  til  llx  the  time  and  placeof  this  ci>ni|iila' 
lion.  In  fnlio  130/>  the  fnllowing  statement  appears: 
"These  arliliees  were  given  me  by  Mestro  Yacopo 
Davinisia  (/'.<■..  Jacob  of  Yenice>,  who  performed 
them  in  Home  befnre  IheCardinal  della  Coionna,  and 
I  have  given  him,  for  leaching  them  lo  me,  sixty 
llorius."  IJiforluiHitelv  there  were  fourteen  cardinals 


Alchemy 
Alcoholism 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


332 


of  tlie  immo  Collin  nil  between  the  years  123()iin<l  1065 
— llie  latest  possitile  iliilc  for  this  nmniiseript.  wliitli 
is  11  copy  nmde  in  ItiWO.  The  reference  to  Home, 
tlumgli  explicit  enoii!;li.  may  refer  only  to  the  place 
where  Yacopo  hail  heen,  1ml  is  not  siitlicieiit  to  place 
the  author  of  the  compilalion:  it  points  to  Italy,  at 
any  rate,  as  his  possible  home.  The  manuscript  was 
evidently  compileil  by  a  man  who  l<ncw  one  or  more 
of  the  Humaiicc  lani;iiajj;es  Ix'siilis  Latin:  Italian  anil 
Ijatin  worils  occur  tliroujihout  the  book.  It  is  shown 
besiilesin  the  form  of  the  proper  uaines  of  the  authors, 
and  of  the  names  of  ins^redient  metals,  etc.,  although 
they  may  just  as  well  be  considered  as  Catalan  or 
even  Provencal.  It  is  an  admitted  fact  that  some  of 
the  oldest  translations  of  alchemistic  writinirs  have 
been  iuthese  laiiguafres.  In  the  wniksaltribulid  to 
Lully,  quotalions  in  Provencal  are  found.  In  fact, 
all  the  oldest  translations  were  made  in  Spain  or 
Provence  (sec  licrthilot.  /.<■.  i.  (U>,  and 

Date  of      note),  and  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth 

Compila-  century.  One  of  the  oldest  is  that 
tion.  made  by  Morienus,  in  11S2,  while  no 
Latin  nuinusirii)ts  earlier  than  18()0are 
known  to  exist  (//'/(/.  j).  232).  Undoubtedly  the  liist 
books  formiii};  the  foremost  part  of  the  inainisiri|)t 
were  translated  in  Spain,  cither  from  Ariibic  or  from 
Latin.  Probably  all  the  rest  were  translated  from  the 
latter  lanjiuajie,  at  a  period  prior  to  the  time  of  Jo- 
hanan  Alemanno,  or  before  the  en<l  of  the  lifteiiitb 
century  ;  for,  as  stated  above,  he  copied  the  portion  of 
Abu  Atlahin  his  collectanea.  Anotherproof  of  an  ear- 
lier period  than  the  fifteenth  century  for  the  orij^inal 
comjiilation  lies  in  the  fact  that  notasinglealchemist 
who  is  known  to  have  lived  after  that  time  is  men- 
tioned in  the  text.  The  absence  of  all  the  magic 
symbols  is  another  proof  for  the  early  date  of  the 
compilation,  as  these  symbols  foimd  in  old  Greek 
manuscripts  disappear  front  the  Latin  and  Arabic 
writings  up  to  the  fifteenth  century  (Herthelot, 
I.e.  iii.  10).  Its  date  must  therefore  be  placed  be- 
tween 1800  and  1450.  Jloreover,  the  author  luust 
have  been  an  adejit;  for  on  one  occasion  he  remarks 
(folio  18()/<)  that  Cristofano  della  Bolcmya  "bad  op- 
erated in  our  house."  One  might  feel  inclined  to 
ascribe  this  comjiilation  to  Alemanno,  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  he  would  not  in  that  case  have  copied 
the  siime  text  separately  into  his  collectanea ;  besides 
which  there  is  the  fact  that  a  profound  difTcrence  ex- 
ists between  these  alchemistic  treatises  and  Picodella 
Mirandola's  "Opus  Annum  "  (.Manget,  Lc.  ii.  558- 
5^5;  "Theatrum  Chemicum"  (lG02),"ii.  357;  (1659), 
pp.  ?tV2 (t  !<i<i.).  Pico  knows  and  (|Uotcsonly  I'lassieal 
writers,  and,  with  theexccption  of  Albertus  .Magnus 
and  Vincentius,  not  one  single  name  of  the  whole 
host  of  Greek  and  Arabic  alchemists  is  given.  It 
woidd  at  least  be  surprising,  considering  that  lie  was 
the  pujiil  of  Alemanno,  that  the  latter  should  not 
have  communicated  to  liini  or  drawn  his  attention  to 
these  alchemists. 

The  closing  iiages  of  the  manuscript  are  devoted 
to  the  description  of  alchemic  alembics,  retort.s,  fur- 
naces, and  other  instruments.  The  drawings  very 
closely  resemble  those  made  by  Albertus  JIagnus, 
Lully,  and  Isaac  Ilollaiidiis,  which  again  cfintirma 
the  date  suggested  for  the  comiiilation.  An  alpha- 
betical index  of  names  and  subjects  concludes  this 
manuscript,  which  contains  181  small  folios,  written 
in  an  Eastern  Sephardic  hand,  and  dated  in  the  year 
(5)450  [1690|. 

More  modern  writers  from  the  time  of  Theophras- 
tus  combine  Alchemy  with  cabalistic  notions,  de- 
rived, no  doubt,  from  the  Cabala  literature,  but  not  a 
single  Jewish  author  is  mentioned.  The  sixteenth 
century  is  the   period  of  this  cabalistic  Alchemy, 


notably  in  the'MonasIIieroglyphiea  "of  the  f/mdon 
doctor,  John  Dee,  "  Thealrum  Chemicum  "  i  HWi),  ii, 
2o;j  <Y  luij. :  (1U5U),  |)p.  178  it  kk/.  ;  and  still  more  pro- 
nounced in  the  "Ars  et  Theoiia  Transmulatiouis 
Metalliiie  "  of  Johannes  Augustiruis  Panlheiis((7<iV/. 
pp.  459,  .528  it  Kii/.).  Jews  themselves  apparently 
took  no  more  interest  in  the  science  of  Alchemy, 
depiived,  as  they  were,  from  that  period  on,  of  any 
further  intercourse  with  the  world  of  science. 

M.  Ga. 

ALCIMTJS  (called  also  Jakim)  :  Lader  of  the 
antinational  Hellenists  in  Jerusalem,  under  Deme- 
trius 1.  Soter  of  Syria  (Joseplms,  ■'Ant."  xi.  9,  ^  7); 
burn  aliout  200  lie. :  died  at  Jerusalem  1(50.  He  wasof 
jirieslly  family  (I  Mace.  vii.  14).  In  con.sequence  of 
the  national  movement  under  the  Hasmoneans.  and 
of  the  martial  siicce.s.scs  of  Judas  Maccabeus  (lt)4- 
lli;{),  llic  party  lost  iiitluence  and  was  partially  ex- 
pelled from  Jerusalem.  Immediately  after  Demetrius 
ascended  the  throne,  Alciiiius  presented  himself  as 
a  su])porler  of  the  imperiled  authority  of  Syria  in 
Judea,  and  rei|Uesled  the  punishment  of  Judas  Mac- 
calieus.  Demetrius  entrusted  liaccliides,  the  gov- 
ernor of  Ciele  syria.  with  this  task,  and  sent  him 
to  install  Alcimus  in  the  ollice  of  high  priest,  the 
object  of  his  amiiilion.  In  Judea,  liecause  of  his 
priestly  rank.  Alcimus  obtained  the  conlidetice  of 
the  scribes  and  the  rigidly  pious  (Assideans).  who 
objected  to  the  conflict  on  general  principles,  and, 
therefore,  asked  him  to  liring  about  peace.  Yet.  in 
sjiite  of  iiledges  of  safety,  he  put  many  of  them  to 
death  in  order  to  intimiilati'  the  rest.  Haichides  him- 
self mas.s;ured  all  the  followers  of  Judas  Maccabeus 
who  fell  into  his  hands:  and  connnitting  .ludea,  with 
a  force  sufficient  for  garrison  duly,  to  the  care  of  Al- 
cimus, he  returned  to  Syria.  Alcimus, 

Alcimus      united  now  with  liis.Iewish  ])arlizans, 

and  the  look  up  armsagainst  the  JIaciabees  to 
Maccabees,  light  for  the  supremacy  in  Judea  and 
for  I  lie  post  of  d^;,i-/(^u(7i'iv/(liigli- priest - 
hnod).  He  could  not  maintain  hisjiosition,  however, 
and  repaired  to  the  king  for  assistance  (I  Mace.  vii. 
.5-25:  "Ant."  xii.  1(1.  ^S  1.  3:  II  .Mace.  \iv.  1-10). 
In  order  to  restore  him  to  the  office  of  high  priest  (I  I 
Mace.  xiv.  i;5),  Demetrius,  in  the  same  year  (162), 
despatched  bis  general  Xieanor,  who  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  an  encounter  with  Judas:  andtheanni- 
veisarv,  .Vdar  13,  was  celebrated  in  Jerusalem  as  the 
Nikan'or  Day  (I  .Mace.  vii.  2(^.')0:  "  .\iit."  xii.  10,  tj  4: 
II  Mace.  xiv.  12-xv.  36).  Soon  after,  .\lcimus  ap- 
peared before  Jerusidem  with  liaccbides.  who  at- 
tacked Judas  at  Eleasa  in  such  superior  numbers  that 
Judas  was  defeated  and  slain. 

.Vlcimus  and  the  Hellenists  now  assumed  control 
in  Jiidea  and  reveled  in  the  |iersccution  and  slaugh- 
ter of  nationalist  Jews.  Herein  ISacchiiles  assisted 
efTectively  by  continued  war  on  the  Hasmoneans 
Jonathan  and  Simon,  and  by  the  erection  of  a  num- 
ber of  fortiticatioiis  in  Judea  (I  .Mace.  ix.  1-53; 
"  .Vnt."  xii.  11,^1;  -'^iu-  L  S  ■'>)•  Alcimus  does  not 
appear  in  the  account  of  these  struggles;  only  his 
death  (160)  is  reported  in  connection  with  his  at- 
tem|>t  to  tear  down  the  wall  of  the  court  of  the  in- 
ner Templed  .Mace.  i.\.  54:  "Ant."  xii.  10,  ^6).  He 
held  ollice  for  three  years  (".\nt."  xii.  10,  tj  6:  xx. 
10,  !j  3),  and,  as  early  as  163  under  .\ntioclius  V.,  was 
api)ointeil  successor  to  Meiielaus  ("  .\nt."  xii.  9.  S;  7; 
XX.  10,  s3:  II  Mace.  xiv.  3).  It  is  possible  that 
what  is  related  in  I  Maccabees  (vii.  .5-25)  occurred 
in  the  time  of  Antiochus  V.  (Sclilatter,  ".lason  vou 
Kyrene."  p.  40). 

Without  doubt  .Mcimiis  held  some  office,  as  ap- 
pears from   I  Mace.  vii.  9;    ".\nt."  xii.  9,  ^  7;    XX. 


333 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alchemy 
Alcoholism 


10,  §3.     Tlu'  position  wliich  he  strove  for  was  cx- 
presseil  by  the  tonus  iifmnieiv  (I  Mucc.    vii.  5)  and 
ap,Xiti}uaii'i/  (I   JIiKc.  vii.  21,    II  Mace.  xiv.  Hi);  anil 
as  .Iosc|)lms  always  rofers  to  liini  as 
As  High     liiftli  priest.  Alcinius  is  recognized  as 
Priest.        such  liy  all  anthoritics.     .V  fad  con- 
flicting with  this   is   that  he  mentions 
his  liiixirpunivti  to  the  kingas  heing  inherilcd  from  his 
ancestors  { II  Mace.   .\iv.   7);  yet,   withniii   (luestion, 
the  nienihers  of  another  fandly  up  t(i  this  time  had 
had  uninterrupted  possession  of  the  high-priesthood. 
Ileeiiulil   have  meant  only  a  higher  priestly  oHice, 
hereditary  in  his  family  for  some  generations.   From 
the   fact   that   the  scribes  and   Assidcans  gave  him 
tlieireiinlideneeduly  beeau.se  he  was  ]ii-iesl  of  Aaron's 
family,  it  follows  that   his  ollieial  position  is  to  be 
sought  elsewhere  than  in  the  high  prii'sthoorl.* 

There  aie  no  facts  bearing  on  the  relations  of 
.\lcimus  as  high  priest  to  the  Temple  at  .Jerusalem, 
unli'ss  the  destruction  of  the  wall  of  the  court  of  the 
iiuar  Temple  be  regarded  as  evidence  thereof.  ll 
may  be  noted  that  tlie  wall  was  not  destroyed,  as  is 
generally  accepted,  in  order  to  give  the  l)agans  en- 
trance to  the  saneluary  hillierlo  closed  to  them  ;  but 
todeprive  the  nationalist  .lewsof  tlii'ir  last  refuge — 
the  fortress  like  Temple.  On  the  other  hand,  much 
is  sjiid  abo\it  his  ruli'  in  .ludea  that  is  not  at  all  in 
accord  with  the  posilicai  of  high  priest.  These  data 
seem  to  point  to  the  fact  that  Alcimus  was  not  high 
priest  of  the  Tem|il<'  al  .lerusalem,  but  thecivil  ruler 
of  the  province  of  Judea,  appointed  by  the  king  of 
Syria,  and  that  iridic  or  aiixnptir  was  the  oll'cial 
Syrian  dcvsignalion  for  his  position.  His  c.\ pulsion 
from  .lerusali'iu  involved,  therefore,  resistance  to 
the  king,  and  the  governor  of  the  <ntire  province  of 
Cu'le-syria  was  sent  to  reinstate  and  ]U(>tect  him. 
The  g<ivernor,  as  his  superior,  led  him 
As  Civil  to.Tudea  twice,  and  remained  there  till 
Governor,  hisdealli.  The  circumstance  that  Al- 
cimus was  the  immediate  successor  to 
Menclaus,  who  was  not  of  priestly  stock,  conlirnis 
this  view.  Alcimus'  ndedilTered  from  that  of  Menc- 
laus in  thai  no  opporl unity  was  alTorded  him  to 
make  inroads  upon  the  Temple  treasury  (since  it 
was  eni|ily ),  nor  to  wound  the  religious  susceptibili- 
ties of  the  .I<'Ws;  for  the  terms  of  l)eaee  concluded 
belwi'eii  the  .lews  and  .\ntiochus  V.  (1(10),  to  whom 
Alcimus  probably  owed  his  tirst  appointment,  had 
assured  them  religious  liberty  ;  and  from  that  time 
oil  the  struggle  turned  only  on  the  supremacy  of  the 
Nationalists  or  of  the  Ilclleinsls.  The  misleading 
title  apxuinic  occurreil  in  the  sources  dra\\ii  u pirn  by 
.loMcplius;  in  I  iMaecabees,  wlileh  e\  iuces  thorough 
knowledireof  what  happened  iu.Iuilea,  without  any 
Uei'ii  political  insiglil  ;  anil  in  II  .Maccabees,  which 
<leserii)es  with  accuracy  occurrences  al  the  Syrian 
court  and  camp,  but  in  regard  lo  .Indian  alTairs  gives 
free  play  to  fancy.  The  ambiguity  involved  in  Al- 
cimus' title  gave  rise  to  the  error  that  .Vlcimuswas 
liiL'h  priest,  and  this  carried  other  errors  in  its  train. 
.Mention  must  be  made  of  the  legendary  account  in 
the  .Midrash  ((ien.  I{.  I\v.  'J'.',  and  in  .Midrasji  Teh.  lo 
xi.  7)of  .lakim  of  Zerorol  (Zeredah),  nephew  of  .lose, 
son  of  .loe/.er  of  Zeredali.  lie  is  probably  idenlical 
with. lakim  .Meimiis.  and  is  represented  as  being  pres- 
lilt  when  his  uncle,  who  may  have  been  one  of  the 
scribes  put  lo  death  by  .Mcimiis,  was  led  lo  e.\ecu 
lion.  \\lien  he  Ihreatened  his  nephew  with  the 
lorlures  of  hell  for  liis  fuitiilessiiess,  .lukini  killed 
himself. 

•Till'  older  view  iw  to  AI('lmu.i' hltfli-iirlesthoiMl  ti,  however, 
Kttll  lirlil  liv  KiholiirH  to..liiv,  Sii',  <  .»„  Ileliiiirli,  lirv.  fy . 
./iiir.d.  xl.lili;  SchilnT,  Vliiolef;'"' 'i'  /.'.  "I'ro  /.  iMoii;,  lll<«i. 
No.  U.'.  etils.  mil,  «X,.    I(,  (i. 


BlBLIOfiRAPHT  ;  Otmmentarifg  on  the  Bnokunf  the  Macca- 
tirfH^  by  (;rlinm,  Kelt,  and  Wace,  and  ttie  tilMtorles  of  Jost, 
Kwiild.  (iriitz,  HltzlK,  Staile,  and  Wellbausen.  Also  Herz- 
feld,  (iiHCh.  d.  Vtilheii  Ixiacl.  I.  a<7-2<,«,  Mt-IHS;  Schurer, 
(it'tich.  I.  ItlT-lTtj;  Schlatter,  JrtwiH  vou  Ki/feue,  pp.  :}iM:J; 
Biieliler,  Totiladtn  un<i  (Juiadeti,  pp.  (Ma,  3ti7-377. 

A.  Br. 

ALCOHOLISM  :  The  morbid  condition  resulting 
from  the  excessive  or  prolonged  use  of  alcoholic 
beverages. 

In  chronic  Alcoholism,  or  dipsomania,  alcoholic 
liiiuors  have  been  taken  in  excessive  (piantities  for 
long  licriods  of  time,  and  the  drug  acts  as  a  .slow 
poison,  and  causes  disease  in  various  organs  of  the 
body.  ISright's  disease  of  the  kidneys  is  so  freiiuent 
aresult  of  chronic  alcoholic  poisoning  that,  according 
to  Pitt,  Guy's  Hospital  rejiorts  show 
Alcoholism  that  4;i  percent  of  chronic  drinkers  arc 
and  Nerv     airected  by  it.     Nervous  disea.se,  end- 

ous  Dis-      ing  in  insanity,  is  a  common   sequel 

ease.         to  alcoholic  indulgence  ;  and  Savage 

.states,  as  the  result  of  the  examination 

of  4.001)  insane  persons  at  the  Bethlehem  Hospital, 

that  Alcoholism  was  the  admitted  and  direct  cause 

in  al  least  7  jier  cent  of  the  cases. 

Alcoholism  is  an  important  factor  in  the  causa- 
tion of  disease;  and  in  all  diseases  alcoholics  are  bad 
patients.  In  epidemics  the  mortality  among  drink- 
ers is  excessive;  and  the  general  ])ower  of  resistance 
to  disease,  injury,  and  fatigue  is  diminished.  Dr. 
Charles  II.  Hughes,  editor  of  the  "  Alienist  and  Neu- 
rologist," estimates  that  lo  ])er  cent  of  nervrius,  10 
per  cent  of  digestive,  and  10  jur  cent  of  heart  dis- 
eases are  due  to  it. 

The  mortalily  from  Alcoholism  is  great,  though 
exact  ligures  are  not  attainable.  Dr.  B.  W.  Hichard- 
son  estimated  the  annual  number  of  deaths  from  in- 
temperance in  England  and  Wales  at  ."iO.OOO,  or  10  per 
cent  of  the  entire  mortality  ("  Cyclopedia  of  Temper- 
ance anif  Prohibition,"  Funk  &  AVagnalls  Co.,  New 
York,  11S91).  Alcoholism  lessens  the  chance  of  life; 
the  English  life-insurance  companies  found  that  the 
presuin|>live  length  of  life  of  nonil  linkers  was  about 
twice  that  of  drinkers.  Neisson  ("('ontribulions  to 
Vital  Statistics."  is."i7)  compared  the  mortality  of 
0, 1 1 1  drinkers  with  the  general  mortality  of  Engliind, 
and  found  that  there  were  ">S.4  deaths  per  1,000  per 
annum  in  the  former,  as  against  1!)  in  the  latter  cate- 
gory. On  the  other  hand,  the  superior  biostatics  of 
.lews  under  normal  conditions  is  well  known,  and 
may  be  comiected  with  the  absence  of  Alcoholism 
among  them. 

The  close  relationshii)  of  Alcoholism  and  crime 
is  Well  known;  and  the  statistics  of  Baer  ("  Der 
Aleoliolismus."  Berlin,  1X7S).  Kurella  ("Naturgc- 
schiclile  (lis  Verbrechens."  ISlCi),  (Jallavardin  ("Al- 
coholisme  et  Criminalile,"  Paris.  18X1)),  and  Sichart 
("reber  Individuelle  Fakloren  der  Verbrechens. "  in 
"Zeitschrifl  fllrdie  (Jesammte  Staatswis.sens<liaft," 
ISDO,  X.).  show  that  from  'i't  lo8."i  percent  of  all  male- 
factors are  drunkards.  The  rate  of  sincide  varies 
with  the  general  rale  of  eonsumplion  of  alcohol  in 
dilTereiit  counlries  (Morselli,  '"Der  Selbstmord.  ein 
Kapitel  aus  der  Monilslatislik,"  IMSI).  On  th.'  olher 
hand,  .lews  are  little  liable  lo  this  form  of  aliena- 
tion (see  Sricim:).  Intemperance  is  a  conlributini: 
cause  in  20  lo  24  perciiit  of  divorce  ca.ses;  and  its 
relalion  lo  |muperisni  is  a  iiialter  of  coninion  ex 
perieiice. 

The  evil  effects  of  Alcoholism  are  evident  in  the 
drunkards  posterity.  Sichari  foinid  .\lcoholism  in 
the  parents  in  111  per  ceiil.  Peula  in  liO  per  i  ent.  and 
Mario  ill  4(1  per  ceiil  of  large  numbers  of  criminals 
examined  Epilepsy,  insjinitv,  idiocy,  and  various 
forms  of  iilivsical.  mental,  and  moral  deireneracv  are 


Alcoholism 
Aldus  Mauutius 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


334 


very  (lispniportioiintfly  prevalent  among  the  off- 
spnii^j;  (if  alcoliolics.  These  diseases  are  also  very 
frcqueut  ainoiifT  Jews,  but  are  certainly  not  due  in 
their  ease  to  Aieiiliolism. 

Alcoholism  prevails  all  over  the  world,  andisproh- 
ahlv  inereasinir.  more  especially  amon.ir  the  north- 
ern nations.     15u!  amoni:  the  Jewsit  is 

Rarity       almost  an  unknown  alleel ion.      Their 

Among'  sobriety  is  proverbial;  an<l  the  e.xiieri- 
Jews.  ence  anion;,'  Jewish  medical  jiractition- 
ers  is  unanimously  to  the  elTect  that 
occasion  to  observe  I  he  disease  in  the  person  of  a  Jew 
isof  e.\cos.sive  rarity.  The  Jewsare  undoubtedly  sub- 
ject to  nervous  diseases  to  a  greater  extent  than  the 
goncrjjl  community  ;  but  this  is  due  to  the  social  an<l 
hygienic  conditions  under  which  many  of  them  live, 
and  not  to  Alcoholism.  The  rate  of  suicide  is  far 
less  in  Jewish  than  in  other  communities;  and  this 
is  undoubtedly  comiected  with  the  absence  of  Alco- 
holism. Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the 
intimate  connection  of  the  two.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  absence  of  Alcoholism  among  con- 
temjiorary  Jews  is  due  to  tlie  fact  that  those  ad- 
dicted to  it  in  th<'  jiast  left  families  which  have  died 
out:  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  jirevalence  of 
Alcoholism  among  Jews  at  any  period. 

Statistics  confirm  the  general  opinion  of  Jewish 
sobriety.  Selecting  two  tyjiical  hospitals,  as  pos- 
sessing the  most  trustworthy  records,  a  corii))arativo 
investigation  may  be  made  as  to  the  prevalence  of 
Alcoholism  among  their  patients.  The  Boston  City 
Hospital  has  a  general  clientele  in  a  town  that  does 
not  contain  a  <lisproportionately  large  nundicr  of 
Hebrews.  In  IHil!)  there  were  7,104  cases  treated 
there;  and  of  these,  22G,  a  little  over  8  per  cent, 
were  admitted  for  Alcoholism.  The  Hcth  Israel 
Hospital  of  New  York  city  has  an  entirely  Jewish 
clientele,  the  proportion  of  non-Jews  treated  there 
being  a  negli.irible  quantity — not  over  one  fourth  of 
1  per  cent.  Its  records  show  4  cases  of  Alcoholism, 
or  diseases  directly  attributable  to  it,  in  ;!, 000  cases 
thatapplieil  foradmission  during  the  last  fewyears. 
This  is  a  little  over  one-tenth  of  1  jierccnt.  Hence, 
the  records  show  that  Alcoholism  is  at  least  thirty 
times  as  prevalent  among  the  general  community, 
including  the  Jews,  as  in  that  race  itself. 

Dr.  Norman  Kerr,  one  of  the  highest  authorities 
upon  Alcoholism,  says,  in  regard  to  drink  among 
the  Jews  ("Inebriety,  Its  Etiologv,"  etc..  Lewis, 
London,  1889): 

"  Extensive  as  m,v  profes-sional  Interrourso  Willi  tlipm  hn.s 
been,  I  have  never  iJeen  consulted  fur  inebriety  in  the  person  of 
a  Jew  ;  while  my  ailviee  tias  been  soiiKht  for  this  eoniplaini  by 
a  very  Inrfre  niiiiiber  of  Christians.  ...  In  my  opinion  their 
pener:il  fret'itoni  from  Inebriety  in  almost  every  clime  and  under 
all  coiiditiims  uliere  are  a  feiv  exceptions  to  this  rule),  is  as 
much  due  to  i-:iciiil  as  to  hyeienic  intluences.  and  more  to  racial 
than  to  reliirious  tnllnences.  This  extniordinary  iM*ople  has. 
amid  wondrous  vicissitudes,  presented  a  variety  of  distinctive 
characteristics;  and  I  can  not  help  thinkine  that  .some  Inherited 
racial  power  of  contml.  as  well  as  some  inherited  niclal  insus- 
ceptibility to  nan-otism.  strenL'thened  and  conllrmed  by  the 
practise  of  various  liytrienic  habits,  has  been  the  main  i"eaS4in  for 
their  superior  temperance.  Even  amon^  those  Jews  In  whom 
there  has  been  an  unusual  amount  of  alcohcpl-drlnklnc  ithongh 
they  were  not  'drunk  ').  when  there  has  Iteeu  slii/ht  thickeniiiK 
of  the  speech,  (^llltness  of  tonpue,  and  un\v»tntcd  exubenuice  of 
spirits,  eviilcucint^  a  certain  amount  of  alcoliolii-  poisoniuf?.  I 
have  never  tletected  the  extstence  of  the  diseast*  inebriety.  Of 
tliis  strong  Impulse  to  alcoholism  or  other  narcotism,  I  liave 
never  seen  a  case  amongrst  this  distinctive  people." 

Other  authorities  believe  that  the  sobriety  of  the 
Jews  is  rather  dependent  upon  their.social  condition. 
Thus  Samuelson  ("  A  History  of  Drink  ;  A  Heview, 
Social,  Scientific,  and  Political,"  Trllbnor,  London, 

1880)saj-s: 

"Little  need  be  said  of  the  drinklnp  bahll^  of  the  modem 
Jews.  They  are  notoriously  a  sober  race,  both  In  Enfiland  ami 
elsewliere  ;  and  their  teuiiH'nince  Is  mainly  due  to  two  causes. 


First,  they  are  a  smalt  community ;  and  their  partial  Isolation 
from  other  ndiiflous  denomlnatlcms  biu*  a  tendency  to  make 
them  careful  of  (heir  monils.  The  most  liniMirtant  n'lLson,  how- 
ever. Is  that  they  do  not  fiillowanyaviH-ations  which  necessitate 
(freat  physical  exertion.  Thus  we  seldom  llnd  them  worklnjr  a.s 
artis3»ns  or  day-Ialxirers  :  sjj  that  there  is  no  threat  iMidily  waste 
to  be  repaired;  and  they  an*,  mon'over,  n*moved  fnim  the 
temtitalions  t*>  excessive  drinking  to  which  the  preat  nia.ss  of 
our  worklni,'-iM'o[ile  are  exposed.  Amonff  Jews  of  the  iid<ldlti 
classes  then'  Is  mon*  liitempenince.  ...  As  aln'ady  re- 
marked, however,  on  the  whole,  the  Jews  are  a  sober  and 
exemplary  race,  whose  habits  In  this  respect  are  well  worttiy 
of  nnivei-sal  iinitation." 

W.  S.  G. 

ALCOLEA  (NV'i'lp^N)  •  ^  ''.'^'  '"  """  province  of 
Jaeii.  Aiulalusia.  the  Jewish  congregation  of  which, 
like  many  others  of  the  country,  enjoyed  special 
privileges.  According  to  the  records  of  the  congre- 
gation, a  standing  committee  coniiiosed  of  twelve 
members  was  selected,  whose  duty  it  was  to  tax  the 
members  in  accordance  with  their  financial  ability,  a 
procedure  which  caiisi'd  fre(iuent  ((uarrels  and  divi- 
sions. Any  one  who  obtained  remission  of  his  taxes 
from  the  governor  or  prince  was  at  once  jilaeed  un- 
der the  congregation's  ban  for  a  year.  It  appears 
that  the  Jews  in  Alcolea  were  of  such  overthrifty 
disposition  that  they  at  one  time  insisted  that  tlnir 
cantor  (synagogue-reader)  shouUi  likewise  be  taxed 
toward  the  congregational  ex|ienses  and  even  the 
payment  of  old  congregational  debts.  The  matter 
came  to  a  lawsuit.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  year 
1414  th<'  small  Jewish  community  of  Alcolea  ac- 
cepted baptism.  This  wliolesjile  conversion  was  but 
an  episode  in  the  triumphal  evangelizing  march  of 
Vinccnte  Ferrer. 

niBLioCRArilv:  Isaac  b.  Sheshet,  Rc!>i>nnm,  Nos.  ■l.)T-t<iI.  473- 
477 :  De  los  Rios,  HiMoria  ite  Ins  Judiits  en  f>;>rt»la.  11.  444 ; 


(iriitz,  (rfucli.  </.  Judfti.  vlii.  i:i;i. 


M.   K 


ALCONSTANTINI,  HANOK  BEN  BAHYA. 

See  Enoch  iII\miki  r.i:N    l'.MIV\.   .\  l,(  nN>T.i.\  1 1  M, 

ALCONSTANTINI,  HANOK  BEN  SOLO- 
MON. See  Knocii  (I.Ianoki  1'.i-;n  Solomon,  .\i.- 
(  liNSl  AN  riNi 

ALCONSTANTINI,  ISAAC  BEN  ABBAM 
ANCONA.     See    Isaac    iii-;N    AitUAiiAM    Ancona, 

.Vm  IINSI  AN  TINI, 

AL-CORSONO,    JACOB   BEN   ISAAC.     See 

ConsoNo,  .\i.-.  .Iac  or.  hkn  1>aa(  . 

ALDABI,  MEIRIBN:  Writerof  the  fourteenth 
century:  son  r>f  Isa;cc  Aldabi,  "Hc-l.Iasid"  (The 
Pious) ;  grandson  of  Aslier  ben  Jehicl.  and  a  descend- 
ant of  the  exiles  from  Jerusalem.  His  name  (erro- 
neously spelled  Albaili,  Albalidi.  Alrsibi.  and  Alt;ibi) 
is  ascertained  from  his  chief  work.  "Shebile  Emu- 
nah."  wherein  a  poem  is  found  in  which  every  line 
begins  with  a  letter  of  his  name:  and  there  it  reads 
"Aldabi."  In  the  preface  to  his  book  occurs  the 
expression,  "of  the  exiles  of  Jerusalem."  This,  to- 
gether with  Akiabi's  statement  that  he  was  exiled 
from  his  country  (Andalusia),  caused  Graetz  to  as- 
sume that  he  was  banished  to  Jerusalem.  Graclz 
failed  to  take  into  account  Akiabi's  words.  "  He 
[God]  led  me  into  a  waste  land."  which  he  would 
not  have  used  in  reference  to  Jeru.salem. 

Aldabi  belonged  to  the  class  of  popular  writers 
who,  ])Ossessing  extensive  theological  and  scientific 
knowlcd.se,  coiumcnted  upon  the  assertions  of  their 
predecessors  with  a  clear  understanding,  expressing 
iierc  and  there  their  own  opinions,  and  presenting 
some  subjects  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Cabala. 
.Vldabi  was  also  one  of  tho.sc  Talniudists  wliosc  con- 
ception of  religion  was  wholly  spiritual  and  who 
revered  the  Cabala:  lie  can  not,  however,  be  called  a 
true  cabalist.  In  1300  he  wrote  "  Shebile  Emunah  " 
(The  Paths  of  Faith),  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  phil- 
osophical, scientific,  and  theological  subjects.     To 


836 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alcoholism 
Aldus  Manutius 


judge  from  the  many  editions  tliat  appeared  from 
timi'  to  time,  it  was  for  centuries  a  favorite  book 
with  the  educated. 

"Shebile  Emunali "  is  divided  into  ten  cliapters, 
which  treat  respectively  of:  (!)  The  existence  of 
God,  His  attributes.  His  ininiateriality.  unity,  and 
imniulaliility,  wliieli  is  not  affected  l)y  prayer  or 
even  by  miracles — iiilrodurin.ii  in  each  case  a  caba- 
listic discussion  of  tlw  namis  of  the  Deity;  (2)  the 
creation  of  the  world,  which  does  not  necessitate 
any  cliaiiire  in  God  or  any  plurality  in  His  natun-; 
an  explanation  of  the  IJibiieal  account  bein^'  >;iven, 
followed  by  a  dissertation  on  tlie  seven  climates  or 
zones  of  tiie  earth  as  then  conceived,  the  spheres, 
the  stars,  the  sun  and  moon  and  their  eclijises,  and 
on  meteoroloiry :  (li)  human  embryolo;;y  and  the 
generative  fimctions;  (4)  human  anatomy,  pliysiol- 
ojjy,  and  patliiiloi.'y ;  (.">)  rules  for  health  ami  lonf; 
life;  (f!|  the  soul  and  its  functions:  (7)  the  exalta- 
tion of  the  soul,  which,  throuifh  the  fultilment  of 
the  haw,  becomes  one  with  the  Creator — the  chapter 
being  devoletl  chielly  to  an  exjilauation  of  the  eth- 
ical value  of  the  Slosaic  commanilments;  (8)ex])lanii- 
tory  notes  on  the  truth  of  the  Law  and  of  oral  tra- 
dition, elucidating  some  of  the  Ilaggadot  on  the 
same  lines  as  Solomon  ben  Adret;  {'■>)  reward  and 
l)unislim(nt,  ]iaradise  and  hell,  iuunortality  of  the 
soul  and  its  transmigration  iji  man;  (lU)  tlic  redemp- 
tion of  Israel,  the  resurrection,  and  tlie  world  to 
come  after  resurrection ;  a  general  resume  of  tlie 
book,  followed  by  a  poem. 

[Steinschneider  ("llebr.  LTeber.s."  jip.  9-27)  lias 
shown  Aldabi's  "  Sliebile  Eniiinah  "  to  be  a  compila- 
tion from  various  older  sources,  chielly  from  (Jerson 
b.  Solomon  of  Aries'  encyclopedic  work.  "Sha'ar  ha- 
Shamayim,"  of  the  thirteenlli  century.  From  Ger- 
son's  work  the  chapter  on  the  meniliersof  the  human 
bo<ly  (§  2,  chap,  iil.)  is  taken,  and  in  part  verbally. 
So  are  Aldabi's  "Ten  Questions  on  the  Soul  "  (^  (i), 
interspersed  with  passages  borrowed  literally  from 
Josepli  ibii  Zadilik  and  llillel  b.  Samuel,  only  a  mod- 
ilied  form  of  the  "'Ten  Discussions  on  the  Soul," 
which  Gcrson  himself  adapted  from  a  book  on  the 
soul,  probably  written  by  Ibn  (Jabirol.  Against 
the  iharges  of  ]ilagiarism  lai.seil  in  BriiH's  ".lalirb." 
ii.  l(jl>-liif<,  see  Steinschneider,  "llebr.  Hilil."  1^70, 
p.  90.  K.] 

BlBi.looRAriiv  :  Steinschneider,  Cat.  IJihIL  col.  IfiDO;  (irillz, 
(leiirh.il.Juikn.\n.X»:  Karpelcs  tlenrli.  li.Jllil.  Lit.  p.7M; 
Ilenliicul),  ttmv  ha-Sefariin^  p,  aVi.  Many  extniris  frmii  tlie 
ShaiUc  Kinuuah  iimy  be  found  fn  Kittiftiiunn.  ItU-  Slant', 
aee Index. 

.1.   L.  S. 

ALDEAS  DE  LOS  JUDIOS  i.lewish  villages): 
The  name  given  to  the  villages  .\/iialfaraclie.  Aziial- 
cazar,  and  especially  Paterna,  situated  in  the  neigh- 
b<irliood  of  Seville,  presented  by  Alfonso  X.  (The 
Wise)  of  Castile,  while  still  infante  after  the  con- 
quest of  Seville (1248),  to  those  Jews  who  had  taken 
an  active  part  in  the  battles  against  the  Moors,  or 
who  in  any  other  way  bad  rendered  lussistance  to 
the  coiKpicidr.  Other  valuable  gifts,  such  as  fields, 
oliveiind  lig  orchards,  elc.,  were  bestowed  upon  the 
nliiioj-itiifci  (tax  fanners),  Don  Zag  (l.siuic)  and  his 
sons,  Don  Mosis  and  Don  Abraham,  upon  sevend  of 
tlie  Alfaipiin  family,  an  unnamed  rabbi,  Don  Jo- 
seph of  Lisbon,  anil  upon  many  others.  Paterna 
was  known  for  a  long  time  as  Aldea  de  los  Judios 
(J.  Aniailor  de  los  IJios,  "Hist,  de  los  Judios."  i. 
S'i)  it  nil/.).  According  to  the  aeeoiiiils  of  Gedaliali 
ibn  Yahyah,  Don  Yahyah  ibn  Yaisli,  the  piogenitor 
of  the  Portuguese  Jewish  family  Ibn  Yahyah,  re 
ceived  as  presents  from  the  king  of  Porliipil.  wiio 
liighly  esteemed  him,  .s<'veral  iililiii».  such  as  I'riala 


(see  Knyserling,''Gesch.  d.  Juden  in  Portugal,"  p.  2). 
Similarly,  the  Jews  on  the  island  of  Majorca  received 
as  a  present  from  King  Don  Jaime  of  Aragon,  the 
coni|Ueror  of  the  island. several rt/iy '((;■/«.«, which  word 
is  identical  with  (ikletut;  al.so  called  iiliiiinlci/iui.s  <k  los 

•flllllilH. 

niiii.iocR.tPiiv  :  For  the  partition  of  Majorca  (not  exact  In  De 
Ins  Klos.  fti»titria  de  lo8  Jud'mtt  en  Ei<iffiil<i,  I.  IJHtl),  Cnlh'cioti 
lie  DiicumeiitiiK  IiiiditiKi  de  Arafjim,  lS.Vi,  Ix.  14,  IS,  ai  rt  seq. 

M.  K. 
ALDERMEN.     Sec Mt>icip.\i,  Officers. 

ALDROPHE,    ALFRED  -  PHILIBERT  :     A 

Flench  arrliiti-(i  :  burn  in  Paris.  F.lpruary  7,  1834. 
He  atUnded  the  Xatioual  School  of  Design  and  was 
a  favorite  pupil  of  Bellange,  His  first  position  was 
in  the  employ  of  the  Eastern  Uailroad  of  France, 
but  he  also  took  an  active  part  in  the  organization  of 
the  two  Fieneli  international  exhibitions  of  IS.j")  and 
1807.  Anioiig  other  distinctions  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  juilgeson  the  comiuitlee  of  awards  at  the 
London  Exhibition  of  1802,  and  was  created  an  offi- 
cer of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1867.  In  1871  he  be- 
came the  ollicial  architect  of  the  eleventh  arrondisse- 
ment  of  Paris.  When  the  new  synagogue  in  the 
Kiie  de  la  Victoire  was  projected.  Aldrophe  was  se- 
lected as  architect,  as  also  for  that  at  Versailles.  He 
is  the  designer  of  the  Thiers  and  Isidore  monuments 
in  the  cemetery  of  Pt-re-la-Chaisc,  and  the  architect 
of  numerous  private  residences  in  the  French  capital, 
including  that  of  Baron  Gustave  de  Rothschild  on 
the  Avenue  de  Marignan.  S. 

ALDUBI  (ALBUBI,  also  possibly  Alrabbi ), 
ABRAHAM  BEN  ISMAIL  :  Talmndic  .scholar 
and  aiilliiii'.  \\  lin  tluiirishiil  in  Spain  in  the  first  half 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  was  a  Jiiipil  of  Solo- 
mon ben  Adret  and  the  teacher  of  Jeroham  ben 
Meshullam.  He  wrote  many  novella"  and  responsa, 
which,  however,  are  known  only  from  the  numerous 
((notations  contained  in  the  works  of  his  pupil  Jero- 
ham. His  chief  work  appears  to  have  been  "Seder 
Abodat  Yom  ha-Kippurim  "  (The  Order  of  the  Serv- 
ice on  the  Day  of  Atonement),  an  epitome  of  which 
was  published  in  Jerohams  "Toledot  Adam  wa- 
Haw  wall."  Some  uovellie  and  a  commentary  ou 
liaba  Hatra  are  mentioned  in  Moses  Alashkar's  de- 
cisions, No.  39. 

BiBLiocRAPUV  :  Michael,  Or  hn-IIainilm,  No.  .">». 

M.  I?. 

ALDUS  MANUTIUS  :  Italian  publisher;  born 
at  liassiano  in  1441)  or  14"iO:  died  at  Venice.  Feb.  ti, 
I.'il.'),  Aldus  sludicd  the  Ijitin  classics  at  Koine 
underthedirection  of  Caspar  of  Verona  and  Domi/.io 
Galderino,  and  afterward  attended  the  lectures  on 
Greek  literature  of  Guarini  at  Ferrara.  He  became 
tutor  to  one  of  the  children  of  Prince  Carpi.  With 
the  assistance  of  Carpi's  inlluential  family.  Aldus 
was  enabled  to  ixiciile  the  project,  long  cherished 
by  him.  of  islablishiiig  a  printing  house;  and  he  be 
gall,  ill  1494,  with  the  publication  of  Latin  and  Greek 
works,  to  which  he  i>reti.\ed  learned  intrcHliictions 
of  his  own. 

Besides  his  Latin  and  Greek  studies,  Aldus  culti- 
vated Hebrew.  In  I'lOl  he  published,  as  an  addi- 
tion to  his  (ireek  and  Latin  manuals,  aiiabridired  He- 
brew grammar  under  the  Ijilin  title  "  Introdiiclio 
per  Brevis  ad  Liiiguam  Hibniieam."  or.  under  an- 
oilier  title.  "  Introdneiio  llili.s.sima  Hebniiie  Dis- 
cere  ('npiintibus  "  In  the  preface  he  Aays  that  he 
had  studied  the  Hibrew  from  the  "  Doelriiiale  Ale.x- 
aniiri  de  Villa  Dei."  a  work  wrillen  in  b.irbanms 
verse  in  1210,  which  was  in  vogue  in  the  thirteenth. 


Aleksandria 
'Alenu 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


336 


fourti'cntli,  ami  liflct'iith  crnturics:  hut  Imviiig  si-en 
tlie  iisclL'ssnrss  of  timt  book,  lie  (li'cidcd  to  compose 
another.  Aldus'  work  was  the  tirsi  printid  He- 
brew gramiuar.  and  was  intended  for  Clirislian  stu- 
dents. It  eonlained  the  IlcOnew  alphaliet,  the  man- 
ner of  readinir.  the  charaeter  of  the  vowels  and  their 
combination  with  tlie  consonants,  and  a  sermon  in 
Hebrew  translated  into  Latin.  The  ilelirew  type 
which  he  u.sed  was  prolialily  cut  by  MaCstro  Fran- 
cesco of  Holojrna.  the  same  who  worked  for  Gerson 
Soncino.  This  will  cvplain  the  similarity  iu  the 
type  used  in  both  oltices.  This  addition  was  re- 
printed at  least  eij^ht  times  by  the  Aldine  Press. 

Aldus  nourished  kindly  feelintrs  towaril  the  Jews, 
and  had  many  Jewish  frii'uds,  amoni;  whom  was  his 
Colleaf^ue,  the  printer  Gerson  Soncino.  This  spirit 
of  toleration  he  transmitted  to  his  children.  His 
son  Aldus  Manutius  the  Younger  contrralu- 
lated  David  dr  I'omis  upon  the  i)idilication  of  his 
"Apologia  pro  Medico  Ilebra'o." 

BMii.KKiR.M'HV :  UenouHrtt,  Annair:*  dr  Vlnutrimfrir  AUlinr, 
i.  72;  stt'ln.sclHififler,  liiltlitup'njthm-Jirs  flauiilniclu  p.  1-: 
idem,  Hil>r.  Itihl.  i.  lij  it  »«;, ;  Winter  and  Wiin.si'lie, 
UiWii.  il.  JIhl.  Lit.  ill.  :1UI,  I.   Bk, 

ALEKSANDRIA  :  Distiict,  town,  and  village 
in  the  governmenl  of  Kherson,  Hussia,  on  the  In- 
guletz  river.  In  1H!)7  the  .lewisli  population  was: 
district,  ::i.wr>7;  town,  •t,7!»4  ;  village,  1,!I1G.  The  town 
has  two  synagogues  and  two  schools.  H.  K. 

ALEKSANDROVSK  :  District  and  town  in  the 
government  of  Kkaterinoslav.  Russia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Dnieper,  below  the  raiiids.  In  1897  the 
Jewish  population  of  the  town  was  884,  and  of  the 
di.strict  .'5,310.  The  Jewish  coinmuuity  has  two 
synagogues  and  three  schools.  II.  U. 

ALEKSEI :  Kussian  archpriest ;  convert  to  Ju- 
daism; born  ju-obably  in  Novgorod,  142r>;  died  in 
Moscow,  1488,  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  when  a  schism  arose  in  the  Russian  Orfho- 
do.v  Church  and  many  new  sects  sjuang  up,  Aleksei 
became  a  convert  to  Judaism.  Some  of  the  new  sects 
had  shown  a  de<'ided  leiidi'ucy  to  revert  to  the  old 
Mosaic  law.  This  |irobably  suggested  to  the  in- 
fl\iential  Jew  Skhariyah  (Zechariah),  of  Kiev,  the 
idea  of  spreading  Judaism  among  the  Russians  of 
Pskov  and  Novgorod.  Skbariyah  belonged  to  the 
suite  of  Prince  Michael  Olelkovicli,  who  came  to  Nov- 
gorod in  1471  as  the  king's  vicegerent.  The  first 
convert  in  Novgorod  was  the  priest  Dionis,  who  in- 
troduced to  Skhariyah  his  colleague,  the  archjiriest 
(protnjHipnh)  Aleksei.  The  latter  was  the  most  zeal- 
ous of  the  new  con verts,an(l  did  successful  missiimary 
work  among  all  cliLsses,  especially  among  the  clergy. 
The  new  community  ai)preciated  his  labors  ,so  highly 
that  the  name  of  Abraham  was  conferred  upon  him, 
while  his  wife's  name  was  cliangeil  to  Sarah. 

When  the  grand-duke  of  Russia,  Ivan  Vasilyevich, 
visited  Novgorod  in  1480,  Aleksei  found  favor  in  his 
eyes.  Th<'  grand  duke  took  Aleksei  with  him  to 
Moscow  and  put  him  at  the  bea<l  of  tlii'  Church  of 
the  Assumption,  while  his  friend  Dionis  was  at  the 
same  time  appointed  priest  of  the  Church  of  the 
Archangel  Jlichael  in  the  ssime  city.  Aleksei  en- 
joyed the  confidence  of  the  grand-duke  in  a  high 
degree  and  had  free  access  to  him.  He  succeeded 
in  converting  his  secretary,  Feodor  Kurilzyn,  the  ar- 
chimandrite Sosima,  the  monk  Zechariah,  the  jirincess 
Helena, daughter-in  law  of  the  grand-duke,  and  many 
other  prominent  personages.  The  grand-duke  at  first, 
probably  for  political  reasons,  protected  the  heretics, 
but  later  on  was  constrained  to  persecute  them. 

liniLioGR.vPHV  :  f'lHton,  Kratkayn  Tzcrknvnam  Rossishaya 
Istoriya,  Moscow,  1833;  N.  Rudner,  Razsuzhdenie  o  Yere- 


Kuakh  i  Uaiikniahh  niiVHhlhh  v  Itumkiii  Tzerkl  m  Vrcmeni 
\  loiiiniim  Vflihovn  iht  Jimnna  (rntznnrii  Cfn'tttlse  (Hi  Itie 
S«'(i,M  and  Schism  In  tlie  ltiis.siaii  riiun-li,  fnmi  the  time  of 
Vladimir  thi*(irfat  lo  Ivan  llie'riTrlhhM.  Mi>s<-<tw,  IKiS;  Kamtn- 
zin,  l!<litri]itt  lituvii,  vl.  VAX  I'lmov.  ZIturnat  MtuiMffntvii 
Adrod/Hiro  i*f''wri/t>/ic/ifMiW(i,  No.  I'lil,  i>.  'Ml. 

H.  H, 

ALEKSYEYEV,  ALEKSANDER  (called  also 
■Wolf  Nachlass) :  .\uthor  and  convert  to  the  Greek 
('ath(ili<'  Cliurcli:  born  in  1S20,  at  Nazarinetz,  gov- 
ernnienl  of  Podolsk,  Russia,  of  |>oor  Jewish  parents. 
At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  impressed  into  military 
service  by  the  press  gang  [  ji'ihiix/ir/iiA-i)  of  Emperor 
Nicholas  I.,  and  ,sent  away  to  the  distant  city  of 
Volsk,  government  of  Sanitov.  Nicholas  I.  believed 
that  he  could  convert  the  Jews  to  the  Orthodox  Greek 
Church  by  taking  the  .sons  from  their  jiarenls  while 
young  and  placing  them  in  military  .service.  For  a 
long  time  .VIeksyeyev  remained  faithful  to  the  re- 
ligion of  his  forefathers,  and  the  ollicials  considered 
him  a  most  stubborn  subject. 

However,  about  184o,  he  changed  his  views  en- 
tirely, and  not  only  became  a  member  of  the  Ortho- 
dox Russian  Church,  but  managed  to  convert  more 
than  five  hundred  Jewish  Cantonists,  for  which  he 
was  promoted  in  1S48  to  the  rank  of  a  non-commis- 
sioned ollicer,  and  was  honored  by  the  em])eror's 
thanks.  About  IN,").")  Aleksyeyev  was  so  uuforlu- 
nale  as  to  lose  the  use  of  his  legs.  He  then  settled 
in  Novgorod,  and  during  his  long  illness  wrote  the 
following  works  on  etlinograjihic  and  missionary 
topics;  (1)  "Torzhestvo  Christianskavo  Ccheniya 
nad  rcheniemTalmuda,  ill  Dushepolyezny  l{azgovor 
Christianina  s  lyudeyem  o  Prishestvii  Messii  "  (The 
Triumph  of  Christian  Teaching  over  the  Talmudic 
Teaching,  or  a  Soul  saving  Conversation  of  a  Chris- 
tian and  a  Jew  on  the  Coming  of  the  Jlessiah),  St. 
Petersburg,  1850,  (2)  "  Bogosluzhenie,  Pnizdniki  i 
Religioznye  Obryady  Nynyeshnikh  Yevreyev"  (Re- 
ligious Service,  Holidavs  and  Religious  Rites  of 
the  Jews  of  To-day),  Novgorod,  ISti'l;  iided.,  1865. 
(H)  "  Obslichestvennaya  Zliizn  Yevreyev,  ikh  Nnivy, 
Obychai  i  Predrazsudki "  (The  Public  IJfe  of  the 
Jews,  their  Habits. Customs,  and  Prejudices!.  Novgo- 
rod, 1S()8,  (4)  "liesyedy  i'ravoslavnavo  Christianina 
Snovoobrashchemiym,"  etc.  (Colhxiiiies  of  an  Or- 
thodox Christian  with  a  Newlv  Converted  Jew),  St. 
Petersburg,  1872;  2d  ed.,  Novgorod,  1875.  (5) 
"Byvshi  Yevrei  za  Monastyri  i  Jlonasliestvo"  (A 
Former  Jew  for  Monasteries  and  Monasticism),  Nov- 
gorod, 187.5.  (())  "Obrashchenie  Yudeiskavo  Zakon- 
nika  v  Christ ianst\o"  (The  Conversion  to  Christianity 
of  an  Oliserver  of  the  Jewish  Law),  Novgorod,  1882. 
(7)  •■  rpotreblyayut  li  Yevrei  Christianskuyu  Krov'/  " 
(Do  the  Jews  I'se  Christian  Blood'/),  Novgorod, 
1880  ;  and  several  others. 

His  works  are  not  devoid  of  interest;  he  was  the 
first  Jew  in  Russia  to  give  a  description  of  the  life 
and  customs  of  his  coreligionists  there.  He  refuted 
the  absurd  blood-accusalion.  But  his  attitude  to- 
ward the  Jewish  religion  and  the  .lewish  rabbis  re- 
mains a  very  hostile  one. 

lUBi.iOGRAPnv  :  Alcksvcvev,  .-ititnlnniirnitliu  ivi  \ovn{jnrntl- 
likiiin  Uuczdtimi't  (J>ihiriisl:i!j'i  I'lit'ilnino^ti,  I.si'>s,  and  in  Ids 
other  works;  M.  .Arkli.-iiik'.'l.-iki.  Slr'tiniili,  lst;x*.  No.  1,  pp.  1-4  : 
Vengerov,  Knliku-IiiljlUmratichcski  Slavar,  St,  Petersliurg, 
1889. 

H.  R. 

ALEMETH  :  1.  Son  of  .lehoadah,  in  the  geneal- 
ogy of  Biiijamin  (I  Cliron.  viii.  36).  In  I  Cbron.  ix.  42 
he  is  called  the  son  of  Jarah.  2.  For  Alemctli  in  I 
Chron.  vi.  45  [A.V.  60]  see  Almon.  G.  B.  L. 

'AXENTJ:  The  last  prayer  of  the  daily  liturgy  in 
most  congregations,  so  called  from  its  initial  word, 
'"Alenu,"  which  means  "It  is  incumbent  upon  us," 


337 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aleksandria 
Alenu 


or  "It  is  our  duty."  It  is  one  of  the  most  sublinu- 
prayers  of  the  entire  liluriry,  and  lias  a  reniurkalile 
iiistory,  almost  typieal  of  the  race  from  which  it  ema- 
iiiiled.  It  Ijceame  the  cause  of  slanderous  accusation 
ami  perseculinn,  as  a  result  of  which  it  was  in  part 
mutilated  thn)U>:h  fear  of  the  ollicial  censors.      But 

Imvins;  l)e<'ii  thus  niutilated,  it  isdilli- 

Original      cult  to  present  it  in  its  orijriiial  form. 

Form  of  the  To  restore  il  and  render  it  at  least  in- 

Prayer.       telligible,  recourse  must  In-  had  to  old 

books  and  documents.  The  fnllowiiif; 
is  a  literal  translation  from  the  original  so  far  as  it 
can  be  restored : 

"  It  Is  Incumtient  upnn  us  to  plvo  pnilse  to  tlic  Lonl  of  tlip 
t'nlvt'fse.  to  plorify  Hlni  wtio  fonncii  creiition.  for  Hi-  tiatli  rn>t 
Diudf  us  to  be  llkf  tile  nations  of  tlif  liintis,  nor  liatli  lit-  iimtlf 
us  like  tlif  fuiiiilies  of  tlic  cartli :  He  tiatti  not  sft  our  jMirtiou 
with  tlicire,  nor  our  lot  with  tlielriniililtiiili';  .  .  .  fi>r  tlii-y  pros- 
Initv  themselves  iK-fore  vanity  an<l  folly,  and  pray  to  a  ko<1  who 
<'an  not  help.  .  .  .  Uut  we  l>eiul  the  kneeauilpriuUniteoui'selves 
anil  tHiw  down  before  the  Kliivr  of  the  Klniis  of  Kinirs,  the  Holy 
one,  blessed  lie  He  I  For  11  is  He  who  strelehed  forth  the 
heavens  and  laid  the  foundations  <if  the  earth,  ami  the  seat  of 
Mis  glory  is  In  the  heavens  almve.  and  His  inl^rhtv  dwellinjf- 
plaee  isheklnahl  Is  In  the  loftii-st  heiv-hts.  'He  is  our  liod. 
and  there  Is  none  other.'  In  tntth.  He  Is  our  KInfr.  there  Is 
none  besides  Hlni,  as  it  Is  written  In  His  Tondi :  'And  thou 
shall  know  this  day  ami  lav  It  to  thine  heatt  that  the  Lord  Is 
(iod  In  heaven  alwve  and  upon  the  earth  l>eneath  :  and  thei'e  is 
none  other.' 

"  Therefore  do  we  wait  for  Thee,  O  Ia^hI  our  GikI.  soon  t4)  lie- 
hold  Thy  nilehty  glory,  when  Thou  wilt  n-inove  the  alunilna- 
llons  from  the  earth,  and  idols  shall  Ik*  e.xternilnated ;  when  the 
world  shall  ht'  rvpenerated  Ity  the  kinirdoin  of  the  Alinlghly, 
and  all  the  ehildrea  of  Ik-sh  Invoke  Thy  name:  when  all  the 
wtckeil  of  the  earth  shall  he  turned  unto  Thee.  Then  shall  all 
the  Inhabitants  of  the  world  pereeive  and  confess  that  nnu>  Thee 
i'very  krie*'  must  l>end.  and  eveiy  tiinjrue  be  sworn.  Before  Thee, 
(J  Loni  oiir  God.  shall  they  kneel  and  fall  down,  and  unto  Thy 
Iflorlou.s  name  jflve  lionor.  So  will  lliey  ac<*ept  the  yoke  of  Thy 
kingdom,  and  Thou  slialt  tie  King  over  them  siH*e<liiy  forever 
and  aye.  For  Thine  Is  the  kingilom,  and  to  all  eternity  Thou 
wilt  ri'Ign  in  glory,  a.s  It  Ls  written  in  Thy  Tomh  :  "The  Lord 
shall  reign  forever  and  ave.'  And  It  isal.snsald:  'And  the 
I.ord  shall  \»'  King  over  all  theeaitli ;  on  that  day  the  Lord  shall 
lie  one  and  His  name  be  One.'" 

Evidently  this  prayer  was  oritrinally  recite<I  with 
the  ]ir<jstration  of  the  whole  assenihleii  congreu'ation 
lii'fore  their  ileparture  from  the  house  of  (iod.  or 
after  the  benediction  jriveii  by  the  priests.  In  such 
solemn  language  (drawn  frnm.Ier.  .\.  (i-lU;  Isa.  .\.\.\. 
7,  x\v.  '2:},  li.  i:i;  Dent.  iv.  Hit)  the  congregatiim 
gives  expression  to  its  faith  in  the  One  liiiversal 
Knicr  of  the  AVorld.  and  to  its  hope  for  His  univer- 
sal kingdom  when  all  the  idolatrous  nations  around 
Israel  shall  have  been  converted  to  His  Irtitli.  The 
omission  of  a  personal  Jlessiah  from  the  cxjircssion 
of  the  .Messianic  hope  |ioints  to  a  iirc-Christian  era; 
and  the  very  title.  "  Kiiiir  of  the  Kings  of  Kings" — 
found  in  Dan.  ii.  liT^shows  that  the  formula  used 
at  the  prostration  goes  hack  to  Persian  limes  when 
kings  bore  the  title  <if  King  of  Kings. 

The  '.Menu  prayer  had  already  been  in  use  when 
there  wereattached  to  it  tlw  three  portions  of  the  lit 

urgy  of  the  New-year:  (l)thc  Malkiyot 
Additions    lllie  Glori  Meat  ions  of  God  as  Kingi:  {'i) 
to  the  Zikronol  (llie  Divine  Heniiinhrnn- 

'Alenu.     CCS);  and(:i)tlie  Sliofarot(tlic' Trumpet 

blasts):  these  weri>  probably  originally 
prayers  of  the  Ilasidim  (  WatikimK  recited  on  public 
fast  days  (scm' Taanil,  ii.  I!,  anil  1{.  II.  iv.  .">.  (i).  Ziin/ 
and  his  followers — w  ho  ascribe  tin'  prayer  to  Hub, 
simply  because  in  his  school  the  .lewish  liturgy  re- 
icived  its  permanent  form — disregarded  thi'fact  thai 
it  stands  in  no  organic  connection  with  the  ri'sl  of  the 
New  year's  prayer.  .\n  old  tradition,  referred  to  by 
Simon  ben  /eiiiali  Dnraii  in  his  rcsponsn  on  I'niyir 
2.'>;t:  by  Klea/ar  of  Worms,  in  his  "I{ol>eah";  and 
afterward  in  .\aroii  ben  .lacob  lia  Kolien  of  l.tinel's 
"l>rlii)l  Hayyini."  in  "Kol  llo."  i.  IT.  claims  that  il 
was  wrilten  by.loshiia  upon  his entmiice into Cauiuin. 
I.  -ii 


Maniissi'h  b.  Israel,  in  his  "  Vindicise  .ludicorum."  iv. 
'i.  ascribes  the  'Alenu  to  the  men  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue. Mo.ses  Mendels.sohn  also,  in  his  memorandum 
(see  below),  declares  the  'Alenu  to  be  one  of  the  old- 
est jirayers  of  the  nation,  adducing  as  pn-iof  of  its 
ancient  and  preC'hristian  character  the  fad  that  no 
mention  is  made  in  it  of  the  restoration  of  the  .Jew- 
ish Temple  and  state,  which  would  scarcely  have 
been  omitted  had  it  been  comi)osed  after  tlieir  de- 
struction. It  was  obviously  w  ritlen.  he  sjiys,  at  the 
time  w  heu  the  .Jew  s  still  lived  in  their  own  land.  The 
fact  that  neither  Maimonides  nor  Abudarham  men- 
tions its  separate  recital  at  the  close  of  the  daily  pray- 
ers, as  does  the  Mal.izor  Vitry.  merely  jiroves  tliatit 
was  not  generally  recited  as  "part  of  the  service.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  indisputable  that  during  the 
Middle  .\ges  it  was  invested  with  especial  solemnity 
and  awe. 

The  following  is  related  by  .Joseph  ha-Kohen  in 
his"'Emek    lia  IJaka "   (ed.    Wiener,   p.   31).   based 

upon  contemporarj-  records:    During 

Its  Use  by    the  persecution  of  the  .Jews  of  Blois. 

Martyrs.      France,  in  1171,  when  many  masters 

of  the  Law  died  as  martyrs  at  the 
stake,  an  eye-witness  wrote  to  I{.  .Jacob  <if  Orleans 
that  the  death  of  the  saints  was  accomi)anied  by  a 
weird  song  resounding  through  the  stillness  of  "the 
night,  causing  the  Christians  who  heard  it  from 
afar  to  wonder  at  the  melodious  strains,  the  like  of 
which  they  had  never  heard  before.  It  was  ascer- 
tidned  afterward  that  the  martyred  saints  had  inaile 
use  of  the  'Alenu  as  their  dying  song.  It  is  (juile 
probable,  then,  that  it  became  the  custom  in  those 
tragic  days  for  the  martyrs  to  chant  the  '.Menu  song 
in  order  to  moderate  the  agonies  of  their  death. 

IJut  this  very  fact  seems  to  have  given  a  welcome 
pretext  to  maiigning  persecutors,  who  claimed  that 

tlie  'Alenu  was  a  malicious  attack  upon 
Calumnies    the  Church,  whose  Savior  was  char- 
Directed     acterized  therein  as  "a  god  who  can 
Against  It.  not  help"  and  as  "vanity  and  folly." 

An  apostate.  Pesach  Pi'ter.  in  1399 
went  so  far  as  to  assert  that  in  the  word  p'"il  ("and 
folly"),  (IC")  .Jesus  was  alluded  to.  because  tlii'  He- 
brew letters  of  both  words  are  ei|Ual  in  numerical 
value,  amounting  to  310.  Antonius  Margarita,  in 
I,')3(),  was  the  next  to  repeat  this  charge,  in  n  book 
entitled  "The  Helief  of  the  .Jews."  Seventy  years 
later  Samuel  Kriedrich  IJrenz,  a  converted  jew,  re- 
peated it  in  a  book  to  which  he  gave  the  character- 
istic title  ".Ii\discher  Abgestreifler  .Shlangeiibalg" 
(The. lewish  Serpint  Slouirh).  In  vain  did  the  leading 
rabbis.  .Solomon  Zebi  I'lTeiihausen  in  his  "Therial>" 
and  Lippman  Ml'ihlhausen  in  his  "Niz/.ahon."  pro- 
test against  such  misinterpretation  of  llieir  ancient 
prayer,  composed  long  before  .lesiis  was  born,  and 
having  solely  idolaters  in  view.  Kvcn  llic  learned 
liiixtorf  in  his  "  Hibliolheca  liabbinica  "  repealed  the 
charge ;  but  he  was  successfully  refuted  by  Mainisseh 
b.  Israel,  who  devotes  a  whole  clnipter  of  his  "  Viii- 
ilicia'  .IuiIm  orum  "  to  Ihc  '.Menu  :  and  relates  among 
other  things  that  .'sultan  Sclim.on  reading  the  'Alenu 
ill  the  Turkish  translation  of  the  .Jew  ish  liturgy  prc- 
seiiled  to  him  by  his  ]ihvsician  Moses  .\mon,  said: 
"Truly,  t  his  prayer  is  sultlcii'iit  forallpurpos<-s:  there 
is  no  need  of  any  other."  Hut  the  acme  of  misrep- 
resentation was  reached  by  Kisi-nmenger  ("  Entdeck 
tes  .ludetilhuin."  i.  H4).  who  poinli'd  out  that  the 
words,  "they  bow  ton  god  wiiodiK'S  nut  help,"  were 
accompanieil  by  spitting  as  a  sign  of  utter  contempt, 
and  he  as.serled  that  refeniice  was  thereby  intended 
lo.Ie.sus.  In  consetnience  of  this  charge,  the  indi-co- 
rous  practise  of  spilling  while  reciting  Ihc  pniyer  was 
deuounced  by  Isaiah  Ilorwilz  and  otherrabbis.  Hut 


'Alenu 
Aleppo 


THK  .lEWISn  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


338 


the  cimrge  was  rem-wcd  ajiiiin  by  Professor  Kypke. 
governineut  inspector  of  the  Kiiiiiirsberg  Synugofrue, 
in  a  nieniorandiim  i)ri'seute(l  to  tlie  goveriinieiit  in 
1777,  cm  tlie  occasion  of  a  memorial  service  lieUi  by 
tlie  KOiiigsberg  Jews  inlioiior  of  tlieUnssian empress. 
This  was  rcfiiictl  l)y  Mentlclssolm  in  a  couiiler-niem- 
orandum  preseiiteil  to  the  governTiient.  tlie  result  of 
which  was  that,  despite  Kypkcs  protest,  the  mat- 
ter was  laid  ml ni-tn.  Holh  docnmeiitsweieafterward 
published  from  the  archives  by  L.  K.  Borowsky,  pas- 
tor of  Kimigsberg.  in  1791  (see  ^Iendels.sohu.  "'Ge- 
sammte  Schrifteu,"  vi.  418;  .lost,  "Gesch.  derlsmeli- 
ten,"  ix.  381 

Singularly  enough,  in  the  early  Christian  Church, 

convert.s  before  being  baptized  ha<I  to  step  forward 

at  the  end  of  divine  service,  and  make 

Coinci-        public  confession  by  tirsl  turning  back 
denceinthe  ward,  renouncing  the  kingdom  of  Sa 
Early         tan  and  spitting  out  as  a  sign  of  con- 
Christian     tempt;  then  turning  forward   in    the 

Church.  uameof  theCreatorof  the  world  and  of 
man.  they  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
JesusastheSon  of  God"  (see  llotiing,  "Taufe."!.  3S1 ; 
Cyril,  "De  Jlysteriis,"  i.  2).  Possibly  the  jirayer  for 
the  conversion  of  all  heathen  nations,  contained  in 
the  latter  portion  of  the  '.Menu,  has  some  coruieetion 
with  the  practise  adopted  by  the  Church  of  admit- 
ting proselytes  at  the  end  of  the  service, 

BIBLIOORAPHV  :  Zunz,  f;.  1^  p.  :!!»;  I.Hcralurhlall  (Jr.s>  Ori- 
€uttt,  IHJii,  pp.  ,5<^-7t>;  Ilriick.  Itahhinische  Ccremimial- 
hriluchc,  pp,  ,T.i-58 ;  Hamburtter,  R.  B.  T.  supplfiiipnt,  il.  li ; 
(Jratz.  Gcsc/i.  d.  Ju<k)i.  vill.  7ii,  x.  IWO.  :!lii;  Mti].l.-ls,-i.,iin, 
(icynmmtc  Schriftiu,  vi.  418;  ,Iost.  Grsch.  <l'r  Isr<t<litin, 
ix.  :iS:  I.  H.  Weiss.  In  Kobale's  Jcv/iunoi  (Hebrew),  ISW.pp, 
ltiS-i;i.  jj 

'ALENU  (ir^yl.  MTJSIC  OF :  The  traditional 
melixlv  to  which  the  'Alenu  jirayer  is  chanted,  while 
of  comparatively  late  origin,  is  of  suitable  breadth 
and  dignity.  It  consists  ts.sentially  of  the  opening 
phrase,  several  times  repeated,  with  the  addition 
of  a  strain  from  the  cantor's  introduction  of  the 
'Amid.mi  and  a  passing  reminiscence  of  the  Koi, 
NlDRK.  The  version  given  on  the  ojiposite  page  is 
somewhat  simpler  in  detail  than  that  favored  by 
most  cantors,  some  of  whom  prefer  also  to  quote  a 
strain  from  the  melodies  of  the  jireceding  evening 
pravers  instead  of  the  one  here  instanced, 

F.  L,  C. 

AliEPH  (it) :  The  first  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. For  its  symbolic  meaning,  see  Mislmah  Sliah- 
bat,  i.  It  wasemi)loyed  asa  numeral  to  mark  No.  1  of 
the  shckel-bo.xes  in  the  Temple  (Shek.  iii.  2).  Aleph 
and  Tav  being  the  first  and  the  last  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  the  expression  "from  Aleph  to  Tav"  sig- 
nifies "from  begimiing  toend."  Hence,  "the observ- 
ers of  the  Law  from  Aleph  to  Tav  "are  those  that 
keep  the  Law  in  its  entirety.    See  Ai.phahet  ;  Ai.l'iiA 

.\M>  f)ME<i.\.  Iv. 

ALEPPO  ( Arabic,  Haleb;  Hebrew.  3^nN.  IS'^n. 
2?n.  Imt  gi-nerally  n31V  D1S-  or  abbreviated  J'lX  or 
n31S):  Town  of  ancient  and  of  modern  Syria,  and  cap- 
ital of  a  Turkish  vilayet  of  the  same  name,  between 
the  Orontes  and  Euphrates  rivers:  situated  on  the 
banks  of  a  little  desert  stream,  Xalirel-Haleb,  seventy 
miles  east  of  Alcxandretla,  its  seaport  on  the  Medi- 
terranean. Fonnerly  it  derived  its  importance  from 
being  on  the  ro\ite  to  Bagdad  and  southern  Persia; 
and  it  is  sjiid  to  have  contained  at  one  time  as  many 
as  200,000  souls.  It  can  boast  of  sheltering  one  of  the 
oldest  Jewish  communities,  mentioned  in  Ps.  Ix. 
Though  only  ten  days"  journey  north  of  I)ainas<-ns, 
it  was  traditionally  regarded,  in  letters  of  divorce  (see 
Get),  as  the  most  northerly  point  a  Palestinian  Jew- 
might  visit  without  being  considered  a  traveler,  the 


southern  limit  being  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  In  the 
sixteenth  century  one  of  the  routes  to  India  still 
passi-d  through  it,  and  im  accoimt  of  this  the  city 
became  one  of  the  great  attractions  for  the  Jews 
who  traveled  eastward. 

Though  the  synagogue  in  Aleppo  has  many  mod- 
ern additions.  Abbe  Chagnot  is  of  ojiinion  that  por- 
tionsof  it  wereereiled  as  early  as  the  fourth  century. 
It  contains  several  inscriptions,  some  carved  in  its 
walls.  <itliers  painted  on  them;  one  dating  as  early  as 
833,  another  as  late  as  1861 ;  the  former  in  a  chapel 
(n3p)  sjiid  to  have  been  erected  by  Ali  ben  Nathan 
hen  Mebassi'r  biMi  DISH.  The  date  is  furnished  in 
the  usual  way  by  starring  letters  in  a  Biblical  (juotji- 
tion.  The  chief  peeidiarily  of  the  structure  isa  raised 
pulpit,  known  as  Elijah's  Seat.  Sevend  chapels  .sur- 
round the  main  building;  the  one  on  the  extreme 
west,  behind  the  Ark,  and  corresponding  to  thi'  lady- 
chapel  of  a  European  cathedral,  is  a  damp  shrine, 
witli  a  stone  sarcophagus,  in  which  are  i)reserved 
lour  Biblical  manuscripts,  the  jiride  of  the  Aleppo 
Jews.  The  greatest  superstitious  rev- 
Tne  Aleppo  erenee  is  attached  to  the  codex  now  in 
5  rt\  Aleppo,  which  is  ascribed  to  Aahon 
and  Other    |,^;^  Asiikk;  it  bears  note  of  its  dedi- 

i^rlnts        '■'"'""  '"  "'^'  ■'■'^^r;  ^bV2  and   ^IXIL"' 
*^  D''J3"in.   that  is,  lo  the   Pabbinites  of 

JerusiUem,  and  of  its  subsequent  delivery  to  the  Jeru- 
salem Synagogue  of  t'airo,  as  well  as  of  its  having 
originally  belonged  to  an  inhabitant  of  Bassora,  and 
to  the  Karaite  community  of  Jerusjilem. 

The  codex,  from  its  accentuation  and  general  char- 
acter, can  hardly  be  of  earlier  date  than  the  twelfth 
century;  nor  can  it  be  the  original  written  in  i)22. 
The  epigraphs  nnist  have  been  copied  from  another 
manuscrii)t.  itself  perhaps  not  the  tirst.  The  other 
three  manuscripts  are;  (1)  Pentateuch  (text  and  Tar- 
gum)  with  full  Masoretic  lists,  finished  (prohablv  in 
italy)<mthe  loth  of  Tammuz,  1101  (1341);  ('.>)  Penta- 
teuch with  the  conunentary  of  Pjislii  in  the  margin 
and  simdry  additions  of  Ibn  Ezra,  Nahmanides,  and 
JosephCaro;  (3)  a  huge  but  be:iutifully  illuminated 
Masoretic  Pentateuch  with  the  Haftarot  and  the  live 
Megillot.  The  synagogue  is  also  tlie  meeting-house 
of  the  congregants.  ()n  an  upper  lloor  is  the  rab- 
binical school  with  a  fairly  good  Hebrew  library. 
Stored  near  the  roof  of  one  of  tlie  chapels  is  a. i/c/ij'jrt/i, 
from  which,  in  times  of  dronghl,  the  dust  is  removed 
and  carried  with  nuicli  ceremony  to  the  Jewish  cem- 
etery and  there  buried  with  fi'rvent  i)rayers  forrain. 
There  are  sjud  to  be  about  10,000  Jews  in  Aleppo, 
each  of  whom  must  pay  a  poll  lax.  Besides  the 
various  primary  schools,  where  He- 
Modern  brew  and  .\rabic  are  taught,  there  is  a 
Aleppo,  boys'  school,  founded  by  the  Alliance 
Israelite  rniverselle  in  1869,  with  2.")0 
pupils,  of  whimi  96  pay  for  tuition.  There  is  also  a 
school  for  girls,  with  Ifl.")  pupils,  of  whom  79  pay. 
The  latter  was  founded  in  1889. 

In  the  matter  of  dre-ss  the  Jewesses  of  .Vleppo 
adopt  a  costume  resembling  that  of  their  Moham- 
medan sisters — a  long  black  cloak  enveloping  them 
from  head  to  foot,  the  face  alone  being  visible.  The 
girls  in  the  -Vlliance  school  wear  European  dress. 

Books  arc  very  rare  in  the  city,  but  manuscripts 
aboimd.  fifteen  Hebrew  ones  having  been  recently 
collected  there  in  two  days.  One  was  a  unique  di- 
wan  of  secular  poetry  by  Eleazcr  ha-Bable  probablj' 
composed  in  Aleppo  (".lew.  Quart.  Hev."  xi.  68'2). 
.V  printing-press  for  Hebrew  was  set  up  in  Aleppo 
j  in  1X9S.  In  a  private  library  therea  Masoretic  Bible, 
finished  in  1307.  has  been  found  ;  this  library  also  con- 
tains a  cabalistic  work,  njpn  D.  written  in  Cochin 
;   in  1497. 


339 


THE  .IKWlSill   KXCVCLOPEDIA 


'Alenu 
Aleppo 


Bciijiiiniii  of  Tiiflclii  visited  Aleppo  in  11T3,  when 
lie  found  a  Jewish  eoniinuiiilv  of  1,300  souls  with 
three  noteworthv  rahhis  attending  to  tlieir  spiritual 


119.")  the  leadinji.Iew  wasJose|ih  it>n  Aknin,  who  had 
migrated  from  Eunipe  by  way  of  Egypt,  where  he 
was  I  lie  friend  of  Maimonides,  who  wrote  for  him  the 


'ALENU 


'A    -   le  -   nu    le 
Our   du  -    ty    it 


shab    -     -    -  be  -  ah 
is to     praise 


8a  -    nu   ke  -  goy  -  ye. 
our   state  like  any     Oen 


ha  -  a  -  ra  -  zot,  we  -  lo sa  -  ma  -  nu       (ah! . 

tile   folk,  iwr  did He      set      us       {ah!  , 


/TV       "'/ 


. . . .  )         ke-mish  -  pe  -    hot ha  -  a  -  da  -    mah,. . . .       she  - 

. ...  )        like  oth  •  er        ra        -        -        ces    of  man-  kind since 


/ 


^ 


i=gi^i 


ko  -  ro  -  'im,   ii  -  luibb-ta  -  ha  -  wim, 
bend  the    knee,  nud...      wor      •    ship. 


-'=^^-tz 


Q 

and 


mu      -     dim      lif  -  no  Me  -  Ick  Mal-ke    ha  -  Jle-la  ■  kira,  ha  -  kn-dosh   ba  -  ruk     Hu. 
of  -  frr    thanks    he    -    fore    the  sii-preme  Kinj      of  Kiuijs,  the  most  Ilo  -  ly,  hlest  he    lit. 


needs:  Moses  Alconslnntini.  I.smel.  and  Setli      I'eln- 

hiah  of   Italisboii    was  there   belwein 

Prominent    1170  and  IIMO.  and  .Mhari/.i  lifly  years 

Members  later.  The  former  eall.s  the  litiidil  the 
of  the  Com-  pala<e  of  King  N'our  eddin,  and  says 

munity.       that  there  were  l..'iOO.Iews  in  .Meppo.'of 

whom  Iheehief  men  were  liidiliis  Mosi'S 

AleonHlantiin,  Isniel.  and  Selh.     All.iari/.i.  autlior  of 

the  "Tahki-nioni."  like  Maimonides,  has  inueli  to  sav 

of  tlie  Aleppo,lews(Makamat.  Nos.  |S..|(!..|7,.'i(l).    Ill 


"Moroh  Nebnkim."  Other  men  of  learning  were 
A/.ariah  and  his  brother  SamiU'l  Nissim.  the  king's 
physician  Elia/.er,  .leshiia.  .laehin  Ilananiah.  and 
•loseph  ben  llisdai.  All.iari/.i  thought  very  little  of 
the  .Vlepp"  poets,  iif  whom  he  mentions  Moses  Daniel 
and  a  certain  .Inseph  :  thehest  was.losi'ph  hen  ?eniah, 
who  hail  good  i|ualilii's  hut  wrote  bad  verse.  Their 
piety  must  have  been  extreme,  for  Kleazer  is  held  up 
to  scorn  for  having  traveled  on  tiiuSiiblutth.  iiltliougli 
lit  the  sultan's  command. 


Alessandria 
Alexander  the  Oreat 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


340 


In  1401  the  .Tcwisli  qimrtcr  was  pilliigcd,  with  the 
rest  of  the  city.  l)y  Tiumrlimc ;  ami  a  Jcwisli  saint 
ilieii  tlicrc  aftor  a  fast  of  scvi'ii  montlis.  In  th<> 
sixteenth  cenliiry  Samuel  Laniado  ben  Al)nihatn 
and  in  the  seventeenlli  centuiy  Hayyini  Cohen  ben 
At)iiiliain  weie  repiisentative  authors.  The  "  Mi'kor 
Mayyini"  of  the  hitler  was  published  at  Constan 
tiuople  in  KM!),  and  at  Amsterdam  liy  Meiiasseh 
lien  Isiaelin  Uiol).  Other  Aleppo  worthies  are  Is;iae 
I.opes  ill  Itiill).  Isjiae  ]5eiakaii  in  Ilie  eii;hteentli  een- 
tury.  and  Isaac  Athia  about  IHIO. 

For  four  eenturies  the  Jews  of  Cocliin  (India)  liave 
Ijeen  in  close  relation  with  those  of  Aleppo.  Wes 
sely,  in  his  edition  of  Farrisol's  travels,  jmblishes  as 
an  appendix  a  letter  by  Ezekiel  IJechabi  to  Tobias 
Boas,  lelalinir  liow  his  fiitlier came  tot'ochin  in  I(i4(>. 

Aleppo  was  in  touch  with  Italy  as  well  as  with 
India.  Many  Aleppo  books  were  published  in  Italy  ; 
notably  the  ritual  of  the  Aleppo  .b'ws.  recently  dis- 
covered bv  A,  Berliner  and  described  in  his  "Aus 
Meiner  Biiiliothek."  E.   N.  A. 

ALESSANDRIA:  Fortitied  town,  situated  in  a 
province  of  thi'  same  name,  in  northern  Italy,  and 
founded,  in  IKiS.  by  citizens  from  Crcmfina,  Milan, 
and  I'iacenza.  The  earliest  mention  of  a  Hebrew 
community  in  Alessandria  occiiis  in  the  last  years 
of  the  tifteentli  century,  after  the  I'-xpulsion  of  the 
.Tews  from  Spain,  when  the  name  of  a  certain  Clemens 

(Kalonymus)  Cohen  Vitali  of  Valencia 

Early         ap])ears  in  the  city  records  as  one  of 

History,      the  lirst  Jewish  settlers.     Ales.saudria 

was  then  a  dipendencv  of  Milan,  and 
■when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Charles  V,  the  Jews 
soon  resented  his  intolerant  treatment.  Jose])li  ha- 
Kohen  narrates, in  his"  'Emek  ha  Haka.''  that, in  l.").", 
when  the  in((uisitor  confiscated  a  nundierof  Hebrew 
books — thoujrh  they  contained  not  liiiiij;  objectionable 
—  and  at  the  ssimc  time  demanded  a  lar.ire  sum  for 
their  re<leniption.  the  Jews  of  Alessandria  petitioned 
the  duke  of  Scssji.  irovernor  of  Jlilan,  to  cause  the 
return  of  their  jiroperty.  The  ihd<e  immediately 
ordered  that  restitution  be  made.  By  conmiand  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  ,trovernor  of  .Milan  was  ili 
reeled  to  expel  the  Jews  from  that  duchy  in  loGO, 
but  no  attempt  was  made  to  carry  out  the  decree  till 
1502.  About  this  time  Rabbi  Samuel  Cohen  of  Ales- 
sandria went  to  Spain  to  jietition  the  kin.;:  in  behalf 
of  his  oi)|ircssed  coiclifrionists.  lie  siiceeeded  in  in- 
terestin>;  many  influential  jiersons  at  court  and  even 
gained  the  favor  of  Pliili])  II.  himself,  who  aimulled 
the  decree  of  expulsion  issued  in  l.")()f).  Notwith 
standin.sr  this,  in  l.")97  there  remained  in  the  dvuhy 
of  Milan  oidy  two  Jewish  fainilii'S  at  Cremona,  and 
about  as  many  at  Lodi  and  Alessandria,  whereas  pre 
viously  the  Jewish  popidation  of  these  cities  had 
reached  4.'in  at  Cremona.  13(1  at  Lodi.  and  103  at  Ales 
Siindria.  'I'houifh  numerically  insiirnitieant,  tin'  J<-ws 
of  Alessiindria  can  not  be  considereil  uniin|iorlant. 
Gedaliah  ibn  Val.iyah  sjient  mueh  of  his  time  in  Ales- 
san<lria  between  ihe  y<'ars  l.'iTGand  l.")H.),  and  it  was 
in  this  city  that  he  bejrau  to  write  several  of  his  works 
(see  his  "Shalshelct  ha-Kabbalah,"  cd.  Venice,  pp. 
67.  68). 

Little  is  known  of  the  later  residents  of  this  com- 
munity beyond  the  fact  that  about  the  midiUe  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  city  of  Alessandria  owed 

its  S!ifely  to  the  loyalty  of  a  Jew.  who 
Later         had  discovered  a  new  |)idcess  of  re- 
History,      lininsr  .irunpowder  which  economized 

its  use.  As  a  result  of  his  di.scovery. 
he  was  summoned  to  Ales.S!indria  so  that  his  inven 
tion  might  be  used  in  the  defense  of  the  city,  which 
the  French,  under  the  duke  of  Modena.  wei-e  threat- 


ening to  besiege.  The  duke  intercepted  the  Jew  and 
tried  to  bribe  him  to  destroy  idl  Ihe  powder  in  the 
fortress.  The  Jew  prelendeil  to  accept  the  duke's 
proposition,  but  as  soon  as  he  gained  Ihe  city  he  dis 
closed  the  whole  jilot  to  the  otlicials  (see  "Efetneridi 
.Vlessandriin."  July  14.1047.  reprinted  in  "Educatore 
Israelitico"  for  IsHh), 

Freed  from  Ihe  Spanish  yoke  in  1706.  Ale.ssjindria 
became  a  jiart  of  Sardinia,  oidy  to  be  plunged  into 
a  still  more  deplorable  condition  imtil  1M4.S,  when,  by 
the  decree  of  March  'Ji(.  civil  rights  were  accorded 
to  Ihe  .lews  of  Alessandria,  and  they  were  adnnlted 
even  to  Ihe  army  and  public  service. 

The  nsimes.  with  outlines  of  Ihe  achievements,  of 

the  various    rabbis  of  Alessandria,   are   as  follows: 

(1)   Josejih  b.  Michael   H.iveiuni.  who 

Rabbis  of    nourished  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Ales-         was  an  authorily  on  the  Jewish  ritual 

sandria.  aial  an  accomplished  Hebrew  poet. 
He  is  also  credited  with  a  respimsiim 
inserted  in  Lampronti's  "Pahad  Vizliak."  under  Ihe 
article  "  Keriat  .^efer  Torali."  written  about  1041. 
Zunz  mentions  him  in  his  "  Literaturgesehichte.'' 
p.  444.  but  as  the  author  of  a  jiiziiinit.  or  liturgical 
poeni.  The  date  1701,  given  by  him.  refers  to  the 
edition  of  the  pizmon,  and  not  to  Joseph's  rabbinate, 

(2)  lieiijarnin  Cohi-n,  rabbi  of  Heggio.  was  a  na- 
tive of  Alessandria,  and  became  rabbi  in  the  latter 
city  in  UuTi ;  he  continued  in  ollice  till  called  to  Keg- 
gi(")  in  1682,  (3)  Joel  Uzziel  ben  H.  Nathan  Pin- 
cherle.  rabbi  of  Alessiindria  in  1714  (.see  "Mill.iamah 
laAdonai"),  resided  there  with  his  father  in  1729(see 
Hichi."  Adderet  Eliyahu,"  part  ii  ).  One  of  his  ritual 
decisions  on  Ufilliii  (pbylacterii's)  which  aiijieared 
in  Mor]iur,!ro's  respoii.sa  (1716)  is  also  found  in  the 
■'  Pahad  Vizliak  "  of  Lampronli.  After  Pineherle.the 
distinguished  family  of  Levi  de  Veali  held  the  rah 
binieal  office  in  Alessandria,  son  succeeding  father 
for  several  generations.  (4)  Eli.jah.  son  of  Raphael 
Solomon,  was  the  first  to  adopt  Ihe  name  of  I)e  Veali. 
and  held  thi'  oltice  of  rabbi  from  1738  to  17!(2.  Nepi 
eulogizes  him.  and  cites  his  works.  (.5)  Moses  Za- 
cuto.  son  of  Elijah,  occupied  the  labbinati'  of  Ales- 
sandria for  twenty  years.  In  1812  the  consistory 
of  Paris  elected  him  rabbi  in  Casale  Jlonferrato  (see 
L  Delia  Torre.  "Tal  Yaldut."  kj  2.j).  (6)  Mattathias 
di  Moses  Zacnto  sueeeeded  his  father  in  1812.  On 
June  .").  183.">.  together  with  47  persons,  including 
Kabbi  Haphael  Aniar.  he  perished  in  the  collapse  of 
a  building  during  a  wedding  celebration.  (7)  Elijah, 
son  and  successor  of  Mattathias  (1830-80).  was  es- 
teemed by  C.  Ii.  de  Hossi.  He  was  created  a  knight 
of  the  crown  of  Italy. 

During  the  last  two  decades  the  community  of 
Alessandria  has  grown  steadily  smaller,  and  in  1900 
numbered  only  370  souls.  Its  members  observe  the 
Italian  ritual,  and  siijiport  several  religious  and  char- 
itable institutions. 

BiBLiocRAPIiv  :  .losepti  tia-Kolien,  ^Emekha-Baka:  KfemerUli 
AUi'siinilriiii,  .Iiilv  14.  11147,  in  E<lucfitiirc  Ixraelitici),  185S: 
Istntctiinie  r  AUruitlitntr  pfr  uJi  Hi:1trci  flelUi  Stato  (H 
Mih'iin.  ill.  istc.  p.  tii:!.  Nepi-(;iilroncli.  Tokdot  Gednlc  Yin- 
nirl.  11,  V~.i:  Zmiz.  Utrrnlurtn'sfh.  p.  4-t4. 

G.  J. 

ALETRINO,  ARNOLD:  A  Dutch  physician 
and  professor  of  criminal  aiilliro|iology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Amsterdam:  also  serveil  ollicially  as  sur- 
geon to  the  city  police  and  fire  departments;  born  in 
Amsterdam.  Ajiril  1.  18.')8.  lie  is  fine  of  the  leaders, 
in  comiiany  with  Professors  Winkler  and  Jelgersma. 
in  the  Dutch  school  of  anthropology  which  follows 
methods  quite  distinct  from  llie  French  and  Italian 
scientists.  He  contributed  the  following  articles 
to  the  " Psvchologischc  en  Neuralgiselie  Bladen": 


841 


THE  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Alessandria 
Alexander  the  Oreat 


"Over  Uratiismc"  in  l^<97.  "Ovit  Klmira  Rcformii- 
tory  "  UD(i  "HcsclHiiiwiiiirin  over  dc  VromvtnkHcs- 
tic"  in  18!)K,  ami  "Ovii-  <  )iit(Hnkiiil)aarliei(l "  in 
1899.  In  189H  lie  puMlslicd  a  vi)lume  of  collected 
essays  upon  eiiininal  anthropoloiry. 

He  is  also  known  as  a  wiilcr  of  tietion,  lieloncinp 
to  tlic  modern  realistic  school  which  has  llonrishcd  in 
Holland  since  IHHO.  Besides  a  number  of  smaller  con 
trihutions  to"I)c  Nieuwe  Gids."  the  lirst  monthly 
orpan  of  this  school,  lie  has  puhlished  "L'it  deii 
Dood."  lM90;"Zusti-rH(rtlia."  IWll  ;  "  .Martha,"  189"). 
and  a  vuliiiiie  of  short  slcjries,  ISUo.  J.   Vit. 

ALEX,  EPHRAIM:  Founder  of  the  Jewish 
Board  of  (Juardians.  London:  born  in  Cheltenham 
18(H);  died  in  London.  Nov.  13.  1883.  He  was  a  sue 
cessful  l)usine.ss  man,  which  fact  cminenlly  litted  Inni 
for  the  ;;reat  cliaritat)le  work  to  w  hich  he  chietly  de 
voted  his  attention — that  connected  with  the  well 
known  Jewish  Board  of  (iuardians  in  I,on<lon.  To 
his  ingeniiily  were  due  the  praelical  slejis  which  led 
up  to  tin-  estal)lishm<Tit  of  that  institution;  and  to 
Ills  zeal  and  i)ublic  spirit,  which  he  imparted  to  the 
community,  were  due  its  nijiid  development  and 
])orfect  orjianizalion.  .\  sniriicslion  had  indeed  been 
made  as  early  as  181)2  by  Joshua  Van  Oven  to  re 
place  the  loose  and  imperfect  arranj,'eruent  between 
the  three  German  synafro.irues  by  a  detinitc  board  of 
(guardians  forthe  Jewish  ]>iior.  This  su!,'gestion  was, 
however,  lost  siijlit  of  until  18,")8,  when  Ale.\  was 
overseer  of  the  Great  Synagogue,  and  he  became  im- 
pressed with  the  in,ide(|uacy  of  the  system  for  out 
door  charity  then  prevailing.  He  ventilated  tlie  sub- 
ject energetically  before  his  own  council  and  vestry 
as  well  as  on  variiuis  public  occasions. 

In  February.  ls.")<,».  he  issuiil  a  circular  proposing 
"a  scheme  for  a  Ixiard  of  guardians  for  the  relief  of 
the  necessitous  foreign  poor."  This  scheme  exhib 
ited  a  great  insight  into  the  needs  of  the  jioor.  as 
well  as  a  compreliensive  iilca  of  the  machinery  ueces- 
siiry  ade(|uately  to  relieve  them.  The  keynote  of  the 
circular  and  scheme  was  organi/ation,  and  the  sub- 
se(|ueiil  di-velnpmi'iit  of  the  board  has  been  strictly 
on  the  linis  of  Ali  x's  original  concepticm. 

He  was  not  a  man  of  conunan<ling  intellect,  but 
he  p()s.ses.sed  a  genial  and  tactful  disposition  which 
attracted  young  men  to  the  undertaking.  He  was 
the  first  president  of  the  board,  over  wliich  he  con- 
tinued to  preside  till  IS(ii).  when  his  physical  infirmi- 
ties compclleil  his  relinnient ;  as  a  member  of  the 
board,  however,  he  continued  to  lake  part  in  its  de- 
liberations till  the  year  of  his  <leath.  He  was  also  a 
life  niemlurof  theCouncil  nf  the  United  Synagogue, 
and  a  member  of  thel'onunitteeof  the  Jews'  Hospital 
in  .Mile  End. 

BlBLIOORAPIir  :  Jew.  CImiii.  und  Jew.  ll'i.rM,  Nov.  IT,  1882. 

G.    L. 

ALEXA  (or  LEXA)  :  1.  .V  foreign  jurist  of  the 
third  ceiiiury.  win.  cliscnsscd  with  the  Palestinian 
amont  K  Mana  H.  Ibi'  (piestion  cif  collecting  disputed 
di'bis  in  iIh'  absence  of  the  diblor.  as  practised  under 
till'  ndibinic  law  in  I'alisline  and  under  tin'  law  of 
his  own  <-ounlry.  The  conversalion  is  preserved  in 
two  somewhat  mutilated  versions  ( Y<'r.  Ket.  i.x.  83A, 
Yer.  Shebu.  vii.  ;!s<M.  and  it  reails  as  follows: 

"Wipxn:  Wo  (III  iM'tliT  Ihan  ynn.  Wi>  enter  JmlimiPnl :  ami 
If  tile  ilehliir  ivimes  mill  illHpnivi'i  the  eliilni,  well  nml  (fimil  — 
we  annul  the  Jii(l>;iiient :  tuu  tf  In-  itmfi  iioi  rnnie,  we  iiinnnii 
the  Jiiilifinrnt  "11  his  |ini|K'nv.  Maim;  Wr  iln  llkrwlw.  We 
Hive  niillif  tlin.uifli  111!'  piililli-  1  rl.r  f..r  ihirlv  iliiys  [rvrrv 
MKliiliiriiiiilTliiinKliiyor  eai'li  wih'K.  v<'  H.  K.  |i.  Il:tii| ;  If  lirn|>- 
pnirx  ln'fiin'  till-  niiirt,  itiHiil;  iiihiTwUi-  «r  riinnnii  till'  jiiilK- 
ini'iit  nil  his  iimiiiTlv.  .\.:  Hut  hii|i|iiim<  he  l.s  fur  uwav,  unil 
falh  Ui  hear  nf  tin-  nollif  In  lime  1..  alli.w  nf  hH  iip|ii>arlnir 
within  the  thirty  days  ?      M.;    We  semi  after  hliii  Ihni-  milli.-s 


at  iiiiinals  nf  thirty  days,  one  In  thirty  days  [after  (rlvinx  Judr- 
iiinnll,  annther  thirty  liu.ys  thereafter,  ami  a  third  thirty  davs 
laliT.  If  hi- ennies,  well ;  If  Iii-iIih-s  not  emnc,  wi- dii-lare  tlie 
Jiidirinenton  his  pniperty  llnal"  iinniimn-  H.  K.  p.  Will). 

Margoliot  ("Pcne  Moslieh  "  on  Yer.  Shel)ti.  l.r.) 
maintains  that  lliis  Alexa  was  a  Babvloniiin  anioni; 
Kraiikel  ("Mibo."  p  (i4,(.  on  the  authority  of  Rap- 
oport  in  "Eiek  Millin")  considers  him ';i  Gentile 
.judge.  2.  An  amoni  of  the  third  geneiation  (third 
iiMil  fourth  centuries),  mentioned  in  the  .Jerusalem 
Talmud  (  Ver.  Ket.  v.  29i-).  H.  Jacob  b.  Aha  reportsa 
Halakah  in  Ale.xa's  name,  tninsmitled  bv  ili/.kiah(b. 
Hiyya  Hoba).  He  is  probably  identical  with  R.  Alex- 
andri  H.  "  .s.   >[. 

ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT:  The  celebnited 
ciiiii|iii-inr  lit  the  ICast.  :i."ii;-:i->:{  i-.c.  By  introducinir 
Hellenic  culture  iiilo. Syria  and  Egypt!  he  had  prob- 
ably more  iiillnence  on  the  development  of  Judaism 
Uian  any  one  individual  not  a  Jew  by  nice.  Yet. 
curiously  enough,  there  are  no  personal  details 
which  connect  him  with  .Iewi,sli  history,  except  that 
iifter  the  siegeof  Tyre,  332  M.c,  he  inarched  througli 
Palestine  unopposed,  except  in  the  case  of  Gaza, 
which  was  razed  to  the  ground.  He  is  mentioned 
by  niime  only  in  the  Apocryphal  I  .Mace.  (i.  I-S.  vi. 
2).  It  is  supposed  that  the  Book  of  Daniel  alludes 
to  .Mexander  when  it  refers  to  a  mighty  king  that 
"shall  stand  up.  that  shall  rule  with  great  domin- 
ion." whose  kingdom  shall  be  destroyed  after  his 
death  (Dan.  xi.  3).  The  vision  of  the  "fourth  beast, 
dreadful  jind  terrible,  and  strong  exceedingly,"  de- 
vouring and  breaking  all  in  pieces  (i/jid.  vii.  7),  may 
also  be  an  allusion  to  Alexander  I.  B. 

The  only  historical  event  conncctiDg  Alexander 
the  (treat  with  the  Jews  is  his  visit  to  Jerusalem, 
wliich  is  recorded  by  Josepliiis  in  a  somewhat  fan- 
tastic manner.  According  to  "Ant."  xi.  s,  ^^  -1-6, 
.VIcxander  went  to  Jerusjilem  after  having  taken 
Gaza.  Jaddiia.  the  high  |)riest.  had  a  warniug  from 
God  receiveil  in  a  dream,  in  which  he  saw  him 
self  vested  in  a  purple  robe,  with  his  miter — that 
had  the  golden  phile  on  which  the  name  of  ('<(m\  was 
engraved — on  his  head.  Accordingly  he  went  to 
meet  .Vlcxandirat  .S.iphii  ("View  "  [of  the  Temple]). 
Followed  by  the  priests,  all  clothed  in  tine  linen,  and 
by  a  multitude  of  citizens,  Jadduaawaited  the  com- 
ing of  the  king.  When  Alexander  saw  the  high 
priest,  he  reverenced  God  (Lev.  R.  xiii.,  end),  and 
sainted  Jaddiia;  while  the  .lews  with  one  voice 
greeted  AleXiiiidcr.  When  Parmenio.  the  general, 
gave  expression  to  the  army's  surprise  at  Alexan- 
der's extraordinaiy  act — that  one  who  ought  to  be 
adored  by  all  as  king  should  adore  the  high  priest 
of  the  .lews— .VIcxander  replied:  "  I  did  not  adon- 
him.  but  the  (ioil  who  hath  honored  him  with  this 
high-|uiesiliood ;  for  I  saw  lliis  very  person  in  a 
dream,  in  this  veiv  habit,  when  I  was  at  Dios  in 
Maceilonia.  who.  when  I  was  considering  with  my- 
self how  I  might  obtain  dominion  of  Asia,  exhortetl 
me  to  make  no  delay,  but  boldly  to  pass  over  the 
sea,  promising  that  he  would  conduct  my  army,  and 
would  give  me  llie  ilominion  over  the  I'ersians." 
.Mexander  Ihcn  gave  the  high  priest  his  right  hand, 
and  went  iiilo  the  Temple  and  "olTei-ed  sjicrilice  to 
(tod  according  to  the  high  priest's  direction."  treat- 
ing the  whole  priest IioimI  niagnilicenlly.  "And  when 
the  B<iok  of  Daniel  was  shown  him  [s»'e  Dan.  vii. 
(1,  viii.  r,-H,  20-'-'2.  xi.  3-4).  wh.rein  Daniel  declami 
that  one  of  the  Gn^eks  [p' "l^Ol  should  destroy  Ihe 
empire  of  the  Persians,  he  supposed  that  he  was 
the  person  inleiided.  and  n-joiced  tliennl.  The 
following  day  .VIcxander  asked  Ihe  people  what 
favors  he  should  grant  Iheiii;  and,  at  the  high 
l>riest's  reqiiesl,  he  uccurdetl  them  the  right  to  live 


Alexander  the  Qi-eat 
Alexander  II.,  of  Judea 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


843 


in  full  cnjoynipiit  of  the  laws  of  their  forefathers, 
lie.  fiirtluriuoiv  c.M'mpteii  them  from  the  payment 
of  li-ibute  in  the  seventh  year  of  release.  To  the 
Jews  of  Rabyloiiia  and  Media  al.so  he  granted  like 
privileges;  ami  to  the  Jews  who  were  willing  to 
enlist  in  Ids  army  he  promised  the  right  to  live  in 
accordance  with  "their  ancestral  laws.  Afterward 
the  Samaritans,  having  learned  of  the  favors  granted 
the  Jews  liv  Alexander,  asked  for  similar  privileges; 
hut  Ale.\aiider  declined  to  accede  to  their  re(iuest. 
The  hi.storical  character  of  this  account  is,  however, 
doubled  l)v  manv  scholars  (see  Pauly  AVis-sowa, 
"Uealencvclopiidie,"  i.  col,  1422),  Although,  ac- 
cording to  Josephvis  ("Contra  Ap."  ii.  4.  (juoting 
Heeatiens),  Alexander  permitted  the  Jews  to  hold 
the  {-ountry  of  Samaria  free  fmm  tribute  as  a  reward 
for  their  lidelitv  to  him,  it  was  he  who  llellenized 
its  capital  (Sclifirer,  "(leseh."  ii.  108).  The  Sil)ylline 
Books  (iii.  'SKi)  speak  of  Alexander — who  claimed 
to  be  the  son  of  Zeus  Anion — as  "of  the  progeny  of 
the  Kronides,  though  spurious,"  K. 

In.  Jewish  Legend:    All  the  accounts  which 

the  Tahnud  and  .Midra.sli  give  concerning  Alexander 
Mukdon  (the  Macedonian)  are  of  a  legendary  charac- 
ter. Some  of  tliem  pretend  to  be  historical,  as  the 
following  Haraita  in  Vomu,  (!!•((  (idenlical  with  Me- 
gillat  Ta'anit,  iii.): 

"When  till'  Siiinurllans  liadnhtnliii'il  |icriiil>si..n  frc.iii  Alexan- 
der to  destriiv  tlie  Temple  in  ,Iitiis;i1imii.  ilie  lilt'li  piii-si  Simon 
the  .liisl,  im-nyeil  in  his  pontilliNil  Kiirmciii.-i  iind  fdlowi'ii  liy  a 
nunilHTof  ilisIlnL'uislM'il.li'ws.  Hciit  out  In  nici-t  the  cniniiuTcir. 
and  joined  him  at  .\nli|«ilris.  on  the  northiTii  froniiir.  .\t  sijrht 
of  Simon,  .Mcxandi-r  f.-ll  prostrate  at  his  U-i-\.  ami  explained  to 
his  a.stonisheil  eompaiiiiiiis  that  the  imajre  of  the  .lewisli  hii.'h 
priest  was  always  with  him  in  hattle.  Ilclitini;  for  him  and  lead- 

liiB  him  to  vii-l..rv.    si n  took  Ihe  opportunity  to  Justify  thi' 

altitude  of  his  eonntrvmen,  deelarinff  thai,  far  from  lieing  reh- 
els,  they  (.ITeml  pi-.ivers  in  the  Temple  for  llje  welfare  of  the 
king  arid  his  dominions.  So  Impn'ssed  was  .Mexaiider  that  he 
delivered  npall  the  SaiiLanlans  in  his  train  into  the  hands  of  the 
Jews,  who  tied  them  to  the  tails  of  horses  and  drasrped  them  to 
the  mountain  of  (ierizim  ;  then  the  , lews  plowed  the  mountain 
[demolished  the  SamaritJUi  temple]." 

It  is  evident  that  this  account  wrongly  assigns 
to  the  times  of  Alexander  an  event  which  occurred 

two  centuiies  later,  in  the  reign  of 
Samaritan  John  llyrcanus  I.  It  musi  therefore 
Intrigue,     have   been  written  at  a  late  period, 

when  the  memory  of  historical  inci- 
dents had  become  confused.  The  legend  iiresents 
a  striking  resemblance  to  Ihe  narrative  of  Josephns 
("Ant."xi.  IS.  i?  1  (/  .vf/. ).  The  point  of  the  fable 
is  the  honor  conferred  by  Ah'xander  ujioii  the  high 
priest  and  the  cause  thereof;  and,  furthermore,  the 
contrast  between  his  good-will  to  the  Jews  and  his 
hostility  to  the  Samaritans,  Both  the  iiaiTative  in 
the  Talmud  and  that  of  Josejihus  are  derived  from 
an  "Apology  '"  of  the  Jews  which  aimed  at  discredit- 
ing Ihe  members  of  the  Samaritan  sect.  It  is  even 
possible  that  this  apology,  as  Buchler  thinks  ("Rev, 
Et,  Juives,"  Ixxxvi,  11,  had  its  origin  in  Alexandria, 
where  the  attitude  of  Alexander  was  of  decisive  im- 
portance in  the  eyes  of  tlie  Greek  public; 

"In  fJen.K.  (Ixl..  endl  the  Samaritans  are  accused  of  playing  a 
role  equally  despicable  with  that  linpuled  to  them  in  the  alxive 
lesrend.  When  Alexander  advamed  toward  .lenisalem,  they 
Informed  him  that  the  .Tews  would  forhid  his  entrance  to  the  Holy 
of  Holies,  A  ,Iew,  (iehpah  bi-n  Koseni  |idc-ntlc'al  with  (iehiu  hen 
Pesisa.  a  le^'endary  character],  asked  the  king,  on  the  hill  of  the 
Temple,  to  remo\e  his  shoes  and  to  put  on  the  slippers  orna- 
mented w  ith  |irei-ious  stones  that  he  had  liroucht  for  him,  lest 
tie  should  slip  on  the  pavement  of  the  Temple.  Alexander 
oonii>lied  with  the  request,  and  thus  avoitleii  a  violation  of  the 
rahhinlc  law.  When  they  arrived  at  the  Holy  of  Holie.s.  (ielil'ah 
said  to  the  king.  *  We  are  not  permuted  t(i  priK-eed  farther' 
(neither  we  nor  vou).  "  Wlien  I  have  left  the  Temple,'  replied 
the  king. '  I  will  simlghten  yotn-  Inunp'  (liehi'ah  signilles  hum|)- 
back).  'If  you  do.'  answered  (iehl'ah,  '  you  are  a  great  physi- 
cian, and  deserving  of  high  remuneration.' " 

This  anecdote  is  one  of  those  uaive  inventions  of 


which  many  are  found  in  Midra.sh  Eknh  Babbati,  and 
which  aim  "at  exhibiting  the  ingenuity  of  the  Jews 
in  repartee.  Alexander  is  made  to  play  merely  the 
part  of  a  stage-king. 

The  same  Gebiah  appears  in  a  narrative  of  quite  a 
different  type.  Alexander  is  here  represented  as  the 
great  coni|ueror  to  whom  the  nations  apiieal  for 
arbitration  of  their  ditreieuces: 

"  The  Arabs  accuse  the  Jews  of  Illegally  withholiling  the  lierll- 
age  of  their  ancestor  Ishiuael :  the  Canaanltes  complain  of 
having  lieen  wronglv  deprived  of  their  territory ;  and  the 
EgvptlaiLS  claim  Inaeiiinltv  tor  the  vessels  that  Ihe  Israelites  bad 


Coin  Willi  Aramaic  Insirlptlon, 

taken  from  them  on  leaving  their  country.  f;ebl'ah  meets  all 
these  charges  with  great  success :  against  the  Kgyptlana  he 
proves  that  it  is  they  that  are  Indebted  to  the  Jews,  whom  they 
had  exploited  without  paving  them  for  their  work,  and  Alex- 
ander was  fully  satislled  with  the  rt'futatlon  "  (Sanh,  Slid.  Gen, 
11,  I.e.). 

These  pretended  discussions,  similar  to  those  re- 
ported to  have  taken  place  between  the  Samaritans 
and  the  Jews  before  Ptolemy  Philometor  (Josephus, 
"Ant,"  ,\ii.  1.  §  10;  xiii,  4,  ^  4),  are  the  echo  of 
the  accusations' against  the  Jews  by  jiagau  readers 
of  the  Bible  at  Alexandria.  The.se  imputations  were 
taken  up  later  by  the  Gnostics,  who  were  the  ini|)ils 
of  the  Alexandrians,  and  especially  by  the  Marcion- 
iles.  Tertullian  replied  to  Marcion,  who  had  brought 
the  same  reiiroach  against  the  Bible  fur  the  "larceny" 
committed  by  the  Jews,  by  reiietiling  the  words  of 
Gebi'ah;  he  even  mentions  the  discussions  between 
the  Jews  and  the  Egyptians  ("nam  etaiunt  ilaactum 
per  legatos  utrinquc";  .Egyptiorum  quideni  repetcn- 
tium  vasa;  Judeorum  vcro  re])osceutium  operas  suas, 
et  tandem  vasis  istis  renunliaveruut  sibi  jigyptii"; 
"Adversus  Marcioneni."  ii.  2(1). 

Another  group  of  legends  is  of  a  more  popular 
character;  they  have  nothing  specifically  Jewish, 
anil  are  connected  with  the  general  le.cendary  tales 
of  Alexander.     Tliey  may  be  given  as  follows : 

The  Ten  Questions  of  Alexander  to  the  Sages 
of  the  South  (Taniid,  31//  d  xeq.):  This  account  is 
written  in  lerlaiu  iiarls  in  a  classical  Aramaic,  prov- 
ing that  it  was  borrowefl  from  some  written  record  ;  it 
is  quite  analogous  to  the  conversations  which,  ac- 
cording to  Plutarch  ("Life  of  Alexander"),  Alex- 
ander was  reported  to  have  had  with  ten  gymnos- 
ophists  who  had  rebelled  against  him;  there  the 
account  continues  with  ten  questions,  some  of  which 
are  idenliciil  with  those  of  Ihe  Talmud,  This  epi- 
sode seems,  therefore,  to  be  the  fragment  of  a  non- 
Jewish  narrative,  pai-allel  with  that  of  the  Greek 
historian. 

Alexander's  Journey  to  the  Regions  of  Dark- 
ness (Tamiil.  'Aid):  Alexander  makes  a  journey  into 
the  region  of  darkness  riding  on  young  Libyan  asses. 
There  he  stops  at  a  fountain,  which  reanimates  a 
dead  fish  that  he  has  dipped  into  it.  The  .same  story 
is  found  in  Pseudo-Callisthenes,  II.  chaps,  xxxix.- 
xli.  (version  II).  The  legend  as  reproduced  in  the 
Talmud  is  Ihe  popular  altered  form  of  a  later  period. 

The  Amazons  (Tainid.  il'id.  :  Pesik.  ix.  74,  74a  et 


343 


Tin:  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander  the  Great 
Alexander  II.,  of  Judea 


Sfq.;  Lev.  R.  xxvii.  ;  Tan..  Emor,  6:  Hilibur  Ma"a- 
siol):  Alf.xaiiilir  coiiif.s  to  a  place  wliicli  is  iiilialiitcil 
only  l>.v  woiiuii.  They  -ssiy  to  liiiii:  "If  you  kill 
us.  ])('opli'  will  afcusc  you  of  luunliriuL'  women. 
If  we  kill  you,  jieople  will  say:  Behold  a  kin;;  who 
was  overeonie  by  woinenl  "  This  is  the  well  known 
story  of  the  Amazons,  but  reduced  to  its  simplest  ex- 
pression. In  the  Pesikta  the  town  inhabited  by  the 
women  is  called  Kailaj;ene,  derived  by  folk-ety- 
miilojiy  from  the  Aramaic  hirtit  (town)  and  the 
Greek  ;  er/,  (  woman). 

The  Gold  Bread  (il/id.):  Alexander  asked  the 
Amazons  tor  bread,  and  they  brouijht  him.  on  a 
fjolden  table,  a  loaf  of  f^old  bread.  "  I)o_vou  eat  gold 
bread?"  the  kini;  then  said.  "Well,  if  your  desire 
be  for  ordinary  brea<l,  could  you  not  jret  il  in  your 
own  country  without  cominjr  hither?"  answifrod 
the  Amazons.  This  satire  on  the  ambition  of  con- 
querors recurs  freipu'iitly  in  Jewish  lefr<'nds.  It 
does  not  appear  in  I'seudo-Callisthenes  and  in  the 
accounts  derived  from  it:  but  is  found  in  Plutarch's 
cs.say  on  the  virtuous  deeds  of  women.  Pvtlics,  a 
rich  Greek  in  the  times  of  Xerxes,  who  forces  his 
fellow  citizens  to  work  for  him  in  a  irold mine,  is 
served  liy  his  wife  w  ith  t'old  brea<l  to  demonstrate 
the  absurdity  of  ids  irreed.  This  moral  is  ecinnected 
with  Alexander  also  in  another  form:  instead  of  the 
Amazons  it  was  the  kinj;  Kazia  who  irave  the  lesson 
to  .\le\iinder. 

King  Ka; ia  and  His  Judgment  ( Yer.  I?.  'SI. 
ii.  8c;  Oen.  K.  xxxiii.  ;  Pesik,  ;  Lev.  K. :  Tan.,  Emor, 
asal>ove):  King  Kazia  (ruler  of  a  country  situated 
behind  the  "Dark"  mountains) invited  Alexander  to 
hear  a  lawsuit.  The  plainlilT  declared  lliat  lie  had 
bought  a  piece  of  land  and  found  in  it  a  treasure;  he 
wanted  to  relnrn  the  treasure  to  the  original  owner, 
since,  he  claimeii.  he  had  bought  the  Held  only.  The 
defendant  replied  that  he  had  .sold  the  licld  with 
everything  that  it  contained.  Then  the  king  in- 
quired of  one  of  them  :  "  Have  you  a  son?  ";  of  the 
other,  "  Have  you  a  daughter?"  "Marry  them,  and 
let  the  treasure  be  theirs."  Alexander  laughed  at 
this  judgment.  "Is  my  decision  a  wrong  one?" 
inquired  the  king.  "  No  ;  but  in  our  country  we 
would  have  put  the  two  parties  to  death  and  con 
liseated  I  ho  treasure."  "I)oy(ni  luive  niin  in  your 
country?  "  "  Yes."  "  And  have  you  animals  also?  " 
"Yes."  "Then  it  is  surely  for  their  sake  and  not 
for  yours  that  the  min  falls  and  the  sun  shines  u])on 
you."  This  satirical  account  seems  to  be  of  Jewish 
origin,  although  il  is,  in  part,  ba.sed  on  a  popular 
theme — marriage  as  the  solution  of  a  lawsuit  (com- 
pare a  ('and)odiaii  tale  in  "Kevue  des  Traditions 
I'opulaires,"  xv.  i:i;i).  The  Jewish  f(jrni  of  the  fa- 
ble was  endiodied  in  the  "  Dicta  Philosopliorum  "  of 
.\bu  al  Wafa  Mnbashshir  ibn  Fakih  (10.');{-.54).  a  woik 
which  was  Iranslati'd  into  Spanish,  Latin,  English, 
and  French  (see  Knust,  "  Millheiluiigen  aus  dem 
Eskurial,"  Tubingen,  IHTlli.  In  other  .\rabie  texts 
the  trial  tidies  place  before  David  ami  Solomon  (Well, 
"  liililisehe  Legendc'ii,"  p. 'Jl.">).  The  anecdote  seems 
to  have  lieeii  brought  to  Europe  bv  a  priest  in  liw:! 
("('hronii|ue  <le  I'Abbaye  <le  St.  Hubert ":  Pertz, 
"  Moniimenla  Oerinanica,  S<riplores."  viii.  .Iftil). 

Alexander  at  the  Gate  of  Paradise;  the  Eye : 
The  Talmuil  (Tamid.  WV')  concludes  with  this  narra 
live:  .Mexander  arrived  at  the  gale  of  paradise  and 
asked  lliat  il  be  iqiencd  lo  him.  "Only  the  just  can 
enter  here,"  came  the  n'ply.  "  I  am  a  renowned  king; 
present  me  willi  something  "  A  little  ball  was  given 
to  him.  Me  put  it  in  a  seali':  and  it  nutweiglied  all 
the  gold  and  silver  In  his  possession.  In  his  aslon- 
ishini'iil  he  turned  to  the  rabbis,  who  explained  lo 
him  that   it   was  an  evelmll,   which  could  never  be 


satiated;  but  if  covered  with  a  handful  of  dust 
(buried)  it  would  weigh  nothing.  This  satiri'  on 
greed,  or  the  ambition  to  acqiure  wealth,  seems  like- 
wise to  be  genuinely  Jewish.  This  allegory,  as  it 
ap])ears  in  the  Talmud,  is  reproduced  in  better  shape 
in  "Alexaialri  Magni  Iter  ad  Paradisum,"  a  little 
work  of  the  twelfth  century,  which  has  even  pre- 
served traces  of  its  JcAvish  origin.  In  this  it  is  an 
old  Jew,  of  the  name  of  Papas,  who  lectures  the 
king.  I'.iith  forms  of  the  legend  are  evidently  cou- 
nected  with  a  lost  original. 

Alexander's  Ascent  into  the  Air  (Yer.  'Ab. 
Zarali,  iii.  42c;  Num.  1{.  xiii.):  This  appears  to  be  a 
reminiscence  of  a  narrative  in  Psemlo  Callisthenes 
(II.  xli.). 

Alexander's  Descent  into  the  Sea  (Ps.  R.  103; 
compare  I'seiido-t'allisthenes.  II.  xxxviii.):  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Jews  contlned  themselves  to  trans- 
lations of  the  romance  of  Alexander  from  the  Arabic 
or  the  Latin,  particularly  in  the  form  which  it  had 
received  in  the  "Historia  de  Proeliis."  A  Hebrew 
tmnslation  of  this  work,  made  by  an  unknown  writer 
after  an  Arabic  version,  was  edited  and  i)ublislied  by 
Israel  Levi  under  the  title  "Toledot  Alexander  "  (Life 
of  Alexander), Paris,  188T.  Another  translation  from 
a  Latin  text,  liy  Immanuel  ben  Jacob  de  Tarascou, 
exists  only  in  manuscript.  A  recension,  the  origin 
of  whi<li  has  not  yet  been  clearly  a.scertained.  wa.s 
surreptiliotisly  included  in  certain  manuscripts  of 
the  Josippon(  perhaps  by  Judah  Mosconi).  Another 
romance  of  Alexander,  quite  dilTereiit  from  the  rest, 
was  written  by  a  Jew  in  the  west  of  Europe  before 
the  thirteenth  century;  il  was  jiublished  by  Israel 
Levi  in  Steiusclmeider's  "Festschrift."  Some  por- 
tions of  the  legend  were  known  to  scholars  by  the 
Hebrew  translation  of  "Sod  ha-Sodot"  (Secret  of  Se- 
crets) and  of  "Musare  ha-Filosolim  "  (Dicta  of  the 
Philosophers),  containing  whole  chapters  touching 
upon  the  legendary  life  of  Alexander, 

I!iin.iO(;R.\pnv  :  licv.  f'A.  Juivc.  Hi.  Sifl  i(  «f  </.,  Iv.  279  ;  Steln- 
sclmilder,  llthr.  I'dicrs.  pp.  WM-,s;is;  Noldeke,  Bciir{lge 
zur  (wiftrli.  f/(s  Ali'riniiU'r-Uomnit.'i,  In  DcMA'j^c/in'/tcM  <lfr 
KaiM-rUcheit  Akademie  ikrWixfunschafteti,  PhU<wijthi.-*i:h- 
HMiiriKvhe  (Vnwc.  xxx\1li.  oil.  Iv.,  Vlennn,  18911;  Friiiikel.  In 
Z.  D.  M.  G.  llv.  :CS.>:  Jcic.  quail.  litr.  Iv.  (!:«:  KikIht.  .Vi- 
zomVK  Lt'lim  und  ^y|'rkc  timl  der  Zwcite  Tluil  deji  Ifuam- 
i.tffun  Alfxandcrlnu'hcn^  pp.  tU  ct  seq.^  Leipsle,  1871. 

I.  L. 
ALEXANDER  I.,  of  Judea.    See  Alex.\nder 

J.\NN.i:i  s 

ALEXANDER  II.,  of  Judea:  Born  about  100 
II. c.  ;  died  -17  11, i.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Aristo- 
bulus  II.  and  soii-in  law  of  Hyrcanus.  I'pon  the 
concjuest  of  Jerusjdem  by  Pompey  in  (ili,  he  and 
his  ])arents.  brothers,  and  .sisters  were  sent  to  Bomo 
as  prisoners  of  war.  Alexander  escaped  on  the 
way,  and,  returning  lo  Judea,  endeavored  to  throw 
olT  the  Boman  yoke  by  force  of  arms.  Taking  ad 
vantage  of  the  straits  in  which  the  Ronums  just 
then  l^ound  lliemselves  in  having  lo  confront  disturb- 
ances among  the  Arabs.  Alexander  took  measures  to 
restore  the  fori ilicat ions  of  Jerusalem  destroyed  by 
Pompey,  though  his  action  was  opposed  by  the  Bo- 
man garrisons  in  the  country  and  by  the  weakling 
monarcli  Hyrcanus.  He  next  secured  poss<'ssi(in  of 
the  fortres.ses  of  Alexandrion.  llyrcanion,  and  Ma- 
eliierus.  Wiien  he  had  gathered  around  him  a  force 
of  10,(100  heavy  infantry  and  L.^OO  horseniin  he  de- 
clared open  war  against  l{oine  in  the  year  '>!  ii.c. 
Itabiiiiiis,  w  ho  had  just  arrived  in  Syrians  proconsul, 
immedialelv  sint  ids  lieutenant  .Mark  Antony  (the 
subsequently  celebnited  triumvir)  against  him.  and 
thill  followed  with  his  main  army,  whose  num- 
bers were  swelled  by  Bomani/ed  Jews,  led  by  llie 
half-Jew  Autipatcr.     Alexander  endeavored  in  vain 


Alexander.  Son  of  Herod 
Alexander  I.,  Favlovich 


Till-:  .lEWISlI    EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


344 


t"  avoiii  a  pitched  Imttlc.  Ni-ur  .Ii-nisali-m  3.000  of 
liis  foUowtTsdicd  u|)i)ii  tlii'ticld.  wliiloas  many  again 
were  made  captives,  and  lie  witli  a  siiiall  reiimant 
esi-aped  to  tlie  f(irti<'.ss  of  Ali'Xaiidrioii.  Although 
liromised  full  pardon,  he  rejected  Gabinius'  .sum- 
mons to  surrender;  and  only  after  a  linive  defense 
against  the  united  I'lfurts  of  (iaiiinius  and  Mark  \n- 
louy  did  he  capitulate  upon  {-ondilion  (if  relaiiiini; 
his  liberty.  This  result  of  his  futile  resistance  to  the 
Komans  was  followed  by  no  further  personal  sulfer 
iugforhim;  but  it  wasdilferent  witli  the. Jewish  ])eo- 
plc.  Even  the  nominal  independence  wliich  .Judea 
had  hitherto  enjoyed  under  its  (piasi-kings  was  now 
at  an  end:  Gabinius  deprived  I !y nanus  of  all  polit- 
ical standing,  and  left  liiin  only  the  charge  of  the 
Temple.  Thus  the  struggle  of  the  lirave  .Maeealiees 
ended  in  the  total  loss  of  even  the  .semblance  of 
independence. 

Alexander,  however,  liad  not  yet  given  up  all  hope, 
and  in  the  year  .')").  after  the  escape  of  his  father  and 
his  brother  Autigonus  from  Roman  captivity  (56).  he 
again  meditateil  opposition  to  the  Homans.  While 
Gabinius  was  temporarily  absent  from  Palestine.  Al- 
exander gathered  around  him  a  eonsiilerable  force, 
with  which  be  vani|uislicd  such  Uomau  detachments 
as  opposed  themselves  to  him.  and  compelled  the 
enemy  to  withdraw  to  .Mount  Geri/.im.  Gabinius 
hastened  back  to  Palestine  from  Alexandria,  and 
upon  hisarrival  fortune  once  more  deserted  Alexan- 
der. A  considerable  proportion  of  his  force  was  de- 
tached from  allegiance  by  the  craftiness  of  .\nlipater. 
leaving  him  with  only  ISO.IKJO  men.  who  were  unable 
to  withstand  Gabinius'  attack,  and  lied  from  the  bat- 
tle-tield  of  Itabyrium.  leaving  one-third  of  their 
number  dead  on  the  tield.  Alexander  seems  to  have 
escaped  to  Syria,  where,  however,  the  unfortunate 
fate  which  ]nirsued  his  unhaiijiy  family  overtook 
him.  In  the  year  49-48  no.,  just  when  the  good  star 
of  the  Maccabees,  through  the  favor  of  Ca'sar.  seemed 
once  again  to  be  in  the  ascendant.  Alexander,  by  di- 
rect command  of  Ponipey.  was  behi'aded  at  Antioch 
by  Q.  Metellus  Scipio.  Pompey's  father-in-law.  who 
was  at  the  time  proconsul  of  Syria. 

BlBLioGRAPnv  :  Jospplitis,  Ant.  xlv.  4.  9  .'> ;  .I.  9  2  ;  6,  SS  2,  3; 
7,  S  4  ;  idem,  B.  J.  I.  7.  9  T  :  s.  99  2, 6 ;  9.  98  1.2;  Griitz,  GckcIi. 
d.JuiIni,  2(1  eU.,  tl.  144.  I4.S;  s<-liurer.  (Pfscd. 1.241. 276c(  m/. 

h.   G. 

ALEXANDER,  Son  of  Herod:  Born  about 
3')  B.C.  ;  died  aliout  7  i!.c.  His  mother  was  the  Has- 
moneau  jiriucess  Mariamne.  The  \infortunate  fate 
which  persistently  pursued  the  Hasmonean  house 
overtook  this  prince  also.  As  heir  presumptive  to 
the  throne  by  right  of  descent  on  his  mother's  side. 
he  was  sent  to  Home  for  his  education  in  the  year 
23  B.C.  He  remained  there  in  the  household  of 
Asinius  Pollio  mitil  about  the  year  ITiiC,  when 
Herod  himself  brought  him  and  his  yoiuiger  brother 
Aristobulus.  who  had  been  with  him.  home  to  .leru- 
salem.  Shortly  afterward  Alexander  received  in 
marriage  Glapiiyra,  daughter  of  the  Cappadocian 
king  Arehelaus.  But  then  the  clouds  began  to 
gatlier  around  him.  From  his  mother  he  inherited 
both  the  personal  excellences  and  the  failings  of 
the  Hasmonean  hou.se.  His  handsome  presence  and 
frank  bearing  made  him  a  favoriti'  with  the  people, 
and  they  fairly  Ujnged  for  the  day  when  this  noble 
scion  of  the  house  of  the  Maccabees  should  mount  the 
throne  instead  of  the  usurper  and  half  Jew  Herod. 
But.  on  the  other  hand,  a  certain  degree  of  vanity 
and  a  spirit  of  vindictiveness,  which  marked  him  no 
less  than  his  prepossessing  qualities,  rendered  him 
extremely  unpop\dar  with  the  partizans  of  Herod, 
■who  had  much  to  fear  from  a  future  King  Alexander. 


Salome  in  particular  incessantly  warned  HertHl  of 
the  danger  threatening  him  from  Alexander  and  his 
brother  Aristobulus.  The  king's  evil  conscience, 
on  the  one  hand,  convinced  as  he  was  l)y  this  time 
of  Marianuie's  innocence  (see  JI.\HI.VMNK).  suggested 
that  it  was  not  impossible  that  her  s<nis  miilitated 
revenge  for  her  unjust  execution;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  the  open  antipathy  expre.s.sed  by  them  against 
their  father  combined  to  ojien  the  king's  ear  to  the 
ealunmies  of  Salome  and  her  fellow-plotters.  Her- 
od's attempt  to  humiliate  Alexander  by  restoring  to 
honor  .\nti]>ater,  an  older  son  by  another  wife,  re- 
sulted disjistrously.  .Vntipater's  insidious  jilotting 
and  the  open  enmity  to  Herod  shown  by  .Mexander 
wiilene(l  the  brea<h  between  fat  her  and  son  to  such  an 
extent  that  in  the  year  12  n.c.  llerod  felt  himself  c<in- 
strained  to  bring  charges  against  his  sons  lu'fore  .\u- 
gustus.  A  reconciliation  was  brought  about,  but  it 
was  of  short  duration ;  and  shortly  afterward  (about 
10  n.c.)  Alexander  was  thrown  into  prison  upon  the 
evidence  of  a  tortureil  witness  whoaccuseil  him  of 
plamdng  the  miirder  of  Herod.  Intercepted  letters 
were  |)roduee(l  which  oidy  too  fully  n'vealed  Alex- 
anih'r's  bitterness  against  his  father.  In  vain  did 
.Vrcbelaus,  Ale.\an<ler's  father-in  law,  endeavor  to 
bring  about  belter  relations  between  them;  the  recon- 
ciliation was  again  but  a  brief  one,  although  elfected 
with  great  cleverness,  so  that  once  more  the  intrigues 
of  Antipater  and  Salome  succeeded  in  .securing  the 
incarceration  of  Alexander  and  Aristobulus  (about 
H  ij.c. ).  Herod  lodged  formal  complaint  of  high 
treason  against  them  with  Augustus,  who  ])ut  the 
matter  into  Herod's  own  hands,  with  the  advice  to 
ajipoint  a  court  of  in(|uiry  to  consist  of  Human  olti- 
eialsand  his  own  frienils  Such  a  court  of  hirelings 
and  favorites  was  naturally  unanimous  for  convic- 
tion. Theattemi)tsof  Alexander's  friends,  by  mciins 
of  petition  to  King  Herod,  to  avert  the  execution  of 
the  sentence,  resulted  in  the  death  of  Tero — an  old 
and  devoted  servant  of  Herod  who  openly  remon- 
strated with  the  king  for  the  enormity  of  the  Jiro- 
po.sed  judicial  crinii — and  of  300  others  who  were 
denounced  as  partizans  of  .Vlexander.  The  sentence 
was  carried  out  without  delay  :  about  the  year  7  B.C., 
at  Sebaste  (Samaria)  —  where  thirty  years  before 
.Marianme's  wedding  had  been  celebrated — her  sons 
sullered  death  by  the  cord 

BiBi.iocRAPMV;  J<is<>iihiis.  Ant.  xv.  10,  8  1 :  xvl.  I,  8  2:  S, 
88  1-:};  4,  88  l-<!,  etc.;  Sc'tiurer.  Gesch.  1.  (see  index) :  (Jriitz, 
Oench.  tl.  Judcn,  li.  (see  index). 

L    G. 

ALEXANDER  II.,  POPE  (1061-73):  Family 
nameAnselmo  Baggio;  born  at  Milan;  died  April  2(5, 
1073.  He  became  pope  in  1061.  succeeding  Nicholas 
H..  and  ruled  until  U)73.  He  was  elected  upon  the 
propo.sal  of  Hil<lebnuiil.  who  later  became  his  .suc- 
cessor, and  throughout  his  pontiticate  wasgidded  by 
Hildebrand's  policy  and  spirit.  His  election  wascon- 
tested  liy  the  imperial  house,  which  caused  an  anti- 
pope,  Honorius  II..  to  be  chosen.  The  latter,  how- 
ever, was  later  deposed  by  a  council  at  Mantua.  In 
spite  of  his  multifarious  duties.  Alexander  devoted 
considcRible  thought  to  the  Jews.  In  all  emergen 
eies  he  was  ready  to  extend  to  them  his  protection. 
On  one  occasion  he  commended  the  action  of  the 
Viscount  IJerengar  of  Narbomie,  who  vigorously 
thwarted  an  imipieiit  anti  Jewish  outbreak  in  1063, 
and  simultaneously  he  addresseil  an  epistle  to  Bishop 
Wilfred  of  Narboune  bidding  him  to  offer  protection 
to  the  Jews  in  the  future,  if  occasion  should  demand. 
Two  years  later  he  reprimanded  Prince  Landulph  of 
Benevcnto  for  having  forced  certain  .lews  into 
baptism,  referring  both  to  the  un  Christlike  nature 


345 


THE  JKWI.SII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander,  Son  of  Herod 
Alexandor  I.,  Pavlovich 


nf  forcpfl  conversions  and  to  the  edict  proliibitiiig 
tlicin  wliicli  had  been  issued  by  Gregor_v  the  Great. 

Hiiii.iouRAPiiY  .  Vogeislcin  and  Rleger,  Uench.  il.  Juilen  in 
Hum,  1.  ;;iii. 

n.  G.  E. 

ALEXANDER  III.,  POPE.     See  Popes.  At 

rrn  i>K  in- 

ALEXANDER  IV.,  POPE  ( 12.-..1-01):  Was 
Count  KiMiildii  (11  Sci;iii  prior  tii  liis  elevation  to  the 
poiililiial  llirone  in  fj.")4.  al  a  liuie  of  threat  turbu 
leiice;  he  ruled  until  his  death,  at  Viterbo,  Italy.  .May 
■-'.").  1~()1  He  attempted  to  luiitetlie  (ireeU  and  I.atin 
eliurches.  and  to  aiuie.\  the  kiiiffiloni  of  Sicily  to  tlu' 
papal  domain  ;  heestalilisliedtlie  Inquisition  in  France 
in  12.")."),  and  encouraged  the  orders  of  men<licant 
friars.  Owing  to  the  factional  struggles  in  Home  and 
llie  undisputed  sway  of  Ihc  senator  IJranealeone,  the 
pope's  position  was  exceedingly  weak,  but  non<'  the 
less  his  inlluence  did  not  remain  nnfelt  in  .Jewish 
history.  .Vn  edict  which  .Vlc.vander  issued  throws 
light  on  the  contemporary  position  of  the  .lews  in 
Home.  It  is  iu  this  dociunent  that,  for  the  first 
time  in  about  ~~M  years,  the  names  of  Uoman  .h'ws 
(.Vngelus,  Sabbatorius,  Museus,  Salamon,  Consili- 
olus)  appear  in  a  papal  manifesto.  A  number  of 
prominent  .Jewish  merchants  seem  to  have  stood  in 
connnercial  ri'lations  to  the  pa|)al  court,  as.  indeed, 
the  .Jewish  tradesmen  almost  always  appear  to  have 
done.  On  February  1.  ViT>T>,  the  pope  relieved  these 
merehautsof  all  road  ta.ves  throughout  the  papal  pos- 
.sessions.  A  sindlar  franchise  was  granted  on  March 
^1  to  the  Roman  citizens  and  merchants  iu  general, 
and  on  April  0  to  several  Ifoman  citizens  nu'nlioned 
by  name.  While  it  is  true  that  this  ilocuinent  bears 
wiliu'ss  to  the  distinction  which  e.visteil  i)et  ween  the 
.Jews  and  the  other  Honian  citizens  and  merchants, 
the  former,  no  iloubt,  having  been  excluded  from  the 
Common  connnercial  gilds.it  proves,  also  , that  the 
.Jiwish  merchants  conducted  their  business  in  com- 
mon with  their  Christian  fellows,  and  that.asarnle. 
they  were  granted  the  .same  rights  by  the  i)apal 
government.  Nor  was  the  granting  of  such  privi- 
leges necessjirily  inspired  by  a  real  friendliness  to- 
ward the  .Jews;  it  was  due  rather  to  the  commercial 
indispeiisiibility  of  the  latter.  That  .Mexamler  IV. 
was  swayed  in  his  concessions  by  no  motive  of  love 
for  till'  .Jews  is  eviilenced  by  history.  On  .Sept.  H. 
Vi'u.  he  reissued  the  edict  concerning  the  .Jewish 
badge,  which,  though  it  eventually  fell  into  abey- 
ance, seems  at  the  outset  to  have  been  enforced 
throughout  Italy  and  to  have  been  the  cause  of  a  great 
deal  of  dejiression  among  the  people,  as  is  depicted 
in  a  liturgic  elegy  of  a  contemporary.  Benjamin  b. 
.\bniham  .\nav.  .VIexander.  likew  i.se,  ina  bull  n<l- 
(Iressed  to  lh<'  duke  of  liurgiuidy  an<l  Ihc  count  of 
.\ii  jou  and  Provence,  onleri'd  the  contiscation  of  the 
Talmud,  as  containing  "errors  against  the  Catholic 
faith,  and  horrible  and  intolenible  blasphemies." 

nini.inoKAriiv :  VoKclstcln.and  UleRcr,  ficuch.  d.  Juilen  in 
liimA.-Mul  Mil.:  Ucr.  Et.Juivtu.  i.  lltlefwf/.:  Kohef'al- 
Viul,  Iv    :.'-'  i(  w I). 

II.  G.  E. 

ALEXANDER   VI.,  POPE.     Sep  PopF.s.  At 

Till   1>I.  o). 

ALEXANDER  VII.,  POPE.     See  Popes.  At 

TITI    111    OK 

ALEXANDER  VIII.,  POPE.  See  Popes.  .Vt 
Tin  Hi   oi 

ALEXANDER  I.,  PAVLOVICH,  Emperor 
of  Russia:  Itorri  at  St  I'ltersbuig,  Dee  '.';!,  ITTT; 
died  at  Taganrog.  Dec.  I,  IM'J.').  Iluring  his  reign 
( IS(ll-'J,"))  niore  measures  for  internal  reform  were 
inuuguruted  tlian  underany  of  his  p redcccs-sors,  from 


the  days  of  Peter  the  Great  (died  172.")).  lie  pre 
pared  the  way  for  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs, 
and  promoted  education,  agriculture,  commerce  and 
manufactures,  literature  and  the  line  arts. 

C.VTiiEinxK  II.  (died  ITlHil  ha<l  already  e.vhibited 
a  certain  degree  of  liberality  toward  the  Jews;  and 
when  Alexander  succeeded  to  the  throne,  on  the  as- 
sa.ssination  of  his  father.  Paul,  in  IHOl.  the  liberal — or, 
rather,  radical — disp((sition  of  the  young  ruler  and  of 
his  advisers  soon  permeated  all  depart - 

Attitude  mentsof  the  government  an<l  extended 
toward  the  even  to  llie  public  at  large.  Such  a 
Jews.  liberal  sjiirit  could  not  fail  to  prove 
benclicial  to  the  .lews  (Orshanski.  "  Iz 
Noveishei  Islorii  Vevreyev  v  Kossii."  iu  "Yevreis- 
kaya  liiblioteka."  1872,  ii".  218).  At  that  time  .Michael 
Uerr.  the  first  French  privy  coinuilor of  .Jewish  ori- 
.irin.  issued  an  appeal  to  all  sovereigns  an<l  nations,  in 
the  nanu'  of  the  "  Kurojiean  inhabitantsof  the.Jewish 
faith."  urging  that  full  justice  l)e  shown  to  the  .Jews, 
which  appeal  probably  inducedAlexander  to  attempt 
to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  liis  .Jewish  subjects. 
For  this  purpose  a  special  commission  was  summoned, 
byaukase  issuedOet.  !),  1X02,  todraftaset  of  regu- 
lations, which  resulted  in  the"Knactinent  concerning 
the.Jews"or  Dec.  !».  1S(M.  Under  thisenactment  the 
Uussian  .Jews  obtained  the  right  to  buy  and  rent  land 
in  all  the  western  and  southern  provinces  (this  led  to 
the  foundation  of  the  tirst  .Jewish  AoRicii.TfK.M. 
Colonies  in  Hrssi.\);  to  enter  all  tlie  elementary  and 
high  schools  ami  universities:  to  establish  factories 
in  all  the  provinces  in  which  they  were  pernutted  to 
dwell;  and  to  visit  all  other  provincesof  Hussiaon 
business,  upon  llie  condition  that  they  and  their 
families  adopted  the  Genuan  style  of  dri'ss.  in  order 
that  they  might  nol  differ  from  the  natives  in  out- 
ward appeanmce.  They  were  pronnsed  all  the 
rights  of  citizens  as  soon  as  they  should  have  shown 
diligence  and  skill  in  agriculture  and  handicrafts. 
.VIexander  even  offered  the  .Jews  land  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  St.  Petersburg  and  .Moscow,  provided 
they  were  willing  to  conline  tluni.selves  to  agricul- 
tural pursuits. 

In  180.")  Alexander  showed  his  friendly  disposition 

toward  the  Jews  by  contributing  8.000  rubles  (about 

-SI. .WO.  or  £300)  toward  the  erection  of 

Eleemosy-    aJewish  hospital  in  Wilna:  and  in  1806 

nary  Do-     he  ordered  2..")00  rubles  (about  S1.2.")0. 

nations.  or  t'2"iO)  to  be  annually  contributed 
from  the  public  treasury  to  the  .sjime 
hospital.  In  180!)  the  scheme  of  a  forcible  concen- 
trillion  of  the  Jews  from  rund  districts  into  cities 
was  referred  to  a  siieeial  commission  under  the  chair- 
manship of  Popov.  In  the  following  year  |>ermis- 
sion  was  grante<l  them  to  live  in  Kiev;  and  al  the 
same  time  the  government  establislu-d  in  Kremen- 
chug  a  factory  for  carpet  making  in  order  to  promote 
that  industry  among  thiin. 

In  ISl.'i  a  census  of  the  Jews  was  tjikcn,  and  sur- 
names were  given  lo  all  Jewish  families.  .Mex 
nnd(T  issued  a  ukase  (1818)  directing  the  ileilion 
of  three  deputies  from  among  the  .lews,  who  should 
H'side  in  Si  Petersburg,  and  be  empowered  to  bring 
all  .lewish  affaii-s  before  the  governnient.  At  the 
general  meeting  <'alled  for  the  election  of  deputies, 
al  Wilna.  the  following  persons  wen' elect<il:  .Sundel 
•Sonnenberg.  of  Groihio:  Reinasli  Itanitz.  of  Vitebsk, 
ami  Michael  Kisenslailt.  of  Mohilev  on  the  Dnie- 
per .\s  vice  di-pnti<'S.  Samuel  Kalzencllenbogen  of 
Wilna:  Mordicai  l.ipler.  of  Vinbsk.  and  ICleazar 
Dillion.  of  Minsk.  weR'  eh-cleil.  To  cover  the  ex- 
penses of  the  ilepiilies  in  St.  Petersburg,  estimaled 
at  U.nno  ducats  (about  §8,2:1.').  or  £1.047)  per  annum, 
it  was  re.solveil  lo  take  the  silver  ornnments  from 


Alexander  I.,  Pavlovich 
Alexander  III.,  Alexandrovich 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


346 


tlic  k-itteU  (shmiids)  worn  on  the  Day  of  Atonement 
mill  Passover  Kvc  (S.  J.  Ftlnn."  ^iryah  Neemanali," 

ISOO,  )i.  34.  mill  noU'.  p.  47). 

That  AlcxamiiT  was  at  this  time  much  in  earnest 
ill  his  endeavors  to  anielionite  the  iiositii>ii  of  tlie 
Jews  is  shown  liy  liis  remark:  "If.  throiii.'h  my  ef- 
forts to  imiuove  tlieir  condition.  I  sliould  succeed 
in  Virinj;in,s  forth  only  one  Jlendelssoliii  fromamoni; 
tlie  Russian  Jews.  I  shall  he  aliuiidaiitly  rewarded." 

At  that  time  the  Russian  ;;iiveniment  did  not  know 
much  about  the  habits  and  the  needs  of  the  Jews, 
who  were  subjected  to  the  iiitluence  of  the  condi- 
tions ]irevalent  under  the  old  Polish  rule  (liilck  and 
Bninn."Istoriya  Yevreyev,"  Russian  translation  with 
supplement  and  addition  by  S.  M.  Diibnov.  ii.  444. 
Ode.s.S!».  1S97.  While  Jewish  airriiiilturisls  received 
some  privilejres,  Jews  were  proliibited  from  innkcep- 
iiig  and  from  renting  country  property,  for  which 
reason  they  were  even  forbidden  to  dwell  in  villages. 
The  Pale,  or  territory  assigneil  to  the  Jews,  was  lim- 
ited, as  before,  to  the  provinces  taken  over  from  Po- 
land, where  the  Jewish  ])opulation  was  much  crowded 
in  cities;  the  kdhal,  or  board  of  administr.itinn  of  the 
community,  retained  its  old  ])ower,  although  it  was 
l>laced  under  the  control  of  the  local  authorities. 
The  "Regulations"  of  lt*04  present  a  system  of  re- 
form, which,  however,  was  afterward  counteracted 
by  reactionary  tendencies. 

"At  the  Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1818)  Alex- 
ander brought  forward  the  question  of  the  condition 
of  the  Jews:  being  perha]is  influenced 
Congress  of  in  this  by  the  enthusiastic  and  pro- 

Aix-la-       |)hetic  appeal  of  the  English  pliilan- 
Chapelle.     thropist  I/Ewis  W.\y,  ^vill)  had  trav- 
eled in  Poland  to  stud}'  the  condition 
of  the  Jews  there,  and  who  was  convinced  that  the 
Jewish  nation  would  once  more  be  restored  to  the 
land  of  its  fathers. 

After  the  Congress  Alexander  altogether  aban- 
doneil  his  former  liberal  ideas  and  adopted  a  reac- 
tionary policy.  Owing  to  this,  the  following  re- 
strictive measures  characterized  the  closing  years 
of  the  czar's  reign  :  The  rescript  of  Jlay  4,  1820,  for- 
bidding Jews  to  keep  Christian  servants;  that  of 
Aug.  10,  1824.  prohibiting  foreign  Jews  from  set- 
tling permanently  in  Rus.sia;  and  the  edict  of  Jan. 
13,  1825,  removing  the  Jews  from  villages  to  towns 
and  cities  in  the  governments  of  Mohilev  and 
Vitebsk. 

BiBLIOGRAPnv :  M.  BofTdanovich.  htm-iyn  Imprratnra  Alex- 
andra I.  St.  ivtersliiirt',  1S69-71 :  A.  I'ypin,  (ilishclteKtveu- 
nojc  Dvizhcuii'  ]>ri  AUs.  /.St.  IVlfn-biirir.  IsTl ;  Itai-k  and 
Brann,  Istitrtiftt  Yfrntii:i\  Russian  tninslatiiui  wiih  sueple- 
ment  and  aspecjal  additlnn  of  the  Rii.ssian-Jt'Wish  history  by  S. 
M.  Dubnov.  II.  444  et  sfi/..  Odessa,  l.si»T :  Graetz.  llistorti  of  Die 
Jews,  y.  .562,  Ijondon,  ISIK ;  I.  Orshanski.  Iz  Xi>veu<ht:i  h'tnrii 
Yevrcyrv  v  /?(».v*ii,  in  IV rr.  BiIiUnti:ka.  yol.  ii.,  St.  Peters- 
burg. 1S72:  v.  O.  I.pvanda,  I'oUnt  Klirotinhxiirhiski  SItornik 
Zakintow  eti-.  (Complete  riin.'notoLni'al  Coiu-ctinn  of  Laws 
and  Repulations  concerning:  the  Jews.  Jt>411-lsT;ti,  pp.  10:3-126. 
St.  Petersburg,  1S74 :  Lituvskic  Ycvrci  i  Volituc  Lvuili,  in 
Btisski  Vycatnik,  1889,  vol.  xli. 

n.  R. 

ALEXANDER  II.,  NIKOLAIEVICH,  Em- 
peror of  Russia:  Horn  at  St.  Peterslmrg.  April  29, 
1818;  assassinated  there   ^larcli  13.  1881'     He  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Nicholas  I.,  March  2,  185.1,  before 
the  end  of  the  Crimean  war,  and  when  peace  was 
concluded  reforms  of  all  kinds  were  initiated  by  him. 
the  mo.st  important  being  the  enuinci- 
His  Re-      pation  of  the  serfs  in  1801.     He  also 
forms.        abolished  capital  punishment  and  the 
hereditary  rights  of  the  clergy,  reor- 
ganized the  administralion  of  justice,  gave  an  impe- 
tus to  autonomy  in  various  districts, cities,  and  prov- 
inces of  the  empire,  abridged  the  term  of  military 


service,  introduced  some  humane  n-forms  into  the 
army  discipline,  and  enjoined  universal  conscription. 
Under  his  reign  the  press  and  public  opinion  devel- 
oped loan  extent  previously  iinUnown  in  Russia,  by 
reason  of  the  liiuitatioiis  pl.ieeil  upon  the  censor- 
ship; and  every  form  of  industry  and  commerce,  art, 
science,  and  literature  received  a  new  impulse. 

Nicholas  I.  had  tried  in  his  own  harsh,  autocratic 
way  to  Rus.siaiiize  the  Jews.  Among  other  austere 
measures  he  introduced  the  cantonists'  school  for 
the  mililaiy  education  of  Jewish  minors,  who  were 
forcibly  lorn  froin  their  parents.  They  had  to  pass 
through  a  rough  discipline  and  were  often  com- 
pelled to  join  the  Greek  t)rllioilox  Church.  Aware 
of  the  mistakes  his  father  had  made  in  his  despotic 
policy  toward  the  Jews,  Alexander  endeavored  to 
correct  them,  and  early  manifested  a  friendly  dis- 
position toward  his  Jewish  subjects.  He  abolished 
the  cantonists'  school,  admitted  Jews  to  the  high 
schools  and  universities,and  by  the  laws  of  March  16, 

18,59,  and  of  Nov.  27,  IHtil,  lie  granted 

Favorable    to  Jewish  scholars,  university  gradu- 

Treat-        ates,   wholesde  merchants,   maniifac- 

ment  of      turers,  and  (lMtJ5)arlisanstlie  jirivilege 

Jews.         of  settling,  under  certain  conditions, 

outside  of  the  Pale,  in  the  interior 
provinces  of  Russia  (Demidov  San-Donato,  "The 
Jewish  Question  in  Russia,"  p.  30,  St.  Petersburg, 
1883).  It  should  not  be  overlooked,  however,  that 
the  emancipation  of  the  Jews  had  at  that  time  been 
completed  in  most  of  the  countries  of  western  Europe ; 
and  that  these  privileges  were  granted  only  to  certain 
classes  of  Jews  in  Russia  for  political  and  economic 
reasons,  the  object  of  the  government  being  to  pro- 
mote the  commercial  and  industrial  interests  of  the 
interior  provinces.  For  the  masses  of  the  Jewish 
poiiulation  these  reform  laws  accomplished  little, 
since  the  2. .500,1100  Jews  within  the  Pale,  not  belong- 
ing to  the  privileged  class,  were  still  debarred  from 
the  right  of  setllenient  and  could  not  emigrate  from 
the  overcrowded  provinces  of  Poland  and  Lithuania. 
These  half-hearted  measures,  together  with  the 
numerous  ambiguities  in  the  new  laws,  left  to  cor- 
rupt ollicials  plenty  of  room  for  abuse,  and  as  a  con- 
seiiuencc  Jewish  artisjins  were  always  exposed  to 
annoyances  from  them,  and  even  liable  to  expulsion 
from  their  newly  founded  homes.  Nevertheless, 
the  I{iissian  Jews  fully  appreciated  the  good  inten- 
tions of  the  czar  and  have  iihvays  regarded  him  as 
tlieir  liberator.  It  is  remarkable  how  quickly  they 
availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  become 
Russianized,  especially  in  St.  Petersburg  and  JIos- 

cow,  in  the  centers  of  Jewish  leam- 

Effect  of     ing  as  Wilua.  Kiev,  and  Odessji.  and 

Milder       throughout  southern  Russia.     Forthe 

Legisla-     first  time  there  were  published  Jewish 

tion.         periodicals  in  the  Kussian   language: 

"Razsvyet"  and  "Sion,"  and  later 
"  Den,"  "  Yevreiskaya  Biblioteka,"  and  "  Voskhod  "  : 
and  Russians  were  greatly  surprised  at  the  superior 
style  of  Osip  Rabinovich,  Pinsker,  Soloveichick, 
Levanda.  and  many  others  who  in  the  vernticular 
endeavored  toaeqiiaint  the  intelligent  Russian  public 
with  the  condition  of  the  Jews,  and  to  defend  their 
rights.  From  among  the  orthodox  Jews  also  there 
sprang  up  a  number  of  liberal-minded  men,  young 
and  old,  who  tried  to  enlighten  the  orthodox  nias.ses 
and  to  awaken  in  them  patriotic  sentiments  and  a 
love  for  liberal  education  and  European  culture  by 
means  of  Hebrew  periodicals.  "Ha-JIeliz."  "Ha- 
Karmel."  and  "Ha  Zelirah."  the  first  journals  pub- 
lished in  the  Hebrew  language  in  Russia.  It  was 
certainly  not  the  fault  of  the  .lewisli  masses  that 
some  of  the  quickly  Russianized  Jewish  students 


347 


THE  .IHWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander  I.,  Pavlovich 
Alexander  m.,  Alexandrovich 


and  otiier  youths  took  an  active  part  in  the  revohi- 
tionary  movement  of  the  seventies.  Alexander  knew 
and  always  appreciated  the  loyalty  of  the  jrreat  ma- 
jority of  ills  Jewi.sli  subjects,  and  on  many  occasions 
rewarded  them  for  their  services  to  the  country. 
When  the  assjissination  of  Alexander  by  nihilist 
conspirators  became  known,  the  Jews  of  Russia 
deeply  mourned  the  loss  of  the  benevolent  czar 
and  liberator. 

Bnii.iOdRAPnv ;  ncrnldov  San-Donato,  YerriUtihi  Vnprns  v 
Ititsnii,  St.  IV'lt'rsburK.  Iss;t :  Juliua  Eckard,  Vnu  yicnUnw 
I.  ZH  Atixaiiilir  III.  id  cd.,  Uipsit,  IKSl ;  oreliunskl,  liiii- 
itkiif  y.a^i^^wnl/lt^•Mrl^n  IVrrcj/d/f/i,  pp.  3(iU-;Ci.'i.  St.  IVttrs- 
buor,  IS77;  SMi'watU-hcski  Ukazatef  LiU'i-alurti  it  Yevri- 
jinhUiiaUiii'kiiin  Ydzulsiie  f  I7l^^i di}  ISsfi.nt.  IVtcrsliurR.  isitl. 

II     K 

ALEXANDER   III.,   ALEXANDROVICH. 

Emperor  of  Russia :  liornatSt.  I'lliisburir,  .Marili 
10,  l.s.),-,;  dirfhit  IJvadia,  Nov,  1,  ls!ll.  lleasccMcli'd 
the  throne  March  14.  IHHl.  the  day  after  the  assassina 
tion  of  his  father,  Alexander  II,  The  terrible  fate  of 
the  latter  produced  an  awful  impression  upon  Alex- 
ander, l>ut  instead  of  continuing  the  reforms  of  the 
"Czar-Emancipatcpr.  "as  wasexpecleil,  heal  once  gave 
proof  of  his  reaclioiiary  tendencies  by  discharging 
the  liberal  minister  Loris  Melikov.  and  by  his  lirsl 
manifesto,  wherein  he  made  it  evident  that  he  was 
determined  to  maintain  his  autocratic  jxnver  against 
all  attacks.  In  internal  politics  lie  fol- 
His  Reac-  lowed  the  advice  of  his  former  teacher 
tionary  I'obiedunoslzev,  and  ruled  with  rigor 
Tendencies,  ousabsdlutism,  favoringihe  principles 
of  the  I'anslavists,  lie  |iermitled.  and 
even  cneouragi'd,  the  oppression  of  the  various  for- 
eign re.si<lenls  in  Russia,  and  was  particularly  harsh 
in  his  per.si>cution  of  the  Jews.  The  participation  of 
some  Jewish  youths  in  the  revolutionary  movement 
of  the  Nihilists  was  iiiade  use  of  to  lead  the  Russian 
people  to  believe  that  the  Jews  were  connected  with 
the  conspiracy  w  hicli  had  resulted  in  the  nuirder  of 
Alexander  II.  Hostility  against  the  Jews  was  fos- 
tered in  order  to  divert  the  attention  of  the  discon- 
tenti-il  <lements.  and  if  possible  to  suppress  the  revo- 
lutionary movement. 

Soon  after  Alexander  III.  had  a.sccnded  the  throne. 
anti-Jewish  riots  (Pookomv)  broke  out  in  Eli/.alieth- 
pnid  (April  27,  2.S).  Kiev  (May  8-11),  Shpola  (May 
5).  Anaiiiev  (>Iay  !l).  WasilkoV  (May  10),   Konoto'p 
(May  Hh.  and,  during  the  following  six  months,  in 
one  hundred  and  sixty  other  places  of 
Popular       southern  Russia.      In  these  riots  thou- 
Outbreaks    sjuids  of  Jewish  homes  were  destroyed. 
Against       many  families  reduced  to  extremes  of 
Jews.         poverty;  women  outm.geil.  ami  large 
numbers  of  men,  women,  and  children 
killi'd  or  injuiicl.     It  was  clear  that  the  riots  were 
iirc'inedilate'd   ("  Voskhoil."   May   'U.    1.S81,   p.   7."i). 
I'd  give  liut  oni'  example — a  week  before  thv  jxii/r"iii 
of  Kiev  broki-  out,  \'oii  llubbcnet,  chief  of  police  of 
Kiev,    warniil   some   (jf    his  Jewish    fri<nds   of   the 
coming  riots,     .\ppials  to  the  aulhorilies  for  pro 
teelion  were  of  no  avail.      .Ml  the  police  did  was  to 
prevent  the  Jews  from  defending  tlieir  homes,  fam- 
ilies, and  properlv.     "The  local  authorities."  snvs 
Mysh  in  "Voskhod."  1S8:!,  i.  210,  "surrounded  liie 
pillagers   with   an   hoiioniry   escort,  while  some  of 
the  ndible  sliouteil  a|>pi'iival  "     To  a  ilelegation  of 
the  Jews  of  Kiev,  (lovernor  (Jeiii'iid    Mreiilileii  said 
(hat  he  could  do  nothing  for  them:  "for  liie  .sjike 
of  a  few  Jews  he  would  not  enilanger  Ihe  lives  of 
his  soldiel's"  ("Zeitung  des  Jmli'iilhums."  May  111, 
18M1).    On  .May  18.  liaroii  Horace  ile  CUn/.burg  was 
received  in  audleni'e  by  (!nmd  Duke  Vlailhnir.  who 
declared  that  thi'  motive  of  the  anti-Jewisliiigitulion 


wa.s  not  so  much  resentment  against  the  Jews  as  a 
ireneml  tendencv  to  create  disturbances  ("  London 
Times."  May  19,"l881),  On  May  23,  o  deputation  of 
the  Jews  of  St.  Petersburg  waited  upon  the  czar  at 
(lachina.  It  consisted  of  Baron  Gi'inzburg,  Sack. 
I'asover.  Bank,  and  Berlin.  The  emperor  assured 
its  members  that  the  Jewish  question  would  receive 
his  atlenlion,  thai  the  disturbances  were  the  work 
of  anar(  liisis,  and  he  advised  them  to  address  a  mem- 
orandum on  the  subjeel  to  Ihe  minister  of  the  inte- 
rior. Both  the  emperor  and  the  grand  duke  Vladi- 
mir expressed  their  belief  that  race-hatred  was  not 
the  real  cause,  but  only  the  pretext,  of  the  recent 
disorders.  In  accordance  with  the  inomise  of  the 
czar,  an  edict  was  issued  Sept.  3,  1881,  ordering  the 
appoinlmeni  of  local  commissions  from  all  the  gov- 
erimients  to  be  undir  the  direction  of  the  governors, 
fortlK'  solution  of  tlie  Jewish  (lueslion.  15ut  on  the 
sjune  day.  General  Ignatiev  by  order  of  the  czar  is- 
sued a  circidar  to  the  governors,  in  w  hich  he  pointed 
out  that  Ihe  Jews  had  been  exploiting  the  Slav  in- 
habitants of  the  empire,  and  that  this  was  Ihe  real 
causi!  of  the  riots.  This  contradiction  may  ex])laiu 
the  conduct  of  .Vttorney-t^leneral  Stryelnikov.  who 
during  the  trial  of  Ihe  rioters  before  the  court marl ial 
at  Kiiv.  instead  of  incriminating  the  guilty  iiarties, 
turned  U|)on  the  Jews  and  endeavored  to  cast  the 
whole  blame  upon  them.  These  persecutions,  added 
to  the  distressing  economic  conditions  then  i)revail- 
ing,  gave  rise  to  the  emigration  movement,  which 
soon a.ssumed extensive  proportions.  The  intelligent 
cla.sses  of  Russia  condennied  the  medieval  barbarities 
a.gainst  the  Jews,  but  the  anti-Semitic  propaganda  of 
Ihe  "  Novoe  Vremya."  "  Kievlyanin,"  and  other  or- 
gans hostile  to  the  Jews,  did  not  cease  even  after 
Ihe  riots.  The  constant  Jew-bailing  of  Aksakov, 
Suvorin,  and  Pichno  hiul  its  effect  on  that  cla.ss  of  the 
Russian  jieople  which  was  entirely  unfamiliar  with 
Jewish  life,  an<l  therefore  believed  all  the  charges 
brought  a.gainst  the  Jews  liy  the  agitators.  Tliat 
Ihe  South  Russians  especially  had  no  cause  forcom- 
l)lainls  against  the  Jews  may  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing slatemeni  made  by  the  Russian  economist 
Chicherin:  "Those  who  have  lived  in  Little  Rus- 
sia, w  hich  is  densely  iidiabiled  by  .lews,  and  have 
compared  Ihe  conditions  of  the  peasant  there  with 
those  existing  in  Ihe  provinces  of  (treat  Russia,  know 
how  exaggerated  are  the  accusations  against  the 
Jews.  If  tliere  is  a  difference  in  the  condition  of  these 
peasants,  it  is  in  favor  of  the  Little  Russians." 

The  sc'cond  series  of  persecutions  began  w  ith  the 
riots  of  Warsaw  on  Christmas,  1881.  and  lasted  for 
three  davs.     Twelve  Jews  were  killed,  many  women 
outniged.  and  two  million  rubles'  worth  of  property 
ih'Stroyed,       In  the  neighboring  Lllhuaiian  prov- 
inces the  disturbances  were  slight,  owing  to  Ihe  pre- 
cautions taki'ii  by  Count  Todlelx'ii,  governor  genenil 
of  Wilna,  who  was  not  one  of  Ignatiev's  disei|iles. 
Order  was  also  maintained  by  (ii'iientl 
Further       (iurko.   governor  general    of   0<lessji, 
Persecu-      and  thus  the  riots  in  Ode.s,sa  and  vi- 
tions.        eiiiily  were  prevented  from  assuming 
gn-at     jiroiiorlions.     In    Nyezhin  the 
soldiers,    who   were  called   out    to  (|Uell   the   riots, 
killed  anil  |iillaged  a  wealthy  Jewish  family.     Other 
riots   (K-curred   in    Kuzmintzy.    I'litovich.    Kliinov, 
Okhrimotzy.  and.  on   March  23.   in   Luhny,  where 
three  soldiers  killed  a  .lewisli  family  of  six.     ISalta 
was  Ihe  seem- of  another  serii'sof  riots  ( East iT.  18.S2) 
resulting  in  thi'  death  of  eight  and  the  wounding  of 
more  than  twolnindred  persons.     Over  a  thousaiul 
houses  were  demolished  and  property  to  the  value 
of  over  one  million  dollars  was  ch-stroved.     These 
disgraceful  acts  aroused  the  public  iiiilignation  of 


Alexander  in. ,  Alexandrovich 
Alexander  Balas 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


348 


all  Europi'.  Mi'ctings  wen:  held  by  tlu'  oiti/.cns  of 
New  York  and  London.  Fcliruiiry  1.  18S2,  cxi)ifs.sing 
synip:itliy  with  the  |HTsi(ulcd  .lew.*;  in  the  Ktisslan 
I'mpirc,  iiud  pnilislinsr,  "in  tin-  nimu'  of  civilization, 
against  the  spirit  of  medieval  perseculion.  thus 
revived  in  Russia."  The  only  response  to  these 
friendly  appeals  was  the  issue  of  the  "Temporary 
Ijiws  "  of  .^lay  1.").  1882.  These  laws  made  the  con- 
dltioD  of  the  Russian  .lews  almost  unbearable.    They 

established  a  pal<>  within   lh<'"l*ale," 
The    "May  positively  pnihihiling  the  Jews  of  the 
Laws."       tifteen  western  irovernmenls  from  liv 

ing  outside  of  towns  aiul  cities.  an<l 
canceling  all  mortgages  and  leases  held  by  Jews  on 
landed  estates.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  Russian 
Jews  removed  to  the  I'nited  States  of  America,  where 
they  found  a  new  home.  Some  went  to  Palestine  and 
founde<l  agricultund  colonies.  On  Jime  12,  18M2, 
Ignatiev  retired  from  otiice.  Hois  said  to  have  been 
dismissed  because  convincing  proof  was  furnished 
to  the  czar  that  he  was  using  the  pc'rsecution  of  the 
Jews  to  extort  blackmail,  and  that  he  had  taken  ad 
vantage  of  his  position  to  exempt  his  own  estates 
from  the  disastrous  elTeets  of  the  May  Laws,  while 
tliose  of  the  imperial  family  sulTered  (Harold  Fred 
eric,  "The  New  Exodus,"  pp.  r^.'i-lSO).  According 
tootlicial  statements,  hfiwcver,  he  was  discharged  be- 
cause of  a  resohition  of  the  scnali'  that  he  "had  not 
taken  the  necessary  steps  to  prevent  the  riots " 
("Voskhod."  January. 1!^88.  p.  .■>:!).  He  was  succeeded 
by  Count  I).  .\.  Tolstoi,  who  issued  a  circular.  June 
21.  urging  the  governors  to  do  theirduty  in  jireserv- 
ing  order  and  putting  a  stop  to  the  riots.  The  cir- 
ctilar  had  a  good  elfect,  yet  some  outbreaks  occurred 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  August.  1882.  Incendiary 
fires  now  ravaged  the  country  and  destroyeil  the 
property  of  over  thirty  thousand  Jewish  families  in 
various  towns  and  villages  of  the  northwestern  prov- 
inces. This  lire  crusade  was  continued  with  more  or 
less  intensity  until  the  end  of  Alexander's  n'ign. 

The  May  Laws  were  supjdemented  and  partly  en 
forced  by  the  regulations  of  Jan.  7.  bSS.").  and  then 
followed  a  whole  series  of  orders  restricting  the  num 
ber  of  Jewish  students  in  high  schools  and  univer 
sities.  and  curtailing  the  rights  of  Jewish  university 
graduates.  Many  other  rigorous  measures  directed 
against  the  Jews  betokened  an  entire  reversal  of 
the  liberal  policy  inaugurated  in  the  sixties.  In 
1890,  Mr.  Gladstone  wri>te  to  the  "Jewish  Chroni 
cle  "  that  he  had  "read  with  pain  and  horror  the 
various  statements  res]>ecting  the  suffen'ngs  of  the 
Jews  in  Russia,  and  that  the  thing  to  do.  if  the  facts 
coulil  be  established,  was  to  rouse  the  conscience  of 
Russia  and  Europe  in  reiranl  to  tlu'm  "  .\t  a  me<'t 
ing  at  the  Guildhall.  Lomloii.  Dcivmber  10.  l.Hilii,  it 
was  resolved;  "That  a  suitable  memorial  be  pre 
Senled  totlie  Emperorof  all  the  Kussias,  respectfully 
pniying  his  Majesty  to  repeal  all  the  exceptional 
and  restrictive  laws  and  disabilities  which  attlicted 
his  Jewish  subjects,  and  begging  his  ^lajesty  to 
confer  upon  them  e(|ual  rights  with  those  enjoyed 
by  the  rest  of  his  Majesty's  subjects."  This  memo 
rial  was  not  even  read  by  the  czar,  and  was  returned 
unopened  to  the  lord  mayor  of  London. 

BiBLioGRAPnv:  Charles  Jjow.  Alrramhr  III.  nf  BtiMtin. 
pp.  2rti-2ir>,  Uindiin.  1S!W;  C.  .S.  CuntiiTtKiimal  Rcainl.  Ism, 
lit.  er,',  IKS;  Ituxskiitia  .Vw.v(.  .lane,  ISSl,  pp.  U6-MH,  KK);  ,1,  A. 
Mysh.  K»AvMv>(/.*<trN  k  Itus^^kun  Znkituam  <i  yix^ri:tiakh, 
St.  rcterslniDJ,  1H9S;  Joseph  .larutis.  I'frsfcutionof  the  Jews 
in  Ritsttia.  issued  bytlie  Huss()-Je\vi.sh  Comiiilttee  of  London. 
Philadelphia,  1S91 :  Dnniidov  San-Dnnato,  I'c rrcw/fi  VnftniH 
V  HnsxiuHt.  Pelcrsliurtr.  18Si;  Si.-<trmatirhe»ki  Vkazalfl  Lit- 
eral urti  n  Yevmiakh  na  littsskoin  Yttziikiif  s,  Vos  flu  I'isfi. 
St.  Petersburc.  IslKi ;  H.  von  Samson  Himinelstiema,  Russia 
under  Atcjamtrr  III.  translated  from  the  German  liv  J. 
Morrison.  New  York,  isai :  S.  Syrhevski,  I'mlivn-Trvreiskijia 
Bcziihrazijia.   Odessa,  1)«1 ;    Flerovsky,   Vnter  Orel  Ru.^- 


slirlien  Kaisern.  Ilerlln,  IdSIS;  .\rthiir  Kl('ln.si'hmldt, />rri 
Jahrhunilertf  Russixcher  Ucsch.  Ilerlln.  IttSlK;  sonic  valu- 
able stalbtlos  in  .K.  While.  MixleniJtw.  London,  lim. 

II.    U 

ALEXANDER:  An  Knglish  family  of  printers 
and  lianslalors  thai  lloui-ished  duringthe  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth.  The  foii'nderof  the  linn  was  probat)ly 
A.  Alexander  (ben  Judah  Loeb),  whose  lirst  pub- 
lication .se<ins  to  have  been  the  I laggadah  (1770). 
He  printed  iirayers  for  the  fast -days  (Sephardic  rite), 
in  177(1,  and  (for  the  (Jerinan  rile)  in  1787;  the 
I'entatcuch,  17S,");  and  ilaily  prayers  with  English 
translation  (Spanish  rite).  17.S.S,  logclher  with  a  spe- 
cial work  on  the  llosannas,  in  l.'<ll7.  In  1817  he 
brought  out  a  prayer  book  on  the  Hamiltonian  or 
inlerlinearv  system,  called  "  .Vlexaniler's  Interpret- 
ing Tetillot."' 

His  son  and  successor.  Levy,  published  a  complete 
edition  of  the  Bible  in  Hebicw  and  English  in  1824. 
The  li-anslalions  were  very  slovenly  jiieces  of  work, 
displaying  ignorance  alike  of  Englisli  and  Hebrew. 
Levj'  seems  to  have  been  of  a  .somewhat  (|Uarrelsonie 
disposition.  A  pamphlet  of  his.  "The  Axe  Laid  to 
the  Root"  (1808),  dealt  in  somewhat  indecorous 
terms  Avith  the  conduct  of  Chief  Rabbi  Ilerschell; 
while  his  ".Meinoii-s  of  Ihi-  Lif<'  and  Commercial 
Connections  of  the  Ijale  H.  (ioldsmid  of  Roehamp- 
ton,"  of  the  same  year,  is  little  less  than  the  '•lirmiique 
.irdtHliilnisf  of  the  London  community  nf  the  time. 

Levy  continued  hisaliuse  of  the  chief  rabbi  on  the 
fly-leaves  of  the  separate  fascicles  of  his  translation 
of  the  Bible,  which  are  now  very  rare. 

Bini.iofiR.vriiY  :  Steinsrhnelder.  Cat.  RoilL  col.  ~K);  Jacobs  and 
Wolf,  Ril,l.  Anulii-Jnil.  Nos.  757,  K21,  I.'.IS,  1,-)19,  l.Wl,  l.'i2>. 
l.T^i-l.^iSH,  l.i:iO-l.VB,  ISiiH.'KR',  l.«l;  rranmrtions  nf  the 
Jewish  Hislurieal  Sociclu  (if  EnyUtnil.  lii.  .t«,  B8. 

ALEXANDER:    .\n  amoia.     See   Ai.ex.\.ni)Hi 

(Al.l:XA.M)I!.\l. 

ALEXANDER  OF  APHRODISIAS  :    Greek 

commentator  on  .Vrisl(ii|{>;  llnurisliid  at  Ihe  end  of 
the  second  centui'v  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  third, 
in  the  reign  of  the  emperors  Septimus  Severus  and 
Caracalla.  He  was  surnamed  "the  Exegele"and 
" -Vphrodisiensis  " ;  the  latter  designation  being  de- 
rived fi'om  his  bii'thplace,  A]ihrodisias  in  Caria. 
His  authoi'ity  was  e(|U:illy  high  among  the  Arabians 
and  the  Greeks;  and  Maimonides.  in  a  letter  to  Ibn 
Tibbon,  the  Hebrew  translator  of  his  "Guide  to  the 
P<rplexed,"  especially  recommends  to  him  the  study 
of  the  commentaries  of  Alexander  ("  Letters  and  Re- 
sponsa  of  Maimonides,"  ed.  Leipsic,  p   27). 

Besides   the   commentaries,   which   for   the    most 

part  have  been  translah'il  inio  Aiabic,  Syiiac.  and 

Hebrew — the   latter  veision   has  been 

His  Idea  of  service  in  the  reconstruction  of  the 
of  Intellect.  Greek  text  —  Alexander  paraphrased 
Aristotle's  book  on  "The  Soul  "  In 
this  work.  Alexander  evolves  a  new  theory  of  in- 
tellect, which  theoi-y  was  the  subject  of  much  con- 
troversy belween  the  Mohammedan  and  Jewish  phi- 
losophers. According  to  .Vlexan<ler,  intellect  (lot'f) 
in  its  primilive  stale  is  nothing  but  an  aptitude 
associated  with  the  other  faculties  of  the  soul,  the 
formative  principU-  of  the  organism.  This  primi- 
live intellect,  which  has  only  a  potential  existence, 
is  called  lotif  iP/Kof  (the  material  intellect),  because, 
like  matter,  it  is  capable  by  development  of  trans- 
formalion  and  of  assuming  a  distinctive  form.  In 
fact,  this  facvdty  pas.ses  fi'om  a  potentiality  into  an 
actuality,  and  commences  to  have  an  effective  ex- 
istence when,  by  study  and  r<liection,  it  acquires 
ideas,  with  which  it  identities  itself;  for  the  act  of 


349 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander  III.,  Alexandrovich 
Alexander  Balas 


lliinkiiii;can  ii"t  lie  scparulcMl  tioiii  tlic' object  of  the 
tliouirht  This  ui'W  inlclli'ct.  wliiili  is,  iicionliiiL'ly, 
the  primitive  intellect  recust  liv  <'xpeiieiice,  is  called 

the  ac(iiiire(i  intellect  {nji^jn  ^DC'l  I^'"  "'''it  i'*  'li« 
motive  toi-ce  that  causes  the  material  intelleel  to 
pass  from  a  poti'iilialil y  into  an  actuality?  Il  is  the 
universal  spirit,  which,  inileeil,  isCioil  Himself.  IJvit 
as  the  iclation  Ix'tweeii  the  soul  and  God  is  oidy 
temporary,  this  intervention,  this  illiiminatiou  by 
the  Divinity,  ceases  at  deatli;  and  the  acquired  in 
tcllect  relapses  into  nolliinj;ness. 

This  system  of  psy<-liolo:jy  naturally  aroused  the 

sininircs't  opposition  cm  the  part  of  the  Arabian  and 

.lewisli   philosophers,  who,  moved   by  sentimeiUs  of 

relijrion,  soULfht   (o  di'aden  the  blows  struck  at  the 

fuudamental  doirma  of  Islamism  and  Judaism;   tlie 

immortality  of  the  .sold.     Avenoes  (Ibn  Hoshil).  in 

his  treatise  on  the  intellect,  enunciates  the  opinion 

that  the  human  intellect,  so  lonjc  as  it  is  in  the  body. 

is  virtually  nothinj;-  but  a  potentiality,  a  mere  capa 

bilily.  but    that   it   becomes  an   inlelli,i;enl  a.ijent,  an 

iietual  substance,  assoon  as  it  relin(|uislies  the  body. 

Maimonides,  in  declariiii:  the  unity  of  souls,  was 

certainly  inthienced  by  Alevauder.    Maimonides  says 

on  thissubjeet  :    "  Hut  y(ni  know  that 

Influence     these   separate   thiiiirs — I   mean   those 

on  Jewish    thai  ar<>  neither  bodl<s  nor  faeidties  in 

Philoso-      a  body,  but  pure  intellifrences — admit 

phers.        of  no  iuullipli<-ity,  e.\cept  in  the  sense 

that   some  amonir  them  are  the  cause 

of  the  existence  of  others,  so  that   they  arc  distill 

^.'iiisheil  only  by  the  bict   that   some  are  causes  and 

others  elVecis     But  whatever  survives  the  individual 

named  '  Zeid  '   is  neither  the  cause  nor  the  cITeet  of 

that  which  survives  the  individual  named    'Amr': 

this  is  why  the  a.irs'ejl'de  is  a  unity"  ("Moreh,"  i. 

434,  Munk's  tianshilioiO.    The  theory  of  Ale.vander, 

llierefore,  is  that  the  tiiiite  intellect  is  nothiiii:  but  a 

capacity  moved  by  tin'  I'aiversal  Soul,  that  is,  (bid; 

and  that  il  (the  iinite  intellect)  does  not  adinil,  ac 

cordinfjly,  of  any  numerical  or  specitic  dilfcrentia- 

tion.     The  adversaries  of  .Maimonides  were  justitied, 

therefore,  in  accusini:  him  of  deny  ini;  the  immortality 

of  the  .soul ;  for  without  an  individual  soul  there  can 

be  no  immortality 

I.evi  ben  (icrsoii  devotes  a  lar<;e  part  of  his  work, 
•■Milhamot  ha  Shem  "  (The  Wars  of  the  l-oril).  to 
this  important  question  of  the  human 
Levi  ben  intellect,  and  aftc-r  haviiii;  passed  in 
Gerson  and  review  all  the  oiiiiiions  on  this  sub 
Alexander,  .ject,  ran.i.'es  himself  on  the  side  of 
Ale\andcr,  Hut.  in  order  to  avoid  the 
diin,i;er  of  seemini;todeny  immortality,  he  divcloped 
the  conception  fuithcr  The  nitioiml  soul,  he  says, 
which  is  liorn  with  man,  is  but  a  mere  disposition 
(njSni  that  has  for  its  substratum  the  inia,i.'inative 
sold,  allieil  to  the  seiilii'iit  or  animal  .soul.  The  dif- 
ferent souls,  or  the  dilTcrent  faculties  of  which  the 
liuman  soul  is  composed,  are  oidy  a  <hain  of  "en- 
telechies."  or  corpoical  perfectiiais.  the  one  superior 
to  the  other,  which  have  alternately  played  the  role 
of  matter  and  of  form. 

Moses  of  Narbonne,  a  contompnrury  of  Levi  ben 
Oersoii,  publishi-d  a  special  work  on  Alexander'.s 
book.  <'iitilled  •■  .Mexanders  Treatise  on  thi'  Intel 
lerl,  Accordinir  to  tin-  Iniirpritatioii  of  Ibn  Uoshd." 
Not  havinir  the  brilliant  dialectic  anil  philo.sophic 
(lunlitics  of  Levi  ben  (Jcrson.  lie  wavers  between 
the  theory  of  Alexander  and  thai  of  Ibn  Hoslid. 
without  beiii);  able  to  ;;ive  a  satisfactory  solution 
of  the  |irolilein  of  immortality. 

In  line,  Alexander  was  the  pivot  on  whii'li  turned 
all  the  discussions  of  llie  scholastic  circles  of  the 
Midille  Aires 


HiHi.iDiiRAPHV:  Breolier,  Die  UiiMi^liUclikelttlfhrr  (if*  Ik- 
iiuUHmIiiii  I'.ithfx.  1^7 :  Miink.  M/lainiiK  ilc  /'/lilem.jihiV, 
1H.'>T;  Iteiiau,  .IrfiTcifK  it  I'Avi  niiimiic.  ix'ii:  Itilter.  GifCh. 
ilir  I'liiliiKDiiliie.  vol.  vll. ;  Sotieyer.  IMk  PKinlioliiuiKChe 
S\inlim  ili'n  ^ItlimunU  1838;  StelnselinelUur,  Hcbr  Lfebers. 
|)|l.  •■»H  cl  mq.  J     g^ 

ALEXANDER    BALAS,    King    of    Syria: 

Date,  of  birth  unknown,  died  14.")  ni  ..  A  youth  of 
lowly  oriftin.  he  was  set  up  as  a  pretender  to  the 
throne  of  Syiiaas  beini;  the  son  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes,  in  I'i'i  ii.c,  in  opposition  to  the  Selcucid  De- 
metrius Hoter.  The  imposition  was  aided  by  his 
remarkable  likeness  to  the  Svrian  kiiiL'  Aniiochus 
v..  Eiipator,  son  of  Aniiochus  IV..  Epiphanes,  which 
reseniblance  induced  many  to  believe  him  a  son 
of  the  last-named.  His  liisl  ollicial  act,  on  being 
crowned  in  I'tolemais  as  kiiiij:.  was  to  send  an  em- 
bassy to  the  ruler  of  the  Jews,  Jonathan  the  Hasmo- 
nciiii,  which  ran  as  follows;  "  Kinj;  Alexander  to  his 
brother  Jonathan,  irrcetin^l  We  have  heard  of  thee, 
that  thou  art  a  mijility  man  of  valor,  and  meet  to  be 
our  friend.  And  now  we  have  appointed  thee  this 
day  to  bi'  bi^'h  priest  of  thy  nation  and  to  be  called 
■  the  Kiiii^'s  Friend  '—[ami  he  sent  unto  him  a  pur- 
jile  robe  and  a  crown  of  irold]— and  to  take  our  part 
and  to  keep  friendship  with  us"  (I  Mace.  X.  lH-21). 
Jonathan  did  not  hesilate  to  declare  at  once  for  Al- 
exander IJalas,  and  rejected  all  overtures  miide  to 
him  by  Demetrius,  wlii<-h  overtures  in  trulli  con- 
veyed no  such  prosjiecls  of  reward  as  thoseof  Alex- 
ander. In  adililioii.  the  political  probabilities  of  the 
lime  were  altoirether  in  .Mexander's  favor. 

.Mexaudcr's  eiiibassy  was  especially  sifinificant  to 
the  Jews,  inasmuch  as  in  accordance  wilh  it.  on  tlie 
Feast  of  Tabernacles.  l.")2  Ii.c,  Jonathan  assumed 
the  holy  garb  of  the  high  jiriest hood,  and  therewith 
became"  tlie  spiritual  head  of  the  Jewish  people.  In- 
directly, .Vlexander  thus  became  the  actual  cause  of 
the  liu'al  displacement  of  the  pro  Hellenic  party  in 
Judea.     .lonalhan    on    his   side  showed   himself   an 

able  and  faithful  ally,  being  11 idy  one  who  stood 

lirmly  by  .\lexander.  whi'ii,  a  Utile  later,  he  was 
hard  pressed  by  the  parli/ansof  Demetrius  II.,  son 
of  Demelrius  siller.  Wlieiioni'of  them.  Apollonilis, 
governoriifCo'le  Syria,  openly  look  up  arms  against 
Alexander,  it  was  Jonathan  who.  in  147  It.c,  suc- 
cessfully brought  him  to  terms.  He  drove  out  a 
garrison  which  Aiiollonius  had  thrown  into  Joppa, 
and  defeated  the  army  led  against  him  at  Aslidod. 
In  recoL'-nilionof  these  services  Alexander  jiri'sented 
him  with  the  town  of  Ekron  and  its  adjoining  dis- 
trict. In  addilion  to  this  he  loaded  Jonathan  with 
manv  personal  marks  of  his  esteem.  On  the  occa- 
sion'of  his  marriage  wilh  the  daughter  of  I'toleiny 
I'liilomelor  of  Egypt,  l")"  n  •' .  he  invited  Jonathan 
to  the  festivities,  and  placed  him.  arrayed  in  the 
royal  |)urple,  at  his  side,  conferring  upon  him  at  the 
.same  lime  the  lilies  of  Klnita/'iK  and  iKiriilnrrhnH 
(general  and  provincial  governor).  When  delegates 
from  the  (;reek  parly  came  from  Judea  and  laid 
complaint  a.u'ainst  Jonathan,  he  dismissed  them  un- 
heard. Alexander  IJalas  thus  conlriliuled  to  the  ad- 
vancemenl  of  the  Jews,  both  in  their  inlernal  and 
external  alTairs;  and  this  attitude  of  his  aci-ounts 
satisfaclorilv  for  the  love  and  devotion  shown  by 
them  lowaiil  him;  as  the  chronicler  .says,  "he  was 
the  first  that  spake  woiils  of  peace  unto  thcni" 
(1  .Mace.  X.  47). 

The  nanu'  Halns  seems  to  have  Viocn  bis  own.  and 
not  a  suniame  as  Joscphus  (".\nt."  xiii.  4.  53  8) 
states.  It  may  possibly  be  a  Orecized  form  of  some 
Animaic  name  coinpoiiiidiil  with  Iliuil  (compart- Sep- 
luagiiil,  .ler.  xl.  14.  Il<iii//f). 
Hiiii.iouK.wiiv:  /  .V<ii-r.  x.  xl.:  Jiwphun,  .-In*,  xlll    2.  «  4: 

rmilv.    ItriiltnciikUiiilUtir    ilrr    KUuxichtnn    .4llrr(/Mim»- 


Alexander,  Bernhard 
Alexander  Jagellon 


THE  JEWISH    K.NC  VCLOPEDIA 


360 


ll'ijoiciiwhnft.  S.V.;  Herzoir,  RfnleiicyMnptlilie  fllr  l'r<ilf»- 
tautififlu-  Tln'ohniii\  s.v.;  Schiirpr.  (irsch.  i.  i:U.  17H-1H:J.  and 
note  111  nil  J).  17H;  (irillz,  flfnrli.  ,1.  Jiulen,  'M  pd.,  II.  IIKI'.I; 


Winer, 


0  on  J).  \,K:  (inltz,  fii'ni-h.  it.  Juilfn.,  'm 
,  It.  II.  S.V.:  l<<hiMik.'l,  IliliiUrriliini.  s.v 


L.    O. 


ALEXANDER,  BERNHAKD:  Ilunirmian 
writer  iiMcl  iirdlVssnr  nf  ]iliiliis(i|iliy  niiil  fStlii'lics; 
born  ;il  Biuliipisl  April  i:!.  1S.")0.  He  wa.-icducatcd  iu 
liis  native  town,  and  later  attended  German  universi- 
ties, pursuing eliietlv  the  study  of  pliilosophy,  estliet- 
ics.  and  pedairo^'V.  rpon  his  return  to  Ilunfrarylie 
was  appointed  to  a  professorsliip  in  a  reiilnchiile  (){ 
Budapest,  and  in  1878  was  admitted  as  a  doeent  into 
the  faculty  of  iiliilo.sopliy  at  the  rniversity  of  IJuda- 
pest,  where  he  hecame  professor  in  18!t.'>.  Since  1892 
he  lias  been  lecturing  on  dramaturgy  and  esthetics 
at  the  National  Theater  Acaileniy,  and  on  the  latter 
science  and  the  history  of  civilization  at  the  Francis 
Josejih  I'olytechnicum.  He  isacorrespondin!;  niein- 
bcr  of  t  he  I  funjiarian  Academy  of  Science  and  a  mem- 
berof  the  Kisfaludy  Society,  llischief  worksare:  "  A 
Filosjilia  Torteneteuek  Kszmeje  Tekintctli'l  a  Ti'ir- 
tenetrcAltalaban"  (Ibidapest,  1878);  "Kant  Elete. 
Fejlodese  es  Filosofiaja  "  (crowned  by  the  Academy 
of  Science,  1889);  "A  XIX.  A/.szad  Pes.simismus!i, 
Schopenhauer  es  Ilartmann"  (Budajiest,  1884,  prize 
essay),  Alexander,  together  with  Prof.  .Tozef  Ha- 
noczi,  is  now  editinjr  the  "Filosoliai  Irok  Tara " 
series.  AmDiie;  the  ten  volumes  already  pulilished 
there  are  his  popular  translations,  to  which  he  has 
added  annotations,  of  Descartes,  Hume,  and  the 
"  Prolefiomena  "  to  Kant.  Conjointly  with  Banoezi 
he  translated  Kant's  "  Kritik  der  ]{eiiieu  Vcrniuift." 
He  has  also  been  a  very  active  writer  on  pedagog- 
ical subjects.  From  1882  to  188(!  Alexander  edited 
the  pedagogical  journal  "Magyar  Taniigy,"  and  in 
1891  the  review  "Orszagos  Kiizepiskolai  Tamirok 
Kozlouye." 

Bibliography:  Pallm  Le.ricim,  I.;  Szinnyci  Magyar  Ir6k 
Tnrit.  i. 

-M.  W. 

ALEXANDER,  THE  FALSE  :  A  pretender  to 
the  throne  of  .ludea.  Almut  4  n.c,  a  .Tewish  youth 
living  in  Sidou  and  reared  by  a  Homan  freedniau 
claimed  the  throne.  He  asserted  that  he  was  Alex- 
ander, the  son  of  Herod  and  ^larianuie,  pretending 
that  the  assassins  who  had  been  instructed  by  Herod 
to  slay  both  his  sons,  Alexander  and  Aristobulus, 
had  taken  pity  on  them,  allowed  tlieiu  to  escape, 
and  substituted  two  corpses  in  their  )ilace.  The 
striking  resemblance  borne  by  the  pretender  to  the 
real  .\lexander  deceived  even  tho.se  who  had  known 
the  lat  ter  clo.sely.  It  seems,  however,  that  the  youth 
was  in  reality  the  tool  of  a  man  intimately  acquainted 
with  the  Herodian  coiut,  who  hoped  by  placing  his 
creature  upon  the  throne,  thougli  for  (mly  a  sliort 
interval,  to  secure  enough  plunder  and  then  to  dis- 
appear. The  deceivers  appeared  first  in  circles  in 
which  Alexander  had  not  been  ])ers(]nally  very  well 
known.  Thus  he  was  welcomed  in  Crete  and  in 
Melos  by  the  Jews,  who  willingly  furnished  him 
with  ample  fluids  and  ii  royal  equipment  to  under- 
take the  journey  to  Koine,  necessary  to  substantiate 
his  claims  witli  the  emperor.  The  Jews  in  Rome 
likewise  received  him  with  open  arms,  and  offered 
public  thanks  to  God  for  the  wonderful  preservation 
of  a  scion  of  the  beloved  Ilasnionean  house.  Augus- 
tus himself,  however,  was  not  so  credulous.  He 
knew  Herod  too  well  to  believe  that  he  would  have 
allowed  one  he  had  condemned  to  death  to  escape ;  he 
was  also  closely  acquainted  with  Alexander's  fea- 
tures. On  seeing  the  young  man's  robust  form  and 
toil-marked  hands  he  was  convinced  of  the  fraud, 
and  sought  to  move  the  pretender  to  confession  by 


solemnly  pledging  him  his  life.  The  youth  acknowl- 
edged the  deception  and  told  li<iw  his  accoiuplice  had 
led  him  to  it.  The  emperor  kept  the  promise  to  spare 
his  life,  but  scut  him  to  the  galleys.  The  instigator 
of  the  plot  was  executed  (see  Josephus,"  Ant."  xvii, 
!•->.  and  "Ii.  ,1,"  11.  7.  Si  l-:!i.  I..   (J. 

ALEXANDER  DE  FRANCISCIS,  HE- 
BRiEUS  :  Author  and  bishop  at  Forli;  lived  in 
Knirir  ill  the  sixteenth  century.  His  Jewish  name 
was  Elislia  de  Uoma.  After  his  baptism  he  entered 
the  order  of  the  Dominican  friars,  in  whiih  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  an  orator.  Pope  Cliiiieiit  VIII. 
appointed  him  proctor,  then  vicar  geiiersil,  anil, 
finally,  bishoji  of  Korli.  which  otlice  he  held  from  l.^iili 
to  l.')97.  The  hitter  part  of  his  life  he  spent  as  a  civilian 
in  Home.  He  wrote:  (1)  Hebrew  notes  on  Genesis 
and  Exodus,  with  special  reference  to  the  textof  the 
Vulgate;  (2)  a  book  entitled  "  De  Tempore  et  de 
Sanctis." 

liiHLKioKAPiiY:  VoRplsteln  and  Kleger,  Ge»ch.<icr  Jwden  (u 
/(..m.  ii.av-,.  jj^    g_ 

ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT.     See  page  341, 
ALEXANDER     OF     HALES     (Alexander 

Alensis)  :  .Vii  English  theologian  anil  ii  member  of 
the  FraiH  isc  an  order;  born  in  tile  county  of  Glouces- 
ter; diediii  Paris,  124."i.  He  was  educated  at  the  latter 
place,wheie  he  afterward  became  a  teacher,  Alex- 
ander may  be  considered  as  the  originator  of  the  refor- 
mation of  Christian  scholasticism  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  In  his  "Sumiiia  Tniversa'  Tlicologia>"  he 
for  the  first  lime  made  extensive  use  in  the  system- 
atic treatment  of  Christian  theology  of  Aristotle's 
"  Logic  "  and  such  otlii'r  works  of  this  philosopher 
as  were  accessible  in  Latin  translations.  The  dia- 
lectic method,  which  was  afterward  employed  in  the 
works  of  Christian  scholastics,  was  probably  devel- 
ojied  and  improved  by  him,  whence  he  acquired 
among  his  conteniporaries  the  title  of  "  Doctor  irro- 
fragaliilis  et  thi'ologorum  monarchus."  Although 
steadfast  in  his  theological  coiiviclious,  he  was  not  in 
the  least  intolerant  toward  other  denominations;  in- 
deed, toward  the. lews  he  exhibited  exceptional  clem- 
ency and  iiiijiartiality.  .\s  to  the  iiuestiou  whether 
Jewsand  pagans  with  their  religious  practises  should 
be  tolerated  among  Christians, he  deprecates  the  class- 
ing of  Jews  with  pagans  or  Saracens  who"  usurp  the 
Holy  Land,"  and  luaintains  that  the  .lews  .should  be 
treated  with  forbearance  for  the  reason  that  through 
them  the  Christians  received  the  I.,aw ;  .lesusof  Naz- 
areth was  descended  from  their  race,  and  theirpres- 
ervation  is  enjoined  by  Holy  Writ. 

In  answer  to  an  argument  against  the  toleration 
of  the  Jews — namely,  that  the  Talmud  in  many 
jilaccs  slanders  Jesus  and  his  mother — he  maintained 
that  the  Jews  committed  no  wrong  in  writing  such 
statements,  as  it  was  their  religious  belief  that  the 
Messiah  had  not  yet  come.  He  justified  Ihepuni'h- 
nienl  of  Jews  when  they  were  guilty  of  juiblic  defa- 
mation or  blasiihemy,  claiming,  however,  that  even 
then  it  should  not  be  more  severe  than  the  punish- 
ment of  Christians  committing  like  otTenses;  but  all 
books  containing  revilings  he  held  should  be  burnt 
("Summa  Cniversit  Theologia',"  tiook  ii.  p. 179,  g  1), 
This  verdict  refiects  the  state  of  mind  prevailing  at 
that  time  in  Paris,  occasioned  by  the  discussionsand 
jiroceedings  then  pending  relative  to  the  burning  of 
tlie  Talmud.  Relying  upon  a  del  ision  of  the  Council 
of  Toledo  (.'589),  and  moved  by  other  motives  as  well, 
.VIexander  was  opposed  to  constraining  the  Jews  by 
punishment  and  menaces  to  embrace  the  Christian 
faith  {il>i<l.  bookii.  p.  179,  i;4).  I'lilikc  other  theolo- 
gians of  histime  who  eagerly  sanctioned  the  confisca- 
tion or  ]ilun(l(ring  of  the  property  of  the  Jews,  he 


351 


TIIK  Ji:\\l-;il   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander.  Bernhard 
Alexander  Jagellon 


f(iiit<iiik'il  that  tlioush  the  estates  of  Saracens  or 
lieretics  might  properly  bo  seized  liy  the  jfoveni- 
iiient.  tlie  projierty  of  Jews  ought  liot  to  he  con- 
liseated  at  all.  since  if  the  Jews  were  i)ennitte(l  to 
live,  Ihi'V  should  not  be  deprived  of  the  lueuiis  of 
living  ii'hiit.  book  iii.  30.  S;  3). 

In  Jhe  "Suninia  Iniversje  Theologiae  " — the  first 
fundamental  work  inaugurating  the  golden  era  of 
Christian  scholasticism — are  found  traces  of  iln-  two 
.[(■wish  jihilosophcrs  who  exerted  great  iiilii:euce 
u|)on  the  scholasticism  of  the  thirteenth  century — 
namely,  Solomon  ibn  Gabirol  (.Vvicebrom  and  Moses 
ben  Maimon.  Alexander  allirms  that  not  only  cor- 
poreal butalnompiritual  substances — parlicularly  the 
liuman  soul — are  composed  of  matteraud  form  (iljt'd. 
biMikii.  ch.  li,^  1 ),  adoctriiiethelogicalcons<'i|uences 
of  which  gave  its  original  stamp  to  the  system  of 
Avf'ncebrol  (the  name  under  whieli  (Jabirol  is  ipioted 
by  the  scholastics),  and  which  became  from  the  time 
of  John  Duns  Scotus  (1374?-i:i(KS)  the  distinctive 
doctrine  of  the  Franciscans  as  contrasterl  with  that 
of  the  Dominicans.  J[ore  numerous  still  an'  the  in- 
stances of  agreement  with  the  "  Moreh  Nebukim  " 
of  .Alaimonicies.  The  deinonstration  of  Alexander 
that  pi-r  .se  there  is  a  knowledge  of  (Jod,  and  that 
in  addition  to  this  independent  knowledge  there  is 
a  cognition  of  God  from  His  acts,  is  un(l()ul)ledly 
taken  from  >[aimoiiides.  Keferring  to  Ex.  xxxiii. 
23,  lie  explains  that  to  apprehend  (Jod  from  Ilis  acts 
is  to  see  Him  "from  behind";  whereas  to  recognize 
God's  essence  as  it  is,  is  to  know  Hin\  "  face  to  face  " 
(i'W</.  book  i.  ch.  2, 6;  1,  art.  4;  compare  "  Moreh,"  i.  21. 
3S.  W. 

Alixander  seems  to  have  followed  Maimonides 
both  in  his  exposition  of  the  proofs  adduced  by  phi- 
losophers (i.e.,  the  Peripatetic  school)  ngardiiig  the 
eternity  of  the  world,  and  in  the  refutation  of  the 
samcC'Summa  I'niversie  Theologia',"  book  i.  ji.  12, 
§8;  comjiare  "Moreh  Nebukim."  ii.  14. 17,  IH),  The 
I)roi)osition  that  from  the  beginiung  of  Creation  the 
force  necessary  to  produce  not  only  natund  but  also 
supernatund  things  was  iidierent  in  the  universe. and 
that  consei|uently  the  law  in  natiire  was  not  broken 
bv  miracles,  recalls  other  well-known  pas.sjiges  of  the 
"Moreh  "  (ii.  42,  5,  J?  .");  compare  "  Moreh,"  ii.  29). 

Maimoiii<les'  explanation  of  the  Mosaic  legislation 
— which  constitutes  the  chief  contents  of  the  third 
part  of  the  "Moreh" — seems  to  have  produced  as 
great  an  impression  upon  Alexander  as  it  did  upon 
the  later  .sihola.stics.  Beneath  the  ceremonial  laws, 
he  .says,  must  lie  a  deeper  spiritual  meaniiiL',  since 
the  pa.s.sage  (Dent.  iv.  H),  "This  is  your  wis<him  anil 
your  understanding  in  the  eyes  of  the  nations,"  can 
not  be  construed  to  mean  that  on  account  of  the 
mere  strict  observance  of  the  law  this  people  shoidd 
be  considered  wise  and  intelligent  (iii.  54,  §  2;  com- 
pari'  "  Moreh."  iii.  31 1. 

His  referenci-  likewise  lo  the  opinion  of  the  Jew- 
ish teachers  of  the  law,  that  all  commandmenls,  the 
reason  for  which  is  not  known  to  us.  were  given  to 
the  Jews  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  them  from 
idolatry,  |.lainly  indicates  the  inlluenee  of  Maimon- 
ides (iii.  2x,  §2.  art.  1:  compare  "  Moreh."  iii.  2it, 
!>'i).  and  the  same  is  the  cn.se  with  his  as.serlion  that 
the  sacrilices  were  designeil  aflir  the  spread  of  idol- 
atry, lo  serve  as  proticiion  against  this  aberration 
(iii.  .18;  eompnre  "Mori4i."  iii.  4ti). 
inni.iniiii.vi'iiv  :  J.  (iiitliiiaiin.  Ahrinnlrr  .li  Ilnlm  cl  U 
Jiiiliit.'im,    III  /,".  I-.  HI    .liiin-,  xi\.J::i-Z».  ,     „ 

.1.   tf, 

ALEXANDER,  ISAAC:  Gemian  author; 
livril  in  ^^ouili  Gi'rnuiny  in  the  second  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  wrote  on  philiisophi<'al  sub- 
jects from  a  rationalistic  point  of  view.     His  works 


include:  "Von  dem  Dasein  Gottes,  die  Selbstredende 
Vernunft,"  Ratisbon,  ITT'c  "Anmerkungen  iiberdie 
P^rste  Ge.schichte  der  Jlenschheit  nach  ihin  ZeugnLsse 
Mosi.s,"  Nuremberg,  1782:  "Vereiingung  der  Mosa- 
ischen  Geseize  mit  dem  Talmud,"  Patisbon,  1786; 
"Einheilsgidichte,"  a  German  translation  of  the 
"Shirha-S'ihnd,"  Patisbon,  1788;  "  Abhandlung  von 
der  Kreiheit  des  Menschen,"  and  "  Klcine  Schriften," 
Patisbon,  1789. 

BiBLiOGRAFiiT :  FiSrs%  BlhUntheca  Judalca,  1. 33, 34. 

M.  B, 

ALEXANDER  JAGELLON :  Grand  duke  of 
Lithuania  and  king  of  Poland;  bom  14(!(l:  died  at 
Wilna,  15()f!.  He  was  the  son  of  King  Casimir  IV. 
He  ascended  the  throne  of  Lithuania  in  1492,  and  that 
of  Poland  upon  the  death  of  his  brother,  John  Albert, 
in  1.501.  More  prodigal  even  than  the  other  Jagel- 
lons — noted  lor  their  extravagance — 
InstabiHty  and  weak  in  chanicter.  he  was  much 
of  His  swaye<l  by  his  siiccessive  favorites,  so 
Character,  that"  his  attitude  toward  the  Jews  ex- 
hibits a  wavering  instability.  Immedi- 
ately upon  ascending  the  throne,  Decendier  1,  1492, 
he  not  only  confirmed  the  privileges  granted  to  the 
Jews  by  his  predecc.s.sors.  but  even  added  new  ones, 
giving  to  the  Jews  of  Troki  the  full  rights  of  burgh- 
ers: and  the  collection  of  taxes  was  farmed  out  to 
them  as  heietofore.  He  also  repaid  to  the  Jews  the 
large  indebtedness  incurred  by  his  father;  and  there 
was  nothing  that  s<'emed  to  indicate  the  coming  storm 
— the  first  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Litlunmia.  In 
149.")  Alexander,  as  grand  duke  of  Lithuania,  issued 
without  warning  an  edict  in  the  following  terms: 
"The  Jews  nuist  leave  the  coimtry." 

The  Lithuaman  Jewsat  that  time  apparently  were 
far  more  rcfiniil  than  their  Polish  coreligionists. 
They  spoke  and  wrote  the  Russian  language,  did  busi- 
ness in  partnership  with  their  Christian  fillow  citi- 
zens, and  hail  social  intercourse  with  them.  At  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century  many  among  them  bore 
Pu.ssian  names,  as,  for  instance.  Ziibetz,  Kyabchik, 
Olsheika.  (ilukhoi.  Mamotlivy.  Kravchik  (seearticle 
N.v.MKs).  They  occupied  themselves  not  onlv  in  com- 
mercial enterprises,  btit  were  also  engaged  in  agri- 
culture and  the  handicrafts.  Thi'  majority  of  the 
Lithuanian  Jews  were  not  wealthy,  but  those  lease- 
holders anil  lax-colliMtors  among  them  who  had  be- 
come rich  purchased  estates  from  the  nobility  and 
deveh>ped  into  gentlemen  farmers.  Some  of  these 
Jews  or  their  heirs  finally  embraced  Christianity. 

Noutinaer  ("  .\us  dor  Peterstiureer  Bltillottieli,"  p.  121)  plves 
an  iirniunt  i<f  two  hiunt  U'li*ffi»'si  itiiitalncil  In  Culeh  Afen- 
(lulMilo's  wnrk  "  Miir"*i>lH'r"  it'.\(anl  In  iiianus4-rli>l  In  tlie  St. 
rctiTslnirKPiil>lli'I.i>inirri.iloiilliar\vlllillii'e.x|>Ml!ii<>nnr  "iliKl'8 
IHNiiilc  *^  rniiii  Siuiln.  Itiisslii.  anil  I.lOinania,  anil  ctvlni?  tlio  ilato 
ef  ttii'tr  expiilsliin  rnun  LItliiianhi  as  Mill.  In^leail  of  itii'  ai-uml 
year,  Mlt'i.  KI/Ji  .MsiiiKiwlrz.  tlif  ciiiirt  |iliVMt-lan  nf  lYInre  Kad- 
zlwlli  iwliii  lived  iM'lwifn  l.Wianil  imnii.'iflv.-s  In  Die  m.li-s  lo 
Ills  niinlli-al  work  tlit>  i-oniTt  date,  UU'i.  lull  iiaiiii*s  Klnif  AllM-rt 
instead  of  .Alexander  ils  the  one  whobroUKlit  ilie  Jewstiuek  fn>in 
Italno.  I'olanil.  lo  l.lihuanla  In  l.'iiil. 

.Mnonir  llif  Jewlsli  wrlurs  wlio  in-at  of  the  siilijtvl  of  the  ei- 

imlslon  of  ihe  Ji'Hs  from   l.lihnanlii,  I'nif.  A.  Ilarkavv  n'tem 

lo  III!'  folloHiinr  illiT.liailskrs  arilili-  In  "  ViwklnHl."  pp.  .'ir( 

sit/.,  Jalltiarv.  IMK-'i:    In   Ihe   work   "Shuslian- 

Works  on      SikIoI,"  wtIIIi'ii  I>v  Moses  In'n  Jai-oli  of  ltii.s.v|a 

Expulsion.    In  April,   IIICi,  and  puMlsheil   In  Vonleo,  liM) 

Cd  I'd..    Koril/.  ITsii.  11  i.s  wild:   "«)nr  lima 

Is   Ihi'   till f  ralanillli-s   for  llio   lost  sliii'p   (of  llie  lioiisi'  of 

Isniill."  Alinivuiii'l.  In  I4'.i7.  s|M'aks  of  iho  liani  llmew  In  slore 
for  Ihf  .lews  of  lo-nnanv.  I^iinlianlv.  and  Hiis.sta.     Silninon  Ibn 

Venni.  eniiiniTailnir  In    "  sholw^  Yelindah"  11 [nn-hs  iiilain- 

Itoiis  to  the  .lews,  put.s  the  iiliiili  i>|iiM-h  of  Iheir  nilsforiuni's  In 
Ihe  year  UW.  whi'n  Ihe  Jvws  wt-n-  driven  from  Snvov.  I'liil- 
inoiil,  slrtlv.  and  Itnssla.  In  Ihe  pn'fiiro  to  tin-  pniyiT-Usik  of 
Iherriini'ttn  Jrws,  tUlnirln  KiilTa  and  Kant.s.sM-lla/jir.  piililished 
111  loCi,  It  Is  Willi  thai  Mils  pnivi-r-lMMik  was  amimrisl  l»v  Mosi-si 
lin-iiojeh  itlio  Kxlli'i.  whoiami'  ulihairreul  iiuiiilKTof  luiii- 
Islied  Juwii  fniiii  Kiisslu  tu  luiulontiuople. 


Alexander  Jannseus 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


352 


According  to  Bi-rshadski,  the  Jews  were  biiuislied 
from  llie  cities  and  districts  of  Brest.  Troki,  Wilna. 

Liit/.k,    Vladimir,   and    Kiev.      Tlicy 

Banished     were  adniilled  inlii  Poland  tiy  Ale.\- 

Jews         ander's    hrollier    Kiri^'    John    Allicrt. 

Return.       and  reniaincil  in  Kaino  and   vicinity 

until  l.VKi.  when  they  again  relumed 
to  Lithuania  by  the  order  of  Alexander. 

In  iriOl  Alexander,  after  the  death  of  his  brother 
John  Albert,  was  elected  king  of  I'oland.  In  his 
new  dominions  dwelt  the  Jews  who  had  previously 
been  expelled  by  him  Irom  Lithuania.  As  it  was 
(litliciilt  for  him  to  banish  them  from  Poland  ow- 
ing to  their  wealth,  tlii'ir  great  numbers,  and  the 
|irotection  of  the  inlluential  Polish  nobility,  he  found 
it  politic  to  "iiermit"  Ihem  to  return  to  Lithuania. 
The  colonists  from  Germany  and  Sweden,  who  were 

to  have  taken  the  place  of  the  ban- 
As  Xing'  ished  Jews,  had  failed  to  come;  the 
of  Poland,    new  tax-collectors  did  not  meet  hisex 

pectations;  and  the  war  with  Jbiscow 
re(|uired  great  sums  of  money.  Accordingly  the 
.lews  were  "permilled"  to  rettun  to  Lithuania  in 
March  and  April.  \')i)3.  on  the  following  conditions: 
'i'hey  were  to  settle  in  the  same  places  where  they 
had  lived  before;  and  all  their  houses,  stores,  gar- 
dens, fields,  meadows,  etc.,. were  to  be  sold  back  to 
them  at  the  prices  paid  by  the  present  owners.  In 
their  turn  the  .lews  had  the  right  to  collect  all  out- 
standing debts  not  paid  lo  Ihem  at  the  lime  of  Iheir 
banishment  :  they  were  obliged  to  furnish  1.000  horse- 
men for  the  army,  and  to  pa.v  a  considerable  annual 
amoiuit  to  the  aulhorities.  Probably  not  long  before 
the  end  of  Alexander's  reign  the  Jews  contrived  to 
have  the  obligation  touching  the  1.000  hor.semeu  abol- 
ished, and  had  to  pay  taxes  and  additional  imposts 
like  all  other  burghers  instead. 

BnamcR.M'nv  :  Hershadskl,  Lilnrxkir  Yr  mi.  Si.  I'i'ti'i>lHiru', 
ISSi:  Itiiifsliii  jV(i»ljiwi,V(il.i..si.  I'l-tfrslniiL.'.  |s!i;);  .s',,;.rn/iit 
(roi<U'larslvc}iniikh  i  Cliastinil'h  Al,l>>r  Kii--<iiiiusluiiihlisif.-«i 
Istorii  Litrii.  Wilna,  1H.')S;  T.  Czaoki.  Rozprawa  o  Zudach 


I  Karaitafli,  Wilna,  isnr. 


H.  R. 


ALEXANDER     JANNiEUS    (Jonathan): 

King  of  .luilea  ;  born  about  lOii  n.c.  :  died  7fi  n.e.  He 
■was  the  third  son  of  John  Ilyreanus.  by  his  second 
wife,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  the  year  102  B.C. 
He  was  alwa.vs  badly  treated  by  his  father  in  order 
thereby  lo  enhance  the  prestige  of  the  heir  apparent, 
Aristobulus  I.,  and  of  his  brother  Autigonus — both 
children  of  Hyreanus'  former  marriage.     Aristobu- 


Copper  f'uiu  of  Alexander  Janna-us. 

(After  MadiJ«D. "  HlsUiry  of  Jtrwlsh  Coiuage.") 

lus,  when  he  became  king,  de<'med  it  necessary  for 
his  own  seeurily  to  imjuison  his  half-brother;  and 
it  was  his  queen,  Salome,  who  first  set  him  at  lib- 
erty. Aristobulus  died  after  a  reign  of  one  year, 
and  Alexander,  as  the  oldest  living  brother,  had  the 
right  not  only  to  the  throne  but  also  to  Salome,  the 
widow  of  his  deceased  brother,  who  had  died  child- 
less; and.  although  she  was  thirteen  years  older  than 
he.  he  manned  her.  As.  according  to  Pharisi\ic  con- 
ceptions the  dignity  of  high  priest  was  not  a  heredi- 


tary one,  the  son  of  a  deceivsi-d  high  priest  could  not 
clami  t he  succession  by  right  (Sifra,  Ahare^Iot.  viii.). 
[It  has  been  suggested  that  the  .Mexniidra  whom 
.VleXiUider  married  was  not  the  widow  of  .Vristobn- 
lus:  Detilsch.  in  Rahmer's  "  Lilcranublall.  lilOO.''] 
Alexander,  accordingly,  did  not  conllici  with  I'lniri 
sale  views  when  he  married  a  widow  and  later  took 
|)osses,sion  of  the  high  jiriesfs  ollice.  Resides  the 
Talinnd  itself  (Yeb.  20/))  considers  the  prohibition 
against  a  high  priest's  contra<ting  a  levirate  mar 
riage  as  a  later  picseriplion  of  the  nibbis,  as  a 
"preventive"  im'TJ)  which  possibly  in  Alexander's 
time  had  not  even  been  theorelicidly  considered.  It 
is  ceit.iin  thai  the  Sadducees,  adhering  to  the  lit- 
eial  conceplionof  the  Law  (Lev.  xxi.  Ui),  considered 
the  levimte  marriage  as  ina|)plicable  to  the  case  of 
a  high  priest ;  so  that  the  first  public  act  of  this  new 
king — the  marriage  of  his  brother's  widow — wasonc 
of  antiSaddueaie  tendency.  But  in  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  .\le\aniler  had  no  time  looccnpy  himself 
with  matlers  of  internal  jiolilical  importance;  and 
the  stalemeni  Ihal  on  his  accession  he  |>nt  to  death 
a  brother  whom  he  fi'ared  as  a  ])ossible  rival  is 
therefore  highly  improbable'.  Such  a  step  woidd 
certainly  have  alienated  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  people.  Moreover,  the  jihuis  of  conc(uest  Ihat 
he  clierishcd  demanded  large  siipplies  of  soldiei's. 
which  could  certainly  not  be  olitaiiU'd,  especially 
among  Pharisaic  .lews,  by  blood  stained  hands. 

Alexaniler's  chief  aim  was  to  muUi-  .ludea  great 
and  jiowcrful ;  to  this  he  devoted  hislif<'.  His  first  ex- 
pedition was  against  the  city  of  Ptole- 
His  'Wars.  mais(Acre).  This  campaign  seems  to 
have  been  W(dl  timed  jiolilically ;  for 
just  then  the  two  Antiochi  of  Syria,  the  eight h  iind 
ninth  of  that  name,  were  actively  en,i;aged  against 
each  other,  so  that  neither  could  lend  any  assistance 
to  the  beleaguered  city.  Help,  however,  came  to  the 
eili/.ens  of  Ptolemais  from  Plolemy  Lalhurus.  who 
had  been  cast  ontby  his  mother.  Cleopatra,  queen  of 
Egj'pt,  and  had  founded  for  himself  a  king<lom  in 
Cyprus.  He  landed  a  large  army  for  the  relief  of  the 
town;  but  .\Iexander  met  him  with  treachery,  ar- 
I'anging  an  alliance  with  him  openly  while  secretly 
he  sought  to  obtain  the  help  of  his  mother  against 
him.  As. soon  as  Plolemy  learncil  of  this  intrigue,  he 
marched  against  Asochis.  near  Se|)iihoris,  wlii<-h.  to- 
gether wilh  10.000  ))rison<'rs  and  much  plunder,  he 
caplured  iiiion  a  Sabbath.  \  similar  attack  U])on  Sep- 
|)horis  failed;  but  in  a  later  batlh'  at  .\zophon  on 
the  Jordan.  .Vlcxander  wilh  his  whole  army  sufTereda 
wofnl  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Plolemy  wilh  a  much 
smallerforee.  Tothisdefeat  of  the  Jews  .Mexander's 
own  lemerity  contributed  not  a  little;  for,  relying 
upon  his  own  sirenglh.  he  allowed  lhe<Ticmy  to  cross 
the  river  unimpeded,  in  ord<'r  thai,  as  lie  thought,  he 
might  the  more  easily  catch  him  belwcen  his  army 
and  the  stream.  He  ssiw  his  error  only  when  it  was 
too  late.  The  enemy  fell  upon  the  Jewish  camp, 
women  and  children  were  struck  down,  their  corpses 
were  hacked  to  pieces,  flungintocaldronsand  boiled, 
so  Ihat  the  people  thought  they  were  dealing  wilh 
cannibals.  Alexander  might  easily  have  lost  his 
crown  and  Jiidea  ils  indeix'iidence  as  the  result  of 
this  battle,  had  it  not  been  for  the  assistance  ex- 
tended by  Egypt  in  this  extremity.  Cleopatra's 
two  .lewish  generals.  Helkias  (n'p^n)  and  Ananias 
(n'Jjn).  represented  so  vividly  the  dangers  of  allow- 
ing her  baiushed  son  Ptolemy  to  remain  victorious 
that  she  entrusted  them  with  an  army  against  him. 
As  a  result  Plolemy  was  forced  to  withdraw  to 
Cyprus,  and  Alexander  was  sjived.  The  Egyptians, 
it  is  true,  as  comjicnsation  for  their  aid.  desired  to 
annex  Judea  to  their  country;  but  considerations 


353 


Tin:  .IKWISII    KNCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander  Janneeus 


touching  the  rcsiili-iil  Kiiyptiiiii  Jews,  who  were  the 
iiiitiii  support  of  her  throne,  induced  Cleopatra  to 
modify  her  lonirln^js  for  conquest.  The  Ej;yptian 
unny  withdrawn,  Alexander  found  his  hands  free; 
and  forthwith  he  planned  new  campaigns.  His  op- 
erations in  northeastern  Palestine  ended  .scarcely  less 
disjistrously.  lie  captured  Gachini  and  the  stroni; 
fortress  Amathus  on  the  Jordan;  l)Ut,  in  an  ambush 
set  for  him  by  'I'lieodorus.  ruler  of  .\malhus,  hi-  li^l 
the  whole  of  llie  rear-iruard  of  his  army — ID.ODO  miu 
— together  with  his  hairjrage.  He  was  nion^  su<-eess 
ful  in  Ids  expedition  against  Philistia,  capturing 
Uaplua,  Antlie(h)ii,  and  tinally,  in  the  year  Dl),  tli<' 
ancient  city  of  Gaza,  which  he  occujiied  through 
treacliery,  and  gave  up  to  be  pillaged  and  burnetl  by 
his  soldiery. 

Scarcely,  however,  liad  peace  been  restored  in  ex- 
ternal affairs,  when  civil  strife  began  to  rage  within. 
The  newly  adopted  p<iljcy  of  the  Ihismoneans,  inau- 
gurated by  John  Hyrcanusand  zealously  continued 
bj'  his  sons,  whidi  consisted  in  greater  prominence 
being  given  to  political  interests  and  the  repression 
of  religious  considerations,  led  at  last  to  open  contlict 
between  the   luling  <lynasly  and   the 

Internal      Pharisees,  who  represenled  and  ruled 

Dissen-  pojiular  sentiment.  The  latter,  the 
sions,  sjiiritual  su('ccssors  of  the  Maccabe- 
ans,  sided  with  the  llasinonean  princes 
when  it  was  a  matter  of  the  defense  of  Palestine,  in- 
asmuch as  a  free  country  afforded  the  best  oi)por- 
tunity  for  what  lay  closest  to  their  hearts;  namely, 
the  free  and  untrammeled  observance  of  J\idaism. 
Hut  with  a  policy  of  conquest  they  would  have 
nothing  to  do;  rightfully  apprc<'i,'iling  the  course  of 
events.  Ihey  had  no  ambition  1o  lake  Jiait  in  the 
worM's  politics,  reserving  all  llirir  allcnlion  and  en- 
ergy for  the  ethic.-il  and  religious develojanenl  of  the 
ancestral  faith.  This  friction — which  would  have 
brought  about  dangerous  results  in  the  time  of  Hyr- 
carnis  I.,  had  it  not  been  for  the  strong  personality 
and  good  luck  of  that  i)rince,  which  enabled  him  to 
hold  till-  balance  between  parlies — came  to  a  posi- 
tive rupture  in  the  reign  of  his  son.  The  relations 
between  Alexander  and  the  Pharisees  were  probably 
never  very  cordial;  IliDUgh,  accnrding  to  the  state- 
ment of  the  Talmud.  Simon  b.  Slielah,  the  head  of 
the  party,  was  a  Itrother  of  the  (lueen  and  a  frecpient 
guest  at  the  palace.  The  inscription  ujion  his  coin- 
age, l^on  IDJinV  U'lm^fi'f  'A/jfni'iV"".- (King  Alexan- 
der), must  in  it.sc-lf  have  ofTended  Pharisaic  sensibil- 
ities; for  them  the  house  of  David  was  the  only 
legitimate  royal  house,  all  others  Ix-ing  usurpers  of 
llie  royal  title.  Even  the  pldl-IIellenic  Arislobulus  I. 
ludk  Iliis  into  (-oMsiili-ratii>n  when  be  pernd1l(-d  only 
Hebrew  inscriplinns  upon  his  i-oins.  and  conU-nted 
himself  with  the  title  of  high  priest  upon  them. 

Possibly  had  Alexaniler's  warlike  undertakings 
lieen  slightly  more  successful,  the  Pliarisi'es  ndght 
have  iiariloned  him  even  worse  transgressions  than 
this.  His  contiiuious  campaigns  from  104-i)H  ii.c. 
inllicted  such  hanlsbips  upon  Palestine  as  to  make 
his  conquest  of  a  few  Philistine  towns  seem  compar- 
atively trivial.  .\s  a  result  of  this  warlike  policy. 
Ali'xander  f<lt  compelled  to  maintain  friendly  re- 
lations with  that  class  of  the  jieople  most  deeply 
interested  in  lailional  political  aggnuidizement — the 
Saddueees.  the  arislocnilie  class.  In  order  to  show 
his  allinity  with  the  Saddueees,  he,  in  his  capacity 
of  high  ])riesl,  while  olTering  the  prescrilied  water 
libation  on  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  allowed  the 
watir  to  run  \ipnn  his  bet,  thus  ex|>ressing  his  con 
tempt  for  this  purely  Pharisaic  ceremony.  The 
people  present  Were  .so  incensed  at  this  denionstm- 
lion  against  tlie  Pharisees,  wltli  whuiii  they  iu  the 
1-23 


main  sided,  that  they  pelted  the  king  with  the  cit- 
rons which  they  carried  in  accordance  with  one  of 
the  customs  of  this  festival.  They  assailed  him  with 
loud  ciles,  and  styled  him  "son  of  the  captive," 
thus  resurrecting  the  old  Pharisaic  charge  against 
the  members  of  the  Hasnionean  hou.se  and  tlieir  eli- 
gibility to  the  priesthood  (see  Joiln  IIyhcanus).  Al- 
exander siuinnoned  Ids  Pisidian  and  Cilician  inerce- 


Copper  Coin  of  Alexander  Jannu-us. 

(AfUr  M&dilen,  '-Hlator;  of  JewUblColnBgr.") 

naries  and  let  them  loose  tipon  the  people,  slaying 
then  and  there  G.OdO  Pharisees. 

But  the  matter  did  not  end  here.    Returning  from 
an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  OI)edas.  the  king 

of  the  Arabs,  he  found  his  |)eople.  in- 

His  (iteil  by  the  Pharisees,  armed  and  ar 

Cruelty.      niyed  against  him;  and  for  .six  years 

thereafter  a  state  of  actual  war  pre- 
vailed between  the  people  and  the  royal  troops,  cost- 
ing the  lives  of  no  less  than  .'iO.ODO  Jews.  When, 
tinally,  Alexander,  realizing  his  impotence,  sought 
peace  with  the  Pharisees,  lie  was  met  with  the  re- 
sponse that  the  lirst  and  only  condition  of  lasting 
peace  was  bis  death.  His  l)rulal  cruelty  in  massji- 
cring  the  defenseless  multitude  in  the  sacred  pre- 
cincts of  the  Temple  robs  the  reply  of  its  harshness; 
and  tlie  Pharisees  felt  themselves  justified  in  their 
bitterness.  No  excuse,  however,  can  be  found  for 
their  treasonable  negotiations  with  the  Syrian  king 
Demetrius  HI.,  son  of  Demetrius  Euca'rus,  -svhom 
Ihey  summoned  to  fight  against  their  monarch.  The 
rule  of  a  foreigner,  with  free  exerci.se  of  their  relig- 
ion, seemed  to  them  a  less  evil  than  independence 
under  a  Sad<lucean  ruler.  Nevertheless,  national 
feeling  proved  stronger  than  religious  sentiment 
among  I  he  Pharisees,  or  at  least  among  the  Pharisa- 
ically inclined;  for  after  the  bloody  battle  near  She- 
clieni  between  Alexander  and  Demetrius,  in  which 
the  former  lost  nearly  his  wliolc  army,  he  himself 
escaping  only  as  a  fugitive  into  the  mountains  of 
Ephraim,  a  large  number  of  the  Pharisees  who  had 
taken  service  with  the  Syrians  went  over  to  Alex- 
ander, (-ompi'lling  Demetrius  to  Avithdriiw  fromju- 
dea.  Alexandershowed  himself  on  thisoceasion  even 
more  short-sighted  than  his  opponents.  Inst<>ad  of 
concluding  an  honondili'  peace  with  them,  for  which 
the  opportindty  was  certainly  at  hanil.  he  not  only 
prosecuted  his  attacks  upon  hostile  Pharisees,  but 
treated  them  with  excessive  and  inhuman  cruelty. 
Upon  the  advice  of  a  Sadducee  favorite  named  l)i- 
ogenes  he  caused  in  one  day  tHKI  captured  I'hari.s<-es 
to  be  nailid  on  cros.ses.  This  monstrous  deed  is  ren- 
ilered  si  ill  more  horrible  by  the  legendary  stntemeiit 
that  he  caused  the  wives  and  children  of  the  con- 
denuu'd  to  be  executed  before  their  eyes,  while  he, 
surrouniled  by  feasting  courtiers  and  courtezans,  eii- 
joved  the  bloody  speciaele  This  ruthli-ssact  struck 
terror  into  the  hearts  of  his  Pharisee  opponents,  ami 
Ihev  enngnited,  to  the  luunbi-r  of  S.(H)0,  to  Syria  ami 
to  kgvpt.  Their  subs<-qiu-nl  fate  was  equally  sad ; 
that  of  those  who  settled  iu  Syria  especially  so,  for 


Alexander  Janneeus 
Alexander  of  Miletus 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


354 


there  the  Imtred  apiinst  the  Jews  was  intense  anil 
accompanied  with  violence:  tlie  greater  part  of  them 
were  massaereil  near  Chalcis.  and  only  a  small  rem- 
nant found  refujre  in  Bet  Zabdai.  Of  those  that  es- 
caped to  E^ypt.  one  of  I  he  most  prominent  was  Judah 
ben  Tahhai.  while  another  leader,  Simon  1).  Shetah, 
dnijTfred  out  a  miserable  existence  amoni:  the  Arabs. 
Alexander  found  that  this  semblance  of  peace  at 
home,  dearly  bou;rht  as  it  was,  by  no  means  added 

to  Ids  slreiifilh   against   outside    eiie- 

Last  mies.      Hated  by  the  pcoi)le,  he  had  to 

Campaigns,  place   his   main  reliance   upon   hired 

foreijin  troops;  and  yet  he  could  not 
effectively  countemct  the  increasing  power  of  liis 
nearest  nei.irhbor,  the  Arab  kinj;  Auktas.  WIkii 
the  latter  invaded  Judea.  Alexander  was  too  weak  to 
oppose  him.  and  he  purchased  the  enemy's  with- 
drawal only  by  ineansof  shameful  conces.sions.  The 
defeat  sutVered  by  Alexander  at  Adida — which  com- 
manded the  road  between  Jaffa  an<l  Jerusalem — 
placed  the  key  of  the  capital  in  the  Arab's  hands. 
But  Alexander  was  not  the  man  readily  to  admit  him- 
self lieaten;  and  he  sought  to  wipe  out  the  disgrace 
of  this  defeat  by  the  con(|\iest  of  petty  rulers.  His 
three  years'  war  east  <if  the  Jordan  (aliout  S.VHi)  was 
successful:  and  he  con<|ueied  Pella.  J)ium,  Gerasa, 
Gaidana,  Seleueia.  and  tlie  strong  fortress  tJamala. 

His  life  in  the  tield  and  the  inebriety  to  which  he  had 
become  addicted  combined  to  bring  on  a  persistent 

fever,  which  undermined  his  strength 
Death.       and  reiulered  the  last  three  years  of 

his  life  full  of  suffering.  Notwith- 
standing this,  he  continued  his  warlike  enterprises 
until,  at  the  siege  of  the  fortitied  town  Hagaba,  he 
succumbed  to  his  ailment  at  the  age  of  lifty-one,  in 
the  year  78  b.c.  His  wife,  Salome,  was  present  at 
Ins  death,  and  by  his  last  will  and  political  testa- 
ment— as  related  by  Josephus  and  the  rabbis — lie 
entrusted  to  her  the  reins  of  government,  and  gave 
her  upon  his  deathbed  the  following  instruction  as 
to  her  attitude  toward  the  conllieling  jiarlies  in  the 
nation;  "  Fear  ucather  the  Pharisees  nor  those  that 
are  not  Pharisees  [namely,  theSaihiucecs],  but  guard 
thyself  against  the  dyed  ones  [hypocrites]  who  do 
the  deed  of  Zimri  (Num.  xxv.  14)  and  expect  the  re- 
ward of  Phinehas"  (Num.  xxv.  10-13;  Ps.  cvi.  31; 
Sotah,  22i).  The  body  of  Alexander  was  brought  to 
Jerusiilem  and,  thanks  to  the  magnanimity  of  the 
Pharisees,  who  cherished  no  grudge  against  a  dead 
tyrant,  was  interred  with  every  mark  of  respect. 

Alexander  had  only  one  aim  in  life:  to  increase  the 
extent  of  his  kingdom  to  its  natural  boimdaries — 

the  Mediterranean  sea  and  the  eastern 

Character    desert.     Its  pursuit  brought  him  into 

and  Im-      conflict  withthe Pharisees;  that  is.with 

portance.     the  people  in  general.   This  opposition 

was  ba.sed  neither  upon  religious  nor 
personal  grounds.  l)ut  upon  politicalonesonly.  Alex- 
ander would  jirobably  have  given  way  to  the  Phar- 
isees in  everjthing  if  they  had  kept  him  supplied 
with  soldiers.  He  seems  to  have  been  the  victor  in 
this  mutual  antagonism;  for,  in  spite  of  all  adverse 
fortune,  he  approximately  attained  his  goal.  He  not 
only  maintained  his  hold  upon  the  towns  and  for- 
tresses received  from  his  predecessors,  but  made  eon- 
((ucstson  both  sidesof  thctjordan.  In  jiointof  fact, 
howivcr,  Alexander's  achievements  were  but  of  a 
temporary  character:  foras  time  was  not  granted  to 
him  in  which  to  bind  the  people  steadfastly  to  the 
Hasmonean  dynasty,  and  as  his  cruel  persecution  of 
the  Pharisees  served  only  to  intensify  the  love  and  de- 
votion of  the  people  to  these,  their  religious  guides;  so 
in  reality  he  did  not  permanently  enlarge  the  Jewish 
kingdom,  but,  instead,  undenniued  its  very  founda 


tions.  Alexander  Jannieus  must  be  considered  as 
having  contributed  by  far  the  largest  share  to  the 
catastrophe  which  overtook  Palestine  soon  after  his 
death.  t'om])are  the  articles  Simon  B.  SiiEfAp, 
Pii.Mtlsi:i;s,  and  S.\i)i)iCKE8. 

l!nn.ioiiiiAi'nY  :  Jiwplius,  Ant.  xlv.  12-15;  Idem,  li.  J.  i  i; 
Kwald,  (iixch.  il.  Vnlkm  iKmcl,  v,  :iS8-^i92;  (iriltz.  (iencli.  <l. 
Jiiileii,  'M  I'll.,  II.  lIKHi:  :  HIt/lK.  fIcKih.  ,1.  Viilhi.i  Ixmrl.  II. 
47'>-lss ;  IH'r('iilM)ur)r,  Kssai.  pp.  ft.'>-lici:  IliimburirtT,  /i.  it.  T. 
■M  eil.,  II.  Vlt\^»  :  .sclmtvr,  (IfM-h.  I.21»-£.1i;  Wi-llliaiwii.  I.J. 
(I.  pp.  an-aill;  StJuU",  d'cw/i.  i(.  Viillic»  Imirl.  II.  4(«Mn7; 
WIese.  In  i/crHicN.  pp.  21(i*-(  seq,  ( whose  clironnlu»fy  liiu*  Ix-cn 
followed).    Upon  colas  of  Alexander,  sw?  Schiirer,  t.t\  p.  227. 

L.  G. 

ALEXANDER,  LIONEL  LINDO  :    Political 

and  eoiMiiiunal  worker;  Imrii  in  l.oniloM  .May  14,  1852; 
diedJaii.  it),  UHll.  He  was  educalcd  at  the"St.  .Mary- 
lebone's  and  City  of  London  schools.  For  nine  years 
(1884-92)  he  hllcd  the  position  of  hononuy  secretary 
to  the  Jewish  Board  of  Guardians  of  London.  He 
was  a  member  of  several  political  as.sociations  and 
was  active  in  organizing  political  campaigns  in  the 
metropolitan  constituencies.  He  was  president  of  the 
Jewish  Workinginen's  Club  and  Lads'  Institute, 
vice-president  of  the  Home  and  Hospital  for  Jewish 
Incurables,  vice-president  of  Jews'  College,  having 
acted  on  its  council  since  1877;  on  committees  of 
Jews'  Infant  School  (1876),  Stepney  Jewish  Schools 
(1876),  Jews'  Hospital  and  Orphan  Asylum  (1875), 
Jewish  Board  of  Guardians  (187(1).  -Mexander  was 
considered  an  authority  on  economic  and  sociological 
ciuestions,  and  gave  evidence  before  the  House  of 
Lords'  and  House  of  Commons'  select  committees 
on  the  "  Sweating  System  "  and  on  "  Emigration  and 
Immigration."  He  coni]iiled  ".lewish  Pojiulation 
Statistics."  and  as  honorary  secretary  for  several 
years  wrote  the  annual  reports  of  the  Jewish  Board 
of  Guardians.  G.   L. 

ALEXANDER  LYSIMACHTJSi  known  also  by 
his  iir:eiiiii]iiTi  of  Alexanderaloin';  Josephus,"  Ant." 
xviii.  6,  5=  ;i);  Alabarch ;  brother  of  the  philosopher 
Philo,  and  father  of  Julius  Alexander  and  Tiberius 
Julius  Alexander.  He  held  office  under  the  em- 
perors Tiberius  and  Claudius.  He  was  imprisoned 
by  Caligula,  but  was  released  and  restored  to  ofTice  by 
Claudius,  for  whose  mother,  Antoni.\,  he  had  tilled 
the  post  of  procurator.  In  Soferim,  i.  U,  where  the 
e<litions  read  DTnjDS^X  b^  imiD  C  the  Law  of  Alex- 
ander"), a  manuscript  reads  D""n3D3?K-  Graetz 
("Jew.  Quart.  Kcv."  ii.  102)  believes  that  reference 
is  made  to  gilded  letters  in  a  scroll  of  the  Law, 
belonging  to  the  alabarch  Alexander  Lysimaehus. 
This,  however,  is  <iuite  impossible,  as  Alexander 
Jann.aus  is  meant.  Alexander  Lysimaehus  once  re- 
fused Herod  Agrippa  I.  (who  was  always  in  finan- 
cial straits)  a  loan,  but  accorded  it  to  .Vgrippa's  wife 
Cypros.  The  gat<s  of  the  Sanctuary  were  decorated 
by  him  in  gold  and  silver(Josephus,  "  B.  J."  v.  5,  §  3). 
See  Ai,.\i!.\i{Cii. 
HiBLioc.K.ii'iiv  :  .loscphus.  Ant.  xlx.  5,  8  1 ;  x.\.  ri,  S  2. 

S.    Kit. 

ALEXANDER,  MAXTRICE  ALEXANDER : 

An  Australian  ]>oliii(iaii ;  burn  in  l,i'i)doii.  Nov.  30, 
1820;  died  in  Sydney,  N.  S.  \V.,  January  27,  1874, 
He  arrived  in  Sydney  in  1834,  and  from  the  year 
1863  represented  Goulburn  in  the  New  South  Wales 
House  of  As.sembly.  He  acquired  a  very  consider- 
able fortune  by  careful  investment  in  real  estate. 
At  his  death,  his  widow,  among  other  beneficent 
acts,  founded  a  scholarship  in  the  L^niversity  of  Syd- 
ney, and  dedicated  it  to  his  memory. 
Bibliography  ;  Heaton,  Auntralian  Dictionary nf  Dntat,  s.v. 

G,   L. 


355 


TIIK  JEWISH   E^■CVC'LUPED1A 


Alexander  Jannaeus 
Alexander  of  Miletus 


ALEXANDER,      MICHAEL     SOLOMON : 

i''irst  AiiLiliraii  liisli(i|i  (if  .liriisiliin  :  Imrn  nf  .liu  isli 
|i;in'iils  ill  Sclii'mlaiiU<',  ill  llir  uraiiil  ciiicliv  ol'  I'nsi'ii, 
.May.  17!l!t;  ilifil  at  IJcllicis,  E^'vpt.  Nii\ t-mlii-r  2;J, 
is-t-j.  Jlis  Iraiiiinj,'  was  striflly  nrlliddiix,  ami  at 
the  age  of  sixteen  lie  lieeanie  a  teacher  of  the  Tal- 
mud ami  of  the  CJertiiaii  language.  In  1820  he  re- 
moved to  England  and  lived  as  a  private  tutor  in 
various  eountry  towns,  niarryiiig.  in  isil,  a  Mi.ss 
Levy,  of  I'lyiiKiuth.  His  study  of  the  Xew  Testa- 
iiiciit  and  the  I'lophets,  and  tlie  suggestions  of  sev- 
eral Christian  eli'tgyiiieli  wJKini  he  met,  resulted  in 
his  conversion  to  ('hrislianil  v  and  his  liaptism,  .Iiiiic 
Sa.lSi.'i.at  SI.  .Viidrew'sChu'reli,  Plyiiioutli,  in  which 
town  he  had  been  officiating  as  lia/.an  to  the  llelirew 
congregation.  His  wife  followed  his  example  .six 
numths  later,  and  was  baptized  in  Exeter.  Soon 
afterward.  Alexander  removed  to  Dulilin.  where  he 
hecame  a  teacher  of  Hebrew,  was  ordained  by  the 
archbishop  of  the  diocese,  and  appointed  lo  a  small 
<lmrge  ill  that  city.  .luiie  1(1.  IS'JT.  He  then  became 
interested  in  the  work  of  the  London  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christ ianity  anioiig  the  Jews,  and  sub- 
sei[uently  ])roceeded  to  Danzig,  establishing  head- 
ipiarlers  there,  whence  he  mulerlook  to  evangelize 
the  Jews  of  West  Prussia  and  Po.seii.  In  May.  1830, 
he  returned  to  England,  where  for  nearly  twelve 
years  he  acted  as  home  missionary  of  the  society. 
Ill  1832  Alexandi'r  was  appointed  ]irofessor  of  lle- 
lirew and  rabbinical  literature  in  King's  College, 
London,  which  position  he  retained  till  November. 
1841.  His  inaugural  address  was  upon  the  value 
of  rabbinical  literature.  He  was  associated  with  Dr. 
Alexander  .\IcCaul  in  the  translation  into  Hebrew  of 
the  revised  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
also  took  a  prominent  ])art  in  the  translation  of  the 
Anglican  liturgy  into  the  same  language.  In  1811 
Profes.sor  AlexandiT  was  ordained  at  Lambeth  Palace 
as  bishop  of  llie  United  Church  of  England  and  lie- 
land  at  Jerusalem,  that  he  might  ameliorate  the  con- 
dition of  the  Christians  in  the  Holy  Land.  Into  his 
charge  was  given  the  superiiilen(len<<'  of  the  Eng- 
lish clergy  and  congregations  in  Syria.  Clialdea, 
Egypt,  and  .\byssinia.  He  was  the  first  to  heap- 
pointed  to  this  position,  one  which  hail  been  estab- 
lished by  an  arrangement  between  the  German. 
Lutheran,  anil  .\iigliean  churches,  and  which  caused 
no  little  embarrassment  to  the  High-ehiireh  party  of 
the  English  Church,  who  would  not  recognize  Lu- 
theran orders.  His  iippoiiitmeiit  indeed  provoked 
much  opposition  from  entirely  opposite  (luarters. 
but  especially  from  the  Catholic  communion:  and 
it  was  the  lirst  inciting  cause  of  Xewman's  seces- 
sion to  Home.  The  bishop's  progress  to  Jerusjilem 
was  conducted  w  illi  much  pomp  and  ceremony,  and 
he  overcame  the  ditllcultics  of  his  position  with 
iiiucli  discretion  ami  prudence.  After  nearly  four 
years'  stay  at  Jerusjdem.  during  wliich  he  mad(' 
partial  tours  of  his  extensive  diocese.  Alexander 
found  it  exi)e<lient.  in  November.  1845.  to  pay  a 
visit  to  England.  This  he  arrangeil  to  do  bv  way 
of  Cairo,  but  mar  nilbeis.  within  a  few  hours  jour- 
liev  of  Cairo,  he  expired  of  heart  disease. 

1  lepublishid" The  Hopi- of  Israel, "a  lecture.  1831: 
"The'  (Jlory  of  Mount  Zion."  1W3!I:  "The  Flower 
Kadeth";  "  Memoir  of  Sanili  Alexamler,"  1841. 

lliiii.iixiKAPiiv:  DMIiiniiniKf  yiiliminl  n(<>(;r(iii/M/. »■  v.;  Dole 
Iliil,  tit-Ki-h.  tirr  KrauiirUfichfn  Jutlt'nintjwtttn^  tl.  44— III; 
lileiii.  .Mirhiut Siiliiiiiiiii  AlrxaiuUr.ikr  Krulc  Keaiiurliwlie 
Btwhn/  in  JcniiMi/r mi,  1WI7, 

O.  L. 

ALEXANDER  OF  MILETUS  (called  Poly- 
histor  on  account  of  tin-  niiniliei  of  his  writings 
oil  gcogmphy,   history,  grummiir,  natural  science, 


rhetoric,  and  philosophy).  Flourished  between  105 
and  40  n.c.  !!<■  was  the  author  of  a  book  entitled 
nt/i'i  'loiAifuK  c'l'iHin  the  Jews").  This  work,  of 
which  only  a  few  fragments  have  been  preserved, 
quoted  in  the  works  of  Eusebius  and  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  consisted  evidently  of  excerpts  from 
various  Jewish,  Samaritan,  and  heathen  authors, 
touching  tlie  earlier  history  of  the  ,Tews,  strung  to- 
gethcT  w  itii  a  jiretense  of  chronological  order.  Al- 
though these  excerpts  reveal  their  author  as  noth- 
ing but  a  compiler  without  taste  or  judgment,  and 
bereft  of  all  literary  ability,  they  possess,  even  in 
their  meagerness,  a  certain  value.  In  his  compila- 
tion heathen  and  Jew  are  cited  indiseriniinately  side 
by  side;  and  to  Alexander,  therefore,  the  world  is 
indebted  for  information  on  the  oldest  Jewish,  Hel- 
lenic, and  Samaritan  elaboration  of  Biblical  history 
in  prose  or  poetry.  The  epit'  poet  Philo,  the  tragic 
writer  Ezekiel,  the  historian  Eupolemus,  the  chron- 
icler Demetrius  (the  so-called  Artapanus),  the  histo- 
rian .Vristeas,  and  the  Samaritan  Theodotus,  as  well 
as  an  unnamed  fi'llow  countryman  of  the  latter  often 
confused  with  Eupolemus,  the  rhetorician  Molon  (an 
anti-Jewish  writer)  —  all  of  these  authors  are  known 
to  posterity  only  tlirough  extracts  from  their  works 
which  Alexander  embodied  verbatim  in  his.  Of  some 
interest  for  the  ancient  history  of  the  Jews  is  his 
account  of  Assyria-Babylonia,  f  reiiuently  drawn  upon 
by  Jewish  and  Christian  authors;  in  it  extracts  are 
given,  especially  from  Berosus,  and  also  from  the 
"Chronicles  of  Apollodoros"  and  the  "Third  Book 
of  the  Sibyllines,"  Joseplius  made  use  of  the  work 
(see  Freudenthal,  "Alexander  Polyhistor,"  p.  2.")), 
and  likewise  Eusebius  in  his  "  Chronicles,"  Probably 
only  Alexanders  account  of  the  Flooil  is  taken  from 
Berosus,  who  is  contirmed  by  the  newest  Assyrian 
discoveries,  while  his  account  of  the  Confusion  of 
Tongues  is  probably  of  Jew  ish-IIilleiiic  origin.  An- 
other work  of  his  seems  to  have  contained  con- 
siderable information  concerning  the  Jews.  What 
Eusebius  <iuotes("Pr!eparatio  Evangeliea."  ix.  20.  3) 
would  seem  to  have  been  taken  from  this  work,  which 
is  no  longer  extant,  except  indirectly  through  Jose- 
plius. It  may  be  noted  that  Alexander  twice  men- 
tions the  Bible,  which,  however,  he  knew  only  su- 
]ierticially,  asap|iears  from  hiscuriousstatemenl  that 
the  Law  of  the  Jews  was  given  to  them  by  a  woman 
named  .Moso,  and  that  Judea  reeeiveil  its  name  from 
Jiidah  and  Iduniea,  children  of  Semiramis.  In  his 
above  ineiitioned  work,  specilically  devoted  to  the 
Jews(ll(/)i  'loi'Aifur),  he  furnishes  several  useful  notes 
touching  .Jewish  history;  and  its  metluKl,  or  rather 
want  of  method,  arises  entirely  from  Alexander's 
lack  of  literary  jinlgineiit  in  coniiiiling  liaphazard 
from  both  heathen  ami  Jewish  .sources. 

The  text  of  llie  fragments  preserved  is  in  very 
unsatisfactory  shapi',  owing  to  insullicieiit  collation 
of  the  manuscript.s.  How  much  of  his  originals 
Alexander  himself  omitted  isdilliciilt  to  stiy.  in  view 
of  the  corru|)t  stale  of  the  text  of  Eusebius,  whi'ie 
most  of  his  fmgmentsare  to  be  found.  Abydeiius — 
till'  Christian  editor  of  Alexander's  works — evidently 
had  a  ilitTennt  text  before  him  from  tliat  which 
Eusebius  pos,ses.scd. 

Text  of  the  fragments  flf/ii  'Imi'njue  is  lo  Iw 
found  in  Eusebius,  "  Pneparalio  Evangeliea,"  ix.  17; 
Cleinens  .Mexandriiius.  "Stromalii,"  i.  21,  130,  and 
Mllller,  '■  Kragmenta  Historii'oruiii  Oneconini,"  iii. 
211-230;  prose  extracts,  from  a  new  collalion  of  the 
manuscripts,  in  Freudenthal,  "Alexander  Polvhis- 
lor,"  pp.  211l-'23fi. 

Ilini.iniinAriir  :  Frnuilontlml,  Alfjramlrr  PiilM/iinfor.  IlrpslRU, 
iif;r>l  llrllciiifltvlir  Stiiilirn.  I.nnil  ».\:Vn«\T.\ritiin  Sehrltli 
AUxamlcr   I'MuhiMur t   In   /'hi('>l<>i;ii/i.   xllil.   .UIK>31.    I(>. 


Alexander  ben  Mordecai 
Alexander,  Tiberius  Julius 


THK  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


356 


xlvll.  ITT-lSt;  SiisiMiillil,  ffV»f/i.(/('rOr((c/i(j<c/icn  Liliralur, 
II.  ;^3l^-;)^^»:  schunT,  (;.«/i.:i<i  wl.,  ni.  ;UtH)4'.i.  An  Enifiish 
translation  ut  tlm  IniKimiils  Is  to  !*■  found  In  Con's  Ancient 
Froitim-nts,  London.  IHTti;  a  Krt'nrh  tninslatioii  In  ItiMimrb, 
Tertm  d'A ii/cuiv (jrcc.i it  llomains  Hclatlfii au  Jmlaixmi, 
im\  pp.  iViJiH. 

r..  0. 

ALEXANDER  (SENDER)  BEN  MORDE- 
CAI :  As,sociute  nibhi  of  I'nigue  iii  llif  secmid  half 
of  till"  sevcMitccnth  century.  His  work,  "Slicl.iilot 
It  Bedikot."  in  llobrcw  and  Juda'o-German  (Ami- 
stcrdain,  IGGT),  deals,  as  its  title  iniiilics.  with  the 
precepts  on  the  slaughteriugof  cattle  and  inspection 
of  the  inner  organs. 
mBi,io<:R.4i'nv  :  Stelnsclmclder,  Cat.  Bodl.  col.  4397. 

L.   G. 

ALEXANDER  BEN  MOSES  ETHAUSEN. 

See  Eth  \isi;n.  AlkxanhivK  i;kn  Mosks, 

ALEXANDER,  SAMTJEL  :  .Metaphysician  and 
psvehologisl ;  burn  in  Sydney.  New  South  Wales, 
.lu'ly  (1.  18')!).  lie  was  educated  at  Wesley  College, 
>[eibourne,  after  which  he  attended  the  .Alclbourne 
University,  where  lie  made  an  e.xeellcnt  academic 
record,  and  in  1877  gained  a  Balliol  scholarship 
for  classics,  two  years  later  achieving  the  distinction 
of  a  "double  first."  In  1H81  he  took  a  tirst-class  in 
the  final  school  of  classical  honors  and  became  a  fel- 
low in  Lincoln  College,  O.xford.  Subse(|Uently  he 
became  tutor  at  Lincoln  Colleg<'.  but  resigned  in  1890 
to  study  experimental  psychology  tuider  Miinster- 
bcrg  in  Freil)urg.  In  July,  18!)3.  he  was  apjiointed 
to  the  chair  of  logic  and  iiliilo.sophy  at  Owen's  Col- 
lege, Manchester,  and  in  1890  became  one  of  the  ex- 
aminers in  philosophy  at  London  I'niversity.  Alex- 
ander's attainments  as  a  philosopher  form  a  worthy 
sequel  to  his  distinguishecl  university  career.  He 
is  at  once  metaphysician  and  ]isychologist.  and  has 
assimilated  both  the  English  and  the  (Jerman  meth- 
ods. His  book,  "Moral  Order  and  Progress."  1889, 
is  a  distinct  contribution  to  ethics;  in  it  Professor 
Alexander  makes  an  attempt  to  combine  evolutional 
with  Hegelian  ethics.  He  has  also  written  several 
articles  of  importance  for  "Mind." 
BiBLiouRAPiiv:  Jc  If.  C/iron.  July,  1893;  Jew.  Tear  Bmk.lfSS. 

G.  L. 

ALEXANDER  SEVERTTS :  Ucmian  emperor 
from  2'-2'2  to  '2'S'>:  was  cspcciallv  friendly  to  both 
Jewsand  Christians.  It  was  on  tiiisaecount,  and  not 
because  of  his  Syrian  descent,  that  the  mocking  in- 
habitants of  Antioch  and  Alexandria,  while  celebra- 
ting their  festivals,  called  him  a  Syrian  synagogue- 
overseer  and  a  high  jiriest  iSi/nim  dir/iisi/ndrfor/iDii  et 
crrliiertim;  see  ^Elius  Lampridius  in  Ids  biography 
of  Alexander  Severus,  chap,  xxviii.).  It  seems  that 
the  emperor  was  accustomed  to  announce  in  advance 
the  names  of  those  whom  he  wovdii  appoint  to  im- 
portant positions  of  state,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
.lews  an<l  Christians  used  to  call  out  in  their  syna- 
.gogues  and  churches  the  names  of  their  candidates 
for  public  office  {ibid.  chap.  xlv.). 

Either  from  Jews  or  Christians  he  had  learned  the 
golden  rule,  "Do  unto  others  as  thou  wouldst  Iiave 
them  do  imto  thee"  (Hillel,  Shab.  ;il(/)  ;  and  he 
adojjted  it  as  his  motto,  inculcating  it  upon  liis  sub- 
jects whenever  they  were  about  to  infiict  a  wrong 
on  any  one  {ibid.  .Elius  Lampridius.  li.).    He  caused 

this  maxim  to  be  inscribed  also  upon 

HisLiberal  his   pidaco  and    upon    public    I)uild- 

Attitude.     ings  (ibid.).      In   his    jirivate    chapel 

{lai-ariiim),  where  he  was  accustomed 
to  pray  every  morning,  he  had,  besides  the  images 
of  Apollonius,  Orpheus,  and  Jesus,  also  an  effigy  of 
Abraham  (iWd.  chap.  xxix.).    The  reign  of  Alexander 


Severus  was,  iniU'cd,  a  ha|)py  period  for  the  Jews 
as  well  as  for  the  whole  Hoinan  empire.  He  con- 
tinued all  former  privileges  of  the  Jews  (.hidiFia 
pririlet/iii  niierriirit.  ibid.  chap.  xxii.).  The  verse  in 
Dan.  xi.  34.  "Now  when  they  shall  fall,  lliey  shall 
be  holpeu  with  a  little  help,"  was  interpreted  by  the 
Jews,  sfiys  Jerome,  as  referring  to  Severus  and  An- 
toninus {J)i'  Srtro  el  Aiitonino),  "whom  the  Jews 
loved  very  much."  Griltz,  in  his  "Gesch.  d.  Juden."  ■ 
4th  ed.,  iv.  453,  exjilains  the  words  of  Jerome  as 
referring  to  one  emiieror  only,  Alexander  Sev<>rus, 
whom  he  identifies  with  the  Antoninus  of  whose 
friendly  attitude  toward  Judaism  and  of  his  frieud- 
.ship  for  Judah  the  Patriarch  the  Talmudic  sources 
frequently  speak.  Jerome  refers  very  ])robably  to 
Alexander  Severus  and  to  Antoninus  Pius,  whom  lie 
mentions  after  Alexander  because  he  treats  history 
rctrogressively. 

Alexander  Severus  is  mentioned  also  in  the  Talmud 
and  .Midrash.  Imt  in  the  confused  manner  not  un- 
common in  these  authorities.  A  certain  Justina, 
daughter  of  "Severus,  son  of  Antoninus."  is  said 
to  have  told  "IJabbi"  that  she  was  married  at  an 
extraordinarily  early  age  (Niddali,  i-iii).  "Severus, 
the  son  of  Antoninus."  Ijccame,  according  to  the  Tal- 
niudCAb.  Zanili,  Wn),  emperor  during 
In  the  Tal-  the  life  of  his  father,  and  through  the 
mud.  elTorts  of  the  latter.  At  this  time 
.\ntoninus  jiromised  "  Habbi "  that 
Tiberias  should  be  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  colony. 
Since  Severus  appears  in  these  passages  to  have  been 
friendly  toward  the  Jews,  it  is  rather  surprising  that 
the  selection  of  his  reign  as  an  era  to  count  from  wiis 
looked  upon  as  a  punishment  on  Israel  (Midrash  Shir 
ha  Shirim  Zutta.  ed.  Bnber,  i.  C.  Berlin.  1894;  also 
"Jew.  tjnart.  I{ev."  vi.  68.")).  He  is  mentioned  in 
this  account  :is  having  reigned  eighteen  years,  al- 
tlKJUgh  he  actually  reigned  only  thirteen.  ( lllier  jias- 
sages  in  the  rabliiuical  writings,  in  which  DTl'IDX  is 
mentioned,  refer  perhaps  to  ^'KU^s. 

The  ambitious  mother  of  .Vlexander  Severus,  Mam- 
ma'a,  seems  also  to  have  found  a  |ilace  in  rabbinical 
literature.  A  passage  in  the  Hebrew  Apoealyp.se  of 
Elijah  (published  by  .M.  Iiuttenwicser.  Leipsic,  1897, 
and  previously  in  Jellinek's  "Bet  liaMiilrash."  iii. 
05-G8),  wherein  a  Uomaii  emperor  is  called,  in  veiled 
words,  the  son  of  a  slave  named  Gigit,  appears  to 
refer  to  Mamm.ea,  whose  name  may  be  construed  to 
mean  a  "  i)ipe  "  or  "  tube."  Mammtea,  who,  while  in 
Antioch,  was  wont  to  discuss  religious  matters  with 
Origen  (Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Konian  Em- 
pire." cliai>.  xvi.),  ])robably  took  an  interest  in  Jewish 
matters  also,  and  in  this  way  became  known  to  the 
Jews.  A  sj'Dagogue  in  Home  was  called  the  Syna- 
gogue of  Severus  (D1T1DNT,  also 
The  Severus  DITIDT  XnL"''J3).  It  was  so  called 
Synagogue,  either  out  of  gratitude  to  Severus,  or 
because  a  scroll  of  the  Law,  presented 
by  Alexander  Severus  to  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem, 
was  preserved  here.  Variants  of  this  scroll  from  the 
^lasoretic  text  are  contained  in  "  Bereshit  Habbati " 
(see  A.  E|)stein,  in  "  Monalsschrift,"  188.").  ]ip.  'A'il  it 
neq.  ;  "Recueil  desTravaux  Rediges  en  I'Homieur  de 
D.  Chwolson,"  pp.  i^ctucq..  Berlin,  1809).  Although 
it  is  proved  beyond  a  doubt  that  Alexander  Severus 
was  favorabi  v  inclined  toward  the  Jews,  nevertheless 
the  opinion  o"f  Griltz  (4th  ed.,  iv.  224).  that  the  Tal- 
mudic tradition  which  describes  "Rabbi"  and  "An- 
toninus" as  on  terms  of  intimate  friendship  refers 
to  Alexander  Severus  (in  which  case  "  Rabbi  "  would 
mean  Judah  II. ),  is  open  to  serious  doubt.  For  in  the 
first  place  it  is  historically  certain  that  Alexander 
Severus  refused  to  bear  the  name  of  Antoninus; 
secondly,    the    Talmudic    passiiges    quoted    above 


357 


THE  .lEWISlI   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander  ben  Mordecai 
Alexander,  Tiberius  Julius 


(lislinpuish  between  Sevenis.  son  of  Antoninus,  and 
Antoninus  liiTnself;  ixml  tliiidly.  Christians  were  just 
as  much  favored  by  Alexander  as  Jews;  lie  was 
tolerant  toward  all.     See  Antoninus.  S.  Kh. 

ALEXANDER     (SENDER)     SHOR.      See 

Slllll!,     .\|,I,\AM1|:|C. 

ALEXANDER  SUSLIN  HA-KOHEN  OF 
FRANKFORT:  One  ot  Ihc  mo-t  iuipoiiaiit  'I'al 
rniidisis  ot  his  tiin<';  llourished  in  I  he  lirsl  lialf  of  tlie 
fourteenlh  eentiiry.  He  was  rablii  lirst  in  C'oloKne 
and  Worms,  and  then  moved  to  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  where  he  died  some  time  l)e fore  KMi).  Alexander 
was  the  autlior  of  the  l)Ool<  "  Ai^iiddali  "  (Colleetion), 
the  eontents  of  whieh  justif)'  its  title. 

"Agud-  In  eoncise  fashion  it  enumerates  the 
dah."  most  important  K'.i;al  deeisions,  based 
on  Talmudie  law,  made  by  preeedinjr 
ralibinieal  autlii>rilies.  lis  |)urpos<'  is  to  render  sueli 
(le(isi<ins  accessible  for  guidance  in  tlieir  jiraclical 
application.  A  comparison  of  I  lie  "  Aguddali  "  witli 
.lacob  b.  Ashers  "Tur,"  written  at  the  same  time  in 
Spain,  reveals  the  deticieneies  of  the  German  Jews  of 
that  day  in  matters  of  method  and  systematization. 
While  Jacob  b.  A.sher,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he 
partially  di.scards  Maimoiddes'  order  and  melliod. 
exliibiled  in  his"Yad  ha-Ilazakah,"  jiresents  a  eom- 
paralively  concise  com  petidimn  of  \hi- iliiiim  (laws)  in 
use.  the  "  AiTuddali  "  sIkjws  a  cnnirli>meralion  of  legal 
cnactmentsand  personal  comments  on  the  Talnuid — 
in  which  much  foreign  matter  is  interspersed — so 
that  it  would  have  jiroved  actually  worthless  for 
the  practical  ))urposc  for  wliich  it  was  intended. 
Among  the  (lerman  Jews,  however,  the  "  Aguddah  " 
rec<'ived  a  cordial  welcome,  while  Seiihanlic  Jews 
have  almost  absolutely  ignored  it.  Such  authorities 
of  Ilie  beginning  of  the  lifleenth  cenlury  as  Jacob 
Mi'illn  (.Maiiarili  and  .Jacob  Weil  consider  Suslin's 
judgments  to  be  decisive.  Its  reputation  is  also 
shown  by  the  fact  that  extracts  from  the  same  were 
made  a  luuidred  years  later  (Hanau,  1610),  under 
llic  tilleof  ••  Hiddiishe  Aguddah"  (Novclhv  from  the 
■■  .\giiddah  "),  comprising  a  selection  from  Alex- 
ander's own  explanations  in  the  "  Aguddah.''  Char- 
acterislic  of  the  author,  his  work,  and  the  period  in 
which  he  livcil  is  hisilecision — upon  Hul.  i.  ;W — that 

the  D3n  Toiri  ("  pupil  of  the  wise  ")  <if  the  present 
ihiy  can  not  ilaim  the  rights  and  ]>rivileges  of  the 
class  thus  named  in  the  Tahnud,  bccau.se  nowadays 
I  here  is  no  longer  any  true /'//»'('</  hnknm.  Alexander 
evidently  acknowledged  by  this  the  decadence  of 
Talmmlical  learning  in  his  time  and  was  conscious 
of  his  own  infiriority. 

BiiiMOdiuriiv  :  M.  Unrovltz,  Frnnhfurler  Rahhiucn,  1.  0-11  : 
.Mliliuct,  iir  hii-lliiiiuiiii.  No.  47B. 

L.  G. 

ALEXANDER  StJSSKIND  BEN  MOSES  OF 
GRODNO:  .\  :^iv:it  calp:ili-l  ..I  the  ci-liiciiitli  cin- 
tiiry:  diid  at  (iroilrn),  Lithuania,  in  17U4.  lie  wrote 
■' '\'esod  we  Sliori^^h  ha'.Miodali  "  (The  E.s.senre  ami 
l{<iot  <d' Worship),  Novydvor.  lTN',>,a  work  frccpntilly 
icpublishcd.  It  contains  direclions  for  \hf  right  use 
and  compiihension  of  tin'  ritual,  the  daily  pniyers, 
and  those  fi>r  thi'  Sabbath  and  holy  days;  also  di- 
vers e.xegclical  articles  on  Hashi's  commentary  on 
the  Prophets  and  llairiognipha,  and  articles  on  the 
Holy  Land  and  thcTi-mplc.  Alexander  left  also  an 
ethical  will  to  his  sons,  which  contains  admoiulions 
regarding  divine  service.  This  work  was  published 
in  Grodno  in  1T!I4. 

Ilini.io(Uuriiv:  Frloli'iiiteln,  7r<i(li(i<ir(m,pp.(K,it;i;  Fiiriiri, 
Knimrl  risnul.  I.  ;ii:|. 

J.  L.  S. 


ALEXANDER  SUSSKIND  BEN  MOSES 
KANTSHIGER:  Ihlilical  schohir  nf  tlic  eight- 
eenth iiiilury.  He  was  the  author  of  "!Mi/ia-fet 
IJad"  (The  Linen  .Miter),  Zolkiev,  1747,  a  series  of 
di.s.sertations  on  the  arrangement  of  the  Pentateuch, 
divided  according  to  the  weekly  sections.  He  should 
not  be  confotuided  with  Alexander  Si'isskind  ben 
Moses  of  Grodno.  Fi'irst  and  Hen  Jacob,  in  tlieir  bib- 
liographical works,  have  Closes  as  the  j)atronyniic  of 
the  author  of  "Mi/.nefet  Bad." 

liuiLloGRAPHY  :  Zcdner,  Cat.  Hchr.  BouHs  Brit.  Mxig.  p.  :!9. 

J.  I..  S. 

ALEXANDER  SUSSKIND  BEN  SAMUEL 
ZAN'WIL  :  .V  grammarian  and  eabalist;  born  at 
Met/  aliiiut  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In 
1717-lS  he  published  at  Ki'illien  (.\nhalt.  Germany  )a 
work  on  Hebrew  granunai',  entitlcil  "Derek  ha  Ko- 
desh  "(The  Sacred  Way);  appeniled  to  it  is  a  Jncheo- 
(Jermancssav  on  the  Hebrew  accents.  In  manuscript 
Xo.  90  of  the  Ley  den  colleetion  three  works  are  found 
of  an  Alexander  ben  Samuel,  whom  Steinschneidcr 
identities  with  this  Alexander  Si'isskind.  They  are: 
(I)  "Yediat  Elohim "'  (Knowledge  of  God),  on  the 
existence  of  God,  immortality,  etc. ;  (2)  "  Meleket  ha 
Mibta."  a  work  on  Hebrew  grammar;  (3)  "Zori  ha 
Yehudim."  or  "Theriaca  Judaiia."  a  Hebrew  trans- 
lation of  a  German  weak  by  S(j|omon  L'fTenhausen. 
In  17">s  he  lived  at  Leyden.  where  he  wrote  for 
Prof.  Philip  Pnseal  a  treatise  on  the  Cabala  under  the 
title  ■' Heshil  Hokmah  "  (The  Heginning  of  Wisdom), 
which  is  still  extant  in  inauuscript  at  Frankfort on- 
the-Oder. 

BinLioriRAPnv  :  KQrst,  BiW.  Jud.  111.  398;  Wolf.  liihl.  Hebr. 
lit.  Hi);  Miclmel,  Or  )i(i-Hn)H/im,  No.  4T8;  Stclnschnelder. 
LciidcH  Catahiiiuc,  pp.  Wh,  :jtiti. 

J.  L.  S. 

ALEXANDER,  TIBERIUS  JULIUS  :  Roman 

general  ot  the  tirst  century,  sc^n  of  the  alaliareh  W 
exander,  who  gave  him  the  name  of  Tiberius,  prob- 
abl}'  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberius;  but  he  him- 
self assumed  the  name  of  Julius  out  of  compliment 
to  the  reigning  family  of  the  Julii.  Alexander,  who 
was  a  nephew  or  cousin  of  Philo.  forsook  the  faith 
of  his  ancestors  and  ro.se  to  high  nink.  In  the  year  46 
he  was  appointed  by  Claudius  procurator  of  Judea 
(Josephu.s,  "  .\nt."  x.\.  .I,  ^'2;  /(/( ///,  "  15.  J."  ii.  11,  sj"). 
Neroafterwai<l  mailehima  Homan  knight, and, in  the 
war  against  the  Parthians,  assigned  him  to  the  post 
of  civil  governor  by  the  side  of  the  military  otBcial, 
the  general  CorbuIo(Tacilus,  "  Annales,"  xv,  28),  Hi! 
received  from  Nero  the  imporlant  |)ost  of  prefect  of 
Egyiit ;  and  .\grippa  hasleiiecl  from  Jerusalem  — 
where  the  rebellion  liad  just  brokin  out  —  to  Alex- 
andria, in  order  to  congi-atulale  Alexander. 

Till'  appointment  (if  this  apostate  from  Judaism 
to  this  exalted  jiosition  was  destined  to  be  fatal  to 
the  Jews  of  .\lexandria;  for  when  lliey  begjin  their 
struggle  with  the  .Mexandrians  in  order  to  maintain 
their  rights,  Alexander  ordered  out  (he  Homan  le 
gions, and  they  devaslaled  the  Delta,  the  (|uarter  in 
habited  bv  the  Jews,  and  slew  about  fifty  thousand 
of  them  (•■■It.  J."  ii.  IS.  t;j;  7,  8>.  In  the  contest  bi- 
twein  Vespasian  and  Vitellius  for  the  position  of  em 
peror,  Alexander,  on  receipt  of  ii  letter  from  Vespa- 
sian, canseil  (July  1.  (Ill)  the  F.gypliaii  troops  tosweiir 
IhiMuitJiof  allegiance  lo  the  lalier("ll.  J."  iv.  10,  g  (5; 
Tacitus,"  Hist."  ii.  70:  iSueloniiis,  "  Vespasian,"  vi.). 
This  was  probably  done  at  the  insligalion  of  Her- 
enice.  who  was  a  relative  of  .Alexander.  As  a  re- 
ward for  this  service  the  latter  was  ap)ioinled  to 
accompany  Titus  in  tlw  Jewish  war  as  ]>rirf,i-t>i» 
liniloiiii — "general  of  the  army  "  ("  H.  J."  v.  I.  !^  0), 
probably  the  highest  military  ollice  lo  which  a  Jew 


Alexander  Zabinas 
Alexandra 


TIIK  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


358 


I'viT  uttiiinofl.  In  tlir  roiinril  of  war  Ijcforc  JcTiisa- 
Iciii  Alcxaiuler  V(iti<l  lor  the  picscrvatinii  nf  tliv  Tem- 
ple (UeiiiiT,  "Coiiscil  lie  Giuire  Tiuu  par  Titus."  in 
'•  MOnioircs  de  llnstitut,"  lH(i7,  xxvi.  294;  Griltz, 
"Gescli.  (1.  Jiukn,"  4lli  td.,  iii.  531). 

In  lS-i»  an  inscription  was  found  in  Amdus.  in 
wliicli  tlu,'  council  and  the  people  of  Aradus  pay 
lioinaL'c  .simultaneously  to  Pliny  the  Eldcrand  to  Al- 
exaniler  ("Corpus  Inscriplioiium  Gnecarum."  iii. 
l-'T^i.  Xo.  -I."):!!!  1 1  >!<■(/.).  The  diirnities  of  Alexander 
are  stated  in  lliis  inscription  as  follows:  aiTfmr/m-of 
(this  apiiellation  is  found  here  only,  and  is  e(|\ii  valent 
to  vice-i)rocurator;  see  Mommseii  in  "llcrnics."  xix. 
64(1):  eparch  of  the  Jewish  host :  governor  of  Syria; 
eparch  of  the  twenty-second  lejrion  in  p]>ry])t.  The 
stone  bearin<r  this  inscription  was  brought  to  Paris 
in  lS64(Keuau,  "Mission  en  Phenicie,"  1SG4.  p.  29). 

BinLiOGRAPIIY:  Sohiirer,  fhsch.  Oct  JIM.  VdIHcs,  I.  473,  .534. 

S.    Kli. 

ALEXANDER  ZABINAS  :  King  of  Syria. 
lO-t-122  B.C.  He  was  the  young  son  of  a  merchant, 
but  he  allowed  hini.self  to  be  proclaimed  by  the 
Egyptian  king  Ptolemy  Physcon  as  an  adopted  son 
of  King  Antiochus  VII.,  Sideles.  of  Syria,  and  be- 
came the  ruler  of  the  country.  In  the  active  polit- 
ical intrigues  of  the  time.  Alexander  foimd  it  to  his 
advantage  to  secun'  the  interest  of  the  Jewish  king 
Ily  nanus;  and.  in  compensation,  he  rendered  various 
services  to  the  state  of  Judea. 

BniLiocRAPriY  :  Sehilrer,  GtKch.  2(1  ed.,  1. 13:),  209 ;  Kiitin,  J?ii- 
t7"(7(/e  zur  (rcsrh.  dfr  Sclcithi(lc7i.  pp.  it  ft  xeii. ;  Bttltflon,  liinn 
(tc  Sjtrie,  p.  H>J;  Graetz,  Hi)^tu7-y  of  the  Jcics  ii.  tJ,  T. 

II.  B. 

ALEXANDER  THE  ZEALOT :    One  of  the 

chiefs  of  the  poiilie.'U  paity  of  Zealots  about  the  year 
50  of  the  common  era.  Led  bj-  him  and  his  colleague 
Eleazar,  an  armed  body  of  Jews  fell  upon  the  city  of 
Samaria.  ))itilessly  massacring  old  men,  women,  and 
children  of  the  Samaritans,  and  burning  their  vil- 
lages. The  motive  for  this  sanguinary  deed  was  re- 
venge for  the  murder,  in  the  Samaritan  village  of 
Gema  (Gina'a ).  of  a  number  of  Galilean  Jews  who  were 
on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jcrusjilcm.  The  Koman  governor 
Cumanus  inunediately  went  in  pursuit  of  the  Zeal- 
ots :  but  Alexander  seems  to  have  escaped  unharmed, 
while  many  of  his  followers  were  cither  slain  or  car- 
ried to  Pome.     See  also  Ci:m.\nus,  Fklix,  Ze.\i.ots. 

Bini,iO(iR.\P!!Y :  .losephiis.  Ant.  xx.  6,  8S  1-3;  idem,  B.  J.  ii. 
12.  §8  3-7;  Si'hiirer,  Gcsch.  i.  476;  Gratz,  (Jcsch.  d.  Judrn, 
2d  ed.,  11.  333. 

L.   G. 

ALEXANDERSOHN,  JONATHAN :  Ger- 
man rabbi;  linrn  al  (iriitz,  in  Posen.  about  the  be- 
gitming  of  the  nineteenth  century;  died  at  Altofen 
(Old  Ij'uda),  Hungary,  Nov.  24,  1869.  About  IWiO 
he  was  rabbi  in  Schwerin-on-thc-'Warthe,  whence  he 
removed  to  Hungary.  Here  Gcitz  Kohn.  rabbi  of 
Baja  and  a  native  of  Schwcrin.  recommemled  him  to 
the  congregation  of  Csaba,  in  the  county  of  Borsod. 
whicli  elected  liim  nibbi  in  1833.  His  violent  tem- 
per soon  made  him  many  enemies.  He  pronounced 
a  decree  of  divorce  whicli  brought  upon  liini  tlic  en- 
mity of  the  rablii  of  Szanto,  Eleazar  Li)w,  whose 
contention  was  that  no  divorce  had  ever  been  pro- 
nounced in  Cssiba,  because  of  the  uncertainty  of  the 
Hebrew  transliteration  of  the  name.  an<l  therefore  it 
was  not  lawful  to  grant  a  divorce  in  Ibis  place  (see 
DrvOKCE).  Alexandersohn's  enemies  were  encour- 
aged by  this  contention  to  bring  charges  against 
him.  and  prevailed  upon  Low  to  try  him  for  heresy 
and  for  violations  of  the  dietary  and  ritual  laws. 
He  was  accused  of  disbelieving  in  a  hereafter;  of 


saying  that  lie  would  take  a  lenient  view  in  all  legal 
(piestions;  of  sleejiing  liarelieaded  ;  of  walking  four 
cubits  from  his  bi-d  without  washing  his  hands;  and 
of  other  violations  of  Jewish  rites.  In  1835  a  court, 
compo.sed  of  three  rabbis,  declared  liim  unworthy  of 
the  rabbinical  oHice. 

.Moses  Sofer.  chief  rabbi  of  Presburg,  and  Jloses 
Teilclbaum,  rabbi  of  I'jhely,  the  leader  of  the  I.Iasi 
dim  in  Hungary,  conlirmed  this  deei.sion.  Alexan- 
dersohn  appealed  to  the  civil  courts  in  vain;  but 
Solomon  Koscnthal.a  prominent  member  of  the  con- 
gregation in  Budaiiest,  and  his  old  friend  Giilz 
Kohn  of  Schwerin.  took  up  his  case,  and  appointed 
a  committee  of  tive  rabbis  to  consider  it.  The  com- 
mittee cleared  him  of  all  charges,  and  ordered  the 
congregation  to  jiay  him  8()()  llorins  damages.  Alex- 
andersohn  would  not  acci'pt  this  indemnity,  Imt 
demanded  to  be  reinstated  in  hisolVxr.  He  brought 
other  lawsuits  against  the  congiegalion.  and  trav- 
eled through  Germany,  B<'lgium.  Prance.  Englanil, 
and  Italy  in  order  to  interest  olh<'r  rabbis  an<l  lay- 
men in  his  behalf.  Among  those  who  defended 
him  was  Zacharias  Frankel.  then  rabbi  of  Dresden, 
who  addressed  a  letter  to  JIos<'S  Sofer.  urging  the 
latter  to  rescind  his  decision.  All  these  elforts  were 
unsuccessful,  and  in  l^^Ki  Alexandersohn  published, 
in  German  and  Hebrew,  the  docnmenis  relating  to 
his  ease.  He  was  linally  reduced  to  beggary  and 
thrown  on  public  charity  for  his  sujiporl.  living  the 
life  of  a  tramp.  He  died  in  the  Jewish  hosjiitiil  of 
Altofen,  Nov.  24,  1869. 

nnii.ioiiRAPHV:  .T.  Alexandersnlin,  f",hri)ircllini!i  U)id  n\il 
D'lhumcntc  ficstHtztc  Wijierletfunft.  etr.,  Des-stiu.  1S4)(  (the 
Het)ri'W  part  nf  this  work,  with  the  tlile  t3j  i:i.i,  ,f„<, 
printed  in  licrllii  In  \>nr,):  Jiwi.  AuikiIiii.  lS4n,  No.  0  rl 
scq.:  L.  Miiiiz.  lifif'l'i  [''.hdzftv  iitnaiiut  Schfttifn  IinUrac)i, 
pp.  131  (■(  s,q..  1  r.-vis.  is'.ri;  s.  Kohn.  In  MayiiarZsiM  Szcmh, 
is'js,  pp.  ;5ii;^;£.'."i.  and  is:!".!,  pp.  i7-3;i. 

D. 

ALEXANDERSON  (BEN  ALEXANDER), 
DANIEL:  Theological  writer  of  the  .sevenleenth 
century.  He  embraced  the  Christian  faith  at  Uouen 
(  France)  on  April  21.  1621.  and  wrote  in  Syriac  (rab- 
binic?) an  ojien  letter,  setting  forth  the  reason  of  his 
abandoning  Judaism  anil  calling  upon  his  formerco- 
religionists  to  do  likewise.  The  letter  was  translated 
into  several  European  languages  and  went  through 
two  English  editions  (London,  1G88  and  1703). 

BIHMOORAPHY  :  Wolf,  BilA.  llehr.  ii.  1003 ;  Stelnschnelder,  Cat. 
Biidl.  col.  731. 

M.   B. 

ALEXANDRA:  Daughter  of  King  Aristobuhis 
II.  ;  brought  to  Kome  with  her  parents  and  brothers 
as  ])risoners  of  war  by  Pom]iey  in  the  year  63  n.c. 
She  was  liberated  by  the  senate  in  the  year  56  n.c., 
it  lieing  held  sutticient  to  detain  Aristobuhis  only. 
Upon  the  death  of  her  father,  who  was  poisoned  by 
the  partizans  of  Pompey  in  the  year  49  n.c,  she 
found  refuge  with  her  mother;ind  herl)rother  Antig- 
onus  at  Ihe  court  of  Ptolemy,  prince  of  Chalcis.  She 
married  Pliilippion,  Ptolemy's  son.  Unfortunately 
her  father-in-law  was  entranced  by  her  beauty,  and. 
having  secured  the  death  of  his  son,  espoused  his 
widow. 

BiBLTOC.RAPHY  :  Josephus,  Ant.  xlv.  4,  §  5 ;  6,  S 1 ;  7,  §  4  ;  (iriitz, 
Ucsch.d.Juden.  II.  149. 

L.  G. 

ALEXANDRA :  Daughter  of  Ilyrcanus  IL, 
and  wife  of  Alexander,  son  of  Aristobuhis  II.  She 
was  one  of  the  strongest  and  shrewdest  supporters 
of  the  Ilasmoneans  at  the  court  of  Herod.  When 
Ilyrcanus  was  humiliated  by  Herod,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  latter's  entry  into  Jerusalem.  Alexandra  sought 
to  stay  the  destruction   of  her  father's  house   by 


359 


THE  ,Ii:\VISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexander  Zablnaa 
Alexandra 


Ijitriitliiiij;  licr  ilaiiijliter  Mariaiiuic  to  the  Iilunican 
CDiKHU'ior.  And  when  Ilcrod.  as  kin^'  (if  .IikImi, 
uppoiiiti'd  ti)  the  liiirh  pricslhodd  the  iiliscurc  Haiia- 
iicl.  she  protested  publicly  against  this  injustice,  and 
claimed  the  jxist  for  her  young  son  Aristobulus. 
rpon  the  advice  of  Delius.  the  friend  of  Antony,  wlio 
had  assured  her  that  nothing  woidd  he  refused  to 
the  mother  of  two  such  pretty  childien,  Ale.\an<lra 
even  sent  tlie  iiictiires  of  Aristobulus  and  -Mariamne 
to  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  begging  them  loaid  her 
in  obtaining  lier  rights. 

Ilerod  must  have  realized  tliat  he  had  committed 
a  grave  error:  for,  upon  learning  of  the  step  Alex- 
andra had  taken,  lie  installed  the  sixteen-year-old 
Ari:',lol)ulus  in  the  Iiighpriesthood  (n.c.  3o),  staling 
that  his  reason  for  not  having  done  so  in  the  first 
])lace  was  till'  extreme  youlli  of  his  brother-in  law. 
But  he  jiublicly  chargc'd  Alexandra  with  eonspi|-acv 
against  him:  and  it  wa.s  only  llinmijh  her  consum- 
mate liypocrisy  that  she  exiricati'd  herself  from  the 
inculpation.  When  the  unfortunate  MarianuK'  was 
condemned  to  deatli,  Alexandra  again  escaped  her 
doom  liy  puljlicly  denouncing  her  own  daughter  as 
a  proud  and  vile  woman  and  an  enemy  of  Ilerod. 
This  action,  however,  seems  to  have  displeased  all 
who  witnessed  the  scene. 

In  the  end,  Alexandra  shared  the  fate  of  her  two 
children.  Ilerod.  after  the  execution  of  Mariamne, 
whom  lie  had  dearly  loved,  became  addicted  to  tits 
of  fury  and  was  attacked  by  a  dangerous  malady. 
Alexandra  thought  this  an  opportune  moment  for 
the  usurpation  of  power,  and  attenqited  to  iiersuade 
the  authorities  of  .lerusulem  to  surrender  to  her  and 
III  her  sons  the  citadel  and  the  Temple,  lest  at  Herod's 
death  they  should  fall  into  the  hands  of  some  other 
ruler.  Her  words  were  reported  to  Ilerod,  and  he 
decreed  her  execution  (li.c.  'i)*). 

BliiLioiiRAPIIV:  Josepluis.  .Int.  xv.  2.  8  ft;  Idem.  I}.  J.  1. 1.">,  B3; 
SeliiiriT,  (Irxrii.  I.  .M).  :tl7 :  (Jrillz.  (Jefcli.  dtr  Juilrn.  111.  liis. 
1711 :  IM'  Siiuli-y,  liixtuirc  d'Hirutlc,  1807 ;  F.  W.  Fiirrar,  The 
Hcrinlg,  IsllS. 

AV.   M. 

ALEXANDRA  (Aramaic  form  of  Alexander) : 
Palesliniaii  haggadist  of  the  fourth  century,  contem- 
porary of  U.  Levi.  Commentiii!;  on  Cant.  iii.  1,  H. 
Levi  observes:  "The  congregation  of  Israel  says  to 
the  Holy  One — blessed  be  He! — 'Lord  of  the  Uni- 
verse I  In  the  past  Thou  wert  wont  to  gi-ant  me  in- 
tervals of  light  bel  Weill  nights:  thus  there  was  such 
an  interval  between  the  night  I  had  s]>ent  in  Egypt 
anil  the  night  I  spent  in  Babylon,  between  that  niglit 
and  the  one  of  .Media  |  prrscculion  of  Hainan  |,  and 
between  the  Median  and  the  (iieeiau  liighls.  and  be- 
tween the  Grecian  and  the  Komaii  nights:  but  in 
these  presi'iit  times — naiiglil  but  nights!'"  There- 
upon |{.  Alexandra  says,  "  Yea,  because  I  am  asleep, 
neglect  fill  of  the  study  of  Thy  Law  and  the  observ- 
ance of  Thy  commandmenis,  nights  follow  niglils" 
(Cant.  H.  to  l.r.).  It  is  chronologically  |)iissible  that 
this  l{.  Alexandra  is  identical  with  l{.  Alexandra  of 
Zadokii,  of  whom  I{.  Zeira  L  soiighl  legal  advice 
(Ver.  Dim.  ii.  'i'ii-):  they  stand,  however,  too  isolated 
to  allow  of  idenlitiealion  with  each  oilier  or  with 
Alexandri.  As  lo  the  name  Alexandni,  an  Aramaic 
form  of  Alexander,  the  Midrashim  inform  us  that  in 
those  days  Jews  used  lo  adopt  the  name  Alexandra 
as  an  ei|uiviilent  of  Henjamin  (Cant.  H.  to  iv.  VI,  for 
which  Lev,  U.  xxxii.  reails  Alexandri).  .S.  y\. 

ALEXANDRA  (SALOME  face,  to  Eusebius 
l'i>iiiij.  full.leui>li  iiaiiii' Shalom  Zion):  The  only 
.hwish  i|Ueeii  regnant  with  the  exception  of  the 
usurper  .\tlialiali :  born  K!it  ii.i  . :  died  I'lT  ii.r. :  slie 
Was  the  wife  of   Aristobulus  L,  and  afterward  of 


Alexander  Jannteus.*  The  statement,  made  by  Jo- 
sephus  ("  Ant."  xiii.  11.  t;^  1,  2),  that  during  the  reign 
of  Aristobulus  she  brought  about  the  death  of  the 
young  prince  Antigouus  I.,  because  she  saw  in  him 
a  rival  of  her  husband,  lacks  confirmation.  On  Aris- 
tobulus' death  (103  n.c),  she  lifjerated  his  brother 
Alexander  Janna-us,  who  had  been  held  in  prison. 
During  the  reign  of  Alexander,  who  married  her 
shortly  after  his  accession.  Alexandra  seemed  to 
have  wielded  only  slight  political  influence,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  king  to  the 
Pharisees.  The  freiiuent  visits  of  the  chief  of  the 
Pharisaic  party.  Simon  ben  .Shetah,  who  was  said  to 
be  the  queen's  brother,  to  the  palace,  must  have  oc- 
curred in  the  early  years  of  Alexander's  reign,  before 
he  had  openly  broken  with  the  Pharisees.  Alex- 
andra iloes  not  seem  to  have  been  able  to  prevent  the 


Copper  Coin  of  ,\Ie.\an(lrn  Siiluiiie. 

(Afur  M»d,ii'n,  "  Uistorr  of  Jtwi-.h  Coinacr."} 

cruel  persecution  of  that  sect  by  her  lord :  neverlhe- 
less  the  married  life  of  the  royal  pair  seems  to  have 
been  a  happy  one.  and  on  his  deathbed  Alexander 
entrusted  the  government,  not  to  his  sons,  but  to 
his  wife. 

This  last  political  act  of  the  king  was  his  wisest: 
for  the  queen  fully  justified  tlie  confidence  reposed 
in  her.  She  succeeded  especially  in  quieting  the 
vexatious  infernal  dissensions  of  the  kingdom  that 
existed  at  the  time  of  Ah-xander's  death:  and  she 
did  this  peacefully  and  without  detriment  to  the  po- 
litical relations  of  the  Jewish  state  to  the  ouLside 
world.  Alexandra  received  the  reins  of  government 
(TO  or  "I'l  B.C.)  at  the  camp  before 
Her  Hagaba.  and  concealed  the  king'sdeath 

Political      until  llie  fortress  had  fallen,  in  order 

Ability.  that  the  rigor  of  the  siege  might  be 
maintained.  Her  next  care  was  to 
open  negotialions  with  the  leaders  of  the  Pharisees, 
whose  placesof  concealment  she  knew:  and.  having 
been  given  assurances  as  to  her  future  policy,  they  de- 
clared Ihemselves  ready  to  give  Alexander's  remains 
the  obsequies  due  to  a  monarch.  Hy  Ibis  step  she  as- 
tutely avoided  any  public  afTront  to  the  dead  king, 
which,  owing  lo  the  embitlerinent  of  the  people, 
would  certainly  have  found  expression  at  the  iiiter- 
nienl.  and  niighl  have  been  alleuded  with  danger- 
ous results  to  the  Hasmonean  dynasty. 

Tile  queen's  acces.sion  brouirht  fn-edoin  to  hun- 
dreds whom  .MexandiT  had  sent  to  languish  in  dun- 
geons, and   liberly   to   return   home   to   thonsands 

'Tliat  Alpxnndm.  the  wliliiw  of  Arliil<ibiilii<i  I.,  wax  lili>n(i<-nl 
with  her  \vhi>  iiiiirrliKl  his  hnithiT  .Alexaiiiler  Jiiniiti'iiK,  U 
iinwht'n*  i'\|i|li-ltlr  >iMitil  liy  JuM-pIiiii*.  wlio  im  iloiilii  timk  II  for 
frninttil  Unit  thi'liiUiT  iHTf'iniiiil  ilie  li'vlmt**  iiiiirrlHirt'  prt*- 
mtIIm-iI  tiv  llir  liov  fur  Uir  H idinv  nt  »  1  hitilli-is  liniihiTili'<-i'n.'<«il. 

Jiw'iilius'  *\nw nl    C'.Mit."  .XV.  II,  iM.  ilnil  ll\niiiiii.>>.  Juii- 

iiii'iiH*  I'titi-st  Mill.  wiiM  I'lirlity  yi'iirs  util  when  hi'  wilh  |miI  to 
ilriith  liv  lienHl.  In  :tl  li.e.,  inii.it  U' iTpiniiMiH.  fur  thut  wmilil 
si't  the  vi'iiruf  hli  lilrth  lui  III  li.e..  iiml  Juiiiiii'ii!i  hliii.'u'tf  wilh 
l»ini  In  li'i,  w>  Hull  hi'  iimlil  hiive  Ui'ii  hut  riumii'ii  whi'ii  llyr- 
1111111.4  Willi  Imni  In  hliii.  11  Is  ilinii'iili  lo  iiniliTsliinil  tiow  > 
thlru-en-year-olil  boy  uiurrltKl  a  widow  of  ttilny. 


Alexandra 
Alexandria,  Eg^ypt 


TlIK  JEWISH   KNCVCLOPEDIA 


360 


whom  the  same  cruel  monarch  had  driven  into  exile. 

The  Pharisees,  who  had  sulTered  such  misery  under 

Alexander,  now  lieeanie  not  only  a  tol- 

Reestab-     erated  section  of  the  communiiy,  but 

lishment  of  actually  the  ruling;  class.     Alexandra 

the  San-      installed  as  high  priest  her  eldest  son. 

hedrin.  Ilyreanus  II. — a  man  wholly  after  the 
heart  of  the  Pharisees — and  the  San- 
hedrin  was  reorganized  according  to  their  wishes. 
This  body  had  hitherto  been,  as  it  were,  a  "house  of 
lords."  the  members  of  which  belonged  to  tlie  aris- 
tocnicy ;  but  it  lost  all  significance  when  a  powerful 
monarch  wasat  the  helm.  From  this  time  it  became 
a  "supreme  court"  for  the  administration  of  justice 
and  religious  matters,  tlie  guidance  of  whieh  was 
rightfully  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Pharisees, 
Thus,  the  reign  of  Alexandra  marks  a  most  im- 
jiorlant  epoch  in  the  history  of  Jewish  internal 
government. 

That  the  Pharisees,  now  that  the  control  of  affairs 
was  in  their  liauds,  did  not  treat  the  Sadducees  any 
too  gently  is  very  probable;  although  the  execution 
of  Diogenes,  by  wliose  advice  King  Alexander  had 
800  Pharisees  nailed  on  the  cross,  sjieaks  nitlier  for 
their  moderation  than  for  their  cruelty,  inasmuch  as 
the  special  reference  to  the  execution  of  this  rep- 
robate shows  that  such  acts  of  revenge  must  have 
been  few.  It  was  rather  the  evil  conscience  of  the 
Sadducees  that  moved  them  to  petition  tlie  queen 
for  protection  against  the  ruling  parly.  Alexandra, 
who  desired  to  avoid  all  parly  conflict,  removed  the 
Sadducees  from  Jerusalem,  assigning  certain  fortified 
towns  for  tlieir  residence.  Here,  again,  her  shrewd- 
ness was  displayed  in  so  arranging  that  Ihe  impor- 
tant fortresses  of  Ilyrcania.Alexandrion.and  Machic- 
rus  were  not  entrusted  to  their  somewhat  uncertain 
keeping.  Alexandra's  sjigacity  and  tact  succeeded 
in  accomplishing  what  all  the  military  genius  of 
her  husband  had  failed  to  effect;  namely,  to  make 
Judea  respected  abroad.  She  increased  the  size  of 
the  army,  and  carefully  provisioned  tlu'  numerous 
fortified  places;  so  that  neighboring 
Her  Inter-  monarehs  were  duly  impressed  by  the 

nal  and     number  of  jirotected  towns  and  castles 

External  which  boriiered  the  Palestinian  fron- 
Policy.  tier.  Xor  did  she  abstain  from  actual 
warfare;  for  she  sent  her  son  Arislo- 
bulus  with  an  army  to  raise  the  siege  of  Damascus, 
then  beleaguered  by  Ptolemy  ]Meuneus.  The  expe- 
dition was  without,  result.  The  peril  threatening 
Judea  in  the  year  70  n.c,  from  the  Armenian  king 
Tigranes,  in  whose  hands  Syria  then  lay.  fortunately 
passed  over,  as  Alexandra's  shrewd  politics  kept  him 
away  from  Palestine.  Onl}-  the  last  days  of  her  reign 
were  tumultuous.  Her  son  Arislobulus  endeavored 
to  seize  the;  government;  and  only  her  death  saved 
her  from  the  sorrow  of  being  dethroned  bv  her  own 
child. 

Rabbinical  legend  still  further  magnifies  the  pros- 
lieritv  which  Judea  enjoved  under  Alexandra.  The 
Haggadah  (Ta'anit,  23'f;"Sifra,  Hukkat,  i.  110)  re- 
lates that  during  her  rule,  as  a  reward  for  her  piety, 
rain  fell  oidy  onSabbath  (Friday)  nights;  so  that  the 
working  class  suffered  no  loss  of  pay  through  the  rain 
falling  during  their  work-time.  The  fertility  of  the 
soil  was  so  great  that  the  grains  of  wheat  grew  as 
large  as  kidney-beans:  oats  as  large  as  olives;  and 
lentils  as  large  as  gold  denarii.  Tlie  sages  collected 
specimens  of  these  grains  and  preserved  them  to 
sliow  future  generations  the  reward  of  obedience  to 
the  Law.     See  Ph.\kisees,  S.ujducees. 

[The  name  "  Shalom  Zion "'  is  variously  modifled  in  rabbiniral 
liteniture:  see  Kraas.  "Lehnworter."  s.r.:  it  wcure  also  in  in- 
scriptions: see  Lidzbarski,  "  Handbucli  der  Nord-Semitlschen 
Epigrapbik,"  8.i\,  and  art.  Alphabet  in  this  vol.,  p.  443.] 


BIBLIOGRAPIIV :  Josephua,  Aitl.  xlli.  11,  (I  13:  Ifi,  9  18;  idem, 
n.  J.  I.  .'> :  Kwald,  lIMiirii »/  Inracl.  v.  :««-:im  :  (irtu,  rirscli. 
tl.  Jtuletl.  M  <-d..  III.  IDtl.  Ilt-iai;  Hilzlc  llrsrll.d.  Vothfg  («- 
rnfMI.  4SS-1!«J;  SiliQriT,  (rVwd.  I.  ill.  iSt-Ki ;  Dcri'tilimirK. 
Ksstii  tiur  VlIiMoirf  ct  la  (iantraphii'  dr  Pali'stinc^  pp.  UK- 
Ill :  Wellhausen,  /.  J.  (1.  pp.  T.a.  a4i>-a<'>:  MaililiMi,  diiw  i,f 
Ihe  Jcus,  pp.  91,  it.':  Wlllrlch,  Jutlaica:  Fnrsrhinigni  ziir 
lldknmh-judischcn  OeschtcMc  und  LUUralur,  lUOO,  pp. 

"<•'•«•  L.  G. 

ALEXANDRE,  ALBERT  :  Chess  player;  born 
at  llolicnielcl  iin  Ihe  Main.  (Jermany,  about  17()0; 
died  in  London,  Nov.  Iti,  18.'j0.  Jlost  of  his  life  was 
spent  in  Paris,  where  he  was  one  of  the  most  fre- 
(luent  habitues  of  the  Cafe  de  la  Kegeiice;  but  he 
returned  for  a  short  time  to  his  native  country  in 
18413,  and  aflerward  paid  a  visit  to  Egypt.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  Fiench  Chess  School  at  llu'  licight  of  its 
predominance,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  brilliant 
eombinalions  and  his  skill  in  .solving  problems, 
though  not  in  the  foremost  rank  as  a  player.  Me 
I>ublished  (1)  "Encyclopedie  des  fichccs"  (Paris, 
1887)  and  (2)  "Collection  des  Plus  Beaux  Problimes 
d'£checs,"  giving  2,120  examples  (Paris,  1846). 

BmLiOGRAPnv :  Vapcn-aii,  Diet.  I'nirnvcl  (k.i  Cnntempn- 
riiin.i.a.v.    Portrait  In  P<il</»ii'il<' f(ir  ISH.  j 

ALEXANDRE,  EDOXJARD  :  Freni  h  organ 
man\ifarluiiT  and  inventor;  born  in  Paris  December 
4,  1S21;  died.  IWS.  lie  learned  his  trade  in  the  fac- 
tory established  by  his  father,  Jacob  Alexandre,  at 
IvrV  near  Paris,  aiid  in  1844  received  an  interest  in 
the"  business.  Father  and  son  were  the  originators 
of  the  "piano-organ."  the  "piano-Liszt."  and  the 
"organ-melodium."  called  also  "Alexandre  organ." 
In  1856  the  firm  of  Alexandre  was  awarde<l  the 
medal  of  honor  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  for  its  (iopu- 
lar  instruments,  which  had  contributed  much  to  the 
sjiread  of  a  taste  for  mu.sic  throughout  France. 
Edouard  was  created  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  in  1860. 

Bibliography:  Vapereaii,  Diet.  Univcfuel  ile»  ConUmpo- 
rtiins,    S.V.:  Larousjie,  Xoiivron  Divl.  Ulustri:,  s.v.        ^ 

ALEXANDRI  (-DRA,  -DRAY,  -DROS, 
forms  of  ALEXANDER):  There  were  jiidbably 
Iwoamoraim  of  this  name,  unaccompanied  either  by 
patronymic  or  cognomen  ;  and  as  both  were  Palestin- 
ians, atid  both  cultivated  the  field  of  the  Haggadah, 
it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  their  respective  teach- 
ings except  in  a  few  instjiuces. 

1.  Two  Midrashim  preserve  the  following  anec- 
dote: K.  Jaunai  was  expounding  the  Law,  when  a 
trader  was  heard  inviting  the  i)eople  to  buy  an 
elixir  of  life.  'I"he  people  crowdedaboul  thctradi'r, 
and  even  K.  Jannai  was  curious  to  see  such  a  medi- 
cament. The  trader  was  invited  to  approach  the 
rabbi  and  to  exhibit  his  wares;  but  he  told  therabbi 
that  neither  he  nor  the  like  of  him  stood  in  any  need 
of  it.  Importuned,  however,  to  exhibit  the  elixir, 
the  sujiposcd  trader  produced  the  Book  of  P.^alnis, 
and  pointing  toa  passage  therein  (Ps,  xxxiv.  12-14), 
he  read  aloud:  "  Whatman  is  he  that  desire! h  life 
and  loveth  many  days,  that  he  may  see  good'?  Keep 
tliv  tongue  from  evil,  and  thy  lips  from  speaking 
"luile.  Depart  from  evil,  and  do  good ;  seek  peace 
and  pursue  it "  (Lev.  R.  xvi. ;  Tan.,  Jlezora',  ed.  Bu- 
ber,  5).  Elsewhere  ('Ab.  Zarali.  196)  the  same  anec- 
dote is  related,  but  instead  of  R.  Jannai's  name, 
that  of  the  trader  is  given  as  R,  Alexandri,  Putting 
the  several  versions  of  the  anecdote  side  by  side,  it 
is  evident  that  Alexandri  flourished  in  the  first  amo- 
raic generation  (third  century),  contemporaneously 
with  R,  Jannai,  a  junior  contemporary  of  R,  Ju- 
dah  I, 

In  the  name  of  this  R,  Alexandri,  R,  Joshua  b. 


361 


TllK  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexandra 
Alexandria,  E^ypt 


Levi  reports  an  iulerprctation  harmonizing  certain 
sci'iiiiugly  contradictory  paa<yi.i;('s  in  the  Pentateiicli. 
In  one  place  (Dent.  xxv.  I'J)  the  Lord  is  represented 
as  commanding,  "Thou  shalt  blot  out  tlie  remem- 
brance of  Amiilek  "  ;  and  in  another  (Ex.  xvii.  14-16, 
llth.),  as  saying.  "I  will  utterly  put  out  the  remem- 
brance of  Anialek  from  under  heaven.  .  .  .  Yea,  a 
hand  on  the  throne  of  Yah:  the  Lord  will  have  war 
against  Amalck  from  generation  to  gcnenition,"  Hy 
thi-  first,  says  Alcxandri,  we  arc  to  understand  that, 
as  long  as  Anmlok  lays  no  hand  on  (Jod's  Ihnme, 
tliou  must  strive  against  him;  by  the  second,  when 
he  lays  hands  on  God's  throne,  the  Lord  Himself  will 
blot  out  Amalek's  remembrance,  waging  war  against 
him  from  generation  to  generation  (Tan.  Ki  Teze, 
II;  Pesik.  I{.  xii,  51«.  Here  the  name  appears  as 
Alexandros). 

Another  of  H.  Alexandri's  interpretations  reported 
by  the  same  K.  Joshua  suggests  a  Hiblical  support 
for  the  rabbinic  enactment  of  blowing  the  .iltufar 
(trumpet)  during  the  muiiiif  (additional  service)  of 
the  New-year,  and  not  during  the  s/inhnrit  (morn- 
ing service),  by  pointing  out  that  in  his  pniyer  (Ps. 
xvii.  2)  the  Psalmist  sjiid,  "Let  my 
Interpreta-  sentence  come  forth  from  thy  pres- 
tion  of      cnce."  only  after  using  several  terms 

Prayers,  expressive  of  pmycr  and  meditation. 
These  tenns  he  construes  as  follows; 
"Hear  the  right,  ()  Lord,"  represents  the  recital  of 
the  SiiEM.v'  (the  declaration  of  God's  unity);  "At- 
tend to  my  cry,''  the  reading  of  the  Law;  "Give  ear 
to  my  prayer"  refers  to  that  jiart  of  the  service  gen- 
endly  callecl  TKFrr.i,.\ii  (prayer);  "  which  I  offer  with 
unfeigned  lips"  refers  to  the  additional  prayer  (Yen 
1{.  II.  iv.  '}'.>r;  compare  Pesik  U.  xl. ;  Midr.Teh.  on  the 
vivse).  It  is  the  same  K.  Alcxandri  in  whose  name  H. 
lluna  b.  Aha  (Uoba)  reports  this  olwervalion  ;  Come 
and  see  how  great  is  the  influence  of  those  who  per- 
form pious  deeds:  generally  where  the  Hible  uses 
the  term  liishkif  (\o  look  toward  or  down,  as  in  Gen. 
xix.  28,  Ex.  xiv.  24),  a  curse  is  implied,  while  when 
used  in  connection  with  the  discliarge  of  duly,  it 
means  blessing,  as  in  the  pniyer  recited  after  the 
olferingof  litlies(Deut.  xxvi.  12-l."i), which  concludes 
with  the  expression:  "Look  down  from  thy  holy 
habitation,  from  heaven,  and  bless"  (Yer.  Ma'as.  Sh. 
v.  .Iti.where  the  author's  name  is  written  AU'xandra. 
Compare  Tan.  Ki  Tissa,  14;  Ex.  H.  xli;  see  Krankel, 
Jlibo,  04'/;  Wei.ss,  "Dor,"  iii.  5;!). 

2.  In  the  legendary  portrayal  of  K.  llanina 
(Hinena)  b.  Pappa's  lifi'  and  death,  the  following 
incident  is  fold:  H.  H""'""'  '*■  Pappa  was  dead,  and 
people  were  ready  to  pay  him  the  last  honors;  but 
It  pillar  of  tire  suddenly  appeand  andimpe<l<d  their 
approach  to  the  remains.  At  last  I{.  Alcxandri 
came  near,  ami  addres.sing  Ihedecea.sed.  said,  "Order 
the  obstruction  away,  out  of  respect  for  the  a.ssem- 
bled  sages";  but  the  deceased  paid  no  attention  to 
this  demand,  nt^t  even  when  recpiested  to  grant  it 
out  of  respect  for  his  r>wn  father  (whose  memory 
also  would  be  himored  by  revc>renc<>  shown  to  hlnn. 
"Then  do  it  out  of  respect  for  thy.self."  said  1{. 
Alcxandri.  whereupon  the  jiillar  disappeared  ( Ket. 
77/').  This  legend,  evidencing  the  |>opular  esteem 
in  which  Alcxandri  was  held,  is  also  of  chronolog- 
ical interest,  because  of  its  reference  to  Alexandri's 
presence  at  the  funend  of  an  amoni  of  the  third 
generation  (fourth  centuryi.  Elsewhere  (Ned.  41") 
Alcxandri  reports  sayings  of  H.  H'.vyu  b.  Abba.  It 
Is  this  1{.  Alcxandri.  who  reports  some  Haggadot 
anil  Halakot  in  the  naini'  of  Joshua  b.  Levi  (Yonui, 
KV'.  Saidi.  DHdi.  and  it  is  probably  the  same  in  whose 
name  |{.  Aha  HI.  reports  (Tan.  Lek  l^'ka.ed.  llubcr, 
I;  Midr.  Tih.  on  Ps.  t  ii.  W). 


Among  the  numerous  homiletic  observations 
coupled  with  the  name  of  Alcxandri,  which  may  be 
the  production  of  either  of  the  two  personages  dis- 
cussed above,  are  the  following:  The  expres.sion  (Ps. 
X.  1.5),  "Break  thou  the  arm  of  the  wicked,"  is  ap- 
plied to  those  who  monopolize  the  market  and  raise 
the  price  of  breadstuffs  (Meg.  174).  From  tlie  tau- 
tology in  the  verse  (Isa.  xxvii.  .5).  "Let  him  take 

hold  of  my  strength,  that  he  may 
Specimen  of  make  peace  with  me:  peace  may  he 
Haggadah.  make  with   me,"  the  doctrine  is  de- 

<luced,  that,  whosoever  applies  him- 
self to  the  study  of  God's  law — which  is  called  ty 
strength — for  its  own  sake,  effects  peace  in  heaven 
and  peace  on  earth  (Sanh.  994).  The  reason  for  call- 
ing the  same  heavenly  visitors  "  men  "  when  in  Abra- 
ham's company  (Gen.  xviii.  2),  and  "angels"  when 
they  visited  Lot  (Gen.  xix.l),  is  because  with  Abra- 
ham angels'  visits  were  common  occurrences,  there- 
fore the  visitors  were  in  his  eyes  only  men;  while  to 
Lot — "the  common  man  " — they  were  angels  (Tan., 
Waycra.ed.  Buber,20;compare"Gen.R.I.).  The  prov- 
erb (Prov.  xi.  17),  "He  that  is  cruel  troubleth  his 
own  flesh,"  refers  to  him  who  in  hours  of  rejoicing 
neglects  to  invite  his  relatives  because  they  are  poor 
(Lev.  R.  xxxiv.).  David  is  justified  in  applying  to 
himself  the  term  A'M/rf  (pious — Ps.  xvi.  10,  Ix.xxvi.  2) 
because  whosoever  hears  himself  reviled  and  resents 
not,  when  it  is  in  his  power  to  resent,  is  a  partner  of 
God,  who  is  blasphemed  by  idolaters  and  resents 
not;  and  since  David  heard  iiim.self  reviled  when  he 
could  resent,  and  did  not  (II  Sam.  xvi.  .T-l'i).  he  had 
the  right  to  call  himself  hasid  (Midr.  Teh.  Ixxxvi.  1, 
and  xvi.  10).  With  reference  to  the  Psalmist's  say- 
ing (Ps.  li.  17).  "A  broken  and  a  contrite  heart.  "O 
(!od.  thou  wilt  not  despise,"  H.  .\lcxandri  remarks, 
■■  When  a  conuuon  man  uses  a  broken  ves,scl  he  is 
ashamed  of  it,  but  not  so  with  the  Holy  One.  All 
the  instruments  of  His  service  are  broken  vessels." 
"The  Lord  is  nigh  unto  them  that  are  of  a  broken 
heart"  {ibid,  xxxiv.  19);  "He  healcth  the  broken  in 
heart  "(/4(i/.cxlvii.3);  "A  broken  and  a  contrite  heart, 
O  God,  thou  wilt  not  despise"  (P.s.  li.  17);  there- 
fore. Hosca  exhorts  the  Israelites,  saying  (Hosea  xiv. 
1),  "  O  Israel,  return  unto  the  Lord  fhy  God ;  for  thou 
hast  fallen  by  thine  iniquity"  (Pesik.  K.  xxv.  1,584). 
Two  Alexandris,  one  of  whom  is  surnamed  "b. 
Haggai  "  (or  Hadrin)  and  the  other  "  Karobah"  (the 
liturgical  poet),  the  former  n'porting  a  homiletic 
observation  in  the  name  of  the  latter,  are  also  men- 
tioned (Lev.  U.  xix..  Cant.  K.  to  v.  U).  Their  rela- 
tion to  the  two  Alexandris  of  this  article  must  bo 
a  matter  of  conjecture  only.  As  to  the  equivalent 
of  the  name,  see  Ai.kx.knhua. 

nuu.iocut.vPMV  :  l>r.  iJcr. tl..5<i:  (Ijiil. be.  1.1?) :  r<iii.,  ed.Buber, 
Indc-.t;  Midy.  Till.,  eil.  liubtT,  fmti'.\ :  I'mik.  It.  YX<a,  IfiTd, 
\mi.  W-Mi;  I'iMI,.  It..  I'll.  Frlediimnn,  Initex;  liuilicr.  Ay. 
IMI.  .Iiii"r.  1.  IHVLIX. 

S.  M. 

ALEXANDRIA,   Egypt— Ancient :    Historic 

cilv   >itU!iti'd   on    file    Mcdilcrnuiean   sea;    fourteen 
miles  wcsl  of  fill'  (anopic  mouth  of  tlie  Nile. 

The  history  of  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  dates  from 
the  foundation  of  the  city  by  Alexander  the  (trciit. 
:t32  II. c.  at  which  they  were  pre.si'nt  (Jos«-phus, 
"Conlni  Ap."ii.  4;  "Ant."  xix.  5,  «;2).  From  the  very 
beginning  their  numbers  seem  In  have  been  consider- 
iible;  at  all  cvi'nts.  they  formed  n  very  large  portion 
of  the  populiitioii  under  till' successorsof  Alexander. 
.\  sepanite  .«<'tion  of  the  city  was  as-igmd  to  them 
by  the  first  Ptolemies,  so  that  they  might  not  be  hin- 
diTed  in  the  observance  of  their  laws  by  <'onlinunl 
conla<'l  with  the  pagan  population  ("H  J."  ii.  18, 
S  7).     The  site  of  this  ancient  Jcwisli  quarter — Uio 


Alexandria,  E^ypt 
(Ancient; 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


362 


existence  of  which  is  testified  to  also  by  Strabo 
("Ant."  xiv.  7,  5i  2) — can  br  fixed  with  tolemblc  ac- 
curacy ;  for  Apion  derisively  ri-fers  to  tlic  Jews  as  a 
lu'ople  liviiijj  on  u  liarborkss  sliore:  w iieren|)(iii  Jo- 
sephiis  rejoins  that  tills  is  a  very  excellent  silualiou; 
lor,  as  a  eoiise(|iienee,  tliey  resided  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Uoyal  l'alaec("t'(intni  Ap."ii.4).  The  palace  was 
built  nil  the  spit  of  land  called  Lochias,  and  the  harbor 
was  in  proximity  to  it,  west  of  Lochias.  Therefore 
the  Jews  must  have  inhabited  that  |)art  of  the  citj' 
that  extended  eastward  from  the  palace.  Jloreover. 
the  whole  city  was  divided  into  five  districts,  which 
were  named  after  the  first  five  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet.  Of  these  five  districts  two  were  denomi- 
nate<l  Jewish  districts,  because  the  majority  of  their 
inhabitants  were  Jews  (Philo.  "('(intra  Flaeeum." 
t;  M;  ed.  Mangey,  ii.  525).  From  this  quite  a  clear  con- 
ception of  the  strength  of  the  Jewish  population  may 
be  formed. 

Accordinn;  to  Josephus,  the  fourth  or  "delta"  dis- 
trict was  iH)pulaled  by  the  Jews("lJ.  J."il.  18,  S;  8); 
which  fact  warrants  the  inference  that 
The  Jewish  this  isolation  was  already  in  existence 
Q,uarter.  in  the  time  of  Josephus  (compare  also 
"Ap."  ii.  -1).  At  that  time,  however, 
this  isolation  was  not  strictly  enforced  ;  for,  according 
til  Philo,  there  were  many  Jewish  dwellings  scattered 
throughout  the  city.  There  were  even  synagogues 
distributed  all  over  the  city  (Philo,  "  De  Legatlone 
ad  L'ajum."  ^  20;  ed.  JIangey,  ii.  5()5).  As  regards 
numberand  position,  the  Jews  in  Alexandria  enjoyed 
a  greater  degree  of  political  independence  there  tliau 
elsewhere.  While  the  Jewish  inhabitants  of  other 
cities  of  the  Roman  empire,  without  an_v  ])olitical  sep- 
aration, formed  ])rlvate  societies  for  religious  pur- 
poses, or  else  became  a  corporation  of  foreigners  like 
the  Egyptian  and  Phenician  inerchanlsin  the  large 
commercial  centers,  those  of  Alexandria  constituted 
an  independent  iiolltlcal  coinmuiiity,  side  by  side 
with  that  of  the  heathen  population.  Strabo  thus 
describes  their  constltuti(iu("  Ant."  xiv.  7, 5;  2):  "At 
their  head  stands  an  ethnarch,  who  rules  and  judges 
the  people;  and,  like  thearchon  of  an  Independent 
city,  gives  special  attention  to  the  proper  fulfilment 
of  the  duties  and  to  the  compliance  with  the  various 
regulations." 

At  the  time  of  Augustus,  a  f/iriixid  (council  of 
elders)  seems  to  have  stepjied  into  the  place  of  this 
individual  ruler.  It  appears  indeed  from  a  decree 
of  the  emperor  Claudius  that  u]iiiii  the  death  of  the 
Jewish  ethnarch,  during  the  governorship  of  Aquila, 
Augustus  permitted  the ap])ointmeiit  of  an  ethnarch 
("Ant."  xix.  5,  t;  2);  but  Philo  distinctly  states  that 
at  the  time  of  Augustus  the  gerusiaas- 
Govem-  sumed  the  position  of  tlwr/cniirc/i — this 
ment.  is  thi'  word  he  uses  for  <'tlinarch  ("  Con- 
tra Flaccum."  ^  10;  ed.  Mangey,  11.  527 
etneq.).  Since  Philo  mentions  another  governor  than 
the  onercferreil  to  by  Claudius,  it  might  besujiposed 
that  Augustus  ])romulgated  two  dilTerent  decrees 
upon  this  subject,  and  that  during  Aipilla's  tenure  of 
office — the  ethnarch  having  died — the  emperor  con- 
sented to  a  new  election;  but  later,  during  the  tenn 
of  Magnus  Maximus,  theothee  of  ethnarch  again  be- 
coming vacant  through  death,  he  replaced  it  by  the 
gerusla.  But  In  t  his  decree  of  Claudius,  which  gives 
a  retrospect  of  the  constitutional  rights  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Jews,  some  mention  of  such  a  second  decree 
would  have  been  made.  It  is  evident  that  Claudius 
refers  to  an  ordinance  which  was  still  in  force.  Nor 
do  the  different  names  of  the  governors  prove  that 
there  were  different  ordinances. 

Soon  after  the  lieath  of  the  ethnarch,  under  the 
governorship  of  Aquila,  a  change  took  place  in  the 


governors,  and  tlie  decree  of  Claudius  was  sent  to 
Magnus  Maximus,  the  successor  of  A(|uila.  As  this 
occurred  before  his  Installation,  it  must  refer  to  the 
same  decree.  Claudius  intends  only  to  make  It  a|>- 
parent  tliat  Augustus  permitted  the  Jews  to  retain 
their  own  government.  Philo  relates,  more  particu- 
larly, that  the  ethnarch  was  replaced  by  a  gerusla. 
'i'o  the  latter  he  fieiiueutly  alludes  In  another  pas- 
sage of  his  work.  The  gernsia  was  jiresidcd  over 
by  archoiis,  chief  magistrates  (Philo,  "Contra  Flac- 
cum," S  10;  ed.  Mangey,  ii.  528  et  mi}.).  It  num- 
bered, as  in  Jerusjjlcm,  seventy -one  members  (Tosef., 
Silk.  ed.  Zuckermandel.  iv.  198;  Yer.  Suk.  v.  1). 
Josephus,  also,  refers  occasionally  to  the  "chiefs  of 
the  gerusla"  ("15.  J."  vlii.  10,  sj  1). 

In  conseiiuence  of  their  isdiation,  the  Jews  of  Alex- 
andria were  unhampered  in  the  exercise  of  thelrcere- 
monies,  and  were  also  enabled  to  regulate  their  civil 
affairs  indeiiendently.  The  only  restriction  from 
which  they  suffered  was  due  to  official  sui>ervislon 
delegated  to  royal,  and  afterward  toimjierial,  repre- 
.sentatives.  The  Jews  of  Alexandria,  however,  were 
(piite  Independent  of  the  council  and  civil  govern- 
ment of  the  city  jn'oper.  They  formed  a  smaller  po- 
litical cor|)onitlon  by  the  side  of  the  larger  one. 
IMoreover,  t  here  was  no  smh  t  liing  as  a  council  (j3iw?J/) 
(luring  the  first  two  centuries  of  the  Greek  domina- 
tion; this  having  been  abolished  by  the  Ptolemies,  or, 
at  the  very  latest,  by  Augustus,  and  only  revived 
under  Septlmlus  Severus.* 

In  spite  of  the  political  isolation  of  the  Jews  of 
Alexandria  they  did  not  lose  their  franchise  as  citi- 
zens. The  doubts  that  have  been  ex- 
Civil  jjiessed  In  connection  with  Ibis  by  a 

Rights.  few  modern  scholaisare  not  supported 
by  decisive  evidence,  but  are  ba.sed 
ujion  a  general  mistrust  of  Josephus,  whose  testi- 
mony, however,  on  all  material  points,  is  corrobo- 
rated by  Philo  as  well  as  by  the  decree  of  Claudius. 
Jo.sephus  Siiys  ("Ap."ii.  4):  "Alexander  gave  them 
a  place  In  which  to  live,  and  they  also  received  the 
same  rights  as  the  ^lacedonlans  [Greeks],  and  up  to 
the  present  their  race  has  retained  the  appellation 
Macedonians  "  In  another  )dacc  ("  H.  J."ii.  18,  tj  7) 
he  declares;  "Alexander  permitted  them  the  .same 
rights  as  the  Greeks.  This  privilege  they  preserved 
under  the  successors  of  Alexander,  who  permitted 
them  to  call  themselves  Macedonians.  Nay.  w  hen 
the  Romans  took  po.sscsslon  of  Egypt  neither  the 
first  Cu'sar  nor  his  successors  sutTered  the  rights, 
which  had  lieen  liestowed  upon  the  Jews  by  Alex- 
ander, to  be  diminished."  The  decree  by  which  Au- 
gustus confirmed  the  rights  of  the  Jews,  especially 
the  civil  rights  of  tho.se  in  Alexandria,  was  engraved 
upon  a  tablet  of  brass  which  still  existed  at  the 
time  of  .Josephus  ("Ap."  ii.  4;  "Ant."  xiv.  10,  ^  1). 
Philo  also  gives  lu'ominence  to  the  fact  that  the 
Jews  enjoyed  the  civil  rights  of  the  Alexandrians 
(that  is,  of  the  Ah'Xandrian  citizens),  and  not  those 
of  the  Egvptlaus  ("Contra  Flaccum,"  §  10;  ed. 
Mangey,  ii."528). 

In  the  persecutions  that  occurred  during  the  reign 
of  Caligula,  Flaccus,  governor  of  Alexandria,  i.ssued 
an  edict  in  which  he  called  the  Jews  "  aliens  and  resi- 
dents" ("Contra  Flaccum,"  g  8;cd.  Mangey,  ii.  528). 

*Dio  Cassias.  11. 17;  Siwrtianus,  in  his  hinpraptiy  of  Severus. 
oil.  xvll.  Concerning  the  censtitutinii  nf  .\Ie.^andria.  ronipare 
strabo,  xvii.  p.  797:  Kuhn,  "  liie  Sliiiltische  and  Burgerllehe 
Verfassung  des  Runiischen  Reieht'.s,"  Ii.  47ii  ft  scii, ;  Marquardt, 
"  KOmisi.'he  Staatsverwaltung,"  Issl,  |.  4,51  cfscr;. ;  Lumbroso. 
"Rerherches  sur  I'Ei'onomie  Politique  de  I'Egypte  sous  les 
lyBgides."  pp. 212 if  sill.,  Turin,  1K70;  Wilcken,  " observatlones 
ad'Hisliiriarn  .Kgvitti  Provinelie  Roinanje.  pp.  7  ct  ser/.,  Berlin. 
l.s.S.'i:  MiiiniTisen.'  unmisi-be  (ieschinhle."  v.  .'«5-,5.58:  Junt', 
"  Die  U.iiiiisihen  Verw-altungsbeamten  in  Aegyptcn  "  ("  Wiener 
Studlen,"  Lstr.',  xiv.  227-266). 


363 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexandria,  E^ypt 
(Ancient] 


But  ("liuulius,  the  successor  of  Caligula,  soon  after 
liis  accession  took  pains  to  restore  to  them  their  old 
ri-ihts.  In  this  last  decree,  especial  reference  is  made 
In  the  rescripts  and  ordinances  of  the  precediiijc  em- 
prrors,  from  which  it  may  be  seen  that  the  Jews 
had  equal  rights  with  the  other  citizens  of  Alex- 
anilria  ("Ant."  xix.  !i,  j;  2).  Finally,  even  Vespa- 
sian had  occasion  to  interfere  on  belialf  of  the  Jews, 
when  lie  denied  the  jietition  of  the  Alexandrians 
to  deprive  them  of  their  civil  rights  in  the  city 
("Ant."  xii.  3,  g  1).  The  Jews  not  only  enjoyed 
civil  rights  in  Alexandria,  hut  in  public  life  oecu- 
liied  a  more  intluential  position  than  anywhere  else 
in  the  ancient  world.  There  they  did  not  form  the 
lower  classes,  as  in  many  other  towns;  but  by  their 


n/m  was  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Delta  ("  Notitia 
Dignilatum  Orientis."  cluip.  xxv.),  and  a  loviuiuv 
arimrumAii'  on  the  western  side  of  the  Delta  ("Ant." 

xiv.  8.  g  3;  -B.  J."  i.  9,  §  4;  torn- 
Jews  i)arc  Schtlrer,  "Gesch."  3d  ed.,  iii.  9«). 
as  Soldiers.  In  an  inscription  found  al  Athribis  in 

the  southern  |)art  of  the  Delta,  the  tirst 
name  on  the  list  of  those  who  built  the  synagogue  is 
that  of  a  "captain  of  the  police  "  ("Kev.  6t.  Juives," 
xvii.UIJ")).  Ptolemy  VI.,  Phihjmetor,  and  his  consort, 
Cleopatra,  "entrusted  their  whole  kingdom  to  Jews, 
and  the  generals-in-chief  of  the  army  were  the  two 
Jews  Onias  anil  Dositheus("  Contra  Ap."  ii.  5).  An- 
other Cleopatra,  their  daughter,  in  a  war  that  she 
waged  agaiust  her  sou  Ptolemy  Lathy  rus,  also  ap- 


M        A        li        E  I        X        T        E        R        X        U       M 

"■'  il  e  d  i  I  e  r  r  a  n  e  a  n  Sea 


/       i^Si,   •  '•   •^I'ir.itcsj  ;^fS/^^^'''-v'-<'"'^ 

r-- 'kc^  ^"    ^'^- 


ALEXANDRIA 


»C*Le   or  STATUTE    uilH 


ilareotis        L    tt    c    tt    s 

B  i  r  k  e  t       el        Mart  o  u  t 


ilAP  SnowiNO  Plan  ok  trk  A.vcient  Citt-Jkwisu  Qiarter  Shaded. 


richcM  nnrl  education  constituted  a  large  and  influ- 
(•iitial  jiortion  of  society;  possessinir  the  contldence 
of  the  ruling  powers,  they  attained  also  to  p\ililic 
olViiis  anil  postsof  honor.  Tlw  conducl  of  the  Ptol- 
emiis  towaril  them  certainly  varied,  but  that  of  the 
lirsi  niindiers  of  tlial  dynasty  was  uniformly  favor- 
alile  ("Conlra  .\p."  ii.  -i). 

In  eonneelion  with  the  allecri'd  mndeni  disinclina- 
tion of  the  Jews  to  military  service'  in  foreiiin  coun- 
tries, il  is  curious  to  notice  that  Ihey  were  often  em- 
ployed as  .soldiers  in  Egypt,  and  evi'n  attaineil  to 
liiL'h  military  positions  Ploli'iny  1..  Lat'i.  is  said  to 
have  distribnlcd  liD.IMIO  Jewish  soldiers  over  the  land 
lis  L'arrisons  (Pseudo  .\risteas.  ed.  Wendand.  11)00. 
§  Vi).  Jewish  camps  have  been  found  in  severjil 
places  in  E.eypt.  which  were  without  doubt  the 
barnnks  of  those  Jewish  troops;  n\ivhtir(mtraJu(i»>- 


pointed  two  .Tews  as  genends  in  her  army.  TTelkins 
and  .Vnanias,  sonsof  the  hiirh  |iriisl  Onias,  who  built 
the  temple  at  I,eontopolis("  Ant."  \ iii.  10.  .!■  -I :  Ki.g  1  (. 

Under  the  Homans.  riih  Jews  occasionally  held 
the  ollice  of  alabanh.  as  fore\ami>le  .\lexaniler.  the 
brother  of  the  philosopher  Pliilo.  and  later  a  certiiin 
Denu'trius(see  for  .Mexander.  ".\nt."  xviii.O.S-':  S, 
55  1  ;  xix.  f).  Ji  1 ;  XX.  T),  S  2 ;  Demetrius,  i/i.  xx.  7,  Ji  .S). 
This  ofllce  must  not  be  confounded  with  that  of  the 
Jewish  elhnareh  ;  il  was  a  <ivii'  trust. 

Jews  as  and  probably  iileiilieal  with  the  nr^i- 
Public       iKiirh.   the  chii'f   lax  colle<'lor  on    the 

Otficiala.     Arabian  or  eastern  shore  of  the  Nili' 

(Schnrer.  "C.escli."   !t<l   eil..   iii.   K"*   rl 

nfi/.).     Such  an  ollice  could  oidy  bi'  (llletl  by  one  who 

rout  rolled  a  largi'  capital,  but   it  also  iirovided   a 

•source   fnim  which  great  profit  niiglit  be  dniwn. 


Alexandria,  E^ypt 
(Ancient.) 


Till-:  .IKWISIl   KNCYCLOI'KDI.V 


364 


Joscphus'  remark  ("Contra  Ap."  ii.  5,  cud)  tlmt  the 
Hmimn  empemrs  conlimieil  tlic  Jews  of  Alexaiulria 
"ill  the  positions iif  trust  bestowed  u])on  tliein  l)y  the 
former  kings — namely.  '  the  control  of  llie  river  '  " — 
refere  probably  to  the  fre<iuent  employment  of  the 
Jews  as  alabarehs.  By  "control  of  the  river"  must 
be  undcrstooil  the  collection  of  taxes  from  tlic  com- 
merce thereon. 

From  these  facts  it  may  be  concluded  that  tlio 
Ptolemies,  as  well  as  the  l{onian  emperors,  upon  the 
whole,  treated  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  with  consid- 
eration. Of  the  Ptolenncs,  according  to  Joscphus, 
Ptolemy  VII.,  Pliyscon,  formed  the  only  exception 
in  his  hostility  toward  them;  and  his  cou<luct  was 
not  influenced  by  any  dislike  of  the  Jewish  religion, 
but  was  due  lo  their  altitude  in  piirty  politics. 
When  Ptolemy  VII.  strove  to  wn.'st  the  throne  of 
Egypt  from  Cleopatra — the  mother  of  Ptolemy  VI. 
— the  Jews,  led  by  the  general  Ouias,  fought  on  the 
side  of  Cleopatra.  It  is  said  that  Ptolemy  VII..  an- 
gered by  their  opposition,  ordered  tho.se  Jews  that 
remained  in  Alexandria  to  be  put  in  chains  and  cast 
before  elephants.  Contrary  to  expectations,  the  aid- 
mals  turned  >ipou  the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  and  Ptol- 
emy VII.  was  ]iersuaded  liy  one  of  his  concubines 
to  undertake  no  further  repressive'  measures  against 
them  ("Contra  Ap. "  ii.  5).  The  same  story  is  told 
of  Ptolemy  IV.  in  the  third  book  of  JIaccabces, 
which,  liowever,  can  not  be  considered  a  trust- 
worthy source.  Josephus  (I.e.),  as  well  as  the  third 
book  of  the  JIaccabees  (vi.  36),  makes  note  of  a 
thanksgiving  festival,  annually  celebrated  in  Alex- 
andria in  commemoration  of  this  miraculous  preser- 
vation of  the  Jews.  That  the  latter  eii.joyed  perfect 
religious  freedom  under  the  Ptolemies  is  not  gain- 
said. Some  of  their  synagogues  even  seem  to  have 
exercised  the  right  of  asylum  on  an  equality  with 
the  heathen  temples.  There  is  in  the  Egyptian  Mu- 
seum at  Berlin  a  Greek  inscription  of  the  later  Ko- 
man  iieriod  ("Corpus  Inscriptioiuim  Latinarum."  t. 
iii.  supi>lem.  n.  (i.^s;!)  found  in  lower  E.iiypt,  which 
says  that  the  queen  and  the  king  (su|)|)0.sed  by 
Monunsen  to  be  Zenobia  and  Val)allathus)  com- 
manded the  renewal  of  an  old  inscrii)lion,  the  main 
contents  of  which  were  that  King  Ptolemy  Eucr- 
getes  declared  the  synagogue  inviolable — that  is, 
granted  it  the  right  of  an  asylum.  Both  Ptolemy 
III.  and  Ptolemy  VII.,  Physcon,  bore  the  cognomen 
Kuergclcs;  but  a  pronounced  friendly  attitude  to- 
ward the  .Jews  is  to  be  ex])ecte(l  from  the  former 
rathi'r  than  the  latter.  Moreover,  it  is  in  consonance 
with  the  custom  prevalent  during  the  reign  of  Ptol- 
emy VII.,  that  the  queen  should  be  mentioned  to- 
gether with  lumself. 

Ptolemy  VI.  also  permitted  the  building  of  theJew- 

ish  temple  in  Leontopolis.     The  rights  of  the  Jews 

were  not  altered  under  the  Roman  emperors.     The 

persecution  under  Caligula  was  only  a 

Under  the   passing  episode.  TheJews  had  express 

Roman      permission  to  discard  the  iiraetise  of 

Empire,  the  Cresarcan  cult,  which  was  so  con- 
trary to  their  religion.  Xeverthcless, 
repealed  and  sanguinary  conflicts  occurred  ;  but  the 
Roman  emperors.  Cali.gula  excepted,  were  not  re- 
sponsible for  these  unfortunate  events,  which  had 
their  cause  largely  in  the  deep-seated  anti]iathy  to- 
ward each  other  of  the  pagan  and  the  Jewish  pop\i- 
lations.  In  Roman  limes  this  feeling  became  more 
intense,  and  often  culminated  in  bloody  strife.  This 
mutual  aversion  was  due  to  the  religious  peculiarities 
of  Jews  and  Egyptians,  and  was  equally  strong  on 
both  sides.  The  Hame  of  jiopular  passion  burst  forth, 
sometimes  on  one  side  and  sometimes  on  tlie  other. 
These  strained  relations  between  the  two  races  ex- 


isted also  in  other  cities,  especially  where  the  Jews 

enjoyed  civil  or  political  rights.  In  Alexandria,  how- 
ever, the  situation  was  i)arlieularly  dangerous,  be- 
cjiuse  tlu'Jews  formed  a  powerful  clement  in  the  city. 
The  fundamental  causes  of  the  persecutions  under 
Cali.irula  may  be  traced  to  this  circumslanci' ;  though 
the  emperor  himself  contributed  to  it  in  no  small 
degree,  by  demanilingof  the  Jews  that  divine  vener- 
ation which  agreed  with  an  ancient  custom  ]irevail 
ing  .since  the  rule  of  the  Ptolemies,  and  which  the 
heathen  poimlalion  tlurefore  were  (piite  willing  to 
accord  him. 

The  actual  conflict  was  begun  by  the  heathen 
rabble  of  Alexandria:  in  the  refusjd  of  the  Jews  to 
ol)ey  the  imperial  decnc.  they  saw  an  excu.se  for 
opening  up  hostilities  against  them.  The  persecu- 
tion broke  out  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  3s.  at  the 
time  when  the  Jewish  king  .\grippa 

Riot  in  was  on  a  visit  to  Alexandria.  The 
Alexandria,  king  was  first  made  the  subject  of 
ridicule  in  a  pantomime,  in  which  an 
imbecile,  nanie<l  Karabas.  was  arrayed  in  imitation 
royal  insignia,  and  scoflingly  hailed  as  kin.L'.  with 
the  Syrian  title  Miirux  (Lord).  Once  aroused,  the 
popidace  was  not  easily  SiitisHed,  and  ilemaudcd  that 
statues  of  the  emperor  be  erected  in  I  he  syna.irogues. 
Flaccus,  the  Roman  governor,  from  his  knowle(l.geof 
the  emperor's  pecviliarities,  did  not  dare  to  oppose 
them;  he  acceded  toall  the  (hniandsof  the  Jew-bait- 
ers, who  became  more  importunate  with  every  con- 
cession made  by  lh<'  governor.  In  ((uick  succession, 
Flaccus  ordered  th<'  placing  fif  statues  in  the  syna- 
gogues: deprived  the  Jews  of  civil  franchise  by  an 
edict;  and  finally  ]i(rmitte<l  a. general  |ierseculionof 
them.  Tlieenraged  hcatliensnow  fell  ujion  the  Jew- 
ish inhabitants  of  Alexandria:  their  dwellings  and 
.shops  were  |ilundered;  the  Jews  themselves  were 
cruelly  maltreated  and  killed,  and  their  dead  bodies 
mutilated.  Some  were  publicly  burned.  an<l  others 
dragged  alive  through  the  si  reels.  Some  of  the  syna- 
gogues were  destroyi'd.  and  .sonw  dcseeraleil  wilh  an 
image  of  Caligula.  Flaccus  not  only  made  no  a  I  tempt 
to  restrain  the  violence  of  the  mobs,  but  of  his  own 
initiative  instituted  barbarous  re,gulations  against 
the  Jews.  He  caused  Ihirly-eight  members  of  the 
gerusia  to  be  manacled  and  hurried  to  the  theater, 
where,  before  the  eyes  of  their  enemies,  they  were 
publicly  scourged,  some  of  them  to  death. 

The  subsecpient  events,   from  the  autumn  of  38 
fill  the  death  of  Caligula  in  41,  are  not  recorded  in 
(lct;iil.     Flaccus  was  suddenly  recalled  in  the  year 
38,  and  Ijanished  to  the  island  of  Andros,  where  he 
was  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  emperor.     It  is 
highly  improbable,  however,  that  the  condition  of 
the  Jews  underwent  any  favorable  change  during 
the  reign  of  ('ali.gula.     The  commission  that  pro- 
cee<ied  lo  Rome  un<lcr  the  li  ii<lership 
Philo's       of  I  he  philo.sopher  Pliilo  was  treated 
Com-        with  conlemiit    by  the  emperor,  and 
mission  to  seems  to  have  met  with  ulter  failure, 
Rome.       due,  no  doubt,  to  the  simultaneous  ap- 
pearance, before  the  <'mperor,  of  an- 
other dele.ffation  from  Alexandria — headed  by  Apion, 
the  well-known  opponent  of  the  Jews — which  coun- 
teracted theeiKleavors  of  the  Jewish  commi.ssioners. 
It  was  only   upon   the  dealh  fif  Caligula  and  the 
accession  of  C'laudius  that  the  Jews  were  enabled  to 
regain  their  former  rights;  and  this  was  followed  by 
a  considerable  jjcriod  of  cjuiet.* 

*  On  ascending  tlie  tlirone  Claudius  Immediately  restored  all 
rlprhts  to  ttie  Jews  ("Ant."  xix.  .5.  8  2).  and  amone  ttinsp  liher- 
ated  was  the  alatjarch  Alexander,  who  had  tieen  imprisoiH-d  by 
ralieiila  (if).  .5,  8  1).  The  chief  authority  for  the  hisi..ry  of  this 
persecution  are  the  two  works  of  Philo,  "Contra  Flacciini  "  and 


365 


THE  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Alexandria,  Eg^pt 
(Ancient, 


Ni'w   conflicts  arose  under  Nero  and  Vespasian, 
closely  connected  witli  the  frreiit  Jewish  uprisinLc  in 
Palestine.     In  AIe.\au<lria  a  very  serious  slruiri;le 
broke  out,  at  about  the  same  time  as  in  Palestine, 
the  cause  of  which  was  insifrnificant,  but  in  which 
the  Jews  took  such  a  llireateninjr    stand    that   the 
governor,  Tiberius  Alexander,  a  Jew 
Renewed     iiy    birth   aii<l   a  son  of  the  alabarcb 
Perse-         .\lc\aM(icr,  wasoliliired  lo  call  out  the 
cution.        Kiiniun  trooiis  ai^ainsl   tlicin.     Peace 
was   restored   only  after  much  shed- 
(linjr  of  blood  ("15.  J."ii.  IH.  tj  7)."     A  few  years  later. 
after  the  close   of  the  war  in    Palestine,  a  serious 
revolt,  instigated  by  the  Sicarii  in  .Alexandria,  was 
suppressed  by  the  more  considerate  element  of  the 
Jewish  population.    Nevertheless,  the  governor,  Lu- 
pus, thought  it  advisable,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Temi)le  of  Jerusalem,  lo  close  the  one  at  Leontop- 
olis("  B.  J."'  vii.  1(1).     The  great  revolt  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Jews  under  Trajan  (114-117)  was  attcndedby 
enormous  loss  of  life.     At  lirst  the  Jews  had  the  ad- 
vantage over  the  (Irecks.  who  in  a  battle  outside  the 
gates  of  Alexandria  were  beaten  and  compelled  to  re- 
treat into  the  city;  but  here  they  gainecl  the  upper 
Land,  and  massacred  the  Jewish  irdiabitants.* 

Notwithstanding  the  marked  c<intrast  between  the 
views  of  life  held  by  the  Jews  and  the  pagans,  the 
influence  of  llellenisin  did  not  tail  to  impress  a  i)e- 
culiar  stamp  upon  the  intellectual  development  of 
the  Alexandnan  Jews.  Indeed,  the  conuuingling 
of  the  Jewish  religious  teachings  with  the  spirit 
of  Hellenism  nowhere  went  so  far  as  in  that  city; 
llniugh  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  Jews  remained  true, 
ill  all  essentials,  to  the  religion  of  their  furefatliers. 
Of  this  slatemrnt  there  are  many 
Hellenism  mnvincing  eonlirmiilions.  Like  their 
Influences  brethren  in  Palestine,  they  assendjled 
Judaism,  in  the  synagogue  every  i^abbath  to 
hear  the  reading  of  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets,  and  for  tlie  other  religious  services.  Ac- 
cording to  Philo.  there  were  many  synagogues 
(Tpoafi'.i-ai)  scattered  throughout  the  city  of  Alexan- 
dria. One  of  thini  is  menlioned  by  him  as  being  es- 
pecially large  and  magnilicentf  I)e  Legatione  ad  Ca- 
jinn."  ^iOicd.  Mangey.  ii.  508).  Itis,  without  doubt, 
the  same  .synagogue  which  is  described  in  the  rab- 
binical writings  us  being  constructed  in  the  form  of 
a  large  basilica.  It  contjiincd  seventy-one  golden 
<hairs  corresponding  with  the  number  of  the  elders. 
In  the  center  was  a  woinlen  plalfnrm.  upon  which 
stood  the  ha/.an,  who.  at  the  eiinelusidn  of  each 
blessing,  gave  the  signal  with  a  Hag  for  the  congre- 
gation to  respond  with  the  .\men.  The  worshipers 
were  not  indiscriminately  si  iiled.  but  were  separated 
according  to  their  rcspeelive  trades  (Tosef. ,  .Suk.  iv. 


"  De  LoiratlnnP  nd  Cnlnm  "  (compare  ".tnl."  xvtil.  8,  B  I).  The 
nvftitly  lilscnver*'*!  pupyrf  Ihmw  fiirllH-r  llirlil  on  UiI.h  sut)Ji*ct. 
TtH'y  show  litiw  Claudln.M  tiniit.^tiiil  tin-  liistlk'utoi-H  <>r  Ihe  jwrse- 
I'Utlon.  I'hllii  iiioiitlciii.s  Ishliini.s  iiml  I.iiiii|h>ii  ili  thi'  two  worst 
uffltatiini  i"(  "iitni  Klmiiiiii."  SH  4.  t')-17i.     Itoili  were  imliTt'il 

til  Iloini'  Ijy  (  hiuiliu.s;  iiiiil   In  ii  snli'iiiii  roiiiirll n.iistint,'  i>( 

twtiiitv-tlvi'  si'iiutin-s  mill  iilxlii>ii  of  iini.siiliir  nmk.  Ihry  wt-m 
tdiiliuul  riinilriiiiii'il  til  iliMitli.  Thl.i  ii|>|»'iir<i  tPMii  ii  piipyniM 
lf\U  the  fniuiiiflll."!  lit  wllhli  Imvii  Ikiii  ain-fllllv  pilhlLillol  liy 
Til.  ttcliuirh  ("Uev.  f;i.  .lulvi-s."  l.siti.  xxxl.  KIMTS).  Krnm 
■I  (luiiiil  icinark  In  annUiiT  impynis  n'liillnit  I"  f  vciil.s  of  a  iinl>- 
(wquent  p*Tliiil.  It  apin-ars  (hat  Uii'  si-ntrnc**  wa-t  rarrliHl  Into 
••Itect  (""I'lie  inyrhynrliu't  i'apyrl."  iil.  liy  (in-nffll  ami  Hunt, 
)i«rt  1.,  imiH,  No.  Xl;  IkRiniaiin,  "Tlicoloirlsibo  I.llernlur/el- 
tnnK,"  IstKi.  cols,  ot;  iKKli. 

•  Tticne  mi'iiln  an'  nionliil  by  Eiis<'liliis  ("  Hist.  Feci."  Iv.  2 ; 
"Clinmlcon,"e<l.  SiIuhmh'.  II.  liU  if  irn;. :  "(iroslus."  vll.  12; 
ttie  sUiti'nii'nt  also  In  Vit.  Suk.  v.  i,  iiinii'rnlmr  a  nuuviurro 
ranMKi  hv  Tmjan,  iniisi  n-tiT  to  lliis<>  ■•viMit.s.  lonipan-  Deri'n- 
iKinrH,  "  Esaul  snr  I'llLstoin,  ilr  lu  l'uli-.clni'."  pp.  lliMlL'i.  Tlio 
city  (tjiclf  must  have  snITrnil  i-i'iislili-nihly  fmni  tht-s*'  i-onti-n- 
tlons.  for  llailrlan  founil  It  nii-i*H.Hary  to  rt'^l'in'  It  In  great  |mrt 
(Eusvblns,  "Chninlion  "). 


cd.  Zuckermandel,  p.  198;  Yer.  Suk.  v.  i.).  There 
can  be  little  doidit  that  the  Alexandrian  Jews  also 
observed  the  new  moon  and  the  annual  festivities  in 
the  .same  manner  as  did  the  other  Jews.  Two  feasts 
peculiar  to  the  Alexandrians  are  casually  mentioned ; 
one  in  commemoration  of  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Greek  (Philo,  "Vita  Mosis,"  ii.  §  7;  ed. 
Mangey.  ii.  \H)  tl  «ii/.),  and  a  second  in  celebration 
of  the  miiaeulous  deliverance  from  the  elephants. 
Very  little  reliable  information  is  at  hand  concerning 
the  part  taken  by  the  Alexandrians  in  the  cult  of  the 
temple  at  Leontopolis.  It  is  probable  that  they 
otfered  sacrilices  there  without  in  the  least  neglect- 
ing their  duties  toward  the  Temple  of  .lerusalem. 
Philo  remarks  ineidentjilly  that  lieliimself  proceeded 
to  the  paternal  Sixnctuary  (in  Jerusalem)  as  a  dele- 
gate tO|)rayandto  sacritiee("  De  Providentia  "  ;  Eu- 
sebius.  ■' Pritpanitio  Evangelica."  VIII.  .xiv.  04.  ed. 
Gaisford;  according  to  the  Armenian  translation 
in  Aucher,  "Philonis  Juda;i  Sennones  Tres,"  etc., 
p.  UG).* 

.Ml hough  the  religion  of  their  forefathers  was  so 
faithfully  followed,  the  .lews  of  Alexandria  never- 
theless imbibed,  lo  a  great  degree,  the  culture  of 
the  Greeks.  Not  many  generations  after  the  found- 
ing of  the  comnuinity.  the  Torah  was  translated 
into  Greek  (perhaps  under  Ptolemy  II.  ;  at  all  events 
not  much  later).  It  was  read  in  Greek  in  the  syna- 
gogues; indeed  this  was  the  language 
Greek  in  chiefly  used  in  the  service  (Scliiirer. 
the  Ritual.  "Gesch."  M  ed.,  iii.  <ja-9.5).  Greek 
must,  therefore,  have  been  the  vernac- 
ular of  the  lower  classes  also.  The  better  clas.se9 
studied  Greek  literature  in  the  schools,  and  read  Ho- 
mer, the  tragic  jioets,  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  the  .Stoics. 
This  intimate  acquaintance  with  Greek  literature 
naturally  exerted  a  profound  influence  upon  the 
Alexandrian  Jews.  They  became  Greeks  without, 
however,  ceasing  to  be  .Tews. 

The  ]diilosoiiliers  whose  views  were  accepted  !)}• 
a  few  of  the  highly  educated  Jews  were  Plato.  Aris- 
totle, and  the  Stoics.  Under  such  influences  the 
Jews  of  -Mexanilria  produced  an  extensive  and 
varied  literature.  They  wrote  history  and  philoso- 
phy, as  well  as  epic  and  dramatic  poetry.  Apolo- 
getics and  ])oleiuics  against  the  heathen  found  an 
important  place  in  their  literature,  for  the  battle  be- 
tween the  two  camps  was  fought  out  also  in  the 
lit<'rarv  arena.  Distinguished  Alexandrian  literati 
attacked  Judaism  very  bitterly  (Manetho  [or  Jlane- 
Ihon].  Lysimachus,  C'lueremon.  and  .Vpion).  The 
Jews,  on  llieir  side,  conducted  their  defense  chiefly 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  out  the  sublinnty  of 
their  faith  and  the  grandeur  of  its  history.  They 
someiiines  took  the  offensive,  and  disclosed  the 
inanity  of  idolatry  and  the  ethical  evils  of  pagan- 
ism, exhorting  and  admonishing  the  heathen  i)op\i- 
lation  to  convei'sion.  Their  favorite  method  was  to 
allribiile  such  adinonilory  utterances  to  ]>agan  ati- 
Ihorities.  particularly  the  highly  venerule<l  Sibyl 
(see   Hki.i.k.mi'  LiTKU.\TfUE  niul  also    Sihvli.ise 

t)ll\(I.KS). 

The  conslant  daily  contact  of  the  lower  class  of 
Jews  with  till'  pagans  in  Ali'Xandria  resulted  in  the 
absiirplionof  many  superstitions.  Among  the  less  in- 
li-Uigent.  Jewish  and  pagan  witehcnift  joined  hands, 
as  did  Jewish  faith  and  Gri'ck  |ihilosophy  among  the 
mine  enlightened  (Schlli-er.  "Gesch."  ltd  ed..  iii.  -'!>4- 
!1()4).      This  blending  of   n-ligious   ideas   prevailed 

'AcmnllnK  to  Ilii-  MIshnali  llnllah.  Iv.  in.  the  .\l)>iandr1nn»  Alan 
Imintrht  Uii'lr  llalluh  i.i  JiTiLiiilcni,  which.  hnweviT,  wiw  not  ac- 
ci.pU'il.  Soni..  .^li'Sanilrlan  .lews  suliinllliil  vitrlium  liv'l  i|ll«- 
tloiw  lo  Ituhhl  Joshua  U'n  llaimnlah  i.Nt-it.  xlv.  13:  .NldOali,  iWb 
r»  ivi/. ;  comiwn'  lUu-lwr,  "  AK-  Tuu."  I.  18&-1K7,  18W). 


Alexandria.  Eg-ypt 
(Modern) 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


366 


more  or  less  wherever  Jews  and  Gentiles  came  into 
direct  contact,  but  was  esiieciall y  strong  ami  marked 

in    Alexandria  (Hadrian,   "Letter    to 

Blending  of  Servianus  "  :    in    Vopisoiis.  "  Vita   Sa- 

Religious     turniiii,"  iliap.  viii. ;  in  tlie  "  Scriplorcs 

Ideas.        Ilislcirin;  Aiiirusta."  ed.   Peter,   IHG.j, 

ii.  20!)).  In  spite  of  all  this.  Judaism 
retained  its  peculiar  characteristics  even  here.  From 
Philo"s  intimation  that  because  of  llie  allegorical  in- 
terpretation, many  had  failed  to  give  due  value  to  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  I>aw.  it  must  not  be  concluded 
that  large  numbers  of  Jews  habitually  broke  the  Law. 
Pliilo  himself  alTords  proof  that  even  those  who  most 
favored  the  allegorical  interpretation  still  kept  to 
the  letter  of  f^eripture  ("l)e  Migratione  Abraham," 
S  10;  ed.  jMangey,  i.  450).  A  certain  laxity  may 
indeed  have  obtjiined  in  some  ((uarters;  but  in  its 
essential  points,  the  law  was  everywhere  observed 
by  the  llelleni/.ing  Jews  as  long  as  they  remained 
within  the  pale  of  the  synagogue. 

It  may  be  well  to  append  here  whatever  is  known 
of  the  history  of  the  Samaritans  in  Alexandria  and 

in  Egypt  (compare  Juynboll,  "C'om- 
Samari-      mentarii  in  Ilisioriam  Gentis  Samari- 
tans,       tame,"  pp.  38-41,  43-45,  Leyden,  1846). 

Alexander  the  Great  is  said  to  have 
settled  Samaritans  in  the  Thebaid  ("Ant."  xi.  8, 
§  6.  end).  At  th?  time  Ptolemy  I.,  Lagi,  con- 
([uered  Palestine,  he  took  with  liitn  many  prisoners, 
not  from  J udca  or  Jerusalem  alone,  but  also  from  Sa- 
maria and  from  those  living  near  .Mount  Gerizim, 
and  settled  them  in  Egyi)t  ("Ant."  xii.  1).  In  a 
papyrus  belonging  to  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C.,  mention  is  made  of  a  village  called  Sama- 
ria in  central  Egypt  ("The  Fliuders-Petrie  Papyri," 
part  ii.,  ed.  bv  MahatTv.  pp.  [14]  3.  [HS]  9.  [93]  4, 
[94]  22,  [90]  13,  Dulilin.  US93).  During  the  reign 
of  Ptolemy  VI.,  Philometor,  the  Jews  and  Samar- 
itans in  Egypt  are  sai<l  Id  have  brought  before  the 
king  a  dispute  as  to  which  was  the  true  center  of 
worship,  Jerusalem  or  Gerizim  ("Ant."  xiii.  3,  §4; 
compare  xii.  1.  end).  The  existence  of  the  Samaritans 
in  Egypt  is  also  implied  in  letters  of  the  emperors 
Valentiuian.  Theodosius.  and  Areadius  to  the  pnr- 
fiftiiD  Anf/ustnlis  ("Codex  Theodosianus, "ed.  ILencl. 
xiii.  5,  18).  It  can  further  be  proved  that  they  lived 
there  during  the  .Middle  Ages,  and  even  till  the  seven- 
teenth cent  lu-y  (see  Juynboll,  pp.  43— to;  lleidenheim. 
"  Nachri<hten  fiber  die  Samaritaner  [in  .EgypI  en]  aus 
einem  Ilandsehriftliehen  Reisejournale  aus  dem  15. 
Jahrhundert  "  in  "  Viertel jahrsschrift  fiir  Deutseh- 
und  Englisch-Theolog.  Forschung  u.  Kritik."  1807, 
iii.  354-350;  Briill.  "Die  Samaritaner  in  Kairo  "  in 
Bmlls  "Jahrb."  1885,  vii.  4;i-45).  For  further  ref- 
erence to  Jews  in  Alexandria  in  medieval  times,  see 
Egypt.  E.  Sen. 

ALEXANDRIA,  EGTPT  —  Modern  :  The 
Jewish  community  of  Alexandria,  numbering  (in 
1900)  10.000  persons,  is  governed  by  an  elective  body 
of  prominent  men  called  the  "Conimvmita."  This 
body  numbers  sixteen  members,  four  being  elected 
aimually  to  serve  for  four  years;  only  those  contrib 
uting  to  the  congregational  treasury  have  the  right 
to  elect.  The  amount  ipialifying  for  the  voting 
privilege  ranges  from  £1  (S5)  to  £10  (SSO)  annually, 

according  to  the  circumstances  of  the 

Organiza-    individual.     The  constitution  and  by- 

tion.         laws  of  the  community  are  registered 

with  the  Austrian  government.  The 
Community,  has  entire  control  of  the  finances  and 
affairs  of  the  several  congregations,  making  no  dis- 
tinction between  natives  and  foreigners,  or  between 
Sephardim  and  Ashkenazim.    In  the  year  1899  there 


were  distributed  at  Passover  1,700  kilos  (3,400 
pounds)  of  mazzot.  The  Comnninitil  is  called  upon 
almost  every  week  to  provide  means  of  transport 
for  poor  travelers.  For  such  <as<'S  of  illness  as  do 
not  need  hosiiital  treatment,  it  maintains  in  the  city 
a  dispensary  with  attendant  ))hysieians. 

The  revenues  of  the  comnuinity  are  derived  from 
synagogue  dues  and  olTerings.  burial  fees,  and  the 
tax  on  "kosher-meat,"  as  well  as  from  real  estate 
and  the  dowry  tax.  All  ecclesiastical  matters  are 
in  the  hands  of  a  chief  rabbi. 

A  priiilinghouse  was  foimded  in  1874  by  Hayyiin 
Mizrahi,  from  which  numerous  prayer-books,  ser- 
mons, and  respcinsa,  and  many  volumes  in  .Vrabic 
and  Hebrew  as  well  as  in  European  languages  have 
been  issued.  In  e(nnpment  and  in  the  quality  of 
its  work  it  bears  comijarison  with  the  best  European 
presses. 

With  the  exception  of  the  blood  accusation  of 
March.  1881  (see  Foun.\h.\ki  Aff.mh),  which  threat- 
ened fora  time  the  peace  of  the  eonununity.  tin- con- 
dition of  the  Jews  in  Egypt  has  been  very  satisfac- 
tory. They  an'  under  no  special  restrictions.  Their 
trade  is  with  Europe  in  general,  and  with  England  in 
particular.  Many  of  them  are  bankers  and  cajiital- 
ists;  while  merchants,  commercial  travelers,  .scribes, 
and  artisans  are  numerous  among  them.  They  are 
also  represented  among  the  lawyers  and  ollicials  of 
the  courts.  The  languages  spoken  by  the  Jews  of 
Alexandria  represent  many  tongues.  They  are  of 
various  nationalities,  and  include  Syrians.  Turks, 
Rumanians,  Russians.  Austrians,  Germans.  Italians, 
and  Frenchmen,  with  all  the  diverse  characteristics 
and  customs  of  each  nation. 

Situated  as  it  is  on  the  Mediterranean  highway, 
Alexandria  always  lias  a  large  transient  population 
of  poor  .lewisli  emigrants,  going  east  or  west,  and 
these  often  are  a  lieavy  tax  upon  the  resources  of 
the  community. 

The  synagogues  are;   (1)  "Keneset  Eliyahu."  the 

most  ancient  of  all,  recognized  as  the  synagogue  of  the 

community,  and  so  called  because  it  is  sjiid  that  the 

Prophet  dwelt  on  that  spot  for  some 

Syna-       time.    In  the  year  1487  Rabbi  Obadiah 

gogVLBS.  da  Hertinoro  visited  Alexandria  on  his 
journey  from  Italy  to  Jerusalem,  and 
referred  to  this  synagogue,  stating  that  there  were 
about  twenty-five  Jewish  families  in  the  city,  and 
two  ancient  synagogues,  in  the  siiiallerof  which  (dedi- 
cated to  Elijah  the  jjrophet)  the  majority  of  the  com- 
munity worshiped.  About  the  year  1870,  prominent 
men  of  the  community  set  about  restoring  this  relic  of 
antiquity  ;  and  it  is  now  an  elegantly  appointed  build- 
ing with  marble  pillars  and  pavement,  glass  windows, 
and  modern  sittings.  The  women'sgallery  runs  round 
three  sides  of  the  auditorium,  and  the  building  is 
situated  in  a  well-kept  garden  or  park.  One-storied 
houses  face  both  sides  of  the  park;  and  into  these  sick 
persons,  both  Jews  and  Jlohammedans,  are  taken  in 
the  belief  that  miracles  are  perfonned  there  by  the 
prophet  Elijah.  This  synagogue  is  well  attended 
by  the  wealthier  portion  of  the  community;  on  the 
riay  of  Atonement  as  many  as  five  hundred  persons 
worshi]>  there.  Alongside  is  a  large  hall  where  fu- 
neral services  are  held. 

(2)  The  chief  synagogue  in  Alexandria  is  known 
as  the  "Zeradel."  Its  antiquity  is  evidenced  by  a 
stone  slab  inserted  in  one  of  its  walls,  which  bears 
the  following  inscription  in  square  Hebrew  charac- 
ters; "  I,  Jmlah,  son  of  R.  Saul  of  Spain  (unto  whom 
be  peace),  bought  this  site  and  built  this  synagogue 
for  the  welfare  of  my  soul  and  the  souls  of  my  fam- 
ily, in  the  year  1311  after  the  destruction.  .  .  ." 
The  remainder  is  obliterated  bj'  decay.     The  lowest 


367 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexandria,  £^ypt 
(Modernj 


Hue  reads:  "These  pillars  and  the  lintel  came  from 
the  door  of  the  siiiictuary  .  .  .  and  tliis  is  tlie  door 
.  .  .  ti)  support  it  iii)oii  them  .  .  .  for  a  memorial," 
A  partieular  treasure'  of  this  synagogue  is  a  lie- 
brew  Hihle  in  elegantly  written  sepiaru  characters, 
the  work  of  a  veritalile  artist.  Each  column  or  page 
is  surroundc<l  with  elahorate  ornaniiiitation  consist- 
ing of  the  ilasora,  hoth  "Great  "  and  " [Small. "  writ- 
ten in  llic  most  microscopic  Hebrew  letters,  which 
are  legible  oidy  with  a  magnify ing-glass;  the  read- 
ings of  Hen  Aslicr  and  I5en  Naphlali  are  also  given. 
The  last  page  bears  the  inscription,  "The  proi)erty 
of  David  ha-Kohen,  called  Kutina,  oliT  "  (13()7).  The 
name  of  the  writer  and  date  are  unknown.  There  is 
also  a  I'enlateucli,  together  with  the  early  prophets, 
wrilt<-n  upon  parchment  of  larger  size,  of  about  the 
same  period,  Holh  these  valuable  manuscripts  are 
jealously  guarded,  an<l  are  taken  from  the  ark  only 
upon  the  annual  festival  of  the  "Rejoicing  of  the 
Law,"  to  he  borne  around  Ihe  synagogue  in  the  cus- 
tomary Procession  of  the  Scrolls.  In  1880  this  sj'na- 
gogue  was  repaired  and  restored, 

(3)  A  synagogue  named  "  A/.uz  ";  date  imknown, 
smaller  in  size  Ihan  the  "Zeradel,"  In  addition  to 
these  there  are  Ihe  following;  (4)  The  Franks'  (lliat 
is,  the  Eurojiean  Spanish)  synagogue,  founded  in 
184t»,  The  building  is  hired,  not  owned,  by  the  con- 
gregation, (."))  A  hired  room  used  as  a  bet  hd-inidnish 
(college)  and  a  synagogue  by  the  Moroccan  Jews, 
(6)  A  bet  ha-midrash  named  after  Jedidiali,  a  former 
rabbi  of  the  cilv.  (7)  The  Gohar  svnairngm' lounded 
by  Klijah  Cohar,  (H)  Two  halls  hi'red'liy  the  Ashke- 
nazi  Jews  for  worship  according  to  their  own  par- 
ticular riti',  (!))  The  .Menasce  synagogue,  founih'd  in 
1878  by  Haron  J.  L.  de  Menasee:  a  handsome  build- 
ing with  marble  ark.  pillars,  and  pavement,  costing 
about  f8.(M)()  (§40.000),  It  is  supported  by  the  reve- 
nues of  two  houses  set  apart  by  the  Paron  for  this 
purpos*'.  In  1!)(I0  Ihe  president  was  .M,  Joseph  Tilche. 
who  has  so  carefully  managed  Ihe  fundseleriveil  from 
the  synagogue  ollVrings  and  fees  that  Ihe  interest 
received  from  their  investment  is  sullicient  to  de- 
fray Ihe  expenses  of  Ihe  sciiool  connected  wilh  il, 
(10)  A  synagogue,  projecled  by  Abraham  Green,  lo 
be  creeled  in  a  suburb  where  there  has  been  a  steady 
settlement  of  Jews  for  the  past  twenty-tive  years. 
The  hall  hilherlo  hired  for  i)rayerineetings  becom- 
ing too  small,  -M,  Green  purchased  (I'JOO)  a  site  in  a 
suitable  location  and  will  erect  a  building  to  cost 
about  .tr),00()  (Si.l.OOO). 

The   community    ])os.sesses    several    schools,    Imt 

owing  to  the  lack  of  those  conducted  upon  modern 

lines.  Ihe  children  of  the  upi>er    and 

Schools.  middle-class  Jews  attend  the  Chrislian 
privale  schools  of  the  city.  Thi'  most 
important  Jewish  schools  are  (1)  that  established 
by  Baron  .1.  I,,  de  Minasce  at  a  cost  of  more  than 
£5.000 (if','."i. (HMD  This  is  pleasjintly  siluateil  in  am- 
ple grounds.  In  I'.'iHi  ii  had  I'iO  pupils,  who  re- 
ceived free  eduealion  in  Ihe  Penlaleuch  and  se<  ular 
gllbjecis,  French,  .\rabic(lhe  language  of  Ihi'  coun- 
try), and.  of  c(i\irsi',  Hebrew  were  laiighl.  The  di- 
rector was  Joseph  Tilche;  and  associated  wilh  him 
was  .M.  Si>lonion  Harda,  Sclio(d  maleriais  are  sup 
plii'd  gniluilously  to  Ihe  (lupils.  Ihe  c.\penses  being 
defraycil  from  lhcre<<iplsof  Ihe  Menasee  synagogue. 
Needy  pupils  ri'ceive  clolhing  twice  a  vr'ar,  CJ)  A 
Talmud  'I'orah  s<hool.  called  Hie  .\ghion  School, 
establisliiil  aboul  the  year  Is.Sll  by  lln'  brolhirs 
Moses  and  Isaac  .Vghion.  owing  lo  Ihe  fact  Ihal  llii' 
Meiia.sce  School  was  unidile  for  want  of  r<M>m  to 
ai'commodale  all  applicanls.  On  thedealii  oflhese 
broihers  Iheir  children  set  aside  '.JO.OIKI  fr.  (;j:t,!HK)) 
as  a  sinking  fund  for  ils  support;  and  Mo,ses  Jacob 


Aghion  gave  an  additional  sum  of  20,000  fr,  for  a 
school  for  girls.  In  1900  there  were  about  280  pu- 
pils, of  both  se.xes.  who  received  free  education  in 
religion,  Hebrew.  French,  and  Arabic,  The  salaries 
of  teachers  anil  expenses  for  maleriais  amount  to  i'880 
(§4,400)  annually;  clothing-supplies,  shoes,  etc,  cost 
i'lGO  (.§800)  more,  (3)  Other  small  (demenlary  schools 
teaching  tlie  Pentateuch,  prayer-book,  etc,  accord- 
ing tolhi'  grades  of  Iheir  pupils,  (4)  A, mIiooI  estab- 
lished about  18"J(i  by  the  xMliance  Israelite  Univer- 
selle  for  boys  and  girls,  at  which  a  moderate  charge 
was  made  for  tuition.  In  ils  lirst  year  the  school  was 
allended  by  more  than  200  boys'and  \M  girls;  hut 
owing  lo  freipient  changes  in  Hie  leaching  slafT,  due 
to  a  dearlh  of  capable  teachers.  Ihe  atleiidance  fell 
rapidly,  French.  English,  and  Arabic  were  taught,  as 
well  as  Hebrew  and  religious  subjecls;  Ihe  girls  were 
inslrucled  additionally  in  .sewing.  Anew  teacher  was 
secure<l  in  1000;  and  there  was  then  every  indication 
of  a  return  of  the  .school's  original  prosperity. 

A  number  of  eleemosynary  inslitulions  have  been 
founded  in  the  community,  and  of  these  the  follow- 
ing are  the  most  important :  (1)  An  as- 
Charitable  .socialion,  "  Ezrat  Ahim,"  lo  aid  poor 
Institu-  and  deserving  Israelites,  which  e.x- 
tions.  pends  annually  t700  (.'S3.r)0n)  in  dona- 
lions  of  money,  tlour.  and  meat.  It  is 
supported  by  370  memliers.  who  contribule  three 
francs  or  more  monthly.  The  president  is  Abrannno 
Tilche,  and  its  secretary  Zemal.i  Amram.  a  son  of 
Pabbi  Xal hail  Amram,  (2)  The  a.ssoeiatiou  "  Berit 
Abraham."  founded  aboul  1880.  extends  assistance 
in  obslelric  cases  among  Ihe  poor,  who  receive  med- 
ical atleiidanci'  and  small  grants  of  money.  It  is 
supported  by  voluntary  conlribulions.  (3)  The  .so- 
ciely  "Haklinasat  Orhim"  (fare  of  Slningers)  — 
founded.  18H2.  to  assist  poor  travelers:  il  hires  a 
house  as  a  "refuge"  anil  shelters  and  feeils  them 
during  their  .sojourn.  It  was  eslablished  by  sub- 
scriplion.  but  is  now  maintained  bv  the  Order  of 
B'ne  H'rilh.  (4)  The  Order  of  Bne  IVrilh,  Ihe  well- 
known  .lewish-Ainerican  order,  was  established  here 
in  1802.  wilh  a  membership  of  |."iO,  Il  opened  a 
trade  school  which,  however,  gradually  diclined  and 
has  now  only  a  feeble  support,  ("i)  In  1885  a  Dowry 
Association  was  established,  toas.sist  eight  poor  girls 
annually,  wilh  adowry  of  .'iOOfr,  (§97,50) each,  When 
the  annual  outlay  of  4,000  fr,  (§780)  was  no  longer 
easily  obtained  from  Ihe  membership  —  though,  by 
reason  of  the  growth  of  population,  the  number  n{ 
deserving  candidates  had  increa.sid  —  Joseph  Tilche 
and  Moses  Aziz  cxerli-d  Ihemselves  in  behalf  of  Ihe 
as.socialion,  and  through  a  colleclion  amounting  to 
,t(i,000  (§30,000)  provided  a  fund,  the  income  of  which 
secures  every  year  a  donation  of  £10  (§50)  to  each  of 
forty  maidens  on  her  wedding-day,  (tl)  The  Jle- 
nasce  Hospital  biiill  by  Baron  J,  L.  de  Menasee  and 
his  brolher  Felix,  in  memory  of  their  father.  Pechor. 
is  a  spacious  edilice  wilh  ample  grounds,  siliialeil 
oiilside  Ihe  cilv  proper,  in  a  well  stiecleil  lixation. 
Thi-  buililiiigand  appoiiilinenlseost  i'.'>.IKMI(§25.(MK»). 
Annual  expenses  are  30.000  fr.  (§5.^01,  Il  is  sup- 
ported by  a  one-percent  ta.x,  levied  on  all  marriage 
dowries  i>f  I' 100  (.§5(MI)  and  over.  An  annual  eiiler- 
tainment  is  given  in  ils  behalf.  The  hospital  is 
providiil  wilh  a  dispensary  for  Ihe  poor.  (7)  A 
Ilome  for  the  Aged,  devoted  in  pari  also  lo  the  re- 
ccplion  of  convalesceiils  from  Ihe  Menasee  llospilal. 
who  freipnnlly  need  more  care  and  nourishment 
Ihan  Iheir  own  homes  alTord,  At  Ihe  laying  of  the 
corner  sloneof  thcGn'cn  Synagogin\  the  chief  rabbi 
look  Ihe  opporlunily  lo  urge  the  attention  of  thosi' 
assembled  to  llii'  mailer,  A  subscription  was  taken 
up  ut  oucu  anil  beadol  by  Burou  Jacipies  de  Menius«'e, 


Alexandria,  Louisiana 
Alexandrian  Philosophy 


THE  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


368 


the  president  of  the  community,  who  was  supported 
l)v  vnrious  other  generous  members.  The  sum,  which 
amoiMitcd  to  £1,785  (§8,U"'5K  has  been  aujrmiutcd  by 
later  collections.  Aged  Hebrews  without  means  of 
support,  as  well  as  convalescents  from  the  hospital, 
are  thus  provided  for  in  this  real  "  Home  '' ;  the  former 
for  life;  the  latter  until  they  have  regained  their 
strength.  E.   H. 

AliEXANDBIA,  Louisiana :  City  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  l!i.(l  rivc  r.  oCill  miles  northwest  of  New 
Orleans.  The  fo\indatiiin  of  a  Jewish  community 
in  Alexandria  took  place  in  1S48  when  several  Jews 
settled  there.  The  total  Jewish  population  in  1!)(I0 
was  600,  or  about  one-fourteenth  of  the  entire  pojiu- 
lation  of  the  city.  Among  the  occupations  followed 
by  the  Jewish  citizens  are  banking,  brokcnige,  and 
cotton-planting.  There  arc  besides  a  number  of 
tmdesmen  and  a  few  artisans.  The  congregation 
was  probably  founded  in  lH(i4.  In  llSOfi  a  benevolent 
as.soeiation  was  established  liere  by  the  Jews,  and 
four  years  later  (1870)  the  first  synagogue  was 
erected.  Other  institutions  were  founded  after  the 
lapse  of  a  few  years.  In  1882  a  Vo\ing  Men's  He- 
brew Association  was  established,  and  this  was 
followed  by  a  lodge  of  the  Order  of  H'ne  U'rith, 
which  received  itscharter  in  1884.  Furlheradvance 
in  the  development  of  the  community  was  marked 
by  the  opening  of  a  Sunday-school  and  Bible-class 
in  1890,  and  a  branch  of  ihc  National  Council  of 
.Jewish  Women  in  1896.  The  following  were  rabbis 
of  the  comniunitv  of  Alexandria  from  its  foundation 
to  1900:  M.  Klein.  L.  Meyer.  J.  C.  M.  Chumaeciro, 
S.  Saft,  I.  Heineberg,  J.  8chieiber,  and  Alex.  Rosen- 
spitz.  "  J.  S.  R. 

ALEXANDRIAN     PHILOSOPHY :     While 

there  were  many  earlier  settlements  of  Jewish  immi- 
grants in  Egypt,  it  was  reserved  lor  King  Ptolemy 
I.  to  establisli  a  large  .Jewish  colony  in  Alexandria, 
cither  by  eompidsory  deportation  or  Ijy  the  encour- 
agement of  voluntary  settlers,  and  thereby  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  the  historically  important  devel- 
opmcnt  of  the  .Jewish  diaspora  in  that  part  of  the 
world.  If  Palestinian  Judaism,  up  to  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  failed  to  maintain  rigid  barriers  against 
the  powerful  onslaught  of  Hellenism,  and  found  it 
could  not  restrain  the  tide  of  foreign  influences,  still 
less  could  this  distant  Alexandrian  colony  avoid  reck- 
oning with  Greek  culture  and  intelligence.  Constant 
intercourse  with  non-Jews  would  alone  have  led  to 
the  abolition  of  many  religious  observances,  imprac- 
ticable under  the  new  conditions,  and  so  liave  brought 
about  a  species  of  adaptation,  voluntary  as  well 
as  involuntary,  leading,  moreover,  to  the  modifica- 
tion of  all  nationalist  and  separatist  conceptions  or 
prejudices. 

Although  such  influences  would  naturally  first 
find  expression  in  the  affairs  of  daily  life,  particu- 
larly through  the  ensuing  neglect  of  the  national 
language  and  the  adoption  of  tlie  Greek  tongue, 
higher  departments,  especially  literature,  could  not 
long  thereafter  escjipe  the  effect  of  this  contact  with 
foreign  culture.  From  the  time  of  Ptolemy  I., Greek 
writers  evince  a  keen  interest  in  Jewish  history  and 
Judaism.  And  the  latter  likewise,  on  its  side,  for  its 
own  edification  and  for  purposes  of  propaganda,  is 
soon  found  adopting  the  outward  forms  of  Greek 

literature.  The  Greek  translation  of 
Influence  of  the  Torah,  which  is  probably  the  oldest 
Hellenism,  example  of  .Jewish-Hellenic  literature. 

arose  essentially,  no  doubt,  out  of  the 
religious  requirements  of  the  diaspora,  and  certainly 
had  not  that  exclusively  polemic  purpose  which  later 
legend  loves  to  see  in  it.     It  laid  the  foundation. 


however,  of  the  free  development  of  a  literature  no 
longer  bound  tonaliimal  forms:  and  in  addition  it  pro- 
vided the  linginslic  material  for  such  development. 
Jewish  writers  .soon  began  to  reprodiueand  amplify 
their  sacH'd  annals  in  the  approved  style  of  the  Greek 
historians.  The  oldest  fragment  of  the  Jewish  "Sibyl- 
lines"  exemplified,  in  the  middle  of  thi'  second  cen- 
tury ii.c. ,  the  imitation  of  Greek  poetical  forms. 
Variotis  attempts  in  epic  and  even  di-amatic  form 
soon  followed.  According  to  some  critics,  indeed, 
the  "Sibyllines"  themselves  were  modeled  after  the 
considerably  older  fra,sments  of  Ps<>udo-Heaita;us, 
likewise  composed  for  the  jmrposes  of  Jewish  prop- 
aganda and  in  the  form  of  forged  poetical  "extracts" 
(Schiirer.  "Gesch.''  pj).  461  d  mr/. ). 

It  took  a  long  time,  of  course,  for  Judaism,  under 
the  influence  of  cosmopolitan  Hellenism,  to  rise  to 
the  highest  altitudes  of  Greek  intelU'ctual  life,  and 
to  recast  its  own  world-conceptions  in  the  molds  of 
Greek  philosophy.  One  cjin  readily  understand  that 
.Judaism  felt  it.self  powerfidly  attracted  by  Greek 
philosophy.  Wellhausen  ("  I.  J.G.''  pp.  217.  218)  lias 
very  rightly  noted  how  the  intellectual  development 
of  .Judaism,  with  its  tendency  to  become  a  purified 
monotheism,  moves  in  the  same  direction  toward 
which  Greek  thought  tends,  in  occupying  itself  with 
speculative  consideration  of  the  universe.  In  mono- 
theism, as  well  as  in  the  abstract  God  idea  of  Greek 
philosophy,  the  Jew  cnulil  see  the  logical  result  and 
completion  of  that  which  his  own  great  jirophcts 
had  yearned  for  and  declared.  His  delight  in  the 
purity  of  the  Platonic  conception  of  (Jod.or  the  strict 
logic  of  the  Stoic  theodicy,  would  blind  him  to  the 
fact  that  both  in  the  Platonic  transcendentalism  and 
the  Stoic  pantheism  the  living  personality  of  the 
Deity — a  self-understood  axiom  of  his  conception — 
was  well-nigh  lost.  In  many  respects,  Greek  phi- 
losophy must  have  appeared  to  him  far  superior  to 
anything  which  the  Jewish  mind  had  ever  evolved. 
There,  in  Judaism,  was  a  .scheme  of  thought  con- 
centered in  the  relation  of  God  to  the  world  and  to 
His  chosen  people.  Here  was  a  philosophy  which 
W!js  not  only  a  tlieology  at  the  same  time,  but  which, 
in  response  to  a  broader  interest  felt  now  by  Judaism 
too,  sought  to  penetrate  with  its  investigations  into 
every  department  of  the  universe  and 

Judaism  of  life.  There,  in  Judaism,  was  a  col- 
andHellen-  lection  of  sacreil  books,  of  different 
ism.  ages  and  differing   views:  a  discon- 

nected mass  of  proverbial  wisdom :  an 
abundance  of  ceremonial  usages  which  were  tending 
more  and  more  to  resolve  themselves  into  mere  un- 
intelligible customs:  a  system  of  casuistry  regulated 
more  by  ritual  than  by  ethical  considerations.  Here, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  a  logical  system,  ruling  moral 
life  through  sound  and  noble  principles;  there,  a 
Siicred  literature  written  in  popular  and  unsophisti- 
cated form,  without  regard  to  artistic  rules  or  laws 
of  logic:  here,  a  language  which  exhibited  the  influ- 
ence of  centuries  of  artistic  development,  and  whose 
skilfully  constructed  periods  charmed  the  ear. 

It  is.  however,  a  very  dilticidt  question  to  decide 
just  when  .Judaism  attained  to  the  dignitj'  of  a  sy.s- 
tematic  ideaof  the  universe  (cosmogony)  in  the  sense 
of  the  (ireek  philosophy,  and  under  its  influence. 
We  refer,  of  course,  to  a  perfect  adaptation  to  Greek 
philosophy,  not  to  the  adoption  of  a  few-  stray  con- 
ceptions, or  of  a  few  trite  commonplaces  of  prover- 
bial wisdom.  Let  that  opinion  be  first  presented 
which  until  recently  w-as  the  generally  adopted  one 
(see  especially  GfrOrer  and  Diihne:  Zellerand  Drum- 
mond  inaugurated  a  reaction  against  this  view, 
which  still,  however,  predominates  in  many  quar- 
ters).   According  to  this  theory,  Philo's  philosophical 


369 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexandria,  Louisiana 
Alexandrian  Philosophy 


system  was  already  extaut,  at  least  in  all  its  fun- 

damcutals,  in  the  third  feiiliiry  n.c.     I'nderlj-ing  a 

large  portion  of  the  Jewishllcllenio 

Supposed  literature,  this  ])hilo.so|)hy  maintained 
Antiquity  itself  through  three  centuries  of  con- 
of  Philonic  tiniious  tradilion  and  llieii  found    in 

Method.  I'hilo  its  most  ini]iorlaiit,  tliough  not 
always  original,  exponent.  Tlie  fun- 
damental principles  of  this  system  are  the  following: 
the  strict  transcendence  of  God;  the  resulting  neces- 
sjiry  interjiosition  of  '■mi<ldle  causes"  l)et\veen  God 
and  the  world  (whether  the  same  he  called  "  Logos," 
"Powers,"  or  "Wisdom");  mystic  union  with  the 
Deity,  with  asceticism  as  the  means  thereunto; 
finally,  the  allegorical  interpretation  of  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, hy  means  of  which  the  trulhsof  Greek  wisdom 
are  presu|)posed  and  demonstrated  to  be  the  true 
meaning  and  deeper  sense  of  tlie  divine  revelation. 

In  order  to  render  an   intelligent  judgment   on 

the  theory  of  the  religious  philosophy  underlying 

Hellenic  .Judaism,  it  will  be  jnoper  to 

Keview  review  the  several  products  of  the  lit- 
of  the  enilure,  which  woidd  have  to  be  ex- 
Literature,  plained  imder  this  assumption,  and 
particularly  to  notice  the  various  ob- 
jections arising  against  it. 

(,11)  Freudenthal,  inopposing  the  statement  that  the 
Septuagint  is  the  oldest  exponent  of  Alexandrian 
religious  jihilosopliy,  shows  that  a  whole  series  of 
general  terms  are  therein  employed,  not  in  the  mode 
of  iihilosopliical  terminoloiry,  but  quite  in  the  ordi- 
nary and  popular  use  of  the  words;  and  that  the 
tendency  to  avoid  all  anthropomorphisms  does  not 
prove  the  iiitlueiiee  of  Greek  philosophy  ("Jew. 
tjnart.  |{ev."  ii.  •H)-)--ii'i). 

(Ii)  Consideration  of  the  Greek  Esdras.  II  and  III 
.Maccabees.  Ecclesiasticus.  and  the  "Sibyllines. " 
may  be  omitted,  because  only  scattered  resemblances 
have  been  claimed  in  them,  and  these,  ui)on  elo.ser 
examination,  to  some  extent  disappear;  and  because, 
for  the  earlier  ])eriods,  only  the  last  two  can  neces- 
sarily be  of  any  service. 

(<•)  Whatever  opinion  be  lield  about  the  date  of 
the  "Letter  of  Aristeas"  (probably  the  beginningof 
the  first  century),  it  exhibits  evidences  of  the  adop- 
tion of  only  the  most  trivial  views  and  conceptions. 
It  is  impossil)le  to  speak  of  any  iihilosophieal  system 
in  connection  with  it.  But  in  one  particular  it  is  very 
instructive.  It  containsan  allegorical  interpretation 
of  the  Jewish  dietary  laws,  such  as  is  repeated  in 
Philo,  Aristobulus.  and  Hartialms.  without  any  evi- 
dence that  these  writers  had  made  use  of  Aristeas. 
From  this,  and  from  thegeiteral  lack  of  independence 
in  .Vristeas.  it  may  be  concluded  that  already  in  his 
linielheallegorical  exposition  of  Scripture  (and  jiar- 
licidarly  a  moralizing  inti'rpretation  of  the  ritual 
laws)  wasextant.  Philo  himself  tells  us  that  lierein 
he  had  tnidition  liefori'  him. 

('/)  Aristobulus  would  indeed  ben  witness  of  the 
greatest  wiiglit,  even  though  a  solitary  one,  as  lie 
woul<l  prove,  not  indeed  the  existence  of  a  conlinn- 
ons  tradition,  but  at  least  the  possible  extension  of 
(ireek  philoso])hical  inlliience  among  .Mexandrian 
.lews  in  the  .second  centnrv  n.c.  Hut  if  Aristobulus 
is  a  Christian  forgery  of  the  second  century  (see 
AiiisTom  i.fs) — though  this  isdeiiieil  liy  Schlirerand 
many  other  scholars — lie  can  not  be  adduced  as  a 
witness. 

(( )  The  nullior  of  the  Rook  of  Wl.sdom  betrays  the 
fact  that  Platonic  and  Stoic  philosophy  hail  greatly 
intluenced  him.  Miit  he  rather  disproves  the  theory 
of  the  existence  of  a  cletinile  t nid it ional  system.  For, 
llioiigh  lie  shows  himself  closely  akin  ineiilally  to 
Pliilo  in  general  lendeiicv,  in  fundamentals  (as.  e.;/., 
I.-2-J 


Bois  demon.st rates),  he  exhibits  quite  remarkable  di- 
vergences from  him.  Ill'  is  totally  unaware  of  Philo's 
chief  doctrines;  and  his  few  utterances  concerning  the 
Logos  go  no  furlher  than  the  Old  Testament  use  of 
the  word.  These  divergences  are  of  so  much  the  less 
importance  as  the  book  seems  to  have  been  written 
only  a  short  time  before  Philo,  who  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  aciiuaiuted  with  it. 

(/)  Those  who  exjilain  Essenism  as  arising  not 
from  an  internal  Jewish  origin  and  development,  but 
from  the  intluence  of  Ori)hic  communities,  can  only 
claim  for  it  the  adoption  of  the  Orphic  mode  of  life 
and  Orphic  ritual.  That  it  sprang  from  Greek  philo- 
sophical intluence  can  at  least  not  be  proved.  The 
Pythagorean  circles,  from  which  someauthorities in- 
sist on  tracing  many  Essenic  usages  and  notions,  ])os- 
sis.sed  no  philosophical  system  whatever  to  transmit. 
What  is  told  about  the  allegorical  in- 
Notfrom  terpretation  of  Scripture  by  the  Es- 
Essenism.  senes  leads  no  further  than  what  is 
stated  above  concerning  the  "Letter  of 
Aristeas. "  The  mere  existence  of  an  esoteric  wisdom, 
and  the  little  one  hears  of  it,  do  not  permit  the  infer- 
ence that  it  arose  in  es.sentials  from  any  body  of  tra- 
ditional philosophy;  nor  are  its  teachings  indicated 
in  any  extant  work,  such  as  Kohler  lately  attempted 
to  show  in  his  es.say  on  "The  Testament  of  Job" 
("Semitic  Studies  in  Jlemory  of  A.  Kobut."  pp.  264- 
338).  The  same  conclusion  holds  concerning  the 
Therapeuta',  that  neither  the  connection  of  this  sect 
with  the  Essenes,  nor  the  date  of  its  establishment, 
can  be  |>roved.  Great  caution  must  always  be  ob- 
served in  making  use  of  the  biased  and  Hellenic-col- 
ored statements  of  Philo  and  Joseplms. 

It  is  evident  that  violence  has  lieeii  done  to  texts, 
in  order  to  compel  them  to  testify  for  Alexandrian 
philosophy.  Freudenthal  efTectively  pointed  out  the 
arbitrariness  of  this  jiroeedure,  and  lightly  showed 
that  such  testimony,  in  point  of  fact,  presenied  rather 
a  motley  picture,  tinged  by  the  most  divergent  re- 
ligious and  pliilosoi>hical  conceptions  ("  Die  Flavins 
Joseplms  IJeigelegte  Schrifl  i'lber  die  Herrscbaft  der 
Vernunft,"  l>p.  .Ss.  3i),  Kl'.l,  Breslau,  ISti!)). 

General  considerations  would  also  seem  to  indicate 
the  improliability  of  the  conslruction  of  a  delinile 
sy.stem  by  Jewish- Alexandrian    i>liilo.sophy.     Both 
this  philosophy  in  general  anil  Philo,  its  chief  repre- 
sentative, show  an  admixture  of  Pla- 
Platonic      tonism  with  Peripatetic  and  Stoic  ele- 
Elements     nnnts,    quite  similar  to   the   systems 
Present.      of  the   later  Platonists  (sir  Freuden- 
thal, "  Per  Platoniker  Albinas."  Berlin. 
1879).     It  may.  therefore,  beinferred  that  Pliilodti w 
uj)on  Platonism  as  it  existed  in  bis  lime.     For  it  is 
unlikely  that  he  could  have  embodied  the  identical 
admixture  of  diverse  elements  accepted  by  the  later 
Platonists.     To   make   the   latter  ilei>eniienl    upon 
Philo,  as  former  writers  have  attemiited  to  do,  is 
impossible. 

The  genesis  of  Philo's  attempt  to  Imrmnni/e  Bib- 
lical revelation  and  Greek  philosophy  is  only  intelli- 
gible, if  be  is  considered  to  have  liased  it.  not  upon 
a  Platonism  of  bis  own  construction,  but  upon  llie 
eclectic  Platonism  of  bis  day,  as  he  learned  it  per- 
haps from  Areins,  Pidynius,  and  Potiinioii.  This 
eclectic  Platonism.  like  the  kindred  .syncrelism  of 
Aristobulus  (ineoUceivable  in  the  second  century 
li.c ),  ])resupposes  the  approximation  of  the  Middle 
Sloa  to  Platonic  and  Peripatetic  views,  a  breaking 
down  of  all  scliola.siic  barriers,  demonstrable  also  in 
the  I'lalonists  and  Peripatetics  of  the  lli-st  century. 
Such  an  admixture  would  only  be  possible,  at  the 
earliest,  in  the  middle  of  the  ll|-sl  century  n.c,  and 
it  can  only  be  explained  by  the  eclectic  spirit  of  that 


Alexandrian  Philosophy 
Alexandrians  in  Jerusalem 


TJIE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


370 


aire.  Aguiust  placing  this  movemi-ntas  early  as  the 
tiiird  century  B.C.,  tlie  fact  obtains  that  phihisophy 
held  no  lirra  fooling  in  Alexandria  until  a  consider- 
ably later  period. 

Before  l^liilo  there  had  existed  a  more  or  less 
powerful  leavening  of  the  Jewish-Hellenic  litera- 
ture by  Greek  philosophy,  not  neces.sjxrily  limited 
in  its  eflecis  to  literary  productions  in  Alexandria. 
But  it  is  only  in  connection  with  I'hilo  that  an  ac- 
t  ual  system  can  be  indicated.  No  mention  is  made  of 
any  Jewish-philosophical  school  in  Alexandria,  and 
in  a  certjiin  sense  heathen  philosophers  should  rather 
be  considered  to  have  been  Philo's  forerunners.  One 
may  speak  of  his  Jewish  forerunners,  of  course,  but 
the  term  can  mean  only  those  who  followed  a  simi- 
lar method  of  Bil)lieal  interpretation  with  regard  to 
certain  loose  and  disconnected  philosophical  ideas, 
and  who  were  not  exponents  of  any  complete  sys- 
tem of  interpretation  (Cohn,  "Philo  von  Alexan- 
dria," in  "Neue  Jahrbiicher,"  11^98,  i.  514-540,  525 
et  seq.).  It  has  been  mentioned  above  that  there 
existed  an  allegorical  method  of  Scripture  exposi- 
tion, consisting  in  the  main,  probably,  of  a  morali- 
zing, paraphrastic  interpretation  of  ritual  laws,  long 
before  Philo.     Philo  himself  refers  to 

Philo  and  .such.  He  protests  ("De  ]Mignitione 
the  Ex-      Abrahami, "  89  et  se'/.)  against  those 

tremists.  who  regarded  the  precepts  as  mere 
symbols  of  truths,  accepting  which 
they  refused  obedience  to  the  literal  prt'ccpt.  Be- 
cause the  Salibath  points  out  the  working  of  the 
creative  power  in  the  unformed,  and  the  repose  of 
the  formed,  universe;  or  because  the  festivals  are 
types  of  rejoicing  and  of  gratitude  to  God :  or  because 
circumcision  symbolizes  the  uprooting  of  lusts  and 
passions,  these  ordinances  are  not  by  any  means 
to  be  neglected  as  such.  Adopting  thus  a  two- 
fold meaning  for  Scripture,  Philo  stamls  between 
the  extremists  of  both  sides — those  who  recognize 
only  the  deeper  meaning,  and  those  who  believe  in 
the  letter  only,  of  the  Law.  The  latter  of  these  he 
frequently  reproves.  And  though  he  may  have  in- 
deed chosen  his  illustrations  not  from  any  predeces- 
sors, but  out  of  his  own  consideration  of  the  subject 
(see  the  important  passage,  "De  Circumcisione," 
i.,  ii.  211),  he  himself  testifies  that  he  had  fore- 
runners in  the  art  of  allegorical  interpretation :  and 
that  their  method  was  determined  by  philo-sojiliical 
iiitluence  is  in  itself  quite  probable.  In  the  passjige 
"  De  .Vbraliamo,''  xx.  20,  Philo  mentions  allegorists 
who  had  interpreted  the  whole  history  of  Abraham 
and  Sarah  as  a  moral  allegory.  In  "  De  Specialibus 
Legibus,"  iii.  82,  329,  he  gives  a  philosophical  alle- 
gorization  of  Deut.  xxv.  11  ct  ser/,,  which  he  ascribes 
to  the  vcnerabh-  men  who  consi<lcr  most  of  th(^  utter- 
sinces  of  the  Law  to  be  "manifest  symbols  of  things 
invisible,  and  hints  of  things  inexpressible." 

Many  attem])ts,  then,  to  expound  the  Law  alle- 
sorically  and  to  read  into  it  the  dicta  of  Greek 
philosophy  had  been  made  before  Philo.  That 
such,  however,  were  the  expressions  of  any  regular 
system  of  world-conception  at  all  resembling  a  full- 
Hedged  philosophy  can  not  be  shown,  anil  is  im- 
probable. Philo  borrowed  a  few  such  expositions; 
init  it  can  not  be  said  that  he  adojited  the  greater 
pavt(Dahnc,  I.e.  i.  69).  What  has  been  said  mtist  not 
lie  interpreted  asa  denial  that  any  influence  whatever 
was  exercised  by  philosophy  over  Hellenic  Judaism, 
but  only  as  negativing  the  existence  of  any  system- 
atic and  well-defined  school  of  Jewish-Alexandnan 
thought.  The  degree  in  which  this  influence  was 
exercised,  and  in  what  directions,  will  perhaps  be 
best  exhibited  by  the  consideration  of  the  two  books 
which  are  acknowledged  to  show  it  most  markedly, 


the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  and  IV  Maccabees.  The 
personitication  of  Wistlom  had  its  origin,  of  course, 
in  the  Jewish  mind  (compare  Prov.  i.  20-33):  but 
in  the  delineation  of  its  characteristics  and  effects 
Stoic  inaterialsare  considerably  employed.  Wisdom 
is  represented  as  ei|uivalent  to  the  Stoic  ^vei-un;  like 

it,  WLsdom    permeates   the    universe 

The  Wis-     as  the  original    Divine  Power.     And 

doni  of       though  the  preilominant  religious  hint 

Solomon,     of  the  author  decks  Wisdom  init  with 

a  multitude  of  moral  attributes,  many 
of  them  betray  the  effects  of  Stoic  materialism.  He 
does  not  consider  the  problem  whether  God's  wis- 
dom is  immanent  in  the  universe,  or  whether  it  has 
an  independent  existence.  The  Logos  plays  a  very 
insigniticant  part  beside  Wisilom;  the  latter,  and 
not,  as  in  Stoic  fashion,  the  Logos,  being  consideri'd 
the  source  of  all  human  reason.  What  is  said  of  the 
Logos  (Wisdom,  ix.  1,  xii.  9,  12,  xviii.  15)  is  based 
far  more  comi)letely  on  Biblical  foundations  than  is 
Philo's  philosophy;  and  how  vaguely  the  Logos  is 
conceivetl  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  to  it  is  as- 
signed equal  value  with  Wisdom,  and  that  in  xvi. 
2(i  the  /w/,un  iJfw  (divine  word)  ap])ears  with  iden- 
tical functions.  To  these  ingredients  must  be  added 
the  Platonic  conceptions  of  formless  matter  (xi.  17), 
of  the  preexistence  of  the  soul  (viii.  19,  20),  of  the 
body  as  a  clog  upon  the  soul ;  the  four  cardinal  vir- 
tues, the  Euhemerus  like  criticism  of  jmlytheism 
(xiv.  15-21),  and  the  adoption  of  Epicurean  views  in 
the  description  of  the  godless  (ii.  3-8;  see  Usener, 
"Epicurea,"  p.  227). 

The  author  of  IV  ^Maccabees  presents  very  faint 
reflexes  of  philosophical  influence  in  his  concep- 
tion of  the  divine  beings  and  attributes;  but  his 
psychological  and  ethical  utterances  are  stronglj' 

colored  by  the  later  Stoa.     In  iiis  con- 

I'V  Macca-    sideralion  of  the  emotions,  for  instance, 

bees.         lie  is  (piite  a  Stoic  —  they  are  to  him 

independent  of  the  intellect  —  also  in 
his  theory  of  a  material  soul,  in  his  intellectualism, 
and  in  his  doctrine  of  the  virtues.  Nor  are  sugges- 
tions of  other  philosophical  schools  altogether  want- 
ing; his  view  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  is  un- 
doubtedly tinged  with  Grecian  thought. 

It  can  not,  therefore,  be  supposed  that  either  the 
"  Wisdom  of  Solomon  "  is  a  forerunner  of  Philo,  or 
that  IV  Maccabees  is  a  disciple  of  his  school.  They 
are  both  ipiite  independent,  and  have  nothing  in 
common  with  Philo's  characteristic  metaphysics. 
If  their  intermediary  Wisdom  reminds  one  at  times 
of  Philo's  intermeiiiary  Logos,  a  strong  argument 
a.irainst  the  resemblance  is  the  fact  that  they  are  es- 
sentially different  beings,  with  only  partially  similar 
attribut/'S  and  influence.  Philosophy  is  here  only 
forcibly  interjected  into  the  original  .Jewish  concep- 
tion of  the  universe,  and  shows  it,  even  externally, 
so  to  speak,  by  taking  up  very  little  room  in  it.  .V 
firm  religious  consciousness  far  outweighs  any  mere 
philosophical  interest :  the  national  conception  of  the 
divine  rule  of  the  universe,  forlitied  by  historical 
reflection,  permits  only  scanty  consideration  of  mere 
speculative  questions.  Accordingly,  only  iiassing 
references  are  found  herein,  only  scattered  conijio- 
nents  of  Greek  philosophy;  and  other  writings  of 
Jewish-Hellenic  philosophy,  now  lost,  would  prob- 
ably have  given  no  more,  jlany  works  before  Philo's 
time  may  indeed  have  exercised  a  species  of  prcjiara- 
tory  or  jiioneer  influence,  providing  for  the  consid- 
eration of  the  Jewish  mind  both  philosophical  prob- 
lems and  a  strict  philosophical  phraseology  for  their 
discussion ;  and  may  have  suggested  to  Jewish 
thought,  moreover,  a  reconciliation  and  approxima- 
tion of  Greek  and  Jewish  conceptions.    But  the  first 


371 


THE  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOI'EDIA 


Alexandrian  Philosophy 
Alexandrians  in  Jerusalem 


man  to  foiimihitc  s\icli  luiniioiiizaliun  coiisistintly, 
and  thus  to  f()un<l  a  system,  was  undouljtedly  I'hilo. 
It  remains  now  to  cxamini'  how  tliese  ideas  may 
have  conie  to  I'liilo.  He  never  refers,  as  C'ohn 
sliows,  to  a  written  source:  he  refers  to  liis  prede- 
cessors oidy  in  ixcnenil  terms,  never  hy  name.  Both 
C'ohn  and  Freudeuthal  ("Alexander  I'olyhistor." 
pp.  57  et  aeq.,  Breslau,  \H~T}\  compare  also  Hitter, 
"Philo  und  die  Halaeha,"  Leipsic,  1879),  starting 
from  quite  distinct  standpoints,  liave  arrived  at  tlie 
same  conclusion;  namely,  that  there  must  have 
existed  a  Hellenic  Midrasli,  containinj;;  the  most  dis- 
similar elements  in  irross  confusion.  Since  Greek 
hail  displaced  Ilelirew  in  the  readinj.'  from  tlie  Law 
in  the  Hellenic  synajroirucs.  the  liomi- 
Possible  Ictic  addresses  founded  on  it  must  also 
Hellenic  have  been  in  Greek,  Wittingly  as 
Midrasb.  will  as  unwittingly.  Greek  concep- 
tions must  have  been  infused  into 
these  sermons.  In  one  i)Uice,  for  instance,  it  might 
lie  desired  to  liarmonize  two  conceptions  whose  in- 
herent mutual  contradiction  was  hardly  suspected, 
because  so  much  that  was  new  had  ah<'ady  been 
added  to  the  ancestral  inheritance,  being  drawn  in 
daily  with  the  surroumling  air.  Here  woidd  arise 
at  once  that  mental  division,  that  opposition  of 
parlies,  wliich  has  already  been  mentioni'd  as  l)eing 
so  often  tcstitied  to  liy  I'hilo.  Traveling  teachers 
and  students  would  I'lTect  a  lively  interchange  of 
I'alestinian  and  Hc-llcnic  views  on  exegesis;  and 
many  Greek  ideas,  no  doubt,  thus  found  their  way 
to  tiie  Palestinians  through  the  Helleidc  .Midrasli. 
( )ne  can  indeed  consider  Philo's  works  in  part  as  the 
jirccipilated  de|iosit,  or  crystallization,  of  these  pub- 
lic addris.ses  (just  as  the  Talmud  is  the  great  "hold- 
all "  for  the  (liscu.ssi<insof  the  rabbinical  colleges  last- 
ing over  many  centuries;  Cohn.  p.  h'i^t).  Some  of 
his  writings  are  actually  nothing  but  such  homilies 
(Freudeuthal,  "Das  Vierte  Maccubilerbuch,"  pp.  (5  et 
eel/..  Ki7  il  kh/.). 

I'hilo  borrowed  his  method  from  the  synagogue 
sermons.  The  allegorical  mode  of  interpretation 
was  a  means  toward  demonstrating  specitically  the 
presnppo.sed  identity  of  Jewish  and  Greek  wisdom; 
this  method  was  the  recognized  one  in  vogue  among 
(Jreeks,  anil  was  the  instrument  most  skilfully  em- 
ployed by  the  Stoics  to  reconcile  the  ))o]udar  religion 
with  iihllosophy.  It  was  an  excellent  instrument 
whirewilh  to  build  a  common  foundalinn  of  Hellenic 
culture  fur  all  that  agglonii  lalion  of  contlicting 
philosojihies  and  religions,  and  to  make  jiropaganda 
for  eosmii|)olilauism.  It  wasccrlainly  a  priori  prob- 
able, and,  moreover,  demonstrable  from  a  whole  se- 
ries of  etymologies  and  allegorical  explanations  of 
the  names  of  heathen  deities,  nientioiied  by  Philo, 
that  he  was  aei|uaintid  with  this  method  of  in- 
lerprelation,  as  applied  philoso|ihi<ally  to  Greek 
mylliology,  and  particularly  to  Hdnier;  just  as  liis 
Greek  successor  Origen,  according  to  the  testimony 
of  Porphyry,  learned  of  It  from  the  Stoic  Cliieremon, 
Hut  w  iiat  distinguishes  Philo  above  all  his  Jew- 
ish predecessors  (as  far  as  oiu-  can  judge  of  these)  is 
the  fact  that  he  collects  the  .scattered  elements  of 
this  metlKMl.  and  tries  to  give  them  a  systematic  eoor 
dinalion,  in  his  mind,  at  least  ;  not  that  be  has  merely 
picked  up  and  adopted  philosophical 
System  ideas  from  all  sides,  but  that  he  has 
of  consistently  molilcd   his  whole  exege- 

Philo.  sis  upon  detlnite  philosophical  lines. 
That  his  philosophy  can  be  described 
in  lis  essentials  without  naming  any  specitically 
Jewish  constituents  as  such  is  the  best  priKif  (as  has 
Well  been  observed)  how  thoroughly  lie  had  become 
sat  united  with  the  inlliienceof  the  dominant  thoiiglit 


of  his  day,  tliough  still  rooted  in  Judaism,  and  re- 
maining the  Jew  in  liis  own  consciousness  and  in 
his  manner  of  dovetailing  his  ideas  into  Scrii)tural 
passages.  However  essential  to  the  understanding 
of  his  mode  of  thought  the  consideration  of  this 
Jewish  liomiletic  inethoil  may  be,  it  is  only  his  thor- 
ough iiermeation  by  Greek  philosophy  which  makes 
him  tile  master  in  it  that  he  is — not  master  alone 
indeed,  but  actually  its  only  literary  representative 
of  any  account.  It  is  probably  not  mere  accident 
that  no  similar  litenilure,  either  before  or  after  him, 
is  known  of,  f'hrislian  philosojihy,  germinating  in 
earlier  days,  and  liaslening  in  Alexandria  toward  its 
blossoming,  owed  much  to  Philo:  its  nourishment 
was  dniwn  from  his  melhod  and  his  ideas.  It  is 
not  likely  that  Christian  thinkers,  had  there  been 
any  other  considerabli'  representative  of  this  philos- 
ophy, would  have  allowed  his  thoughts  and  sugges- 
tions to  escape  them,  Philo  seems  io  have  been  the 
only  one  to  transmit  to  the  outer  world,  in  .skilled 
literary  form,  the  ideas  nurtured  by  the  Synagogue 
aud  matured  by  him. 

Hence  -Vlexandrian  Philosophy,  in  the  strict  .sense 
of  the  words,  seems  entirely  centered  in  Philo's 
name  and  eonlined  to  him.  Xor  did  he  found  any 
school.  Greek  ideas,  it  is  true,  penetrated,  after 
him,  into  Talmndie  writings,  but  probably  through 
other  cliaunels  than  Philo.  The  prophet  had  no 
honor  in  his  own  country;  his  name  would  have 
disaiipeared.  because  his  philoso])liy  led  away  from 
the  |iuie  monotheism  of  the  Jew,  had  not  his  men- 
tal bent  persisted  in  the  development  of  Christian 
doctrine. 

Biuliih:k.vpiiv  :  A.  Cfn'irpr.  Kritiwhr  Genchiehte  (Ick  Ur- 
chri.-'li  iitlniins,  I.  I'hWruud  dif  Alrrntulriiiischr  Thritsti- 
(*ii,  stiiinrari,  ls;)l ;  A.  K.  Duline,  llcsihkhlUchr  IMmtcl- 
huHi  ill  r  Jliiluich-AkxaiulriiiiKchi'ti  lit'tiui'intfjthibutiiijhU, 
Halle.  mU:  v..  Zi'lliT.  Dir  /'/liliwi.j./oc  id  r  Grieihiu.  M  m1., 
111.  'J.  i4-'-tlK,  U'lixsle,  ISSl  :  f.  Sli'jffrleil,  Phib,  vim  Alfxnii- 
ilrii  n  fl/.i  Au.iUuiyd'-'*  -'!•  T-  Ji-na.  IsT.'i;  .1.  Druinnionil,  i'hilo 
JuiUruji.nrthr  Ji'Wish-Ah'xamlriiin  /Vm7(»w»p/ii/. -vols.. I>en- 
ildii.  l.v>l  ;  H.  Hi'ls,  t-^fvmi  sxtr  Iff*  orii/iiu'w  c/t-  ta  I'hili»tiii>hrc 
Judiii-Ahriiuilrim.  I'lirls.  ISSKI;  E.  Herrlol,  I'hilim  le  Jul/, 
Eumi  Kiir  I'fjviilt  Jiiiir  (rAlixiiiiilrif.  Parts,  ISilS;  S<'lian'r, 
(iench.  III. ;),  I-elpsle,  I.S1IS  (iimtalns  a  fall  hlbllotfraphy  ef  Ihe 
subject)  :  L.  Cohn,  I'hiln  von  .l(f raiidrin.  In  Xriie  Jnhr- 
lilhher  fUr  dan  Klaesiclie AUeHImm,  1.514-51(1, Ltliislo,  1S!I8. 

P.  W. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SHIPS  :  The  sliips  of  Ihe 
Alexaudriaiisure  meiilioned  several  times  in  IheMish- 
nah  as  used  by  Jews  (Kelim.  xv.  1 ;  Olialol.  viii.  1,  '.i). 
They  ate  described  as  containing  large  receptacles 
for  drinking  watir  for  long  voyages.  These  ves.sils 
carried  grain  from  Egypt  to  Home;  such  a  ship, 
"Isis,"  is  described  by  Lucinn  ("I)e  Navigatione." 
1-14).  It  was  a  three-masted  ves.sel,  180  feet  long, 
more  than  45  feet  beam,  and  44  fei't  depth  of  hold. 
Mention  is  often  made  in  Greek  and  in  Komaii  litera- 
ture of  Ihe  large  .Mexandrian  Ships  engaged  in  the 
gmin-traile  (See  references  in  "  Novum  Teslainentum 
Gracuni."  ed.  Wetstein.  1752.  il.  (i;t.S  on  Acts,  xxvii. 
fl;  Maiiiuanlt,  "Das  Privatlebeu  der  HOmer,"  18.83, 
ii.  ;!SH-:i!(!i).  K.  Sell. 

ALEXANDRIANS    IN    JERUSALEM:    In 

consei|Ui-iM'e  ip|'  the  acti\e  icliil Ions  uf  the  .Mexan- 
drian Jews  with  I'alesline.  many  of  them  made  their 
permanent  home  in  Jerusideiii.  Kill  since  they  had 
lieeii  accuslonied  to  hearing  the  synagogue  services 
in  Greek,  and  had  brought  with  them  many  other 
peculiar  customs,  they  formeii  n  separate  iMimmii- 
iiity  in  Jeriisalein.  und  built  a  synagogue  of  their 
own.  There  exists  double  pnxif  of  tliis.  Acconl- 
ing  to  Acts.  vi.  U,  there  arose  ngninst  Ihe  yoiinn 
Christian  congregation  "certain  of  the  synagogue 
which  is  culled  Ihe  synagogue  of  Ihe  Libertines,  aiid 


Alexandrium 
AlflEmdari 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


372 


Ovrcninns,  ami  AlexiuKirians.  und  of  llit-m  of  C  ilicm 
and  of  Asia."  Ualil)iui(al  sources  rclali-  that  Hal)l)i 
Klea/.ar.  son  of  Zadok.  t)oii.i:l.t  a  synajroKiio  of  the 
Mexamlrians  in  .Icnisiikni  (Tosi-f.,  Mcjl.  iii.  [i\\  o; 
Ver  Meg  iii.  7:Wl.  Hal).  Mesj. '.'li.;  meutionsa'-byna- 
coirneof  the  D"DniD"  "  lii<-li  nioilern  scliohirsoxjilani 
is  •' Synagogue  of  the  Men  of  Tarsus  or  of  f  ilicia  ^ 
(Derenbourtf.  "Essai  sur  rilistoire  ile  la  I'alestine. 
p  263:  Neubauer,  "G.  T."  pp.  293.  315).  I  he  o  der 
explanation  is,  "Svnacoirue  of  the  Coppersmiths. 
At  all  events,  the  leading  of  Tosefla  and  the  Jeru- 
saleni  Talmud  is  to  be  preferred  to  that  ot  the 
Babylonian.  ^-  »cn. 

AIiEXANDBrCTM  :  A  fortified  castio  in  Pales- 
tine situaird  on  one  of  the  mountains  between 
Scvthopolis  and  Jerusalem,  and,  judging  from  its 
name  probably  founded  by  King  Alexander  Jan- 
nicus  (10-4-77  li.c).  Alexandra  kept  her  treasures 
at  Alexandrium  as  well  as  at  Hyrcania  and  .Maeha^- 
rus  (Josephus,  "Ant."  xiii.  10,  4;  4).  When,  in  the 
year  04,  Pompcv  marched  past  Pella  and  ^cy^hoI)- 
olis  to  Coresr,  on  the  nortlu'ru  boundary  of  Judca. 
Aristobulus  II.  fell  baok  on  Alexandrium  ("  Ant." 
xiy.  3,  §4;  "B.  J."  i.  6,  i=  4).  Arisiobuliis'  son 
Vlcxander  ivas  besieged  there  by  Gabinius,  and 
when  he  saw  that  he  could  hold  out  no  longer, 
he  surrendered  Alexandrium  as  well  as  Hyrcania 
and  Macha?rus  to  the  Uomaiis,  who  on  the  advice 
of  Alexander's  mother  demolished  them,  lest  thoy 
should  become  strongholds  in  any  subsequent  wars 
("B.  J."  i.  8,  §  o).  Herod's  youngest  brother, 
Pheroras  again*  fortified  and  provisi<med  Alcxan- 
.Irium  ("Ant."  xiv.  15,  §4;  "  B.  J."  i.  16  S3). 
The  fortress  was  finally  destrayed,  probably  by  \  es- 
i)asian  or  Titus.  Alexandrium  is  supposed  by  some 
to  be  the  i>rescnt  KefrStuna:  others  look  for  it  near 
Karn  8artabe,  on  the  border  of  the  plain  of  Jordan, 
north  of  Jericho. 

Bibliography:  BoettKer,  Tniin,irnin.isrl,-}ii.-tm-iscltc.i  L,\ri- 
cm  zu  (Icn  Scliriftch  ,1,-s  FUuiir,  J,,s,i>h,i.->.  p.  lil  Leiiwlc. 
IS-9;  Schflrer,  Geso/i.i.Kl:  liaed.k.r,  I'al.Mina  uml  t.)/i  len, 
3d  ed.,  p.  169.  S.   Ku. 

ALEXIS  MIKHAILOVICH :  Second  czar  of 
the  Romanof  dvnastv;  Imrn  at  Moscow,  March  29, 
lli'.>9-  died  February  9,  lOTf!.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  ]\Iichael  Fiodoiovich,  July  21),  1645.  During 
his  reign  a  considerable  number  of  Jews  lived  in 
IMoscow  and  the  interior  of  Russia.  In  a  work  of 
travels,  written  at  that  time,  but  published  later,  and 
bearing  the  title,  "Ueise  nacli  dem  Xorden  "  (Leip- 
sic  1706),  the  author  states  (p.  234)  that,  owing  to 
the  influence  of  a  certain  Stephan  von  Gadcn,  the 
<  zar's  Jewish  physician  in  ordinary,  the  number  of 
Jews  considerablV  increased  in  Moscow.  The  same 
information  is  contained  in  the  work,  "The  Present 
State  of  Uussia"  (1058-66),  by  Samuel  Collins,  who 
was  also  a  physician  at  the  court  of  the  czar. 

From  the  edicts  issued  by  Alexis  Mikhailovich, 
it  appears  that  the  czar  often  granted  the  Jews  pass- 
ports with  red  seals  (//osiKlarcr;/  z/iiihrainiiji/a  f/ni- 
moll/),  without  which  no  foreigners  could  l)c  admitted 
to  the  interior;  and  that  thev  traveled  without  re- 
striction to  Moscow,  dealing  in  cloth  and  jewelry, 
and  even  received  from  his  court  commissions  to 
procure  various  articles  of  merchandise.  Thus,  in 
1672,  the  Jewish  merchants  Samuel  Jakovlev  and 
his  comiianions  were  commissioned  at  JIoscow  to  go 
abroad  and  buy  Hungarian  wine.  Again  an  edict, 
issued  March  17,  16.54,  instructed  a  party  of  Lithua- 
nian Jews  to  proceed  from  Kaluga  to  Nijni->.ov- 
gorod,  and  as  a  protection  thev  received  an  escort  of 
twenty  sharpshooters  ("Polnoe  Sobranie  Zakonov 
— Ru^ian  Code— I.  No.  148). 


Alexis  Mikhailovich  afterward  expelled  the  Jews 
fiDin  the  newlva(<iuire(l  Lithuanian  ami  Polish  cities; 
from  Mohihvin  10.54:  Wilna,  1058:  ami  Kiev  in  100(1. 
But  this  maybe  ascribed  to  the  desire  of  tli<'  govern- 
ment to  conciliate  the  Christian  inerchanls  of  that 
territory.     It  was  not  long  after  the  horrible  massa- 
cre of  "tiie  Lithuanian  Jews  by  Chmelnicki   (lIMs- 
49).  that  the  propaganda  of  Shabbethai  Zebi— which 
spread  Ihrouirh  the  south  and  southwest  of  the  Lithu- 
iinianPolish'Uiii'rdom— had  probably  also  converteil 
many  membeis  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church.    This 
induced  the  Little-Russian  monk  Joanniki  Golyatov- 
ski  to  write  his  book,  "  Mes.siya  Praveilny  "  (  Messiah, 
the  All-righli-ous),  which  is  replete  w  itli  all  kinds  (if 
accusiitions  against  the  Jews.     So  in  1071.  the  patri- 
arch Nikon,  in  a  letter  to  Alexis  Mikhailovich,  com- 
iilainsof  the  monks  among  the  converted  Jews  of  the 
Voskresenski  moiiasterv,  saving  that  they  "again  be- 
gan to  foster  the  old  Jewish  faith,"  as  well  as  to  de- 
moralize the  young  friars.  ,     _      ,.  , 
The  fact  is  mentioned  in  the  w  ork  of  the  English 
Ambassador  Carlisle,  that   under  Alexis  Mikhailo- 
vich  Catholics  and  Jews  were  driven  from  Russia. 
An  edict  issued  March  19,  1055,  refers  to  the  Lithua- 
nian-Jewish prisoners  of  war,  who  wi'iv  to  be  sent 
to  Kaluga  by  the  bovar  Prince  Alexis  Trubetzkoi, 
These  aggregated  108   families,  3  widows,  and  21 
sinn-le  men;  and  in  adiiilion  there  were  92  Jews  to 
be  sent  from  Bryansk  to  Kaluga  by  Prince  Volkoii- 
ski  ("  Rcgestv  i  Kadpisi,"  No.  957).    By  the  treaty  of 
Andrussevarrauged  with  John  Casimirof  Poland  bv 
Alexis  Mikhailovich  in  1007,  the  Jews,who  tlii'U  livid 
in  the  towns  and  districts  that  became  Russian  ter- 
ritory  were  permitted  to  remain  "on  the  side  of  the 
Russian  czar,"  under  Russian  rule,  if  they  did  mjt 
choose  to  remain  under  Polish  rule("Regcsty  i  Nad- 
iiisi  "  No.  1055).    Jewish  wives  of  Greek  Ortlio<lox 
Russians  were  permitted  to  remain  with  their  hus- 
bands without  being  forced  to  change  their  religion 
Altogether,  taking'into  consideration  the  hatred  of 
forei"-nersanioiig'the  Russian  population  of  his  time, 
it  is  evident  that  Alexis  Mikhailovich  was  kindly  dis- 
posed toward  the  Jews. 

BiBLiocutAPiiV:  K.>stoniiir..v,  Uu.'^liatHt  rf""""  '!?►«'",--■ 
,,i.v,niu;../.)i  .'„.,  <;i„vii,,slilkh  D,it<mUU,  a.  !>?-__.. I.. - 
•!TS)  stlVleiTilmrtr,  ISO:  .Solovyev,  M'lnna  Ituf.-n.  2dvd..\u\s. 
xi.-xlli..  St.  I'elHrsburu:  y(.i;<»(H  i  iV<..ly">'.  '-t-  t'f,*-'"*''';^?- 
1S99-  J.  Bereliin,  Mork-lifikam  ZamiicMa.  in  1  <»<.  lKK.f. 
Nos.  .">-«,  pp.  i')0-2.i»:  N.  (inidovslil,  Utnushcnnia  li  i  ci- 
'rciiaiiu'eU:.  »l.  Petersburg,  iml. 

ALEXnjS.     See  Ai.EKSET. 

ALFAHAN,  DON  ZULEMA  (SOLOMON)  : 

Spanish  chief  rabbi  over  tlie  eomii;uiiilies  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  thearchieiiiscopal  sec  of  Toledo.  Don 
Pedro  Touorio.  the  archbishop,  removed  him  from 
otTice  for  neirlect  of  duty  in  the  year  1388,  and  ap 
pointed  in  his  place  Haven  (Hayyini),  the  archbish- 
op's private  physician,  described  in  the  document 
as  "a  good,  prudent,  and  very  learned  man,  de- 
scended from  a  ffood  family."  The  deed  of  api)oint- 
mcnt  is  givi'U  in"j.  Amadosde  losRios,  "Ilistoriadc 
los  Judios."  ii.  577  ('?  .vrr/.  M.  K. 

ALFAKAR  (Arabic,  IXSS^X;  Hebrew,  nsi'n 
"The  Potter"):  The  name  of  one  of  the  oldest  Span- 
ish-Jewish families,  distinguished  for  its  social  ji"- 
sition  and  scholarship:  orisinally  of  Granada,  and 
subsequently  of  Toledo.  An  Alfakar,  who  wrote  a 
treatise   "On   Salvation,"   was  a  contemporary  of 

Vbraham  ibn  Ezra,  who  mentions  him  in  his  com- 
mentary on  Daniel.  Maimonides,  a  few  years  beftire 
his  deiith.  also  mentions  the  venerable  Ibn  Matka 

■Vlfa  Hym  or  Havviin  Alfakar  of  Granada  is  re- 
ferred  to"  by  Alfonso  de  Spina  as  being  physician 


373 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alexandrium 
Alfandari 


ill  ordinary  to  Kinp  Alfonso.  At  about  the  same 
lime  (ll'ji))  tlicro  lived  in  Toledo  tlie  physician 
Jiisepli  Allakar,  "the  learned  saj^e,  the  great  tiasi 
and  physician,"  wlio  was  instrumental  in  supprcss- 
inir  the  Karaites  in  Spain  ("  Hev,  fit.  .luivos,"  xviii. 
O',';  "Jew.  Quart.  Hev."  xi.  ;j<»0).  He  was  tlie  father 
of  Judah  Alfakar  and,  ])rol)ably,  al.so  of  Abraham 
Alfakar.  These  two  were  considered  the  most  cele- 
hraled  of  llieir  line. 

Abraham  Alfakar :  A  highly  lionored  member 
of  the  court  of  Alfonso  VIII.  of  Clislile;  died  in  Jan- 
uary, li31  or  \-i:Vi),  in  Toledo.  He  was  a  master  of 
Arabic,  and  a  versatile  poet.  He  wrote  a  eulogy  (see 
Makkari,  "  Analectes  snr  I'llistoire  des  Arabes  d'Es- 
pagne,"  ii.  3.J.5;  >I.  Ilarlniann.  "Das  ArabLsche  Stro- 
phcngedicht,"  lS!)(i.  p.  4I>)  on  his  royal  master,  who 
honored  him  with  a  mission  to  Abu  Yakub  Aliiiu- 
stanzir,  sullan  of  Morocco. 

Not  less  distinguislieil  was  Judah  Alfakar  (died 
123.J).  who  issaid  to  have  been  physiiian  in  onlinary 
to  King  Ferdinand  III.  Endowed  with  a  kiiiiintei- 
lect,  lie  accjuired  an  excellent  scienlilic  education, 
and  exercised  great  inllucnce  in  Toledo.  In  the  con- 
troversy concerning  the  writings  of  ^laimonides,  he 
took  sides  with  the  opponents  of  the  philosopher. 
The  aged  David  Kinihi  altempled  to  win  him  over 
to  (lie  |iarty  of  Jlaimunidcs.  and  uiiilertook  a.^ourney 
to  Toledo  for  this  jiurpose,  but  falling  ill  on  tlie  road, 
Iviml.ii  addressed  a  letter  to  Alfakar,  which  began 
with  the  following  words:  "O  Judah,  thy  brethren 
offer  thee  homage  from  afar;  thou  art  adorned  with 
■wisdom,  greatness,  and  modesty."  But  Judah,  who 
was  tilled  with  Castilian  intolerance,  repelled  bis  ad- 
vances. A  second  letter  from  Kiml.ii  brought  from 
Judah  a  most  emphatic  answer,  in  whicli  he  unspar- 
ingly condemned  the  attempt  of  M.iimonides  to  rec- 
oncile the  Greek  or  Aristotelian  i)liilo,>iopliy  with  Ju- 
ilaisni,  and  .set  up  a  canon  which  several  centuries 
later  was  approved  by  Spinoza.  lie  reproached  Jlai- 
monides  Willi  iH-nnitting  himself  tobe  intluenced  by 
mere  pliiloso|)bical  hypotheses.  lie  admitted  that 
Maimonides  was  a  great  man,  and  entitled  to  much 
respect  for  the  good  he  had  done;  but  contended  that 
he  was  only  a  human  lieiiig.  and  that  blindly  to  ac- 
cept his  errors  would  be  sinful.  The  harsh  manner 
ill  which  Alfakar  treated  the  universally  respected 
Kimhi  aroused  the  outspoken  disapproval  even  of 
his  own  friends. 

IliiiLiociini'iiv:  Zimz,  '/..  CI.  p.  428;  A.  fielRcr,  DimJudenlhum 
mill  Si  iiii  (icyrliiihli:.  III.  tii et  kci;.  ;  OfJir  Nihinitil,  II.  17-' ; 
<;rillz,  r;i»(/i.  <;.  Jmlin,  vll,  itj  ct  «c(j.;  Steliuclibelilfr,  iii^r. 
Uilil.xla.  41. 

M.  K. 
ALFALAS,  MOSES.  See  Ai.i'.\i..\s,  Moses. 
ALFANDARI :  .V  family  r)f  eastern  rabbis 
)>l'i>niini'nl  ii]  tlie  sevi'Uteenth  and  eighteenth  ceiitu- 
riis,  fdund  in  Smyrna,  Constantinople,  and  Jerusa- 
lem. The  name  may  be  ilerived  from  a  Spanish 
locality,  perhaps  from  .Mlanibni.  The  following  is 
a  list  of  the  ihief  members  of  the  family; 

Ja(*ol) 

I 
l.luyylm,  milluir  "f  "  MukrIiI  ino-ltwilill,"  dliHl  ntiout  IWO 

I 


Jacob,  nullicir  »r  "  Miizuil  nie-Eab,' 
illc<l  ntwut  lllllll 

I 
Elijah,  rubbl  In  Cunntanllnople 


iMinr  liaplmi-l,  dliHl 
nb<iiit  liniu 

I 
llavviin,  uiilhtir  nf 
'•  K»}\  Dnt  " 

I 
Aartin  tteii  MdW's. 
cllfil  |;T4 


MinibiTs  of  this  family  are  to  be  found  to-day  in 
Constantinople  and  iu  lieiriit.     A  Portuguese  family 


of  the  name  Aljihandery  still  exists  in  Paris  and 
Avignon.  At  the  latter  place  there  was  a  physician, 
Moses  Alphandery,  in  1500  ("Kev.  £t.  j"uives," 
xxxiv.  •i.i^i)  and  a  Lyon  Alphandcric,  in  l.'j.'iH  (il/id. 
vii.  28(1 1.  Compare  the  names  Moses  "|'nniEi)K 
(Xeubaucr,  "Cat.  Bodl.  Hebr.  MSS."  Xo.  2129)  and 
Aaron  i3^^{^J^^K  (I'lnd.  Xo.  lOSQ).  For  a  possible 
e.\|danatioii  of  the  name,  see  Steinschneider,  "Jew. 
Quart.  Kev."  xi.  ngi.  In  addition  to  the  persons 
mentioned  below,  there  is  known  a  Solomon  Alfan- 
dari (Valencia,  1367),  whose  son  Jacob  assisted  Sam- 
uel Zarza  in  translating  the  "Sefer  ha-'Azamim"  of 
pseiido-ibn  Ezra  from  the  Arabic  into  Hebrew.  A 
merchant.  Isaac  Alfandari,  was  wrecked  in  1529 
on  the  Nubian  coast  (Zunz,  "Z.  G."  p.  425;  Stein- 
.Schneider,  "IIel)r.  I'ebers."  p.  -148).  D. — G. 

Aaron  ben  Moses  Alfandari :  Talmudic  -writer ; 
born  in  Smyrna  about  17(10;  died  in  Hebron  in  1774. 
He  emigrated  to  Palestine  in  his  old  age,  where 
he  met  Aziilai.  He  was  the  author  of  two  works: 
"Yad  Aharon  "  (Aaron's  Hand),  a  collection  of  notes 
on  "  Jur  Oral.i  Hayyim  "  (the  first  part  of  which  was 
published  in  Smyrna  in  17;i.1.  and  the  second  in  Salo- 
nica  in  1701)  and  on"Tur  Eben  ha  'Ezer"  (Smyrna, 
1 7oO-G()) ;  also  of  "  Mirkebet  liaMishneb  "  ( The  Second 
Chariot  I,  a  treatise  on  the  first  part  of  Maimonides' 
"  Yad  ha-IIazakali."  His  grandson,  Isimc  Ardit, 
wrote  a  eulogy  on  him  iu  his  "  Yekar  ha-'Erek,"  Sa- 
lonica,  183(). 

BinLionRAPiiT :  Azulal,  Shem  Ita-GeiloUm,  s.v. ;  Michael,  Or 
lui-lliiiiiiiiii.  No.  302;  Zedner,  Cat.  lldir.  Iioo}i«  Brit.  ^Tim. 

IP.  4(1. 

Elijah  Alfandari  :  Writer  on  matrimonial  law; 
rabliiat  d  instant  iiioplc  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth and  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
He  luiblislied  I  wo  workson  matrimonial  law,  "Seder 
Eliyahu  I{iibbali  we-Zulta  "  (The  Great  and  Small 
Order  of  Elijah).  Constantinople,  171!1,  and"Miktjib 
me-Eliyaliu  "(A  Letter  from  Eli.iah),  Conslantiiiople, 
1723.  His  cousin.  Hayyim  Alfandari,  the  Younger, 
in  a  question  of  law  which  he  siibmitled  to  him, 
refers  to  him  as  a  great  authority  in  rabbinical  law 
("Muzzal  nie-Esh,"  p.  39). 

Bibliorr.(piiy:  Azulal,  Shem ha-OedMm, s.  v.:  Slelnscbnelder, 
Cat.  UiKll.  col.  l»s, 

Sayyim  ben  Isaac  Raphael  Alfandari  the 
Tounger  :  Habbi  in  Constanlinoplediiring  the  latter 
half  of  the  seventeenth  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  his  old  age  he  went  to  Pales- 
tine, where  he  died.  He  was  tile  author  of  "  Esh 
Dat"  (A  Fiery  I.aw),  a  collection  of  liomiliesprintetl 
togelher  with  bis  uncle's  "Muzzal  me-Esli  "  in  Con- 
sttiiitinople,  171H.  Several  short  treatist's  by  him 
are  published  in  the  worksof  others.  Aziilai  .speaks 
very  highly  of  him  as  a  scholar  and  as  a  preacher. 

BlBUOnRAniv:  MIclini'l.  Orfi(i-/r(iui/lni,  No.  854;  Stcliisohiicl- 
dcr,  r<i(.  HikII.  ixiI.  SSI. 

5ayyin»  ben  Jacob  Alfandari  the  Elder:  Tal 

miidie  leaelurand  w  ritir;  linriiiii  I5sM'  was  leticher 
at  Coiislantinopli' in  ltll^<;  died  in  ItitO.  He  was  the 
pujiil  of  .Varon  ben  .loscph  Sasoii.  Some  of  his  re- 
sponsa  were  published  ii.  Ilie"Maggid  ineHeshit  " 
(  He  Tells  from  tin'  llegiiining),  Constniitinople,  1711), 
which  eoiitaiiis  aN<i  the  responsa  of  his  son  Isaac 
Kapliael,  and  which  wasedileil  by  his  gnuxisoii  Hay- 
yim bell  Isaac  Kaphacl.  Hisnovellie  on  s<'venil  Till 
inudic  Iri'atises  are  still  extant  in  muniiscript. 

Dini.IoiiKAI'IIY  :  Axiilnl,  .</icin  hii-dVidilfni,  n.  r. :  MIrhnH,  Or 
fi(i-/.r(i|/i/fm.  No.  US):  iiu-liuclincldcr.  i 'al.  U-kII.  No.  4«lii!<. 


Alfoil 


nin 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOI'EDl.V 


374 


Isaac  Raphael  Alfandari :  Son  of  Huyvim,  and 

fallimir  lla\  \  ill!  llir  VdUMiri-r;  ilicdiihoiil  Ki'.Hl.  lie 
lived  iii  t'oMsiaiitiiKiplc  in  llic  srvciitfcnlli  cunlury. 
Some  of  liis  irsponsii  urc  piililisliiMl  in  Ids  fiilluTs  col- 
Ifctioii,  "Mags"''  iiic  Hcshit."  C'onstiuitiuople,  1710. 
BiiiLiooRAPiiY:  Bt'iijaoili,  r>z<ir  lia-Sefartm,  p.  2111;  Ztilut-r. 
Oi(.  Helir.  Iliiiihii  llrit.  ilim.s.v. 

Jacob  ben  Hayyirn  Alfandati:  Talnmdic  writer 
and  ralil)i  in  Cniislantinopli'  in  the  seventeenth  een- 
tliry.  In  HiS^U  he  refers  to  himself  as  an  old  man  ("  Mu/.- 
zal  Mic-Esh,"  p.  fi).  lie  was  the  author  of  a  volume  of 
responsiV  edited  by  his  nephew  Ilayyim  the  Younger 
(Constantinople.  ITl.'^),  entitled  ">lu/.zal  me-Esli '' 
(Plucked  from  the  Fire),  because  it  was  saved  from 
a  contlairralion  which  consumed  mostof  llieauthor's 
manuscripts.  Others  of  his  responsii  arc  printed  in 
the  collection  of  his  father  and  in  that  of  Joseph 
Kazabi  (Constantinople,  173(i;  sec  Stcinschneider, 
'•Cat.  Hodl."  col.  IIT',1).  D. 

ALFAatJIN  (also  Alfaquein,  Alfaqui,  Al- 
fuqui) :  A  surname  iriven  in  Spain  generally  to  the 
physician,  and  als<i  to  the  secretary  and  interjircter. 
of  the  king.  In  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Provence  it 
corresponds  to  the  name  "hakim,"  which  is  the 
Arabic  for  "physician"  or  "sage"  ("Jew.  Quart. 
Rev."  X.  531).  "  M.   K. 

AXFAaUIN,  AARON:    A  physician  at  Pam 
plona.  who  irceivnl  from  Charles  III.  of  Navarre  in 
14i:{  a  monthly  stipend  of  il  florins,  as  a  reward  for 
certain  successful  cures  aud  as  an  encouragement  for 
the  future. 
Bnn.iooR.vPHV:  Jacolis,  ^imrees.  p.  114.  No.  liKIT, 

M.  K. 

ALFAaUIN,  JOSEPH:  A  jihysician  to  Don 
Sancho  of  Navarre  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  col- 
league of  Don  Moses  ben  Samuel.  In  gratitude  for 
his  services,  the  king  presented  him  with  a  jiortion 
of  the  revenues  deriveil  from  the  Jews  of  Tudela. 
BiBLiouHAPnv  :  De  lus  Rlcis,  llixtnria  ik  his  Judiiis,  11.  'Ml. 

M.  K. 

AXFAaUIN,  MOSSE  (MOSES) :  A  physician 
of  Per|iignaii ;  meiitiniird  in  i:!77. 

BiBLIOGUAPHV  :  Rev.  El.  Juivcs,  xv.  37.  xvl.  180. 

M.  K. 

ALFAftTJIN,  SAMUEL,  OF   PAMPLONA: 

A  physician  who,  in  IM7!I,  tn'aled  an  English  knight. 
Sir  Thomas  Trivet,  w  ith  such  skill  and  success,  that 
at  the  instance  of  the  knight  the  King  of  Xavarre 
presented  him  with  a  bouse  in  the  Jewry  of  Pam- 
plona (Jacobs,  "Sources,"  Nos.  1480,  1519). 

M,  K. 

ALFAatriN,  SOLOMON :  A  physician  to  King 
Sancho  the  Wise  of  Navarre,  who  valued  the  for- 
mer's art  so  highly  that  he  presented  him  with 
seven  acres  of  land  and  twelve  diets  of  vineyards  at 
Mosquera  and  Fontcllas  (two  villages  near  Tudelal. 
and  granted  him  the  "infanzon  privileges"  (privi- 
leges of  the  nobility)  for  the  whole  kingdom.  In 
1 193,  his  royal  master  transferred  to  him  the  owner- 
ship of  the  baths  situated  near  the  Albazarcs  gate  at 
Tudela  (Kayserling,  "Gesch.  d.  Jndeu  in  Spanien," 
i.  20  cf  .«(•(!.).  M.   K. 

ALFARABI,    ABU   NASR   MOHAMMED: 

Arabian  philosopher;  bcnn  in  Farab,  Turkestan, 
about  S70;  died  in  Damascus  about  9.50.  He  stud- 
ied at  Bagdad,  then  the  seat  of  Greek  philosophical 
learning,  and  traveled  in  Syria  and  in  Egypt.  The 
influence  exerted  by  his  philosojihical  works  im- 
pressed itself  permanently  upon  .Jewish  literature. 


S(mH'  of  liis  writings  are  extant  only  in  their  He- 
brew versions.  lie  is  the  author  of  many  cssjiys  on 
the  "Logic"  of  Aristotle,  of  an  introduction  to  his 
"Metai>hysics, "  and  of  commentaries  on  his  "  Phys 
ics"  and  "Xikomachean  Ethics."  Of  his  original 
works  the  following  are  the  best  known:  (1)  "The 
Hook  of  Principles"  (Sefer  ha-Tchalol),  tnuislaled 
into  Hebrew  by  -Moses  ben  Sanuiel  ibn  Tibbon,  12-18, 

anil  edited  hv  Filipowskv  in  the  Year- 

His  Hook  "Sefer" hil-Asif"(l.s,-)()-51).    This 

Works.       work  is  a  <c>ncise  i)resentation  of  the 

enlire  Peripatetic  philosophy.  In  it 
Alfarabi  discusses  the  six  principles  of  all  Being,  and 
the  unity  of  God:  (1)  The  divine  principle,  or  the 
jirimary  cause, — which  is  a  unity ;  (2)  the  secondary 
causes,  or  the  intellecis  of  thccelcslial  spheres;  (3) 
the  active  intellect;  (4)  the  s(nil ;  (5)  form;  (fi)  ab- 
stract matter.  Oidy  the  lirst  of  these  principles  is 
absolute  unity  ;  the  others  representing  multiplicity. 
The  tirst  tliice  principles  are  not  bodies,  nor  are  they 
indirect  relation  wilh  bodies;  neither  are  the  last 
three  l)y  themselves  bodies,  they  are  only  luiiled  with 
them.  Corresponding  to  these  principles,  there  are 
six  kinds  of  bodies:  (1 )  the  celestial ;  (2)  the  rational- 
animal;  (3)  the  irrational  animal;  (4)  the  vegetable; 
(5)  the  luineral;  ((!)  the  four  elements.  All  these 
principles  and  bodies  condiined  in  a  whole  form  the 
Universe.  He  teaches  that  God  can  not  consist  of 
conceivable  jiarts;  that,  tudike  man,  who  needs  six 
dilferent  things  to  produce  anything,  lie  has  no  cause 
for  His  action  but  Himself.  The  problem  of  ])ro|)h- 
ecv  is  also  treated  in  this  work,  prophecy  being  in 
his  opinion  merely  a  natural  mainfestation  of  the  in- 
tellect, ])<'rnutting  man  to  |)redict  the  future.  Alfa- 
rabi declares  fur  the  freedom  of  man's  will,  anil 
jn'otcsts  against  the  use  of  aslmlngy.  Thetirsl.or 
metaphysical,  part  of  the  book  is  followed  by  apolit- 
ical oncadis-scrtation  on  the  various  forms  of  govern- 
ment. The  welfare  of  both  individual  and  state 
depends  upon  speculative  science.  The  i)rincemiist 
always  be  a  philosopher.  (2)  "The  Distribution  of 
the  Sciences."  translated  and  condensed  by  Kalony- 
nius  ben  Kalonymus  of  .\rles  (1314),  a  work  that 
was  of  much  value  to  Jewish  authors  because  of 
its  encyclopedic  presentation  of  the  sciences.  (3)  A 
"Trea1i.se  upon  the  Naliue  of  the  Soul."  translated 
by  Zerahiah  ben  Isaac.  ]u-obably  in  12.H4,  in  Home, 
ande<lited  by  Edelmann  in  "Hem<lah  Genuzah."  (4) 

ni73L"10ni  ?3t;'n  'D.  an  essay  on  the  various  mean- 
ings of  the  wcjrd  "intellect"  in  Aristotle,  translated 
into  Hebrew  by  .Tedaiah  IVdersi,  KiOO.  and  published 
in  1858  by  Michael  Hosenslein. 

Concerning  Alfarabi's  value  as  a  iihilosopher, 
Maimonides  remarks  that  in  order  to  learn  logic 
one  needs  occ\i]\v  himself  only  with  Alfarabi's  wri- 
tings, since  all  that  he  wrote,  especially  the  "Book 
of  Principles,"  is  "flne  floiu-";  that  hi'  was  a  dis- 
tinguished scholar,  and  hence  much 
His  could  be  learned  from  him.     But  even 

Logic.  before  ,Maimonides'  pi-aise  of  .Vlfarabi. 
he  was  a  great  favorite  among  .lewish 
students.  Moses  ibn  Ezra  (1 130)  (|notes  from  a  col  lec- 
tion of  philoso|)hical  ajdiorisms  by  Alfarabi.  and  cites 
a  passiige  concerning  poetry  taken  from  his  encyclo- 
pedia. The  view  that  all  creatures  stand  related  to 
each  otherinadeternnned  orderof  gradation,  which  is 
to  be  found  in  Judah  hai.evi  ("Cuzari."  i.  31),  seems 
to  have  been  drawn  from  Alfarabi's  "Principles." 
It  was  especially  Alfarabi's  monotheistic  tendency 
which  attracted  .lewish  minds;  with  him  metaphys- 
ics and  the  unity  of  God  are  identical.  The  idea 
ex])rcssed  by  Judah  ha-Levi.  that  the  limitations  of 
our  powers  of  sight  do  not  jiermit  us  to  conceive 
God  ("  Cuzari. "  v.  21).  is  derived  from  Alfarabi.    But 


375 


THE  JEWISH   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Alfaquln 
Alfasi 


Alfarabi's  views  (•(HK-cniiiif;  propliccy  are  stoutly 
contested  by  .ludali  lial.t'vi.  Altiirabi  claims  that 
prophecy  eiiiiinates  from  a  soul  of 
Influence  |niritiiil  icasoniii;;  powers;  the  soul 
on  Jewish  associates  itself  with  the  active  reason 
Philoso-  and  receives  from  it  aid  and  iustrue- 
phers.  lion.  From  this  naluraMslic- explana- 
tion of  prophecy  .hidah  ha  licvitotjdly 
dissents,  holdinir  the  ojiinion  that  pni])hecy  is  in  re- 
ality God  speakini;  (i.  Hi).  Nevertheless,  Alfanibis 
conception  of  proi)hecy  w-as  shared  by  Abraham 
ibn  Daud.  wlio  speaks  of  three  gradations  of  reason: 
rea,soii  "in  poteutia."  "in  actii."  and  the  "intellectus 
nequisitus."  Maiinonides  also  adojitcd  Alfarabi's 
views  con<'eniinj;  i)rc>phccy.  while  at  the  same  time 
insisting  on  the  selection  by  the  divine  will,  and  on 
the  prophet's  inner  preparation  by  a  hiirher  moral 
standard  and  imajrinative  faculty  (Moreh.  ii,  ;!(>)an(l 
follows  him  in  hisclassilicationof  the  soul-|iowers  in 
his"Eiud]t  Chapters."  From  him.  too.  in  all  prob- 
nbilily.  Maimoiiides  borrowed  a  passjige  concerning 
theseven  divisions  (d'  medical  science,  which  are  to 
be  found  in  .\lfaral>i's  distribution  of  the  sciences. 
Finally,  in  his"  .Mureh."  ii,  '2~.  Maimoindes  has  made 
use  of  Alfarabi's  commentary  uixiu  Aristotle's 
"  Physics,"  Other  writers  likewise  relleet  Alfarabi's 
intluence  upon  Jewish  literature:  Abraham  b.  Hiy- 
yah  Albargeloni.  Joseph  ibn  Aknin.  Shem-'fob  Pal- 
(piera.  and  .Moses  di  Rieti  knew  and  availed  them 
selves  of  Alfarabi's  writings. 

While  Alfarabi's  teachings  were  generally  held  in 
the  highest  esteem,  his  view  concerning  the  immor 
tality  of  the  human  soul  was  vigorously  ccMubated 
by  .lewish  authors.  Arabic  |)hilosophers  endeav- 
ored to  solve  the  problem  of  immor- 
On  Immor-  lalily,  left  unsettled  by  Aristotle,  by 
tality.  su,i:gestiti,ir  that  during  man's  life  the 
human  intellect  combines  with  the 
Ai'tivc  lntellig<Mice  of  the  Universe.  Alfarabi  con- 
siders this  hypothesis  as  utterly  absurd,  Man's  su 
preme  aim  is  rather  to  elevate  his  capabilities  to  the 
idghest  degree  of  i>erfeetion  attainable.  This  con- 
ception, which  was  expressed  by  Alfaral)i  in  the  lost 
ecvmmentary  on  the  "  Nikomaehean  Ethics."  brought 
MUich  reproof  ujion  him:  and  for  it  Inuuanuel  ben 
Solomon,  in  his  "Final  Judgment"  (c.  28),  consigns 
him  to  the  infernal  regions. 

ItiKi.iofiR.vPMV  :  Sti'Inselinfltler,  Al-Ftiralti'K,  tlftt  Arahiiic)if}i 
l*ltihtsiiiilu-n  Li}it'u  uint  Sfhriftttu  SI.  IVlerslmrK.  ls«>!i; 
iilfni.  Jhlir.  rtltirn.  index,  s.v.  hirtthi;  BnM-({i'lMiimii. 
tVi-yr/i.  il.  A riiliiM-hr  11  Litirtilur.  ISHS,  I.  L'ln;  Scliniiilclci-s. 
Ihu-Hintittit  l^liiltuinitluirum  Aralnmu  llenn.  IKHS;  Cu.slrl. 
Itihl.  Ariihifii-tli'<iminrtly(s,  vol.  1.;  Do  Iti)S.sl,  IHzhniann 
Sh.li,:,  ,l,,lli   Aill.„i  Alilhi.   l-tC.  Y      j_,, 

ALFASI,  ISAAC  BEN  JACOB  i< ailed  also 
ha-Kohen  in  the  epitaph  attached  to  his"llalu- 
koi  "i :  Kinineut  TahnudisI ;  born  in  lUKiat  Kala't  ibn 
Hamad,  a  villag<'  near  Fez.  in  North  .\frica  (whence 
his  surname,  which  is  sometimes  at taebi'd  also  to  Ju- 
ilah  llayyug.  thegRimmarianUdiedal  l.ucena.  llltS. 
Five  scholars  named  haac.  all  distinguished  Talmud- 
ists.  nourished  about  the  same  time:  vi/..  Isaac  ben 
harucli  Albalia  of  Seville.  Isaac  ben  Juilah  ibn  Oiat 
of  I.neeiai.  Isaac  ben  Keubeu  of  liarcelona.  Isiuic  ben 
Moses  ibn  Sakid  of  I'undiedita.  and  Isjiacbeti  Jacob 
.\lfasi.  Of  these  the  last  named  was  the  most  promi- 
nent. He  seems  to  have  devoted  himself  (Xelusively 
to  the  study  of  the  Talmud,  under  Habbis  Hanaiieel 

and  Nissim.  Imlh  in  Kairwan.  the  rec- 
His  Career,  ognized   mbbinicid  aulhcirilies  of  the 

age,  .\fl<r  lheirdialh..\lfasi  took  their 
place  in  the  estimation  of  his  contemporaries,  anil 
was  ri'iiardeil  as  the  chief  expounder  of  the  Talmud. 
Whatever  his  odlcial  position  may  have  been,  he  had 
loabaiidon  il  inhisold  age(lOSS);  for  two  informei's. 


Halfah.  son  of  Alagab,  and  his  son  Hayyini.  accord- 
ing to  Abraham  ibn  Daud.  denounced  him  to  the  gov- 
ernment upon  some  unknown  charge.  He  left  his 
home  and  tied  to  .Spain,  w  hither  Ids  fame  as  the  au- 
thor of  tli<'"Halakot  "  ("Er.  viii.)  had  preceded  him. 
He  went  toCordova.  where  he  found  support  and  ))ro- 
lection  in  the  house  of  Joseph  b.  Meirb.  .Muheyiribn 
Shartamikosh.  From  C'onlova  he  went  to  Granada, 
and  thence  to  Lucena.  Here  he  probably  acted  as 
the  olfieial  rabbi  of  the  congregation  after  the  death 
of  Isiuic  il)n  Giat  (losil).  with  whom  lie  had  some 
angry  discussions.  There  was  also  some  ill-feeling 
between  Alfasi  and  Isimc  Albalia.  The  latter,  when 
on  his  deathbed.  aske<l  his  son  to  go  to  Alfasi  and 
tell  him  that  he  jiardoned  all  his  olTenses  against 
him,  and  bigged  Alfasi  to  do  the  same  on  his  ]iart  and 


ISIIIK'    .Mfll>l. 

(From  ft  lrftdlt)on«l  portrait.) 

to  be  a  friend  to  his  opponent's  son.  Isaac  Albalia's 
wish  was  fullilled.  and  his  .son  found  iu  Alfasi  a  true 
friend  and  a  second  father. 

In  his  capacity  as  rabbi.  Alfasi  was  both  judge 
and  teacher.  As  a  judge  he  enjoyed  the  confidence 
of  litigants,  and  his  decisions  were  carefidly  studied 
by  otiur  nibbis  as  guides  in  similar  ca.ses.  As  a 
teacher,  his  great  learning  attracletl  a  large  number 
of  students,  eager  lo  listen  to  his  exposition  of  the 
Talmud :  among  them  was  Joseph  ibn  .Migash.  the 
teacher  of  Maiinonides.  Hefore  liis  death  Alfasi  des- 
ignated this  Joseph  ibn  Migash  as  his  siU'ces.sor,  pa.ss- 
ing  over  his  own  son.  though  he  likewise  was  an 
excellent  Talmudic  scholar. 

Alfa--i  diid,  aged  ninety  years,  at  l.ucena.  on  Tues- 
day, the  tenth  of  Si  wan  ( May  HI ).  11(13  (the  dale  given 
in  the  epitaph  is  impossible^  and  a  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory,  whereon  were  ins<'ritH'd  the 
following  somewhat  livperbolic  lines  (given  at 
the  end  of  Alfasi.  vol.  iii,  :  bv  Lu/zalto  iu  "Abne 


Alfasi 
Alfonsine  Tables 


THE  JEWISH   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


376 


Zikkaroii  "  aiul  in  "  Kcrcm  HcmkmI,"  iv.  03.  vii.  250; 
also  by  GoigiT  in  "Divan  (lis  Johiuluh  Im-Levi"): 

"  It  was  (or  theu  thiit  Uit>  innunliiins  sliook  on  tbe  day  of  SInal : 
For  Iho  nnpi'ls  of  (mm!  ii|ipn>ailii'il  Ihep 
Anil  wnitc  llH'  Tonili  mi  Ilie  tiihli-ls  of  thy  beart: 
TUi'y  sft  till'  llncst  <i(  lis  iiowiis  uimjb  tUy  hwiil." 

The  cliicf  wfiik  of  Alfasi  is  his  "  Hnlakiil,"  oflcn 
rofciivil  to  as  llie  "  Hif  "  (R.  Is;iac  Fasi)  from  tin-  in- 
itials of  Alfasi's  name.  Haliail  ilcscrilnd  it  as  "the 
little  Talmud,"  iK'causc  it  contains  tlir  essi-noo  of 

the  Talmud  in  an  abinilficil  form.  In  the 

His  "Ha-    first  place,  Alfasi  eliminated  from  the 

lakot."       Talmud  all  haK,ffadie  conunents:  that 

is.  theserond  of  its  two  const  it  went  ele- 
ments (Ilalakah  and  llaii.irudah.or  I,a\v  and  Homily); 
in  accordance  with  the  title  of  the  hook,  he  retains 
only  the  Halakah.  He  gives  the  halakic  discussions 
of  the  (iemara  in  a  condensed  form,  adding  occasion- 
ally criticisms  on  the  interprelations  and  decisions 
given  by  post-Talinudic  authorities.  A  further  re- 
duction in  the  bulk  of  the  Talmud  waselTected  in  the 
following  way :  Alfasi  contented  himself  with  col- 
lecting practical  Halakot  only,  omitting  all  treatises 
that  are  principally  devoted  to  laws  which  are  only 
practical  in  Palestine.  The  treatises  included  in  Al- 
fasi's work  are  therefore  the  following:  1,  Berakot; 
2.  Small  Halakot :  3.  .Shabbat ;  4,  'Erubin  ;  5,  Pcsahim 
(omitting  cli.  v.-i.v.);  6,  Ta'anit;  7.  Bezah:  H.  Kosh 
ha  Slianah  (omitting  ch.  iii.);  9.  Yoma  (omitting  ch. 
i.-vii.):  10.  iSukkah  (omitting  ch.  v.);  11.  Jli'gil- 
lah:  12,  Mo'ed  Katan;  13,  Yebamot;  U,  Ketutiot; 
1.5.  Gittin;  16.  Kiddnsliin;  IT,  Xedarim  (only  found 
in  recent  editions);  IS.  IluUin;  19.  Babu  Kamma;  20, 
Baba  Mezi'a;  21.  Baba  Batra;  22.  Sanhedrin;  23, 
Makkot ;  24,  Shebu'ot  (included  in  ch.  ii.  hilkot  Nid- 
dah);  25,  'Abodali  Zarah. 

Ever  since  the  completioa  of  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud, attempts  had  been  made  to  collect  the  Halakot 
it  contained,  and  to  elucid.ate.  in  each  case,  the  tinal 
decision  of  the  halakic  discussion  of  the  Gemara. 
The  results  of  these  atteiujits  were  such  works  as 
the  "Halakot  Gedolot "  of  the  gaon  Simon  Kahira, 
"  Halakot  Pesukot "  of  the  gaon  Yehudai.  and  the 
"Sheiltot"   of  the  gaon  Ahai  of  Shabha.     These 

collections  all  proved  insulflcient ;  Al- 

Maimon-     fasi's  work  was  intended  to  be  com- 

ides"  Praise  prehensive  and  thorough.     The  nier- 

ofthe  "Ha-  its  of   the   "Halakot"   are  described 

lakot."       Ijy  Maimonides  in  the  introduction  to 

his  commentary  on  the  !Mishnah  as 
follows:  "The  '  Halakot '  of  our  great  teacher,  Bab- 
benu  Isaac,  of  blessed  memory,  have  superseded  all 
their  predecessors,  becavise  there  is  included  therein 
everything  usefid  for  the  understanding  of  the  de- 
cisions and  laws  at  present  in  force;  that  is.  in  the 
time  of  the  E.\ile.  The  author  clearly  demonstrates 
the  errors  of  those  before  him  when  his  opinion 
deviates  from  theirs,  and  with  the  excei)tion  of  a 
few  Halakot  whose  number  at  the  very  utmost  does 
not  amount  to  ten.  his  decision.s  are  unas,sailable." 
Alfasi  based  his  "Halakot"  on  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud, without,  however,  neglecting  the  Palestinian 
Talmud,  which  is  frequently  quoted,  and  the  dicta 
of  which  are  accepted,  provided  they  are  not  con- 
tradictefl  by  the  former.  In  case  of  difference  be- 
tween the  two  Gemaras  Alfasi  follows  the  Baby- 
lonian, arguing  thus:  "The  Babylonian  is  younger 
than  the  Palestinian,  and  its  authors  knew  the  con- 
tents of  the  Palestinian  Gemara  even  better  than  we 
do.  Had  they  not  been  couvinced  that  the  pas.sage 
from  the  Palestinian  Gemara.  cited  in  opposition  to 
their  opinion,  was  untrustworthy,  they  would  never 
have  deviated  from  it"  ('Er.,  at  end). "  Critics,  how- 
ever, attacked  many  of  Alfasi's  Halakot  as  con- 


trary to  the  decisions  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud. 
In  all  siuh  ca.ses  it  will  be  found  that  the  criti<-  and 
the  author  diller  in  reality  as  to  the  right  interpre- 
tation of  the  Talmudic  jiassage.  for  in  truth  Alfasi 
never  deviates  from  w  h;it  he  recognizes  as  the  tinal 
decision  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud. 

Alfa-si  is  exceedingly  .self-con.scious.  decided,  and 
firm  iu  asserting   the  correctness  of  his  decisions, 

and  in  rejecting  the  opinions  of  those 

Its  Charac-  who  dilTer  from  him  (Ket.  x.  115,  ed. 

teristics.      Sulzbach,   1720;    Ber.    vii.  396).     He 

rarely  wavers  or  doubts.  Of  jirevious 
authorities  he  mentions  by  name  Gaon  Ilai.  Gaon 
.ludah.  and  Gaon  Moses(Ket.  iv,84/<);  others  he  cites 
by  the  general  term  "Some of  the  rabbis."  In  three 
jilaci'slrt.  X.  wall,  119;viii.  lUlijlie  refeisloa  lengthy 
explanation  in  Arabic,  which  he  originally  gave  as 
an  appendix  to  the  treatise  Ketubot.  convinced  "that 
he  who  will  read  these  explanations  will  arrive  at 
the  true  sense  of  the  text  of  the  Talmud."  These 
explanations  havi' been  detached  from  their  original 
place,  and  arc  at  present  known  only  by  two  Hebrew 
translations,  the  one  being  included  in  a  collection 
of  respon«i  bv  Menahem  Azariah  di  Fano  (Nos.  r27- 
129).  the  other  in  "  Temim  De'im  "  (Nos.  318-220,  the 
third  partof  "Tummat  Ye.sharim").  The  latter  work 
contains  also  a  few  responsa  of  Alfasi,  translated 
from  the  original  Arabic  by  Abraham  ha-Levi  tDnp3K 
(Xos.  221-223). 

The  "Halakot"  of  Alfasi  became   famous  both 
on  account  of  the  reputation  of  the  author  and  of 

their  intrinsic  value.  The  work  was 
His  Com-  studied  like  the  Talmud,  and  soon  had 
mentators.  its  commentators  and  its  critics.     The 

principal  connnentators  are  the  follow- 
ing: Jonah,  on  Berakot;  IS'issim,  on  Seder  Jlo'cd, 
JIakkot.  Shebu'ot. '.Vbodah  Zarah.  Seder  Nashim  (ex- 
cept Yebamot).  ami  llullin;  Joseph  Habiba.  on  the 
smaller  Halakot.  Seder  Nezikin  (except  JIakkot.  She- 
liu'ot.  and  'Abodali  Zarah).  and  Yebamot ;  .loshua 
Boaz  in  his  conmientary  "Shihe  ha-Gibborim"  in- 
cludes notes  of  various  scholars,  both  for  and  against 
Alfasi.  The  so-called  commentary  of  Hashi,  found 
in  some  editions,  consists  merely  of  extracts  from 
Ra.shi's  general  commentary  on  the  Talmud.  Alfasi's 
chief  critic  is  Zerahiah  ha-Levi  of  Liniel.  whose  work 
"Ila-JIaor"  (The  Luminary)  consists  of  two  parts, 
entitled  respectively.  "The  Great  Lmninary"  (Zera- 
hiah. the  stuOand  "The  Small  Luminary"  (Lunel.the 
moon),  the  forner  on  Berakot  and  Seder  Jlo'ed,  the 
other  on  Seder  Xashim  and  Seder  Nezikin.  Nah- 
manides  in  "Milliamot  Adonai"  (The  Wars  of  tlie 
Lord)  defended  Alfasi.  liabad  attacked  Zerahiah's 
criticisms  in  defense  of  Alfasi.  but  at  the  same  time 
wrote //<(«.'<rt,''/''Mcriticisms)  of  his  own  on  the  "Ha- 
lakot"  (see  "Temim  De'im  ").  Even  a  disciple  of  Al- 
fasi. Ephraim.  is  found  among  his  critics  ("Temim 
De'im."  No. OS).  A  long  list  of  cmendationsis  given 
by  Joseph  Shalom  iu  "  Derek  Tamim. "  In  addition 
to  these  commentaries  and  criticisms, there  are  to  be 
mentioned  the  "Kelale  ha-Rif,"  contained  in  "Y'ad 
JIalachi "  (pp.  123^:,  124i).  These  rides  .show  how 
to  detect  the  different  degrees  of  decisiveness  which 
-Vlfasi  desired  to  indicate  in  the  "Halakot,"  when 
quoting  the  opinion  of  other  authorities.  Alfasi's 
"Halakot"  appeared  without  commentaries  (Cra- 
cow. 1597,  8vo;  Basel.  1602,  8vo);  the  above-men- 
tioned commentaries,  and  further  notes  and  emenda- 
tions, were  added  in  stdiscfpient  editions  (among 
others.  Talmud  and  Alfasi.  Warsaw,  18.59.  fol. ).  Be- 
sides the  "Halakot."  there  is  a  collection  of  Alfasi's 
"  Responsa,"  ed.  Judah  Aryeh  Loeb  Ashkenazi  (Leg- 
horn, 1821,  4to).  The  collection  contains  320  ques- 
tions, mostly  referring  to  civil  law  cases ;  only  a  few 


377 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDLV. 


Alfasi 
Alfonsine  Tables 


liavc  r(f<T<-iiee  to  religious  rites.  Some  Arabic  rc- 
spoiisji  of  Alfasi  are  to  be  fouuil  in  Harka  vy. "  Studieii 
mill  Mittiihingen."  vols.  iv..  .\.\v..  ami  iu  S.  A.  Wert- 
liriiiii  1-  ••  Kolielet  Shelonioli."  Jerusalem,  1899;  com 
pare  "  .Mouatsschrift."  xliv.  144. 

Bini.innRArnY:  R.  Atirahain  Ibn  Daud  (Rabad),  Seferha- 
KahlKtlah  :  Azulaf,  Sttem  ha-GcdiiUm,  s.v. ;  (iriltz,  Oetich.  d. 
jmkti,\\.  "«  ft  xeq.;  Stelnscbnelder,  Cat.  ItinU.  col.  1(187; 
Wf i.ss.  Dor^  iv.  2»1  t'f  seq. :  (.'azes,  Xotin  llil'litufraiitiiifttcs 
fUtr  la  Littcraturc  Jitivc  Tunisii^nne^  Tunl.-^.  IS'W. 

-M.  F. 

AXFASI,  ISAAC  BEN  JOSEPH:  Descend- 
ant of  a  Spanisb  family;  llourislieil  in  Ailriauople  iu 
the  si.xteentb  century.  He  translated  Glia/.zali's 
work.  ".Mishkat  al-Anwar."  into  Hebrew,  under  the 
title,  "Maskit  ha-Orot  u  Pardes  ha-Nizzanim  "  (The 
(  liamber  of  Light  and  the  Garden  of  Flowers).  This 
work  is  still  e.xtJiiil  in  uianuseript  in  the  Bodleian 
Library. 

Bibliography  :  Dukes,  Oair  Xrhmad,  il.  IKi ;  Fucnn.  Kcnaict 
I'fdiaf).  p.  SitJ ;  SlelnscliiiPldcr,' H<7/r.  Uclicnt.  n.  IM.'i;  Idem, 
Hclir.  liihl.  xxU  75 ;  Kaufmunn,  Die  Spuren  Al-liailaJuM's 
intter  JlUlisdtin  licliyi'tnutiliilonitpliic^  18H0,  p.  'J2. 

I.  Br. 

ALFASI,  ISAAC  BEN  REUBEN  :  Sometimes 
staled  to  be  a  giamlsou  of  Is;uu-  .Vllasi.  He  is  fre- 
quently eited  as  the  author  of  "  Sha'are  Shebu'ot,"  a 
work  in  twenty  chapters  on  oaths,  iisuallv  printed 
with  Alfasi's  ••"Halakot"  (Filrst,  "Bibl.  Jiid."  i.  3«; 
I!enjaeob,''Oz.arha-Sefariin."  p. 60,5).  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  actual  author  was  Isjiac  ben  Heu- 
bi-n  of  Barcelona  or  an  otherwise  unknown  Isaac 
ben  Heuben,  especially  as  he  quotes  the  Kif  without 
claiming  relationship. 

BiBI.ioiiRAPIIY:  Steinsclinelder,  Cat.  Bniil.  cuI.  1U8;  Weiss, 
fjiir,  Iv.  ;^1.  A  Souii '»/  Liivf  by  Isaac  ben  Reut)**!i  has  been 
Iranslated  Into  En^llsli  by  .Nina  Davis  In  ,/>  ic,  yiwrf.  I{iv. 

\in.s:\. 

I). 

ALFASI,  MASA'UD  RAPHAEL  :  Rabbi  in 
Tunis  al  the  end  of  the  eiglileiiil li  ceiitiiry:  died 
in  ITTti.  He  is  the  author  of  ".Mishlia  di-Hubuta" 
(Oil  of  .\nointing),  a  work  containing  notes  on  .loseph 
('aid's  "Shulhan  "Arnk"  (Leghorn,  lHOo).  He  was 
assisted  by  his  two  learned  sons,  Solomon  (d.  IWl) 
and  llayyim  (d.  178;?),  the  former  beinir  the  author 
of  a  similar  work,"  Kerub  .Mimshali  "  (The  Anointed 
Cherub),  Leghorn,  1859,  fol.  M.  F. 

ALFONSI,  PETRUS  (called  before  baptism 
Moses  Sephardi.  "  ilir  Spaniard"):  A  controversial- 
i>l  and  pbysieian  in  ordinary  to  King  .Vlfonso  \T.  of 
Castile;  born  at  Iluesea,  Aragon,  in  lOfi"',  and  died  in 
11 10  at  the  age  of  forty-eight.  He  embniced  Cliris- 
lianily  and  was  baptized  at  Hueseaon  St.  Peter's  day, 
June  29.  llOfi,  in  his  forty-lifth  year.  In  honor  of  the 
saint  and  of  his  royal  patron  ami  godfather  hi>  took 
Ihenameof  Pet  rus.\lfonsi(. Vlfonso  s  Peter).  Like  all 
the  apostates  of  his  time,  he  sought  to  show  his  zeal 
for  the  new  faith  by  attacking  Judaism  and  defend- 
ing the  truths  of  the  Christian  faith.  He  composed 
a  series  of  twelve  dialogues  against  the  .lews,  the 
supposed  ilispulants being  .Moseand  Pedro  (=  .Moses 
Si  phardi  and  Petrus  .\lfonsi,  or,  in  otlnT  wonls, 
liiiiiself  before  and  after  conversion).  Though  the 
\\ork  is  overpraised  by  lijtymund  Martin,  in  his 
"  I'ugio  Kidei,"  and  others  equally  l>iase<l.  il  is  but 
little  known  today  ;  and.  as  Sleinschiieider  observes 
("Hebr.  I'elHTS."  p.  9;!;(),  fully  mi'rits  the  oblivion 
into  which  il  has  fallen.  The  "  Dialoiri  in  qiiibus 
iiiipiie  .liidieorum  .  .  .  opiniones  .  .  .  confiilanlur." 
till'  full  title  of  which  is  given  in  Wolf.  "  liibliolheca 
llebraa"  (i.  971)  ami  Fl'irst.  "  Ililil.  .lud."  (i.  Sti).  ap 
pi-ared  at  Cologne  in  LVlll  and  later  in  "  Bililioteca 
Pntrum"(.\ii.  858,  x.\i. ;  i-d.  Lugdiinensis,  p.  172;  ed. 


Migne,  t.  157,  p.  535).  Gther  books  are  ascribed  to 
him,  and  he  is  sometimes  confounded  with  Petrus  His- 
paniis  of  the  thirteenth  century.  See  Steinschneider 
(/.'•.  p.  470.  S  is-.' :  p.  im,  f;  557,  note  208),  who  regards 
him  as  the  probable  translatorof  the  "  Canones  Tabu- 
larum  "  ("  Cod.  Corp.  Clir."  283, 13 ;  f.  141i)  from  the 
Arabic.  It  is  ascribed  to  one  Petrus  Anfulsus,  who 
is  very  likely  identical  with  Alfonsi  (st'e  Steinschnei- 
der, "llebr.  Bibl."  1883,  xxi.  38;  "llebr.  L'ebers."  pp. 
985,  98(j,  S  589). 

Another  controversial  tract, described  a.s  a  dialogue 
"Inter  Petrum  Christianum  et  Moysem  Hiereticum" 
(Codex  .Merton,  17.5*,  f.  281 ;  in  Coxes  "Cat."  p.  09), 
is  said  to  have  been  written  by  Petrus  Alphonsi 
(compare  "Hebr.  Bibl."  xxi.  38).  In  Cambridge 
University,  England,  there  is  a  manuscript  of  the 
fifteenth  century  bearing  the  title:  "  De  Conversione 
Petri  Alfonsi  Quondam  Judai  et  Libro  Ejus  in 
Juda'os  et  Saracenos,"  which  is  mentioned  in  Stein- 
sehneider's  "  Polemisehe  und  ApologetLsche  Litera- 
tur,"  1877,  p.  224  (compare  p.  235,  No.  5,  s.v.  Epis- 
tola). 

Alfonsi's  fame  rests  chiefly  on  a  collection  of 
thirlythree  tales,  composed  in  Latin.  This  collec- 
tion has  enjoj-ed  a  most  remarkable  popularity,  and 
is,  on  that  account,  an  interesting  subject  of  study 
in  coin|)aiiitive  literature.  It  isentitled  "Disciplina 
Clericalis,"  or  "A  Training-school  for  the  Clergy," 
and  was  often  used  by  clergymen  in  their  discourses, 
notwithstanding  the  questionable  moral  tone  of  .some 
of  the  stories.  The  work  is  important  as  throwing 
light  on  the  migration  of  fables,  and  is  almost  indis- 
pensjible  to  the  student  of  medieval  folk-lore.  Tnuis- 
lations  of  it  into  French.  Spanish,  and  German  are 
extant :  and  Josejih  Jacobs  has  recently  iliscovercd 
some  of  the  stories  at  the  end  of  Caxton's  translation 
of  the  fables  of  .Esop.  where  thirteen  apologues  of 
"  Alfoiice"  arc  taken  from  the  "  Disciplina  Clericalis." 

.Vn  outline  of  the  tales,  by  Douce,  is  preti.xed  to 
Ellis'  "Early  English  .Metrical  Homances."  Nearly 
all  the  stories  are  adopted  in  the  "Gesta  lioma- 
nonmi."  Chapters  ii.  and  iii.  were  done  into  Hebrew 
and  i.ssued  under  the  title  l^n  IDD."  BiH)k  of  Enoch," 
Constantinople,  151t>;  Venice,  1544  and  1605.  An 
early  French  translation  of  this  Hebrew  extract 
was"  made  |>rior  to  1I)!I8  by  Piipies,  and  August  Pi- 
chard  published  another  version  in  Paris,  1838. 

BiHI.ioiiRAriiv  :  The  whole  lllenituro  is  put  Intn-ther  and  dl»- 
(•us.sed  In  Stelnscbneider's  Hrlir.  I'tluiv.  ipp.  IWt-'.UI).  Men- 
Unii  slii.tulil  t>e  iiuide  of  the  .'iebolarly  eilltlon  of  F.  W.  V. 
Schmidt,  B»Tlln,  IKL'7,  (<iwhi>seii"Ies  sicliiM-hnelder  offers  very 
valuable  emendations  and  iMtnillels  fn>iii  (irii-utul  and  W**stem 
folk-Ion'.  Slelnwlinilder,  .U.miKi,  1S47,  |>|i.  l(t',  IH:  Idem, 
{'<l(.  ;)ih((.  cols. '►(11.  .Vill.  7:£1.  ~H;  ldem../<idWi  i^i(<  ruttirf.  p. 
174:  the  anlboritles  mentloneil  Id  11.  I'llekJ's  arllele,  /Vilrti 
Alfiiiinii,  In  Met'llnbik  and  Slronu's  ("i;iloiif<l(<i,  vll.  t*H,S(S5; 
W.  A.  Clouston,  yuntrrn  fr"iiia  I'l  mtan  tiartir  it,  p.  lui.  l.on- 
d(»n,  Islto;  Jaccdis,  Jriris/i  /Wcdtj*,  l-*^*!.  pp.  UI-U:i.  lays  slmw 
on  .\lfonsrs  lm(>orIance  lus  one  of  the  Intermedtahes  i-'twi-cn 
ftutteni  and  Western  folk-loR-,  and  quuU-s  one  of  Caxton's 
Dtorli-s  from  "AUnncc." 

0.  A.  K. 

ALFONSINE  TABLES:  A  scriesof  a.stronom- 
ical  tallies  gi\  ing  llie  exact  hours  for  the  rising  of  the 
planets  and  lixed  stars:  compiled  at  Toledo  at  the  re- 
quest of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile  alwnit  the  year  I'.'52, 
the  date  given  in  the  Latin  eilitioiis  In-ing  the  year 
rj5l.  They  are  of  considenildc  iniportaace  to  the 
historyofa-slronomyandeven  tothat  of  geognn>hical 
disc'overy.  since  it  was  by  trusting  to  a  revision  of 
them  by  .Vbnihani  Ziictilo  that  Columbus  was  en- 
abled li>  rcaih  the  New  World.  According  toZaciito, 
the  chief  compiler  of  the  tables  wa.s  Isaac  ibn  Sid.  n 
haZan  or  cantor  of  the  city  of  Toledo;  and  astroiioiu- 
ical  observations  of  his.  dating  fnim  tlu'  years  12113- 
00,  were  8wn  bv  Isaac  Isnieli, 


Alfonso  III. 
Algazi 


THE  .IKWISII   ENCVC'LOI'KHIA 


378 


In  what  lanc>iajrc  tlic  nriijriiial  tallies  wcro  coni- 
piUil  is  doiilitful.  TIr'  Ijitiii  iiortioii  irfcrs  to  Jews 
in  uuconipliniontai y  tcinis;  and  it  is  tln'irfori'  not 
likely  to  bo  the  work  of  Ibn  Siil,  who  is,  besides, 
known  as  a  translator  from  Arabic-  into  iSpaiiisIi  of 
other  astmnoinieal  works.  Tiie  tables  were  supposed 
by  Humboldt  in  his  "Cosmos"  to  have  been  com- 
piled at  a  congress  of  Christian,  Jewish,  and  Moham- 
medan astronomers,  especially  assembled  for  that 
]nnpo.se  by  Alfonso.  This  inylli  has  been  exploded 
by  Steinselineider.  wliotnieeil  I  he  tradition  to  Zaeiito. 
iStranfie  to  sjiy.  the  Alfonsine  Tal)les  proper  were  for 
the  lirst  time  tran.slaled  from  the  Latin  into  Hebrew 
liy  Mo.ses  ln-n  Abraham  of  Nimes,  at  Aviirnon,  as  late 
as  1400;  though  this  translation  was  of  little  conse- 
(luence  to  tlu'  history  of  science.  There  are,  besides, 
several  Hebrew  manuseni)ts  conlainiiic;  commenta- 
ries and  e.\planalions  for  the  use  of  the  Alfonsine 
Tables,  giving  the  canons  or  ruling  principles  on 
which  they  were  compiled. 

The  Alfonsine  Tables  must  not  be  confounded  with 
earlier  astronomical  tables  composed  at  Toledo  be- 
tween 1001  and  10^^0  by  Abu  Ishak  ibn  Al-Zarkali 
of  Cordova,  which  were  translated  into  Spanish  at 
the  recpiest  of  Alfonso  X.  by  Don  Abraham  Facpjin 
about  1277.  This  translation  has  been  published  by 
Uico  in  "Libros  del  Saber  de  Astrononiia,"  Madrid, 
lsO.->. 

Still  another  set  of  astronomical  tables  was  com- 
piled in  Spain  for  Pedro  IV.  of  Aragou,  about  1307, 
l)y  Jacob  ben  Isaac  Carsono.  These  tables  were 
translated  into  Hebrew,  and  still  exist  in  manuscript 
at  Parma  and  at  Rome.  David  Gans,  author  of 
"Zemab  David,"  mistook  them  for  the  Alfonsine 
Tables.     See  also  Is.\AC  ihn  Sid. 

BIBLIOORAPHT :  Steinsohnelder,  Hchr.  Uclicrs.  pp.  BIfi-628, 638. 
ti;^.  y7.">;  i&em^JHdi.'*che  Litiratur  in  Ersch  and  Gruber.  Eii- 
CjiMiHx'I'lie.  x.xvil.  i'.i'X  44ii. 

J. 

ALFONSO  III.  OF  PORTUGAL.    Sie  Pi>i(TU- 

G.\I,. 

ALFONSO  V.  OF  PORTUGAL.     See  Poktu- 
c.\i.. 
ALFONSO  IX.  OF  LEON.     Sec  Sp.mn. 

ALFONSO:  .\  mathematician  of  uncertain  date, 
author  of  a  treatise  on  squaring  the  circle,  extant  in  a 
manuscript  in  the  Hritish  .Museum  (additional  manvi- 
scripts,  26,984).  Alfonso  claims  in  the  [jrefatory 
remarks  to  have  found  and  demonstrated  the  pos- 
sibility of  constructing  a  plane  tigure,  ecpial — not 
merely  appro.ximately,  but  exactly — to  the  area  of 
a  given  circle.  He  professes  to  have  put  an  end  to 
all  doubts  on  the  subject,  such  as  were  entertained 
b}'  Aristotle,  and  controverts  the  opinions  of  Ibn 
Roshd  and  Ibn  Sina,  who  bad  declared  the  demon- 
stration to  be  impo.ssible.  S.  A.  H. 

ALFONSO  DE  ALCALA.     See  Alfonso  de 

Z.\Mo[<  A 

ALFONSO  BURGENSIS.  Sec  Abnek  of 
]>ri!(.os. 

ALFONSO  COMPLUTENSIS.  See  Alfonso 
m:  Z\Moi!A. 

ALFONSO  DE  SPINA.     See  Spina,  Alfonso 

DK. 

ALFONSO  OF  VALLADOLID.     See  Abneu 

OF    r.l  i;i.iis. 

ALFONSO  DE  ZAMORA :  Spanish  Marano 
of  the  sixteenth  century;  Hebraist  and  polemical 
writer;  born  in  Zamora  about  1474,  and  baiitized  in 
the  Catholic  faith  in  l.'iOO.  His  father's  name  "vvas 
Juan  de  Zamora,  and  he  likewise  seems  to  have  be- 
come a  Christian.     Alfonso  was  professor  of  Oriental 


languages  for  several  years  at  the  I'niversity  of 
Salamanca.  His  pure  Hebrew  style  leads  Xeubaucr 
to  suppose  that  he  attended  a  Jewish  school  befoie 
going  lo  the  university.  Owing  to  this  proficiency. 
Cardinal  Ximenes  employed  him  for  over  fifteen 
years  in  the  preparation ot  the  Com]>lutcnsian  Poly- 
glot, to  which  he  contributed  largely.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  gnuninatieid  and  lexicogra|)hical  works, 
and  com|>osed  in  Hebrew  and  Latin,  interlined,  an 
epistle  to  the  Jews  in  Kome.  wherein  he  seeks  lo 
ailmonish  them  and  convert  them  to  the  Christian 
faith.  The  letterenlitled  "A  Letter  from  the  King- 
dom of  Spain  to  the  Jews  in  the  Homan  Commu- 
nity "  (.Meala  de  Henares.  l.')20)  does  not  seem  to  have 
disturbed  the  Homan  Jews;  in  fact.  Kieger  questions 
whether  Ihev  ever  received  it  ("Geseh.  d.  Judcn  in 
Horn,"  ii.  47",  Berlin.  189,")). 

Among  his  writings,  enumerated  in  the  subjoined 
references,  may  be  mentioned  two  Hebrew  vocabu- 
lariis,  published  in  l.")l.j;  an  introduction  to  Hebrew 
(Jrannnar  ("  Introducliones  ArtisGrammaticic  Hebra- 
ica',"  1520),  now  very  rare  (second  cd..  Alcalilde  He- 
nares) ;  translations  of  and  commentaries  on  portions 
of  the  Bible  (Jeremiah.  Lsjiiah.  etc.);  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  Targum,  l.");52;  a  polemic  entitled  "  Libro 
de  la  Sabiduria  de  Dios"  (manuscript  in  Escurial, 
sec  Kayserling.  "  15il)l.  Esii.-Porl.  Jud."  ]i.  118);  and 
letters  and  miscellaneous  correspondence  preserved 
in  manuscript  at  Leyden  (Codex  Warner.  6.")).  In  a 
letter,  dated  March  lit),  l.")44,  he  states  that  he  was 
seventy  years  old  and  still  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
the  L'niversity  of  Salamanca  (Steinschneidcr,  "Ley- 
den Cat."  p.  281).  In  one  place  he  also  calls  him- 
self teacher  of  Hebrew  at  the  University  of  AlealA 
de  Henares. 

BuiLioc.RAPMY:  De  Castro.  BihUi'tcca  Ratihinica  Hispanicni'in, 
1.  SSIO;  De  Rossi,  Aiinnli-x  Hrlir(rn.Tin>"tirniihici.  I.'ini-K), 
p.  :J0:  DelitZ!M*Ii.  }yi.^'<ciisi-luift  tt.  Knnst  ini  Jiult'nihmii,  pii. 
289  et  scq. ;  Steinscliiu'lder.  ( 'nt.  ItoilL  col.  7:t;t ;  idem,  Lrjiiirn 
Cat.  pp.  Sr!l-»<1 ;  ideal,  BUiluiiiniiJhisclie.i<  HamllnuU,  p.  4  : 
Neulmiier,  in  Jew.  Qiutrt.  Hev.  lt«(5,  vll.  398-417;  Blau,  iliiil. 
ix.  471!. 

G.  A.  K. 

ALFONSUS     BONIHOMINIS:     The    name 

taken  by  the  Latin  truiislatur  or  adapter  of  an  anti- 
Jewish  pamphlet,  originally  written  in  Arabic  by 
Samui'l  !ibu  Xasr  ibn  Abbas,  better  known  as  Sam- 
uel Slaroccanus  (of  Morocco).  The  first  edition 
bears  the  title.  "Epistola  ad  K.  Isaacum  Contra  P>r- 
rores  Juda-orum.  ex  Arab.  Latine  per  Alfonsum 
Bonihominis."  Nothing  is  known  about  (he  trans- 
lator; and  Steinschneidcr  is  probably  right  in  sus- 
pecting that  he  is  none  other  than  P;iul  of  Burgos. 
The  translation  was  made  during  the  first  half  of 
the  fourfeenlh  century.  Alfonsus  Bonihominis  is 
said  to  have  also  Iranslateil  from  the  Arabic  into 
Latin  a  "  Disputatio  Abutalib  Saraceni  ct  Sainindis 
Judei "  (Discussion  between  Abutalib,  a  Saracen, 
and  Samuel,  a  Jew),  which  is  still  in  mantiscript  (see 
Abbas,  Samiel  abi'  Nask  ibn  ;  Ab.neb  of  Bincos). 

BiBLiO(;RAriiv  :  Stelnschneider,  Cat.  Botll.  Nos.  4407.  7055. 

G. 

ALFUAL  (or,  rallier,  al-Fawwal,  "The  Bean- 
Jlercliant  ") :  The  family  name  of  a  number  of  Span- 
ish Jews  (Steinschneidcr,  "Jew.  Quart.  Rev."  xi. 
.'587),  of  whom  the  following  are  known: 

Abraham  Alfual :  Of  Tortosa;  lived  at  the  end 
of  the  fciurleciith  ii'utury.  He  is  cited  in  the  re- 
sponsa  of  Isaac  l)(_'ii  Sheshet. 

Hayyim  ben  Judah  Alfual :  Of  the  eleventh 
centurv;  mentioned  in  the  responsa  of  Isaac  ibn 
Ml- -as; 

Hayyim  ben  Judah  Alfual :  A  rabbi  on  the 
island  of  Rhoili-s:  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


379 


THE  .IKWISII   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Alfonso  m. 
Algazi 


He  onjciyid  a  considfniblo  reputation  as  a  f-asuist. 

He  is  iiuntioncd  in  the  wortcs  of  liiscoiitcmporaiics, 

.Saiiiiul  di  Medina  (D'ltTinD),  David  bcu  Abi  Zinira 

(T'aiT),  and  Joseph  ibu  Lab,  who  highly  esteemed 

liini. 

Biiii.ioiiRAPiiY :  MIcbael,  Or  lia-IJamilm,  No.  8.V1. 

Isaac  b.  ^fayyim  b.  Judah  Alfual :  C'abalist; 
fioiiiisliiMl  in  llic  sccdiid  liiilldt  thi'  siMci-nlli  ci-iilury  ; 
died  157i).  Pciliaps  he  is  idiiilical  with  the  All'iial 
who  lived  in  C'liios  in  I.ITH  (Abr.  de  Hoton.  "  He- 
sponsa,"  No.  24).  and  with  tlie  Isiuic  1).  Santiiel 
Hay  vim.  wlioni  the  autliof  of  tlie  "Shalsliclct  ha- 
Kabi)alali  "  nicnliims  as  a  noted  caljalist  of  S]ianisli 
origin  led.  'Warsaw.  IHSii,  j).  K7).  His  posthumous 
worli.  "  Nofet  Zulim  "  (Drops  from  the  Hoiieyeonil)). 
whieli  was  edited  liy  liis  sun.  Ilayyim  ben  Isaae  Al- 
fual. Constantinople,  l.'iS','.  is  iKiw  rare.  It  contains 
interi)r<'tationsof  the  Torah.  alphabetieally  an-anged 
and  based  on  the  three  cabalistic  met  hods  of  exegesis: 
namely,  gtmiitn'K,  zinifim,  and  rii.sln'  tibot — the  nu- 
merical value,  the  comliinaiion.  and  the  initials  of 
words. 

Bnii.iocn.vPMY  :  Wiilf.  Ttihl.  Hrhr.  I.  llt)8,  Iv.  fiOl):  Stelnsdim'l- 
iler.  Vat.  liiiiU.  col.  lOMi;  lii-iijaeub,  0?ai'  ha-Stfiiriiii,  p.  A'H. 

H.  G.  E. 

Joseph  ben  ?ayyim  Alfual :  Of  Saragossa ; 
liviil  ill  till'  tliirlcciilb  iiiilury. 

Joseph  ben  Isaac  Alfual :  Lived  in  Iluisen  in 
the  tliirlciiith  century.  lie  translated  {M'.)')  the 
Mishiiali  into  S|)aiiisli,  and  the  conuneiitary  of  Mai- 
monides  on  the  seclion  "  ,Moed "  from  the  Arabic 
into  Hebrew.  This  translation  is  i)receded  by  a 
poetical  iiitrodiiction  in  whicli  each  verse  begins  with 
I  lie  last  word  of  the  preceding  verse  (Steinschneider, 
•llebr.  Bibl.'Mx.  i:!S:  "Ilebr.  Cebers, "  p.  923). 

Joseph  ben  Solomon  Alfual :  Wrotea  commen- 
tary oil  tlic  Canticles,  a  niaiiuseri|it  of  which  exists 
in  the  Vatican  Librarv  (see  Sallild  in  "  .Maga/.in."  vi. 
30.  204;  i'liin.  "Die  Krkliirer  des  Ilohen  Liedes,"  p. 
n."i;  and  in  "Ilelir.  Hilil."  i\.  i;iS). 

Munajjim  ibn  al-Fawwal :  Of  Saragossji;  lived 
in  the  clevcnili  century.  According  to  Ibn  Abi 
Oseibia,  he  was  a  i)hysician  of  renown,  and  well 
versed  in  logic  and  philosophy.  He  wrote  a  work 
in  Arabic,  called  "  Kanz  al  >Iakl."  in  tlw  form  of 
(piestions  and  answers,  to  whicli  he  added  the  rules 
of  logic  and  the  iniiiciplcs  of  physics  (see  "  Ibn  Abi 
Oseibia," ed.  A 11 1:11st  .Ml'ijler.ii,  .")(),  KiHiigsberg,  ISW; 
Steinschneider.  ■llelir.   libers."  p.  it23). 

Samuel  ben  Judah  Alfual :  Lived  in  Saragossa 
ill  llie  Iliirteeiilli  ceiilmy  G. 

ALGABA,  JACOB  B.  MOSES  DI :  Translator 
into  Hebrew  of  llie  cclehialed  medieval  romance, 
'"Amadis  de  Gaul."  Tlic  translation  probably  a|)- 
pearcd  at  Constantinople  between  l.")li4  and  I'M. 
A  ropy  of  the  work,  which  is  extremely  rare,  is  in 
the  Hritish  Museum  (see  the  "Catalogue"  of  Van 
Slnialen,  p.  11,  I-ondon,  IS!M). 

The  name  Algaba.  as  .'^leinsehneider  suggests, 
may  be  cither  a  patronym,  or  an  apocope  of  the 
Hebrew  word  'X33  ("treasurer").  In  the  latter  ease 
its  full  form  Wdiild  be  "Algabai." 

Bini.ioim.\riiY:   StcliiwIini'ldiT,   llrlir.   fV/irrn.  p.  IBS:  Jrir. 
liiiiirt.  Itir.  X.  .11 1 :  I)eiijiir.il),  (»{<i)-  /iii-.sVMrlin,  p. :!». 

H.   G.   E. 

ALOAZI,    ABRAHAM    BEN    SOLOMON: 

Supposed  to  have  lived  111  Siiiynm  in  Mi.'i'.l.  and  to 
have  been  the  son  of  llieaiitlior  lif  the  book.  "Slienia' 
Sheloinoh "  iSolomon's  Fame),  Smyrna,  lt!.")!l.  <-on- 
lainini;  iiomilctie  explanations  of  a  part  of  theTorali. 
Very  little  is  known  ttlioiit  his  writings.     J.  I'll. 


ALGAZI,  9AYYIM :  Ralibi  in  Constantinople 
in  the  siventeentli  (ciitury.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
.Joseph  di  Trani.  and  the  author  of  a  commentary 
on  "Sefer  Jlesharim  "  (The  Book  of  the  Highteoiisi. 
which  is  the  part  that  treats  of  civil  law  in  the  ritual 
code  "Toledot  Adam  wa-Hawwah."  by  K.  .Teroliam 
ben  Meshullam  (thirteenth  and  fourteeiith  centuries). 
This  commentary  was  published,  under  the  title 
"Netibot  Mishpat  "  (The  Paths  of  Justice),  in  Con- 
stantinople, l«(is  (see  bteinschncider,  "Cat.  Bodl." 
col.  M21).  D. 

ALGAZI,  9AYYIM  ISAAC:  Author  of  the 
books:  "  DeieU  1>.  li.i  I  In  \  y  iin '"  I  Tlie  Wav  of  the  Tree 
of  Life),"  En  Vamiir'iTl'ie  Kight  Eve).""Shaar  Ye- 
liudah"  (The  Gate  of  Judah);  all  published  at  Salo- 
nica,  1822.  .J.  Cii. 

ALOAZI,    5AYYIM    BEN     MENAHEM : 

Habbi  of  the  island  of  Hliodes  and  .Smyrna:  lived 
in  the  seventeenth  century;  author  of  "  Hene  Ilay- 
yai "  (Sons  of  Jly  Life),  containing  notes  and  no- 
vella- in  the  sequence  of  tlie  four  Turim.  It  was 
edited  by  the  author's  pupil.  Jleir  Danon,  Orthokoi 
(near  Con.stantinople).  1712.  Appended  to  it  are 
the  author's  "Hiddushim."  mi.seellaiieous  notes  on 
ShcbuOt,  Sanhedrin,  Giltin.  etc.,  edited  by  Hay- 
yim  ben  Isaac  Haphael  Aifandari. 

nini.iooiiAi'iiv:    Benjaoob,   Ozar  ha-Scfarim,  u.  m-,   FQrst, 
mill.  Jml.  I.  p.  :ir. 

n. 

ALGAZI,  ISRAEL  JACOB:  Great-grandson 
of  Solomon  Algazi  the  elder,  and  rabbi  in  Jerusidem 
in  the  ei.irhtcenth  century.  Besides  contributing  to 
dialectical,  liturgical,  aiid  legal  literature,  he  was 
the  aullior  of  some  valuable  works  on  Talmudic 
metlioilolojry.  Of  these  there  exist:  (1)  "Ar'ade- 
Habliaiiaii  "  (The  Land  of  the  Uabbis).  a  treatise  on 
Talmudic  principles (Constantino|>le.  174.'));  reediled 
bv  Jacob  Avas  with  the  commentarv  of  Juda  Avas, 
his  father,  called  "'Afra  de-Ara  "  (The  Dust  of  the 
Land)  (Leghorn,  1783);  (2)  "Slieerit  Ya'akob  "  (The 
Hemnant  of  Jacob),  consisting  of  homilies  (Constan- 
tinople. 17.">1);  the  second  jiart  published  at  Leg- 
horn, 1700;  (;!)"Ncot  Yaakob"  (The  Habitations  of 
Jacob),  a  volume  of  responsa  and  homilies  (Smyrna. 
1707);  (4)  "Shenia'  Yaakob"  (Hearken.  O  .Tacob'). 
homilies  on  (ienesis  and  ExihIus,  the  tirst  of  which 
was  delivered  at  the  bar-niizwah  of  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor Yom  T"h  (173i();  (."))  "Emet  le- Yaakob " 
(.Jacob's  Truth),  on  the  laws  concerning  Scriplun' 
reading  (Constantinople.  1704),  of  w  hich  Azidai  niaile 
all  epitome  under  the  title"  Le- David  Emet  "(David's 
Truth)  (Leghorn,  1780),  re|>rinted  several  times. 

Biiii.iiMii<.\riiv:  Aziilnl,  .s'ln  III  lm-(l<ilnliii).  ».  v.  33n:  steln- 
sihui'liler,  I'lU.  liixU.  a)\.  lliC. 

I), 

ALGAZI,  MOSES  BEN  ABRAHAM :  A  rab- 

binieal  uiihr  who  II0111  i-.|ii  li  in  Siii\  nia  ill  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  was  the  brother  of  S<ilo- 
moii  Al.irazi  the  elder,  anil  wrote  annotations  to 
"  Dobeb  Sific  Veshenim  "  (Smyrna,  1071)  and  "Sefat 
ICmel,"  two  rabbinical  wcirks  of  his  gniiidfather, 
Moscs  IJeiiveniste  the  elder.  The  latti-r  is  a  work 
on  Hebrew  elymoloiries  published  tngethcr  with  a 
poem  of  Isaac  Tshelebi  on  the  Hi-brew  words  Ix-- 
ginning  with  t,"  Acconling  to  Zcdner,"Cal.  Hebr. 
IJooks  Hrit.  Mils."  p.  TOO,  it  was  published  at  I'ou- 
slaiilinople  in  17111);  but  according  to  Henjacob,"07,iir 
ba  Sefariin,"  p.  r)l»2,  it  was  published  there  in  I7'2'2-'J3 
and  1807. 

lliMi  iiiiiiiAi'iiv:    Aiiilal.  filirm  lui-(lfiliiHm.».v.  sjn;  Sli-lii- 
M'hiii'lilir.  Cut.  Uiitl.  cul.  KiW. 


Alfrazi 
Algeria 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


380 


ALOAZI,  MOSES   JOSEPH  :  Hnbbi  at  Cairo, 

Eirypt;  liciiii  ITiil;  dicil  alter  ISKI.  ill  which  year 
he  liccaiiif  pniniiriiiit  thnmgli  Ihi-  (•iicr;:rctic  supi)(>rt 
which  he  gave  to  Cremicux  ami  Salonioii  Muiik  in 
their  effort  to  establish  sdiools  for  llie  Jews  of 
Egypt.  The  moveineiit  was  a  direct  outgrowth  of 
the"  eastern  journey  of  Montctiorc,  Creiuieux,  and 
Munk  on  the  occasion  of  tlie  Damascus  bloodaccu- 
sjition,  when  the  low  plane  of  eniiuhleninent  preva- 
lent among  Egyptian  Jews  became  manifest  to  the 
philanthropists.  Mnnk  issued  an  eloiiuent  appeal  in 
Hebrew  and  Arabic  (  Septemlier,  1.S40).  At  Alex- 
andria, the  l(Hal  rabbi,  a.ssisted  by  a  prominent  lay- 
man. Valensiuo.  liead<'d  the  movement,  while  at 
Cairo,  which  contained  about  three  hundred  Jewish 
families,  Algazi,  though  already  seventy-six  years 
of  age,  seconded  by  a  leading  layman,  Adda,  made 
such  a  strenuous  cITort  on  behalf  of  the  I'l.iii  that 
on  Oct.  4,  l^ilO,  two  schools — one  for  boys  and  one 
for  girls — were  opened.  The  institutions  received 
the  name  of  the  Cremieux  schools;  and  their  spon- 
sor made  iiimself  responsible  for  a  European  an- 
nual contribution  of  (i.ODU  francs  toward  their 
maintenance. 

Algazi,  moreover,  showed  an  additional  trait  of 
tolerance  when,  desjiile  the  opjiosition  of  luimerous 
fanatics,  he  supported  ^lunU  in  the  juoposiil  to  ad- 
mit to  the  schools  the  children  of  the  Karaites,  of 
whom  there  were  at  Cairo  about  one  hundred.  The 
establishment  of  these  institutions  signilied  the  be- 
ginning of  secularculture  among  tlx^  Jews  of  mod- 
ern Egypt ;  and  soon  after  this  event  .Moses  Fresco, 
chief  rabbi  of  Constantinople,  i.ssucd  a  circular  let- 
ter exhorting  them  to  learn  the  language  of  the 
country. 

BIISI.IOORAPHY:  Griitz,  Gcsch.  if.  Jiiddi.Med..  xl.  .T45  rt  sr.q.; 
Munli's  appeal  (in  Arabic),  in  Zi<m,  i.  7l(-7H  (tlie  Hebrew 
IfXl  in  LiliriiturliUilt  dcs  Orients.  1S41,  col.  vm  :  Just,  Aii- 
»<((fH,  IWII,  Nr>.  ."i2;  IRtl,  Niis.  11,  Hi;  Letter  ut  Uie  Hakam 
of  Constantinople  in  AUij.  Zr.it.  </.  Jinl.  1S41,  p.  li!. 

II.  G.  E. 

ALGAZI  (ALGHASI),  SAMUEL  BEN 
ISAAC  BEN  JOSEPH,  of  Candia  (Crete);  'I'al 
nuidic;d  eununentator  ;iiid  histiaiau.  died  shortly  be- 
fore 1588.  He  came  of  a  family  of  scholars,  both 
father  and  grandfather  being  known  as  Talnnidists. 
Joseph  Solomon  Delmedigo  bestowed  upon  Algazi 
the  title  of  "Gaon,"  at  the  same  tiiue  declaring  that 
he  was  the  most  prominent  pupil  of  Delmedigo's 
ancestor  Judah  ben  Eli.jah.  Algazi  does  not  seem 
to  have  left  Crete;  but  the  fa(;t  that  this  island  be- 
longed to  Venice  made  it  easier  for  Algazi's  name  to 
become  known  in  Italy.  Men  of  prominence  ranked 
him  among  the  great  teachers  of  his  time.  Of  his 
works,  onlya  small  chronicle,  "Toledot  Adam  "  (The 
Generations  of  Adam),  was  published  by  his  grand- 
son Samuel  ben  Moses  Zarfati  (Venice,  IfiO.")).  This 
chronicle,  which  is  based  largely  ujion  the  "  Yuhasin  " 
of  Abraham  Zacuto,  begins  with  Adam  and  coiicIikIcs 
with  the  burning  of  Hebrew  writings  in  Italy  on  Sept. 
9 (New-year's  Day),  15.53.  His  consolation  was  that 
in  the  small  towns  of  Crete.  God  had  saved  a  "  brand 
from  the  burning";  meaning  thereby  that  in  Crete 
the  Talmud  and  other  Hebrew  books  li;ul  been  spared. 

Oddly  enough.  Algazi  fixed  u|)on  the  year  1581!  as 
the  beginning  of  a  new  era  from  which  he  reckoned 
all  dates;  for  example,  he  would  cite  Adam  and  Eve 
as  having  lived  in  the  year  5343  before  that  year. 
He  was  in  a  measure  influenced  by  the  Midrash,  from 
which  probably  he  obtained  the  names  of  the  wives 
of  Seth,  Noah,  and  Tcrali.  He  placed  the  exodus  of 
the  Ephraimites  from  Egypt  and  their  annihilation 
in  the  year  2924,  or  2,42(j  years  after  the  Creation. 
Concerning  the  Christian  chronology  he  says: 


"  1672  years  since  the  Nazarene.  according  to  our  tradition ; 
accoixlln),'  In  their  reclionlnir,  10i;t  since  tlie  blnb  (of  Jiwus] ; 
Illat  i.s,  (he  ei);tlt4HMi(h  ye«r  of  Ibe  one  hundred  and  ninety-.sixtjl 
cycle  ;  timl  is,  the  two  biindn-il  and  severily-seveiitb  year  of  the 
Seteiicldan  em.  eqiiivaleiil  to  tlie  thice  hiiiulriHl  and  seventeentJi 
yeiu-  of  the  S4-cond  Teinpie,  and  the  Ilfteen  bundivd  and  eighty- 
second  year  since  the  foundation  of  their  reli^'ion." 

It  would  ajipear  from  this  that  he  wrote  his  little 
book  in  the  last  fotu'  months  of  1582;  besides,  he 
counts  since  September,  1553,  thirty  years. 

Algazi  chronicled  the  birth  of  Mohanmied  and  the 
takingof  Constantinojile  ,iust  as  he  did  the  most  im- 
portant events  in  the  history  of  the  persecution  of 
the  Jews  or  of  their  literary  history.  He  knew  the 
Cierman  Jews  as  well  as  the  Spanish. 

Algazi's  tmiiublished  works  ai'e;  (1)  "Biur  'Aruk 
Gadi)l,"a  com  mint  ar.v  on  the  book  "  Vereiin  "  by  Eli- 
ezer  of  Mctz.  w  hich  was  given  the  same  importance 
as  Joseph  Caro's"  Bet  Vosef";  (2)"Kebuzat  Kesef," 
a  concordance  to  both  Talmuds,  Mekilta,Sifra,Sifre, 
and  till-  Midrash  Habbot ;  (3)  "Tanhumot  El,"  w  hich 
is  said  to  have  contained  glosses  on  the  Psalms  and 
probably  s<'rmons  also;  (4)  "Derashot"  (Disquisi- 
tions), which  are  probably  identical  with  the  "Shi tot" 
(Novella')  to  eighteen  Talmudic  treatises  and  to  the 
J'n  (Habbenu  Nissim),  mentioned  by  Delmedigo. 

Bun.iO(:R.\riiY:  .Inspph  Solomon  Delmedigo,  Bffiii,  p.  44, 
(irlessa,  1S44;  Aziilai.  Sliiin  tm-Gnlnlim,  s.v.:  Wolf,  Bibl. 
11,  hr.  i.  lusil;  stelnscbneidpr.  Cut.  lindl.  No.  70tK). 

A.    Li:. 

ALGAZI,  SOLOMON  NISSIM,  the  Elder: 
Kabbi  in  Smyrna  and  in  Jerusalem  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  He  must  not  be  confused  with  his 
griindsoii  and  namesake,  a  labbi  in  Egyjit  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  Solomon  Algazi  was  a  jirolilic 
writer  on  all  topics  of  rabbinical  literatuic.  iind  has 
won  distinction  by  his  ticatment  of  Talmudic  lier- 
meneutics  and  methodology.  His  attempts  to  ra- 
tionalize Talmudic  Haggadot.  while  not  scientific  in 
a  modern  sense,  still  prove  him  to  have  been  superior 
to  theaveiage  Talmudist  of  his  age.  His  best  work 
is  his  Talmudic  methodology,  "Vabiu  Shemu'ali " 
I  He  Will  Elucidate  the  ^lcs.sagc),  which  is  written 
in  the  form  of  a  conunentary  to  Joshua  Levi's  "Ila- 
likot  'Olam"  (Venice,  1()3!»;  Leghorn,  1792).  lie 
wrote  two  other  works  on  Talmudic  methodologv; 
namelv,  "  Halikot  Eli"  (The  Wavs  of  >Iv  Goil; 
Smyrna.  1063),  and  "Gufe  Ilalakot"  (Principle 
of  Halakah ;  Smyrna,  1G75).  Algazi  was  also  the 
author  of  "  Ahabat  'Olam"  (Everlasting  Love),  a 
series  of  homilies  (Constant  inojile,  1042;  Dvherufurth, 
1093);  "Hamon  Kabbah"  (The  Great  ".Multitude), 
an  index  of  the  Biblical  ]iass;igcs  (piotcd  in  ."Midrash 
Habbah(Constanlinople,  1044);  "Zehab  Sebali"  (The 
Gold  of  the  Iloaiy  Head),  on  Talmudic  Haggadot, 
(Constantinople,  1083);  "Leliem  Setarim"  (Secret 
Bread),  Talmudic  novellii;  (Vi-nice,  1004);  "Me'ul- 
lefet  Saiipirim"  (Overlaid  with  Sapphires),  selec- 
tions from  the  Zohar  (Smvrna,  1005;  Amsterdam, 
1703);  "Razuf  Ahabah "  "(Inlaid  with  Love),  or 
"Apiiion  Shelomnh  "  (Solomon's  Palantpiin),  notes 
on  the  Tosafot  to  the  liaggadic  passages  in  the 
Talmud  (Smyrna, 1059;  Amsterdam, 1710);  "Ta'awah 
la-'Eiiavim"  (A  Delight  to  the  P^ves).  notes  on  the 
Talmudic  Haggadot  (Salouica,  165"5 ;  Sulzbaeh,  1087). 

BiRi.ior.K.M'iiv:  Azulai,  Slirm>iii-GednUm,p.Si;  Stelnsclinel- 
der,  Cdl.  lii'dl.  col.  i.'77  ;  Fiirst,  Bihl.  Jud.  i.  37,  m. 

D. 

ALGAZI,  YOM-TOB  BEN  ISRAEL  JA- 
COB: Commentator;  lived  at  Jerusalem  in  the 
eighteenth  century;  author  of  a  commentary  on 
Nahmanides'  "Hilkot  Bekorot "  (Laws  Concerning 
Primogeniture),  which  was  published  at  Leghorn 
in  1794,     Some  consider  him  to  be  the  author  of 


381 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Alg-azi 
Algeria 


"Slialme  Zibbur."  which  is  genenilly  assigned  to  his 
more  learned  father,  Isuaei.  Jacob  Algazi. 

BlBLlOGRAPnT :  Benjarob.  Ofnrha-Scfarim,  p.  589 ;  Kiwst,  Cat. 
il.  llimiilhnrKclim  IfiliU'itluk,  I.  5«. 

D. 
ALGEBRA,     SCIENCE     OF.      See    Mathe- 

MAlli  ^ 

ALGERIA  :  Country  on  the  coast  of  North  Af- 
rica, now  a  Krendi  colony,  but  formerly  bclonginf; 
successively  to  ('iirtlmjrc,  Konic,  the  Siiracens,  and 
the  Ottoniiiii  Turks.  'I'lic  claim  is  put  forth  by  sev- 
eral Jewish  Al!;<rian  eonuuuuitics  that  they  were 
established  in  North  Africa  at  the  time  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple.  Though  this  is  tmwarranted. 
the  presence  of  Jews  there  .since  the  first  centuries  of 
the  couunon  era  is  altislcd  bv  epit.iplis  ("f.  I.  L." 
viii.  H-I'.':l  HVM);  "nullelin  Archeologiiiue  du  C'omite 
desTravaux  Historiciues,"  No.  i.  .\iii.  04).  from  which 
two  inferences  tuay  be  drawn:  lirst.  that  since  the 
Jews  mentioned  bear  Latin  names,  most  of  them 
came  from  Italy  ;  secondly,  that  since  the  proportion 
of  Jewish  inscriptions  to  the  great  mass  of  Latin-Al- 
gerian inscriptions  is  very  small,  the  number  of  Jews 
was  not  large.  L'nder  the  fairly  tolerant  Vandals  the 
Jews  probably  multiplied  ;  for  Justinian  in  bis  edict 
of  persecution  respecting  North  Africa,  proclaimed 
by  him  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Vandal  empire, 
mentions  them  in  the  same  category  as  Arians  and 
heathens  (••Novella."  x.x.wii.). 

In  the  seventh  century  an  important  addition  to 
the  Jewish  jiopulation  was  niatle  by  Spanish  im- 
migrants, who.  Ileeing  from  the  persecutions  of  the 
Visigothic  king  Sisebut  and  his  successors,  cscajied 
to  Mauritania,  and  settled  in  the  Byzantine  cities. 
^Vhetlier  they  mingled  willi  the  IJerlier  populalion, 
making  converts  among  them.  isaiioi)en  ijuestion.  to 
which,  however.  Arabic  historians  give  an  allirnia- 
tivc  answer.  Ibn-Kaldfin  categorically  maintains 
that  sevend  lierber  tribes  professed  Judaism:  the 
Nafiisjih  in  Ifrikiyyah  (Tunis  and  a  department  of 
Constantine).  the  Faudalawah.  the  Fazaz.  the  Madi- 
unah,the  Bahlulah.and  theGhayyalliah  in  the  Magh- 
reb al-Aks;i  (in  the  west  of  the  dcparlmeiit  of  (tran 
anil  Morocco).  The  powerful  tribes  of  the  Jarua  and 
of  the  Aures,  whose  (|ueen,  tin-  Kaliina  Dil.iya.  for  a 
long  time  kept  the  Arabian  generals  in  check,  also 
practised  the  Jewish  religion.  Ibn  Kalilun  ailds  that 
the  existence  of  Judaism  among  the  Berbers  lasted 
imtil  the  reign  of  the  founderof  the  Idriside dynasty. 
This  prince  devoted  himself  energetically  to  stamp- 
ing out  all  traces  of  .ludaism  from  his  empire:  but 
cirlain  present  usagesamong  the  tribesof  tli<'  Aures, 
such  as  house-cleaning  at  I'assovcT  lime  and  Salib.ilb 
observance,  must  be  considered  as  survivals  of  that 
religion.  Mon^over.  some  conti'nd  that  cerlain  por- 
tions of  the  tribe  of  the  llenansha  (south  Constan- 
tine), leading  in  all  i>articulars  the  pastoral  life  of 
the  Aral)s.  still  oliserve  the  religion  of  .Moses. 

Under  Arabic  domination  the  situation  of  the  Al- 
fterinn  Jews  was  what  that  of  "the  People  of  the 
BiHik"  (Ahliil  Kit'ili)  has  always  been  in  Moslem 
empires.  Though  thev  were  compellid  to  pay  the 
poll  lax  (.//;/////().  the  regime  was  relatively  tolerant, 
and  they  mainlaini-d  I  he  free  exercise  of  their  re- 
ligion. At  the  .sjiini'  time  they  were  always  exposed 
to  the  caprice  of  a  prince  or  to  an  out- 

Arabic  burst  of  popular  fanaticism.  Onsev- 
Domi-         erid    occasions    under    Idriside    emirs 

nation.        Ihey  sulTeied    per-ieculion.   but    imder 

the  .Xglilabiles  ihey  experienced  real 

traixpiillily.  and  even  a  fair  amount  of  favor.     Two 

Jewish  |ihysicians.  both  named  Ishalj  ben  Amnim. 

appear  to  have  altaineil  a  I'erlain  standing  at   the 


court  of  Ziyadat  Allah  I.  and  of  Ziyadat-AUah  HI., 
and  to  have  been  the  eontidants  and  counselors  of 
those  princes.  The  Almoravide  dynasty  seems  to 
have  left  the  Jewish  communities  of  the  Maghreb  in 
jieace;  but  the  fanatical  Almohades,  who  over! brew 
it  (1140),  followed  a  totally  dilferent  ])olicy  toward 
the  Jews.  The  lirst  Almohade.'Abdal-Mu'min.  made 
them  the  object  of  frequent  persecutions.  In  pur- 
suance of  a  fanciful  belief,  of  which  it  is  impossible 
to  lind  the  least  foundation  in  Jloslem  tradition,  he 
pretended  that  Mohanuned  had  l>ermitteil  the  Jews 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  for  only  tivo 
hundred  years,  and  that  if.  at  the  expiration  of  that 
time,  the  Messiah  bad  not  appeared,  they  must  be 
forced  into  Islam  by  fair  means  or  foul.  His  succes- 
sors pursued  the  same  course,  and  their  severe  meas- 
ures i)roduced  eilherenngralion  to  the  east  or  forced 
convei-sions.  Becoming  suspicious  of  the  sincerity 
of  the  new  converls.  the  Almohades,  in  order  to 
distinguish  Ihem  from  Moslems  of  longer  standing, 
obliged  them  to  wear  a  special  garb.  L'nder  the 
various  dynasties,  which  after  the  fall  of  the  Almo- 
hades divided  the  Maghreb  among  themselves,  the 
Hafsides  of  Tunis,  the  Bauu  Ziyan  of  Tlem(,-en,  and 
the'  Marinides  of  Fez,  the  situation  of  the  .lews  was 
somewhat  improved.  At  any  rjite  their  situation 
was  far  better  than  that  of  Jews  across  the  Mediter- 
ranean in  <'hristian  Spain:  and  the  African  coast 
cities  became  the  natural  shelter  for  refugees  from 
Spanish  persecutions. 

In  1;>9I.  in  conseciuence  of  that  terrible  uprising 

against   the  Jews  which  steeped   Castile.   Anigon, 

Andalusia,  and   the  Balearic  Isles  in 

Spanish      blood,   groups  of  immigrants  lauded 

Immigra-    at   Algiers.    Uran,   Jlosta.canem,   and 

tion.  Bougie,   penetrated  into  the  cities  of 

the  inteinor,  and  settled  there  with  the 

permission  of  the  Moslem  authorities.     They  had  to 

pay  a  capitation  fee  of  a  doubloon  for  admis.sion  into 

the  land.    On  the  whole,  they  were  well  received  by 

the  Jewish  communities  already  there,  but  for  sonic 

time  they  formed  separate  groups. 

The  ancient  Algerian  Jews  were  known  as  "  wearers 
of  turbans."  the  newcomers  as  ••  wearers  of  birettas." 
(ireally  superior  to  the  African  Jew  in  culture  and 
in  intellectual  and  commercial  activity,  the  Spanish 
Jew  soon  gained  the  upper  hand,  and  from  the  lirst 
years  of  the  lifteenth  century  rabbis  who  emigrated 
from  Spain  are  found  at  the  head  of  nearlv  all  Jew- 
ish comnnmilies  in  Al.sreria:  at  Al.iiiers.  Isaac  ben 
Sheshet  Barfat.  known  by  the  ablireviation  "Hi- 
bash."  and  Simon  ben  Zemah  Duran  L.  sinularly 
called  "Uashbaz":  at  Oran,  Amram  ben  Merovas 
ICplirali:  at  Constantine.  Joseph  ben  Menirand  Mai- 
nuin  ben  Saadia  Najar:  at  .Medeah.  Saailia  Darmon: 
at  Tlem(;<'n,  Abraham  ben  Ilakin  and  Ephraim  An- 
kawa;  at  Bou.irie,  Benjamin  .\mer.  etc. 

Heiiceforlh  tin-  niunber  of  Jews  in  Al.ireria  contin- 
ually augmented,  the  increase  being  most  marked 
when  a  large  immigration  into  .Vfrica  look  place  at 
the  end  of  the  tifleenlh  ami  the  beginning  of  the 
sixleenlh  century.  Aftir  the  exptdsion  of  the  Jiws 
from  Spain  {\W'i.  l.lir.;)  four  to  live  Ihousjinil  of 
Ihem  repaired  lo  Africa.  An  old  chroidcler  sjivs: 
"Those  who  arrived  at  Oran  were  so  numerous  tiiat 
the  Arabs,  on  seeing  their  ves.s<ds,  tlioui;lit  that  ene- 
mies were  descending  u|ion  Ihem  and  killed  a  num- 
ber: but  afterwani  the  Moslem  prince  t<Mik  pity 
on  them,  and,  Ihroiigli  the  inlervetition  of  an  inllu 
enlial  Jew  of  the  country  named  IKxlilmm.  per 
milted  them  to  land.  He  had  boanl  cabins  erecletl 
outside  llie  city  forthemand  the  cattle  they  l)nm!:hl 
with  them."  The  conclusion  nuiy  Ih'  drawn  that 
ihese  new  inimigrants  found  in  the  Algerian  cities 


Algeria 


TIIK  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


382 


well-ponstitHtcd  Jewish  communities,  full  of  vitality, 
by  which  they  were  absorbed,  despite  their  own 
strength  and  importance;  for.  in  the  lirst  place,  the 
division  of  the  Jews  into  two  groups.  African  and 
Spanish,  tliat  has  existed  at  Tiuiis  up  to  our  own 
tiuKs.  ceased  in  Algeria  after  tlie  middle  of  the 
Turkish  period;  and.  in  the  secdnd  place.  Arabic 
has  remained  the  current  speech  of  the  Algerian 
Jews,  while  the  contrary  is  the  case  at  Teluan  and 
Tangiers,  where  !5pauish  is  the  vernacular  of  the 
Jews. 

At  first  Algeria  did  not  offer  the  Jewish  refugees 
from  Spain  a  very  secure  asylum.  When  Car- 
dinal Ximenes  took 
Oran  in  l."i(li).  lie  over- 
whelmed the  Jews 
with  his  impositions; 
Peter  of  Xavarre.  in 
his  conquest  of  Bo\i- 
gie  (lolO),  pillaged, 
ma.ssjicrcd,  and  re- 
duced to  slavery  a 
considerable  number 
of  Jews. 

But  under  Turk- 
ish domination,  from 
1519  onward,  during 
the  si.xteenth,  seven- 
teenth, and  eight- 
eenth centuries,  the 
Jews  in  the  towns  of 
the  regency  of  Al- 
giers enjoyed  a  fair 
amount  of  securi- 
ty, bein,g  practically 
guaranteed  the  free 
exercise  of  their  re- 
ligion and  the  liberty 
to  administer  their 
own  affairs.  IIow- 
evcr,  they  were  de- 
spised, subjected  to 
annoying  treatment, 
forced  to  pay  heavy 
taxes,  and.  if  they 
complained,  punishecl 
with  the  utmost 
rigor.  In  addition 
they  were  exposed  to 
arbitrary  acts  at  the 
hands  of  petty  local 
tyrants.  Tin-  jiaslin 
of  Tuggurt.  Mohainnicil  al-Aklial  ben  .Jallab.  wished 
to  convert  the  Jews  to  Islam  by  force,  and  the  deys 
of  Algiers  on  .several  occasions  liandcd 
Turkish  over  the  houses  of  the  Jews  to  the 
Domi-  populace  for  pillage.  But  it  was 
nation.  chieliy  in  the  villa.ixes  occupied  by 
the  Spaniards  and  exposed  to  the 
wars  between  the  regency  and  the  Catholic  kings 
that  the  Jews  suffered  from  active  fanaticism — the 
fanatical  hate  inspired  by  the  Inquisition.  The 
Spaniards  in  possession  of  Tlemccn  in  l.'iG;!  killed  or 
enslaved  fifteen  hundred  Jews  there,  and  in  1CC9 
Taxardo  expelled  from  Oran  the  Jewish  |)op\dation. 
]iroscribed  the  free  exercise  of  Judaism,  and  rc|ilaced 
the  synagogue  by  a  church  dedicated  to  San  Christo 
de  la  Patienza.  It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  the  Al- 
gerian Jews  publicly  demonstrated  their  joy  on  sev- 
eral occasions  when  the  Turks  were  victorious  over 
the  Spaniards.  The  following  curious  fact  is  w-orthy 
of  mention :  Emperor  Charles  V.  sent  a  Jew  of  Oran 
named  Jacob  Cansino  (1556)  to  represent  him  at  the 
court  of  the  emperor  of  Morocco,  and  to  protect  the 


JtrUl-^li  (^u.illfi  ui  .\lMii--i3.  Aili-i  UiL-  iiloU-,  (1^'.^'',. 


interests  of  Spanish  subjects  in  that  cotmtry ;  the 
descendants  of  this  Jacob  Cansino.  I.saac.  Hayyim, 
Aaron,  and  Jacol).  in  direct  succession  from  father 
to  son.  Iille<l  the  ollice  of  consuls  of  Spain  in  Mo- 
rocco until  l()(i((. 

In  theeigliteenthcentury<ertainJewi.sh  communi- 
ties were  reeslablisliiMl  or  eidarged  under  the  fricnilly 
rule  of  Turkish  deys.  Among  the  chief  of  these  is 
the  present  (nmmimily  in  Oran.  In  1792.  after  the 
linal  evacuation  of  the  city  by  the  Spaniards,  thedey 
Mohammed  al-Kabir  invilid  the  .lews  of  Tlemten, 
of  jMostaganem.  of  Mascara,  and  of  Nidroma  to  live 
there.     On  condition   of  the    payment   of   eerlain 

taxes,  and  of  build- 
ing within  fixed  lim- 
its, he  conceded  to 
them  a  iiicce  of  land 
between  what  is  now 
Chateau-Neuf  and 
Saint-Andre.  At  Con- 
stantinethedey  Salah 
donated  to  the  Jews 
of  the  region  some 
land  with  inth'finite 
Imuiidaries  between 
the  Sciuls  al  -  Aseur 
and  the  gate  of  El- 
Kantara.  They  es- 
tablished themselves 
there,  erected  build- 
ings, and  jieopled 
that  part  of  the  city 
U])  to  the  desert. 

In  the  seventeenth 
century  a  new  Jewish 
element  foiuid  its 
way  into  the  chief 
cities  of  the  regencj-, 
especially  at  Algiers. 
These  Jews  from  Leg- 
horn. Italy,  called 
(Jorneyim.  soon  at- 
tained .great  impor- 
tance as  social  eco- 
nomic factors.  It  was 
their  conunereial  ac- 
tivity that  brought 
them  to  Algiers,  and 
in  the  course  of  the 
eighteenth  century 
they  became  the 
liankers  of  the  deys, 
intermediaries  betw-een  them  and  the  Eurojiean  pow- 
ers, and  their  respected  and  influential  counselors, 
almost  even  their  ministers. 

The  organization  of  the  Jewish  Algerian  commu- 
nities developed  in  the  course  of  time.  Detinite  in- 
formation concerning  the  system  during  the  Turkish 
period  is  in  existi'ncc,  and  a  short  suniniarv  may  be 
given.  Placed  at  the  head  of  iIk^  conmiunity  was  a 
miikdddnm  selected  by  the  Arabic  or  Turkish  gov- 
ernor of  the  city  or  the  region.  The 
The  Com-  mukaddam  was  the  oHicial  representa- 
munities.  five  of  the  comnnmity,  and  the  sole 
legal  intermediary  with  the  Moslem 
authorities  for  all  administrative  and  financial  af- 
fairs. He  was  assisted  by  a  covmeil  (tnhf  ha-'ir), 
appointed  by  himself,  wliieli,  apart  from  its  admin- 
istration of  the  general  affairs  of  the  community, 
saw  to  the  levying  and  collecting  of  the  taxes  im- 
posed on  the  Jews  of  the  country.  The  rabbin- 
ical tribunal  possessed  two  judicial  functions.  In 
purely  religious  matters,  it  settled  ritual  questions 
and,  if  necessary,  inflicted  p<'nalties,  fines  (kemu), 


383 


THE  JEWISH   ENXYCLOPEDIA 


Algeria 


excommunications  (A*>;wh),  and  hogging  (malkot);  in 
civil  mattersit  exclusively  pronounced  judgment  on 
questions  pertaining  to  personal  relations  and  suc- 
cession. Tlienuikaildam  executed  the  sentences.  In 
civil  matters  other  than  those  involving  personal  re- 
lations, the  rabbinical  tribunal  was  not  necessarily  the 
sf)le  authority;  the  .Moslem  cadi  had  the  same  ])ower 
if  the  parties  concerned  were  agreed  in  bringing 
their  dUferences  to  him,  or  when  only  one  of  the 
litigants  was  a  Jew.  The  administration  of  relig- 
ious matters  was  entrusted  to  various  officials,  hier- 


val  Europe,  and  called  by  various  names:  harrnh  and 
shitrah  in  the  provinces  of  Algiers  andConstantine; 
and  in  the  province  of  Oran,  inclhih,  which  is  still 
the  name  that  it  hears  in  Morocco.  Among  the  tribes, 
the  Jews  lived  apart  imder  the  authority  of  the  sheik. 
Their  .situation  was  wretched  and  precarious,  and 
more  .so  underTurkish  than  Arabic  domination.  Dis- 
tinction, of  course,  must  be  made  between  the  Leg- 
horn or  Frankish  Jews  and  the  native.  The  Turks 
imposed  on  the  latter  the  most  dillicult  drudgery 
without  compensation,  and  subjected  them  to  end- 


TUK  6YNAUUUCE  AT  .\LUIKRS.— SE.\TRV  IIELIEK    IHKl.M;   TIIK  ItloTS   (ItW). 


nrcliical  in  character,  in  the  following  order:  {lizhir. 
gn/j/mi,  hiiher.  The  tirslliad  the  care  of  the  synagogue 
and  supervised  the  expenses  attendant  on  the  serv- 
ice. In  certain  cities  the  title  of  gizbar  was 
merely  honorary  and  was  purchasable  through  do- 
nations. The  gablmi  and  the  haber  attended  to 
mortuary  ceremonies,  and  thi-  latter  took  an  impor- 
tant part  in  marriage  edibralions.  It  was  his  ihily 
to  conduct  the  bride  from  her  parents'  home  to  the 
residence  of  her  hu.sband. 

The  revenues  of  the  community  were  at  first  de- 
rived from  t;i.\ation  oiiaitiflesof  consimiption  levied 
on  certain  trades  (llii-  butcher's  traile  and  the  sale 
of  Piussover  bread).  Collections  and  vobuilary  gifts 
supplied  the  rest.  There  were  generally  four  large 
collections  a  year:  at  llie  New  yi  ar.  for  the  housing 
of  the  poor;  on  Ynm  Kipjuir  eve.  for  foo<l  for  the 
poor;  at  Hanukkah.  for  clothes  for  the  poor;  at 
i'urlm,  for  defniying  the  expense  of  the  Pa.s,sover. 

The  Algerian  .lews  were  forced  to  reside  in  a  re- 
stricted quarter,  analogous  to  the  Ghetto  of  medic- 


less  annoyances.  They  were  ollieially  obliged  to 
wear  a  special  costume:  i\  sliufhiali,  i\  skullcap  of 
dark-colored  cloth,  a  gniy  bunioose,  and  shoes  with- 
out heels  (Ir/iiirjii  or  IhIHiii).  The  women  dre.s.s<'d  in 
a  caftan,  without  the  veil  worn  by  Moslem  women 
to  cover  their  faces.  Kill  ranee  into  the  moscpies  was 
al)soluteIy  prohibite<l  to  Jiws.  and  befon'Cirlain  par- 
lieuliirly  venenileil  mos<iui-s  they  were  (  ompelh'd  to 
taki'  olt  Iheir  shoes.  They  were  forbidden  lo  ride 
upon  a  horsi'.  an  animal  set  apart  for  Moslems  only, 
and  couUI  u.se  only  as,ses  or  mules;  nor  weiv  riding- 
saddlis  permitted,  merely  pack  saddles  and  panniers. 
Througli  Iheir  uiukaildani.  they  had  to  pay  to  the 
Mosli-ni  autliorilies  Ihe  laxis  imposed  by  Islam  on 
"Ihe  I'eopleof  Ihe  Book."  Ill  cerlain  eilles  Ihey  were 
subjeeled  also  to  the  same  taxation  as  Ihe  Moslems. 
At  .Mediali,  lhe.<///.ini;;i/i.  payable  by  Ihe  entire  pop- 
ulation, was  apportioned  equally  to  the  Jewish  ami 
Moslem  coiiiiiuinities.  ihelattir  nvimlH'ring  six  thou- 
siuid,  the  former  only  six  hundre<l. 

Heligiuus  uutugonism  and  t  he  scorn  of  iLc  Moslems 


Algeria 
Ali^iers 


11  IK   JEWISH   ENX-YCLOPEDIA 


384 


for  all  those  who  denied  the  inissidii  of  MoliiiiDiiied 
did  not,  however,  create  insiipirable  harriers  be- 
tween tliem  ami  their   subjects.      On 

Relations  the  contrary,  there  are  still  Inices  of 
of  Jews  and  I  lie  intercourse  tliat  undeniably  existed 

JSoslems.  between  the  two  peoples.  Unity  of 
lan;jua_!?<'. daily  life  side  by  .side,  and  tin- 
eeonoinie  position  rapidly  attaiuc-d  by  llie  Jew  in 
the  slothfid  Moslem  .society,  jrrcatly  contribtited  to 
create  common  usjiges  and  observances.  It  was 
not  rare  that  rabbis  commanded  great  respect  from 
Arabs,  and  at  the  pri'scnt  day  (1!H)1)  the  Jews  of 
the  country  /eakmsly  claim  as  sainted  labbis  a  num- 
ber of  highlj-  venerated  traits,  t^idi  Yakub  (Jacob) 
and  Sidi  Yusif  (Jose|)li)  at  TIemecn,  Sidi  Yonsha' 
(Joshua)  ben  Nun  near  HonaVn.  etc.,    all   bearing 


Costume  of  an  Algerian  Jewess. 

(From  Jungmann,  "  Ctistuin,^,  Ma-urs  et  Csagwt  (ie»  Alg^rlens"  (1837). 

Biblical  names,  whom  the  Arabs,  in  consideration  of 
their  high  qualities,  exalted  after  their  death  to  the 
dignity  of  jloslem  3f(ii-ii/)f>iits.  The  tombs  of  these 
illustrious  personages  have  become  sanctuaries,  the 
resorts  of  pilgrims  of  both  races,  before  which  they 
practise  the  same  observances,  sometimes  highly 
fanciful.  ]Moreovcr,  every  year  an  Arab  of  Algiers, 
a  self-constituted  guardian  of  one  of  these  mara- 
bouts of  disputed  origin,  goes  to  the  province  of 
Gran  to  make  collections  among  the  Jewish  com- 
munities, and  is  generally  very  successful.  In  the 
.same  category  with  these  facts  is  the  well-known 
veneration  i)aid  by  the  Arabs  to  the  synagogue  of 
Hona. 

The  existence  among  the  Jews  of  a  large  number 
of  usages  and  superstitions  is  to  be  attributed  wholly 
to  Jloslera  influence.  Such  are:  the  custom  among 
women  of  mutilating  their  faces  on  the  death  of 
their  kindred;  belief  in  the  sorcery  of  the  jinn; 
and  confidence  in  the  etlicacy  of  white  fowls  placed 
under  the  sick-bed,  etc.  These  beliefs  are  wide- 
spread, and  ministers  of  religion  have  difficulty  in 
combatiuir  them. 


For  four  centuries  the  family  of  the  Duran  pro- 
vided heads  of  the  coiuinunity  at  Algiers.  In  other 
cities,  owing  to  tlie  emigration  of  131)1,  Siianish  lali- 
bis  in  the  course  of  the  lifteentli  century  olitained 
the  leadership  of  all  the  Jewries.  At  Tlem(;en  was 
the  well-known  Epliraiiii  .\nkawa  (il.  1422);  atOran 
and  Tlemcen.  Abraham  .\bi  Zimra,  Isjiae  Abi  Ziiiini. 
tlien  Alal  beii  Siiluii  (lirieenlh  century),  Jo.seph 
Alashkar.  and  Judali  llala/  (sixleeiitli  century),  and 
tlie  family  of  the  tlavis.soii,  originally  from  Seville 
and  Granada,  who  left  Spain  after  r4it2.  At  Con- 
stantine  is  the  tomb  of  Ben  Menir,  surnamed  "  Ile- 
I.Iasid,"  who  arrived  there  probably  after  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  His  sucees.sor  was  Najar, 
author  of  various  casuistic  and  juristic  treatises. 

The  French  continest  freed  the  mass  of  Algerian 
J<'ws  from  the  Turkish  yoke.  They  welcomeil  it  as  a 
veritable  deliverance — which  it  was — 
The  French  and  the  very  day  alter  the  entrance  of 
Conquest,  the  French  troo])s  at  Algiers,  they  be- 
came devoted  allies  of  the  civilizing 
])ower  which  made  an  end  of  Turkish  barbarity  in  that 
country.  The  knowledge  of  the  Arabic  language 
jiossessed  by  the  Jews  made  their  services,  of  which 
they  were  not  sparing,  extremely  valuable  to  the 
French.  The  roll  of  honor  of  the  military  interpret- 
ers contains  the  names  of  a  number  of  Algerian 
Jew.s,  .some  of  whom  died  on  the  field.  According 
io  highly  respected  authorities,  the  brunt  of  the 
defense  of  Onin  when  liesieged  liy  Abd  cl-ICader  in 
l.s:^:3  was  borne  by  the  Jews.  Therefore  it  is  easy 
to  comprehend  that  from  1830  to  1870  opinion  has 
been  .shifting  in  the  direction  of  the  assimilation 
of  the  Algerian  Jews  with  the  French  citizens. 
Magazine  articles,  various  publications,  and  the  res- 
olutions of  the  general  councils  did  not  cease  since 
184.5  to  pronounce  such  an  assimilation  to  lie  most 
protitable  for  the  future  of  French  Algeria.  And 
this  desire,  freriuently  expres,sed,  naturally  found  an 
echo  in  the  various  legislative  decisions,  which,  in 
the  forty  years  before  1870,  jiretended  to  regulate 
the  legalstatusof  the  Algerian  population.  In  these' 
decisions  the  statutes  concerning  the  Israelites  were 
always  double  in  character.  In  the  first  place  they 
clearly  distinguish  between  Jew  and  Moslem  among 
the  natives;  and  in  the  second  place,  they  more  and 
more  approximate  the  Jewi.sh  element  to  the  French. 
To  nienticm  instances:  after  Aug,  10,  18.34,  theauthor- 
ity  of  the  rabbinical  tribunals  was  considerably  re- 
stricted; henceforth  they  decided  only  on  matters 
of  marriage,  divorce,  and  liturgy:  and  seven  years 
later  thev  were  comidetelv  suppressed  (ordinance  of 
Feb.  28,  "1841).  though  "  i>ri'toires  "  of  the  Mo.slcm 
cadis  in  the  meantime  continued  to  be  in  operation. 
The  decree  of  March  1.5,  18C0,  which  in  penal  matters 
subjected  the  natives  of  the  territories  of  the  com- 
mando to  martial  law,  was  not  aiiplicable  to  the 
Jews,  who,  no  matter  in  what  part  of  Algeria  they 
lived,  were  tried  before  the  criminal  courts  of  the 
civil  law.  The  Jlosaie  law  in  secular  matters  had 
been  suppressed  by  the  statute  of  June  16,  1851, 
and  the  suppression  was  continued  by  the  i^cnfl^'S- 
coiis'illeof  1S().5,  which  in  addition,  according  to  arti- 
cle 2,  admitted  native  Jews  to  all  the  rights  of 
French  citizens  on  the  demand  of  each  individual. 
In  1 800  they  were  granted  a  special  representation 
in  the  municipal  councils  of  Algeria.  Finally,  the 
decree  of  Oct.  24,  1870,  better  known  as  the  decree 
of  Cremjenx,  was  the  last  stjige  in  the  long  jour- 
ney toward  the  legal  assimilation  of  the  Algerian 
Jews.  It  naturalized  them  as  a  whole,  and,  conform- 
ing to  the  iirinciples  of  the  Revolution  of  1789,  sup- 
pres.sed  Judaism  as  a  nationality  in  the  new  France 
of   Africa,  but   i)erniitted  it   to  exist  as  a  religion 


385 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Algeria 
Algiers 


recognized  by  the  state.  Suoh  in  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury is  tlic  .situation  of  llic  Jews  of  Algeriii.  Tliey 
Hie  French  citizens,  and  since  IH7(I  they  have  made 
praiseworthy  etforts  to  show  themselves  worthy  of 
their  new  status.  Tlieir  cliil(hen  attend  tlie  schools 
anil  colleges  of  Als;eria,  and  every  year  a  number 
enter  the  larjje  schools  of  Paris. 

Within  recent   years  a   strange  phenomenon  lias 

manifested  itself — active  anii  Scmitisni  atlcnilcd  liy 

moh   violence  and   bloodshed.     The    |iolitical    aiiti 

Semitic  party  liad  but  one  aim,  to  oppress  the  Jew, 

to  driv('  him,  if    ixwsible,    from    the 

Kecent  country.  To  that  end  pamphlets  were 
Riots.  written,  speeches  were  made,  special 
jiaper.s,  like  "  F/Alirerie  l'''ran(,aise  "  and 
"L'Anti-Juif,  "  were  started,  anti  Jewish  sonjis  were 
composed,  lentrthy  books  were  wiitlcn';  all  means 
were  devised  for  makini;  the  lifeof  the  Jew  uidia|ipy. 
Jewish  merchants  were  boycotted,  indijrcnt  Jews 
could  not  avail  themselves  of  the  free  hos])ital  serv- 
ice open  to  others,  attempts  were  made  to  render 
tlic'in  ineliirible  to  jiublic  ollice.  and  if  Jewish  ehil- 
dicn  were  not  actually  kept  out  of  the  pulilif^  scliools, 
they  dill  not  receivethcsame  treatment  asihe  others. 

Durinir  February,  1M!»T.  an  .association  of  stu- 
dents made  public  manifestations  airainsi  u  Jew- 
ish professor  rcccnlly  installed  at.  Ali;icrs;  but  the  sig- 
nal for  uideashini;  jiopular  hatred  was  a  common 
brawl  at  Jlostjnianeni,  begun  by  a  party  of  cyclists 
from  Oran,  and  ending  in  violence,  i)illage,  and  tlie 
complet<'  sacking  of  the  synagogue  (May  18,  1897). 
The  evil  spread,  and  the  sjime  scenes  were  enacted 
at  AVn-Tedclis.  Oran,  Ain  Temouehent.  and  sev- 
eral other  |)laces.  "Abas  lesjuifsl"  "  Mort  au.\ 
Juifs!"  rang  through  the  whole  province.  Jews 
were  unsafe  on  the  streets:  stores  and  homes  were 
plundered  and  many  of  them  were  wounded.  From 
til  is  time  manifestations  continued  to  be  made,  distur- 
bances very  freipiently  occurrid,  and  street  brawls 
were  the  order  of  tlie  (hiy.  Justice,  to  put  it  mildly, 
was  tardy  ;  the  police  were  lenient  to  the  anti  Semites, 
and  iilTendcrs  against  Jews  received  ridiculously 
small  ]ienalties.  Hopes  were  founded  on  the  new 
governor-general,  l.cpine,  wlio  assumed  ollice  at  the 
end  of  18!)7;  but  his  policy  was  not  sutliciently 
Strong,  and  ecpially  violent  riots  occurrcil  in  Al- 
giers in  January,  18!»S.  The  leader  was  Max  lU'gis, 
elected  mayor  of  Algiers  in  Xovember.  lHii,s.  Other 
outbreaks  occurred  in  July,  1H98;  February,  Ai)ril, 
and  September,  181)!l,  and  the  anti  Semilis  were  vic- 
torious in  the  electinns  nf  Mav  and  November, 
1898.  I!y  December,  \^m.  I  here  "was  a  sensible  im- 
|>rovemenl  ;  Jonnarl,  the  new  governor-general,  in 
ids  reply  to  the  grand  rabbi's  address  of  welcome, 
declared  himself  against  anti  Senutism,  but  the  anti- 
Senutes  were  victorious  in  tlie  municipal  elections  in 
all  three  provinces. 

It  is  dillicult  to  assign  causes  for  the  jiiculiar  and 
violent  character  of  .-Vlgerian  anil  Seniilism.  Some 
useribe  it  lo  jealousy  created  by  the  Creinieux  de- 
cree, lint  the  leaders  of  the  movemenl  were  not 
natives  who  might  be  alTected  by  such  jealousy.  It 
may  be  due  to  social  condilions  in  Algeria.  Tliere 
is  a  large  element  of  foreign  adventurers  of  ndxed 
nalionalities  who  were  too  rapidly  natundi/.ed  and 
who.  disjippointed  in  their  hopes  of  making  for- 
tunes ijiiicklv.  were  ready  to  accept  the  teachings  fif 
clericalism  and  to  turn  against  thi'  easiest  victimsof 
their  passions.  The  natives  simply  followed  the 
lead  of  these  agitators. 

The  religious  organization  by  consistories  is  simi- 
lar to  that  in  France.     .Since  July  Id.  18(11.  the  con 
sistories  liave  received    li'gal    recognition,  and  are 
managed  by  a  rabbi  and  six  laymen  elected  tiy  the 
I. -•'.-J 


Jews  themselves  for  eiglit  years.     The  constitution 
of  the  consistories  is  settled  by  the  ordinance  of  Xov. 
9.  184.),  which  defined  all  functions,  tixed  the  amount 
of  sums  to  be  spent,  and  specilied  the  purposes  of  ex- 
penditures.    The  decree  of   Dec.   31, 
Religion      l><lt."),  and  still  more  that  of  Aug.  23, 
and  Re-       ls!),s.  limited  the  power  of  tlie  consis- 
ligious  Or-    lories,  whose  number  was  augmented 
ganization.  that    cacli    might   embrace   a    smaller 
sphere.     The  coiisistoiy  of  .Vlgiers  in- 
cludes, besides  live  congregations  in  Algiers,  four- 
teen outlying  communities,  one  of  which,  .Medeah, 
has  a  nibbi;  the  consistory  of  Constantine  includes 
twenty -one  communities,  of  which  IJoua  hasarabl)i; 
and  the    consistory  of   Oran  embraces  thirty-eight, 
including  the  (ominunity  of  TIenicen. 

Up  to  IH.jti  the  census  of  the  natives  in  Algeria 
was  made  by  the  military  administration  and  gave 
only  approximate  tigures.  From  ISIJO  to  1870  there 
was  no  increase  in  population  among  the  Jews,  but 
after  1881  many  came  from  jAIorocco  and  Tunis,  in 
order  toenjoy  tlie  fuller  liberty  conferred  on  Algerian 
Jews  by  the  Cremieu.x  di'crce.  However,  after  189.5 
the  tribunals  struck  from  the  list  of 
Vital  voters  many  such  .lews.     Leroy-Beau- 

Statistics.  lieu  gives  the  population  of  native 
.lews'in  1S91:  Algiers,  l-t.89.'i:  Oran, 
19,794;  Constantine,  12,.'^7."(— that  is,  a  total  of  47,. ")(j4 
out  of  a  |)opulation  of  4,l()9,()."il).  Hazell's  "An- 
nual" (London)  for  1900  gives  the  Jewish  population 
as  50,000.  The  average  number  of  births  a  year  for 
the  years  1891,  189'^,  and  189:5  was  2,G98,  oro(i.72to 
1,000  souls:  the  number  of  deaths  was  1,812,  or  38  to 
1,000.  This  is  a  comparatively  large  death-rate,  due 
to  great  mortality  among  infants. 

BiBMOiinAniv :  I..  Ailiil.<(i»,  Tin'  /'n'.vciit  State  n/  the  Jew» 
ill  the  liarlKiry  Stitte.s,  KIT.');  Monfmi.  Ixturia  tte^itt  Stati 
fVAliicri^  7'iojwt,  7'/-i/«»h'.  c  3f'»nH-cn.  Ixmdun.  17K4 ;  L. 
Reyiiler,  De  I'f^nnnniie  PuIilUiiie  1 1  Iturtile  ttrtt  Aratiettet 
deti  Jnift*^  IKiO;  It.  Juii^iiiann,  Cotitttwe:*^  Mteurs  et  Csagen 
lies  Alfii'rliiiK.  1837:  HeloVse  HarUxh.  Leitre  nir  V6tnt 
ilcn  Juifn  i/i;  I'Altjenc,  1S4(I :  Jouiiny  I'tiiminn  and  Dr.  GolJ- 
selielder,  Lettres  nur  V^jtiU  des  Jnifx  en  Alui'rie,  In  Arch, 
tsr.  Sept.  anil  (let.,  imo:  J.  C.  K.,  L<i  (Jiiealiiin  Jiiive  en 
Aliierie.iiH  ile  la  XiituraUMitiim  ilmjnifs  Alui'rien*,  jmr 
un  Akiirien  I'mtirettsif,  AlKlers.  ISIKI;  i)v  KmirKin, /{ai>- 
;Mtrt  .  .  .  stir  leu  Inrni'iites  inilitinieit  de  VAIuerie^  1S70: 
diaries  l)u  IJouzel,  Lea  Inditinieit  Inrneltte.t  de  VAIoiTie^ 
1S71 :  .A.  ('n'inUMix,  Itefutiilinn  de  ("/vj-jxiw'  den  Mnlifn, 
1S71,  p.  -"7:  .1.  M.  Ilaililey,  Le  Lli're  d'Or  dex  luriii'liten 
Al{iri'ie iiK,  1S7»:  Cluirles  llous-sel.  I^it  Juifs  et  leu  Mttsul- 
iiiaiis.  In  lleriif  ilis  Deux  Minnies,  .Auk.  1'>.  Is7.'i;  I'uul 
(ialTarpl,  L' Aloi'rie.  ISKt;  .Maiirlie  Walil,  his  Juifs  d'AI- 
ni'rie,  ISSil:  J.  Wevl,  Les  Juifs  Pintiy's  Fritnciiis  aur 
Kehelles  dn  Levant  et  en  Itarharie  srnis  les  Hi'vnes  de 
Louts  XIV.  et  lie  Lmils  XV..  In  llei:  X't.  Jhmvji.  IHSit.  xll., 
xlv.:  De  iinimnumt.  Histinre  dWIyrrie  sinis  la  Itinniniitiitn 
'I'lirc/ue,  1SS7:  I'nnI  I,fniy-lii-aulleii,  /,'.ll{)>nV  i-(  /<t  I'unisie, 
1S97;  ScliflnT,  r/i«i/i.  III.  3il;  .\.  (alien.  Lis  Israelites  dans 
I'Afriiiue  .^eptenlriiniale;  les  Jni/s  de  rAltinie,  In  Hut- 
Ictin  lie  la  Sneiile  Areheiilmiiiiue  de  finislnntine.  lSiI7: 
Hlocb,  Xiilessurles  Israelites  d'Aliierie,  In  Her.  ('J.  Juires, 
ISM.  X.  iV.:  Idem.  />i»  Israelites  d'l nan,  lli.  IKSil,  xlll.  S.VMl: 
llarmV,  Les  Juifs  de  'heinren.  In  .s'liiii'f  nii-»  il'iiii  1'i>|aiik 
li  TIeniien.  I'arls.  (In  tlie  erlifln  and  innswjuenii'a at  ttii'  <li>- 
rree  Creinlenx  :  DelsltMt.  Kssai  sue  la  \aturalis4ttiitn  t'nllec- 
tii-e  lies  Juifs  Indioenis.  1H<»I;  l-'n-(fliT.  Les  Juifs  Alui'riens, 
Ijnr  I'assi';  Leuri'nsent,  Lrur  .Id  iiir  Jiir(ilii/nf,  IKVi;  L. 
Kon-st,  f.<l  .Yir(iii-ii/i«ilti"ii  dis  Juifs  .iliiniens  et  I'Insur- 
rerttiin  de  o,'/,  ParK  IsiC:  Jaiiiiiin  (alien.  Lis  IsraiUtrs 
lie  I'Aliierie  el  le  Hicrrt  Cri'lMli  llj.  IIKKI.  Ker  anll-.s.'mllle 
llU^nitun':  MenrI  (Jarrvil,  Les  Juifs  AliiMens.\i\K;  Mevnii', 
lAsJnifsen  .tli;>'ii'.  Isss.  onllie  iin-wiil  sltnallnn  uf  llie 
Jews:  Durleii,  L  .lii'ii'i,ii(iKiii>  .llyerif  ii.  In  /(<  iv  .s'iM-(<i;i«(r, 
July,  S<|it..  (ht..  l>i'<'..  ISWI;  Jan..  Keb..  Manli.  liKKi;  Aiiony- 
iniiiw.  ;/(Kiii'rr  des  Anli^uifs  d'.iluer,  ISHli:  Anltiony 
Wlllcln.  .Iiii.ini;  tin  Ilerlirrs  nf  .llyrrtd,  <U.  ill.  (.inti-.sViii- 
Itlsui  ill  .Ui/i'iKi.  l/'iidmi.  lull.  ,,.     ,, 

^\ .  Ma. 

ALOIERS  :    .\  seaport  of  northern  Africa;  capi 
tal  of  the  French  colonial  province  of  .\lgeria.     The 
origin  of  iis  Jewish  community,  like  that  of  all  .Vlge- 
rian lommunilies.  is  shrouded  in  ob.scurily.     Doubt- 


Alg-iers 
Al^adib 


THE  JEWISH    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


386 


luss  a  .Irwisli  piipiilatiiiti  existed  sit  Aliriers  when  the 
miissjieres  of  Ki!H  ilrovi'  ii  mnnlier  of  refiitrees  from 
Spain  and  tlie  Haliaiie  Isles  toAfiiea:  Init  pnilialily 
it  was  niil  larire;  and  the  jxeneial  (ipiniim  is  that  the 
real  fdiindatinn  "{  the  .lewisli  eonmuinity  al  Aliriers 
should  be  attributed  to  the  Spanish  rabbis  tliat  set- 
tle<i  tliere  in  tlie  fourtecntli  and  fiftcentli  centuries. 
Tlie  names  nf  two  of  tliese  of  some  distinction  have 
been  handed  down:  viz.,  Isjuic  ben  Slushet  ami 
Simon  ben  Zemah  Duran.  The  Duran  family — orij:- 
inally  from  I'roveiice,  b>it  .s<'ttle(l  for  a  lonj;  time 
in  Majorca — occuiiied,  almost  witliout  interruption. 
up  to  the  eighteenth  century,  the  foremost  rank 
in  Algiers,  and  provided  tlie  conununily  with  nu- 
merous rabbis  of  scholarly  attainments  and  men  of 
high  character. 

The  Spanish  persecution  following  upon  the  con- 
qtiest  of  Granada  (1492)  resulted  directly  in  an  in- 
crease in  the  Jewish  jiopulation  of  Algiers.  The 
latter  city — up  to  this  time  a  mere  ludviucial  one, 
and  a  bone  of  contention  between  the  kings  of 
Tlemcen  and  Tiuiis — was  advanced,  on  tli(!  advent 
of  the  Turks  about  this  period,  to  the  rank  of  capi- 
tal. The  new  capital  of  the  (leys  naturally  at- 
tracted a  large  number  of  Spanish  immigrants;  and 
the  comiuerors — avaricious  corsairs — seeing  a  source 
of  jirotit  in  the  .Tews,  regarded  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  the  latter  by  no  means  unfavorably.  In 
l.'jlH  Khair  al-Din  permitted  Jews  to  settle  in  Al- 
giers, assigned  them  a  i|Uarler  of  the  city,  subjected 
them  to  a  tax,  and  restricted  them  from  opening 
more  than  a  limited  number  of  shops. 

At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  there  were  in 
the  Israelite  po])ulation  of  the  city  three  classes: 
Jews  originally  from  Spain,  those  from  the  Balearic 
Isles,  and  native  .lews.  They  were  grouped  in  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  families;  they  engaged  in 
trades  and  maiuifactures;  and  at  their  head  was  a 
caciz.  Though  they  sufl'ered  from  maltri'atment  at 
the  hands  of  the  ^loslem  population,  it  seems  certain 
that  they  considered  their  lot  less  miserable  under 
the  domination  of  the  Turks  than  under  that  of  the 
Catholic  kings;  for  the  defeat  of  Charles  V.  before 
Algiers  in  l.")41  inspired  real  joy  in  tlie  victims  of 
Spaui.sh  fanaticism  and  their  (lesceiidants.  Prayers 
and  poems  of  thank.sgiving  were  composed  on  this 
occasion  by  the  rabbis  Moses 'Abd-al-Asbi  and  Abra- 
ham Zarfati;  and  long  afterward  these 

Turkish      were  recited  in  the  synagogues  on  the 

Domina-     anniversary  of  this  memorable  event. 

tion.  Two  centuries  later  similar  feelings  of 

delight  were  manifested  liy  tile  Jews 

of  Algiers,  when  the  expedition,  led  with  a  great 

flourish  by  O'Heilly  against  the  corsairs'  city,  ended 

in  lamentjible  defeat  (177,")). 

By  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  number 
of  Jews  in  Algiers  had  increased  considerablv:  a 
ti-aveler  in  1634  estimated  them  at  ID.OOO.  At  that 
date  the  differences  in  origin  had  become  less  marked  ; 
and  although  a  distinction  might  be  made  between 
the"Cheklien  "  (Jewish  immigrants  from  Sjiain)  and 
the  "  Kapossiem  "  (old  native  Jews),  they  all  had  the 
same  customs,  led  the  same  life,  and  spoke  the  .same 
language — Arabic  blended  with  Spanish  and  He- 
brew. Their  position  was  always  rather  precarious. 
Events  but  little  serious  in  themselves  were  often 
attended  by  after-consequences  which  included  the 
pillage  of  the  Jewish  shops,  and  sometimes  even  the 
massacre  of  the  iiroprietors. 

Entirely  diiferent  was  the  condition  of  a  new- 
Jewish  element,  that  of  the  Leghorn,  or  Prankish. 
Jews,  commonly  designated  "Gorneyim,"  who,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  added  their 
numbers  to  the  Hebrew  population  of  zUgiers.     The 


first  of  these  toattain  celebrity  was  Sulaiman  Jakete, 
farmer  of  the  taxes  on  wax  under  the  deys  .\li 
Sha'ush  and  .Mohammed  ibii  llas;in,  (jf  whom  he 
was  the  trusted  adviser.  In  the  course  of  the  cen- 
tury the  (iorneyim  aciiuired  an  ever-incn'asing  im- 
portance in  the  economic  and  ]>olitical  life  of  the 
regency.  Tolerably  ()ccideiitali/ed,  they  fell  gen- 
erally, by  the  regime  of  the  capitulations,  under 
the  authority  of  llie  European  consuls,  and  were  the 
usiKil  intermediaries  between  the  consuls  and  the 
Turkish  authorities.  On  the  other  hand,  tiieir  ac- 
tivity, their  knowledge  of  alTairs.  and  their  great 
wealth  a.ssured  them  wide  inlluence  over  the  deys, 

of  whom  they  were  often  the  bank- 
The  Leg-     ers,  agents,  and  even  the  political  ad- 
horn  Jews,    visers.     At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 

century  two  Gonii'vim  especially, 
.Joseph  Bakri  and  Naphtali  liusnash.  had  attained 
a  predominant  position.  The  dev  Has;in  granted 
them  a  monopoly  of  the  grain  trade:  during  the 
dearth  of  l~\)'>  they  supplied  France  with  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  wheat  on  credit:  and  fm  their  ad- 
vice till'  (ley  authorized  a  loan  to  the  French  "Di- 
rectory" of  live  milli(ni  francs,  the  credit  for  which 
was  eventually  transferred  to  them.  Thirty  years 
later  the  settlement  of  this  loan  was  attended  with 
the  most  serious  conse(|Ueiices.  IIas;in's  successor, 
Mustapha,  owed  his  elevation  to  the  inlluence  of 
Busnash,  who  was  his  banker,  and  in  whose  hands 
he  was  but  a  tool.  In  Mustaplia's  reign  tlie  secret 
hate  cherished  by  the  janizaries  anil  the  Moors 
against  the  all-powerful  Gorneyim  manifested  itself 
in  a  terrible  riot.  Busnash  was  killed  at  tlu;  gate  of 
the  (ley's  jialace  by  a  janizary,  w  ho,  filing  a  jiistol 
at  him.  cried  out  ironically.  "Hail,  king  of  Algiers!  " 
The  ]iopiilaee  iittackiil  the  .Jewish  slio]is;  a  massacre 
ensued,  which  the  (ley.  out  of  fear,  countenanced: 
while  the  French  consul  sheltered  in  his  house  two 
hundred  Jews  in  danger  of  their  lives. 

In  succeeding  years  the  Gorneyim  regained  a  part 
of  their  intluence.  Dey  lI"'*""  (1^I''^-''!(I)  enforced 
the  claim  of  the  heirs  of  Bakri  and  Busnash  in  regard 
to  the  loan  of  170.');  and  the  diflicully  arising  on  this 
occasion  was  the  original  cause  of  the  detiiiite  rup- 
ture between  the  regency  and  France,  of  the  expe- 
dition of  ISHO,  and  of  the  French  conquest  of  Al- 
geria. Despite  the  higli  position  ac(iuired  by  lla^ 
Gorneyim  under  the  regency  in  the  eighteenth  and 
nineteenth  centuries,  the  less  important  Jews  of 
Algiers  were  very  harshly  treated  by  the  Turkish 
authorities.  They  were  subjected  toconlinual  vexa- 
tions; and  at  the  time  of  the  march  on  Algiers  the 
French  generals  found,  without  shelter  outside  the 
walls,  more  than  three  hundred  Jewish  families, 
whom  the  dey  had  mercilessly  driven  from  the  city 
in  anticipation  of  a  siege. 

Out  of  a  total  jMipulation  of  about  07,000,  the 
Jewish  residents  of  Algiers  numbered  in  1900 
nearly  10,000,  of  whom  1,200  are  of  foreign  birth. 

Large  numbers  of  Jews  are  engaged 
Handi-  in  commerce  and  jietty  traflic;  but 
crafts.        since   the    charge   has   recentlj'   been 

made  that  they  have  unfairly  mo- 
nojiolized  all  the  trade  in  Algiers,  it  may  be  well 
to  present  some  figures  showing  the  jiroportion 
,^.nlong  them  that  follow  handicrafts.  There  are  2.')0 
shoemakers;  I'm  tinners  and  blacksmiths;  200  tai- 
lors; 40  joiners  and  cabinet-makers;  70  house-paint- 
ers; and  100  watchmakers  and  jewelers.  Before  the 
anti-Semitic  troubles  of  1897-99  the  Algiers  Bureau 
of  Charity  assisted  about  600  families;  and  1,200 
have  been  aided  since. 

At  the  head  of  the  community  are  a  consistory  and 
a  grand  rabbi,  the  latter  being  appointed  by  decree 


387 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alg-iers 
Alhadib 


of  tlif  pnsiikiit  (if  ilic  Fri-nch  Republic  on  the  rcc- 
(iniiiK'ndiitioM  (if  tlir  Contral  Coiisislorv  of  Paris. 
Tliere  are.  in  addition,  a  eonsiileralile  liiinilier  of 
native  ral)liisand  of  niinor  ollieials,  appointed  l)y  tlie 
consistory  and  paid  by  tlie  conunnnily,  and  si.\  lion- 
oniry  oflieials  called  (jizbiiriiii.  Aljriers  lias  nineteen 
synajjjogues,  of  wliieli  six  arc  official  and  thirteen 
jirivate.  The  oldest  of  the  former  was  founded  in 
b'^tlli;  of  the  latter,  nine  existed  before  the  coiupiest, 
the  remainder  beinj;  of  comparatively  recent  estab- 
lishment. Anioiiu;  the  rabbis  at  Ali.'iers  before  the 
Concpiest,  besides  Harfat  and  Duran  already  referred 
to,  may  be  mentioned  .ludah  Ayyas,  .Moses  ben 
Isajic  Mesliili.  Ibn  JIayyim.  Josejih  Aznbib,  and 
NehoraV  Aznbib.  Its  native  rabbis  included  Isaac 
ben  Samuel,  David  Zais,  Zemah  Duran,  Judah  Amar; 
and  amontr  its  j^rand  rabl)is  sent  from  France  were 
Michel  Weil.  I.azare  Cohen,  Abraham  Cahen,  Isaac 
Blcicli,  Jloise  Weil,  anil  Abraham  Hloch. 

Bnii.rofjKAPnv  :  Forpenenil  lufnnnallon,  see  tlie  liitilliipraptiy 
under  .\i.<;kki.\.  Special  wurky  are  :  Nntfn  sur  ha  lHvaiiiU:n 
di-  l'Aliit'rU\  in  litv.  A't.  Jaircv*,  x.  — V);  rahen.  t^rrcur 
ChrouolijyiifHe  d  Alijcr^  in  Archicea  Iifnuiitett^  xxvi.  i:C 

AV.  M.V. 

ALGUADEZ  (t'nSui'S,  CnU^N),  MEIB  B. 
SOLOMON  :  A  ( 'aslilian  court  iihysician  and  chief 
ralilii  of  the  iifteeiith  centui'y  ;  e.\act  dates  of  birth 
and  death  unknown.  He  was  presumably'  I'elated 
to  Don  David  Ali^uadez,  a  brother-in-law  of  the 
treasurer  of  I'ortui;al,  Don  Jiida.  and  to  Salomon 
Aliruadez,  who  lived  in  Peialta,  in  Xavarie,  in  the 
year  1114;  perhaps  also  to  Abraham  Alguadez,  who 
resided  in  Vitoria  in  14(>1.  Ac<ordini:  to  Zaciito, 
Meir  Ali^uadez  studii'd  the  Talmud  at  Toledo  under 
the  direction  of  Judah  b.  Asher.  and  also  devoted 
himself  to  the  stu<ly  of  medicine,  which  he  followed 
as  a  profession.  He  "  wandered  from  town  totown, 
from  land  to  land,"  thoui;li  his  residence  was  at  the 
court  of  the  kins  "f  Castile.  Because  of  liis  skill, 
and  of  the  successful  cures  he  had  effected,  the  king 
appointed  him  his  body-physieian.  He  enjoyed  such 
favor  willi  King  Henry  HI.  that  he  was  made  chief 
rabbi  of  all  the  Jewish  communities  in  Castile,  lie 
ranked  among  tlie  most  inlluenlial  men  of  his  time. 
Salomon  ha  Levi  of  IJurgos.  who,  as  I'aul  de  Santa 
JIaria,  or  Paul  de  IJurgos,  became  bisho])  of  Carta- 
gena about  ll!'j;i,  addressed  to  him  a  Hebrew  satire 
on  the  festival  of  I'urim.  and  received  in  rejoinder 
the  satirical  letter  entitled  "Be  not  like  thy  fathers!  " 

("l"nUX3  Tin  55X1.  which  had  been  written  by  ruo- 
FIAT  Dl'li.vN,  who  had  been  forced  to  uialergo 
baptism  in  i;ii)l,  but  .soon  after  publicly  returned  to 
Juilaism. 

Meir  Alguadez  was  always  on  the  alert  to  defend 
Judaism  and  Jews,  and  was  so  highly  esteemed  by 
the  Jewish  coninuinities  of  Castile  that  on  his  ileatli 
tliey  exhibileil  their  gratitude  by  exiinpting  from 
all  communal  taxation  his  widow,  Bathsheba,  and 
his  daughter,  Luna,  who  hail  married  Don  Meir  ibn 
Alfakar  of  Toledo. 

Though  much  occupied  in  other  ways,  Jleir  Al- 
guadez fniiiid  lime  for  liteniry  work.  At  the  instance 
of  his  patron.  Beiiveiiisle  ibn  Labi,  of  Saiagossa,  he 
translated  "Aristotle's  Ethics"  from  the  Latin  of 
BoOlhius  into  Ilelirew.  He  intended  in  the  sami' 
manner  to  make  Aristotle's  "(Kr'ononiica"  accessible 
to  his  coreligionists,  .\bout  IIHII  he  wrote  a  number 
of  prescriptions  for  various  diseases,  to  which  his  |)U- 
pil,  Joseph,  added  olliirs.  and  whiih  the  historian, 
Josei>h  ha  l\ohen((!iiioa.  l.VtOt  translated  from  .'Span- 
ish into  Hebrew  under  the  title  "  Mekiz  N'irdamim." 
but  did  not  publish.  The  translation  cif  the  '•  I'.thics  " 
was  published  by  Isjuic  Satanow  tllerlin,  171KI). 

Nothing    (letluitu  is  kuowu  concerning   the   last 


years  of  Don  Meir  Alguadez.  The  accu.sations  that 
lie  poisoned  the  weakly  and  long-sulTering  King 
Henry  III.,  or  that,  intiiienced  by  Paul  de  Buigos, 
he  caused  the  desecration  of  the  host,  and  lieing 
brought  to  torture,  confessed  it  and  was  barbarously 
executed,  were  long  ago  cliaracteiized  by  the  Span- 
ish histoiians  themselves  as  mere  fables.  Don  Meir 
probably  died  before  14i;i,  the  date  of  the  disputa- 
tion at  Tortosa;  had  he  been  alive,  lie  would  cer- 
tainly have  been  present. 

liiHi.iodH.vpiiv:  M.  KaywrlliKt,  D(wC<w(aiaiifec/icOeme(mle- 
Sliilul,  in  Jalirliiich  fUr  <l.  (IciKhicMe  dcr  Judcn  u.  dea 
jKilintlium",  Iv.  S!S1  et  eeq.;  StelDSCtinelUer,  i/cbr.  Uebers. 
pp.  -*l(l  ft  mij.,  77."). 

M.  K. 

ALGUM  or  ALMTJG  :  A.  tree,  the  identity  of 
which  is  uiKcrtaiii.  Jastrow,  "Diet."  s.r.,  sug- 
gests that  it  may  be  coral-wood;  others,  that  it  may 
be  brazilwood  (so  Kimhi)  or  red  sandal-wood.  The 
name  "Almug"  (I  Kings,  x,  11)  is  said  by  some 
authorities  to  be  a  corrupted  form  or  transposition 
of  "Algum"  (II  Chron,  ii.). 

According  to  I  Kings,  .x.  11  and  II  Chron.  ix.  10, 
11,  the  Alniiig  was  imported  from  Opiiir:  while,  ac- 
cording to  II  Chron.  ii.  S,  algum  trees  were  obtained 
from  the  Lebanon  mountains.  The  latter  state- 
ment iiK-reascs  the  ditliculty  of  idenlilieation.  Un- 
less the  words  "out  of  Lebanon"  be  regarded  as 
a  gloss,  the  simplest  solution  seems  to  be  that  Al- 
gum and  Almug  were  originally  two  different  trees 
— as  already  suggested  by  Celsius — which  have  been 
confused  with  one  another.  Its  wood  was  used  by 
Solomon  in  his  building  operations,  more  particu- 
larly for  terraces,  stairs,  and  balustrades:  it  served 
also  for  making  harps,  psalteries,  and  other  musical 
instruments  (see  the  commentaries  of  Thenius,  Keil, 
Kittel,  and  Benzinger  on  the  Biblical  pa.ssages 
in  (jiiestiou  and  Talniudic  and  Jlidrashic  references 
in  Jastrow,  I.e.).  See  Perles,  in  "^lonatssehrift," 
xxxviii.  135.  G.  B.  L. 

ALHADIB  (Alchadib,  mxn.  rjnxn.  3nn.  aiHK. 
".leu.  t^uart,  Kev."  x.  .">;!0  ^  hunchback) :  Name  of 
a  family  of  which  rejiresentatives  ale  known  from 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  to  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  following  list  includes 
the  more  important  members: 

Abraham  ben  Solomon  AU^adib :  Judge  in 
Corfu  ill  l.">:ill. 

Eliakim  Albadib :  Lived  in  Lepanto,  seven- 
leenl  h  rciitiii"\  . 

Ezra  ben  Solomon  All^adib :  Venice,  1007.  Sam- 
uel .Uioah  addiisM'd  a  letter  lo  him  in  ItWT. 

^ayyim  All;^adib :  In  the  seventi'enth  century, 
who.  according  to  Sambari's"  Chronicle  "(Neubaiier, 
"Media'val  Jewish  Chronicles."  i.  140),  coinpos«d  an 
index  "  Mekor  Ilayyim"  to  the  Scripture  passages 
found  in  liomileiie  works. 

Isaac  Albadib  :  Livi'd  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, in  Cairo;  nicnlioned  by  Sainbari  (/.c,  p,  ltl3, 
two  lines  from  buttoni  of  page) 

Isaac  ben  Solomon  ben  ^addilf  All^adib  :  \n 
astronomer  of  note,  in  Caslile  ( litTiii,  in  Sicilv  (i:!!Hi- 
140!)  ?1.  a  pupil  of  Judah  ben  Asher  and  follower  of 
.Samuel  Zarza.  lie  composiil  a  work  on  chronologv 
calhd  "Orah  Selulah  "  (I'laiii  Way  I,  in  which  he  fol- 
lows Al-l{iikkani.  the  iiulhorily  for  astronomers  in 
Tunis.  He  adds  four  tabli's  taken  from  .M  Battani 
and  one  from  Al  Kaniinad.  According  to  a  niaiiii 
script  in  private  hands,  he  wrote  also  mon  '^3  mJX 
(  Letter  on  Desirable  Inslrunienlsl.  in  which  he  speaks 
of  the  instruments  which  he  had  invented  in  Sicily. 
According  to  iSteinschncider,  this  is  not  the  same  as 


'Al  ha-Rishonlm 


THE  JEWISU   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


388 


his  work  VVIDOn  *?3  (Pliinimetriial  Instruinciits). 
He  wmtc  iilso  a  trciitise  on  thidlofriml  t(rmiiiolof;y. 
Acconliuir  to  liuxlmf,  In-  wiis  the  aiillior  of  "  Lc- 
slioii  lia-Zaliab"  ((iolilcu  Toiij;iii-)  ou  tlic  wciirlitsaml 
iiR'asuivs  iiniitioiicd  in  tlic  I{il)k'.  Finally,  lu'  is  tlic 
mitlior  of  a  liyinn  on  EstliiT — giving  liis  own  full 
nauR'  in  acrostic — as  well  as  of  an  addition  to  tlic 
poem  with  which  Moses  Ilandali  opened  his  com- 
mentary on  the  Hebrew  translation  of  Al-Fergani's 
astronomy.  (Sec  Stcinschneidcr.  "Munich  Cata- 
logue." p.  !)2;  2dc(l..  p.  2.")6;  "  Hcbr.l'elicrs."  pp.  ."iSO, 
55(i;  "Ilebr.  nil)l."vii.  U>;  Zunz.  "Z.  G."p.  536.) 

Jacob  ben  Moses  Albadib :  Lived  in  1-442;  the 
writer  of  "Codc.x  de  Uossi,  Xn.  il.JO." 

Johanan  All;Ladib:  Lived  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tiny. 

Judah  Alljadib  :    Lived  in  I'llHi,  in  Lepanto. 

Meuahem  Alljadib:  Livcil  in  the  Hist  half  of  the 
si.xtccnth  century,  in  Aria. 

Menahem  ben  Samuel  All^adib  :  Lived  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  iu  Safed. 


Hoses  ben  Isaac  Al];iadib  :  Lived  in  1560;  iudce 

at  Palrns  ••     *" 

Samuel  Alljadib  :  Lived  in  llie  beginning  of  the 
fourli'cnlh  nrilury. 

Samuel  Albadib:  Lived  in  the  .second  half  of  the 
sixteintii  ci'nuiiy.  in  Safcd. 

Solomon  ben  Menahem  All^adib :  Lived  in 
154;!.  ill  \iiiirc. 

Solomon  ben  Samuel  All^adib  :  Died  of  the 
plague  while  still  young,  iu  1349. 

Bini.icKiRAPiiv :  Zunz,  Z.  (i.  pp.  42!,  424 :  Stclnschnelder,  Cat. 
Umil.  .Nil.  Xm :  J,w.  ijudtt.  rtiv.  x.  nHI. 

G. 

'AL  HA-RISHONIM  (D'JIL-Kin  ^y) :  A  pas- 
sage in  the  .Moriiiiii.'  I'laycr  <(imiiig  between  the 
Shema'  and  the  'Aniidah.  In  the  N<irthern  riluaU 
a  variant  is  substituted  on  the  festivals  and  spe- 
cial Sabbaths  when  the  i)iyul  termed  "Zulat,"  from 
the  concluding  word  of  the  pas.sage,  "Zulateka."  is 
introduced.     In  honor  of  the  occasion,  the  pa.ssage 


Passover. 

Largo. 


'AL  HA-RISHONlM   (A) 


'Al ha  -  ri  -  eho  -    nim 

Sbr the     first  a 


ges 


we  -  'al. . 

and    for . 


ha  -  a  -  haro 

the       list .... 


■wa  -    'ed,     hok we 

more,        a        stat        -        •        -        -        ute 


^53^^^ii=^ 


lo ya    - 

which sliall  not  pass 


■a   -    bor. 

a   -    way. 


E    -     met. 
'Tis        true . 


she  -  at 
that 


m 


i—rSz 


-< 1 tJ" — t^  

he      -      nu      w-E  -  lo   -  he       a  -  bo    -    te  -    nu      le  -   'o  -  lam  wa      -       -      'ed. 

Ood and    the      God     of     our       fa  -  thers...     for      ev     -        er  -         more. 


i 


-It 

At      -    tab Hu7. . . .      mal  -  te 

Thou     art in  •  deed    our    King 


na, 


me  -  lek    a  -  bo 

Thou    art  our  fa 


nu 
ther.i^ 


at       -        -        -        tab :      le  -    ma  -   'an 
King : now     for      Thy 


shim         ■-.-•-        ka        ma  - 
Name's sake    make 


389 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


'Al  ha-Rishonim 


m 


$ 


-»-^-m- 


»-^ 


i^Suzfs: 


f=l= 


— I — I — , — 1-  — — i — I- 


her. . 
haste. 


le  -  go 

to 


a  -    le 
re  -  deem. 


nu 
us. 


ka    ■    a  - 

e    -    ven 


^:f=^x 


f-rrr-*^ 


m 


sber. 

as.  . . 


ga    -    al 
Thou      didst. 


ta 
re 


et. 
deem. 


bo 
our 


te 


nu.         E  - 

thers.       '  Tis 


Y^- 


5e^ 


i?3t: 


i=i- 


met me  -  'o  •  lam  shim  -ka      ha  -  ga    -    dol 

true. . .  .        that    by      Thy  great  Name  from    of         old. 


'a  -    le  -  nu      nik 

we     are      call 


ra,    be 

ed      in 


:*-- 


a      -      ha  -  bah:. 
VDon  -  droits    love:. 


en 

E  - 

lo 

-    him 

ZQ 

there 

is 

no 

god 

be 

la 


te 
side 


ka. 
TTuxl 


'Omor  time 

Adiigio. 


—mr-^ — ^~ 


'AL   HA-RISHONIM  (B) 


=&=1t: 


=5^=^^ 


'Al ,  .       ha  •  ri  -    sho  -  nim. 

Fur the    first ....         a 


we  -   'al ha  -  a  -  ha  -  ro 

ges,      and      for Me     last 


»-^Jt 


=e=r= 


-t^   >»   I 


ty — r-- 


*c 


:e=st 


1I?2= 


=t: 


mm. 

a 


le  -  'o 
ges for 


lam. 

ev 


wa      -      'ed,  hok . 

er        and     ev    ■   er,      a  slat 


met 

true. 


she  -  at  •  tah      IIu A   -   do  -     nai.. 

that....        Thou   in      •     deed....  art   .      the  Lord. 


he 
OoJ. 


nu,     w-E  -  lo    -    he. . . .      a  -  bo    -  to 
and     the        Qod...      of   our       fa 


nu  lo  -  'o 
thers  for. . . 


S^^ 


:t^i^ 


-^ — »— r- 


-_mzsz: 


X 


:s:^ 


wa   •  'ed.      At    -    tah Ilu. . 

er    -    more.    Thou     art     in     -     drtd. 


mul 
our. 


'Al  ha-Rishonim 


Tin;  .IKWISII    KNtVtLUl'EDIA 


390 


i 


for Thy    K 


:J*= 


W 


le      - 
deem 


us. 


ka   -    a    • 

e    -    ucn 


sher. 
as. . . 


ga    -    ol 

Thou    didst 


ta 
re 


et 
deem. 


bo  • 

our 


i 


i 


nu. 

thers. 


E    -     met me-   'o  - 

'  Tis        true from     of 


-JET^Z^t: 


=E^f^ 


lam. 
old.. 


Bhim 
by.... 


ka 

Thy 


ha    -  ga 

great .... 


dol  .. 
Kame . 


r=««= 


=af= 


le 

we. 


uik 
are 


ra. . 
call 


be 


cd 


a 
ifon 


ba    -  bah: 

drous  love: 


en. . . 

tlterc . 


lo 

710 


"  'Al  ha-Rishonim  "  i.s  chantcfl  as  an  introduction  to 
the  piyut  to  sonic  elaborate  melody  tnidilionally  as- 
sneiated  witli  the  occasion.  Three  sucli  melodies  are 
■widely  known,  one  for  Passover,  the  second  for  the 
other  "festivals,  and  the  third  for  the  Sabhaths  of 
the  'Omer  period.  None  of  these  melodies  has  any 
pretensions  to  antiquity,  the  iniitcrial  of  construc- 
tion, quoted  partly  from  related  sections  of  the  serv- 
ice, being  clearly  traceable.  But  those  for  the  Pass- 
over and  for  the  'Omer  Sabbaths  succeeding  it  may 
be  quoted  in  juxtapnsitiim  to  illustrate  a  i)rinciple 
underlying  all  the  Jewish  musical  uses,  in  accord- 
ance with  which  the  character,  even  the  mode,  of  a 
melody  varies  rather  according  to  tlu'  occasion  on 
which  it  is  to  be  chanted  than  according  to  the  .senti- 
ment of  the  text.  Here  there  is  the  grateful  gaiety 
of  the  Passover  melody  in  contrast  with  the  plain- 
tiveness  of  that  for  the  later  season  of  sad  memories ; 
the  difference  being  obviotisly  not  suggested  by  the 
text,  but  by  the  liistorical  associations  of  these  two 
seasons  of  the  Jewish  year.  F.  L.  C. 

AL-HARIZI,  JXTDAH  B.  SOLOMON  B. 
HOPHNI  (surnamed  AT."ff  ATtlZI):  A  celebrated 
Hebrew  poet  of  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 


tury, who  lived  in  Spain  and  traveled  in  the  Orient. 
Xcitber  the  date  of  his  birth  nor  that  of  his  death  is 
known,  Pos.sessing  a  masterly  knowledge  of  He- 
brew and  Arabic,  he  seems  to  have  been  a]>preeiated 
as  a  i>oet  at  home  and  on  the  various  journeys  he 
made  to  soutliern  France.  His  disposition  was  a 
genial  one:  he  loved  what  was  witty  and  sparkling. 
His  tirst  introduction  to  the  literary  world  was  in 
the  shape  of  a  translation  of  the  celebrated  "  Maka- 
maf'of  the  Arabic  poet,  Hariri  of  Hozra.in  whi(  li,in 
inimitable  style,  he  faithfully  adhered  to  the  sudden 
rimes  and  abounding  (piaint  conceits  of  his  original. 
But,  while  a  masterof  witty  poetry,  he  wasa  serious 
student  as  well,  understamling  and  aiipreciating  the 

value  of  such  works  as  Mainionides' 
Translator.  "  Commentary  on  the  Mishnah  "  and 

"  Moreli  Xebukim."  both  of  which  he 
likewise  translated — the  former  only  in  part — from 
Arabic  into  Hebrew.  In  an  evil  hour  for  himself,  he 
determined  to  travel  to  the  Holy  Land,  as  his  distin- 
guished [iredecessor,  Judah  ha-Levi,  had  done  fifty 
years  before.  Unfortunately  times  had  changed :  Jew- 
ish poetry  and  the  love  for  it  had  considerably  de- 
clined since  Ila-Levi  had  brought  both  to  the  highest 
pit  ch.  This  decline  was  not  altogether  without  cause ; 


891 


THE  JEWISH   E^■CYC•LOi>KUIA 


'Al  ha-Risbonim 
Al-^^'rizi 


tliere  were  many  poets  in  liis  days,  tliouirli  of  far  in- 
ferior rank;  hence  there  wasu  eerlain  indifTerence  in 
(helicartsof  t lie  former  jialrons  of  Hel)re\v  literature. 
All.iarizi  was  made  lo  ixpericrK-e  tliis  ]iainfullv  on  Ids 
travels:  lie  received  n<i  such  welcome  as  .ludah  lia- 
Levihad;  and  lie  iilainlivcly  deplored  the  passing  of 
the  bygone  times  when  Solomon  CJabirol,  Jiidah  lia- 
Lcvi,  and  Moses  ihn  Ezra  gaine<l  such  valuable  re- 
wards from  the  lovers  of  literature.  He  found  the 
■well-springs  of  liberality  clos<(l  tu  him;  and  thus  he 
sang: 

"The  fiitliiTMcif  suni;,  ShI.'.mio,  iukI  .luiiuh, 
Ami  Mnsrs  hfsidfs    nil  shniif  In  the  west. 
And  rlcli  iiicii  ut-ri-  nfr  tlu-n  who  piirchiksed  the  pearls  of  their 

mt ; 
II(»w  sad  is  my  let  now  tlrne^  are  .so  rharnfM ! 
The  rieli  men  have  yoni".  and  their  Klory  hath  set ! 
The  fatliers  found  fountains— for  me  ne'er  a  fountain  will 

start  1 " 

But  though  his  journey  biduglit  liim  disappoint- 
ment and  possibly  suirering,  il  slimulated  him  to 
the  production  of  liisniasterpiece,  "Talikcmoni."  He 
gives  the  following  account  of  its  origin:  S|ieaUing 
of  his  previous  work  of  tianslaliiig  Hariri,  lie  .says, 
"Thus  I  gave  what  was  demanded — by  the  Andalu- 

sian  rich  commanded — and  I  brought 

The  "  Tab- home   unto  each   IsraeliK — the    work 

kemoni."    of  that  rai'c  Ishmaelile."     Leaving  his 

home,  lie  traveled  eastward  by  .sea;  and 
then  there  dawned  upon  him  the  folly  of  having 
given  his  efforts  .solely  to  the  translation  of  an  Ar- 
abic author: 

■'  As  if  the  woni  of  the  I.onl  of  lifc>  -  in  Ismci  were  no  longer 
rife;  lilie  tier  of  old  of  Hhoin  we  are  IjjIU  -'oilier  vineyards  I 
|irotecte<i    my  own,  alus,  that  1  neglected  1 '  "  it'unt.  i.  6). 

He  therefore  determined  to  write  an  original  work 
in  Hebrew  (l'21H-','0).  He  gave  il  the  name  of  "Tah- 
kemoiii,"  "the  wise  one"  ('!);  see  H  Sam.  .\xiii.  s. 
As  the  "narrator"  (see  below)  lie  selected  Heman 
the  Ezniliitc.  and  as  the  "li<>ro"  of  the  narratives, 
Ileber  the  Kenile.  .\llhough  this  was  designed  lo 
be  a  wholly  original  work,  he  followed  the  model  of 
Ills  lirsl  favorite,  Hariri,  by  adopting  from  him  the 
peculiar  form  of  lh<>  iinihimii:  that  curious  species 
of  riming  iirosc,  with  its  desultory  leaps  and  coin- 
cident assonances,  its  verbal  (|uips  and  countless 
conceits,  IJut  what  gave  it  exceptional  zest  for 
Jewi.sli  readers  was  Alharizi's  deft  interweaving  of 
whole  ]{ibli<al  sentences,  the  incongruity  of  wjiich 
as  lo  the  <ircumslances  discribed.  bill  I  heir  witty  til 
ness  in  tluir  new  application,  could  not  fail  to  evoke 
a  constant  series  of  smiles  in  the  scholarly  reader 
who  knew  his  Hebrew  Hible  well.  The  niakama 
is  (|uitean  old  and  familiar  form  of  Arabic  [xietrv  ;  as 
early  as  lO.'il,  the  Arabic  poel,  Ahniail  Abu  al  l''adhl 
b.  Husein,  of  llamadan  in  Persia,  composed  several 
hundred  makamas  exactly  in  the  style  later  adopted 
by  Hariri.     C'oiiei'rniiig  the  nnikaiim.   Ki'lmpf  .sjiys. 

"The  Semi  I  OS  li.'id  no  I  lieiilir  ;  bill  lliev 

The  hail  slory  tellers,  who  rclaled  deeds  and 

Makama.    happenings  in  truly  dramatic  style." 

Ill  this  species  of  spoki'ii  drama,  two 
personages  were  supposed  to  taki'  part  in  constant 
dialogue:  the  hero  who  lold  of  his  doings,  and  the 
narrator  w  ho  served  as  chorus  to  hini.  drawing  him 
out.asil  were,  by  inlerrogaling  him.  I'jicii  episode 
described  by  Ihi^  hero  is  tin'  subject  of  a  single  nia 
kiim.'i  I  poem),  and  has  no  cIom' council  ion  with  lliiil 
wlijeh  follows,  but  its  rambling,  riming  prose  is  ex 
I  ended  and  diversilled  by  the  interpolation  of  smaller 
poems,  in  absolutely  strict  rhythm  and  rime,  and 
ginerally  of  exalted  slniin.  Tin'  mannerof  opening 
a  makama  may  be  understood  from  the  following: 

"  Knuii  Siddlin's  vnli' — to  t'halileti's  pule— went  I  and  wlien 
arrlvitl-tlie    thought    n'vlviMl    to  try    all  to   Mv-tliat  tliiTi- 


might  lie— rlslnt'.  (rrowlnc— coniine.  goinir.  of  the  worst  and 
the  iM-st,  earn  and  wi'st.  As  I  slnnle  on  the  road— one  day  I 
i-spied  on— a  stone-ail  alone— at  the  hlirhwav  side— astraniter 
sit(in)f-nwtlnK  him.  As  iM-llttlnir-I  addivssed  him  aiming 
at  IntereMtinur  lilm— as  travelers  do-when  a  few— or  two — 
ilianee  to  meet— in  a  iiiunlry  stri-et.  And  I  said.  What  cheer— 
neiifhlior  dear'i'  — Whenee  ha.st  thou  strayisl— and  what  thy 
trade'/  — 111'  said.  From  daring  feat— lo  darins  fiiit— as  It 
iliances-my  nivlng  pleasure  ever  (rlanci-s.- A  fox  1  cluuse— 
or  run  a  rare- with  the  mountain  sheep;  no  hill  Uhj  sli-ep— or 
vale  too  deep— for  me  to  pace.  Said  I.  Tell  me,  since  thou  so 
miicli  hast  wnndei-ed-Konie  wondrous  tliimf  ihiit  thou  hast 
poiiden'd.  He  answeivd,"  et<^.  ("Tul^kemonl,"  makama  x., 
'The  Chanticleer's  Ueproaeb  "). 

The  episodes  of  the  "  Tahkcnioni "  rover  a  wide 
tielil  of  remarkable  experiences,  varying  from  a 
banquet  given  to  him  in  an  important  "citv  of  Baby- 
lonia (where,  as  the  guest.  Heman  |Allmrizi]  tells 
of  all  the  noble  poets  he  has  known  in  Spain)  to  a 
battle  between  Aralis  "in  the  tents  of  Kedar,"  a  de- 
bate between  an  ant  and  a  flea,  or  a  reproof  by  a 
village  chanticleer  escajied  from  the  liiitcher's  knife. 

If  any  piirpo.se  can  be  said  to  underlie  Alharizi's 
work,  more  seiious  than  the  one  he  himself  alleges, 
namely,  the  entertainment  anil  refreshineut  of  wear- 
ied minds,  it  may  possibly  be  discerned,  as  Kilmpf 
suggests,  in  Ids' constantly  implied  reminders  to 
wealthy  men  that  they  are  bound  to  patronize  and 
protect  those  that  makescholarshi|)  their  wealth  and 
art  their  worth.  His  own  exjierience  gave  i)oint 
and  pith  to  these  admonitions.  Hut  if  liis  own  suf- 
ferings served  likewise  as  the  inspiration  of  his  song, 
one  feels  gnititied  to  learn  from  himself  that  the 
bow  of  constjint  lioiic  shone  steadily  for  him.  As 
he  himself  says ; 

.■^r  'i'va  pni"  'j:i'  ^b 
.nL"2<  l"i:n  f'Ji  n3-n  nIs 

.nc'pn  ^nK^J  ^voib  dj  '3 

"  If  heaven's  cloinls  should  weep  as  mv  is«ir  eves  have  done. 
Then  wi-re  for  in;iii  on  earth  no  path  ttuit  still  wen-dry  ; 
liul  know.  Hint  e'en  for  me.  im  erst  for  lainech's  son. 
With  all  this  delu)?e  stood  a  rainbow  In  the  sky  !  " 

Alharizi's  journey  seems  to  have  led  him  first  to  Al- 
exandria, then  to  Palestine.  In  I'ilX  he  wasin,Ierllsa- 
lem,  as  he  stalesin  the  twenty-eighth  inakania  of  the 
"Talikcmoni."  He  mentions  at  the  sjime  time  that 
il  was  in  119!)— on  the  recapture  of  the  holy  city  by 

the  Mohainmedans  from  the Chrisiians 

His  — thai  llie  .lews  Were  again  allowed  to 

Criticisms,    live  llieie.      From   I'alesline  his  path 

led  him  to  Syria,  ami  there  Damascus 
held  him  for  a  time.  He  lias  no  high  opinion  of  the 
Damascenes:  they  arc  "  lovers  of  the  wine  cup." 
Of  one  of  the  poets  of  the  city  he  .sjtys  thai  "when 
he  a  ililly  w  rites  or  eke  an  odi — il  soiinils  as  if  some 
pot  or  keltic  did  explode."  Apiin,  "lliey  are  noth- 
ing but  shallow  riinestcrs  whose  How  of"  eloipicnce 
or  diclion  soon  runs  dry.  sirs!  "  Asa  general  thing, 
however,  Alharizi's  opinions  concerning  his  rivals, 
.lewish  or  non-.lewisli,  were  always  more  vehement 
than  just  (s<'e  Awa.ni).  AVhether  he  visited  Orw-ce 
or  not  is  not  dear:  he  has  no  respect  for  Grecian 
poets,  who.  he  says,  "mingle  roses  and  thorns"  (of 
stylei  ])romlscuously.  From  llie  superscription  of 
Ihe  last  makama,  il  appears  lliai  in  I'.'IM.  the  year 
Nbiiinoiiiiles  died,  he  was  liack  again  In  Toledo;  but 
there  is  no  intimalion  of  his  fate  Ihereafler. 

A  remarkable  illustmtion  of  his  verbal  dexterity 
may  be  mentioned  :  il  is  in  t he  elevenlh  makama  of  the 
book  which  isentllled  "  .MahlH'rel  Shinih  luit  ShaU>sh 
I<eshonot  "  (The  Song  of  the  Three  Ijingiiages).  It 
contains  an  inlerpolatcd  piH'in.  twenty  thni'  lines 
long,  every  line  of  w  liicli  is  written  one-third  in  He- 
brew, oue-thlnl  hi  Arabic,  and  one-third  in  Aramaic. 


Al-Harizi 
AUbi 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDU. 


892 


The  Arabic  portion  rimi'swilli  ihv  Hebrew  through- 
out:  the  Aramaic  portions  liave  one  rime,  ami  tliat  a 
two-sylkibled  one,  niaintained  throughout  the  whole 
poem. 

Alharizi  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  brilliant 
qualities,  but  a  prey  possibly  to  his  impatience  due  to 
his  trials  and  sufferings.  Many  of  the  better  poems 
— those  interpolated  in  the  vurious  inukainas — betray 
a  height  of  noble  feeling  wliicli  murks  the  true  man 
of  sentiment.  Of  his  merits  as  a  master  of  Hebrew 
versitication  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Abraham  b. 
Isaac  Bedersi  (end  of  the  thirteenth  century),  in  his 
"Hereb  Hamithapeket  "  (Flaming  Sword),  mentions 
him  together  with  Gabirol.  Ibn  Ezra,  und  .ludah  ha- 
Levi  (Zunz.  "Z.  O."  p.  4t>3).  The  poet  Imnmiuiel  of 
Rome  speaks  in  the  preface  to  his  "  .Mal.iberot  "  (.Ma- 
kam!l.s),  with  reverence  of  him  who  wrote  poetry  and 
composed  parables  "  diverse  each  one  from  the  other," 
such  as  "  the  ancients  knew  not "  ;  ami  he  jilaccd  his 
poems,  "taken  with  his  sword  and  with  his  bow," 
in  the  names  of  other  men,  although  he  alone  com- 
posed them;  in  the  name  of  Heber  the  Kenite  .  .  . 
thus  he  took  in  his  hand  "  the  rod  "  of  his  intelligence 


BU)I.ioi;rapiiv  :  Tlie  fuilf.sl  uiiil  itvsl  iiminHlHliou  of  A)luirlzl 
ts  In  Kiiiiipf'a  yicht-Anilalttj<i/trhc  I'ttcitic  AmialuMitcher 
DU-htcr.  Pnitrup.  invt;  Altu.  '/-tit.  il.Juil.  IKIT,  New.  HI,  stl; 
183H,  No.  7:  KralTI,  Jllil.  .s.iyf ii,  .Ansluuh,  l««l;  Lilcratur- 
hlatt  ile»  Orunt!<.  IHii.  .New.  ».  11,  li,  13,  U  :  Lelireclit,  ihid. 
1S4.'),  p.  4:1 ;  Ziiiiz,  Z.  H.  iip.  ii:t  t(  «<<(.;  Dukes,  (linze  Or- 
fiml.  IXA;  MiiiiiiU'',hrift.  1S4«.  p.  OT:  liriliz.  (.ibc/i.  d. 
Juikn,  vli,  h:J;  steinsclineidtT,  }Uhi\  frhcrx.^  see  index. 
The  Tttltkt'miini  hus  been  fn-quenlly  etlilwl :  (.'onitlanUnople^ 
l.WI),  l.ifc!.  .\instenlam,  IT^i.  Vienna,  im.").  Berlin  (purtonlvi, 
1S4.1.  I>v  Liwinie  In  IS."*;!.  Kainlnka,  IMM):  hut  "n  this  lust,  «■« 
adverse  crilirlsin  In  /.fit.  f.  Helir.  Jlilil.  ill.  and  Iv.  The 
IkTlin  etiUlDn  il.'U.">(  was  made  by  Kilnipf,  who  revised,  an- 
notated, and  vtwjillzecl  the  text,  and  Ininslattnl  It  lnl«»  (ier- 
man.  A  Frenrl)  imnslatlon  was  made  by  t'aminly  (Hnissels, 
IH441^(4).  Some  iMirtlons  of  the  T(i/i/ifHioMi  were  tninslaliHl 
Into  Latin  by  t're  (London,  1772):  liito  French  by  Sllveslre  de 
Saey  (Purls,  IKHl:  and  lnt<i  EnKllsh  by  F.  <le  Sola  Mendes  in 
Joic.  (Virrm.  London,  1K7:|.  For  Alharizl's  wmtrlbutlon  to 
the  lltunry, see  Zunz,  Lilcrnturiii.tth.  n.  471 :  roncemlnir  his 
Journey,  see  Kamluka,  In  Monatsuchrift,  IDUO.  pp.  217~2S0. 

F.  DE  S.  M. 

'AL  HET  (NDn  hv)  '■  The  longer  confession  of  sin 
(  Wiililiii).  each  sentence  of  which  begins  with  the 
formula.  "Forgive  us  for  the  sin  we  have  commit- 
ted before  Thee  in  .  .  ."  the  particular  sins  then 
being  enumerated   in   alphalx-tical  order.      lu   the 


'AL   HET 


1^ 


^^ 


:$*: 


^^ 


•Al 


het. 


she 


batann  lefaDeka  be 


ye 


zer    ha  -  m'. 


we'al 


$ 


I 


^tMZ 


het  Bhehatann    lefa 


ka 


be  -    yode'im  ube  -    lo 


yo 


de  -  'im. 


and  "therewith  performed  the  miracles."  (The  words 
in  quotation-marks  are  Biblical  phra.ses.  in  the  mo- 
saic style  of  writing  then  prevalent  among  Hebrew 
scholars.)  In  his  twenty-eighth  makama,  he  places 
Alharizi  in  paradise,  in  the  choice  company  of 
Maimonides  and  Mattathias,  the  high  priest  of  the 
Ilasmoncans. 

The  following  is  the  list  of  his  writings: 
Original  works;  (1)  Commentarv  on  Job  (Zunz.  p. 
213);  (2)  the  "Tahkemoni  ";  (3)  "Sefer'Anak  "  (The 
Necklace),  an  imitation  of  Mo,ses  ibn  Ezra's  work  of 
the  same  name  (Zunz,  in  "  Allg.  Zeit.  d.  Jud."  1839, 
p.  388);  (4)  a  small  work.  "Se'fer  Goralot"  (Book  of 
Lots) ;  (T))  ••  Refuat  Oewiyah"(Healing  of  the  Body),  a 
poem  on  dietetics  (Steinschneider,  "Monats-schrift," 
1846,  p.  279;  Zunz,  "Z.  d."  p.  213);  (6)  an  intro- 
duction to  the  Hebrew  language  (see  Neubauer, 
"Notice  sur  la  Lexicographic  Hebrai(iue,"  p.  208). 

Translations;  From  the  Arabic — (1)  Maimonides' 
Mishnab  Commentary  :  "Zcraim."  (2)  Maimonides' 
"Morcli  Nebtikini " ;  published  by  L.  Schlo.ssberg, 
London,  18ol,  with  notes  by  Schcyer.  (3)  Makamat 
Al-Hariri  (Hariri's  Makamas),  under  the  Hebrew  title 
"Mahberot  Ilhiel,"  ed.  C'hennery,  London,  1872. 
From  the  Greek — (4)  Aristotle's  "  Ethics"  and  "  Poli- 
tics"; reprinted  in  Leipsic.  1844.  Graefz  (^.c  note) 
mentions  likewise  (5)  a  translation  of  an  essay  by 
Galen  against  speedy  interment,  and  (6)  of  a  gyne- 
cological treatise  by  Sheshct  Benveniste  ("Segulah 
le-Harayon  " ;  see  also  Kampf .  ii.  26) :  and  (7)  "  Sefer 
ha-Nefesh"  (Book  on  the  Sotil),  also  ascribed  to 
"Galen,  the  prince  of  physicians,"  but  translated 
from  the  Arabic  (published  by  Jellinek.  Leipsic, 
1852).  (8)  "  >[usare  ha-Filosofiin"  (Dicta  of  the  Phi- 
losophers) ,  done  from  Greek  into  Arabic  by  Honain 
ben  Isaac. 


Sephardic  usiige,  only  one  sin  is  mentioned  for  each 
letter,  but  among  the  Ashkenazim  two  sins  are  enu- 
merated under  each,  the  forniula  for  the  .second 
being.  "And  for  the  sin."  etc.  This  confession  is 
inserted  in  each  "'Amidah"  of  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment and  its  repetition,  with  the  exception  of  the 
closing  itrayer.  "  Xe'ilah."  Among  theSephardiman 
abbreviated  form  is  used  in  the  repetition.  Accord- 
ing to  northern  custom  the  confession  is  chantc'd  at 
length  in  a  minor  key.  and  is  broken  into  four  sec- 
tions by  the  prayer.  "  For  all  these.  O  God  of  forgive- 
ness, forgive  us.  pardon  us,  grant  us  remission!" 
The  interruption  is  marked  by  the  emiiloyment  of  a 
special  chant  for  the  preceding  couplet,  the  same 
strain  being  elsewhere  used  in  the  penitential  prayers, 
and.  singularly  enough,  also  for  the  responsive  for- 
mula inviting  the  company  at  table  to  join  in  the 
grace  after  meals.     The  music  is  as  above. 

F.  L.  C. 

ALI  B.  ABRAHAM  AL-TAWIL :  Karaite 
scholar;  flourished  at  Ilandeh.  Egypt,  in  the  twelfth 
century.  He  was  the  author  of  a  commentary  on 
the  Bible,  no  longer  extant.  Indeed,  his  very  name 
remained  unknown  until  recently,  when  it  was 
brought  to  the  attention  of  scholars  by  the  publi- 
cation, by  G.  Margoliouth.  of  Al-Hiti's  chronicle, 
which  mentions  AH  among  the  Karaite  doctors  of 
the  twelfth  century. 


BiBLIOGRAPnT 


Margoliouth,  in  Jew.  Quart.  Rev.  Ix.  434. 

I.  B. 


Alil  HA-LEVI  BEN  SOLOMON :  Gaon;  head 
of  the  acailcmy  at  15agdad  in  the  first  half  of  the 
twelfth  century.  His  name  occurs  in  an  old  Arabic 
responsum  (Harkavy,  "  Rcsponsen  der  Geonim,"  p. 


393 


TilK  JEWISH   KXCYCLOPEDIA 


Alibi 


186),  also  in  "  The  Itinerary  of  Benjamin  of  TudeUi  " 
(cd.  Aslier,  pp.  77  et  net/.  ;  and  in  Sainbari,  ed.  Neu- 
bauer,  "Med.  Jew.  C'liron."  i.  l'2'i).  where  he  figures 
as  the  master  of  David  al-Hoi.  the  clever  pseudci- 
Messiah,  w  horn,  under  the  name  of  Ai.Kov,  Disraeli 
lias  made  the  hero  nf  a  romance  (compare  Orill/., 
"Ge.sch.  i!  Jud(n,"2<l  ed.,  vi.  2fi9  tt  xiq.).  Ali  was 
l)r(jliably  Ihc  father  of  S.\miki.  ii.\  I.kvv,  who  also 
presided  over  the  college  at  Ba;j;dad,  and  who,  lliouj:h 
at  first  a  friend  of  Maimonides,  in  the  year  11H(»  in 
an  open  letter  attacked  tlie  latter's  doctrine  regard- 
ing resurrection. 

As  to  the  orthography  of  the  name,  some  writers 
render  it  "Eli"  (Asher,  ih.  Enirlish  translation,  p. 
l->2;  lIarkavy,"Zeit.  f.  Hehr,  Hilil."  ii.  Vi't),  which  is 
preferred  liy  Stcin.schneider  ("  Jew.  Quart.  Kev."  .\i. 
4H4).  while  others  have  it  "Ali  "  (Epstein.  "Monats 
schrift,"  .\.\.\i.\.  512;  Po/nanski.  "  Hev.  £t.  Juives." 
xx.xiii.  ;il();  Kaufmann,  //'.  ,vvii.  8(14). 

A  poem  a(Idres.sed  to  Ali,  the  head  of  anacatlemy, 
probably  at  Bagdad,  on  the  occasion  that  his  son, 
called  Safi  al  Din  Joshua,  had  finished  the  Torah 
at  the  .synagogue,  was  published  by  Steinschneider 
("Ilellaluz,"  lH.")(j,  iii.  1.">1  i-l  xei/.)  and  has  been 
thought  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  this  article  (compare 
Kobak's  "Jeschurun."  Hebrew  jiart.  iv.  'J2,  note). 
The  same  poem,  however,  has  now  been  found  again 
by  Sleinsclin<idcr  in  an  anonymous  Hebrew  diwan 
which  is  contained  in  a  manu.script  bought  in  the 
Orient  by  E.  X.  Ailler("Jew.  Quart.  Hev."  .\ii.  115 
et  set}.,  and  202).  The  diwan  points  to  the  early  part 
of  the  thirteenth  century  as  the  date  of  its  author, 
and  contains  two  other  (H'<iisi(inal  poems  address<'d 
to  Ali,  who,  therefore,  can  not  be  identical  with  the 
gaon  of  the  |)recediiig  century.  This,  moreover,  is 
confirmed  by  the  fact  that  in  an  earlier  poem("  Diwan 
Adier,"  No.  (j)  the  poet  apjuars  to  have  lanicnte<l 
thedeath  of  a  <laughler  of  the  gaon  Samuel  ha-Livi. 
who,  as  mentioned  above,  succeeded  Ali  b.  Solomon 
in  the  presidency  of  the  academy.  It  is  quite  likely, 
therefore,  that  tlie  Ali  eulogized  in  thediwan,  which 
speaks  of  him  as  "a  descendant  of  the  (ii'onim"  (No. 
17!(,  vs.  7  and  il).was  the  son  of  Samuel  and  grandson 
of  the  first  Ali,  and  that  he  su(  < cedeii  bis  sires  in  the 
e.>:alte<l  ollice  which  Samuel,  in  particular,  had  in 
vested  with  great  dignity. 

niBi.ioc.RAPnv;  ficleer's  JIUI.  Zrlt.  v.  M);  LUeralurlilnll  il. 
OnViiKvl.  ;:t»:  sleln.irliiiflitiT,  rnl.  «<kH. loLs.  ISKKiiiul  HIIR; 
Idi-iii.. /H<l.  IMtr.,  lu  Krs<ti  and  (inilier,  F.muMninldit .  x»vll. 

3ft'», uou.' iH.  no  E 

AXI  IBN  SAHL  IBN  RABBAN  AL- 
TABARI  (ABU  AL-HASAN)  :  Physician  an<l 
writer  on  medical  subjects  in  Irak  about  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century  :  born  in  Taberistan.  His  father, 
Sahl,  was  well  known  as  an  astronomer  and  mathe 
matician.  For  a  lime  Ali  lived  al  ISai.  where  Mo 
hammed  al-Ha/i  was  his  i)upil  in  inedi<ine.  From 
Hai  he  went  to  Samarm.  and  for  some  years  acted 
as  s<irelary  to  Mazyar  ibii  Kariii.  He  became  a 
Mohanniiedan  through  thi-  elTorts  of  Ihi'  Abbassid 
calif  Al  Mu't«!jim  (H:t:!-K42).  who  took  him  into  the 
service  of  the  court,  in  whi<h  he  continmd  under 
Al  Mutawakkel  (S-t7-H(;n  Ali  wrote  the  following 
works:  (I)  "  Firdaus  al  Mikmali  "  ((iardeii  of  Wis- 
dom), called  also  "  Al-Kunnash."  a  system  of  nieili 
cine  in  st-ven  parts;  (2)  "Tid.ifat  al  .Muluk"  (The 
King's  Present);  (11)  a  work  on  the  proper  tise  of 
food,  drink,  and  medicines;  (4)  "llafih  al  Sihhah  " 
(The  Proper  Care  of  Health),  followuig  (Jrei'k  and 
Indian  aulhoritii's;  (5)  "  Kilab  al  Uuka"  (BcKik  of 
Magic  or  Amidets);  (tO  "  Kitab  11  al  llijamah  "  (Tn>a 
tise  on  Cupping):  (7)  "  Kilab  11  Tart ib al  'Aril hiy ah  " 
'.Treatis<'  on  the  Preparation  of  Food). 


ItiBLIOGRAniv:  The  clilef  auchijrii.v  Is  .tl-Nudliii  iiibout  913- 
KUll,  in  his  FilirM,  ed.  KMlKer,  I.  asii,  fnini  which  are  dniwn 
the  nuUees  In  Al-Klfli,  II.  141,  and  In  Ibn  Abl  (Jselbla,  ed. 
Mllller.  I.  WW.  Cenrpare  Lwlea-,  Hhit.  ile  la  Midecine 
-■I r«/»\  I.  ;i!ici ;  Wdsienfeld,  tj(j<cli.  tUr  AraltOtchcn  Atrzte^ 
No.  .5.5,  p.  -1 :  BnN-lieltimnn,  tiiitch.  (Ur  A  raM^c/if «  Lit. 
IfW,  I.  211:  St»'ln!<(hnelder.  J<w.  Lit.  p.  UH,  and  esp.-<lally 
Z.  D.  M.  <i.  Ilv.  4<1,  where  ether  auihorllles  are  elted;  (iriitz, 
Urwh.  </.  Jui/rn.  v.  2S4.  An  exiiiu't  (n)iii  the  "  Klrdaus  "  Iti 
Klven  by  S<hri-liier.  iii  yinnalstchriH,  xlll.  Wti.  q 

ALI  SULEIMAN.     See  David  ok  Fkz. 

ALIBI  ililerally.  "elsewhere"):  A  form  of  defense 
by  which  the  accused  undertakes  to  show  that  he  was 
elsewhere  when  the  crime  was  committed.  Such  a 
defense  could  of  course  be  made  in  the  criminal  pro- 
cedure of  the  ancient  Jews;  for  wilne.s.ses  were  ad- 
mitted for  the  defense  as  well  as  for  the  prosecution  ; 
and  the  rules  concerning  the  competency  of  witnes.se8 
and  the  mode  of  e.xamiinilion  were  pretty  much  the 
same  for  the  witnesses  on  either  side.  It  is  therefore 
needless  to  speak  here  about  the  .\libi  of  I  he  accused. 
But  there  is  another  kind  of  Alibi  which  is  peculiar 
to  the  Talmudic  law,  dealing  as  it  does  with  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  the  witnesses  of  an  alleged  crirae 
from  the  place  where  it  was  committed.  It  is  drawn 
from  the  passages  about  the  "plotting  witnes-scs" 
(D'OOIt  D'ly):  "If  an  unrighteous  witness  rise  up 
against  any  man  .  .  .  then  shall  ye  do  \into  him  as 
he  lia.s  thought  (plotleilj  to  do  unto  his  brother" 
(Deut.  .\ix.  lti-19,  H.  V.). 

The  law  against  the  "  plotting  witness"  applied 
to  civil  a.s  well  as  to  criminal  ca.ses.  The  uiulerlyiug 
principle  is  thus  si-t  forth  in  Mishnah  Makkot,  i.  4: 

"  WUnesses  an-  net  'plotters'  unless  they  are  oonluted  a.**  to 
Iheir  itwn  |»ersons.    How  Ls  this?    .SupiMiseUley  .say,  '  We  testify 

iiL^ihist  siti-b  and  siirh  a  man  that  lie  ha^  kllleil 

The  Plotting:  sonielMMly.'    Now,  If  otliers  should  say  lo  them, 

"Witness.       '  How  can  you  say  so  V  f<pr  the  rnunlered  man  [i*t 

thesupjM'sed  murderer]  was  al  the  lime  of  ihe 
deed  In  our  coni|mny  al  sucti  and  sm-h  a  pUkv.'  Tlils  would  not 
pn)ve  Ihem  '  [iloiters.'  Hut  if  the  opjM»slnir  wllne.-i.si's  siiy  :  *  How 
can  you  testify  so.  seelni:  that  you  were  with  us  on  thai  day  at 
such  and  sueii  a  place  y '  This  proviw  them  '  plotierti ' ;  and  upon 
such  u-stlmony  they  may  be  put  to  death." 

Two  witnes.ses.  being  re(piireil  to  prove  any  fact, 
were  called  a  set  (03 ' :  three  witnes.ses  were  no  more 
than  a  set  (iliitl.  7l;  and  a  new  set  of  wilnes.si\s  was 
deemed  sutlicieiit  to  refute  the  former  set  and  lo  con- 
vict tliem  of  "plotting,"  provided  they  could  prove 
an  Alibi  as  to  tlie  twoorthree  wilnes.sesof  the  prose- 
cution. But  if  these  were  at  dilTerent  J)laces,  the 
absence  of  each  from  the  place  where  the  disputed 
act  occurreil  must  be  testirteil  to  by  «l  least  two 
witnes.ses. 

As  to  the  casuistry  of  a  case  in  which  more  than 
three  witnesses  (that  is.  more  than  one  set)  hail  tes- 
tified, or  in  which  one  of  the  original 

Effect  of     witnesses  was  found  to  be  dis(|ualified 
Contradict- by  kinship  or  bad  chanieler.  the  bal- 
ory  ance  of  opinion  is  that  the  same  set 

Testimony,  of  counter  witnesses  could  refut<-  and 
brand  as  plotters  any  niimlur  of  orig- 
inal witnes.ses  as  they  came  up  in  separate  sct.s. 

The  case  is  also  put.  in  which  witnes.s<>s  (the  first 
set)  against  the  accu.sed  are  branded  as  plotters  by  n 
si'Cond.set.  and  those  of  the  sefond  s<a  an'e\pixse<i  in 
like  manner  by  a  thinl  set;  that  theri'Upon  the  man 
originally  accused  and  the  second  si't  of  wilni'S.ses 
would  be  punishable,  and  the  first  witlies.se»  would 
stand  justified.  This  pioeess.  following  the  opinion 
adopted  in  the  Mishnah,  may  be  continintl  inilefi 
nilelv.as  long  as  no  execution  of  jiidgineiit  has  taken 
place.  To  this  rule,  however,  H.  Judah  objects,  on 
account  of  llie  mischief  that  would  result  from  such 
encouragement  of  informers  (iV..  .'d. 

The  Saddiicees  maintiiined  that  the  false  witnesws 
could  not  be  punisheil  until  the  s<'ntence  against  the 
original  defendant  was  carried   into  effect;    but  the 


Alibi 
Alienation 


THE  .JEWISH   ENXYCLOPEDIA 


394 


Pharisjiic  sjivrcs  poinlcil  to  tlie  wonlsof  Scripture,  "as 
lie  hail  tlumirlit  [plotted]  to  do";  not  "as  he  did." 
However,  any  proeedure  a<:ainst  the  jilottinj;  wit- 
nesses is  to  take  jilaic  only  after  tlic  defendant  has 
been  condemned;  which  rule  is  drawn  from  the 
words  of  Seripturc,  ".soul  for  soul."  the  defendant 
being  deemed  dead  when  lie  is  condemned. 

In  case  the  accused  has  been  nct\ially  put  to  death 
upon  false  testimony,  the  plotters  can  not  be  pun- 
ished; but  Avhen  the  judsrinent  is  only  for  stripes, 
or  for  money,  or  property,  the  execu- 

Punish-  tion  of  the  judgment  does  not  bar  a 
ment  prosecution  of  tlie  plotters  (Maimon- 
of  Plotting  ides.  "Hilkot  'Edut."  xx.  2).  .Still,  in 
Witnesses,  all  such  cases  the  convicted  jilotters 
arc  rendered  infamous,  and  can  never 
be  witnesses  thereafter  (ib.  1).  It  does  not  follow, 
however,  that  witnesses  proving  the  absence  of  the 
witnesses  for  the  prosecution  from  the  li>r>i>i  i»  quo 
should  not  be  heard  at  the  trial,  in  a  manner  similar 
to  otiier  witnesses  tor  the  defense'. 

The  punishment  to  be  iiillicted  upon  plotting  wit- 
nesses when  the  defendant  is  condemned  to  death  is 
di.stinct  enough;  but  when  he  is  condemned  to  exile 
in  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  for  involuntary  man- 
slaughter, it  does  not  suffice  to  send  the  false  witnesses 
to  the  city  of  refuge;  they  must  on  the  contrary  be 
punished  with  stripes,  on  the  ground  tliat  every 
ofTender  against  "thou  slialt  not"  (negative  com- 
mands) is  thus  punislied.  unless  a  different  punish- 
ment is  pronounced  and  is  practicable. 

An  analogous  case  occurs  where  witnesses  de- 
nounce a  man  of  the  priestly  line  as  being  the  son  of 
a  divorced  woman,  which  woiild  render  him  nntit  for 
the  priestly  fvmction.  In  this  case  there  can  be  no 
retaliation  in  kind,  and  the  witnesses  must  be  llosiged 
<Mak.  i.  11 

Again,  if  the  false  witnesses  testify  that  the  de- 
fendant's ox  has  killed  a  human  bi'ing.  or  that  some 
one  is  a  Jewish  bondman,  or  has  by  theft  incurred 
the  penalty  of  being  sold  into  bondage — they  are 
flogged;  such  is  the  tradition  (Mak. 
Indemnity.  2i).  The  words  of  Scripture  (I)eut. 
xix.  21 ).  "eye  for  eye.  tooth  for  tooth. 
hand  for  hand,  foot  for  foot,"  ofTer  no  dilliculty  ;  for 
as  this  law  was  in  other  cases  carried  out  by  the 
award  of  a  money-compensation,  the  judgment  ren- 
dered on  the  testimony  of  the  plotting  witnesses  for 
the  I0S.S  of  an  eye.  a  tooth,  a  hand,  or  a  foot,  would  be 
a  judgment  for  money  simply.  In  case  the  false 
witnesses  are  condemiiid  to  make  good  in  money  the 
amount  of  an  unjust  judgment,  they  are  not  pun- 
ished with  stripes;  the  rule  being  that  "  those  who 
pay  do  not  suiter  stripes."  The  plotting  witnesses 
pay  between  them  only  once  the  sum  which  the 
parly  against  whom  they  testified  would  have  lost 
by  their  falsehood  (Mishnah  Mak.  i.  ;i.  Gem.  na). 

In  some  civil  cases  it  is  not  so  plain  how  much  in- 
jury would  result  from  an  unjiist  judgment;  and 
here  it  seems  that  the  sages  felt  the  necessity  for  a 
calculus  of  probabilities.  The  Mishnah  (5Iak.  i.  li 
formulates  these  cases  (of  witnesses  found  guilty  of 
"plotting"); 

"We  testify  against  N.  X.  that  he  has  divorced 
his  wife  and  has  not  paid  her  her  jointure  (ketuliah). 
But  [it  is  objected],  will  he  not  some  day  have  to 
pay  her  that  jointure?  [Answer;]  The  judges 
should  estimate  how  much  a  man  is  willing  to  pay 
of  the  given  amount  in  acquittance  of  a  jointure 
(inasmuch  as  it  is  jiayablc  only  when  the  wife  is 
widowed  or  divorced;  while  if  she  dies  before  the 
husband,  no  claim  exists,  since  he  is  her  heir).  Or; 
We  testify  against  X.  X..  that  he  owes  A.  a  thou- 
sand zuz  [§160]   payable  in  thirty  days  (while  in 


fact  he  owes  him  I  his  sum  payable  in  ten  years).  The 
judges  shoidd  estimate  how  much  a  man  will  give 
to  retain  the  moniy  in  his  hand  for  ten  years  nithcr 
than  for  thirty  days." 

Such  ()uestions  are  often  answered  in  modem 
times  by  life  tables,  dower  tables.  an<I,  generally 
speaking,  by  the  calc\ilation  of  compound  interest; 
but  the  Hebrew  judges  of  early  days  had  neither 
the  statistical  nor  tlie  matheniatical  elements  on 
which  to  ba.se  their  calculations.  They  had  to  guess 
as  best  they  could.  E.   X.   D. 

ALIENATION  AND  ACftUISITION  :  Tlic 
act  of  causing  a  lliiiig  in  hecnnic  llir  properly  of 
another — Alienaliim— is.  in  Konmn  and  English  law, 
the  general  term  under  which  the  change  of  title 
by  gift.  Siile.  or  barter  is  treated.  The  rabbinical 
law  looks  at  the  transfer  of  properly  from  tlie  stand- 
point of  the  new.  nitlier  than  of  the  old,  owner;  not 
from  the  view-point  of  him  who  alienates  or  jiarts 
with  a  thing,  but  of  him  who  acquires  ownership 
in  it.  The  distinctions  of  the  Mishnah  and  the  dis- 
cussions of  the  Talmud  apply  to  /ciin/iin  (Acqui- 
sition). Acquisition  is  brought  about  in  different 
ways,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  thing  to  be  ac- 
quired— a  slave,  land,  a  commodity,  or  a  claim.  As 
the  old  owner's  title  ceases  at  the  sjime  moment  that 
the  new  owner's  title  liegins.  the  Talmudic  law  of 
Acquisition  covers  the  same  ground  as  that  of  Aliena- 
tion in  the  jurisprudence  of  more  modern  times.  The 
leading  maxims  on  Acquisition  are  given  by  the  Mish- 
nah in  the  first  chapter  of  the  treatise  "  Kiddushin  " 
(Hetrothals).  which,  beginning  with  the  modes  in 
which  the  riglitto  a  wife  may  Iieaeeinired.  goes  onto 
show  how  other  rights  areacciuired. — fore.xanii>le.  to 
a.Jewish  servant. a  C'anaanitish  servant,  aslave,  land, 
etc. — and  then  how  titli'  is  acquired  in  domestic  ani- 
mals, and  other  chattels  (Kid.  iv.  1).  For  the  law 
touching  commodities,  and  more  especially  for  differ- 
ent kinds  of  currency,  Haba  Mezi'a,  iv.  1-2,  must  be 
consulted.  Setting  aside  the  cases  of  the  Hebrew 
bondman  and  boniiwoman.  who  can  not  be  transferred 
to  another  m;ister,  and  omitting  also  the  means  by 
which  the  "('anaanil<>  bondman"  may  obtain  his 
freedom,  the  following  geninil  rules  are  given; 

A  boniiman  is  iicquired  by  the  payment  of  money, 
by  deed  in  writing  (n/n'tur).  or  by  taking  pos.session 
(linznknh)  (Kid.  i.  ;!).  Animals  are 
Modes  ac(iuired  according  to  their  nature,  by 
of  Acquisi-  delivery  to  the  purchaser,  or  by  his 
tion.  removing  or  lifting  them.  The  term 
most  commonly  used  is  menliiktih 
(pulling,  moving);  and  this  is  elsewhere  applied  to 
oilier  movables  (('*.  4).  Things  of  value  "tiound  by 
debt  "  iiihiinii/iit) — that  is,  land  or  things  allached  to 
the  soil — and  slaves  are  acquired  by  payment  of 
money,  by  a  written  deed,  or  by  taking  possession  (ih. 
5).  Other  things.  ?'.<■..  movables,  are  in  themselves 
acquired  only  by  bodily  removal;  but  they  may  be 
made  an  incident  or  accessory  to  land  or  immova- 
bles, and  will  iheii  ]iass  with  these  when  tint  land 
or  immovable  thing  is  acquired  as  above  (///. ).  As  a 
general  rule,  in  the  case  of  barter,  when  one  thing  of 
value  becomes  the  price  of  another,  tlie  Acquisition 
of  one  immediately  changes  title  in  the  other  (/'/*.  6). 
But  (see  AcceI'TANCE)  mere  words  of  assent,  though 
spoken  by  seller  and  buyer,  or  by  donor  and  donee, 
in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  have  in  themselves  no 
force  whatever. 

The  Alienation  of  land  (karka')  is  to  be  consid- 
cn  il  first.  Whatever  is  attached  to  the  ground  is 
treated  as  land,  except  ripe  fruits  (such  as  grapes), 
which  may  be  sold  separately  in  the  same  manner  in 
which  movables  are  alienated.     The  Acquisition  of 


395 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alibi 
Alienation 


land  by  the  iiaynicnt  iif  nicmcy  <>r  by  lakiiif;  a  writ- 

Ifii  ilccil  is  ilcrivcd  by  Ihc  TuIiiukI  friim  the  iiiciclcnls 

ri-l:ilc(l  ill  .Icr.  xxxii.  tspi-ciiilly  in  tin' 

Acquis!-  11 1  h  verse:  ".Men  sliall  buy  Ileitis  for 
tion  of  iiioney,  and  subscribe  the  deeds  and 
Land.  seal  llieiii  "  ll  maybe  reiimrked  that 
in  Taliiiiidie  lanirua^e  the  sealing  of 
a  wrilleii  iliiciiineiit  {h/k  tii i-  <iv yi  ()  im-dufi  neither  more 
nor  less  than  the  siihseription  liy  the  witnesses.  No 
"si'alinj;  "  of  thedi'cd  of  eoiiveyanee,  however,  is  re- 
<|iiired  in  any  of  llie  ] la.s.siijies  of  the  -Mishnah  or  I5a- 
niila  which  treat  of  sucli  (leeds;  thoujj;h  such  attes- 
tali<in  is  conleiii|ilated  smuelinics  (see  PuioiiITIi;s). 
Wliilc  the  |iidc(  ediiiirs  discribeil  in  Jer.  .\.\.\ii.  fl-14 
imply  a  custom  of  having;  a  copy  of  a  deed  for  land 
at  some  public  or  secret  |ilace  (a  custom  equivalent 
to  tlu'  modern  law  of  recordin;;  deeds),  the  Talmud 
shows  only  slight  traces  of  this  useful  institution: 
and  these  point  to  Hoinaii  intluence  (Kid.  iv.  .1;  Yer. 
M.  K.  ii.  81//;  (Jit.  44":  Tosif..  H.  I!,  viii.  2:  see  . las 
trow,  "Diet.."  uiidcr  the  words '3-1X  and '3"lj;). 

It  seems  that  while  a  deed  is  always  siiMicieiit  to 
coniplele  a  f;itt  of  land,  it  is  not  sullicieut  of  itself 
to  close  a  Siile  of  land  until  the  price  is  paid,  except 
in  a  case  in  which  the  owner  "sells  land  on  ac- 
count of  its  badness";  that  is,  in  order  to  get  rid  of 
it.  and  is  therefore  willinj;  to  risk  the  buyer's  sol- 
vency ralliiT  than  give  him  time  to  reconsider. 
Neither  the  Talmud  nor  the  later  standards  under- 
take to  deline  what  is  meant  tiy  a  sale  of  land  on  ac- 
count of  its  badiH'Ss.  But  where  the  seller,  vipon 
giving  a  deed  of  conveyance,  takes  a  bond  for  the 
■whole  purchase  money,  or  for  the  unpaid  part;  or 
■when  111'  stales  in  the  deed  that  he  has  received  such 
a  part  and  remains  a  creditor  for  the  balance,  lie 
.shows  that  he  does  not  insist  on  cash  in  hand,  and 
the  .sjile  stands,  no  matter  how  long  the  pavmeiit  is 
withheld  (  Kid.  ',><)./ :  I!.  .\I  7T/i.  <l  »y. ).  liul  "a  partial 
payment  of  the  iiurcha.sc money,  unless  it  be  ex- 
pressly slated  thai  Ibe  rest  is  hi'ld  over  by  the  buyer 
as  a  loan,  with  or  without  a  written  conveyance,  en- 
titles tin:  purchaser  oidv  to  a  proportionate  sliarcof 
the  land.  This  share  is  taken  from  the  most  desir- 
able parts  ('iililil).  or  from  the  lea.st  desirable  parts 
{zihhurit).  according  as  the  seller  or  the  buyer  de- 
mands the  rescission:  he  who  declines  to  carry  out 
the  eoiilracl  has  the  "lower  hand"  (ih.  I'h).  When 
the  sellir,  after  receiving  part  of  the  price,  contin- 
ues to  dun  the  buyer  for  Ihc  rest,  it  is  proof  that  he 
<1(M'S  not  consider  the  transaction  closed,  except  in 
till'  case  already  mentioneil,  where  he  has  .sold  the 
lield  on  account  of  its  badness  (ih.). 

Till*  T"siinHt.s  on  IlilM  piiMSJaji'  ri'inark  timl  h)  the  prartlse  of 
ttieir  tliiii'  these  illsMiii-tlotis  were  tln>|i|)<-<l.  tiiiil  that  (Iniihtiit; 
fnr  the  prlr-e  lioeH  nut  ilefeat  the  sale,  hilt  the  tfreat  stanilanl 
Works,  surh  us  that  i>r  Malrnonhles  anil  the  "  Hosheii  .Mlshpat." 
niallllaln  the  rule  alinllt  the  seller  Who.  Ill  llle'worils  of  the  Till- 
lllliil.  "tfoesotit  and  In  ''  after  his  liioiiey. 

Payment  of  the  purchase-money  is  siiflicicnt  by 
ilsi'lf  III  bind  boih  parties,  but  only  in  countries  in 
which  il  is  the  ciislom  not  to  writu 
Modes  of  deeds  for  the  transfer  of  land:  where 
Possession,  the  custom  rei|uires  such  a  deed  the 
money  payinenl  alone  is  insullicieiit 
(Kill.  «(li/).  Bui  Ihc  taking  pos.sessii>n  by  the  )inr 
chiLser  seems  to  be  a  full  siibsliliile  for  the  writing 
of  allied.  When  possession  is  taken  in  the  grant 
or's  prcs«'nce,  his  <onsent  is  implied;  otherwise  he 
must  have  given  leave  by  such  words  as,  "'I'ake 
pos,session  and  aci|uiie."  Closing  a  fence  or  making 
a  gap  in  it — no  mailer  how  small — or  widening  a 
gap,  with  a  purpose  of  improviiiL',  or  linking  up  a 
liouse,  is  an  act  of  possession  ;  and  where  llie  griinlor 
<leliversthe  key  of  a  house,  or  the  liuckct  of  aci.stern. 
which  lie  has  sold,  such  delivery  is  an  atitliori/.ation 


to  take  pos-scssiim  (Mishnah  IJ.  B.  iii.  3.  (!eni.  524  et 
Iff/.).  AValking  uji  and  down  over  a  field  docs  not 
secure  possession  of  it ;  but  where  a  footpath  is  sold, 
walking  on  it  isenougli;  for  this  is  its  only  use  (B,  B. 
lOO'i).  Stony,  uncnclose'd  land,  unfit  for  tillage,  may 
be  aci|uired  bysjueading  fruit  or  letting  one'scattle 
run  over  it  (ihit/.  29//).  Uf  cour.s<',  to  sow  or  to  reap 
or  to  gather  fruit  is  an  act  of  pos.session  (iljid.  36A). 

Where  several  fmn'els  of  crmiinii  are  sminlerl  tocethpr.  thoiieb 
they  lie  In  several  loumrles  ami  of  the  most  illverv-  klmls  or  ile- 
aiTlplloiis,  the  ai-t  of  taking;  ixis.ses.slon  of  one  pan'ul  (fives  the 
purihiuser  title  to  all,  and  hinds  the  hareain  as  to  all.  However, 
If  thi'  parrels  are  sold  for  iiiiiney.  It  seems  that  the  prlee  of  all 
iMiist  be  paid,  el.si-  oiilv  those  thai  are  paid  for  will  pass  (Tiisef., 
Ket.  II.  1:  Kid.  S7(l  ,1  wi/.j. 

The  most  ciTcctive  manner  of  acquiring  land  is  the 
so  called  "purchase  by  kerchief"  [kiiiynn  loiihir), 
under  the  rule  given  above,  that  where  one  thing  is 
made  the  price  of  another,  I  he  Acquisition  of  the  one 
changes  title  in  the  other  also.  Now  as  an  "imple- 
ment "  (/■/'/(')  may  be  acquired  by  lifting  it,  it  can 
easily  lie  arnuigid  liiat  a  kerchief — or  any  other  ob- 
,ject,  such  as  a  needle,  even  if  worth  less  than  a  perii- 
(ah  (llie  smallest  coin) — be  made  the  nominal  con- 
siileralion,  the  real  price  being  paid  as  the  parties  may 
agree.  The  custom  was  known  also  in  the  old  (tirnian 
law,  under  the  name  of  yfniitiljiriff  (grasping  the 
mantle).  It  is  derived  by  the  Talmud  i'rom  the  pas- 
.sjige  in  IJuih,  iv.  7:  "to  contirm  all  things,  a  man 
plucked  oir  his  shoe  and  gave  it  to  his  neighbor." 
The  change  of  ownership  in  the  land  being  Ihuseslab- 
lislied,  there  was  a  fouiidalioii  for  the  promise  of  the 
buyer  to  pay  a  fiirthersum.  Iliereal  priceof  the  land; 
and  the  bargain  was  at  once  closed,  so  that  neilher 
sidecould  withdraw  (B.  M.4T<().  Only  "im|ilements" 
can  be  used  thus  ;  not  coins  nor  "fruits"  (;x)W),  the 
latter  term  comprising  grain  and  other  eatables  sold 
by  (piantity  (////(/.  Kiil.  2S//». 

Theownerof  land  may  sell  or  give  it  toanother  for 
a  term  of  years — an  arrangemint  which  dilTers  from 
a  lease  in  so  far  as  there  is  no  slated 
Sale  rent — or  he  may  sell  and  give  its  prod- 

Limited  by  lice  for  a  number  of  years.  In  the 
Time.  former  case,  the  grantee  may  "build 
and  tear  down,"  or.  in  the  language 
of  the  common  law.  he  is  a  tenant  "witlioni  im- 
peachment or  waste";  in  the  latter  case,  he  is  on 
the  fooling  of  an  ordinary  tenant.  And  just  as  land 
or  its  produce  can  thus  be  given  for  a  slated  time, 
one  or  more  fruit  trees,  or  their  fruit,  can  bi'  thus 
sold  or  given.  But  the  land  or  trees,  or  their  prinl- 
uce  or  fruit,  after  the  term  of  years,  must  be  reserved 
to  the  original  owner  or  his  heirs.  Thegnintee  can 
not  alicnale  any  unexpired  time  to  a  thin!  person; 
for  the  use  of  the  land  or  ils  produce  from  and  after 
a  lime  in  Ihe  future,  beinga  "  tiling  that  has  not  come 
into  exislence."  can  not  be  the  siilijecl  of  sale  or  gift 
(  Maimonides,  "  Ililkot  .Mekindi."xxiii.).  Hence,  w  hat 
the  English  lawyer  designates  as  a  "strict  settle- 
ment."and  the  layman  calls  "lying  iipaii  ratal*;."  ia 
impossible  under  the  .Jewish  law.  ""'~ 

.\.  slave  (Canaaiiile  botulmanl  is  in  the  main  ac- 
quired like  land:  and  what  in  I  he  case  of  land  is  said 

as  to  a  ll I  in  wriling  or  payinenl  in  money,  would 

apply  also  to  the  purchase  of  a  slave,  except  that 
there  could  be  no  apporlionmeni  of  the  ihing  boui^ht 
to  the  part  of  the  price  that  is  paid.  But  the  form  of 
taking  pos.scssioii  (lia/al>ah) — which  is  ilu'  ihinl  man- 
ner of  .'Vcquisilion — natimilly  dilTers  from  that  in  the 
case  of  land.  Any  .service  rendered  by  the  iHindman 
to  the  buyer,  such  ascarryingarlieles  for  him,  dre.s.s- 
ing  or  uiidres.4ing  him,  rubbing  or  dr\ing  him  after 
a  Imlli,  is  sutllcicnt. 

Tlie  iM^st  opinion  In  Uint  Mftlntr  or  piilllnir.  ns  In  the  rnat^  of 
iloinestir  anlnmls  or  of  llfeleiw  nnluml.s,  l.s  not  applhiible  to  t 


Alienation 
Aliens 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


S99 


slave :  Inateitd  i»f  the  luiyer  Uftlnt;  Ills  new  slave  as  an  act  of 
possession.  It  would  b*'  itiore  proiwr  for  the  slave  to  lift  and 
earry  liLs  new  niiLsi*>r  ils  an  aet  of  service.  Hut  the  slave  nuiy. 
like 'land,  lie  ar»tuln'd  hy  the  fonn  i>f  Imrterlnp  htm  for  a  "  ker- 
chief"  or  other  hniileinent  Hild.  i.'M.  Andaslave.  like  land. 
Is  de**Hieil  a  thln»;  "  iNttind  for  debt":  hcnt'e.  other  thlniri  of 
value  may  be  tninsferri'd  with  him  tu>  Inddcnus. 

The  niU'  that  niovalilcs  {mftnltethi  \  do  not  pass  by 
the  piiviiiciit  of  the  price  in  iiionev,  Imt  only  by  "  lift- 
in;;   or   removal    or   delivery."    is  by 
Sale  of       most  of  the  later  t<'aeliers  (Hesli  La- 
Movables,    kish  disseiitintr,  H.  >L  4Ti)  spoken  of  as 
a   mere   rabbinical   iiislitiilion.     They 
explain  tliat  the  Toiah  ;;ives  a  binilirii;-  elTeet  to  tlie 
payment    of   the    price;     hut   that    thi'   early   sa;;es 
feared  that  when  the  price  was  jiaid  hefori'  delivery, 
room  would  be  left  for  fraud,  as  the  seller  after  I'e- 
ceivinir   his  nioney    might  claim   that    the  buyer's 
goods  had  been  bnrned  or  otherwise  destroyed  in  his 
(the  seller's)  barn  or  warehoiisi',  while  already  at 
the  buyer's lisk.    Hence,  in  an  iiniisiial  case  in  which 
such  fniiidnlent  practise  is  not  to  be  feared,  delivery 
is  not  re(|iiired;  for  example,  when  the  seller  is  in 
debt  to  the  buyer  forthe  prieeof  another conunodity 
(not.  Iiowever,  for  money  loaned),  an  oral  .sale  in 
satisfaction  of  this  debt  is  held  binding  without  de- 
livery (//'.  ilaimonides,  "  Hilkot  M<'kinih,"  v,  4). 

While  liftini;  is  snlheient  in  all  places,  delivery  to 
the  buyer  drives  title  only  when  it  takes  jilace  either 
on  the  public  highway  or  in  a  courtyard  not  belong- 
ing to  eithei  ;  and  the  buyiT's  own  act  of  moving 
{>ii(.i/iikii/i)  gives  him  title  only  when  it  is  done  ujion 
the  sidewalk,  or  in  a  courtyard  that  belongs  to  both  ; 
for  in  the  act  of  moving,  the  buyer  brings  the  article 
into  his  own  domain.  When  goods  of  any  kind  are 
already  on  the  grounds  of  the  buyer,  the  bargain 
itself,  price  and  all  terms  being  ti.xed,  is  sutlicient  to 
change  the  title  and  bind  all  (larties:  when  the  goods 
are  on  the  grounds  of  the  seller,  or  of  a  warehouse- 
man of  the  seller's  choice,  the  buyer  can  attain  the 
de.sireil  end  by  renting  the  place  upon  wliieli  the 
goods  are  placed.  He  thus  comes  into  virtual  jiosses- 
sion  (B,  H.  »r„i.  Kid.  2.%,  2T</). 

When  a  flock  of  sheep  or  when  very  l)ulky  articles  are  t>ouirht. 
a  formal  renting  of  the  place  on  which  thev  are  found  is  the 
eaj*lest  mode  of  closinp  the  banrain,  a5  the  ''  purch.t-se  by  ker- 
chief "  seems  not  to  have  been  in  voeue  in  dealing  with  chatt^'ls. 

The  Talnnidic  passage  as  to  the  re<)uisites  for  changing  title 
In  a  ship  (H.  B.  7tJa  ct  se'j.)  is  rather  confused  ;  and  the  com- 
mentat^irs  are  not  agreed  either  as  to  its  true  meaning  or  as  to 
which  of  the  disputants  is  right  and  should  be  followed.  It 
seems  clear  (hat  when  the  ship  is  in  deep  water,  in  the  open  sea. 
delivery  is  sufllt-ient :  l)Ut  It  is  not  clear  what  degree  of  removal 
is  required  when  it  is  In  a  narrow,  half-private  inlet  comparable 
to  a  sidewalk,  or  when  It  is  drawn  up  on  land. 

Goods  may  be  sold  or  given  away  as  an  incident  to 
land.  The  Talmud  (Kid.  26A)  mentions  a  case  that 
Imppencdin.Ierusalem  wherea wealthy  person  wished 
to  give  to  a  fi'iend  goods  of  great  value  in  ditferent 
parts  of  the  country.  I'pon  the  advice  of  competent 
lawyers  that  there  was  no  other  way  to  bring  about 
his  purpose,  he  went  with  his  fiiend  to  a  lot  which 
he  owned  beyond  the  walls,  and.  announcing  bis 
intent  to  give  him  that  lot  and  the  goods  named, 
put  him  in  occupaticni  of  the  lot,  which  thus  in- 
cluded the  goods.  A  written  deed  tor  the  lot  and  the 
goods  woidd  ]U'obably  have  been  just  as  effective. 
As  movables  are  not  acquired  by  payment  of  the 
price  in  nioney,  a  (|uestion  arose  over  the  exchange 
of  two  kinds  of  money,  and  it  was  held  that  the  more 

cun-ent  among  them  is  to  lie  treated  as 
Exchange  money,  the  other  as  a  commodity  :  the 
of  Coins,      delivery  of  the  latter  therefore  binds 

the  bargain,  not  the  delivery  of  the 
former.  The  less  current  "buys"  the  more  cuiTent. 
Tlius  "  gold  buys  silver ;  copper  buys  silver ;  bad  (i.e. , 
worn  or  uncurrent)  pieces  buy  good  pieces;  bath- 


checks  buy  coins";  tint  inversely,  the  bargain  can  not 
be  clinched  (.Mishnah  15.  M.  iv.l). 

The  (iemara  (44<ii  on  this  siitlon  n'ters  to  an  older  opinion— 
evidently  in<-onsistent  with  the  Mosaic  law -that,  as  lH'twe<*n 
gold  and  sliver  coins,  the  former  are  to  be  c*insidenfd  money, 
and  the  latter  "  fruits,"  i.i\,  commodities.  But  gold  or  silver 
bar^i  are  commodities  for  all  puriKises. 

■With  certain  exceptions  which  nece.s.sity  iias  on- 
grafted  on  the  rule,  things  not  yet  in  existence,  or 
which  do  not  yet  belong  to  the  person  attemiiting 
the  sjile.  iiuiy  not  be  sohl  (.see  AccKrr.vNCK).  Things 
of  nndetiiu'd  i|Uantity.  not  yet  weighed  or  measured, 
may  be  sold,  such  as  a  field  of  growing  wh<'at,  a  stack 
of  wine  jars,  etc.,  subject,  however,  to  recourse  for 
overreaciiing  (,see  ()vkuuk.\ching);  for  the  law  does 
not  allow  chancing  bargains.  But  whin  the  nature 
of  the  objects  is  unknown  to  either  of  the  parties, 
e.ff.,  "I  sell  to  you  whatever  this  house  contains," 
the  sale  is  void;  though  the  goods  may  have  been 
formally  "moved"  to  satisfy  the  renuirements  of 
meshikah. 

Although  a  trade  between  buyer  and  seller  could 
not  be  enforced  after  the  money  had  been  iiaid  but 
the  goods  not  been  delivered  to,  or  re- 
Sanctity  of  moved  by,  the  buyer,  it  was  deemed 
Contracts,  binding  in  the  forum  of  conscience,  as 
the  .Mishnah  says  (li.  M.  iv.  2);  "He 
who  collected  Hisdemaiids  from  the  age  of  the  Flood 
and  the  age  of  the  I)is])ersion,  will  hereafter  collect 
His  demand  from  the  man  w  ho  does  not  stand  by 
his  word."  l']iipna  pi-eee<lent  given  in  the  Talmud, 
the  custom  grew  up  that  in  such  cases,  the  party 
taking  advantage  of  the  rule  of  law,  by  asking  the 
return  of  the  piice,  or  by  refusing  to  deliver  the 
goods  and  tendering  back  the  price,  would  be  sum- 
moned before  the  judges,  ae.d  be  .solemnly  informed 
by  them  in  the  above  words:  "He  who  collected." 
etc.  (to  which  is  added.  I?.  M.  l.M./;  "and  from  the 
men  of  Sodom  and  (iomorrah  and  fi'om  the  Egyp- 
tians who  were  drowned  in  the  sea").  According 
to  the  better  ojiinion  this  was  an  imprecation,  the 
public  warning  heing  evidently  meant  as  a  punish- 
ment, and  in  the  hope  that  the  fear  thereof  would 
induce  men  to  caiTV  out  their  contracts  of  .sale, 
though  a  rise  or  fall  in  the  price  of  the  commodity 
(such  as  salt  or  wine)  might  cau.se  loss (B.  M.  48i). 

The  old  .Mosaic  law.  like  the   early  Roman   and 

early  common  law.   did  not  recognize    tla^    .sjde   or 

transfer  of  a  claim   to  a  third   jier- 

Transfer  of  son.     But  the  Scribes,  like  the  Bonian 

Claims.  and  English  jurists,  devised  ways  and 
means  of  overcoming  this  defect  and 
of  treating  claims  as  subjectsof  gift  or  sale  ((lit.  13& 
et  .w/.).  An  old  Halakali  establishes  the  validity  of 
the  transfer  in  one  particular  case  known  as  the 
"meeting  of  three."  This  occurs  when  the  cred- 
itor, the  debtor,  and  the  proposed  assignee  are  all 
together:  a  transfer  made  even  by  word  of  month 
is  then  binding.  This  rule  is  stated  as  if  it  were 
arbitrary  and  rested  on  traflition  ahme;  but  it  is 
thoroughly  logical.  For  if  the  debtor  is  present  and 
assents,  there  is.  in  fact,  a  new  agreement  on  his 
part  to  jiay  his  debt  to  the  a.ssignee;  whili'  the  old 
creditor  releases  him.  and  the  new  promise  is  based 
on  this  release.  But  when  the  three  do  not  meet,  a 
delivery  of  the  l)ond  or  written  obligation  (xhtlnr) 
for  the  debt  is  instiflicient  to  change  the  title;  for 
the  bond  is  not  the  debt,  it  is  oidy  evidence  thereof. 
The  creditor,  besides  delivering  the  bond,  should 
give  to  the  assignee  a  written  order  on  the  debtor; 
and  thus  the  transfer  is  said  to  be  made  by  "de- 
livery and  writing"  (B.  B.  7.5i,  77rt). 

But  as  the  Mosaic  law  knows  nothing  of  the  sale  of  rlalms, 
the  old  creditor  and  his  heirs  would  still  have  the  power  to  "  for- 


397 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alienation 
Aliens 


give"  [cancel]  the  debt;  and  the  dehUir  might  claim  the  benefit 
of  such  a  release.  Iiecaiis**  hf  wiw  "  Nxind  "  onlv  to  the  orlclnal. 
not  to  the  new,  rreilltor.  Ilenrc,  some  of  the  later  nilihls  siiif- 
tested  that  n  clause  he  lnsen«Ml  in  even.'  Itond  to  the  etT«'<;t  that 
the  debtor  should  In*  iHuinil  not  only  to  the  creditor,  but  to  any 
one  deriylntr  rlKhls  (roiri  hlin  ;  thus  n-nderlni.'  it  a  note  |iaynlile 
to  "A.  I!.,  or  order."  \yhich  would  U-  in  ii  measure  neirotiable. 
(Note  of  Itabad  ou  Malmonldes,  "  Ullliot  Meklrah."  vl.  12.) 

Another  \viiy  nf  (lis|)osin<r  of  claims  by  sale  or 
^ift  yyiis  fiiuiiil  in  tlii'  iiiaxiiii  iihove  L'iveii.  tliat 
things  of  vuhic  can  he  iimdc  to  pass  with  land  or 
slaves.  IIcucc  a  (lebl.  no  matter  how  large,  secured 
by  a  bond  or  an  open  account.  niii;lit  Ijc  made  an 
incident  to  a  plot  of  land,  no  matter  how  small ;  and 
if  the  i)roi)cr  steps  were  taken  to  pa.ss  title  in  the  lot 
(for  instance,  by  occupation),  the  title  to  the  debt 
%voiild  jiass  also.  Iliomrh  neither  the  debt  nor  the 
deed  cvideiicitii:  it.  was  in  anv  way  coimccled  with 
the  laml  (B.  15.  77/, i. 

The  "power  above."  \vliicli  meant  the  representa- 
tives of  the  community  of  Jenisjileni.  whenever  biiy- 

inj;  on  behalf  of  the  Sanctuary,  cotild 

Acquisi-      purchase  both  land  and  chattels  with- 

tion  by  the  out   taking  possession,   either  by  the 

Sanctuary    payment  of  tlie  price  or  even  by  word 

(Heljidesh).    of  Mioulh.     "  '  This  o.\  isa  burnt -olTer- 

ing.'  'This  house  is  consecraled.'  are 
effective  words,  ihough  the  objects  be  at  the  end  of 
the  world  "  (Mishnah  Kid.  i.  (i.  Gem.  'iX/i  et  seg.). 

Orphans  under  guardianship  are,  as  to  their  inher- 
ited goods,  to  some  extent  governed  by  the  same 
rules  as  the  Sanctuary,  and  even  have  certain  Jirivi- 
leges,  not  discussed   liy  the  Talmud  as  belonging  to 

the  Sanctuary.     If,  after  the  orphans 

Privileges     have  sold   "fruits"   but  have  not  yet 

of  received  the  money,  the  value  of  the 

Orphans,      "fruits"    rises,  the   orphans   may  set 

the  sale  asitle;  for  their  goods  can  be 
acquired  by  ]>ayment  only.  Should  the  goods  fall 
iti  price,  the  buyer  who  ac(|uired  them  in  the  usual 
way  must  keep  them.  If  the  orphans  have  received 
their  money,  and  the  "fruits"  liave  risen  in  price  be- 
fore removal,  the  sellers  may  reconsider,  like  adults. 
Should  the  price  of  the  "  fruits  "  fall,  then  tlie  buyers 
may  withdraw,  but  remain  under  the  imprecation 
mentioned  aliove.  "  He  who  collected."  etc.  Again, 
w  hen  the  orphans  have  bought  commoditiesand  taken 
pos.session.  but  have  not  yet  jiaid  the  money,  and  the 
commodities  rise  in  valiK'.  the  orphans  are  no  worse 
olT  than  others  tind  m.-iy  insist  on  their  contract. 
On  the  other  hand,  should  the  commiHlitiis  become 
cheaper,  the  orphans  may  not  wilhdraw;  for  under 
such  circumslaiici'S  no  one  would  sell  commodities  to 
them  on  credit.  Lastly,  if  the  orphans  have  paiil  the 
prici',  but  have  not  taken  ])ossession,  they  may  with- 
draw like  others,  in  case  of  a  fall  in  price.  I5ut  if  the 
connnoditic'S  liavi'  risen  the  seller  may  retire,  and  silf  ■ 
fertiK!  usual  imprecalion  :  for.  shouhl  the  rule  be  li.\ed 
that  the  orphans  gain  title  by  paying  the  price,  the 
.sellir  might  pnli  nd  Ihal  Ihegooilsliad  since  been  lost 
by  fire  or  been  stolen  by  robbers  while  in  his  pos.se»- 
sion  (Maimotiides,  "  llilkol  Mekinih,"  i.v.  3-(i). 

A  (|Uestion  of  priority  may  arise,  when  the  same 
land  has  been  sold,  or  disposed  of  by  donation,  to 
two  or  more  parties.  Among  the  early  Amoraim 
there  arose  a  dis|)ute  whether  the  parties  shoulil 
divide  or  the  judge  should  use  his  discretion  (nhinlii 
(It  il<  1 1/1/4 1  III)  to  decide  till'  priority  of  the  claimants: 
the  lattir  opinion   prevaileil.  so  that  only  in  theab 

seiiee  of  such  evidenci'  will  the  luirties 
ftuestion  of  be  calleil   upon    to    dividiv      Tlie   de 
Priority,      cision  will  not  be  delermiiied  .so  much 

by  the  evidence  of  the  w it ne.s.ses  whose 
attestation  forms  the  seal  of  the  deed,  as  by  that  of 
the  witnesses   to  its  tleliverv,  if  such   tiierebe;  for 


deeds  take  effect  not  from  the  time  of  attestation, 
but  from  the  time  of  delivery.  Where  the  custom  of 
marking  the  hour  of  delivery  upon  the  deed  obtains, 
a  ileed  bearing  the  hour  will  i>revail  over  the  deed 
of  the  siime  day  without  the  hour;  and  a  deed  bear- 
ing the  day  and  month  will  prevail  over  the  deed 
bearing  the  month  only  (Kit.  i)-4((  ft  neq.).  Accord- 
ing to  the  standard  codes,  a  deed  of  gift  will  be  re- 
jected when  in  contlii  t  with  a  siibsei|Uent  .sale  of 
land,  unless  't  has  been  made  ]iublic.  so  as  to  warn 
all  other  |)ersons  against  purchasing  the  subject  of 
the  gift.  A  deed  of  gift  is  under  suspicion  of  fniud 
unless  it  contains  words  of  request  to  the  attesting 
witnes.ses  to  publish  the  gift  widely:  and  even  as 
between  two  deeds  of  gift  the  second  should  be  pre- 
ferred when  it  contains  such  words  and  is  made 
public,  while  the  tirst  is  kept  si-cret  or  does  not  con- 
tain a  request  for  publicity  (Maiinonides.  "llilkol 
Zekiyah  u  .Mattanah,  '  chap!  v.  i. 

The    law  of  conditional  sales  or   gifts   is  rather 

obscurely  stated  in  the  Mishnah  (IJ.  M.  vii.  11),  and 

the  Geniara  upon  it  (94n)  is  too  scanty  to  elucidate 

it,     Rashi   {ml  hrum)  thinks  that  an 

Conditional  impossible   condition    is   to   be  di.sre- 

Sales         garded.  even  if  named  as  preceding  the 

or  Gifts,     act.    .Maimonides  ("  Hilkol  .Mekindi." 
chap.  .\i.)  derives   from  the  Jlishnah 
the  following  rules; 

When  one  grants  either  land  or  goods,  and  condi- 
tions arc'  set  up  by  either  the  grantor  or  grantee 
which  are  possible  of  fultilment.  then  if  the  condi- 
tions are  fullilled.  the  object  |ias,ses;  otherwise  it 
does  not  (//;.  .\i.  1).  This  holds,  however,  only 
when  the  gnuit  is  made  in  the  prescribed  wjiy  (deed 
of  land,  moving  of  goods,  etc.).  and  the  grantee  lia.s 
to  ])erform  the  condition  thereafter:  but  if  the  title 
is  not  to  pass  at  once,  and  it  is  agreed  that  it  shall 
pas.s  when  the  condition  is  performed,  it  will  not 
pass  even  on  performance;  for  there  is  an  "insincere 
promise"  (Asm.\kt.k).  and  the  title  can  not  pass,  as 
it  was  not  intended  that  it  should  (ili.  xi.  2).  For 
instance.  A  has  sold  or  given  his  liouse  to  B,  on  con- 
dition that  li  shall,  ou  a  named  day.  go  with  him  to 
,Ierusiilem ;  and  1!  has  occupied  the  liouse:  then,  if 
B  goes  on  the  tlate  siiecilied.  the  house  is  his.  But 
if  A  tells  B.  "If  you  go  to  .Jerusjilem.  I  will  givi- 
you  the  house,  or  si'll  it  to  you  for  so  and  so  much." 
and  B  goes  and  thereafter  occupies  the  house.  Ilie 
sale  or  gift  does  not  take  elTect  (iV<.  .\i.  'A).  Hence 
where  earnest -money  is  given  to  bind  a  bargain, 
with  the  understaiiiling  that  the  giver  shall  forfeit 
it  if  he  withdniw  from  the  bargain,  but  the  reci-iver 
shidl  return  it  doubly  if  he  withdraw,  only  the  former 
part  of  the  agreement  can  be  carried  out.  and  not  the 
latter(iV).  .xi.  4).  Though  the  conditional  agrii'inent 
for  a  tninsfer  in  the  future  be  made  Iwfore  witni'S.st-s 
or  by  iIiimI  in  writing,  itcan  not  l«' carried  intoelTeet 
((■/'.  xi.  0). 

Illlil.loiiliArilV  :  The  subject  of  this  article  In  dlwu.iaml  by  Mal- 
luonldes  In  tlilkut  Vrliirith  and  Hilknl  ZrAi'i/ii/i ;  by  ilio 
author  and  the  iinn<>tat<>nt  >>f  the  If'vhrti  Mi.ttnnt{,  ii  IsU- 
2l;),  2-11  2411.  II.  It.  KlLs.s.1.  MifUiKlrKl :  /»il«  .V<w<li>r/i-/^l/>. 
/iin(j«-;ii  lirll-ltrrhl.  1.S'.2  l.s.>»  ;  Idem.  M*!!  .VWi(«i/:  /UK 
MiMltnh  ■  UilhhiiiiMhr  <lrrichlfr,rl,it\nu.  1S.V.  Hl.nh. 
Ikin Min<iiijfch-TnlniuiUj<hf  Hrhrrcht,  HiidHiM'nt.  IsTIt;  Idem, 
Ihii*  Mti*niwh-Ttihmulittchf  Ucriitztfchl^  Hudaiie^t,  1SV7. 

I..   N.  D. 

ALIENS  ;  There  are  wveml  designations  for 
Aliens  ill  the  Old  Testament.  Of  tlie.si-,  'it  and  n33 
mean  specillcally  "foreign."  n  person  oiit.side  the 
circle  of  the  nation  (Isa,  i.  7;  Judges,  xlx.  12)  or 
of  the  <'la.ss  or  family  (Peiit.  xxv.  .'>.  husband's 
family:  Ex.  xxix.  H:l.  Aaron's  fnniily ;  Prov.  ii.  10. 
a  man's   family),  and   so  come   to  signify  simply 


Aliens 
Alimony 


THE  .1  i:\VISlI   KNCYCLOPEDIA 


398 


another  person"  (Prov.  v.  10).  In  Prov.  v.  3  "a 
stnuif^e  woman"  =  ■■adulteress,"  a  woman,  not  a 
man's  wife,  with  whom  he  ha.s  illicit  rehitions.  The 
most  important  term  is  ti,  ■■resident  alien,"  a  for- 
eij^iier  who  has  eome  to  dwell  permanently  anions 
people  with  whom  he,  to  a  certain  e.\l<nt,  idenlilics 
himself.  Nearly  eiinivjdent  to  //</■  is  atlD.  "so- 
journer," a  i-.ire  word  in  the  Old  Testament,  ap- 
parently iniplyini;  a  less  settled  residence  than 
ger(t)ut compare (ien,  .\xiii.  4;  Lev.  x.w.  2:i).  Jlost 
of  tlie  occurrences  are  in  Lev.  x.xii.  2.5.  In  I  Kin-rs, 
xvii,  1  we  should  probably  read  with  Septuajrinl 
mit-tiMuih.  To  these  two  terms  may  be  added 
TaC,  "hired  man,"  a  person  who,  though  he  may 
be  a  native  (Deut,  x.\iv.  14).  is  often  contrasted 
with  the  native  (Dent.  xv.  IS)  and  associated  with 
the  tdihiib  (Ex.  xii.  45).  Three  clas.ses  of  Aliens 
may  be  recognized:  (1)  Canaanites  dwellinir  in  Is 
raeiitish  communities;  (2)  persons  from  other  lands 
(fugitives,  etc.)  seekinir  permanent  abode  in  Israel; 
(3)  foreijriiers  dwelling  there  t<'miiorarily.  No  sharp 
distinction  is  made  in  the  Old  Testament  between 
the  first  and  second  cla.sses. 

As  to  the  position  of  Aliens  in  the  pre-Cansmnite 
period,  we  have  no  knowledge.     After  the  .settlement 

in  Caniwn,  up  to  the  time  of  Solomon 

Canaanites    the  relations  Ijetween  the  Israelites  and 

and  their  neighbors  seem  to  have  been  free 

Israelites,    and   unrestricted.     The   clans    dwelt 

side  by  side ;  there  was  no  central  gov- 
ernment; intermarriages  were  common  (Samson, 
Uriah,  etc.);  it  was  generally  accepti<l  that  a  man 
going  to  live  in  a  community  .should  adojit  its  re- 
ligion(I  Sam.  xxvi.  lit).  This  state  of  things  lasted 
until  the  establishment  of  Israel's  iiolilieal  suprem- 
acy and  the  birth  of  a  distinct  national  feeling. 
Gradually  the  rights  of  citizenshii)  were  in  part  for- 
mally restrictecl  to  natives.  Some  of  the  foreign 
tribes  were  reduced  to  slavery  (Josh.  ix.  27:  I  Kings, 
ix.  20;  com|iare  I  Chroii.  xxii.  2):  and  resident  for- 
eigners occupied  an  inferior  ]iosition. 

Thougli  Aliens  did  not  enjoy  full  civil  rights,  and 
were  not  citizens  in  their  own  right,  their  interests 

were  not  neglected.     Living,  as  they 

Friendly     did,  in  close  social  relations  with  the 

Laws.         natives,   they  were  iirotecfa'd  by  the 

broad  dictates  of  humanity.  'There 
seems  to  have  been  a  relation  similar  to  tliat  of  client- 
age (Lev.  xxii.  10,  XXV.  40).  Gradually  this  kindly 
sentiment  was  formulated  in  laws.  No  ]iropliet  be- 
fore Jeremiah  speaks  of  duties  to  Aliens.  Before 
his  time  i)ublic  ojiinion  had  apparently  not  been  di- 
rected to  this  point:  it  was  a  new  social  (luestion. 
The  alien,  a.s  well  as  indigent  persons  (Levites,  wid- 
ows, orphans),  was  to  have  a  share  in  the  third  year's 
tithes  (Deut.  xiv.  29,  xxvi.  Vi,  18)  and  in  the  offer 
Ing  of  first-fruits  (Deut.  xxvi.  11);  he  h.id  the  right 
to  glean  (Deut.  xxiv.  10-21 ;  Lev.  xix.  ID.  xxiii.  23); 
he  miglit  tlee  from  the  avenger  of  blood  to  the  city  of 
refuge(Josli.  xx.  i),  Num.  xxx  v.  1.")) ;  and  strict  justice 
was  to  be  meted  out  to  him  (Ex.  xxii.  20  [A.'V.  21]  ; 
Deut.  xxix.  10  [A.V.  ll).  xxvii.  19;  Jer.  vii.  6.  xxii. 
3;  Ezek.  xxii.  7).  The  ordinary  commercial  regula- 
tions applied  to  him:  he  might  become  poor  and  In- 
sold  as  a  slave  (Lev.  xxv.  4."i),  or  grow  rich  and  ow  n 
slaves,  even  Isnielitish  slaves  (Lev.  xxv.  47);  but 
should  he  be  sokl  he  remained  a  slave  in  jierpetnity. 
whereas  the  Israelite  slave  was  freed  at  the  jubilee. 
It  was  lawful  to  lend  money  at  interest  to  a  for- 
eigner (Deut.  xxiii.  21  [A.V.  ■20])  and  toexactof  him 
the  payment  of  a  debt  (Deut.  xv.  3):  but  it  is  not 
clear  whether  or  not  the  rule  applied  to  a  ger.  As 
to  the  right  of  the  alien  to  own  land,  we  have  little 
information.     In  early  times,  probably,  the  right  ex- 


isted; see  II  Sam,  vi.  10  (Ohed  edoin).  xi.  8  (Uriah), 

xxiv.  24  (Anuinah).     It  is  distinctl v  aliirmeil  bv  Eze- 

kiel  (Ezek.  xlvii.   2-2,  23);  whether  it 

Civil  had  been    modilie<l  before  his  time,  or 

Rights.  was  modilied  after  his  time,  it  is 
hardly  i)ossilile  to  say.  The  tendency 
was  to  an  extension  of  the  rights  of  Aliens;  see  es- 
pecially the  broad  tone  of  Num.  ix.  14,  xv.  l."i,  xxx  v. 
1.x  The  general  rule  of  Lev.  xxv.,  by  which  land 
reverted  to  the  Israelite  owner  at  the  jubilee,  is  not 
incompatible  with  ownership  of  land  by  residi-nt 
Aliens.  On  the  whole,  it  seems  likely  that  the  right 
had  never  been  denied  them  by  law. 

In  the  religious  status  of  the  ger  we  find  a  simi- 
lar movement  toward  freedom  and  ec|uality.     At  first 
he  was  not  subject  tn  the  stricter  ritual 
Religious     rules:  he  might  eat  of  food  from  ani- 

Rights.  mals  that  liad  died  a  natunil  death 
(Deut.  xiv.  21),  or  s<ich  a  carcass 
might  be  sold  to  a  foreigner  (Deut.  xiv.  21);  but 
this  permission  was  afterward  rescinded  (Lev.  xvii. 
1.5).  lie  was  required  to  observe  the  national  holi- 
days. Sabbath  (Ex.  xxiii.  12,  xx.  10),  the  feasts  of 
Weeks  and  of  Boollis  (Deut.  xvi.  11,  14),  though 
this  was  |ierhaps  ;i  civil  and  social  regulation,  the.se 
being  probably  old  Caiiaanitish  festivals.  It  is  prob- 
able also  that  from  the  beginning  he  observed  the 
other  agrieidtural  festival,  Mazzot:  though  such 
observance  is  not  commanded  in  Deuteronomy,  it  is 
enjoined  in  Ex.  xii.  19.  The  case  is  ditTerent  with 
the  nomadic  f<stival,  Pesiih.  This  was  at  first  not 
considered  to  be  an  affair  of  the  .ger;  but  after  the 
Exile,  when  the  community  became  religiously  a 
unit,  he  was  permitted  to  "take  part  in  it  (Num. 
ix.  14). 

Finallv,  as  it  would  seem,  Ihe  rite  of  circumcision 
was  made  acon<lition  of  such  ]>articipation  (Ex.  xii. 
4S);  ])robal)ly  at  this  time  gerim  were  as  a  rule 
circumcised.  Hut  participation  was  forbidden  to 
the  foreigner  (nohri),  the  sojourner  itoahnh),  and  the 
hireling  (sukir)  (Ex.  xii.  43,  4.5).  In  other  jioints 
equality  came  to  be  the  rule;  as  to  eating  blood 
(Lev.  .xvii.  10),  the  cidl  of  Jlelek  (.Moloch)  (Lev.  xx. 
2),  blasphemy  (Lev.  xxiv.  10),  sins  of  inadvertence 
(Num.  XV.  29),  offerings  (Lev.  xvii.  8,  xix.  10,  xxii. 
18;  Num.  XV.  14-16),  the  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi. 
29).  The  general  statement  of  equality  is  made  in 
Lev.  xviii.  ^26. 

The  broadest  conception  of  God's  relation  to  the 
foreigner  is  given  in  Snlomon's  jirayer  in  1  Kings, 
viii.  41,  43:  the  prayer  of  the  foreigner  will  be  heard. 
The  perfect  ethical  iirinciplo  is  announced  in  Dent. 
x.  19;  Lev.  xix.  34:  the  resident  alien  is  to  be  loved 
as  oneself.  Israel  is  to  remember  that  it  w  as  once  an 
alien  in  f^gypt. 

The  result  in  Ihe  Old  Testament  is  the  substantial 
fusion  of  .Miens  with  the  nation.  Yet  from  I's.  cxlvi. 
9  it  may  tie  inferred  that  Aliens  long  continued  to 
form  a  separate  cla.ss;  in  some  circles  (Isji.  hi.  0)  the 
admission  of  foreigners  to  national  fellowship  was  ad- 
vocated.   For  postcxilic  conditions  .see  Pkoselytes; 

BiBLiofiRAPilY:  Miflinelis,  Dnx  yfnmi.vhe  lirrlit.  ITTrt;  Worlfs 
on  llelirew  .\rrhnjlom':  Sjuilsrhfltz.  Kwald.  Brn/AniiiT,  and  No- 
wack  :  W.  linliertsoh  Smith,  HeUiii'in  nf  thr  Snnilni.  pp. 
1'ict  Wf/.  For  Araliirpanillels  :  idfni.  Kinshiji  and  Marritmr^ 
:ss.i.  pp.  42  ct .««;.:  liiihl,  DU  Si«U:hn  VrrUillliiiysr  d.  Israil- 
ilni.  pp.  47,  af;  BiTtholi't.  Iih  sl,Uiinii<l  hrnrlilrii  uiid 
dcrjiulen  zu  den  Frcinddi,  ISSKi;  HastiiiRs,  Ltwt.  liihlc, 
s.v.  Foreifyncrs;  Cheyne,  Ency.  Bibl.  ».\.Alie)iis. 

T. 

ALIMONY  :  '•  The  allowance  made  to  a  woman 
by  an  order  of  court,  from  her  huslmnd's  estate  or 
income,  for  her  maintenance  after  her  divorce  or 
legal  separation  from  him,  or  during  a  suit  therefor" 
("Standard  Dictionarv  ").     This  is  its  definiti<ni  in 


1 


399 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aliens 
Alimony 


modem  law.  Strictly  speaking,  under  Jewish  law 
tile  divorced  woniiiii  had  no  Alimony. 

Tlie  Jewish  law,  however,  provided  for  the  di- 
vorced woman  by  the  niarriaKt-'  contnut  or  maniajre 
settlement,  the  substantial  results  of  which  were  the 
same  as  those  secured  in  modern  times  by  an  order 
of  court.  The  marriage  c-ontract  or  setth'ment 
(IvF.Ttiii.Mi)  must  be  in  writins.  15y  the  ketubah. 
which  a  husbanil  gives  to  his  wife,  a  cerUiin  sum  of 
money  is  .secured  to  her  by  her  husband,  to  be  Jiaid 
out  of  his  estate  upon  her  widowhood  or  divorce. 
The  sum  thus  secured  to  the  wife  is  a  lien  on  his 
cstiite,  i)rior  to  all  other  debts;  and  it  may  be  col- 
lected out  of  property  wliich  is  no  longer  in  liis  pos- 
session, even  though  it  has  been  transferred  to  a 
third  person  (Ket.  ><ib)  shoulil  he  liave  no  estate  in 
pos.sessionsutliciently  large  to  ]>ay  it.  ('onse(|uenlly. 
as  soon  as  a  woman  was  divorceil  she  could  make 
demand  for  the  payment  of  the  amount  guanint^'ed 
her  by  the  ketubah :  and  the  judges  that  i)resided  in 
the  divorce  |)roceedings  would  enforce  its  payment. 

Originally,  the  amount  thus  secured  to  the  wife 
was  paid  to  her  father;  and  late  in  Talmudic  times 
tliis  was  still  the  law  in  cases  where  the  wife  was  a 
minor  or  was  divorced  before  the  marriage  had  been 
consummated.  Eventually,  however,  the  money 
■was  settled  on  the  wife:  remaining  undivided  in  th<- 
estate  of  the  husband,  and  biing  made  payable  to 
Iter  on  lier  divorce  or  widowhood. 

As  the  heirs  of  the  husband  often  defrauded  the 
widow  of  her  rights,  it  was  ordained  that  the  amount 
of  the  marriage  settlement  should  be 
Ketubah,  deposite<l  with  the  father  of  the  bride, 
or  Marriage  thus  making  it  secure  against  the  ad- 
Settlement,  verse  claim  of  her  hustiand's  heirs;  but 
as  it  was  till'  original  ]iiirposcof  the 
marriage  seltlement  to  act  as  a  check  upon  the  hus- 
band so  that  "  it  shall  not  be  easy  in  his  eyes  to  di- 
vorce her."  the  deposit  of  the  money  with  the  father 
of  the  bride  destroyed  the  elTect  intended  ;  for,  the 
husliand  having  no  further  jiayment  to  make,  there 
were  no  tinancial  considenitions  to  hinder  him  from 
"giving"  ilivorce  whenever  he  pleased. 

It  was  thereupon  provided  by  law  that  the  amount 
of  the  marriage  sellleiiKnt  should  be  invested  in 
articles  of  value,  and  that  these  should  remain  in 
pos.se.ssion  of  the  liusband.  This  regulation,  how- 
ever, was  found  to  give  no  greater  satisfaction  than 
the  former  one;  for  it  was  very  easy  for  the  hus- 
band to  give  the  articles  of  value  to  liis  wife  and  to 
tell  her  to  go. 

The  tinal  remedy  of  the  ketubah  was  provided  liy 
Simon  lien  Shelah.  which  prescrilxMl  that  the  amoimt 
of  the  marriage  seltlement  shoulil  remain  in  the 
possession  of  the  husband  and  not  be  .separated  from 
his  estate;  but  that  it  should  be  secured  to  the  wife 
by  a  writing  whereby  all  of  his  estate  was  charged 
with  its  payment  (Kel.  82/)). 

The  wife's  right  under  the  ketubah  was  absolutely 
guaranteed  to  her  by  the  law  ;  and  she  was  not  per- 
mitted, even  voluntarily,  to  releas<-  her  husband 
from  his  obligatir>n  to  her  ( Maimonides.  "Yad  ha- 
Ha/.iikuh.  Ililkol  Ishiil."  \.  lb).  In  case  the  husband 
refuseil  his  wife  herconjugal  rights,  he  was  ]iunished 
by  a  weekly  addition  to  the  ketubah,  until  he  yielded. 
In  such  cttses,  the  court,  by  its  decree,  increased  the 
amount  due  to  the  wife  under  the  ketubah  (Mishnah 
Ket.  v.  7).  and  such  a  decree  was  iimctically  the  same 
as  tiio  decree  of  a  modern  court  of  law  for  Alimony. 
Thcwife's  right  to  nceive  payment  of  thcamount  to 
which  she  was  entitled  under  the  ketubah  depended 
on  her  good  conduct.  The  following  women  were 
not  entitled  to  its  payment :  An  adulteress  (Mishnah 
Sotoli,  iv.  5) ;  a  maiden  (l>etiil(ili)-wlio  had  iK'en  guilty 


of  antenuptial  incontinence  (.Mishnah  Ket.  i.  ir.  a 
woman  who  practised  fraud  upon  her  husband  lead- 
ing to  her  marriage  (Mishnah  Kid.  ii.  •").  Ket.  vii.  7i; 
one  who  olfended  against  .some  ethical 
WomenNot  or  religious  law  or  cu.stom.  involving 

Entitled  moral  turpitude  (.Mishnah  Ket.  vii.  r>); 
toAliraouy.  the  woman  who.  having  been  married 
during  her  minority,  refused,  upon  at- 
taining her  majority,  to  continue  to  live  with  her 
husband  (Mishnah  Ket.  xi.  (!);  a  woman  married  to 
her  husband  in  disregard  of  the  prohibited  degrees  of 
consanguinity  (ib.);  a  woman  who  deserted  her  hus- 
band (Ket.  \h)li),  or  who  refused  to  cohabit  with  him 
(Ket.  (y.i/>  et  s, I/.). 

Although  the  husband  was  not  legi'lly  obliged  to 
pay  his  wife  more  than  the  amount  speiiticd  in  the 
ketubah  or  in  the  decree  of  the  court,  it  was  deemed 
commendable  in  him  to  support  her  if  she  was  in 
want  after  she  had  been  divorced. 

It  is  related  of  H.  Jose,  the  Galilean,  who  lived 
about  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  that  after 
his  divorced  wife  had  remarried  and  had  become  im- 
poverished, he  invited  her  and  her  husband  into  his 
liouse  and  supported  them,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  while  she  was  his  wife  she  had  made  his  life  miser- 
able. His  conduct  is  the  subject  of  rabbinical  lau- 
dation (Yer.  Ket.  xi.  :iih.  Gen.  K.  xvii.,  Lev.  I{. 
xxxiv.).  "Do  not  withdraw  from  thy  llesh."  said 
Isaiah  (Iviii.  7, 1/t't.).  "This."  .s;iid  K.  Jacob  b.  Aha. 
"means,  do  not  withdniw  help  from  thy  divorced 
wife"  (Yer.  Ket.  I.  c).  H.  Mosi's  Is,scrles  cites  this 
case  with  approval  (Shulhan  'Aruk.  Eben  ha-'Ezer, 
119,  8,  gloss),  and  adds  that  the  support  of  the  di- 
vorced wife  is  considered  a  better  deed  than  the  sup- 
port of  any  other  poor  person,  provided  t  hat  for  niond 
reasons  the  husband  has  no  direct  personal  dealings 
with  her,  but  sends  the  money  for  her  maintenance 
by  a  messenger.  See  al.so  DivoKCK  and  Kktih.^ii. 
Bibliography  :  Amrani,  JcirUh  Law  <>/  Dinirre,  rh.  x. 

D.  W.  A. 

The  following  is  a  document  of  a  legal  sale  of  the 
husband's  property,  during  his  absence,  for  the  sup- 
port of  his  wife,  called  Alimony  (pfO  JTlJX',  from 
the  collection  of  documents  by  Juduh  Qarzillai  of 
thi!  twelfth  century; 

"Wlierens,  tx-fore  us,  Itic  iindcrslffned  luilpps   [ilavyanlml, 

apiH'an'il  Mrs.  ....  daueliter  of  Mr.  .  .  .  ami  wife  of  Mr 

roDiplalnini;  of  lier  stniltenetl  eln-unistances  and  want,  pleail- 
ing:  'Kuow  ye,  Raltltls  tlial  my  linsliand.  Mr. 

Ancient       ....  is  aen>sslhe  sea  In  fon*li,'iilaiuLsaiid  has 

Writ  left  no  nilions  to  last  i •ven  for  llinv  iiioiilhs. 

of  Alimony,  I  have  no  means  to  support  luyst'lf  and  no  In- 
come fnim  uiv  tmniUwork.  I  am  now  In  son* 
iii-eil  of  means  to  sustain  life.  I  then-fon'  ix'lltlon  you. 
Kahilis,  lo  Imiuln'  n-irardluit  my  want  and  to  ilolde  ui>on  my 
alliiionv.'  .\iid  we,  the  JudRi-s,  eonslderlnif  her  ilalm  as  of 
rlirhl.  Iiavi'  iiistltuleil  a  search  for  her  husliand's  pniperlv.  hut 
found  none  Unit  loiild  U'  ills|»ised  vt  exeept  a  lerlalll  Held  (de- 
sitIIk-.!)  whieh  we  ordenil  to  Ih'  s<iIiI.  And  after  advertlslnir 
It  In  the  manner  pri's.Tilied  liy  the  ItaliliLs  wf  found  no  pur- 
elia-ser  wIllInK  to  olTer  as  iniiih  as  A.  Un  A.,  whew  hid  wius  the 
sum  of  .  .  .  illnarlm.  for  whlih  amount  we.  the  Jiidires.  saw  nt 
to  .s<'ll  II  to  the  said  i»rsoii.  and  onhnsl  hlin  to  |iiiy  out  of  tho 

siild  sum  an  alimony  iillowaiiee  to  the  wife  «.f  Mr namely, 

.  .  .  dliiarlui  |>iT  moiiih.  to  which  stipulation  thi'  said  A.  Wn  A. 
a(n"ei'<l.    Ami   In  lu-ntnlanre    with   the  nthhlnlral    nvulalltin, 

we,  the  JuilKi^s.  have  wrilieii  this  lekiil  disuiiieiit nifvlnir  the 

.sah'  of  the  said  Meld  for  tlie  supi«.rt   of  the   s:ild  wife;    that 

mlther  Ihesald  huslBind.  Mr noraiiy<Mie  elsi',  ffmi  now 

on  and  foirver,  shall  lia\e  the  leiksi  rlifht  i>rehilm  thensin.  And 
now  let  the  said  A.  I"n  A.  k'o  and  lake  |sis.»<-«iloll  of  the  said 
llehl  for  the  usi'  I'f  hlmsi'lf.  his  helm,  and  suii'essors.  And  he 
shall  have  thi'  rl(!hl  I"  ["•s.s'Tot  and  lo  s<ll,  to  li'uve  im  an  Inher- 
llanee  and  to  Isiiiuiith,  and  \"  i\"  with  It  ils  he  may  pleasi-,  tn>m 
this  day  on  and  fi>n'ver.  Ami  should  her  said  huslvtnd  nt  anjr 
tlineeh<M»s4-  t4i  siM*  the  sidd  pun-ha.s<'r.  either  In  a  Jewish  oriioii- 
JewLsh  eolirt  of  lusllee.  liLs  claims  shall  W  null  and  void,  llk<'  a 
valueless  hnikcn  ikiIsIicpI.  And  we  the  Judk'i'v  hiTidiy  admon- 
ish and  lm|ios>'  a  line  of  .  .  .  dlnarlm  on  the  said  husUind,  lo 
!«•  iialil  I'V  him  to  the  Mild  punluLMT.  who  luay  iw  li  n."  he 
pleawx,  should  he  ever  In-  auisl  In  a  licntlle  itiiirt  l>y  the  said 
bunlNinil  for  tlie  recovery  of  Uic  aald  Oi-ld.    Above  all,  he  uiust 


Alisch 
Allfabif 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


400 


let  tilt'  imipiTly  slay  In  iMTft**'!  |K>s.'«'ssi»in  of  Ihi'  pun-haser.  Anil 
as  a  4'onslitfnulnn  of  Uie  sali*  by  im  judtffs  for  the  alimony  of 
tbesaUl  wife,  it  shall  Ik'  thi'  duiv  of  hiT  salil  hiisbanil  and  his 
helrst  and  siici"»*S'iors  to  kri'p  hannk's;*.  to  h'IH'I.  and  n'niove 
from  the  said  A.  l»*n  A.  and  from  his  siuffssoi-s  alh-lalms  In  the 
world  arlslnir  on  the  sjiid  Meld  hy  reason  of  our  sale;  litii  ihi' 
same  shall  HMiialn  in  the  i>ossesslon  of  himself  and  his  siieees- 
soix  free  of  any  eost  to  them,  just  as  If  he  [the  husband]  hltii- 
self  had  sold  It.  This  ^iianinty  shall  n-maln  in  fon-e  like  a 
)niaranty  (riven  to  any  other  lepal  deeil  of  purrhase  or  to  any 
Judieial  \vrit  of  jilimon'y  in  favor  of  married  or  widowed  women 
by  the  custom  in  Israel,  fnim  this  date  on  and  forever. 

"  All  of  which  was  done  before  us  Jud»res  on  day  .  .  .  month 
.  .  .  year  ...  in  the  town  of  ...  ,  and  l>einK  enllKlitenol  by 
the  power  of  Heaven,  we  have  written  an<l  sltrmtl  this  judicial 
act  and  tlellvered  to  A.  ben  .\..  to  be  in  his  hand  and  in  the 
hands  of  his  successors  as  a  lev.'al  rijfht  iiint  pnMif." 

(Sij^ned  by  the  three  dayyanim. ) 

J.  D.  E. 

ALISCH,  ISAAC  BEN  MOSES.     See  Elles, 

Isaac    iii;x   .Miim> 

ALITYROS  (ALITURUS):  Aclor.  of  Jewisli 
birth,  at  lliicnurl  ni  Xi  ni.  Tlirougli  liim  Joscplnis 
became  acquainted  with  llie  emprt'ss  Poppiua — 
whose  special  favorite  the  actor  always  had  been — 
and  obtained  the  jiardon  for  those  priests  whoni 
Feli.\,  the  procurator  of  Jiidea.  had  sent  to  Home. 
In  the  novel  by  Sieiikiewicz,  "Quo  Vadis,"  Alityros 
instructs  Jsero  in  the  iirl  of  gesticulation,  and  ac- 
companies tlie  emperor  to  Greece. 

Bibliography:  Jospphus,  Life.  8  4;  Vogelsteln  and  RIeger, 
Getich.  il.  Jiiil.  ill  Horn,  i.  21,  i».  101. 

W.  M 

'ALIYAH  :  In  synagogal  services,  the  going  up, 
or  being  called  up,  to  the  reading-desk  (nlinniMr),  for 
the  reading  of  a  portion  of  the  Law.  According  to 
an  ancient  institution  of  the  synagogue  seven  men  are 
called  tip  in  succession  to  read  the  ,««/;•«  (the  weekly 
Pentateuch-lesson)  on  each  Sabbath  morning:  si.\ 
men,  for  the  reading  of  the  appointed  portion  on  the 
Day  of  Atonement ;  and  live,  on  the  three  chief  fes- 
tivals. In  addition  to  these,  there  is  the  iiiiiftir.  the 
one  called  uji  for  the  reading  of  iiconcUidingclmpter, 
who  in  addition  reads  llie  portion  from  the  I'ropliets, 
called  ■■  Haftarah."  On  new-moon  and  half  holidays, 
four  men,  and  on  Sabbath  afternoon,  on  -Monday  and 
Thursday  mornings,  on  Hanukkaliand  Puriin  morn- 
ings, anti  on  fast -days,  only  three  men  ari'  called  up  : 
the  portions  read  on  these  days  being  shorter.  The 
first  of  the  men  called  up  in  orthodo.v  synagogues 
should  be  a  Cohen  or  Aaronite.  the  second  a  Levite. 
the  third  and  further  members  of  t  lie  rota  are  ordinary 
Israelites,  the  one  hiudier  in  rank  always  preceding 
the  one  inferior,  with  the  except  ion  of  the  maftir,  who. 
though  last,  may  be  a  Cohen  or  a  Levite.  Men  are  as  a 
rule  called  up  who  have  during  the  week  had  especial 
occasion  for  joj-;  a  bridegroom  or  father  of  a  bride; 
and  the  father  of  a  new-born  child,  whose  mother 
for  the  first  time  appears  in  the  synagogue.  On 
mournful  occasions  also  men  are  called  u|i.  as  at  the 
anniversary  (Jnlirzeit)  of  a  parent's  deatli. 

Down  to  the  twelfth  century,  the  men  called  up 
were  themselves  expected  to  read  a  portion  aloud, 
those  unable  to  read  the  Law  being  considered  un- 
worthy of  the  honor.  The  first  concession  to  igno- 
rance was  made  in  the  case  of  an  illiterate  Cohen: 
when  there  was  no  other  present  to  be  called  up  as 
the  first,  Saadia  suggested  that  the  reader  should 
prompt  him,  in  order  to  enable  him  to  read  his  por- 
tion. (For  further  information  on  the  origin  and  ile 
velopment  of  the  reading  from  the  Law,  as  part  of 
the  service,  see  LiTCROY.y  In  the  twelfth  century  it 
had  become  the  established  custom  for  the  reader 
to  prompt  in  the  accentuation  and  cantillation  of  the 
words;  and  the  next  step  was  to  have  the  reader 
prompt  the  actual  words  to  those  unable  to  read  at 


all,  in  onler  to  spare  them  the  humiliation  of  never 
being  called  up  to  the  \a\\\.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  whole  sidra  was  read  alouil  by  the  reader, 
exception  being  made  only  with  the  Bah  Mizwaii, 
llie  youth  to  be  initialed  into  the  Law,  who  still  reads 
his  portion  himself  in  order  to  give  proof  of  his 
|)rofleiency. 

In  Reform  synagogues  the  rending  from  the  Law, 
which  is  of  len  on  the  shorter  scale  of  the  three  years' 
cycle,  is  done  exclusively  by  the  reader,  and  no  one 
is  called  up  to  read, 

BtBLlooRAPHV:  «((.  V.  .'JiVi. /(;  Meg.  111.  21:  Snferim.  x.  t.; 
Shulhan  *Anik.  Ornh  Hamitni.  pp.  13.>-i:W:  Maimonldes, 
i'od'fiii-Hnza/Ki/i.  section  7Vn'Hof.  S  12:  Abudnihim.  .Siil- 
(liir;  llauiburver,  K.  It.  T.  11.  s.v.  Viirlc/niimcii  iiiif  ilcr 
Tlwra.  For  the  sale  of  the  various  privileges  connected 
with  'AUyab  see  MizwoT.  x^ 

ALJAMA :  A  Spanish  term  of  Arabian  origin 
used  in  nld  olticial  documents  to  designate  the  .self- 
governing  communities  of  ]\Ioors  and  Jews  living 
under  Spanish  rule.  The  Jewish  communities  of 
Spain,  owing  to  their  social  isolation  and  to  the  re- 
ligious and  political  regulations  imposed  upon  them, 
had  always  formed  groups  apart  from  the  rest  of  the 
popidiilion.  The  authority  exercised  by  their  own 
ndiliis  and  the  .system  of  tax-collection  by  the  heads 
of  llie  congregations  for  the  administration  of  com- 
munal affairs,  placeil  them  almost  coinpletely  with- 
out the  jurisdiction  of  the  governmenl  of  the  coun- 
try: ami,  as  aresult,  they  soon  came  lobe  dealt  with 
by  the  officials  not  as  subjects  amenable  to  the  gen- 
eral law  of  the  land,  but  as  collective  bodies  with 
special  privileges  and  sjiecial  duties.  Thus,  theVisi- 
gothic  kings  imposed  a  tax  not  uponciuh  individtial 
Jew  or  upon  the  headsof  families,  but  upon  the  com- 
numity  as  a  whole,  allowing  the  communal  authori- 
ties to  fix  the  individual  rate  of  taxation.  But  both 
under  the  Visigoths  and  under  the  Moors  there  was 
neither  regularity  in  the  ti-ansactions  of  the  rabbis 
and  elders  nor  system  in  the  attiltide  of  the  govern- 
ment toward  the  Jewish  cimimunities.  With  the  re- 
establishment  of  Christian  rule,  however,  the  relation 
between  the  government  and  its  Jewish  subjects 
graduallv  became  a  well-detined  one.  In  \'i\9  and 
1284  in  "Toledo,  in  127.3  in  Barcelona,  in  1290  at 
Iluete.  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  during  those 
years  in  Portugal,  councils  were  held  of  Spanish  of- 
ficials and  Jewish  representatives  for  the  i)tirpose 
of  establishing  a  just  rate  of  taxation 

Separate     for  Jewish  communities,  and  of  devi- 

Jurisdic-  sing  adequate  means  for  tax-collection, 
tion.  This  first  official  recognition  by  the 
government  of  the  Jewish  communi- 
ties as  separate  bodies  led  to  a  still  further  change  in 
the  treatment  of  the  Jewish  congregations  and  in 
the  legislation,  both  local  and  national,  regarding 
them.  The  bishopsof  the  various  districts  a.ssumed 
imiuediate  authority  over  them.  and.  in  conjunction 
with  Jewish  representatives,  formed  rules  which 
were  henceforth  t(j  govern  the  communities.  The 
elections  of  rabbis  and  judges  were  to  be  held  at 
stated  intervals,  and  the  names  of  these  dignit^iries 
submitted  to  the  bishop  for  approval:  there  was  to 
be  a  "rabbi  of  the  court"  for  the  presentation  of 
communal  questions  before  the  proper  authorities; 
and  the  heads  of  the  congregation  were  made  an- 
swerable for  the  conduct  of  the  community.  In  all 
government  action,  whether  local  or  general,  the 
unit  considered  was  in  most  cases  the  community, 
not  the  individual  Jew. 

A  good  example  of  how  much  self-government 
was  granted  to  the  .Jewish  Aljamas  is  afforded  by 
the  "  resolution  of  the  meeting  "  or  teenna  (a  Hebrew 


401 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AUsch 
Alkabi? 


wiird    that,  like   SdnedriK,    has    been    incorporated 
into  the  Spanish  languafre)  arrived  at   by  the  Al 

jama  of  Valladolid  in  14H'J.     This  re 

"Tecana"    port  is  written  jiartly  in  Hel)rew,  and 

of  Jiartly  in  Spanish  wiili  Hebrew  cliar- 

Valladolid.  acters,   anil   is   preserved  in    the   I5ib- 

liothe(|ne  Nationale  al  I'aris  ("Fonds 
Hebrciix."  No.  "iS.'i).  From  thisdoenmeni  il  is  leurneil 
that,  at  Valladolid,  electoral  nieetinj;s  were  held  by 
the  (ijinmunity  every  ten  years,  anil  thai  tli<'  jiartic- 
ular  meelinir  of  which  an  acconnt  is  iriven  in  the 
docnmenl  look  place  in  th(^  latter  j)art  of  lyyar  (end 
of  .May)  and  lasted  for  ten  days.  The  following; 
were  some  of  Ihe  matters  decided  or  discnssed;  (1) 
The  necessity  of  the  Talmud  'I'oruh,  or  Hebrew 
school,  and  the  raleof  ta.xalion  for  Ihe  mainlenance 
of  the  .same,  which  was  decided  upon  as  follows: 
five  niaravedis  for  each  of  Ihe  cattle  killed,  anil  one 
for  each  sheep;  five  nianivedis  for  every  flask  of 
wine.  Five  niaravedis  were  also  to  be  jiaid  by  a 
married  couple  on  the  day  of  their  weddinji.  and  by  a 
boy  on  the  day  of  his  "bar  Mizwah."  or  conlirmation, 
A  certain  la.v  was  also  laid  upon  inhcrilanics.  and 
varions  olher  means  of  revenne  were  devised.  In 
connection  with  lliis  i|nestion  Ihe  employment  and 
SJilary  of  private  or  itineranl  teachers  w  ere  discns.sed. 
(•J)  The  eleclion  of  the  jnd;;es  and  of  Ihe  rah  ilr 
III  C'litf  (rabbi  of  the  court),  lo  which  much  space  is 
accorded  in  this  tecana  or  rejiort.  (8)  The  altitude 
of  the  individual  .lew  in  his  relations  with  Ihe  stale. 
This  was  by  far  the  most  imporlani  (|nestion  dis- 
cussed. Since  permission  lo  decide  civil  and  crimi- 
nal cases  iH'forc  Jewish  Jiidires  had  been  irrantecl  by 
the  Spanish  i;iivernment,  and  since  "  Ihe  Christians. 
llioUL'li  Ihey  be  well  versed  in  law.  know  nothing  of 
Jewish  laws."  no  Jew  might  plead  before  a  Christian 
juilfre,  whelher  reliirious  or  civil,  except  in  cases 
where  the  ta.ves  and  imposts  diu'  to  the  ruler  were  in 
lilisalion,  or  where  special  i>ermission  was  obtained 
from  the  dayyan,  or  chief  judire  of  the  Aljama.  A 
Jew  who  arrested  anolher  Jew  with  the  aid  of  a 
Christian  was  to  be  .•ippreliended  by  1  hi' dayyan  ;  for 
a  second  olTense  of  tile  same  nature,  he  was  to  be 
braniled  on  the  forehead  and  expelled;  while  the 
third  olTense  was  made  punishable  by  death. 

The  wiiril  ".MJiniia"  Is  ileriveil  fn>m  the  Amble  "Jiimii" 
((rather)  plus  the  ilellnlle  nrtlcle  "iil."  which  meant  nrltflnally 
**riillkn"i'U'atl'in."  "a.^isi'tublv."  "(rrimp."  hut  whieh.  even  ln'f(ire 
thi'  estiil>ll..ihiiii'nl  nf  S|iaiil»ll  rule.  \va.s  applleil  l).v  Ihe  .\nit>s  to 
Ihflr  «iwu  rfilk'lnuslKKlteHaiHlthelark'er  nii'sipies.  and  eMpe<'lally 
l4ithe  .lewts)H'<)itiinuiiltl«-sln  IheiiiliLstof  them,  anil  to  the  .syna- 
(;<t(fiie*i  ami  srh'Mils  whleh  fnrnieii  the  renter  of  all  .lewlsh  life. 
The  tenn  wu.s  ailnpteil  hy  the  Chrlsliaris.  and  lis  ineanlni,'  e.x- 
lended  .s<>  as  lo  ilesli^nale  also  the  ipiarters  that  .lews  and  .\i'abs 
had  madethelrown.  Very  often,  forpur[>o.sesof  iHstlnetlon,  sueh 
phnuies  as  "  Atjaliia  de  I'os.llidlos"  (Al]aina  of  Ihe  .lews)   and 

Aljninadelos  Monw"  I  Aljainu  of  the  MiKirs)  were  used.  Hut 
Ihe  rlreumsUinee  that  the  .\nilw  of  Spain  had  hy  ihe  term  desig- 
nated more  espeiiallv  Ihe  .lewlsh  I'oinnitinlty  has  left  Its  trace 
In  the  us<'of  Ihe  word  In  the  Spanish  hinmuiKe;  for  In  Spanish 
llieniliiir  "Allaimi."  without  any  further  speilMcallon.  stands  for 
"Sanedrln"  or  for  ".Iiiderla"  Llewry),  or  even  for  the  Jewish 
place  of  worship.  111  the  concrete  as  well  as  In  the  utistnict  sense. 
Tills  use  (K-cniN  111  a  very  earlv  ilate.  In  the  "  I'im'iii  of  Alexan- 
der," In  the  ".MIlatTosde  Nui'stra  Sefioni."  ami  In  the  "Duelo 
deln  VlDfen  "  of  lem/alo  de  Menisi.  all  of  thethlrleenlhcenliiry. 
"  Aljama"  or  "  Alfaiim"  Is  emploveil  to  *lesl^uile  the  |Ms»ple  of 
ancient  Jenisalein  ;  and  Ihe  historian  of  the  sLxtcenlh  century. 
Mariana,  uses  "  Aljama"  for  the  syiiiiKcvue  :  "  Ihey  deva.stuled 
their  hotis*.s  and  their  iiljainiis." 

Kniin  "Aljama  "  an>  derived  the  followlni;:  'II  "Aljainndo," 
adjis'tlve  and  noun,  the  InhahltanI  of  an  aljama:  C')  "Al- 
Jaiiila."  Ihe  Spanish  vernacular  used  hy  the  .lews  or  M<MirH.  hut 
more  es|M'<-lallv  the  Spiinlsh  laiik'iiaire  writlen  with  Helin-w 
ehiinictei-s  l>v  the  .lews,  and  wlih  Aniltlc  jein-rs  hy  the  MiNirs; 
Cli  "Aljamladu"  (adjirllve  and  iiouni.  he  who  siH-iiks  or  kiiuws 
the  Aljanila. 

Bliii.ioiiKAiMiv  :  Knindsi'o  FiTiuimlesy  i;r>n/ates.  In  IlitUliti  dc 
III  Hull  Acililiini'l  ill  III  IIMiirin.  vll.  I."*!  it  si  </.;  K.  KIta. 
AcUt  itf  Tiiliut  lie  I'lM-Hliin  tic  I'lUt  Alimnn  hrililihi.  In 
Iliutraciuii  CatullM.  Nov.  21.  IHtU. 

W     M 

1—20 


AL¥:ABI7,   MOSES   BEN   SOLOMON.     See 

Al.KAC.I/.,    Sol.llMON   lilN    .Mn~|>  IIA    IjVl 

AL?ABI?,  SOLOMON  BEN  MOSES  HA- 
LEVI ;  A  ealiulisl  and  litniLriciil  poei  Ikhh  in  Sa- 
fed.  who  nourished  in  the  tirst  half  of  Ihe  sixleenth 
ceiilury  and  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Josejiii 
Caro,  the  author  of  the  "Sliulhan  'Arnk."  and  teailier 
and  brol her  in-law  of  Jloses  Cordoveio.  one-  of  Ihe 
foremost  representatives  of  Jewish  mysticism.  Like 
Caro  and  Cordovero.  he  belonffcd  to  the  frroii])  of 
cabalisis  who  had  taken  up  their  aliode  at  Safed,  in 
L'pjier  Galilee,  and  made  tliat  city  the  Mecca  of  Ihe 
mystics.  Alkabi/.  who  was  a  disciple  of  Jose|)h 
Taytatzaqk.  mij;raleil  thither  from  Turkey,  where  he 
had  lived  at  Salonica  and  Adrianople.  The  date  of 
his  ilealh  is  unknown.  Accortling  to  Aripol.  al  the 
lime  .\lslieicli  nourished  he  wiissi.xty  years  old  (com- 
pare Azulai.  ".Shem  ha-(iedolim,"  ed.  Henjacob.  i. 
I()4);  in  l.'ilil,  the  year  in  which  his  commentary  on 
the  Hook  of  lUitli  a|)peared.  he  was  still  livinir.  and 
even  Elijah  ili  Vidas.  the  pupil  of  Cordovero.  w  hose 
"  Hesliit  llokinah  "  (The  Bc.irinninjr  of  Wisdom)  was 
finished  in  l.")7.").  in  qiiotinir  a  prayer  composed  by 
Alkabiz.  mentions  him  as  yet  alive  (sec  Xejii  (Jlii- 
rondi,"Toledot  Oedole  Yisrael."  p.  820).  He.  Iliere 
fore,  must  have  attained  to  a  rijic  old  age.  The  ex- 
ceptional esteem  in  which  Alkabiz  was  licld.  bolli 
by  his  contemporaries  and  by  his  immediate  jiosler- 
ity.  is  attested  by  the  lejrend  woven  around  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  death.  The  same  account  which 
])opular  fancy  invented  for  the  ]ioet  Ibn  Ciabirol  is 
also  allotled  to  Alkabiz.  It  is  as  follows:  An  Arab, 
who  remarked  his  wisdom  and  slrikiiiL'  iiersonalily. 
was  moved  by  envy  to  murder  him.  He  buried  his 
victim  bcnealh  a  ti ir-trec. which  strai.i.'htway  bepm  to 
blossom  in  advanceof  the  season,  and  llius  allracled 
the  atlcnlion  of  Ihe  townsfolk  and  their  ]irince  The 
hittersummoned  theas,sassin.  and  linally  succeeded  in 
wringing  from  him  a  confession  of  his  crime  :  where- 
upon the  culprit  was  hanged  on  Ihe  self-same  tiL'  lice 
(compare  Landshulh,  "'Ammuile  ha-'Abodah."  p. 
lilO).  This  is  only  one  of  the  many  legends  with 
which  mystic  imaginalion  adorned  the  memory  of 
Alkabiz.  Anothei.  tellingof  an  ecstatic  vision  wjiich 
Alkabiz  and  Caro  had  .si'cn  one  Penleco.st  night  while 
vet  in  Turkey,  may  have  been  the  cabalistic  cmbel- 
lisliinent  of  the  direct  causes  for  Ihe  migration  of  the 
two  masters  to  Palestine  (see  Is:iiah  Hurwilz."Shcne 
Luhoi  ha  Berit,"  cd.  Amslerdam.  p.  ISIIk). 

Alkabiz's  popularity  rests  mainly  on  his  liliirgio 
poem  for  the  Sabbath  eve  service,  which,  under  the 
name  of  "I.kkaii  Doni "  (Come.  >Iy  Helovcd).  has 
become  more  famous  than  its  author.  Not  only  was 
this  mystic  love-song  tothcSabballi  readily  ad  mil  ted 
into  bolh  lln'  Spanish  and  the  <!ermaii  riliials.  but  1{. 
Isaac  Luria.  the  leaderof  the  conlemporary  cabalisis. 
is  said  to  have  preferred  it  to  all  the  polity  of  Ibn 
l>ia  and  Ibn  (iabirol.  It  has  also  been  appniialed 
ill  modern  days  by  Ihe  jioet  Herder.who  iranslati  d  il 
inlo  (ierman.  and  by  Heinrich  Heine,  w  ho.  I  hough  he 
erroneously  allrilmled  il  in  his  "  Homancero"  lo  Jii- 
ilali  ha  Levi,  also  rendered  it  into  (;erman  ("  Werke." 
iii.  "JIU.  Hamburg.  1SS4K  while  Mrs.  Alice  l.ncas  has 
includi'd  a  goinl  English  version  in  "The  Jewish 
Year,"  i>p.  III?  ft  «•'/..  London,  1S1»«,  This  poem, 
however,  is  but  one  of  a  large  number  written  by 
.Mkabiz  and  embodied  in  sevenil  rituals. 

Among  his  liiruir  works,  his  cabalistic  cominen- 
larics  on  sevend  Biblical  books  reipiire  nolice.  The 
llrst  of  the  series,  a  "Cominentjiry  on  Ihe  Book  of 
F.slher."  was  writlen  in  I.V.Ml,  w  hen  he  sent  it  lo  hit) 
father  in  law  as  a  Piirim  gift  for  his  bride.  Il  was 
not  published  till  \^>>*'>.  wjien  il  appeared  ill  Venice, 
accompanied  by  IhcHebifw  text  and  several  hoinilics. 


Alkabizi,  Abraham 
Allegorical  Interpretation 


Tin:  .iKwisn  kncyclopedia 


403 


under  the  title  of  "  Maiiot  Im  Levi  "  (The  Gifts  of  the 
Levile).  His  eommeiilary  on  the  Soiii;  of  Songs. 
called  "  Ayelct  Alialiim"  (The  Dawn  of  [>ove),  writ  leu 
in  1536.  wa.s  piililishcrl.  with  I  he  tixt.  in  Venice.  l.^.V^; 
while  ■' Shoresh  Yisliai  "  (The  Koot  of  .Icsse).  on  the 
Book  of  Hulli.  written  in  llie  year  l.">.")3.  appeared, 
together  witli  tlie  te.xt  and  an  iude.\  by  his  son 
JIosi's.  in  \'tti\ .  at  Consliintinople.  Besides  this  series 
he  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Book  of  llosi^a.  which, 
however,  has  not  heen  published,  and  (piite  a  larjre 
numberof  cabalistic  pmyersand  books,  .\moiiir  the 
latter  his  "Bet  Adonai "'  (The  House  of  the  Konl) 
should  be  mentioned,  which  the  authors  of  "Slial 
shelet  hii  Ivalilialali  "  and  "Siflc  Yesheiiim."  as  well 
as  Wolf,  «ttribul(r  to  his  son  .Moses,  but  which,  no 
doubt,  belongs  to  Alkabiz  senior,  because  he  alludes 
to  it  as  his  own  work  both  in  his  commentary  on  Hulh 
(iii.  14).  and  in  a  note  to  the  Zoliar(G(  ii.  i.  K!).  which 
he  sent  to, Joseph  Caro.  and  which  the  author  of  "  Se- 
der ha-Dorot  "  claims  to  have  seen  (compare  "Seder 
ha-Dorot,''  p.  24i!).  l)c  Hossi  misreads  the  jiassjige  in 
question,  anil  deduces  from  it  the  e.\ist<'nce  in  nnmu- 
script  of  a  commentary  on  the  entire  Zohar. 

A/.ulai.  furthermore,  appears  to  have  seen  another 
work  by  this  author,  which  posses.ses  some  biograph- 
ical value,  inasmuch  as  under  the  title  of  "  Berit  ha- 
Levi"  (The  Covenant  of  the  Levitc).  Alkabiz  collected 
in  it  a  cabalistic  commentary  on  the  Passover  Hag- 
gadah.  and  a  number  of  other  esoteric  dis(|uisitions. 
all  of  which  he  left  asaspeciesof  mystic  souvenir  to 
his  disciples  and  associates  at  Adrianoplc.  just  prior 
to  his  departure  for  Palestine. 

Bibliography:  SteinachuelUer.  Vat.  liinll.  cnl.  2-.^;  I.Rnds- 
tiutli.  'AmmwIi'ha-'Ahndah,  pp.  ^Ot-t  «(•*/.;  .\zulai.  Shtiii  hii- 
(IrttiiUiiu  ed.  Ben]a<'nt).  i.  Hi4 ;  Nepi-(ihin)ndi.  T't/r./of  tliilalc 
YisraeU  p.  3^*:  Hcilprin.  Sedcrha-lJiiriit.  ed.  MaskJUfthan. 
1.24;!:  ill.  £;  ( imfHrii'.  K<ire  hii-Itorot,  pd.  l>etrciknf,  pp.  B'> 
ft  xcq.;  I)e  Kos-si.  hizi'mnrin  Stnriai  (Germ.  Imns.),  \^.  38; 
Winter  and  Wiinsche.  JU<li.-ichc  LUeratur,  ill.  m. 

H.  G.  E. 

ALKABIZI,  ABBAHAK  :  Editor  at  Constan- 
tinople during  the  lirst  (|uarterof  the  sixtcentli  cen- 
tury. In  l.")l()  he.  together  with  .ludah  S:ison  and 
Joseph  Hamon.  ])\d)lished  the"Toledot  Adam  wa- 
Hawwah  "  of  Jeroham  b.  MeshuUani. 

Bini.iOGRAPiiv  :  Steinsohnplder.  Cat.  lindl.  coLs.  i:i84.  2SI7: 
idem,  JIUiisfhr  TiiiKHiraiihii\  p.  :J8.  note  IS  In  Erscli  and 
(jruber's  EnnikhntiUlic,  x.xviii. 

W.  M, 

ALEALAI,   ABRAHAM    BEN   SAMTTEL : 

Casuist,  who  lived  in  Turkey  in  the  laller  pari  of 
the  {■ighteenth  century  and  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth. He  wrote  "Zekor  le-Abndiam  "  (Hemend)er 
Abraham),  in  which  the  laws  of  the  four  I'urim  are 
alplnibelically  arninged  and  commented  upon.  The 
work  appeared  in  two  volumes,  at  Salouica.  in  1798. 
and  was  reedited  by  .ludah  Hai  Alkalai  at  .losefow, 
1840.  Alkalai  also  publislnd  two  volumes  of  re- 
sponsa  under  the  title  of  "  Hesed  le-Abraham  "  (Mercy 
to  Abraham).  Sahmica,  181:^-14. 

BlBLIOGRAPnT :  Zedner.  Cat.  Ilcin:  Boota  Brit.  Mti.i.  p.  43. 

H,   G.  E. 

ALKALAI,  ISAAC  BEN  JOSEPH.    See  Ai.- 

F-\si.  Isaac  iikn  .IiisKrir 

ALKALAI,  JOSEPH  BEN  DAVID:  Lived 
in  Turkey  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineleeiith  cen- 
tury. Author  of  "Amar  Yoseph."  containing  notes 
to  Maimonides  and  alphabetically  arranged  novelhu 
to  the  Talmud,  as  well  as  a  number  of  homilies  (Sa- 
lonica,  1831). 

Bibliography  :  Zedner,  Catahiauc  of  the  Hctirexr  liiuikK  nt 
the  British  Museum,  p.  43. 

H.    G.    E. 


ALKALAI,  JtTDAH  BEN  SOLOMON  9AI : 

Babbi  in  Seiulin.  Croatia:  <lied  tictober, ISTs.  He  he- 
came  noted  through  his  propagaiula  in  favored  the 
restoralion  of  the  .lews  to  Palestine.  By  reason  of 
some  of  his  projects,  he  may  justly  be  regardeilasono 
of  the  precursors  of  the  modern  Zionists  headed  by  Th. 
Herzl  (see  Zionism).  His  work.  "Goral  la-Achmai  " 
(A  Lot  for  the  Lord),  jiublished  at  Vienna,  in  18.'<T.  is 
a  treatist'  on  the  restoration  of  the  Jews,  and  suggests 
methotls  for  the  bellermentof  coiidiri<insin  Palestine. 
After  a  somewhat  able  homiletical  discussion  of  the 
.Messianic  probleiu,  in  whicii  he  shows  considerable 
knowledge  of  the  older  wrilers.  Alkalai  suggests  the 
formation  of  a  joint-stock  comiiany.  such  as  a  ste:un- 
ship  or  railroad  trust,  whose  endeavor  it  should  b.'  to 
induce  the  sultan  to  cede  I'alestine  to  lh<'  Jews  as  a 
tributary  country,  on  a  plan  similar  to  that  on  whicli 
the  Danube  principalities  were  governed.  To  this 
suggestion  are  appended  the  commendations  of  nu- 
merous Jewish  scliolarsof  various  .schools  of  thought. 
The  problem  of  the  restoration  of  Palestine  was  also 
di.scu.sse<l  by  .VIkalai  in  "Shema'  Y'israel  "  (Hear.  () 
Israel).  1861  or  lH6'.i.  and  in  "  Harbinger  of  Good  Ti- 
dings" (compare  "Jewish  Chronicle,"  18r>7,  p.  Ilil8, 
where  his  name  is  siielleil  Alkali).  In  his  "Sheloin 
Y'erushalayim  "  (The  Peace  of  Jcrusjilem).  184b,  he 
rejilies  to  those  who  attacked  his  book.  "Darke 
Noam  "(The  Pleasant  Paths),  whicli  treated  of  the 
duty  of  tithes,  .\nolher  work  of  his.  "  Minliat  Yeliu- 
dali  "(The  OITering  of  Judali).  Vienna.  1843,  is  a  pan- 
egyric on  Montetiore  and  Creinieu.v,  who  had  res- 
cued the  Jews  of  Damascus  from  the  horrors  of  the 
blood-accusation. 

Bibliography:  Furst.  liilil.  Jml.  I.  30;  Zedner,  Cat.  Hrbr. 
BitiikK  Hril.  Mux.  p.  4:);  Steinschnelder,  Uctir.  Bilil.  1.  2<,  v. 
m:  .Iiw.  Qtunl.  /fir.  .xl.  Ii05. 

II.  G.  E. 

ALKALAI,  MOSES  BEN  DAVID  :    Jud.eo- 

Spanish  translaliu.  and  writer  of  Hebrew  text- 
books: lived  in  Turkey  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
With  his  father  David,  he  translated  Solimion  ibn 
Verga's  "Shcbet  Yehudah "  fmm  Hebrew  inio 
Jucheo  Spanish  (UclgRide.  is.")!)).  He  also  wrote:  (1) 
miJJD  Ppn  (Belgrade.  18."iil).  treating  of  laws  <'on- 
cerning  meals:  ('2)  n  Hebrew  grammar  (liucharest, 
1860);  (3)  pst'n  1N13  (Belgrade,  1867),  a  treatise  on 
arithmetic. 

Bibliography  ;  Kayserllng,  Bilitinteea  Esparwla-rnrtui/xieza 
Juddica^  p.  10. 

W.  M. 

ALKAN,  ALPHONSE  (known  as  Alkan  the 
Elder):  French  iiriiili'i,  bibliographer,  and  aullior; 
bom  in  Paris,  ISilO;  died  at  NeuillysurSeiue.  IH89. 
He  lirst  worked  as  a  practical  i)rinter.  then  wrote 
for  various  typographical  and  bibliographical  re- 
views, and  subseiiuently  was  appointed  secretary 
and  proof-reader  to  the  Count  de  Chirac,  keeper  of 
the  Museum  of  Anti(|uities  in  the  Louvre.  Alkan 
was  a  prolilic  writer  and  the  author  of  many  books, 
l)ani[)hli'ts.  and  articles,  which  deal  with  the  art  and 
history  of  printing  and  illustrating  as  well  as  with 
bibliography.  His  more  important  booksare:  "  I,e3 
Femmes  Compositrices  d'lmprimerie  sous  la  Kevolu- 
tion  Franf/aise  de  1794.  parun  Ancien  Typograidie," 
1862  (anonymous);  "  Les  Graveurs  de  Portraits  en 
France."  1H79:  "Documents  pour  Servir  il  I'Histoire 
de  la  Librairie  Parisienne."  1879;  "  Les  Livrcset  Leurs 
Ennemis."  1m8:!:  "  Les  Etiquettes  et  les  Inscriptions 
des  Boites-Volumcs  de  Pierre  Jannet.  Fondateur  de 
la  Bibliothe(|Ue  Elzeverienne."  1883;  "Edouard  IJene 
Lefebvre  de  Laboulaye,  un  Fondeur  en  Caracteres, 
Membre  de  I'lnstitut,"  1886;    "Berbignier  et  Son 


403 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alkabizi,  Abraham 
Allegorical  Interpretation 


Livre:  Its  Fiirfadets,"  1889;    "  Les  Quatre  Doyens  de 

lii  Typogriiphie  Parisit-nne,"  1889. 

HiiiiKicKAriiv :   Dc  tiulM^niatls,  Diet.  International  des  A'crf- 

Vililt-f  illl  J<itU\  8.V. 

M     I! 

ALKAN,  CHARLES  HENRI  VALENTIN 
(Morhange;  callcilalsdAlkan  the  Elder):  Frcmli 
piiinist  uiiil  coiiipciscr;  Imiii  in  I'uiis,  Nov.  ^0.  IKIli; 
(lied  tlidv,  Mairh  •..'!l.  1888.  On  attaining'  his  .si.xtli 
year  lie  was  a<lrnitlcd  to  tla^  Paris  Conservatory  of 
^Iiisie.  and  wliiii  liiit  seven  years  old  (18'J0)  won  the 
first  prize  I'or  sttlfei^i^io;  on  Iliis  occasion  he  gave  his 
(irst  puhlic  perfornianee  on  l\w.  vi<ilin.  Alkan  was 
llie  pupil,  in  pianoforte,  of  Pierre  Zinnnernian.  hm 
reate  of  the  Instil nie  of  France  in  Is.'iO,  studied  har- 
mony iHidir  Victor  Dourlen,  and.  in  coin[)etilion,was 
awarded  tlie  lirst  prize  for  this  subject  in  182().  In 
18'.38  he  was  appointed  honorary  professorat  the  Con- 
servatory, which  position  he  resiirned  in  Ih:^.").  Be- 
sides acliieviriir  distinction  in  tin'  lechnii|Ueof  music 
he  olitaineil  tlie  lirst  |irizi'  liir  cninpiisition  awarded 
liy  the  Institute  of  France  in  ls;!l.  Two  years  later 
he  visited  London,  and  on  his  icturn  to  France  settled 
ill  Paris  as  a  teacher  of  llie  [lianoforte. 

Alkan  devoted  a  part  of  his  time  to  composi- 
tion, and  jiroduced  .seventy-two  works,  comprisinj; 
etudes,  concertos,  sonatas,  caprices,  transcriptions. 
and  sonps,  Writinir  of  Ids  music,  .lames  I),  lirown 
("Hioji.  of  Musicians."  p.  1-1)  siiys:  "'riic  works  of 
this  ((imposer  almuiid  with  technical  dilliculties. 
.  .  .  His  studies  are  especially  exlrava.i;ant  in  con- 
struction, and  require  close  allcnliiin  fmm  even  the 
l)est  |)erforiners  to  obtain  ade(|init<>  interpretation." 
According;  to  Grove  ("  Diet,  of  .Slusicand  .Musicians." 
i.  5;i.  London.  18!M)),  Alkan's  two  series  of  twelve 
etudes  (op.  S")  and  3!t)  and  his  "Trois  Grandes 
fetudes"  i)elonj;  to  Uic  must  modern  development 
of  the  t<'chni(iue  of  the  instrument,  and  re|)resent. 
in  fact,  llie  e.Mrenie  ]ioint  which  it  has  reached. 
Thoufjli  they  can  not  stand  coni|iarisoii  in  point  of 
tieauty  and  absolute  musical  value  with  the  etudes 
of  Cliopinaiid  Liszt,  yet,  like  those  of  Anton  Hubiii- 
stein,  which  are  in  some  res|)ects  akin  to  them,  they 
have  a  valid  claim  to  be  studied;  fur  "they  ]>resenl 
technical  spei  ialities  nowhere  else  to  lie  found,  dif- 
cullies  of  a  titanic  .sort,  effects  peculiar  to  the  instru- 
ment carried  to  the  very  vcrirc  of  impossibility." 

'riie  fiilldwini;  are  .Vlkan's  chief  Cdiupcisilions: 
■■  f'.tude  I'apricc."  fur  Ihe  pianiifnrte  (op.  I'J,  13,  15. 
and  l<i|;  ••  Le  Preiix,"  a  concert  study  (op,  17); 
"Duet"  for  violin  anil  iiiannfortc  (op.  21);  "Noc- 
turne" for  Ihe  luaiioforte  (op.  22);  "Saltarellc"  (op. 
2H);  "Gigue"  (op.  2-t);  "Alleluja!"  (i.p--'):  "Tran- 
scription from  .Mozart"  (op.  2<));  "ftlnde"  (o]).  27); 
"  Uourree  d'.Vuveri;ne "  (op.  29);  "Trio"  for  the 
pianiiforle.  violin,  and  violoiicellii(op.  :il));  "Twenty ■ 
live  I'riludcs"  fur  piano  or  or;;an  (up.  ;!1);  "Collec- 
linn  of  Impromptus"  for  the  pianoforte  (op.  ;!2); 
"Sonata"  (up.  :tl!);  "Thrive  .Marches"  (op.  37);  two 
books  of  "Chants"  (sonirs  without  words,  op.  38); 
aiiiii her  series  of  "Three  .Marches"  (op.  40);  "Three 
Fantasias"  (o|).  41);  "  HecDncilialion,"  a  caprice  (op. 
42);  "."^alul.  Cendrcs  dii  Pauvre."  a  iiaraphni.se  (op. 
45);  and  a  "Sonata"  for  pianofnrte  and  violoncello 
(op.  47). 

Bini.iniuiAi'ilv  :  KrIK  TOii/rinWidji  I'nlvrrnrllrii.l.'n,  Piirlii, 
IKIKI;  Mi-ndfl,  Mtiniluitijtrlirjt  Kumwrittitiiiutt-Lcxitntn,  Her- 
lih.  ISTII;  (')iutM|>]ln.  h:nrurln[iitliii  i»t  Muxic  ami  Muni- 
ciinw, rt.v.  l.:tll.  Nrw  Vorl^.  IslKl;  Vii|MTniu.  Itivl.  I'niviritrliltti 
(\>nti'mfntriiiii)t.  furls.  INII  ;  (irnve,  />!<■/.  itf  .l/iMir  tifiil  .\fu- 
tiirtnuM.H.v.  I,4>n<tnn.  IHJKi;  Hniwn.  Iliin/raiitiirxuf  MtMictanx, 
Uinilim,  ismi;  Mi'vir,  K'-mif ri«iU<in»-/,.  rlfc.m,  1.  :)«i,  Ij'lji- 
Hlr,  IHJKI ;  Sullnolisi'li.  .Slfiri'  IUii.-<tirnilf  KitnVffi*^Uiimtitrrt- 
fi'iii.  I.  .M.'i.  ('oiH'iiliiiKi'n.  ls!(t:  lliikiT.  .1  niin/roiihlcal  IHct. 
iif  Muriciauf,  \t\>.  \i,  i:t.  New  York,  lUU). 

F.  H.  V. 


ALKAN.  NAPOLEON  ALEXANDRE  (Mor- 

hang^e) :  Fnncli  |iiaiiist  and  composer:  born  in 
Paris.  lW2(i.  He  was  a  brother  of  Cihui.ks  V.\lentin 
.\i.K\N.  and,  like  him,  entered  the  Conservatory 
of  .Musii'  at  a  very  early  age.  He  studied  under 
.Vdoljihe  Adam  and  Pierre  Zimmerman.  In  1851)  he 
wasappoiiited  prole.s.sor  of  solfeggio  in  the  Conserva- 
tory, and  held  the  appointment  for  nearly  Hfty  years. 
-Vniong  the  more  jirominentof  his  pujiils  were  Bizet, 
Sara.sate.  Carvallio,  .Inks  Cohen,  the  brothers  Wen- 
iadski,  .Melchisedci-,  'I'aiidou,  and  Hisler. 

Alkan  has  not  achieved  great  distinction  as  a  com- 
po.ser;  nevcrlheless  in  18!(()  he  obtained  the  second 
l)rize  for  composition  awarded  by  the  French  In- 
stitute. His  most  notable  work  is  an  "  fitude  Fuguee 
sur  ■  Le  Proiihete. '  " 

BliiMomiAi'iiY:  Viiiiercaii.  Dift.  tlr.i  Cimlrmiuirainr^.  s.v.:  I.a- 
rtiiixfv.diinift  Dili,  riiii'i  rwf,  s.v.  I'aris.  IKKI;  (imve. /;«■(. 
kJ  Munii:  mill  Mimriiiim.  s.v.  I^>iiiliiii,  IHSKJ;  11.  Kkiuaun, 
jIUKili-Lirihoii.  p.  -I.  U-l|isli-.  IlJiid. 

.\     A    G 

ALKIMUS  JAKIM:  High  priest,  leaikr  of  the 
Ilellciiisis.     See  Al,(  iMfs. 

ALLARIZ  :  .\  Spanish  town  in  the  province  of 
Orense,  Galicia.  in  which,  as  in  Corufia,  Ferrol,  and 
Pontevedra,  therc^  were  Jews  as  early  as  the  eleventh 
century.  I'pon  a  complaint  by  the  priorof  the  mon- 
astery of  Allariz,  I.saac  Ishmael.  the  liead  of  the  small 
Jewish  community,  was  notitied.  12S'.t,  that  from  that 
time  no  Jews  would  be  allowed  to  live  outside  of  the 
Jews'  (piarter,  or  to  congregate  on  the  streets  or  to 
appear  in  public  during  processions,  etc,  A  similar 
ordinance  existed  prohibiting  Christians  from  living 
in  the  Jews'  iiuarter.  in  order  that  the  latter  might 
not  b(^  disturbed  or  molested  in  their  worship  or  dur- 
ing their  festivals.     See  also  G.\l.ici.\,  Sl'.M.N. 

ItiiiLiORRArnv  :  De  los  Illos,  Hixtoria  <te  lim  ./ii</i.w,  il.  553  et 
xr'i.;  Iliihtin  id  (<i  Ural  Anidcmia  dc  la  //Wi/rid,  xll..mi(t 

M.  K. 
ALLATIF,   ISAAC  BEN  ABRAHAM   IBN 

LATIF.        >r,-    I.VIIK,     lllN. 

'ALLE  HADAS  (".Myrtle  Leaves,"  a  Hebrew 
inaL'aziiii'V     Sec  I'lnioini  vis. 

ALLEGORICAL  INTERPRETATION:  That 
explanation  of  a  ,Scriiilurc  passagi-  which  is  bas<'d 
upon  the  supposition  that  its  author,  whether  Gixl 
or  man,  intended  something  "other "  (Greek,  liz/'of) 
than  what  is  literally  expressed.  Expositors  of  tliis 
system  may  lie  called  allegorists;  the  .system  it- 
self, allegorism.  Two  modes  of  Alh'gorical  Inter- 
])retation  are  found  dealing  with  the  Pible:  the 
one,  symbolic  or  typologic  interpretation,  derived 
mainly  from  Palestinian  Jews;  Ihe  oilier  the  philo- 
sophical or  mystical  modes,  originating  with  the 
Alexandrian  Jewsof  Egypt,  Both  mi'l  hods  originate 
in  the  same  iialund  cause;  wheni'Ver  the  lit enit lire  of 
a  people  has  become  an  insi'panible  part  of  its  in- 
tellecliial  pos.session,  and  Ihe  ancient  and  venenited 
letter  of  this  lilenitiire  is  in  the  course  of  time  no 
longer  in  consonance  with  more  modern  views,  to 
enable  the  people  to  preserve  their  allegiance  to  the 
tradition  it  becomes  neces,sary  to  make  that  tradilion 
carry  and  contain  the  newer  thought  as  well.  Alle- 
gorism is  thus  in  some  sense  an  incipient  phase  of 
rationalism.  As  soon  as  philo.soph\  arose  among  the 
(ireeks.  Homer  and  the  old  popular  piH^try  were 
allegorized.  There  being  scarcely  a  people  which 
underwent  such  powerful  religious  development  and 
at  the  same  time  ri'inained  .so  fervently  attaciied  to 
its  venenible  traditions  as  the  Jews,  allegori.sm  be- 
came of  necessity  a  prumineut  fetilure  iu  the  history 
of  their  litcnitufe. 


Allegorical  Interpretation 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


404 


Accordingly,   ouc  of  tlie  first  of    the  prophets 

whose  writings  nre  preserved,  Hosert  (xii.  5),  is  one 

of  the  earliest   allejrorists,    wlien    he 

Early  Alle-  siivsof  .Jacob's  strujiftle  with  the  !in>rel 

gorism.  that  it  was  a  striigj;le  in  ])niyer:  this 
was  because  the  idea  of  an  act  ual  phys- 
ical contest  no  lonjier  harnmnized  with  the  jiro- 
phetic  conception  of  heavenly  beings.  The  activity 
of  the  Scribes  at  a  later  period  made  the  Hible  a 
book  for  scholars,  and  allegorisin  was  fostered  as  a 
form  of  Midriish.  The  IJook  of  Oaiiicl  supplied  an 
illustration  hereof,  when  it  interpreted  Jeremiah's 
prophecy  of  the  seventy  years  of  exile  (xxix.  ICt)  as 
seventv  weeks  of  years,  and  thus  gave  hopes  of  re- 
demption from  the  conleniporary  tyranny  of  the 
Greeks.  The  dread  of  nprcKhiciiig  liiblical  anihro 
pomorphisms — a  thoroughly  Jewish  dread,  and  a 
churaeteristic  feature  of  the  oldest  porticms  of  the 
Septuagint — sho ws  the  original  disposition  of  all  alle- 
goiism;  namely,  to  spirit uali/e mythology.  See  An- 
TIinOI'OMOUI'llISM  ;  Skptiaoixt. 

Essential  as  allcgorism  thus  was  to  the  Palestin- 
ian Jews,  it  was  none  the  less  so  to  the  Alexandrian 
Hebrews,  who  were  made  to  feel  the 
Alex-  derision  of  llic  ilelli'ues  at  the  naive 
andrian  Al-  ]iresentations  of  the  I5il)le.  The  Jews 
legorism.  replied  by  adopting  the  Hellenes'  own 
weapons:  if  the  latter  made  Homer 
speak  the  language  of  Pythagoras,  Piato,  Anaxag- 
oras,  and  Zeno,  the  Ji'Ws  traiisfurmed  the  Uible  into 
a  manual  of  philo.sopliy  which  also  was  made  to 
contain  the  teachings  fif  tlu'se  philosophers.  This 
polemic  or  apologetic  feature  of  Alexandrian  allc- 
gorism is  at  the  same  time  characteristic  of  its  rcla 
tion  to  the  Palestinian  Jlidrash  on  the  one  hand,  and 
theallegori/.ed  mythology  of  the  Greeks  on  the  other; 
in  its  pur|iose,  Alexandrian  allegory  was  Hellenic; 
in  its  origin  and  method,  it  was  .lewish.  But  one 
would  hardly  be  warranted  in  maintaining  that 
nllegorism  was  specifically  Hellenic  because  thcAlex- 
andrians  were  the  first  .lews  known  to  have  culti- 
vated it;  nothing  can  be  ri'ally  proved  from  the  ab- 
sence of  allegory  in  the  few  inconsiderable  remains 
of  Palestinian  Scriptural  lore  of  the  two  centuries 
before  the  common  era. 

Closely  connecting  with  the  Palestinian  Alidrash 
is  AmsTonci.rs,. rightly  to  be  termed  the  father  of 
Alexandrian  allegory.  His  ])urpose,  to  jirove  the  es- 
sential identity  of  Scripture  and  Aristotelianism,  is 
of  course  the  Alexandrian  one;  but  his  eX]ilanalions 
of  the  Biblical  anthropomorphisms  is  thoroughly 
Palestinian,  and  reminds  one  of  Targnin  and  Septua- 
gint, Similarly,  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  another 
Apocryphal  book  of  the  same  period,  is  not  specitic- 
ally  Hellenic  in  its  allegorical  synibol- 
TheWisdom  ism.  The  explanation  of  the  heavenly 
of  Solomon,  laihler  in  .Jacob's  vision,  as  a  symbol 
of  Hivine  Providcnci' and  the  super- 
sensual  world,  isjvistas  little  Hellenic  jis  the  Biblical 
narrative  itself,  the  sense  of  which  is  very  correctly 
given  (Wisdom,  x,  10),  The  inlluence  of  a  Pales- 
tinian Jlidrash,  preserved  in  the  Mishnah  (H.  H.  iii. 
8),  is  evident  in  the  explanation  of  the  serpent  (Num. 
xxi,  9),  as  a  "symbol  of  salvation,  while  the  salva- 
tion itself  came  from  God  "  (Wi.sdom.  xvi..')).  These 
and  .similar  interpretations  are  so  clearly  of  Pales- 
tinian origin  that  it  would  be  wrong  to  assume  any 
foreign  intluence  for  them.  Tlu>  literal  reality  of 
the  Law  and  of  the  Biblical  history  is  so  strongly 
adhered  to  by  the  author  of  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
coming  as  it  does  from  Pharissiic  circles,  that  one  can 
liardlv  speak  of  his  treatment  as  an  allcgorization  of 
the  Bible. 

The  Allegorical  Interpretation  of  the  Law  in  the 


Ahisteas  Lettkk  exhibits  Hellenic  intluence  more 
decidedly.  It  seeks  to  give  ethical  motives  for  all 
the  rit\nil  and  ceremonial  laws.  On  the  one  hand, 
the  tlesh  of  birds  of  prey  is  declared  unclean,  it  says, 
in  order  to  teach  how  violence  and  injustice  detile 
the  ,soul;  on  the  othir.  that  of  animals  which  chew 
the  cud  and  divide  the  hoof  is  permitted.  For  the 
formir  ( liaiacleristic  typilies  the  duty  of  invoking 
(toil  freiiuently  ;  and  the  latter  signilic'S  the  distinc- 
tion bet wi'cn  right  and  wrong,  ami  the  division  to 
bi'  maintained  between  Israel  and  nations  practising 
abominations. 

A  further  step,  hut  an  inevilabli'  one,  was  taken 
by  those  allegorists  of  w  hon\  Philo  w  rites  ("  De  Mi 
gratione  .\brahami,"  xvi. ;  ed.  Mangey, 
Radical  i.4.")(l).  that  they  cut  loose  entirely  from 
AUegorism.  any  observance  of  the  Law,  and  saw  in 
the  records  of  .lewish  revelation  noth- 
ing btit  a  presentiition  of  higher  philosophical  truths. 
Such  an  extreme  step  could  oidy  provoke  reaction: 
and  the  residt  was  that  many  would  have  nothing 
whatever  to  do  with  Allegorical  IntiTpretation, 
justly  seein,!r  in  it  a  danger  to  iiractical  Judaism. 
These  antiallegorists  were  specially  represented  in 
Palestine,  where  the  warning  was  lu'ard  (about  ,50 
li.c.)  against  those  "evil  waters  "  to  be  avoided  by  the 
young  scholars  "abroad,"  i.e.  Egypt  (see  Anx.M.- 
loN).  Nor  were  there  wanting  in  Alexandria  itself 
many  determined  opponentsof  this  tendency  (Philo. 
"  De  Somniis,'"  i.  l(i;  ed.  JIangey,  i.  ()3.5).  But  the 
extremists  on  both  sides,  allegorists  as  well  as  anti- 
allegorists, were  in  the  minority ;  for  infisl  teachers 
held  steailfastly  to  the  ancestnd  faith  as  farasactual 
jiractise  was  concerned,  and  endeavored  only  tlii-o- 
retically  to  harmonize  .Judaism  with  the  Hellenic 
pliilo.sophy  by  means  of  allegory.  Philo  informs  us 
('"De  Vita  Contemplativa,''  HI.  ii.  47.T)tlial  his  pred- 
ecessors in  this  allegorical  tendency  (from  whom 
he  (|Uotes  eighteen  times — see  the  list  in  Siegfried's 
"  Philo,"  p.  2(1)  had  committed  their  teachings  to  wri- 
ting; but  beyond  Ihcpse  quotations  nothing  has  been 
preserved.  The  following  is  an  illustration:  "Men 
versed  in  natural  philosophy  explain  the  history 
of  Abraham  and  Sarah  in  an  allegorical  manner  with 
no  inconsiderable  ingenuity  and  propriety.  The 
man  here  [Abraham]  is  a  symbolical  ex])ression  for 
the  virtuous  mind,  and  by  his  wife  is  meant  vir- 
tue, for  the  name  of  his  wife  is  .Sarah  ["princess"], 
because  there  is  nothing  more  royal  or  more  worthy 
of  regal  iireeminence  than  virtue  "  ("De  Abrahamo," 
XX.  8;  ed,  Mangey,  ii.  1,")). 

It  would  not  be  just,  in  the  absence  of  striking 
proof,  to  maintain  that  Joskimiib,  who  in  his  pref- 
ace to  the  "  Antiquitates"  speaks   of 
Josephus.     the   literal  sense  and  the  allegorical, 
was  influenced  by  Alexandrianism  in 
general  or  by  Philo  in  partictdar  (.Siegfried's  "  Philo," 
p.  270).    His  symbolical  exposition  of  the  Tabernacle 
with  its  utensils,  and  of  the  high  priest's  vestments 
("Ant."  iii.  7,  t;  7),  and  his  interpretation  that  the 
Holy  of   Holies  means  the  heavens,  the  ,showbread 
means  the  twelve  months,  and  the  candlestick  means 
the  seven   planets,  resemble   Philo,  but  are  merely 
resemblances.    Similar  explanations  are  repeatedly 
given  by  the  Midrash;  and  this  kind  of  symbolism 
was  always  a  favorite  in  Palestine. 

All  achievements  of  precedingallegorists,  however, 
were  far  surpassed  by  Philo,  the  most  important  rej)- 
resentative  of  .Jewish  Alexandrianism.  His  philos- 
ophy furnished  one  foundation-stone  to  Christianity: 
his  Allegorical  Interpretation,  in  an  even  greater 
degree,  contributed  to  the  Church's  interpretation 
of  the  Old  Testament;  and  strange  to  ,Siiy  neither 
his  philosophy  nor  his  allcgorism  had  the  slightest 


405 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Allegorical  Interpretation 


fffect  upon  Judaism.  Gfrijrer  lias  cleverly  desciilied 
Philo'salleirorical  hent  in  saying,"  It  is  madness,  but 
there's  a  nietli(i<l  in  it "  ((ifrorer.  "Pliiln,"  i.  ll;J), 
Palestinian  lieiineneutics  and  Alexandrian  allego- 
risni  are  tlie  two  t'oinidations  upon  wliieli  Pliilo 
h\iilds  liis  system  of  lJiV)le  interpretation.  Ilede- 
teets  allegorical  secrets  in  parallel  i)assages  or 
duplicate  e.\pres.sions  of  Scripture,  in  apparently  su- 
perlluous  words,  in  particles,  adverbs,  and  the  like. 
In  view  of  the  numerous  iieculiarities  of  Hebrew  in 
this  direction — they  ar<'  so  prevalent 
Philo.  lliiil  tliey  may  soniclimes  be  di'lecled 
(■veil  in  the  Seiituagint  translation 
— it  was  a  very  easy  matter  for  Philo  to  discover 
many  such  secret  hints  where  none  e.\isted.  In  ad 
dition  to  "rules"  based  upon  the  Palestinian  Mid 
rash,  the  Greek  allegorisis  had  set  up  an  exten- 
sive system  of  t  lie  symbolism  of  things  and  numbers; 
and  of  this  also  Philo  inii<ie  considerable  use.  Thus 
the  number  one  is  God's  number;  two  is  division; 
live  means  the  live  senses;  ami  similarly  all  sinijilc 
numbers  up  to  ten.  and  some  compound  ones  such 
as  1',',  50.  7l»,  10(1,  l'>0,  have  their  allegorical  signiti- 
cance.  Animals  and  winged  birds,  creejiing  things 
and  swimming  things,  all  have  their  symbolical  im- 
port. Likewise,  plants,  stones,  the  heavenly  bodies, 
certain  sjieeiesof  animals — in  short,  everything  that 
is  finite  was  an  allegory  of  some  truth;  this  is  one 
of  the  chief  rules  of  Pliilo's  allegorism. 

But  it  must  be  nolieed  that  Philo  none  the  less 
protect  I'd  I  he  right  soft  he  literal  word,  without,  how- 
ever. biingi|Uiteclearasto  the  proiier  relation  of  the 
written  word  to  its  Allegorical  Interpretation.  By 
means  of  such  hermeneutic  principles  Philo  e.\- 
I>ounded  almost  the  whole  Pentateuch  in  ils  histor- 
ical as  well  as  ils  legal  portions.  The  follow  ing  is  an 
illustration  from  Genesis:  "God  lilanleda  garileii  in 
Eden  I  (Jen.  ii.  .")( I  snj.}  :  that  means  (!od  implants  ter- 
restrial virtue  in  the  human  race.  The  tree  of  life 
is  that  specitic  virtue  which  some  people  call  good- 
ncs-s.  The  river  that  '  went  out  of  Eden  '  is  also 
generic  goodness.  Its  four  heads  are  the  canjinal 
virtues:  '  Pheison  '  is  deriveil  from  the  Greek  piMo/m; 
(I  abstain)  and  means  •  prudence';  and.  being  an 
illustrious  virtue,  it  is  sjiid  '  lo  compass  Wn-  wlioh' 
land  of  Havilah  where  there  is  gold.' "  The  nami' 
"Gilion"  means  "chest"  (see  (Jen.  K.  on  the  jias- 
sagi)  and  stands  for  couragi'.  and  it  coni|)assis  Elhi- 
ojiia,  or  humiliation.  Tigris  is  "temperance";  the 
name  is  eonnecled  with  a  tiger  because  it  resolutely 
opposes  desire.  Euphrates  means  "fertility"  (He- 
brew jtiinih;  se(^  (Jen.  H.)  and  stands  for  "justice." 
In  this  way  the  i>atriarclis.  however,  are  alligori/ed 
away  into  inenrabslraetions("  I)e  Allegoriis  Legum," 
i.   l!)i/wY/.;  I'd.  ^langey.  i.  ritiiY  «(/.). 

As  to   Palestinian  allegorism.  il   was  too  deeply 
rooted  in  historical  Judaism  lo  permit  it.self  to  go  to 
such  exiremes  with  I  he  history  as  the 
Palestinian  Alexandrians,  no  nialter  how  much  il 
Alle-  may    have   chosen    to    allegorize    the 

gorism.  Law.  Nothing  exhibits  the  genuinelv 
Jewish  <haracter  of  the  Palesiinian  al 
legoiy  more  clearly  llian  ils  application  lo  the  Ila- 
lakah ;  a  mere  Greek  fashion — and  one  speeilieally 
aniagonislic  lo  the  lellir  of  Seriplure— could  never 
have  taken  pari  in  I  he  llalakah.  which  is  profi'ssidly 
founded  upon  Ihe  .'scripture  text.  Devoted  as  the 
Palestinians  wire  to  the  Pentateuch,  it  is  neverthe- 
less a  fact  that  Ihe  Halakali,  both  before  and  afliT 
Akiba.  madi'  use  of  allegorism.  Il  isexpri'ssly  staled 
that  liabbi  Ishnmil  (died  about  IH'.M  explained  thn-e 
Penlaleu<hal  passjiges  ^L"0  PD3  by  a  species  of  par- 
able (Mek.  Mishpa(im.  vi.l.  His  younger  contempo- 
rary |{   .li>se  of  Galilee  inlerpnls  Deill.  xxiv.  I!  also 


allegorieally,  or  rather  euphemistically  after  Job, 
xxxi.  10  (Gen.  R.  XX.  7).  Akiba.  although  he  more 
than  any  one  else  perceived  the  danger  of  this  allego- 
rization  of  the  Law,  which  just  then  was  fashionable 
in  Ihe  Christian  and  the  Gnostic  worlds,  could  not  re- 
frain from  adopting  something  of  this  method  of  in- 
terpretation. Thus,  referring  to  the  verse,  "  And  she 
('.lie  heathen  captive]  sliall  bewail  her  father  and  her 
mother"  (Dent.  xxi.  13),  Akiba  understands  by  "fa- 
ther and  mother,"  "idols,"  according  to  Jer,  ii.  27 
(Sifre.  Deut.  ^13);  and  in  Lev.  xix.  2f)  he  perceives 
a  warning  to  judges  to  partake  of  no  food  upon  a  day 
on  which  they  are  toconsidera  capitiil  sentence  (Sifra 
Kedoshim.  vi.  i)0</).  Similarly  tlieverse.  Deut.  xxv.  4 
(forbidding  the  ox  to  be  muzzled  w  hen  treading  out 
corn),  w  hen  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  following 
law  (iiy  D'31DDor  interpretation  by  sequence),  is  al- 
legorieally used  toexplain  that  Ihe  widow  may  not  be 
compelled  lo  enter  into  a  levirate  marriage  with  a 
leper.  Just  as  the  ox  in  the  passsige  is  not  to  be 
l)revente<l  from  helping  himself  to  a  share  of  the 
iiarvest  he  is  threshing,  so  the  woman  may  not  be 
deprived  of  her  right  to  happiness  in  her  marriage 
(Yeb.  4</). 

The  essential  chaiaetcristic  of  Palestinian  allego- 
rism which  distinguishes  it  from  Alexandrian  is  its 
acceptance  of  the  Scripture  as  the  inalienable  herit- 
age of  Israel.  The  Bible  was  a  Jewish  revelation, 
so  that  any  hidden  import  discovered  by  means  of 
allegorism  was  an  inherent  part  of  the  history  or  of 
the  religious  life,  the  Torali  of  Ihe  Jews.  An  excel- 
lent exemplar  of  Palestinian  allegorism 

Book  of     is  alTorded  liy  the  15ook  ok  Jiiiii.KES. 

Jubilees.  The  periods  iirescribed  in  Lev.  xii. 
for  the  purification  of  women  are  de- 
duced by  it  from  the  legend  that  Adam  was  forty 
days  old  when  he  entered  Paradise,  and  I^ve  eighty 
(iii.  9);  in  vi.  1.").  the  Feast  of  Weeks  is  associated 
with  God's  covenant  with  Xoali  after  the  Hood. 
These  interpretations  are  strictly  Haggadot  rather 
than  allegorisms,  but  nevertheless  they  show  the  ty- 
pological character  of  Palestinian  allegorism  in  the 
endeavor  to  expound  the  pre-JIosaic  period  by  the 
light  of  the  later  period  of  the  Law. 

The  oldest  form  of  Palestinian  deritxh  (exposition), 
already  archaic  in  the  year  70  of  the  common  era,  is 
that  of  the  niDICTCm  Symbolists,  literally  "inter- 
preters of  signs"  ;  called  also  nniOn  T.  "interpreters 
of  parables"  (Ber.  'iAn:  see  liacher,  "Die  Aelteste 
Terminologie,"  a.r.).  Their  nielhod  is  allegorical 
or  symbolically  allegorical;  thus:  "they  found  no 
water"  (Kx.  xv.  22)  means  "no  Torah,"  as  in  Isa.  Iv. 
1  ;  "and  (bid  showed  JIoscs  a  tree."  that  means  God 
taught  him  — a  play  upon  the  word  imVV  which 
means  "  to  teach."  as  well  as  "  lo  show  " — Ihe  Law,  as 
it  is  said.  Prov.  iii.  IS."  It  isa  tree  of  life  "  (Mek..  Bc- 
shallah,\Vayassa',  i.  1).  Anolher instruclivi'i'xample 
isthe  following:  The  Symbolists  say  that  all.  even 
the  wiek<ilest.  kings  of  Israel  shall  enbr  tlic>  future 
world,  as  it  is  said.  Ps.  lx.9;  "Gilead  is  mine"  means 
Ahab  who  fell  at  Hamoth  Gilead ;  "and  >hinas.seh  is 
mine,"  that  is.  lilendly.  King  Manasseh;  "  Ephraim 
is  the  strength  of  mini'  head  "  means  .leioboam  who 
wasan  Ephraimile;  "Judah  is  my  law  giver"  means 
Ahilhopiiel,  who  was  of  Ihi'  tribe  of  Jiiduli;  "  Moab 
is  my  waslipol  "  means  Gehazi;  "Over  Edom  will  I 
I'asI  out  mv  sh(M'"  means  DcH'g,  Ihe 
The  Eilomile  (Siinh.  lO-lA). 

Essenes.  Closely  alliid  wiili  this  ancient  form 
of  Palesiinian  allegorism  must  have 
l«en  that  of  the  Kssknks.  The  author  of  a  book 
somelimes  ascribed  lo  Philo  reports  that  among  Iho 
Es.seni'S.  after  the  public  reading  from  the  Seriplure. 
"anolliir.    who   belongs  to  Ihe   most  learned,  steps 


Allegrorical  Interpretation 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


406 


forwaixl  mill  ex|)oun<ls  tlint  which  is  not  known,  for 
iu  grcalfst  part  such  men  explain  liy  means  of  sym- 
bols in  the  old  fushioneil  manner"  ("QuikI  omnis 
probus  liber,"  .\ii.  I.  They  certainly  posses.seil  many 
such  allegorical  interpretations  of  Scripture  in  wri- 
ting (see  Philo,  "Dc  Vita  Coutcmpliitiva,"  iii.). 

To  Ikase  upon  the  alKive  nttort  the  iiiferenro  that  Essene 
allefforlsin  wiut  dniwn  fn>m  Hellenic  soun-es— iks  Zeller  ("Phl- 
liK4i.)phie  iter  liriwlien,"  vol,  ili,  |>art  2,  p.  :JH:il  ha.s  done— l.s 
<Tnmeous:  for  no  .\Iexan(trinn  would  liuve  spoken  so  dLspani- 
f^lnKly  of  Ilellenle  ulli-norlsni  as  (o  call  It  ■'old-fiu!hlom'<l," 
whereas  the  .Mexandrians  may  well  have  deemed  the  Pak^llnlan 
Allegorical  Interpretation  out  of  date — it  waiS  too  Judaic  for 
them. 

The  early  Haggadot  of  the  Tannaim  contain  only 
few  specimens  of  their  Allegorical  Interpretation. 
H.  .Jdliaiian  b.  ZakUai  is  cicililed  with 
Early  live  iillegoricul  interpretations,  four 
Tannaim.  of  wliicli  icfer  to  Biblical  i)as,s}tgcs 
(Ex.  XX.  10,2.");  .xxxii.  1(!:  Ijcv.  iv,  22; 
see  Tosef,,  B.  K.  vii.  3),  and  it  is  lemarked  that  he 
explained  theScripturesasa  paraboliccharm  {kt»i>er): 
that  is.  allegorically,  in  the  stylo  of  the  Syniliolists, 
nnion  'tnn  (Bachcr,  "Ag.  Tan."  i.  33).  This  ap- 
l)Hes  also  to  U.  Johaiian's  younger  contemporary 
Gamaliel  II.  (Sotah.  I'tn).  But  the  allegori/.crof  this 
]>eiiod  is  Eleazar  of  Modiiiu,  an  uncle,  according  to 
rabbinical  tradition,  of  Bar  Kokba.  The  Mekilta 
upon  Ex.  xvii.  8  contains  a  running  allegorization. 
Thus:  Ainalck's  on.sct  was  directed  against  those 
who  were  weak  in  faith,  wherefore  Moses  sent  men 
without  sin  to  their  protection.  "The  top  of  the 
hill."  where  Moses  took  his  stand,  signifies  the  pious 
deeds  of  the  patriarchs  and  matriarclis,  who  are  con- 
sidered as  till'  highest  pinnacles  of  the  human  race. 
"  Moses'  hands  became  heavy  "  wliene\'er  Israel 's  sins 
])revented  the  effects  of  prayer.  Aaron  and  Ilur 
represented  the  merits  of  their  progenitors  Levi 
and  Judah.  Jloses  vanquished  Amaiek  by  his 
jirayers.  wherefore  it  is  written  in  verse  13,  'S?. 
3-)ri,  literally,  "by  the  mouth  of  the  sword  ";  by  the 
movith,  prayer  replaces  the  sword.  Many  such  alle- 
gorical interpretations  by  R.  Kleazar  are  contained 
in  the  Miilrashim  (see  Bacher.  l.r.  i.  211  it  ser/.). 

Though  .\kiba  is  not  quoted  as  the  atitlior  of  so 
many  allegorisms  as  Eleazar,  he  is  known  as  the 
first  tanna  to  allegorize  an  entire 
Akiba  book  of  the  Bible,  the  Song  of  Solo- 
and  His  mon.  This  was  undoubtedly  an  im- 
School.  iiortant  factor  in  iiuelling  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  canonization  of  this  book 
(Mishnah  Yail.  iii.  :■>).  Fiom  the  scant  remains  of 
this  allegory  only  so  much  is  evident,  that  he  per- 
ceived in  the  Song  of  Solomon  a  representation  of 
the  relations  between  God  and  Israel,  portraying  in 
its  passages  the  most  conspicuous  events  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  nation,  past  and  to  come.  Alongside  of 
this  typological  interpretaticm  of  this  book,  the  es- 
sential features  of  which  have  been  crystallized  in 
Targum  and  .Midrash,  there  may  have  stood  that 
mystical  intcrpntation  which,  according  to  Origen 
("Canticum  Canticorum,"  hom.  iv.),  was  held  in 
such  high  esteem  among  the  Palestinian  Jews  that  ils 
study  was  forbidden  to  those  not  of  mature  years. 
Akiba's  as.sorti(m  (Mishnah,  ^'•.)that  the  Song  of 
Solomon  is  "of  the  holiest  of  the  holy,"  sounds  in  it- 
self somewhat  mystical.  Akiba's  favorite  pupil,  H. 
Meir,  added  to  his  master's  interpretation  of  the  l)ook 
in  the  same  spirit;  thus  upon  cli.  i.  verse  12,  he  ex 
plains,  "  while  the  King  sitleth  at  his  table,  the  spike- 
nard scndeth  forth  the  smell  thereof,"  as  signifying 
that  while  the  King  of  Kings  was  in  heaven  occu- 
pied in  giving  the  Law  to  Moses,  Israel  fell  into  sin 
(Ex.  xxxii.)  with  the  golden  cM.  of  which  it  is  said, 
"These  be  thy  gods,  O  Israel"  (Cant.  R.,  in  loco). 


From  the  controversy  that  arose  between  Meir  and 
Judah  b.  Ilai  conciTiiing  this  exposition,  it  is  evident 
that  there  were  other  pupils  of  Akiba  who  accepted 
his  typo-allegorical  method  of  inlerpretalion.  .>leir 
was  in  so  far  independent  of  contempomries  that  he 
.saw  also  the  sinister  events  of  Israel's  history  de- 
picted in  tlie  book,  while  the  genend  undeislanding 
was  that,  being  a  love  song  between  God  and  Israel, 
it  could  therefore'  contain  nothing  in  the  way  of 
reproach.  Meir  allegorized  the  earliest  Bible  his- 
toiy  as  well :  his  explanation  of  iiy  nun3  "coats  of 
skin"  (Gen.  iii.  21)  as  mx  nunS  "coats  of  light" 
(Gen.  R.  xx.  12)  is  interesiing;  the  .same  idea  played 
quite  a  part  in  the  earlier  Gnostic  and  Chiistian 
literature. 

Concerning  R.  Judah,  the  editor  of  the  Mishnah, 
the  important  statement  is  made  that  he  interpreted 
the  Book  of  Joli  as  an  allegorical  rep- 
Judab.  the  resentation  of  the  sin  and  punishment 
Patriarch,  of  the  generation  of  the  ttooil  (Gen, 
R.  xxvi.  7).  Many  allegorisms  are 
quoted  in  the  names  of  hisdiseiph'S.  Bar  Kappara  in- 
terprets Ja<-ob'sdieam  (Gen.  xxviii.  12)  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  "A  ladder  set  upon  th<'  earth,"  that  is 
the  Tenqile:  "the  top  of  it  reaching  to  heaven," 
that  is  the  pillar  of  smoke  from  the  sacrifices;  "the 
angels  ascending  and  descending  on  it,"  thi'se  are 
the  priests  who  mount  and  descend  the  steps  leading 
to  the  altar;  "and  behold  the  Lord  stood  above  it," 
that  refers  to  .\mos,  ix.  1.  "  I  saw  the  I»rd  standing 
upon  theallar"  (Gen.  R.  Ixviii.  12).  Raband  Samuel, 
Ihe  founders  of  the  academies  in  Babylonia,  are  also 
named  as  the  authors  of  allegorisms  which,  how- 
ever, have  nothing  specifically  Babylonian  about 
them,  but  are  quite  in  the  spiiit  of  Palestinian 
interpretation. 

\Vhile  the  Babylonian  schools  did  very  little  for 
the  Haggadah  in  general  and  for  allegory  in  partic- 
ular, in  Palestine  the  golden  age  of 
Palestinian  allegorisin  dawned  wln>n  the  Amoraim 
Amoraim.  interjireted  everything  in  the  Bible — 
legend,  history,  and  law — in  an  alle- 
gorical manner.  But  it  would  be  incorrect  to  at- 
tribute the  vast  allegorical  material  of  Midrash 
and  Talmud  exclusively  to  the  particular  Amoraim 
named  as  their  authors.  In  Ihe  tradition  of  the  Hag- 
gadah, the  subject  matter  was  everything.  Ihe  name 
of  the  author  nothing:  so  that  the  sjime  Haggadah 
is  continually  found  quoted  with  dilTerent  sponsoi-s 
"who  applied  the  traditional  interpretation  to  their 
own  times.  It  is  hardly  to  be  suppo.seil  that  a  new 
and  sudden  develojiment  of  the  tendency  toward 
allegorization  took  place  at  any  one  epoch.  Only 
latei  generations  which  had  the  older  material  be- 
fore them  compiled  that  of  the  various  epochs*.  The 
following  illustrations  are  taken  from  different  parts 
of  Ihe  Pentateuch:  R.  Simeon  b.  Lakish  exjiiains 
the  second  verse  of  Gen.  i.  as  follows:  "The  earth 
was  without  form,"  that  means  Babylon:  "and 
void,"  that  means  Media:  "and  darkness,"  that 
means  Greece  (the  Antiochian  persecutions);  "upon 
the  face  of  the  deep,"  that  means  the  wicked  em- 
pire (Rome);  "And  the  spirit  of  God  moved,"  that 
means  the  spirit  of  the  Mes,siah;  "upon  the  face  of 
the  waters."  that  is,  when  Israel  shall  be  repentant; 
for  water  (compare  Lam.  ii.  19)  symbolizes  repent- 
ance (Gen.  R.  ii.  4). 

Again,  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise  represent  the 
four  great  kingdoms  of  the  world  :  Pishon  is  Baby- 
lon, after  Hab.  i.  8 — the  land  of  Havilah  which  it 
compasses  being  Israel  that  watcheth  for  (np'nin)  the 
Lord  (Ps.  xlii.  6)  and  has  the  gold  of  the  Law.  Gihon 
is  Media,  the  home  of  Haman,  the  serpent-like 
crawler  (pnj.  Gen.  iii.  14):  Iliddekel  is  the  Seleucid 


407 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Allegorical  Interpretation 


monarchy  with  its  sharp  (in)  ami  rapid  (7p)  anti- 
Jowisli  jefrislatioii ;  Eupiiratcs  (Pcral)  is  IJiinii-  llie 
destroyer  (TEjn).  the  wine-press  (mi3,  Isa.  Ixiii.  I!) 
of  tlie  Lord  ((><-ii.  K.  xvi.  -J).  Sucii  leehiiieal  mat- 
ters as  I  hi'  preeeiilseoiieerniiif;  clean  iiiiiiiials  are  also 
covered  liy  allef,'ori/.alion  ;  hut  it  iiuist  never  fora  mo- 
ment lie  li)r;;otten  that  tliroiiii;lioiit  Palestinian  alle- 
gorism  tlie  literal  word  of  tlie  Law  is  endowed  w  itii 
coniplele  reality,  and  any  alleirorieal  ineanini;  found 
in  it  is  always  secondary  to  the  import  of  its  literal 
senso  and  does  not  in  any  way  displace  it.  Thus  in 
Lev.  .\i.  4-H,  "tlie  camel"  means  lial>ylon  "  hecauselie 
dieweth  the  cud."  for  the  Haliylonians  praise  God 
(Dan.  iv.  ;il);  "and  thi'  coney."  that  is  jMedia,  because 
the  Medians  likewise  |)nuse  God;  "and  the  hare  be- 
cau.se  he  chewelh  the  cud,"  that  means  Greece,  for 
Alexander  the  Gicat  praised  God  ;  "and  the  swine," 
that  is  Kdom  (Home);  "he  cheweth  not  the  cud,"  he 
not  alone  prais<'th  not  God  l)ul  cur.seth  and  blasphe- 
melh  Ilim  (Lev.  R.  xiii.  '>).  The  precedini;  e.\am|iles 
of  Palestinian  alle;;ory  were  concerned  with  Israel 
and  its  history;  but  there  are  also  many  ethical  doc- 
trines in  the  form  of  alleirories.  lhoU!;h  jii'rhaps  they 
are  not  so  numerous  as  the  preeedinir  species.  Thus, 
for  instance.  H.  .lohanan  explains  the  iiassage.  Num. 
X.xi.  27;  "Wherefore  they  that  speak  in  proverbs 
say."  so  as  to  refer  to  those  who  control  their  pas- 
sions (D'i'tlOn);  "come  into  Heshtjon,"  is  inter- 
preted as  "let  us  estimate  [JiaCTll  the  good  and  the 

bad  and  weigh  them  against  each  oilier."  "  I,et  it 
lie  biiill  and  set  up."  "if  thou  doest  thus,  measuring 
good  and  evil,  thou  slialt  be  built  iipand  established 
in  this  world  and  in  the  world  to  come,"  etc.  (B. 
B.  784).  The  whole  is  interesting  inasmuch  as  it 
showstliattheallegorizationof  liiblical  proper  names 
was  by  no  means  exclusively  the  characteristic  of 
Alexanilrian  allegorisni;  the  Palestinians  were  very 
fond  of  it.  as  shown  by  their  interpretation  of  the 
gi'iiealogical  lists  in  ('hroni<les.  fragnieiils  of  which 
liave  found  their  wav  into  tlie  'IVilnnid.  .Meg.  V,i/j,  B. 
B.  !•!'',  Sifre  Num.  7S.  and  Kulli  K.  repeatedly. 

Of  anagogic  allegory — which.  iK-cording  to  Ori- 
gen.  was  a  favorite  mode  among  the  .lews  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  Song  of  Songs  especially — there 
ail'  but  very  few  siieciniens  in  rabbinical  literature. 
Thus  a  passage  in  Pirke  U.  K.l.  xxi.,  the  close  rela- 
tionship of  which  with  (inoslie  ideas  has  been  dem- 
oiisliatid  by  Gin/.beig  ("  MoMatsschrift."  IH'JU.  224). 
in  coninieiiiinir  on  Gen.  iii.  3.  interprets  the  sin  of 
])aradise  as  lieiiig  sensual  gratilication. 

Alli'gory  ill  the  Turgums  is  lianlly  different  from 
that  of  the  Midiiish.     Onkelos  is  almost  entirely  free 

from  it.  though  h ■easionally  uses  it. 

The  as  on  Gen.  xlix.  ;   llii'  I'aleslinian  Tar- 

Targums.  gums  frecpienlly  make  use  of  it.  The 
Targuni  to  the  Prophets,  especially 
that  upon  Isaiah,  frecpieiilly  eniploysalh-gory.  The 
Targum  to  the  Song  of  Solomon  is  an  allegorical 
.Midrash  in  itself.  presi'rve<l  in  part  in  the  Midiash 
Ujibbah  upon  the  book. 

Even  those  two  jiromineni  defeiidiTs  of  lilinil  in 

terpretalion(/i('«//'(Ol*a'*'i'"""l  "'"  I'-'ra.  alsoal  limes 

siK'cumbeil  to  till'  intliienee  of  allegor 

Kashi  and    iealexposilion.    This  is  especially  true 

Ibn  Ezra.     eoneerningtheSoiigof  Soloinoii,  which 

is    inlerpT'led    allegorically    by   both 

writers,  alllioiigh  in  varying  fiusliion,    Kashi. the  head 

of  the  I'Vench  school  of  exegesis,  sees  in  the  book, 

like  .\kiba.  the  history  of  Isniel,  or.  more  properly, 

the  history  of  Israel's  siitlerings,  while  Ibn  V./.m.  like 

a  philosoplier,  descries  in  it  an  allegory  of  the  inii 

mall-  union  of  the  soul  with  the  universal  intelli 

gence.  and  ('xplains  il  accordingly. 


It  would  seem  that  when  the  Araliian- Greek  phi- 
losophy took  root  among  the  Jews,  a  pliilosophico- 
allegorical  treatment  of  Scripture  gradually  devel- 
oped. The  Karaite  Solomon  b.  Jeroham  mentions 
lienjamin  Nahaweiidi  as  the  first  Jew- 
Philosophic  ish  allegorisi  (Piiisker.  "Likkute  Kad- 
AUegory.  moniot,"  ii.  KJtl),  lint  the  illustration  he 
gives  is  quoted  literally  from  the  Mid- 
rash  Kalibah  on  Ecclesiastcs,  so  that  he  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  prove  Ids  statement  by  it.  Shaliaraslaiii 
(Ilaarbritcker,  p.  2")(!)indeed  relat"es  of  Jiidgan  of  Ila- 
madiin.  a  conteniiiomry  of  Benjamin  (about  8(J0), 
that  lie  explains  Scripture  allegorically  and  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  custoni  of  the  Jews,  i  low  ever  niueh  the 
Jewish  ]ihilosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages  may  have 
agreed  with  the  Alexandrians  that  revelation  and 
philosophy  taught  the  same  truth,  they  contrived 
generally  to  avoid  tlie  mistakeof  the  latter  in  strain- 
ing to  iirove  this  by  means  of  the  most  artificial 
and  far-fetched  allegorization.  Saadia.  the  pioneer 
in  Jewish  religious  philosophy,  laid 
Saadia.  down  a  rule  for  the  em|iloynient  of 
allegory  which  was  recognizeil  gener- 
ally until  the  time  of  Maimonides;  it  was  that  Alle- 
gorical Interpretation  is  only  admissible  in  the  four 
following  cases:  where  the  text  contnidicts  (<i)  real- 
ity. {/>)  reason,  (c)  another  text,  or  tinally  (//)  rabbin- 
ical tradition  (.sec.  vii.  p.  212  of  the  Arabic  text  in 
Landauer).  Saadia  himself  uses  tlie.se  rules  in  in- 
terpreting the  anthropomorphisms  of  the  Bible  as 
conllicting  alike  with  reason  and  tniilition.  He  also 
shows  how  dangerous  a  free  treat iiieiit  of  the  literal 
word  might  become  by  showing  how  the  Biblical 
account  of  Creation,  and  the  history  of  the  Patri- 
archs, and  even  the  precepts  themselves,  could  be 
so  allegorized  away  that  nothing  of  Holy  Scripture 
would  remain.  Saadia's  view  of  the  proper  use  of 
Allegorical  Interpretation  was  accepted  by  Baliyaibn 
Pakiida,  Abniliani  b  Iliyya,  Abraham  ibn  Daud.  and 
Judah  ha  Levi.  The  last-named,  by  virlue  of  his 
anlipliiloso|ilii('al  bent,  even  found  a  way  to  defend 
the  literal  conception  of  the  Bible'sanlhropomorphic 
expres.sions;  comiiare  also  S.\.mi'KI.  n.  Hoi'iiM. 

t^uile  apart  stands  Solomon  ibn  (iabirol,  who  in 
his    philosophy  gave  no  consideration   to  Judaism, 
iiut  in  his  exegesis  frenuenlly  made 
Solomon      useofAllegiu-ical  Interpretation.     His 
ibn  method  is  ipiile  Philonie,  wilhout  be- 

Gabirol.  iiig  inlluenced,  however,  either  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  by  I'liilo.  Here  is 
an  example  of  Gabirol's  Allegorical  Interpretation 
as  (pioted  by  Ilm  Ezra  (compare  Baelier,  "  Die  Bibel- 
exege.se  der  JUdisehen  Keligioiisphilosophen,"  p.  46; 
ICaiifniann.  "  Stiidien  liber  Solomon  b.  Gabirol")  in 
hiseoinmenlarv  ujion  (ieiiisis.  Paradise  is  the  world 
supernal ;  the  garden,  the  visibli'  world  of  the  pious. 
The  river  going  forth  out  of  Eden  is  universal  mailer, 
lis  four  separating  streams  are  the  four  elements. 
Adam,  K\r.  and  the  .serpent  represent  the  three 
souls;  Adam,  who  bestows  names.  repres<'iiling  the 
rational  soul.  Eve  the  animal  soul  (the  living  nin). 
anil  the  serpent  the  vegetative.  Thus,  when  it  is 
said  that  the  serpent  shall  eat  dust,  it  indicates  that 
llie  vegelalive  soul  cleaves  to  the  dust  of  material- 
isiii.  The  coats  of  skins  typify  the  body  :  the  tree  of 
life  is  the  pereeplioli  of  the  upper  intelligible  worhl, 
just  as  the  cherubim,  the  angels,  are  the  intelligible 
beings  of  the  upper  world.  In  addition  to  this  alle- 
gory of  Gabirol's.  Ibn  Ezra  i|Uoti'S  another  inter- 
preiation  of  Jacob's  dream  ;  but  while  it  is  possible 
that  he  may  have  applied  this  iiielhod  to  visions  or 
similar  pii'isages  of  the  Bible,  it  is  allopelher  >m- 
likelv  that  he  prisuineil  to  apply  it  either  to  the  Ij»w 
or  to  the  historical  events  chronicled  in  Scripture. 


Alleg-orical  Interpretation 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


408 


The  head  and  front  of  all  philosophical  alleporism 
among  the  Jews  in  the  Middle  Aires  was  iiiiiloiiht- 

edly  Mainionides.  although  of  en'irsc 

Maimon-     he  Van  not  be  held  responsible  for  the 

ides.  exeessive  use  made  of  it  by  those  who 

followed  in  his  footsteps.  He  was  the 
first  Jewish  thinker  to  si't  up  the  principle  that  the 
supertieial  sense  of  Scripture  compares  with  the  inner 
or  allegorical  signitication  as  silver  does  with  gold. 
The  benefit  to  be  drawn  by  men  from  the  lileral 
word  is  quite  insignilicant  <'oni pared  with  that  de 
rivable  from  the  perception  of  that  deeper  truth 
which  may  be  learned  from  the  word's  inmost  sense 
(Fntroiluclion  to  the  "  Jloreh,"  Arabic  te.xt.  (i//).  Mai- 
inonidesdistinguishes  two  kinds  of  allegorism — that 
of  each  individual  word  of  a  passage  and  that  of  the 
passage  as  a  whole.  Of  the  former  liis  interjireta- 
tion  of  Jacob's  dream  is  an  example.  The  "angels  " 
are  the  prophets,  wlio  "ascend"  the  hnlder  of  |)er- 
ception  ;  "  whose  to|)  reached  to  heaven  "—that  is.  to 
(}od — who  forever  "stands"  above  it.  When  the 
angels  have  reached  a  certain  height  of  iK'rce]ition 
"they  descend  on  it"  in  order  to  instruct  men  ("  Mo- 
reh."  i.  15,  22).  The  .second  kind  is  illustrated  by 
Prov.  vii.  5,  where  in  tlie  admonition  against  the 
adidterous  woman  he  iicrceives  the  warning  against 
all  carnal  desires;  for  woman  is  the  allegorical  des- 
ignation for  matter,  or  the  animal  craving  (Introd. 
7rt,  S(i).  Concerning  the  relation  of  the  inner  mean- 
ing to  the  .superficial  one,  JIainionides  somewhat 
inconsistently  d(!clares  that  the  literal  sense  nuist 
give  way  when  it  contradicts  the  postidates  of  phi- 
losophy, and  yet  he  leaves  the  Bililical  miracles  and 
many  prophecies  midisturlied  in  llirir  literal  accep- 
tation, as  not  being  irrecoiieilable  with  his  particular 
jihilosophy.  His  statement  that  if  the  eternity  of  the 
world  were  philosophiially  proven,  "the  gates  of 
Alle.sorical  Interpretation  would  not  lie  closed" 
(for  this  view,  see  Bacher,  "  Bibelexegese  Mose 
Maimuni's,"  pp.  l-t-17,  So),  is  characteristic.  All 
legal  enactments,  however,  must  be  taken  literally, 
and  he  energetically  protests  against  that  Christian 
allegorization  of  the  Law  which  entirely  strips  away 
and  destroys  the  significance  of  its  conunands  and 
prohibitions  ("Iggeret  Teinan,"  eil.  Vienna,  1874. 
p.  18).  Maimoniiies'  allegorism  is  tlnis  confined,  as 
it  were,  between  thcbarriersof  his  rationalism  on  the 
one  hand  and  his  fidelity  to  tradition  on  the  other. 
But  his  interpretation  of  the  Canticles (",Moreh,"iii. 
51,  r2(>)andof'Job(('i('(/.  iii.  22.  4-14  f<.«('7.)  contains  pre- 
monitions of  that  excessive  allegorization  which  after 
his  death  so  strongly  menaced  the  position  of  ralibin- 
icalJudaism  in  southern  France.  Maimonides"  modest 
conceptions  of  allegorism  luidoubtcdly  influenced 
such  writers  as  David  Kindii.  as  Bacher  (AVinter  and 
Wunsche,"JudischcLiteratur,"ii.  316)  points  out,  so 
that  the  attempt  to  set  up  Samuel  ibn  Tibbon  as 
the  originator  of  the  Proven(;al  school  of  allegorists, 
with  the  a-ssumption  of  Christian  infiuence.  is  en- 
tirely gratuitous.  Ibn  Tilibon's  allegorism  in  his 
work."  Yikkawu  liaMayim,"  is  jihysieal  rather  than 
ethical,  as  the  Greek  philo.sophers  would  say — thai  is, 
occupies  itself  chiefly  with  the  Being  of  (!od  and 
with  natural  phenomena — whereas  Christian  or  Phi- 
lonie  allegorism,  which  is  by  some  claimed  to  have 
influenced  him.  is  mainly  ethical,  seeking  in  Scrip- 
ture for  the  philosophical  foundation  of  moral  truths 
and  of  the  idea  of  man's  relation  to  Cod. 

In  the  Maimonidcan  "Pirke  ha-Ha/.lahah  "  (Chap- 
ters on  Happiness)  —  largely  interpolated  by  later 
writers  (see  Bacher.  in  "jew.  Quart.  Rev."  i.\.  27(1- 
289)  — and  tlie  "Ethical  Will"  (Zawwaah),  falsely 
ascribed  to  Maimonides,  the  allegorization  of  Bil>- 
lical  personages  and  events  is  carried  still  further; 


Pharaoh  is  the  evil  inclination;  Moses,  the  intellect ; 
Egypt,  the  body;  her  princes,  its  members;  the  land 
of  Goshen,  the  heart.     Thus  the  Bib- 
Pseudo-      Ileal  narrative  connected  with  these  is 
Maimoni-    simply  a  representation  of  the  conflict 
dean  'Wri-    between    human    rea.son   and   luiman 
tings.         pa.ssion  for  sujieriority  in  man.     Even 
the  minute  and  t<(hnical    details   of 
the  construction   of  the  desert  talicrnaeli'  are  alle- 
gorized into  a  physiological  portrayal  of  the   hu- 
man body,   its  mend]ers  and  their  functions.     Al- 
though this  "higher  wisdom  "at  first  <lid  not  dare 
to  undermine  tlie  historical  an<l  legal  pas.sages  of 
Scri])ture.  accepting  them  in  their  true  liti'ralness, 
it  was  not  long  before  it  aspired  to  complete  iidiu- 
ence  over  the  whole  range  of  Scriptural  int<'riireta- 
tion.     The  fundamental   proposition   of  these  alle- 
gorists was  then   fornudateil,  to  the  effect  that  all 
the   narrative  ])ortions  of  Scripture,  and  especially 
those  from  the  initial  verse  of  (Jenesis  down  to  F..\. 
XX.  2.  are  not  to  be  taken  literally ;  jnD  IJ?  n't;*S"l3D 
biifi  h^n  min  "From  Creation  to  I{evelati(m  all  is 
parable  "  (Minhat  Kenaot,  p.  1.53);  and  that  even  some 
of  the  legislative  enactments  are  to  be  undi-rstood 
symbolically.     First  of  the  conservative  allegorists 
who  respected  the  literal  word  was  Jacob  b.  Abba 
Mari  Anatoli,  at   the   beginning  of  the    thirteenth 
century.     In  his  "  Ma  I  mad  ha  Talniidim  "  (Goad  for 
Scholars),  he  allegorizes  the  story  of  Noah  to  the 
effect  that,  in  order  to  preserve  himself  against  the 
waters  of  sin,  every  man  nnist  make  himself  an  ark 
o\it  of  his  good  deeds,  and  this  ark  nuist  consist  of 
three  stories,  the  mathematical,  jihysical.  and  meta- 
physical elements  (I.e.  Via).    Even  Anatoli,  however, 
understands  the  Wisdom-Books  of  the 
The  Oppo-    Bible  to  consist  of  philosophical  retlec- 
sition  to      lions  oidy.     Although  Levy  b.  Abra- 
Maimon-      ham,  of  Villefranche,  who  was  so  prom- 
ides,  inent  in  the  conflict  concerning  Mai- 
monides, protests  most  stoutly  against 
radical  allegorism,  he,  in  his  "Liwyat  Hen."  never- 
theless allegorizes  the  campaign  of  the  four  kings 
against  five  (Gen.  xiv.),  making  of  Chedorlaomer  u 
representation  of  the  Imagination,  the  leader  in  the 
battle  of  the  five  senses  against  the  four  elements. 

From  the  same  school  also  came  purely  allegor- 
ical commentaries  U]ion  Scripture,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing, out  of  the  few  fragments  extant  to-day,  is 
an  illustration;  "Out  of  the  house  of  Levi"  (Ex.  ii. 

1 ) — that  means,  from  organic  corporal  a.ssociation  ('p 
luiioni — "went  a  man" — that  is.  Form — and  "look 
to  wife  a  daughter  of  Levi  ";  Form  unites  with  Mat- 
ter. From  this  union  a  S(m  is  born.  Reason.  "The 
datighfer  of  Pharaoh  "  is  Active  Reason,  who  is  the 
daughter  of  God  the  Hecompenser  (nSTlD,  derived 
from  )}-\S-  to  recompense),  and  who  is  therefore 
called  Bithiah  (literally,  the  daughter  of  God),  as 
]Moses'  adoptive  mother  was  traditionally  named 
(Meg.  13<0.  It  is  of  the  nature  of  Active  Reason 
to  work  among  lower  beings,  and  make  their  pas- 
sive reason  active  reason  too;  wherefore  it  is  said 
(verse  5)  "the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  came  down" 
(compare  the  Zunz  "  Jubelschrift,"  p.  159).  That  such 
explanations  of  Scrijiture  in  point  of  fact  are  tanta- 
mount to  a  perfect  negation  of  its  words  is  in- 
controvertible, and  the  conservatives  of  Provence 
were  justified  in  op|iosing  it  by  all  the  means  at 
their  command.  The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
France  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century 
put  an  end  to  the  conflict,  but  the  subversive  prin- 
ciples of  extreme  allegorism  had  no  doubt  by  that 
time  been  completely  checked.  Gersonides,  un- 
doubtedly  the  most  "important  genius  among  the 


409 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Allegorical  Interpretation 


allegorists  of  the  fourteeiitli  century,  never  thought 
of  allegorizing  historical  or  legislative  passages,  and 
instead  contented  himself  with  a  philosophical  expo- 
sition of  Proverbs  and  .Job.  and  that  in  a  most  con- 
servative manner.  Aconlrmporary.  the  Portuguese 
David  b.  Yom-Tob  ibn  Bilia.  unconscious  in  his  re- 
mote country  of  the  conflict  between  philosophy  and 
orthodo.xy.  was  alone  at  this  period  in  giving  an  Al- 
legorical Interpretation  to  the  miracles  and  narra- 
tives of  Scripture. 

A  curious  fact,  characteristic  of  the  varied  mental 
gifts  of  the  Polish  Jews,  is  that  Moses  Isserles,  called 
I{jiina  (N  D1>.  the  greatest  rabbinical  authority  of  Po- 
liind  in  the  si.vteenth  century,  imitated  the  Provencal 
allegorists,  some  two  hundred  years  after  them,  l>y 
allegorizing  the  Book  of  Esther.  The  qinirrel  be- 
tween Ahasucrus  and  Vashti  is  the  conflict  betweiMi 
Form  and  Matter  in  the  universe,  just  as  l^lato  had 
presented  the  sjime  opposition  of  existence  as  that 
of  man  and  woman.  The  tive  senses  and  the  tiv<- 
powers  of  organic  life  are  symbolized  for  I.sserles  in 
the  ten  sons  of  llanuin,  who  is  himself  the  Evil  In- 
clination (Commentary  on  KsiIk  r,  "Mehir  Yayin'i. 
Though  conservatism  may  thus  be  siud  to  have 
vanquished  philosophical  allegorism  in  the  four- 
teenth century  and  brought  it  to  a 
Mystical  halt,  it  could  not  prevent  its  develo])- 
Allegorism.  nient  in  another  direction  into  that 
mystical  ailigorism,  which  in  its  turn 
became  the  most  prcdonunant  melhod  of  liiblical 
interpretation.  As  far  back  as  the  "  Scfir  ha  Bahir  " 
(first  half  of  the  twelfth  cenluryl  this  tendency  ha<l 
held  sway  in  certain  (pnirters.  anil  it  has  survived 
down  to  the  latest  cabali.stic  work  of  modern  Has- 
idim.  The  "'Bahir"  is  the  oldest  cabalistic  w'ork 
of  this  kind.  It  says,  "The  earth  was  without  form 
and  void"  (Gen.  i.  2):  the  word  "was"  indicates 
that  something  was  already  existent:  "void"  also 
shows  that  there  was  a  something;  thus  the  pre- 
existence  of  the  universe  before  Creation  is  deduced 
from  Scripture. 

Though  Nahmanides  made  onh'  a  scant  use  of 
allegorism  in  liis  Bible  commentary,  he  was  the 
chief  Talmudic  authority  of  his  age  who  with 
great  insistence  spoke  a  good  word  for  it,  and  a 
pupil  of  his,  Bahya  b.  Aslier,  was  the  tirst  to  define 
the  advantages  of  mystic  allegorism  over  other 
modes  of  iiiterpntalion.  While  adnutting  the  merits 
of  pm/itit  (the  literal  meaning),  of  iyiiwz  (i)hilosoph- 
ical  allegorism),  and  ilcnmh  (exposi(ion),  he  claims 
thatonly  in  the  path  of  the  *<«/(( 'abala)  is  there  light 
(Introd.  to  Pentateuch  conuiienlary,  begun  in  1291). 
In  hisconunentary  he  never  fails  to  take  cognizance 
of  this  mystical  interpretjition ;  thus  he  sees  in  the 
thra;  festivals,  the  symbols  of  the  three  Sefirot,  /««</ 
(love),  ilin  (justice),  and  rdhniiihii  (mercy),  the  last  of 
which  estalilishes  e(|uilibrium  between  the  former 
two,  which  are  nnittial  opposites.  In  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  Jews  from  Egypt,  (Jod's  love  was  dis- 
played ;  in  the  revelation  upon  iSinai,  His  mercy,  the 
intermediary  between  justice  and  love;  and  on  the 
festividof  the  Holy  Spirit  (Tabernacles),  the  Sefirali 
of  din  (justice)  stood  revealed,  an  emanation  of 
hokmiih  (wisdom).  ("Conunenlarv,  I)eut."e<l.  Hiva 
di  Trento,  p  -J.Wi.) 

The  masterpiece  of  Jewish  allegorism.  anil  next  to 

Philo's  writings  the  most  interesting  and  most  inllu- 

enlial  product   of  its  kind,  is  the  cele- 

Zohar.        bnited  Zohar  (Splendor),  the  gospel  of 

the  Jewish   mysticism  of  tlu'   Middle 

Ages.     It  was  this  allegorical  commentary  upon  thr 

Pentjiteuch  that  coined  the  Iitiii   FaRDeS  (DTID 

Panidise)  for  the  four  speeirs  of  Bn)lical  inlirpnla- 

tion.fonningit  from  their  initial  letters.  thusPushat 


(literal  meaning).  Kemez  (allegorical),  Derush.  (hag- 
gadic  or  lialakic  interpretation),  and  Sod  (mystic 
meaning).  As  secondary  formsof  these  four,  the  Zo- 
har mentions  in  a  passage  (iii.  'H)iii.  ed.  Amsterdam) 
the  following  .seven  :  (1)  literal  meaning,  (2)  Midrash, 
(M)  allegory.  (4)  philosophical  allegory,  ('>)  numerical 
value  of  the  letters,(6)  mystic  allegory,  and  (7)  higher 
inspiralion.  It  may  be  remarked  with  regard  to  the 
last  that  Philo  likewise  claims  "higher  inspiration  " 
for  some  of  his  interpretations  ("  I)e  Cherubim,"  i.  9, 
1-44;  "  l)e  .'^onudis,"  i.  8,  ti27).  Resting  as  it  does  upon 
rabbinical  Judaism,  the  Zohar  maintains  the  au- 
thority of  the  written  word;  but  mysticism  was  al- 
ready aware,  at  the  time  of  the  Zohar's  origin,  of  its 
essential  antjigonism  to  the  si)irit  of  strict  rabbiuisin, 
as  app(?ars  from  the  following  classical  passjige 
concerning  the  various  methods  of  Scriptural  in- 
terpretation : 

"  Wo  unto  the  man  who  asserts  that  this  Torah  Intends  to  te- 
\i\tf  only  (-oiiintonpliirt'  tlitntrs  ami  secular  narratives :  for  if  this 
were  so,  then  In  the  present  limes  likewise  a  Torah  njlght  be 
written  with  more  atlrai-tive  namitlves.  In  truth,  however,  the 
matter  is  thus :  The  upper  worUI  ami  the  lower  are  e>,tahllshed 
upon  one  ami  the  same  principle:  in  the  lower  world  is  Israel, 
In  the  upper  world  are  the  anpels.  When  the  anffels  wish  to 
descend  to  the  lower  world,  they  have  to  don  earthly  t.'arnienls. 
If  this  he  true  of  the  aDjfels.  how  much  more  wi  of  the  Tomh, 
for  whose  .sake.  Indeed,  Inith  the  worlil  and  the  angels  were 
alike  created  and  e.xlsl  [an  old  .Mldnush  :  si-e  (iinzberg, ''  Monats- 
s<-hrift,"  ISHS,  p.  .>«!].  The  world  could  simply  not  have  endured 
to  |i"ik  upon  it.  .Now  the  namitlves  of  the  Torah  are  its  k&t- 
nienis.  He  who  thinks  that  these  ^niients  are  the  Torah  It- 
self de.senes  to  perish  and  have  no  share  In  the  world  to  come. 
Wo  unto  the  f(H)ls  who  liHtk  no  further  when  they  see  an  ele^rant 
nd)e  I  More  valiiahle  than  the  garment  is  the  iMHly  which  <-ar- 
rles  It,  and  more  valuable  even  than  that  is  the  soiil  which  ani- 
mates the  iMHiy.  fools  see  only  the  garment  of  the  Torah,  the 
more  intelligent  si^e  the  IwKly,  the  wise  seethe  s<iul.  Its  pniper 
iM'Ing,  and  in  the  Messlainc  time  the  '  upper  soul '  of  the  Torah 
will  stand  revealed"  (Zohar,  Hi.  I.'iS,  l.-^SynS). 

This  classical  passage  reads  almost  like  a  declara- 
tion of  war  against  nibbinism.  whose  haggadic  and 
lialakic  interpi-elalion  is  designated  "body."  or  sub- 
stiince  by  the  nibbis  them.selves  (.Vb.  iii.  'iS)  and  by 
the  Zohar  is  as  it  were  travestied,  being 
General      a  body  without  soid.    Characteristic  of 
Alleg-oriza-  the  Zohar  is  the  fact  that  it  provides  a 
tion  of       general  allegorizalion  of  the  precepts 
the  Law.     of  the  Law  which  heretofore  had  been 
attempted  only  in  scattei'cd  instances. 
The  following  is  the  characteristic  elucidation  of  the 
pas.sage  in  Ex.  xxi.  7,  concerning  the  Jewish  woman 
sold  as  a  slave; 

"  When  Gml,  who  In  Ex.  iv.  3  Is  called  K"N,  the  man,  sells  his 
daughter— that  Is,  the  holy  soul— for  a  slave— that  Is,  sends  her 
Into  the  material  world— she  shall  not  go  out  as  the  men-servants 
do.  liod  (ti.sires  that  when  she  leaves  this  world  and  her  state 
of  servitude  In  IL,  she  should  go  fri>m  It  fns>  and  pun*,  ami  noi 
after  the  manner  of  slaves,  lailen  with  sin  ami  tniusi^Tfsston  :  in 
this  manner  only  can  she  Ik'  reunited  with  lier  heavenly  Fattier. 
If.  however,  'she  plea.se  not  licr  ma-st«T,'  so  thai  she  i-an  not 
1m'  unit4\l  with  him  owing  to  Inipurity  and  sinfulness  '(hen 
stiall  he  let  her  W  reihM'iued ' :  that  l.s,  iiian  must  ilo  |H>nance 
and  UlN'rate  the  .s<iul  from  the  punishments  of  hell,  so  that  she 
shall  not  *  be  solil  unto  a  strange  nation,'  the  evil  angels." 

Next  to  the  Zohar.  mention  nuist  be  made  of  the 
mystic  idlegoiiial  commentaries  of  Mkx.mikm  di 
Kkc.vnati,  about  i:i'20,  the  first  writer  to  mentiou 
the  Zohar;  of  the  books  "  Peliah  "  and  "  Kanali  " — see 
K.\x.Mi — probably  of  the  fourteenth  century,  anli- 
nibbiniial  works  in  the  form  of  a  commentary  on 
the  Biblical  accouni  of  ('niilion  ;  and  of  the  "Zioni," 
by  Menahrm  b.  Zioii  of  Spiver.  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  allegorism  of  the.se  works 
is  entirely  di'iived  from  the  Zohar.  Kxleiisive  use 
of  cabalistic  allrgorisin  was  likewise  nuide  by  S>lo- 
inon  Kphntim  Leiiczyz  (end  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
turv).  who  applied  it  even  to  rabbinical  precept.s. 
This  hoinilrlii- appliititioii  of  allegorism  was  quiti' 
favored   by  the  Polish  "darshanim."  or   preachers. 


Allegorical  Interpretation 
Allegory  in  the  Old  Testament 


TllE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


410 


thp  best  cxamplrs  lH?ing  afforded  by  tlie  often 
liiirlily  iiij;fiii<nis  alU'siori/.iitions  of  Jonatlian  Elbe- 
scliiUz  in  liis  homilies.  "Yaaiiit  Dcliasli  "  (Honey- 
copse).  AVIun  catmli.sni  beniine  incorponited  in 
l.Iasidism,  Allcirorical  Interpretation  received  a  new 
impulse,  tlie  etlects  of  whieliare  still  felt.  The  fol- 
lowinjr  allejrorizatii)!!  of  the  pa.s.sai;e  coneeniiiifr  the 
two  wives  (I)eut.  xxi.  I."))  is  from  a  work  enlilled 
"E/.or  Eliyahu  "  (  Elijah's  (Jirdlcl.  imhlished  at  War- 
saw, 18H."):  "When  man's  two  inclinations  |D't,"J. 
"rulers,"  for  D't'J.  "wives"],  the  spiritual  ami  the 

material,  the  one  which  n  man  readily  obeys  and  the 
one  to  wliich  he  is  not  so  obedient,  both  produce 
actual  deeds,  then  only  the  otfsprini;  of  the  spiritual 
promptin,;; — the  one  less  belove(i — shall  lie  considered 
as  the  real  '  lirst-born.'  the  meritorious  one." 

It  was  owiiii;  to  mystic  inHuence  that,  toward 
the  end  of  the  liftecnth  century,  philosophical  alle- 
gorization.  which  had  so  lonir  lain  dormant  as  under 
a  ban,  once  more  raised  its  head  in  association  with 
deitmli  (e.\l>osition  of  Scripture).  Quite  the  ablest 
of  these  allciroriziuir  preacheis  was 
Isaac         Is.\.\c  .Vi!.\m.\.  who.  basing  hisattitude 

Arama.  upon  the  above-mentioned  deehiration 
of  the  Zohar.  strenuously  maintained 
not  only  the  propriety,  but  the  necessity  of  Allegor- 
ical Interpretation  ("Ilazut  Kashah,"  .\.).  without, 
however,  detractini;  in  the  least  from  the  author- 
ity of  the  literal  word.  F.xactly  in  the  words  of 
Philo,  but  probably  i|uite  independent  of  him  (com- 
]iare  Paul's  allejrory  of  th<-  same  Biblical  narrative), 
"  Sarah,  the  mistress,  is  the  Torah ;  her  handmaiden, 
Ila^ar.  is  I'hilosophy.  The  fruitfuluess  of  Sarah 
(the  Torah]  followed  only  when  the  Egyjitian  hand- 
maiden— that  is.  heathen  Philoso|iliy — had  for  cen- 
turies usurped  the  position  of  mistress.  It  was  then 
that  the  real  mistress,  the  Torah.  resumed  her  sway, 
and  Philosoi)hy  became  her  handmaid.  But  the  lat- 
ter sou.i;ht  to  tiee  from  her  rule  into  the  wilderness. 
where  the  angels  found  her  at  the  well.  Thus  Phi- 
losophy es.sayed  to  separate  herself  from  Revelation, 
and  presumed  to  water  the  desert  of  mankind  with 
mere  human  wisdom,  water  from  her  well;  but  the 
angels  taught  her  that  it  were  lietter  for  her  to  be  a 
servant  in  Sarah's  house  [the  Torah]  than  a  mistress 
in  the  desert."  Arama's  deduction  that  pliilosophy 
is  the  handmaid  of  theology  is  thus  exactly  the  op- 
jxisite  of  the  view  of  Maimonides  and  Ins  successors. 

Xext  to  Arama,  mention  may  be  ina<le  of  Judah 
Moscato,  the  first  darshan  in  Italy  in  the  sixteenth 
century  to  make  extensive  u.se  of  alU'gorism.  In 
the  Biblical  preseriiition  for  the  Nazarite.  he  per- 
ceives the  intimation  that  man  must  renounce  the 
world  and  its  enjoyments,  until  his  hair,  typifying 
his  connection  with  the  spiritual,  has  grown  to  such 
extent  that  he  can  enjoy  the  world  without  danger 
("Xefuzot  Yehudah,"  horn.  1.5).  In  connection  with 
this  mention  may  be  made  of  Don  Is.\.\c  Auk.waxei., 
whose  allegorism  closely  resembles  that  of  the  dar- 
sliauim.  He,  too.  takes  his  stand  upon  the  Zohar's 
justification  of  allegorism  and  its  distinction  of  gar- 
ment, body,  and  soul  in  the  Torah.  Being  an  ad- 
mirer of  both  Jlaimonides  an<l  the  Cabala  it  is  not 
seldom  that  he  gives  to  a  Biblical  (lassage  two 
interpretations,  one  philosophical  and  one  cal)alistie. 
Thus  Adam  is  the  type  of  Israel,  the  true  man,  into 
■whom  God  breathed  His  spirit,  the  holy  law.  He 
placed  him  in  Paradise,  the  Holy  Land,  where  were 
the  tree  of  life  (the  teachings  of  the  Law  and 
prophecy)  and  also  the  tree  of  knowledge  (heathen- 
ism). And  thereupon  a  philosophical  interpretation 
follows,  based  principally  \ipon  Maimonides  and 
Gersonides  ("Commentary  on  Gen."  iii.  22,  ed.  Am- 
sterdam, 34A). 


Of  the  New  Testament  writings,  the  Pauline  and 
Deutcro-Pauline  are  especially   full  of  Allegorical 

Interpretation,  in  which  the  two  cle- 
In  the  New  incuts  of  Palestinian  and  Hellenic  Ju- 
Testament.  daism  are  both   conspicuous.     Paul's 

allegorism  is  tyiiological  and  betrays 
its  Pharisaic  origin.  Thus  it  can  not  be  sjud  to  be 
due  to  Alexandrian,  still  less  to  Philonic.  iiitluence, 
when  Paul,  in  I  Cor.  ix.  9.  lit.  .says.  "Doth  (bid  take 
care  for  oxen'/"  (Deut.  xxv.  4),  "or  altogether  for 
our  siikes."  This  is  simply  a  moditication  of  the 
old  Ilalakah  ([uoted  above,  which  ujiplies  this  law 
to  explain  that  a  woman  may  not  be  forced  into  an 
inisuitable  levirate  marria,i.'e,  because  she  lierself  is 
entitle<l  to  the  ordinary  )>ronusc  of  happiness  in  re- 
turn for  her  share  in  the  bond  of  wi-dloek.  So,  too, 
his  well-known  allegorization  of  Sandi  and  Ha.^ar 
(Gal.  iv.  21-;il)  is  fundamentally  only  a  typological 
presentation  of  the  Palestiinan  teaching,  "  Thou  wilt 
find  no  freeman  but  him  w  ho  is  occupied  in  learning 
Tonih  "  (Ab.  vi.  2).  Paul  is  not  even  original  in  his 
types,  for  the  oldest  Haggadah  represents  the  conflict 
between  Ishmael,  the  son  of  the  maid,  and  Isaac,  the 
sou  of  the  mistress,  as  a  s])irit\ial  one  (Sifre.  Deut. 
xxxi.).    Alexandrian  intluence  is  first  discernible  in 

the   Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  whereas 

Epistle  to    Palestinian  allegorism  is  suggested  in 

the  the  interpretation  of  the  ark  of  Noah 

Hebrews,     as  representing  the  rite  of  baptism,  in 

I  Peter,  iii.  20;  compare  (Jen.  H.  xxxi. 
9.  Alexandrian  intluence  is  shown  in  Hebrews  by 
the  general  tendency  throughout  rather  than  by  in- 
dividual instances.  Paul  neverdetracts  from  the  his- 
torical reality  of  the  narratives  he  allegorizes,  but  the 
Hebrews  became  the  model  for  Alexandrian  in.ijenu- 
ity  by  which  Israel's  history  an<l  legal  enactments 
were  construed  as  being  in  reality  intimations  of  the 
mysteries  of  faith,  concealing  the  spirit  in  the  letter, 
and  reducing  the  essentials  of  the  Old  Testament  to 
mere  shadows.  This  tendency  is  clearest  in  the  Gos- 
pel of  John,  the  author  of  which  makes  most  use 
of  Old  Testament  illustrations;  the  serpent  ujion  a 
pole  in  the  wililcrness  (Num.  xxi.  8)  becomes  Jesus 
upon  the  cross  (John,  iii.  14).  Je.sus  is  the  manna  in 
the  desert,  the  bread  of  life  {ibid.  vi.  31.  49). 

This  pushing  of  the  allegorization  of  the  ( )ld  Testa- 
ment to  such  an  extreme  that  it  would  deprive  it  of  all 

its  indcijcndent  life  and  character,  or 

The  makeof  ita  va.irueand  feeble  prophecy 

Apostolic    of  the  future,  found  favor  among  the 

Fathers.      Apostolic  Fathers.    Prominent  among 

these  for  his  allegoiization  was  Bar- 
nabas (about  the  year  100).  who.  aciiuainted  as  he  was 
with  rabbinical  and  even  halakic  doctrine,  aspired  to 
show  that  the  .Jews  did  not  themselves  understand 
the  Old  Testament.  The  Biblical  enactment  of  the 
.scapegoat  is  typically  applied  to  Jesus,  who  carried 
the  .sins  of  his  crucifiers:  the  goat's  flesh  was  de- 
voured rawand  with  vinegar — an  old  Palestinian  tra- 
<lition — becaiise  Jesus'  tlesli  was  also  moistened  with 
gall  and  vini'gar.  The  boys  who  sprinkle  the  water 
of  purification  are  the  apostles;  they  are  three  in 
number,  in  commemoration  of  Abraham,  Isjuic,  and 
Jacob.  These  and  otherallu.sions  make  it  sufficiently 
clear  that  Barnabas  depended  upon  Palestinian 
sources  rather  than  upon  Philonic.  as  Siegfried  would 
maintain  ("  Philo  von  Alexandrien,"  p.  I'Hl). 

While  Barnabas  exhibits  a  not  insignificant  Hel- 
lenic bias,  his  methods  were  applied  by  Gnostics 
to  the  New  Testament  writings.  Although  they  dis- 
claimed any  depreciation  of  the  historical  value  of 
the  Old  Testament,  they  became  the  chief  exponents 
in  their  time  of  that  Alexandrian  allegorism  which 
made  of  the  Biblical  narrative  nothing  else  than  an 


411 


THE  JEAVISH   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Allegorical  Interpretation 
Allegory  in  the  Old  Testament 


accountof  tlic  <-iimiKipation  of  rt'iisoii  from  tlic dom- 
ination of  passion.  'I'lif  Gnostics  dcvclopid  this 
thi-iMc  witli  tlic  modilication  tliat  tlicy  dctcctid  this 
coutiict  between  mind  ami  matter,  between  reason 
and  sense,  in  the  New  Testament  in  place  of  the 
Old.  A  ditfercnt  tenihncy  was  conspicuous  anionfr 
the  older  apoloirists  of  Christianity,  who  allegorized 
away  the  Old  Testamiiit.  but  rcirarded  the  New  as 
absolutely  historical.  .Justin  .Martyr  is  one  of  them, 
who  ridicules  the  artiticialities  of  Jewish  e.xeiresis 

(■' l)ialoj;\is  cum  Try  phone."  113,840). 
Gnosticism,  but  whose  own  alleirori/ation  of  Old 

Testament  iiassjiires  is  I  lion lUi^hly  Jew- 
ish, Palestinian  as  well  as  Alixandrian.  Thus  he 
says  Xoali  was  saved  by  wood  and  water,  showinij 
that  C'hristiansare  delivered  from  sin  likewise  by  the 
<Toss  and  liy  baptism  (/.r.  13H).  In  elfect  he  trans- 
forms the  whole  Old  Testament  into  a  lypolojr.V  of 
Jesus  ami  Chrislianity.  so  that  Tryphon  very  perti- 
nently remarks  that  liod's  wind  was  holy  indeed, 
bill  that  .luslin's  interpretations  were  very  arbi- 
trary. AVilli  the  irrailual  develojiment  of  the  t'alliolic 
Cliurcli  out  of  Jewish  jiriniitive  Christianity  and 
Oreek  (inosticism.  the  altitudeof  the  Cliurcli  toward 
the  Old  Testament  was  moilitied  too,  as  is  shown  by 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  or  more  slroiifrly  yet  by  his 
disciple  Oriiren.  The  former  is  I  lie  lirst  Church  father 
to  revert  to  I'hilo's  nu'lliods  of  alle^rorism.  distiii- 
guishiii!.' between  the  body  iliteral  word)  and  spirit 
(AUciTorical  Inlerprelalioti)  of  Scripture,  lie  tinds 
allcfjorical  meaniiii;  in  both  |iro|ilielical  and  legisla- 
tive portions;  he  adopts  I'hilo's  alle,i;orical  rules 
and  many  of  liisindividual  interpretations.  Nordoes 
lie  fail  to  originale  some  expositions  himself.  Thus 
the  unclean  aiiunals  which  chew  the  cud.  but  are  of 
undivided  hoof,  are  the  Jews:  hen-ties  are  those  of 
divided  hoof  but  wliochew  not  the  cud;  while  those 
who  |iossess  neither  characteristic  are  the  liealhi'iis 
("Slromatii."  v.  52,  vii.  Kill).  Oriiri'u's  inlimacy  with 
Pali'Stinians  jirevcnted  him  from  fallini;  into  such  ix- 
airjrenitioiis  of  the  Alexandrian  tendency  as  marked 
liis  teacher  Clement,  ami  evi-n  a  certain  deirree  of  liis- 
torical  appreciation  of  the  Old  Testament  becomes 
evident.  But  the  conllict  in  Oriircn.  so  apparent  in 
liisChrisfoloL'y,  between  speculative (Snoslicism  and 
the  lusliirical  coiice]ili(in  of  Scripliire.  pre  veil  led  any 
nil ional  and  consistent  view  of  .Scripture,  lie.  loo. 
niusi  be  made  responsible  for  the  .gross  exa.LT.gera- 
lions  of  Christ ian  allegorists  lasting  down  tomoilern 
times:  Hilary.  Ambrose.  Jerome,  and  Auguslineall 
borrowed  their  allegorizing  nielbod  from  Origeii, 
who  likewise  oriirinatcd  the  iloclrine  of  Ihe  threefold 
meaning  of  Scripture,  Ibe  lihral.  moral,  anil  mystical 
('■I)e  Principiis."  iv.  s,  II.  1-1).  The  follnwiiig  may 
serve  as  specimens  of  his  maiiniT:  The  narnilive  of 
Rebecca  at  the  well  is  to  leach  us  llial  we  must  daily 
resort  to  the  well  of  Script  un-  in  order  to  tind  Jesus. 
Pharaoh  slew  the  I  toy -children  and  preserved  Ihe 
pirlsalive.  to  show  that  lie  who  follows  pleasure  kills 
liis  rational  si'use  (masculine)  and  preserves  Ihe  fini- 
inine  (the  sensual  passions).  Origeirsallegorism  was 
thus  a  triumph  for  Jewish  Alexandrianism  in  lliede- 
velopmeiil  of  llii'  Church,  but  Paleslinian  allegorism 

likewisi'  celebrated  iisown  victory  in 
Antiochian  iheChureliof  Anlioch.  The  basic  prin 
School.       cipleof  Jewish  typohigy."  Miiiimh  iiluit 

nhiiini  If  till  II  ill)"  (Ihe  lives  of  Ihe  Pa- 
triarchs pnligured  the  livesof  Iheirde.sceMdanls).  be- 
came the  moiio  of  the  Anlioch  .school.  Aphnuites 
makes  diligent  use  of  Ibis  typology,  ami  his  suc<es- 
sorsdo  .so  in  even  grialer  deirnc;  w  illi  I  hem  Ihe  aim 
of  this  Ivp'doL'v  is  not  always  Messianic,  and  nol  even 
Chrislological  Thus  Theoilore  of  Mopsiieslia  re 
gards  Jacob's  anoinling  of  the  stone  (<>en.  x.wiii 


18)  as  a  type  of  the  erection  and  consecration  of  the 
Mosaic  tabernacle,  just  as  the  Midrash  docs  ("Nice- 
idiori  Catena."  ad  lornin). 

Bini.iofiKAPiiv:  A  siiraraU!  presentation  of  Alledfirlcal  Inter- 
pretiitloii  has  not  yei  U-en  written,  ami  therefun'  reference 
imisi  lie  made  to  works  treating  of  STii)ttire  int«*n>retation  in 
general :  Itiiseniiiueller,  HMtirin  Inti  niritritifnix  Lihrnnim 
Sdcniniin.  iv.  Ix'Ipsie,  1T95.  (In  I'hilo:  slei/tneii.  I'liiln  ion 
Ah-j-itiulriiu,  Jeniu  IHT.'i,  and  the  list  of  refen-iires  on  p.  lti2; 
Diestel,  (iiwli.  A.  7".  Jena.  ISilil;  Karrar.  //i.sfoi  //of  liil.rpre- 
liitiim.  New  York,  isstl;  Schiiiledl,  SlmUcii  lth,i-  II:  litiiimn- 
>>hilim,ijliif.  Vienna,  ISllM:  H.  S.  Hlrsehfeld.  Ilahuliiaehc 
>;j-<i;cx<-,lS40;  idem.  IhrdcMclcrhUsli  ii  .sV/im7(<»i/.-(i  j/i/ny, 
1M7  :  Hacher.  i<i7ii  (i.r.  (/i.M-  ilrr  Jlhlimhiii  Iti  li'jimi.-iiliil'iK- 
i'IjIuii,  slnisbuiT.',  Is'.C':  idem.  Die  /{il.i  (f.n  ./r.M  in  Winter 
and  Wfinsche,  Die  JUiliKvUe  Literiiliir.  H.  ^it-.if.i :  idem. 
Die  ttilielereiitMi  Miyrx  Miiimnui'n,  Strasbun?,  IsiW;  idem, 
IjKxiyi'w  liihliiiur  iliiim  le  Ziilinr.  in  Itev.  Et.  Juivei'.  xxii. 
:£Mtl.  21!>-2S9;  idem.  Ddf  Merkimrt  D-iiD  in  drr  JHi/wc/icii 
JiihelexetieKe.  in  Stade's  Z<i(»(/inYt,  xili.  SSM-aiTi:  I/">w.  Iia- 
Mn)j)ite:ih,  lir.  Kanlzsa,  ls.">5:  Kaufmann,  in  Xuiiz-Julxl- 
gchrift.  pp.  143-l,"il:  idem,  in  many  pas.saKesof  his  work.  Die 
Siniie.  Leipsic,  1»!«. 

L.  G. 
ALLEGORY  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT : 
Allegory  is  a  suslaiiied  di -.criiitinii  m-  uaniition. 
treating  directly  of  one  subject,  but  intended  as 
an  exposition  of  another,  the  latter  having  a  more 
spiritual  nature  than  the  former,  yet  bearing  some 
perceiilible  resemblance  to  it.  It  is  a  comparison 
belween  IwodilTerent  groupsof  ideas  on  the  basis  of 
somi-thing  pos.sessed  in  common.  It  has  for  its  pur- 
pose Ihe  illustration  or  inculcation  of  a  higher  truth. 
In  the  Old  Testament,  allegory  with  its  kindred 
didactic  forms  is  comprised  under  the  Hokmah 
(Wisdom),  lilemlure  under  the  two  terms  mashal 
Xto  and  /(('(/((/(  m'n  (Kzek.  xvii.  2:  compare  .\xiv. 
'A:  Dan.  viii.  23).  Mux/nil.  now  specitically  maxim, 
or  gnome,  primarily  denoted  a  com]>arison  or  simile. 
Under  this  older  meaning,  it  was  generally  rendered 
in  the  Septua.ginl  t>y  rrt^)a.}r./;/( parable).  Originally, 
it  was  doubtless  didactic  in  purpose,  and  derived  a 
maxim  for  the  conduct  of  life  from  the  comparison 
of  two  apparently  dissimilar  objects.  Later  it  wa.s 
applied  to  any  sententious  or  pointed  sjiyiiig,  and 
even  toobscure  proplielic  utterances,  since  these,  too, 
aiiind  to  instruct  and  usually  employed  comparison 
(Num.  xxiii.  7.  IS;  xxiv.  3;  comiiare  Isa.  xiv.  4; 
Micali.  ii.  4:  Ilab.  ii.  (i).  lliduli.  properly  a  riddle, 
is  used  ill  a  wider  sense  for  ligurativeand  significant 
siieech  (Judges,  xiv.  14;  I  Kings,  x.  1;  compare  Ps. 
xlix.  5;  Ixxviii.  2). 

It  is  somewhat  difflcult  to  define  the  difference 
liel  ween  allegory,  jiarable.  and  fable.  The  parable 
and  Ihe  fable  may  be  considered  s])ecies  of  the  alle- 
gory, for.  like  it.  they  represent  their  subject  in  an 
image  or  in  a  complete  tigiiralive  narration  or  de- 
scriplion.  The  characteristic  mark  of  the  fable  is 
that  il  employs  for  the  vehicle  of  its  expression  the 
improbable,  even  the  inipossibli — -such  as  rea.sou 
and  speech  in  animals  and  |ilanls  —  and  thai  its  les- 
son is  contined  to  practical  worldly  exi>edieiicy. 
Il  derives  a  truth,  to  be  applied  to  one  sphere  of 
llioiight.  by  displaying  that  truth  as  manifest  in  a 
ditTerenl  but  comparable  sphere.  An  example  is 
fiirnishi'd  by  the  moreelaborate  of  the 
Fable.  two  fables  in  Ihe  Old  Ti-stainent.  that 
of  the  trees  choosing  a  king.  The 
valuable  olive-tree,  the  tig  tree,  and  the  vine  ri'fiise 
to  be  king  over  the  trees,  liut  the  worthless  bramble 
accepts (.Iiiilges,  ix.  H-10).  The  Irulli  derived  is  to  lie 
applii'd  to  .Vbimelech  and  Ihe  men  of  Shechem  who 
cjioose  him  king.  Like  the  bramble.  .Miiiuelech  is 
worthless,  and  would  servi'  only  to  set  "lire  to  the 
other  trei'S."  thai  is.  wcnild  bring  onlv  disaster  to 
the  men  of  .S|ie<liem.  The  si'cond  fable  (II  Kings, 
xiv.  !t-l(h  is  more  like  a  proverb.  King  .Vmaziah 
of  Juihih  challenges  King  Jehoash  of  Israel,  and 


Allegory  in  the  Old  Testament 
Alliance  Isra61ite  Uuiverselle 


THE  JEWISH   E^X'YCLOPEDIA 


412 


receives  for  answer  a  comparison  of  liimself  to  the 
weak  lliisllc  that  woos  llic  daujrliti'r  of  Lctianon, 
and  is  trodden  do«  ii  liy  the  wild  bca-st.  The  siniili 
tiulu  lictwcin  Aina/.iali  and  the  thistle  lies  in  the  fact 
that  each  is  wi'ak  and  is  punished  for  presumption; 
here  the  rcseinhlnnee  ends. 

In  the  panilile  and  alletrory  an  actual  basis  of  re- 
sendilanee  and  actual  points  of  contact  exist  between 
the  priinaiy  suliject  and  the  analogous  subject  with 
which  it  is  compared.  Tims,  each  subject  may  serve 
as  a  lifTUie  for  the  other.  In  the  iwnible  the  author 
himself  indicates  the  analoiry  by  placinj;  interpreta- 
tion next  to  iniaire;  but  iti  the  allejiory.  jud.i;nient 
is  not  expressed.  An  index  to  the  lueaniui;  is  pro 
vided  by  the  c'ondition  and  circumstances  of  hearer 
and  speaker,  and  by  the  individual  fifrures  of  the 
imajic  which,  as  it  were,  form  a  veil  through  and 
beyond  which  the  mind  sees  the  real  object.  The 
interpretations  are  frivcii.  for  instance,  in  the  most 
finished  jiarable  of  the  Old  Testament  (Isji.  v.  1).  in 
the  paralile  of  the  vine  (Ezek.  xv.).  and  in  the  par- 
able of  the  poor  man  bereft  of  his  ewe  lamb  by  the 
rich  man  (II  Sam.  xii.).  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
eightieth  Psalm,  the  reference  of  the  vine  to  Israel 
(compare  Isa.  v.)  is  not  detinitely  indicated,  but 
only  understood  from  the  connection.  In  -Jer. 
ii.  21  the  same  thought  is  expressecl 
Parable  as  in  I.sa.  v.  and  Ps.  Ixxx..  but  here  it 
and  is  in  luetaphorie  form.     In  the  New 

Alleg'Ory.  Testament  (John,  x.\  Jesus' compar- 
ison of  himself  to  a  vine  is  also  a  met- 
aphor, though  somewhat  lengthy,  and  often  (piotcil 
as  an  instance  of  mixed  allegory.  Still  more  ex- 
tended are  the  metaphors  in  Ezek.  xvi.  and  xxiii. 
One  of  the  finest  pieces  of  allegorical  imager)'  is  the 
representation  of  the  king  of  Babylon  as  an  eagle, 
and  the  house  of  David  as  a  cedar  (Ezek.  xvii. 
3-1(1):  but  since  the  interpretation  follows  it  is  not 
strictly  an  allegory,  and  metaphors  similar  to  it  in 
character  are  given  in  Ezckiel(xix.  1-9;  xxx.  2-17). 
The  comparis(m  of  Jerusalem  to  a  cahlron  (Ezek. 
xxiv.  3-(i)  is  a  iiarable  rather  than  an  allegory,  and 
the  allegorical  description  of  old  age  (Eccl.  xii.  2-()). 
in  its  individual  figures,  is  rather  in  the  nature  of 
an  enigma. 

Bibliography  :  Lowth,  On  the  Sacred  Poetru  of  the  HehrewK, 
lectures  x.  and  xi.;  Herder.  Geittt  der  Khrtlischcn  Pnrxir, 
Qeifdiuuultf  Sthriftcn,  ed.  Snptian,  xii.  i:i-I4:  ideiii.  ]\rU  fr 
iibcriliisSliiiliiimderThct>l'iiiie,x.5let  geij.:  FriMicli.  Xolry 
on  the  I'urahl'x, chap.  1.;  (ierber.  Die  Sprache nls  Kuiixl, 2d 
ed.,  II.  9a,  l(X),  Kfi,  Ii;t,  4411,  4.")2.  474.  4,S2-4«;  K.  W.  HidlltiKPr, 
Figures  of  Speech  Used  in  tlie  nihlc.  pp.  74fi-7.54.  Londcm, 
1898;  C.  G.  Mont«llore,  A  Tentative  Catalogue  of  liiljle  Meta- 
phora.  In  Jew.  Quart.  Rev.  111.  623  et  scy. 

I.  M.  C. 

ALLEGBI,  ABRAHAM:  A  contemporary 
of  !M(ises  licnvenisle  ;  livril  at  Constantinople  about 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  lie  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  "  Sefer  ha-Mizwot"  of  Maimoni- 
des,  in  which  he  defended  him  against  the  attacks 
of  Nahmanides.  lie  published  this  work  at  Con- 
stantinople, in  1652,  under  the  title  "  I.eb  Sameah  " 
(A  Gladsome  Heart) — referring  thereby  to  his  own 
naine,  Allegri.  I'luler  the  same  title  a  number  of  his 
responsa  were  published  in  Salonica,  1793. 

BiHi.ioGK.vrHY:  fonfortc.  I^ore  hn-Dorot.  ed.  Berlin.  lfH6.  p. 
4X') :  Beiijacoli.  I  tzar  ha-Sefarim,  p.  2M ;  SteinsclineklHr,  f '<i*. 
Bodl.  col.  66.5;  Zedner.  Catalejffuc^  pp.  29,  30:  Azulul.  Sheni 
hn-(iciloUm,  I.  ti,  U.  70. 

M.  K. 

AliLEMANNO,  JOHANAN:  A  cabalist  who 
flourished  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury; born  in  Constantinople.  Hemigrated  to  Italy, 
and  became  distingui.she(I  there  as  the  teacher  of  Pico 
della  Jlirandola,  "the  Italian  prodigy."  in  Hebrew 
and  the  Cabala,  thus  contributing  toward  the  spread 


of  Jewish  mysticism  among  the  Christian  human- 
ists (see  C.mi.u.ists.  CiiHisri.vM.  .Vllemanno's  wri- 
tings show  great  versjitility  and  attainments.  In  his 
chief  work.  "Heshek  She'lomoh "  (The  Deliirht  of 
Solomon  I.  he  evinces  a  certain  philosophic  acumen 
as  well  as  a  wide  aci|Uaiiitanee  with  both  the  Arabic 
and  the  (ireek  philnsdphers.  The  inlroductinn  to 
this  work  is  a  discourse  on  the  artistic  and  intellec- 
tual at  tainmeiits  of  the  human  race,  all  of  which  arc 
combined  in  King  Solomon,  whom  the  author  i>laces 
above  Plato  and  his  fellows  (compare  "Sha'ar  ha- 
Heshek,"  jip.  3-7).  Excerpts  from  the  introduction 
were  published,  with  additions  by  Jacob  Haruch  b, 
Moses  Hayyim,  at  Leghorn  in  I79II.  Allemanno 
also  wrote:  "  Ene  ha  Edah  "  (The  Ev<'S  of  thi'  Con- 
gregation), a  cabalistic  coiumentary  on  the  Torah 
(compare  Ocdaliah  il)n  Vahva's  "  Shalshi-lel  ha-Kab- 
balah,"  ed,  Warsaw,  IHSi't,"  p.  H(i);  "HayyeOlam" 
(Eternal  Life),  a  treatise  on  immortality;  "Likku- 
tim  Collectanea,"  a  volunu'  of  about  two  hundred 
jiages,  containing  stra.v  thoughts,  aphorisms,  note- 
worthy iiuotations  from  rare  authors,  and  e.xegetical 
remarks. 

liiiii.KMiKAPiiv :  Ili'irirlii.  lUkhurr  ha-'Ittim,  Ix.  i:);  Idem. 
Kerem  Jfiimv/,  II.  44  ;  st<?lnschiieldcr.  Tdf.  Bodl.  col.  V-fSH ; 
Wolf.  Hilil.  Ihhr.  I.  4711;  (iriilz.  <Jei<ch.  d.  Juden.M  ed., 
VIII.  212.  noti-. 

H.  C!.  E. 

ALLEN,  JOHN  :  English  dissenting  minister, 
edueatdr,  and  author:  born  !it  Truro  in  1771  and  ed- 
ucated ill  the  city  of  his  birth  by  Dr.  Cardue.  He 
conducted  a  private  school  at  Hackney,  near  London, 
for  thirty  years,  and  died  at  that  suburb  on  June  17, 
1839.  lie  is  best  known  by  his  "Modern  Judaism; 
or  a  Brief  Account  of  the  Ojiinions.  Traditions.  Kites, 
and  Ceremonies  of  the  Jews  in  Modern  Times"  (Lon- 
don. IMlti);  that  is.  since  thecommon  era.  This  work 
has  been  coniiiiended  by  no  less  an  authority  on  re- 
ligious subjects  than  Edward  liiekersleth.  the  Eng- 
lish divine,  for  its  "useful  information."  William 
Orme,  a  contemporary,  characterized  it  as  "the  best 
work  on  modern  .Iiidaism  in  the  Engli.sh  language  "; 
and  Thomas  Harwell  Home,  an  English  bibliog- 
nipher.  referring  to  it  s;iid :  "In  this  well-executed 
volume  the  various  traditions  received  and  adopted 
by  modern  .Tews,  that  is,  by  those  who  lived  in.  and 
sub.seipient  to.  the  lime  of  .Jesus  Christ,  are  fully  and 
I)crspicuously  treated."  The  book  was  reprinted  in 
1830.  Allen  also  publi.shed  other  works,  including 
an  excellent  translation  of  Calvin's  "Institutes" 
(1815;  2d  ed.,  1838). 

BiBi.iO(iRAPiiv  :  Ij'.slle  Stephen.  Diet,  of  Xatioiml  Biogra- 
phii,  S.V.;  Allllioue,  Diet,  of  KnyliKh  Literature,  s.v. 

F.  H.  V. 

ALLENSTEIN  :  Town  in  the  district  of  Kiinigs- 
berg,  eastern  Prussia.  The  small  Jewish  conunu- 
nity  there  was  established  Feb.  2.'),  1802.  Before  that 
date  there  weri^  only  a  few  families  in  the  town, 
and  they  rented  a  room  for  divine  services.  The 
community  possi'ssed  a  cemetery,  in  which  the  oldest 
tombstone  is  dated  1872.  The  synagogue  was  built 
in  1877;  and  a  rabbi.  Dr.  Olitzki.  was  appointed  in 
1892.  The  following  societies  have  also  been  or- 
ganized: Society  for  the  Care  of  the  Sick  and  the 
Burial  of  the  Dead  (Hebra  Kaddish.a);  Women's  So- 
ciety :  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Vagrancy  ;  Jew- 
ish Historical  and  Literary  Society.  In  18S()  Allen- 
stein  contained  forty  .lewish  famiiies.  In  1900  there 
were  one  hundred  families,  or  about  450  souls. 

H.  V. 

ALLGEMEINE  ZEITTTNG  DES  JXTDEN- 
THUMS  :  .\  (ierinan  journal  devoteil  to  Jewish  in- 
terests; founded  in  1837  by  Dr.  Ludwig  Philippson 


413 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Allegory  in  the  Old  Testament 
Alliance  Israelite  Universelle 


(1811-89);  publislied  first  in  Lfipsic  ami  later  in 
Berlin.  At  the  time  of  its  foundation  there  had  been 
several  Jewish  journals  in  existence:  "  Sulaniith." 
"Jedidjii,"  (Jeiwr's  "  Wissenscliaftliehe  Zeitsehrifl 
frtr  JildiselieTheologie,''  and  Dr.  lliiiiiiiLdiaus'  "  L'ui- 
versalKirelienzeitunjr."  which  adniitledJewisli  con- 
tributors. l'liilip|)Son  felt  that  lhes<'  did  not  satisfy 
the  needs  of  the  times.  lie  ileleiinined  tn  fiiund  a 
journal  I'cirthe  intcllii,'ent  lailv— one  that  should  not 
only  advance  tin'  knnwliclL'c  <if  the  .lews'  past  his- 
tory, hut  should  also  plead  the  causi>  of  the  Jews  of 
Insday.  Thetirst  nunilierof  his  paperappeared  May 
2.  XXii"!.  and  was  pul)lishcil  by  liauniiriirlniT  in  Leip- 
sic  with  the  subtitle  "  Unparl<'iisehes  Oriran  flir  Allcs 
Jndische  Interesse  in  HetrelT  von  I'oiitik,  Helijrion, 
I.,iteiatur,  Geschichte,  Sitrachkunde,  und  Helletris- 
tik"  (Impartial  Orpin  for  All  Matters  of  Jewish 
Inteicst  I'ertaininir  to  Politics.  Hclii^ion.  Litemture. 
History.  I'hiloloiry,  and  l!(lli->  Icttresi. 

Durinic  thi'  tirst  two  years  three  luunbers  a  week 
appeared:  and  for  a  year  and  a  half  a  supplement 
was  piililished  three  times  a  month,  devoted  to  lit- 
CTalure  and  homiletics.  In  Wi'.)  the  journal  be- 
came a  weekly.'  The  ••  Allu'inieine  Zeitun;:"  has 
never  received  a  subsidy  from  any  Jewish  body.  In 
1H4H.  when  the  publication  of  nearly  all  other  Jew- 
ish journals  was  interrupted,  tiie  "  Alliremcine  Zeil 
una"  l)rav<'d  tin-  storm  and  spoke  out  jilaiidy  in 
the  political  turmoil.  After  ls."i;!  a  supplemi'Ut  was 
published  rei;ularly.  entitled  '•Jiidisches  VolksblatI 
zur  Hi-lehrunir  und  rnterhallunir  auf  Jiidischeni  Ge 
biele"  ( A  Popidar  Jewish  Journal  for  Instruction  and 
Entertainment  on  Jewish  Sulijeclsi.  On  the  death 
<if  Philippson.  (iust:iv  Karpeles  became  editor.  The 
j(purnal  is  now  published  in  Berlin  by  Rudolf  Mosse. 
lis  lirst  issue  un(l<r  Karpeles'  editorship  appeared 
Feb.  !).  l.'^itll.  The  outward  appearance  has  been 
rhanired  .so  that  tli<-  literary  part,  which  forms  the 
bulk  of  the  jia  per.  is  now  separal<il  from  the  part  con- 
taininir  tin-  new  s.  The  latter  is  ]ia wd  separately,  and 
bears  the  title  "  DertJemeindebole." 

From  the  outset  the  "  Alljiemeine  Zeitung"  met 
with  success.  A  few  weeks  after  the  issue  of  its 
lirst  inind)er  a  society  of  students  in  Leyden  (llol- 
landl  was  formed  to  aid  its  circulation.  Even  in 
Poland  il  obtained  several  hundred  s\ibscribers;  and 
within  threiMuonths  after  theappearanceof  the  tirst 
nundier  Philippson  felt  justly  i-ontident  of  its  mate- 
rial success.  The  journal  aroused  fjreat  enthusiasm 
in  the  cultured  Jewish  circles  of  Germany.  Austria, 
und  Holland,  anil  exercised  consideralile  intlucnce  on 
Judaism  in  prieral — more  espeiially  in  Gennany. 
wheri'  it  becami-  a  distinct  factor  in  the  evolution  of 
Judaism.  To  its  inlluence  is  due  in  a  larire  measure 
the  establishment  of  a  rabliinical  seminary  (I-ehr- 
anslalt  fhr  die  Wissenschafi  <lcs  Juilint'hums  in 
Berlin)  and  of  a  Jewish  Publication  Society  (InstituI 
/ur  Fi'irderun;;  der  Israelitischen  lJt<ratur).  as  well 
AS  the  eallin;;  together  of  a  Jewish  svuod  (Leipsic, 
18<H)). 

Philippson's  chief  aim  was  the  civil  emanelpntinn 
of  the  Jews.  He  carried  on  the  tiirht  for  that  cause 
l)ei;un  by  Gabrii  1  Biesseranil  others.  B\il  the  paper 
gained  further  imjiorlance  in  <-onnection  witli  the 
inni't  coiumunal  and  ndiiiious  lif<'  of  the  Jews,  since 
il  devoteil  attentiou  to  tin'  organization  cd'  religions 
instruction,  to  theformof  worship  in  Ihesynagogne. 
anil  to  the  cultivation  of  Jewish  learning  in  all  its 
bnuiches.  Jost,  who  in  his  "  Neuere  (ieschiehte  der 
Israelilen  "  (iii.  1  tit- 1  fid),  devoted  a  whole  chapter  to 
the  ••  Allgemeine  Zeitung,"  wdd  "that  it  became 
<'poch making  in  Jewish  history  by  attempting  for 
the  lirst  time  to  give  a  gent-ral  view  of  Ihe  life  and 
conditions  of  the  Jews." 


During  the  first  vears  of  its  existence  the  paper 
had  among  its  collaborators  a  number  of  the  most 
distinguished  scholars,  some  of  whom  were  Gabriel 
Kies.ser.  E.  Carmoly,  J.  L.  SaalschUtz.  S.  I).  Luz- 
zatto,  Leopold  Zunz,  Leopold  Dukes.  Julius  FUrst, 
Leopold  Liiw.  Franz  Delitzsch.  Adolph  Jellinek, 
Abraham  (Jeiger.  and  I.  M.  Jost.  It  is  interesting 
to  Mote  that  Pii-iebus  Philippson.  bnitherof  Ludwig, 
colli  ril  Ml  led  in  the  lirst  year  a  series  of  (deven  articles 
under  the  title  "Ideas  for  an  Encyclopedia  and  a 
Methodology  of  Jewish  Theology.'' 

l<iiii.iiioR.(riiv:  .Iiist,  iViiifir  Gcxcli.  tier  Inrnrlitrn,  li\.  U9- 
l"iil;  KHV.ii'rlliiK.  Luihriy  P/iili;ni»iri,  IHiK,  pp.  .M-tH;  Dim 
Kixli  liitlhr  .liilirhviiilrrl  (Iff  All u-  X' ". ''■  Jn'l-  In  AUu. 
Xiil.  d.  Jill/,  issr.  Nil.  I.  pp.  1-S.  g 

ALLGEMEINES  ARCHIV  DES  JXTDEN- 
THTJMS  :  .Vmi.imIIiIv  publicalioM,  devoliid.  as  its 
title  indiralrs.  to  ihe  general  hisloiy  of  the  Jews. 
Il  was  founded  and  edited  by  Jeremiah  (Jerome) 
Ileinemann.  who.  prior  to  its  iiublic.ilion  in  Berlin 
in  lH:i!».  had  edited  an  annual  entitled  "Jedidiah." 
From  the  date  of  its  tirst  issue  it  appeared  irregu- 
larly mitil  1H44.  w  hen  it  had  reached  Ihe  nuddle  of 
its  third  volume  and  its  jMdilication  ceased  (Winter 
and  Wilnsche,  "Jlulische  Literatur,"  iii.  SOl). 

D. 

ALLIANCE  ISRAELITE  UNIVER- 
SELLE: A  society  fiiuinlril  in  IstiO  for  the  protee- 
lion  and  impiovemeiit  of  the  Jews  iM  general,  but 
mainly  devoted  to  the  interests  of  those  in  the  east 
of  Europe,  North  Africa,  and  Asia  Minor.  It  was 
established  by  six  Jews  of  Paris  (France):  Aristide 
Aslruc.  afterward  chief  rabbi  of  Belgium:  Isidore 
Cahcn.  editor  of  the  "Archives  Israelites";  Jides 
Carvallo.  civil  engineer;  Narcisse  Leven.  lawyer; 
Prolissor  Eugene  JIanuel.  and  Charles  Netter.  mer- 
chant (died  ISS-,')— all  men  of  g I  standing,  but  at 

that  lime  not  particularly  pi'ominent  in  the  Paris 
community.  Hepeated  attacks  upon  the  Jews  by 
fanatical  sects  of  various  denominations  had  long 
made  it  apjiarent  that  something  should  be  done  on 
an  organized  scale.  The  as.sassination  of  Father 
Thomas  at  Damascus,  in  1840,  had  given  rise  to  an 
accusation  of  ritual  murder  against  Ihe  Jews  of  that 
city.  Sir  Moses  MoMtcliore.  logether  with  Adolphe 
Cremieux,  a  lawyer,  and  Solomon  Munk,  the  eminent 
Orientalist,  proceeded  at  once  to  Egypt  to  intercede 
with  .Mehemil  Alt  and  to  defend  the  accusetl.  This 
event  brought  forcilily  to  light  Ihe  neces.sity  for  a 
central  organization  that  .shoidd  undertake  the  de- 
fense of  the  op|)ressed  Jews  scattered  throughout 
the  world:  and  Ihe  Jewish  journals  of  Germany  and 
France  made  earnest  appeals  for  Ihe  ciealion  of  such 
an  insliliilion.  Owing,  however,  to  lack  of  agree- 
ment or  perseverance,  their  uttenuices  remained 
withiMil  any  jiraclical  i.ssue  for  twenty  years. 

A  crime  perpi'lnili'<l  in  the  Papal  Stales  in  IMS, 
with  the  connivance  of  Ihe  papal  government, 
anaised  worldwide  indignation.  A  child,  Edgar 
Slortani,  was  torn  from  his  Jewisli  parents  and  forci- 
biv  baptized.  This  outrage  against  religious  liberty 
contributed  much  to  strengthen  Ihe  general  seiiti- 
meiil  for  organized  protection:  and.  a.s  a  result,  two 
years  later  Ihe  AlliaiMc  Israi'lile  rniverselle  came 
into  existence,  under  the  auspices  of  t  he  abovi'  named 
public  spirited  Jews  of  Paris. 

In  an  "Appeal"  addressed  to  the  public  in  De- 
cember, isitll,  Ihe  task  which  the  new  siK-lety  was 
about  to  a.ssume  is  stated  as  follows; 

"Ti>  ilifeiiil  ilii'  liiiiior  iif  till'  .li'wlsh  imiiii'  wlienevi-r  il  Is  nl- 
Inrki'il ;  1"  iniiiiiniiP',  I'v  "H  ineuii"  iil  i>iir  ills|«>snl.  the  piirsnit 
nf  tiiii'fiil  tninitli-niftM  ;  lui-nitiluit.  when'  ntti.N.siirv.  Itie  t»ritnnini<4^ 
mill  Hie eiiKi'iiiliTiil  liv inipn-wlnii ;  liiwiirli.livllii'ixiwiTiifiMT- 
Kiiiwiliiii  unit  liv  iill  Uie  iiii.nil  liillufnrii«  iii  "iir  i-<>iiiniHn>l.  fur  llio 
finiuK-limtleii  nf  nur  l>rt*(hn'ii  wbo  still  buITit  uiiiUt  Uio  liunlea 


Alliance  lBra«ito  TJniverBello        THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


414 


of  t-\<-i-|iit<iiml  leglslittlon :  u>  ha.sU-n  und  Mtlidify  iitiiipU'lo  en- 
franililsfiiii'nt  by  the  Inlelleotuttl  and  imiral  iVBi'mrutlim  <if 
our  brt'lhren :— such.  In  ILs  chief  asiM'clj*.  is  the  work  lo  which 
the  Alliunn'  Israelite  I'niverselle  hereby  C(>nse<'rates  llielf." 

TIlis  program  is  definitely  formulated  in  Article  1. 

of  the  statutes: — 
Program.         "The  society  of  the  Alliance  Israel- 
ite I'niverselle  has  for  its  aims: 

'■(<()  To  work  every wliere  for  the  emancipation 
and  moral  projrress  of  the  .lews. 

"(//)  To  i;ive  elTectiial  support  to  those  who  arc 
sulTerinj;  persi'cution  because  they  arc  .lews. 

"(<•)  To  encourage  all  publications  calculated  to 
promote  these  ends." 

To  this  projrram  the  Alliance  has  steadfastly  and 
faithfully  adhered.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the 
founders  had  a  very  pniclical  conception  of  their 
undertakin!;.  Disrejrardin'j;  any  project  which 
mifflit  cause  dissension,  they  limited  their  field  of 
activity  to  such  (piestions  only  as  to  which  there 
could  be  no  diversrejice  of  opinion  anioni;  the  .lews. 
It  was  in  this  spirit  that  they  declared  at  the  outset 
that  all  political  ([uestions  should  be  excluded,  and 
that  the  Alliance  would  take  no  account  of  cither  the 
political  convictions  of  its  mcnibcrs  or  of  their  re- 
liciousopiMions.  It  recoirnized  neither  Orthodo.x  nor 
Liberal,  neither  Conservative  nor  Heformer  as  such : 
it  desired  lo  stand  u])on  the  one  idatform  of  the  de- 
fense and  the  rcfieneration  of  tlx'  .lews,  exclusive  of 
all  polilical  or  llieoloj;ical  distiuitions. 

From  tlu-  beirinninir  the  Alliance  numbered  many 
Protestants  ainoni;  its  friends,  clergymen  as  well  as 
laymen.       Dr.   Pelavel  of  Xeiichatel 
First         and  his  sons,  who  at  once  sent  their 
Struggles,    congratulations  and  good  wishes  to  the 
infant  soeietv,  deserve  particular  men- 
tion.    Amongother  Christian  subscribers,  Alexandre 
Pumas,  the  younger,  and  Jules  Simon,  must  be  men- 
tioned: they  remained  faithful  adherents  until  their 
death. 

The  Alliance  encountered  obstinate  opjiosition 
among  the  timorous,  among  those  who  haled  action, 
and  among  those  who  thought  that  evil  could  be  cured 
by  ignoring  it.  There  were  distinguished  men  in 
Jewry,  too,  who  cond)ated  the  i)roject — writers  and 
rabbis  who  sought  to  hinder  the  foundation  of  the  so- 
ciety. The  Jewish  journals  of  IsODand  ISf.l  are  full 
of  vigorous  poleinicson  the  subject;  but  time,  reflec- 
tion, and  experience  have  iiuietcd  the  o]iposition.  At 
the  iireseiit  day  there  is  very  little  diversity  f>f  opin- 
ion in  the  .Jewish  world  as  to  the  positive  service  ren- 
dered by  the  Alliance,  imrticularly  in  the  domains  of 
education  and  iihilaiithropy. 

Until  ISSO  the  so(ieiy  had  to  struggle  with  internal 
dissensions,  especially  after  the  Franco-German  war 
of  1870-7L  Again  and  again,  both  at  general  meet 
iugs  and  at  other  gatherings  convened  by  theCentral 
Committee,  it  was  proposed  to  split  up  the"  I'ni  vcrs;d 
Alliance"  into  a  number  of  "National  Alliances." 
At  Berlin  in  1872  and  again  in  1879  this  idea  was  su]v 
ported  by  men  of  great  intluence  among  the  Jews  of 
Germany.  Fortunatelythey  failed  in  their  endeavors: 
a  division  would  have  greaily  weakened  the  Alliance : 
and  the  scattered  fragments  would  have  been  unalilc 
to  accomplish  anything  durable  or  important.  What 
happened  in  Englanil  and  in  Austria  should  be  con- 
vincing  in  this  regaiil.  In  l.**"!  the  Knglish  JeAvs 
created  in  London  an  institution  entitled  "  The  Anglo 
Jewish  Association"  in  connection  with  the  Alliance 
Israelite  Universelle.  This  association  has  for  the 
most  part  the  same  objects  as  the  .\lliancc.  It  has 
almost  daily  correspondence  with  theCentral  Com 
mitteeof  the  Paris  institution,  and  contributes  to  the 
Alliance  funds  for  the  support  of  certain  schools ;  but 


its  sphere  of  activity  can  not  well  extend  beyond  llie 
British  empire,  and  it  would  bi-  dillieult  for  it  to  un- 
dertake work  throughout  the  world  or  t^i  approach  the 
diplomatic  authorities  of  any  country  but  F.ngland. 
The  .Vlliance  Israelite,  on  the  other  hand,  because  of 
its  universal  character,  is  active  everywhere  and  in 
all  directions:  appeals  to  sovereignsand  governments 
indiscriminately  :and  foundsschools  where  the  leach- 
ing is  carrieil  on  in  German.  English,  French.  Turk- 
ish. Arabic,  or  Bussian.  Another  .society,  "  Die  Israel- 
itische  Allianz  zu  Wien"  (The  Israelitish  .Mliance  at 
Vienna),  was  formed  upon  the  same  model  in  lS7:i;  but 
its  sphere  of  action  is  limited  toAustria,  and  ils  princi- 
pal purpose  is  to  work  for  the  elevation  of  the  Israel- 
ites of  that  country. 

At  present  the  Central  Committee  is  composed  of  23 

inemliers  living  in  Parisanil  H!»<iulsideof  Fiance.    Of 

thelatur  17  are  iiitJennanv.  1  in  Aiis- 

Central  tria.  2  in  Hungary,  Sin  Hnllaiid.  1  in 
Committee.  London,  1  in  Sw  itzerland,  1  in  Belgium. 
r>  in  till-  United  Stales.  4  in  Italy,  1  in 
Denmark,  1  in  Curacao,  and  1  in  Turkey.  French  com- 
munities out.side  of  Paris  are  not  ri>pri'.siMited  in  the 
Committee,  nor  are  those  of  Algeria  or  Tunis.  Ac- 
cording to  article  8  of  the  stalules.  the  Central  Com- 
mittee is  elected  by  the  members  of  the  sociely.  liy  a 
majority  of  the  votes  ca.st,  Article  0  provides  that 
the  members  of  the  Committee  shall  hold  office  for 
nine  years :  three  members  retiring  every  three  years, 
all  being  eligible  for  reelection.  The  first  elections 
were  held  in  18(!2;  I  he  sub.setpient  ones  on  the  follow- 
ing dates:  .Mav21,  Isc,.-,;  .Alav  :i.  1808;  Oct.  2(1.  1872; 
March  li).  f.H7(i;  Feb.  11,  is.s;^;  .March  10.  1S.S7:  Oct. 
18.  1889;  Ocl.  8.  1S9;!.  Up  lo  the  present  time  elec- 
tions have  thus  been  held  almost  regularly.  In  1879 
exceptional  ciicumslances  prevented  an  election.  In 
1897  the  unanimous  sense  of  the  meniliersof  theCen- 
tral Committee,  supported  by  the  great  majority  of 
local  committees,  decided  that  the  electoral  machin- 
ery should  not  be  employed  in  that  year,  and  that  it 
was  preferable  to  ap|)oint  the  neees.sary  new  members 
of  till'  Committee  by  the  vote  of  the  existing  mem- 
bers of (he  board. 

The  society  is  managed  by  the  Central  Committee 
resident  in  Paris.  Non  resident  members  participate 
in  the  work,  but  indirectly.  They  receive  every  month 
notice  of  the  iiucslions  which  are  to  be  discussed  and 
are  invited  to  send  in  their  ojiinions.  When  these 
iiuestions  are  of  general  importance,  the  major  part 
of  them  communicate  their  views  in  writing,  ami  oc- 
casionally some  of  them  are  present  at  the  sessions  in 
Parisand  t;Uvean active  jtart  in  thedeliberations.  The 
Central  Commitlee  was  presided  over  from  IKliO  to 
18fi:i  by  L.  J.  Konigswarter;  from  1863  to  1.S67  by 
.\ilolphe  Cremieux;  in  18G7by  Solomon  JIunk.  At 
his  death,  the  post  remained  vacant  for  a  year:  Cre- 
mieux br'ing  reelected  in  1868,  an<l  retaining  the  office 
until  his  dealli  in  18,'<0.  Out  of  respect  to  him  il  was 
left  vacant  until  lis.S-',  when  S.  II.  Goldschniidt  was 
ajipointed  to  the  office,  which  he  hehl  until  his  death 
on  Feb.  is,  1S98.  From  this  date  the  presidency  has 
been  entru.sted  to  Xarcis.se  Leven,  one  of  the  original 
founders  of  the  Alliance,  its  general  secretary  from 
ls(i3  to  iss:^,  and  ils  vice-president  from  18.S3  to  1898. 

Article  13  of  the  statutes  provides  that  the  Central 
Committee  shall  convene  a  general  meeting  of  the 
members  at  least  once  a  year,  and  shall  present  a 
report  of  the  condition  of  the  society.  During  the 
first  years  of  its  existence  this  provision  was  regu- 
larly observed ;  but  from  1874  general  meetings  have 
taken  place  only  on  March  14,  187.5;  Aug.  12,  1878, 
and  May  16,  1881. 

The  Central  Committee  keeps  in  touch  with  the 
members  of  the    Alliance    by    means    of  local  or 


415 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA        Alliance  Israfelite  TIniverselle 


territorial  committees.     In  certiiin  countries,  notably 
Franci'  and  the  United  States,  tlie  local  commiltees 
are  in  direct  corri'Spi)n<len<'e  with   the 
Or^auiza-    Central  Committee.    In  (jermany.  IIol- 
tion.  land.  Italy,  and  Iliinirary.  supervisiiij; 

the  local  conmiittees,  there  are  terri- 
ritorial  committees,  whose  spheres  of  action  are  some- 
times very  extensive;  but  both  territorial  and  local 
oonnnittees,  except  on  rare  occasions,  arc  restricted 
in  their  actions  totli<'  carry  iiiir  out  of  the  resolutions 
pa.S-Sed  by  the  Central  Committee,  to  .securinj;  new 
subscribers,  and  to  .solicitinj;  and  colleeting  dona- 
tions and  assessments  for  the  society.  They  an-,  as 
it  were,  the  executive  and  propagating  agent-sof  the 
institution. 

During  its  whole  existence,  the  Alliance  lias  had 
as  chief  source  of  incoiuc  the  as.sessineiits  and  dona- 
tions of  its  members;  and  even  today  these  contri- 
butions represent  an  important  portion  of  its  receipts. 
The  amuial  dues  beinir  lixcd  at  the  minimum  rate 
of  0  frs.  (§1.13),  and  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
subscriptions  not  exceeding  this  amoiuit,  it  retiuired 
nearly 'J2, out)  subscribers  to  make  uj)  the  l.'iS.Tl!)  frs. 
derived  from  this  source  in  IH'.IS.  The  number  of 
members  increased  contiiuiously  (mtil  ISS4,  when 
their  annual  contributions  amounted  to  •J'.id.lllH)  frs. 
From  that  period,  this  income  has  grsidually  dimin- 
ished from  year  to  year;  and  a  vigorous  elfort  would 
be  necessary  to  increase  it.  There  are  many  cau.ses 
fortius  falling  olT:  Anti  Semitism  compels  great  Siic- 
rilices  in  France,  in  Germany,  and  elsewhere;  many 
local  benevolent  societies  and  institutions  have  since 
been  established;  and  to  these  causes  mvist  be  added 
a  certain  false  shame  which  holds  many  aloof  from 
their  coreligionists. 

Since  its  organization  the.Mliance  has  published  re- 
ports or  "Bulletins"  upon  its  progress  and  upon  its 
work.     Hegininng  with  theappeaniiice 

Publica-  of  the  first  "Appeal"  in  1S(!0.  until  the 
tions.  year  l.S(i2  these  "  Bulletins  "  were  issued 
every  twoor  three  months.  They  con- 
tained extracts  from  the  minutes  of  the  meetings  of 
the  Central  Committee,  information  on  the  coiidilion 
of  the  .lews  in  various  lands,  a  description  of  all  the 
work  in  which  the  Alliance  was  participating  or  iti 
which  it  might  become  intcrested.and.tinaliy.astute- 
menlof  rcc<'ipts  and  expenses.  From  1. '<(!.">  to  1H!):{ 
the  "  liulletin  "  was  publislie<l  semiamuially.  When 
the  society  had  grown  considerably  two"  Hulletins" 
becnine  necessary.  Accordingly,  from  March.  1S93.  a 
monthly  "  IJulletin  "  has  bicn  issued,  di'signcd  for  the 
commit  ti'cs,  for  the  |irinci|)al  coworkers,  "an<l  for  all 
those  willing  to  [lay  an  additional  yearly  subscrip- 
tion." Thesemi-aiuuial  "  iUiUetin  "  givesan  abstract 
of  the  monthly  issues  and  a  staleineiil  of  receipts 
and  expenditures;  this  is  sent  to  all  subscribers.  In 
1W<7  it  was  thought  that,  in  view  of  the  monthly 
"  Rulletin,"  the  semi  annual  publication  might  be  dis- 
continued and  an  anmial  report  substituted.  The 
monthly  luiil  aiuiual  "Hulletins"  appear  in  French 
and  in  (icniian.  Some  issues  have  also  been  jiub- 
lished  in  Knirlish.  llilirew.  and  lluniraiiaii.  In  lss,"i. 
on  the  occasion  of  the  twenty  fifth  anniversary  of  its 
exi.stenee.  the  Allian<  e  published  a  history  of  its 
work  from  itsinciption.  This  history  has  been  trans- 
lated into  (lernian.  Knglish.  Anibii-.  Dutch,  and  I,a- 
(lino.  or.Iuda'o  Spanish  ;  so  that  subscribers  of  nearly 
every  country  can  read  it  in  their  own  tongue. 

The  Alliance  had  hardly  biin  established  when 
it  demonstniled  the  broad  spirit  animating  its 
foiunlers  by  opening  a  subsiriplion  for  the  Chris 
lians  of  I.elianon  who  wiri>  being  peisceuliil  by  the 
Druses  and  dying  of  hiuiger.  Iloth  Crenueux  and 
Sir  Moses  Montetiore  appealed  to  the  generosity  of 


their  coreligionists  in  behalf  of  these  victims  of  Mus- 
sulman fanaticism  :  and  a  provisional  committee  took 
up   their    initiative    and    contribuli-d 

General       elhciently  to  the    mitigation   of    this 

Activity,     undeserved     sulTering.       About     the 

siime  time  the  Alliance  emleavored  to 

procure  the  restoration  to  his  father  of  the  .lewisli 

child  Kdgar  Mortara. 

In  coinitries  where  liberty  of  conscience  and  equal 
rights  aie  ikjw  deeply  rooted  in  the  national  institu- 
tions, it  is  liaid  to  realize  that  the  .Jews  have  enjoyed 
these  benefits  only  for  the  last  thirty  years.  In  lS(iO, 
certain  Swiss  cantons  still  refused  foreign  .lews  the 
right  of  residence  and  the  right  to  hold  projierty; 
the  canton  of  Aargau  denied  e(|ual  civic  rights  to 
its  own  .Jewish  citizens.  The  liberal  press  of  both 
France  and  Switzerlaml  energetically  .seconded  the 
steps  imdertaken  by  the  Alliance'  to  remove  these 
vc-stigesof  iMi'dievalism.  Nothing  was  accomplished, 
however,  until  1807,  when  Fraiici'.  Italy,  Uelgium, 
and  Holland,  havingbeen  nc}litied  by  the  Alliance  of 
the  contiiuiance  of  this  unfair  treatment  of  citizens 
of  .Jewish  faith,  refused  to  renew  their  treaties  w  ith 
Switzerland  uidess  absolute  equality  were  guaran- 
teed to  the  .lews. 

The  activity  of  the  Alliance  tlius  far  had  been  of 
a  sporadic  nature  exerted  from  time  to  time  in  favor 
of  eeitain  bodies  of  .Jews.  'I'here  were  countries, 
however,  wIktc  this  action  was  unremittingly  ex- 
ercised for  a  long  series  of  years  and  where  ii  still 
continues  at  the  jiresent  day.  A  distinction  must  be 
made  between  cotnitries  under  Christian  domination 
and  those  luider  ^lussulman  intluence. 

The  situation  of  the  .Jews of  Humania  and  Servia 
called  for  the  action  of  the  Alliance  from  the  day  of 
its  foundation.  For  seventeen  vears, 
Rumania,  u])  to  the  treaty  of  Merlin  in  ls7s,  the 
-Mliance  had  worked  luiceasjngly  to 
succor  the  unhajipy  .Jews  of  those  countries."  In 
isiio  Ifuinania  seemed  to  lie  ripe  for  civilization. 
The  French  press  ('specially  had  become  infatuated 
with  this  small  nation  of  Latin  race  and  language, 
which  declared  itself  permeated  with  the  spirit  of 
purest  liberalism.  .Jews  had  been  excluded  from  the 
enjoyment  of  political  rights;  they  were  considered 
as  aliens,  although  a  great  majority  of  them  had  been 
liorn  in  the  country  and  had  never  belonged  to  any 
other  nationality.  The  mend)ers  of  the  Central  Com- 
mittee of  the  Alliance,  several  of  whom  had  the  op- 
])ortimity  of  making  the  accnuiintance  of  Kiuuanian 
statesmen  in  Paris,  saw  no  reason  to  doubt  the  good 
disposition  of  Uumania.  The  reigning  prince  him- 
si'lf.  Alexander  .lohn(('uza).  in  IStU  received  the  sug- 
gestions of  the  coiiwnittee  most  graciously,  and  re- 
(picsted  his  representative  at  Paris  to  place  himself 
in  conununicaljon  with  the  Alliance.  In  IStit!  Cie- 
mieuxwenl  to  liucharesl.and  was  heartily  welcomed 
by  government  otliciids.  .Alinislers  and  deputies  vied 
with  one  another  in  exjiressions  of  regard.  He  wa.s 
formally  conducted  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and 
the  mcmbiTs  thronged  aroimd  him  to  lisli-n  to  his  elo- 
(|Uent  words.  ,\  vote  was  just  then  biing  taken  on 
the  adojition  of  the  constitution  which  contained  an 
arlicle  aeeoiiliiig  all  civil  and  political  rights  to  the 
.lews,  and  Cri'iiueux  to(ik  his  departure  from  liucha- 
nst  with  the  conviction  that  the  emancipation  of  the 
Uumanian  .lews  was  an  accomplished  fact.  Scarcely 
had  he  left  the  cily,  when  a  riot  broke  out  in  w  liich 
the  synagogue  was  stormed  and  sacked.  This  was 
the  first  step  in  a  policy  of  violence,  injustice,  and 
persecution  which  has  prevailid  ever  sim  c.  It  was 
followed  by  various  prohibitions  against  living  in 
villages;  against  owning  houses,  lands,  or  vineyards 
in  rural  distriels;  against  dealing  in  liipior;  against 


Alliance  Isra61ite  TJniverselle        THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


416 


tlie  pnssi'ssion  of  municipiil  riglits,  or  the  exercise  of 
any  public  function ;  against  following  the  profession 
of  lawyer  or  plmrnmcist ;  anil  against  the  employ- 
ment of  Jews  on  the  railroads.  On  March  15,  1884. 
an  edict  iirohibiling  jieddling  was  promulgated,  and 
thereby  Iwenly  thousand  Jews  were  deprived  of 
their  means  of  support. 

DissiUislied  witii  this,  the  Uiuuaniansthen  invented 
a  slill  more  efficient  method  of  harassing  their  Jew- 
isli  fellow  citizens.  Since  about  the  year  1894,  the 
]irimary  and  secondary  schools  have  been  closed 
to  Jewish  children,  and  even  the  tnides  and  com- 
mercial schools  likewise.  It  is  the  hardest  blow 
dealt  at  Hiimanian  Jewry,  and  one  which  it  feels 
most  keeidy.  These  laws  have  caused  the  Alliance 
and  the  Jewish  Colonization  Association  to  lend 
generous  support  to  Kuniaiiian  Jewish  communities 
for  the  creation  and  maintenance  of  special  schools. 
Buch  restrictive  laws  on  education  are  more  deadly 
than  all  the  e.xiiuisions  and  all  the  riots  which  have 
stained  the  streets  of  Kumanian  towns  with  Jewish 
blood.  The  question  will  be  asked,  "Was  the  Alli- 
ance idleduring  tlieseodious  persecutions? ''  It  was 
its  duty  to  proclaim  to  iiulili<-  opinion  the  bad  faith 
and  the intolenmt  spirit  of  the  successive  Rumanian 
ministries;  to  intercede  with  Kuropi'an  governments, 
especially  with  the  great  jiowers.  under  whose  guar- 
anty Rumania  obtained  its  independence  in  18.5(). 
The  truth  was  not  sufficiently  known  either  to  the 
European  public  or  to  the  various  governments,  and 
therefore  had  to  be  proclaimed:  this  was  the  espe- 
cial function  of  the  Alliance,  and  it  did  not  fail 
in  the  emergency.  Rimianian  agents  perverted  the 
facts,  and  represented  that  the  Jewish  ex]iulsions 
were  hygienic  measures.  They  claimed  that  the  pro- 
hibitive laws  were  directed  against  aliens  and  not 
against  Jews.  Friends  of  the  Alliance  and  of  truth 
interpellated  the  government  in  various  European 
parliaments  concerning  the  conduct  of  the  Ruma- 
nian government.  Irrefragable  statements  were  pub- 
lished by  the  Alliance  in  support  of  its  accusations 
against  the  Rumanian  government.  Certain  verv 
grave  events  that  had  taken  place  atlsmaila  in  1872 
spurred  the  Alliance  to  still  greater  efforts.  Under 
its  auspices,  a  conference  was  held  at  Brussels, 
Oct.  29  and  30,  1S72,  fif  delegates  from  France,  Ger- 
many, England,  and  the  United  States,  presided  over 
by  Creiuieux.  It  was  decided  to  persevere  in  the 
struggle  and  meanwhile  to  a.ssist  the  Rumanian  Jews 
in  their  endeavors  to  obtain  justice.  Another  meet- 
ing took  place  in  Paris  Dec.  11.  18To.  at  which  it 
was  resolved  to  solemnly  demand  of  the  powers 
their  intercession  in  behalf  of  the  Jews  in  Rumania. 
The  memorial  prejiared  by  this  conference  was  taken 
to  the  celi'brated  diplomatic  congress  at  Constanti- 
nople by  M.  Charles  Xetler.  a  member  of  the  Central 
committee. 

The  failure  of  the  conference  of  Constantinople, 
which  was  followed  by  the  war  between  Russia  and 

Turkey, isa  well-known  historical  fact. 

Berlin        The  congress  convened  at  Herlin  in  187s 

Congress,     to  settle  the  affairs  of  the  East  after  the 

1878.        close  of  the  war.  wjus  solicited  to  take 

up  the  f|Uestion  of  the  Rumanian  Jews. 
The  Alliance  was  represented  by  three  delegates  to 
the  congress,  Kann.  Netter.  and  Veneziani.  It  was 
a  solemn  moment  in  the  life  of  the  Alliance.  Its 
delegates  were  courteously  received  and  were  en- 
abled to  lay  before  the  assembled  European  diplo- 
mats a  full  statement  of  their  grievances  and  their 
demands.  France  took  the  initiative  and  proposed 
to  the  congress  that  in  Rumania.  Servia.  and  Bul- 
garia "differences  of  religious  belief  should  not  be 
considered  as  reason  for  disability  in  matters  per- 


taining to  the  enjoyment  of  civil  and  political  rights." 
This  declaration  is  embodied  in  articles  5,  20.  3"),  and 
44  of  the  treaty  of  Herlin.  United  E\irope.s!inetioned 
the  e(iuality  of  all  religions  before  the  law  and  pro- 
claimed the  emaneii)ation  of  the  Jews.  This  signifi- 
cant episode  isuniipie  in  the  history  of  Judaism.  But 
this  concession  was  made  practically  inoperative. 
The  government  of  Kuniania  deceived  Europe,  and 
evaded  the  treaty  under  pretense  of  modifying,  as  a 
matter  of  form  only,  an  article  of  the  constitution; 
with  the  residt  that  Rumanian  Jews,  excepting  a 
certain  privileged  muuber  among  them,  continue  to 
be  considered  by  the  law  as  "aliens"  in  a  country 
where  they  have  resided  for  almost  seven  centuries. 

In  Servia,  the  Alliance  met  with  no  fewer  diffi- 
culties than  in  Rumaiua.  but  tlii'  result  has  been 
different.  Servia  conforms  strictly  to 
Servia  and  the  rciiuirements  of  the  treaty  of  Ik-r- 
Bulgaria.  lin.  There  are  no  restrictions  there 
upon  the  rights  of  Jews;  their  eman- 
cipation is  complete.  In  Bulgaria,  which  was  a 
Turkish  jji-ovince  until  1878,  the  .Vlliance  has  like- 
wise secured  full  emancipation.  In  that  country,  the 
Alliance,  in  addition  to  the  political  and  economic 
benefits  conferred,  has  addi-d  schools,  which  will  be 
described  further  on  in  this  article.  The  .lews  of 
Bulgaria  possess  the  full  franchise.  Many  of  them 
are  members  of  the  various  elective  bodies.  They 
possess  full  (Miuality,  and  their  relations  with  their 
Christian  f<'llow  citizens  are  satisfactory. 

It  israthersurprising  to  tind  that  between  1860 and 

1870,  Russia  regardeil  the  activity  of  the  Alliance 

with   outspoken  approval,  and  came 

Russia.  near  re(|Uesting  its  coopenvtion  in  the 
elevation  of  her  Jewi.sh  population. 
Upon  the  occasion  of  the  incident  at  SaratolT.  wherein 
.Tews  were  luijustly  condemned  as  having  slain  a 
Christian  child,  the  Ru.ssiau  and)a.s.sador  at  Paris  re- 
ceived with  great  favor  the  rcjircsentatives  of  the 
Central  Committee,  who  waited  upon  him  in  1H62 
with  a  memorial  addressed  to  the  emperor  in  behalf 
of  the  condenui(<l.  .Vgain,  at  the  re(|Uest  of  the  .Vl- 
liance. the  ambassailor.  ^I.  dc  Budberg.  consented  in 
1868  to  in(|uire  into  the  case  of  a  yotuig  Jewish  girl 
who  was  bai)tized  in  Russia  against  the  will  of  her 
parents. 

The  first  time  the  Alliance  was  called  upon  to  in- 
tervene in  favor  of  the  Russian  Jews  was  in  1869. 
Famine  was  ravaging  Ru.ssiau  Poland;  the  number 
of  its  victims  was  enormous.  The  Alliance  issued 
an  appeal  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers.  A  confer- 
ence of  dcle.ijrates  of  the  -Vlliance.  under  President 
Cremieux.  with  members  of  the  conunittces  of  Ber- 
lin and  Konigsberg,  took  place  at  the  Prus.sian  capi- 
tal, October,  1869.  It  wasdeeidcd  to  assist  a  certain 
number  of  .lews  to  migrate  into  the  interior  of  Rus- 
sia, to  convey  others  io  the  United  St.ates.  and  to 
erect  at  Konigsberg  a  permanent  institution  for  the 
care  of  Russo-Polish  chililrcn.  This  jjrogram  was 
carried  out.  In  less  than  two  years  eight  hundred 
emigrants  were  transported  to  America,  where  the}' 
were  received  by  the  Board  of  Delegates  and  aided 
in  the  establishment  of  new  homes.  Three  hundred 
orphans  were  cared  for  by  the  .lewish  communities 
of  France  and  Germany.  In  Konigsberg.  Posen, 
]Memel,  and  Cologne,  trade-schools  for  Russian  chil- 
dren were  established;  that  of  Konigsberg  exists  to- 
day, and  receives  a  considerable  subvention  from 
the  Alliance. 

In  the  great  persecutions  of  1881-82  the  horrors  of 
liarbarism  were  reprodticcd.  From  Ekaterinoslav  to 
Wilna.  bands  of  rioters  attacked  the  .Tews.  The  scenes 
of  murder,  pillage,  and  incendiarism  which  Russia 
then  presented  raised  a  cry  of  indignation  throughout 


417 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA        Alliance  Israelite  Universelle 


Europe  and  America.  In  Puiis,  Berlin,  Loudon, 
and  the  cities  of  tlie  United  States,  meetings  were 
tailed  and  resolutions  i)assed  vigorously  denouncing 
the  assailants,  and  (r.xpressionsof  sympathy  and  com- 
miseration si'Ul  to  their  unhappy  victims.  IJut  the 
case  called  for  more  elTective  action.  'I"he  Alliance 
lielped  with  large  donations;  it  organized  bureaus 
for  relief  and  methodically  directed  emigration  to- 
ward the  United  States.  Tliis  emigration,  which  com- 
menced in  1881.  was  attended  willi  good  results.  The 
Jews  of  the  United  States  acce|)ted  the  charge  thus 
laid  upon  their  shoulders  with  most  commendable 
generosity.  Tlie  Board  of  Delegates,  the  Hebrew 
Emigrant  Aid  Society,  the  United  Hebrew  Charities 
of  New  York,  and  the  various  committees  of  Phil- 
adelphia, Boston,  and  many  other  i>laces,  applied 
themselves  to  the  formidalile  task  with  a  self-Siicrifice 
and  devotion  wliich  have  never  been  exceeded.  See 
AoRicuLTUu.\L  CoLONii-;s  IN  THE  Uniti-:h  St.'K^tes. 

Twenty  thousjind  poor  Russian  Jews  were  massed 
together  on  the  Austrian  frontier.  Two  members  of 
the  Central  Conwnittee  journeyed  thither,  worked  for 
several  months,  sending  back  those  who  coiUd  not 
support  themselves  in  America,  forwarding  young 
and  robust  men  to  the  United  Slates,  and  si'tlling  in 
dillerent  i)arts  of  Europe  tho.se  who  could  not  be  so 
conveyed,  and  who  for  one  reason  or  another  could 
not  be  returned  to  Hussia.  It  was  a  colos.sal  enter- 
prise requiring  much  effort;  but  the  Alliance  was 
actively  seconded  by  the  committees  in  London,  Vi- 
enna, atid  Berlin.  It  was  esp<'cial!y  due  to  the  ex- 
traordinary munilicence  of  the  American  Jews  that 
it  was  alili'  to  succeed  in  this  overwhelming  task. 
The  work  accomplished  in  1S8'3  was  also  the  start- 
ing-i)oint  for  that  spontaneous  emigration  from  Rus- 
sia to  the  United  States  which  has  already  carried 
thither,  according  to  statistics  of  entry  at  New  York, 
Philailelpliia,  and  Baltimore  a  population  of  over 
000, 000  souls  (see  "  American  Jewish  Year  Book," 
under  "Statistics,"  1.S99).  In  the  interior  of  Russia 
the  Alliance  has  always  exerted  itself  in  behalf  of 
those  Jewish  conununities  that  are  subjectrd  to 
misery  or  i)ersecutiiin  ;  helping  victims  of  expulsion, 
aiding  families  ruined  liy  tire,  relieving  famine- 
stricken  farming  colonies,  and  rendering  assistance 
to  .schools  and  poor  students — efforts  all  unfortu- 
nately insutllcient. 

Ill  Christian  (ountries  tli(>  inferior  status  of  th<' 
Jews  is  almost  always  the  result  of  exceptional  leg- 
islation, of  disabilities  decreed  by  the 
In  Moham-  law  or  by  the  will  of  the  sovereign.  In 
medan        .MohanuniMlan  countriesit  isduetoeco- 
Countries.    n<imic  conditions,  to  the  customs  or  to 
the  fanaticism  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
to  the  greed  of  ollicials  and  governmental  tyranny. 
It  must  be  noted  that  if  IIk^  Jews  there  are  gener- 
ally held  in  small  esteem,  the  ('hristians  are  eiiually 
<()ntemned.  so  that  it  is  necessary  for  these  latter  to 
appeal  to  the  Christian  powers  to  iirevent  their  ill- 
treatment  or  expulsion     But  it  is  fre(i\iently  the  case 
that  in   MolianuMc<lan   countries  the  Christians  are 
most  hostile  to  the  Jews.     The  incident   of  Father 
Thomas  at  Damascus,   in   18-10,   with   the  tortures 
inflicted   on  iimocent  Jews,   and  hundreds  of   less 
important  occurrences,  show  that  the  Christians  of 
the  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  which  iiredominates  in 
Mohammedan  counlries,  are  posses.seil  of  a  violent  an- 
tipathy to  the  Jews.     Whili'  the  Turk- 
Turkey,       ish  government  accords  fair  treatment 
to  its  Jews  as  such,  the  country  is  still 
in  such  a  semiliarliarous   condition    that    cases  fre- 
tiuently  occur  of  outrage,  of  individual  or  collective 
violence,  of  private  revenge  or  brigandage,  a.s  well 
us  of  spoliation  by  greedy  6r  cruel  fiinctiouuries. 
I.— 27 


Each  time  that  an  event  of  this  kind  has  been 
brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Alliance,  that  or- 
ganization has  ai>pealed  to  the  Turkish  government, 
and  in  every  instance  its  representations  have  been 
favorably  receiv<'d. 

The  Jews  of  Turkey  have  always  been  a  consider- 
able burden  upon  the  resources  of  the  Alliance.  As 
will  be  .shown  further  on.  theie  are  numerous  schools 
founded  and  sui)|)orted  by  the  Alliance  throughout 
Turkey.  The  Alliance,  properly  considered,  is  not 
strictly  a  benevolent  society;  but  when  any  di.saster 
threatens  a  whole  population  or  at  least  a  large  com- 
munity, it  can  not  remain  indifferent,  entrenching 
itself  behind  the  strict  letter  of  its  by-laws — even 
when  a  body  of  Jews  are  not  suffering  "in  their 
(juality  of  Jews."  Appeals  made  by  it  in  cases  of 
disaster  overtaking  a  district  or  an  important  com- 
munity have  been  ntimerous,  but  have  always  met 
with  generous  responses.  In  Turkey,  such  action  on 
the  part  of  the  Alliance  has  been  frequently  tailed 
for:  famine  in  Asia  Minor  in  1880;  conflagrations  at 
Constantinople  in  1874  and  again  in  1883;  and  the 
earthquake  at  Chio  in  1881.  In  1877,  after  the  Russo- 
Turkish  AVar,  a  large  sulwcription  was  opened  which 
afforded  opportunities  to  give  substantial  aid  to  tho.se 
Turkish  Jews  who  had  fled  before  the  Ru.ssian  in- 
vasion and  who  had  become  successively  the  vic- 
tims of  marauding  Russian,  Bidgarian,  and  Turkish 
soldiers. 

In  Egypt  the  Jews  have  no  need  of  assistance 
from  the  Alliance.  In  Abyssinia  there  exists  a  Jew- 
ish ))opulation,  called  Falashas.  They 
Abyssinia,  are  scattered  among  tribes  who  follow 
agriculture;  and  other  forms  of  manual 
labor.  Their  number  is  reckoned  at  about  .'iO.OOO, 
althousrh  some  travelers  set  the  estimate  as  hiirh  as 
200,000.  In  1867,  the  Alliance  sent  a  learned  Orient- 
alist, Joseidi  Ilalevy,  to  visit  them,  and  his  reports 
were  published  in  the  Alliance  "  Bulletin  "  for  the  first 
half  of  1809.  The  Alliance  also  iniblished  a  Falasha 
prayer-book  in  Ethiopic.  and  in  1!»00  prejiared  a  new 
cxiiedition  to  Abyssinia,  to  reopen  relations  with 
these  African  brethren. 

In  Tunis,  which  is  now  a  iiroteetomte  of  France, 

the  Jews,  numbering  about  tiO.OtK),  live  in  absolute 

security.     They  labor  inider  no  legal 

Tunis.  <lisi|inilitications  or  social  inequalities. 
Hut  for  many  years  the  Alliance  had  to 
combat  the  arbitrary  and  cruel  conduct  of  the  bey, 
and  sometimes  even  governmental  anarchy,  as  shown 
in  the  abduction  of  young  girls  and  in  unptinished 
nuirders  of  Jews  u])on  the  highways  and  even  in 
cities.  By  means  of  com|)laints  and  appeals,  the  Al- 
liance has  usually  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  ener- 
getic intervention  of  the  consuls  of  the  great  powers 
and  in  putting  an  end  to  these  crimes.  See  also 
Ti;ni8. 

In  Morocco  and  in  Persia,  conditions  are  still  very 

precarious.     In  both  the.sc  Mohammedan  countries 

the  jiower  of  the  government  is  feeble. 

Morocco,  ill  dire<ted.  and  scantily  obeyed.  The 
"Bulletins"  of  the  Alliance  are  filled 
with  narratives  of  murder  <i>mmitted  upon  Moroccan 
Isnielites,  of  cruel  exactions  imposed  by  irresponsi- 
ble oflicials,  and  of  acts  of  violence  i)erpel  rated  by  an 
ignorant  and  fanatical  populace.  The  intervention 
of  the  .\lliance  has  become  an  almost  daily  occur 
rence  in  these  countries;  and  if  it  has  not  been  able 
altogither  to  modify  the  e.visting  conditions  which 
are  responsible  for  such  barbarous  crimes,  it  has  at 
li'ast  secured,  according  to  its  nutans,  greater  pro- 
lection  for  the  Ji'ws.  Upon  its  representations  the 
powers  of  European)!  the  United  Slates  have  re|)eat- 
eilly  compelled  the  Moroccan  goverumcnt  to  iutlict 


Alliance  IsrafeUte  TJniversello         THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


418 


punishment  on  those  guilty  of  crimes  against  Jews. 
Owiii;;  to  the  vigilance  ami  untiring  protests  of  the 
Central  t'oniinillec.  the  powers assemlileil  iit  theCon- 
gress  of  JIailiiil  in  IWD  guarjinteeil  ollicial  protec- 
tion to  a  certain  numlier  of  communities  containing 
resident  Jews,  The  Alliance  was  represented  by 
MM.  Netterand  V'ene/.iani.  who  successfully  iileaded 
the  cause  of  humanity  liefore  tlie  as.sinililed  diplo- 
mats. In  energetic  resolutions  pro])osed  by  France 
and  Italy,  the  congress  did  not  conline  itself  to  a 
mere  guaranty  of  protection  for  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians, but  demanded  of  the  sultan  of  iMoroceo  that 
full  religious  liberty  be  granted  to  them.  A  reply 
from  the  sidtan's  government,  dated  Sept.  18.  IHHO, 
assured  the  [xnvers  Jhat  this  request  would  be 
granted.  The  Jews  of  Morocco  are  very  poor;  the 
(thettos  in  which  they  are  coiu  pel  led  to  reside  are  in  a 
ileplorably  unhealthful  condition,  which  often  breeds 
epidemics.  The  Alliance  has  friMjui-iitly  come  to 
their  aid,  not  alone  by  establishing  schools  wliieh  are 
thriving  to-day,  but  also  by  enabling  them  to  im- 
prove the  Jewish  quarter.     See  Mono<('o. 

Persia  is  in  a  still  more  liopeless  condition  than 
Morocco  if  that  be  possible.  The  people  there  are 
fanatical  in  the  extreme,  belonging  to 
Persia.  the  Shiite  sect,  which  <htests  every- 
thing that  is  not  Mohammedan.  From 
its  foundation  the  Alliance  has  .striven  to  iiiteicst 
France  and  England  in  the  fate  of  the  Jews  of  this 
country;  in  addition,  it  has  endeavored  repeatedly 
to  give  them  material  aid.  In  1873,  when  the  shah 
of  Persia,  Nasr-cd-I)in,  journeyed  through  Europe, 
committees  of  the  Alliance  waited  tipon  him  with 
memorials  in  behalf  of  his  .Jewish  suljjects.  The 
shah  gave  a  veiy  friendly  welcome  to  these  represen- 
tations, but  unfortunately  the  real  jiower  in  Persia 
is  vested  in  the  hands  of  the  priests.  The  govern- 
ment's influence  is  very  limited,  and  the  prieslsare  in- 
genious in  devising  ways  to  humiliate  and  maltreat 
the  Jews.  They  are  forbidden  to  clothe  themselves 
in  European  garb,  to  draw  water  from  the  public 
fountains,  to  purchase  their  provisions  in  the  markets 
at  the  same  time  as  Mohanunedaus.  Murders  and 
other  organized  acts  of  violence  are  numerous.  The 
Alliance  has  sent  frequent  assistance  to  these  much- 
tried  communities,  but  with  only  temporary  results. 
In  1898  the  Central  Committee  decided  to  establish 
a  school  in  Teheran.  One  of  the  Alliance's  best 
teachers  in  the  East  was  selected  as  its  head,  and  he 
was  received  very  cordially  by  the  ministers  of  the 
shah,  Muzaffcr cd-Oin.  and  members  of  the  diplo 
niatic  corps.  The  school  was  hailed  by  the  Jews  of 
Teheran  with  a  gratitude  and  an  enthusiasm  that 
can  be  easily  understood. 

The  foregoing  may  serve  as  a  rapid  sketch  of  the 
protective  action  of  the  Alliance  over  its  coreligion- 
ists.    Before  approaching  the  .second 
Ritual       portion  of  its  program,  a  word  must 
Murder,      be  .said  touching  its  efforts  to  combat 
the  prejudice  concerning  ritual  mur- 
der.   This  cruel  and  absurd  accusation,  which  origi 
nated  in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  in  more 
recent  times  the  peculiar  fancy  of  the  Greek  Ortho- 
dox nations,  such  as  the  Slavs,  Greeks,  and  Bulga- 
rians.    From  the  Christian  world  it  extended  to  the 
Mohammedan,  and  finally  in  these  later  years  lias 
made  its  appearance  in  more  western  countries:  in 
1882  in  Hungary  (the  Tisza-Eszlar  affair),  and  in  1899 
in  Bohemia  (the  Polna  incident).     No  detailed  ac- 
count will  be  given  liere  of  all  the  lawsuits  and  in- 
vestigations undertaken  during  the  last  forty  years; 
but  it  must  be  said  that  no  superstition  fias  ever  been 
combated  by  the  Alliance  with  so  much  perseverance 
and   wannth  as  this    monstrous  blood-accusation. 


Whenever  the  accusation  has  been  brought  forward 
the  Alliance  has  intervened,  either  to  save  the  ac- 
cused Jews,  to  indemnify  tho.se  who  had  sulfered 
from  the  accusation,  or  to  enlighten  the  judges  and 
public  opinion  on  the  inaidty  of  the  charge.  Such 
intervention  coidd  not  always  be  open  an<l  direct  for 
fear  of  exciting  fanatical  passion,  but  it  has  never 
been  lacking.  Declarations  from  churchmen,  from 
scholars,  from  men  of  eminenee  and  autborily,  have 
been  elicited :  consultations  anil  expirt  opinion  by 
physicians  and  ])liysiologists  have  been  procured  and 
collected;  and  dozens  of  pamphlc'ls  and  books  with 
hundreils  of  iie\vs|)ai)er  articles  published,  in  the  un- 
tiring effort  to  counteract  this  odious  slander. 

Ol^  all  the  enterprises  of  the  Alliance  its  educa- 
tional system  is  undoubtedly  the  most  jirosperous 
and  benelicial.  Travelers  who  visited 
Education-  .Morocco.  Turkey,  and  Tiuiis  in  the 
al Activity;  earlier  part  of  the  <cntury  were  lam- 
Schools,  eiitably  impressed  by  the  low  intel- 
lectual status  of  the  Jews  there  and 
the  ah.sence  of  all  modern  culture.  The  oidy  thing 
the  children  learned  was  banly  to  read  and  write  He- 
brew. Under  the  distressing  influence  of  a  life  shut 
up  in  narrow  Ghettos,  the  physical  and  spiritual 
force  of  the  race  had  graiiually  diminished.  Their 
mode  of  life  and  their  jirejudices  restrained  them 
from  all  serious  manual  labor,  so  that  the  Jews  of 
Mohammedan  countries  were  restricted  for  the  means 
of  subsistence  to  peddling  and  the  more  wretched 
trades.  Schools  were  the  only  remedy  for  this  state 
of  affairs.  The  founders  of  the  .Vlliance  had  this 
fact  in  view  even  before  they  actually  turned  to  the 
task  of  imjirovenient.  As  soon  as  there  were  funds 
at  command,  in  1H()2  it  was  decided  to  devote  them 
to  the  erection  of  a  school  at  Tetuan  (.Morocco).  In 
18(i4  anotber  seboiil  was  opened  in  Mcjrocco,  at  Tan- 
giers,  and  in  isti.-j  a  third  at  Bagdad,  Since  then 
this  educational  work  has  been  developed  steadily; 
to-day  itcover,'^  Bulgaria,  European  Turkey,  Turkey 
in  Asia  (from  Jaffa  to  Aleppo  and  Bagdad),  Egyiit, 
Tunis,  and  ^Morocco.  The  begiiuiing  of  the  e<lu- 
cational  work  was  made  in  Kuinania.  and  it  now 
extends  as  far  as  Persia.  Proixress  has  l)een  rapid 
since  1879.  In  1880,  the  number  of  schools  was  34; 
in  1890,  .54;  and  in  1809,  94— .IS  of  which  were  boys' 
and  36  girls'  schools — with  an  atten<lanee  of  24,000 
children.  This  development  of  the  educational  work 
of  the  Alliance  has  l)een  rendered  possilile  maiidy 
through  the  munificence  of  Baron  de  Hirsch. 

The  curriculum  can  not  Ix-  uniform  in  all  these 
schools:  in  eaeh.it  has  to  be  accommodated  to  the  spe- 
cial needs  and  eireinnstalK'i'S  of  the  Jews  of  the  jiar- 
ticular  cotmtry.  Thus  in  the  schools  of  Tunis  instruc- 
tion  in  French  occupies  the  first  place,  in  Bulgaria 
the  language  of  that  country,  and  in  both  European 
and  Asiastic  Turkey  room  is  made  in  the  curricu- 
lum, in  some  places  for  Turkish,  in  others  for  Araliic. 
Partieidar  prominence  and  attention  have  long  been 
given  in  certain  .schools  to  English  and  German  ;  to 
the  former  in  I?agdad.  Egypt,  and  Morocco.  The 
Alliance  has  a  large  school  in  Constantino])le,  where 
the  instruction  is  carried  on  in  German,  and  this  lan- 
guage is  also  taught  in  other  schools  of  Constan- 
tinople and  in  Smyrna.  Adrianoplc,  Salonica,  and 
.lerusiilem.  Of  other  subjects  taught,  Hebrew  natu- 
rally occupies  a  ])rominent  place,  together  with  the 
study  of  the  Jewish  religion  and  history.  The  geog- 
raphy and  history  of  the  country  in  which  the 
school  is  situated  arc  taught;  while  arithmetic,  ele- 
mentary geometry,  physics,  chemistry,  and  drawing 
complete  the  curriculum. 

In  Mohammedan  countries  more  particularly  than 
in  others  instruction  for  girls  is  extremely  necessary. 


419 


THE   JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA         Alliance  Israelite  Universelle 


The  Jewess  can  not  attain  to  the  position  she  should 
occupy  ami  wliicli  local  custom  denies  her,  unless  she 
becomes  the  ccjual  of  the  Jew  in  knowledge  ami 
education.  It  is  conceded  tliat  the  influence  of  the 
schools  has  been  especially  beneficial  in  this  direction. 
In  former  limes,  in  certain  districts  of  Morocco, 
Tunis,  and  Turkey,  girls  were  married  at  the  age  of 
eleven  or  twelve;  nowadays  such  barbarous  cus- 
toms liavedisiippean'd,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the 
schools.  The  Alliance's  schools  are  free  oidy  to  the 
children  of  the  very  poorest;  they  are  furnished  not 
only  with  grai  nil  ous  instruct  ion  and  books,  but  some- 
times with  clothing  as  well,  and  nearly  everywhere 
with  a  hot  lunch  at  noon.  Parents  of  the  more  pros 
perouselasscs  pay  a  school  fee,  which  in  some  schools 
is  as  high  as  twenty  francs  a  month.  These  schools 
are,  moreover,  open  to  children  of  every  faith  ;  in  ISHll, 
about  ;iOO  non-Jewish  pupils  attendi'd  them — Catho- 
lics, Protestants,  (Jreeks.  Armenians,  and  Moham- 
medans. On  the  slalT  of  instructors  there  are  also 
Christian  and  Mobanunedan  teachers,  especially  for 
instruction  in  the  several  languagi's.  Free  cour.ses  for 
adults  have  been  opened  in  many  localities.  They 
are  attended  by  workingmen  and  small  tradesmen 
who,  not  having  attended  any  elementary  school. 
<'an  scarcely  write  tlieir  names,  and  who  recognize 
the  resultant  drawl)acks  under  which  they  labor. 

Aftergiving  to  Judaism  a  long  suecessionof  learned 
and  illustrious  rabbis,  the  congregations  of  the  Orient 
have  witnes.sed  the  gradual  decay  of 
Rabbinical  learningamong  llieir  spiritual  leaders. 
Seminary.  Witheerluin  rare  except  ions,  the  rabbis 
of  the  East  and  of  Africa  are  devoid 
of  all  modern  culture.  Their  Hebrew  and  Talmudie 
knowledge  is  likewise  very  sU'uder.and  they  can  not 
write  the  languag<'  of  the  country  at  all.  The  Al- 
liance directed  its  attenti<]n  to  this  matter  long  ago, 
but  to  introduce  the  needed  reforms  among  the  rab- 
bis was  felt  to  be  a  rather  delicate  task.  It  was 
necessary  first  to  bring  the  eongregalions  to  see  the 
necessity  foi-  the  innovation,  and  in  1S!)1  tiie  move 
ment  took  pnl)lic  shajie.  The  Alliance  then  decided 
to  establish  in  Constantinople  a  rabbinical  seminary 
similar  to  those  in  Europe.  The  institution  was  or- 
gani/.e<l  in  lMi)7;  and  it  soon  won  the  appreciation  of 
the  i)eo|ile.  Instruction  is  given  by  scholarly  teach- 
ers, one  of  whom  was  prepared  for  this  ottice  by  the 
Alliance  at  the  rabbinical  seminary  of  Paris.  This 
enterjirise  is  the  crowning  achievement  of  the  Alli- 
ance in  its  educational  elTorts  toward  the  elevation  of 
Oriental  .fudaism. 

To  direct  these  numerous  .schools  it  was  neces.sary 
to  supply  a  large  stall  of  teachers.  After  various  ex- 
periments the  Central  Comnntlee  de- 
Normal  cided  to  undertake  this  task  too.  In 
School.  IHfi"  it  founded  in  Parisanormal  school 
for  teachers,  who  are  reennted  from  the 
countries  for  which  teachersarc  re(|uired.  The  prin 
eipalsof  Ibe  various  schools  in  the  ( )rient  anil  in  .Af- 
rica select  their  best  pupils  and  send  them  to  Paris, 
where  they  nniain  in  the  Normal  School  for  four 
yi'ars.  They  are  then  appointecl  to  positions  as  teach- 
ers in  their  own  countries.  The  Normal  School  of 
Paris  has  secured  legal  recognition  from  the  govern- 
ment, enaliling  it  to  legally  receive  donations  and 
legacies.  Its  full  title  is  "  ftcole  Normalc^  Israelite 
OrienlaU'."  It  is  located  in  a  liand.some  buihling 
upon  a  large  estate  which  it  owns,  and  whi<h  was 
imreliascd  for  Ibis  purpose  by  the  .\llianee.  There 
were  in  the  beginning  from  2(1  to  'i't  young  nu'U  and 
about  1(1  female  stuilenis;  but  thi'Se  niunbers  have 
been  eonsiilirably  increased  since  the  work  of  the 
schools  has  assumed  such  vast  proportions.  Thus, 
on  Dee.  HI,  |S!I<|,  there  were  !I0  male  and  JiT  fenmlo 


students.  The  former  have  their  own  building  and 
grounds.  They  come  from  Oriental  and  African 
countri<s:  among  them  are  16  young  Rumanians, 
who,  after  sufficient  preparation,  will  become  in- 
structors in  their  own  land. 

Although  these  schools  are  adminil)le  means  to- 
ward progress  anil  imjirovement.  the  education  given 

III  poor  children  does  not  always  fur- 
Appren-  nish  them  with  a  means  of  livelihood, 
ticeship.      Accordingly, instriu'tion  in  tradcscamc 

to  be  considered  by  the  Alliance  as  a 
natural  and  neees.siiry  supjilement  to  the  ordinary 
schools.  Hut  the  miserable  industrial  conditions  of 
their  native  countries,  the  very  limited  needs  of  the 
people,  the  jealous  exelusiveness  of  the  trailemas- 
ters,  and  the  disinclination  of  children  to  follow  call- 
ings of  which  their  parents  were  ignorant,  all  made 
this  question  very  diflicult  of  solution. 

Many  obstacles  and  disap|)ointments  must,  of 
course,  be  encoimtered  before  jiositive  results  can 
be  looked  for.  Although  not  able  to  overcome  every- 
where the  ill-will  of  non-Jewish  "masters,"  the  Alli- 
ance has  at  least  succeeded  in  removing  the  prejudice 
again.st  manual  labor  among  Jewish  children.  Ap- 
prentice-schools exist  in  2K  localities  of  the  East  and 
Africa,  and  are  attended  by  700  lads  who  are  taught 
remunerative  crafts.  Such  trades  as  tailoring,  shoe- 
making,  tinsmithing,  and  those  crafts  which  are 
easily  learned  and  are  already  overcrowded,  are  not 
taught  to  pupils  of  the  Alliance.  Oidy  those  avo- 
cations which  rei|uire  some  bodily  strength,  those 
which  are  not  yel  open  to  Jews,  and  those  which  are 
well  jiaiil.  receivi'  attention.  The  trade-school  of  the 
Alliance  o])ened  in  Jerusalem  in  1SS2  deserves  par- 
ticular mention,  both  by  reason  of  the  service  it  ren- 
ders and  of  its  especial  organization.  The  establish- 
ment comprisesaseriesof  workshops,  where  the  trjides 
of  carpentry.  bl,-uksnu'thing.  loeksmithing.  copper- 
smithing,  metal  foiuiiling,  and  wood-carving  are  car- 
ried on.  All  tlie  teaehirs  received  their  training  in 
Europe.  Theei|Uipmenl  and  arrangement  are  suited 
to  thedemandsof  each  parlienlartrade.  These  shops 
are  attended  by  'JdO  ai)i>rentices,  oO  of  whom  reside 
in  the  building  and  are  snpiiorled  by  the  institution. 
The  organization  of  these  trade-schools  for  boys  ne- 
cessitated a  similar  institution  for  i>oor  girls  gnidiia- 
ting  from  the  schools;  this  was  organized  in  1SS4.  It 
is  necessiirily  limited  to  a  small  number  of  trades  by 
reason  of  certain  eoiiditions  peculiar  to  Oriental  life, 
and  especially  by  llie  general  ab.senceof  all  industrial 
occupations  among  the  women  of  the  East.  Classes 
in  tailoring,  sewing,  and  embroidery  have  brought 
good  results.  There  are  l'>  shops  where  these  trades 
are  taught.  The  expense  of  the  trade-schools  is 
considerable. 

The  present  agitation  for  the  employment  of  Jews 
in  agriculture  was  early  anticipated  by  the  Alliance. 

At   a  time  when  no  one  thought  for  a 

Farm-        moment   of  such  a  demand,  the  Cen- 

School  in     tral  Conmiitlee  of  the  Alliance  estab- 

Ja£fa.         lislied  a  complete  school  of  agricidture 

in  a  most  belated  and  fanatii-al  Jewish 
(luarter,  that  of  Jaffa  in  Palestine.  This  institution 
received  the  sigiiilieant  name  of  .Mikveh  Israel  (Hope 
of  Israeli.  The  .lalTa  mIiooI  was  established  in  I.ITO, 
upon  a  grant  of  about  (iOO  acres  generously  conceded 
by  the  sultan.  lis  great  success  is  due  to  the  inde 
scribable  devotion  of  a  man  whose  name  is  associated 
with  cverylhing  useful  anil  noble  that  the  Alliance 
has  accomplished — Charles  Netler,  For  a  very  long 
period  it  had  lo  struggle  against  the  prejudices  of 
the  children,  ihe  lack  of  siililcieiil  resources,  and  the 
diltieully  of  linding  a  pro|ier  staff.  Nothing  discour- 
aged Nelter,  and  lie  succeeded  in  overcoming  every 


Alliance  Israfilite  Universello         THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


420 


obstacle.  But  at  the  vcrj-  moment  when  the  institution 
was  emerging  from  its  formative  stage  and  commen- 
cing to  give  assured  results.  Netter  sudilenly  died, 
Oct.  '■!.  ISffi.  while  ou  a  visit  to  Jaffa,  and  was 
buried  in  the  grounds  of  the  school.  The  Alliance, 
in  recognition  of  bis  services,  has  erecteii  a  tomb  to 
his  u\emory.  On  Dec.  31.  1899,  there  were  210  pupils 
at  the  Jalia  school,  all  inmates.  ^Management  and 
tuition  are  entrusted  to  a  professional  stafT,  composed 
exclusively  of  Jews  tmined  by  the  Alliance  in  the 
agricultunil  schools  of  westeru  Europe.  Tlie  course 
of  instruction  embraces  all  possible  bnuiches  of  ag- 
riculture, such  as  the  care  of  olive-groves,  orange- 
plantations,  vineyards,  gniin-crops,  orchanls,  and  gar- 
den products,  stock-breeding,  and  silkwormraisiug. 
The  receipts  from  all  these  sources  reached,  during 
the  farm-year  1898-99,  about  70,700  frs.  (§14.140). 


of  the  trade-school  became  their  instructors  and 
advisers.  The  officials  of  the  Alliance  gave  them 
the  benefit  of  their  knowledge  of  land,  and  ap- 
pointed graduates  of  Mikveh  Israel  to  counsel  and 
guide  them.  Tlie  farm-school  at  Jaffa  thus  became 
the  foster-mother  of  the  first  colonics  in  Palestine 
(see  AOHUTLTIUAL  CoI.ONIKS  IN  Palkstink).  But 
with  all  this  they  could  not  jiossibly  have  succeeded 
had  not  more  powerful  aid  been  I'urthcoming,  Baron 
Edmond  de  ijolhschild  assuincil  all  the  expenses  of 
colonization  and  support,  constructed  houses,  cleared 
lands,  built  wine-cellars,  and  planted  vineyards  and 
olive-groves.  While  this  was  happening  in  Palestine, 
another  iihilanthropist,  Baron  de  llirsch.was  settling 
Jewish  colonies  in  the  Argentine  Republic.  After 
various  unfortunate  experiments. Baron  de  Ilirsch  re- 
quested the  Central  Committee  to  furnish  him  with 


APPRENTICES  AT  THE  FAR.M-SCHOOL  I.\  DJEDEI  (TDNI3). 


The  expenses  aggregated  46,000  frs.  (S9,200),  leaving 
a  profit  of  about  24,000  frs.  (S4.800). 

The  question  now  presented  itself  whether,  after 
leaving  the  farm -school,  its  pupils  would  become 
farmers  themselves.  The  Alliance  could  not  afford 
to  establish  them  as  such,  while  Jewish  farm-bands 
had  little  prospect  of  employment  with  Turkish  or 
Christian  proprietors.  Still  a  certain  number  of 
these  graduates  did  succeed  in  finding  positions  as 
managers  and  as  gardeners  with  various  Turkish 
and  Arab  cultivators,  though  the  demand  for  trained 
agriculturists  was  ncccssarih'  very  limited.  It  was 
at  this  moment  that  the  great  persecutions  of  1881- 
82  broke  out  in  Russia.  Even  before  that  date,  thou- 
sands of  poor  Russian  Jews,  animated 
by  the  desire  of  living  as  colonists  in 
Palestine,  had  emigrated  thither  with 
the  intention  of  becoming  agricultur- 
ists. Other  immigrants  came  from  Ru- 
mania and  Galicia.  All  these  poor  peo- 
ple went  to  Palestine  possessed  of  a  sublime  faith. 
Some  liad  means,  Imt  the  majority  were  very  poor. 
The  Alliance  assisted  the  immigrants,  and  the  ollieers 


Agricul- 
tural   Colo 

nies  in 
Palestine. 


experienced  men  to  take  charge  of  the  colonies.  The 
Alliance  placed  at  his  disposal  se%'eral  excellent  direct- 
ors, among  them  M.  Hirsch.  who  had  long  been  at  the 
head  of  the  Jaffa  farm-school,  and  who  in  this  capac- 
ity was  the  first  friend  and  counselor  of  the  youthful 
Palestinian  colonies.  These  men  still  continue  in 
charge  of  the  Argentine  colonies. 

The  Jews  of  the  north  of  Africa — 5Iorocco,  Al- 
geria, Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Egypt — comprising  a  pop- 
ulation of  more  than   300,000  souls. 

Farm-        remained   complete  strangers   to  the 
School  in     movement  for  the  cultivation   of  the 

Tunis.  soil,  which  for  the  last  decade  or  so 
had  made  itself  felt  among  the  Jews. 
The  Alliance  conceived  it  to  be  its  duty  to  lead  their 
tastes  in  that  direction.  Tunis  is  cs.sentially  a  farm- 
ing country,  and  the  French  protectorate  has  estab- 
lished a  regular  government  with  absolute  security  ; 
it  therefore  appeared  to  be  a  district  peculiarly 
adapted  for  the  experiment.  A  tract  of  about  3,0(H) 
acres,  with  a  river  running  through  it,  affording  op- 
portunity for  various  crops  and  industries,  was  ac- 
quired in  1895  at  Djedei,  afew  miles  from  Tunis.     A 


421 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA         Alliance  Israelite  Universelle 


y 

^ 

% 

IT 

Official  Device  of  the 
Alllanee. 


Encourage- 
ment of 
Jewish 

Literature. 


farm-scliool  for  children  was  thorp  established,  having 
at  first  only  35,  but  later  (in  ISO!))  Ill)  impils.  about 
half  of  whom  were  Tunisians,  the  others  bein>;  fnun 
Algeria,  Woroeeo,  ami  Tripoli.  In  the  year  is!»,S-li9 
the  farm  prcxluels  gave  a 
suri>lus  of  more  than  ",2."), 000 
frs.  (S5,000).  The  total  ex- 
IK^nses  for  the  year  1900 
amounted  to  about  70,000 
frs,  OSH,!)!)!)).  In  Algeria, 
Tunis,  anil  Egypt  pupils 
graduating  from  this  insti- 
tution easily  find  employ- 
ment ;  in  these  countries 
many  Israelites  possess 
farms,  on  which  they  arc 
(luite  willing  to  employ 
these  young  Jewish  agri- 
(•ulturists.  A  number  of 
graduates  of  1899  were  en- 
gaged by  a  Jew  of  8ousa, 
in  Tunis,  who  found  work  for  them  upon  his  estate 
(orfarmlands).  The  agricultural  workaccomiilished 
or  inspired  by  the  Alliance  marks  undoubtedly  an 
important  era  in  the  economic  evolution  of  the  Jew- 
ish [leople  and  in  the  development  of  their  m<ntal 
and  moral  qualilies. 

Kegarding  the  last  item  of  the  society's  program, 
"the  encouragement  of  publications  contributing 
to  the  emancipation  or  elevation  of 
Jews,"  the  first  stcptjikcn  was  the  an- 
nouncement of  a  prize-contest.  An 
e.xcellent  work  by  Elie  Benamozegh, 
of  Leghorn,  "La  -Morale  Juive."  was 
awarded  the  first  jirize.  But  the  Alli- 
ance soon  ob.served  that  such  prize-competitions 
were  powerless  to  draw  the  attention  of  scholars 
away  from  their  favorite  studies,  and  that  an  impor- 
tant work  could  not  be  undcitaken  at  the  word  of 
command,  so  that  it  would  be  preferable  to  leave  to 
authors  free  scopi'  and  full  liln-rty.  It  was  there- 
fore decided  to  restrict  the  soci<'!y 's  activity  to  lend- 
ing financial  support  to  learned  works  of  interest  to 
Jews.  For  more  than  thirty  years  not  a  single  impor- 
tant work  \ipon  such  subjects  has  appeared  without 
the  assistance  of  the  Alliance.  This  feature  of  the 
budget  calls  for  an  ammal  c.xiienditure  averaging 
4,<IOOfrs.  The  Alliance  itself  has  brought  out  anuni- 
berof  publications  di'voled  principally  to  Jewish  sta- 
tistics and  the  defense  of  Jewish  inlerests. 

The  Alliance  possesses  in  its  central  oflice  an  im- 
portant library,  numbering  to-day  •-.'2, 000  voUunes, 
and  containing  all  dociunents  and  publications  con- 
cerning Jewish   history  and  such  kindled  subject.s 
as  sljilislics,  anthropology,  demography,  legislation, 
literal ure,  i-.\egesis,  theology,  and   polemics,  as  well 
as  ((illeclions  of  th<'   principal   Jewish   newspap<Ts 
of  the  world.     Tin-  library  owes  ils  existence  lo  the 
late  secretary  of  the  Alliance.  Isidore  Loeb,  who  sug- 
gested the  ideaof  ilseslablishmeni,  and  who  devoted 
Ins  rare  moments  of  leisure  to  the  compilation  of  a 
catjilogueand  tosearc  liing  fornewaci|uisitions.     He 
colleeied  about  "JOO  valuable  manuscripts,  many  of 
which  have  been  of  assistance  in  thi'  com]iosition  of 
a  number  of  scholarly  works.     A  syslcmalic  cata 
logue  is  now  in  course  of  preparation;  but.  unfor 
tunalely,   the  small   income  at   the  disposjil   of  the 
library  (omnuttic  will  scarcely  adnnl  of  its  publica- 
tion.    The  gratuitous  use  of  the  lilirary  is  olTered  lo 
scholarsand  liii-rary  workers.     Donationsand  impor- 
tant legacic'S  froTu  L.  I-.  Holhschild  assure  the  main 
tenance  and  development  of  this  useful  institution. 
The  following  tablis  exhibit  the  state  of  the  Alii 
auce's  activity  anil  linanees  in  1^99; 


Schools. 


Towns. 


Acre 

Adrlanople 

Taliiiuil  Tiirah. 

Apprentice  . . 

A  pprentlce . , 

Alilin 

Alei 


Apprentice. 
.Alexandria .. . 
Bagdad 


Apprentice  . 

Apprentice.. 

HiKsseni 

Beirut 


.\pprt-ntice  ., 
Apprentice  .. 

Bcitosliiini 

H....](rlms 

BriKsa 


Cairo  . 


Camaliat,  Apprentice. 

Casablanca 

Chin 

Constantinople 
Balata 


Conorte 

Couseinidyuli . 

Galata 


Apprentice 

Apprentice 

German  School . 

Haskeny 


Apprentice.. 

Ortakeny 

A|ipreiitice. 

Apprentice.. 

Damascus 


Talmud  Timih.. 

Apprentice  . .. 

Alijirentlce  . . . 

Dardanelles 


Demollka . 
Fez 


Apprentice. 
Jaffa 


Apprentice 

.lainhoii 

Apprentice 

.lenisalem 

iirphana^e , 

Apprenlice 

Kassjiba 

Klrkllsi'h,  Apprentice.., 
Kiisl4'nilll,  Appn*ntlce. 
Mapiicsla  i.Mantssa) 


Apprenfice  . 

Ajiprenlice, 

MoKailor 


Mona.stli- 

.\pprenilce 

I'ei'k'amos  (BerKHiiia). 
rhillppo|Mill8 


.Appn'nilce 

•Apprentice 

llodiisPi,  Appn'nU<«. 
Itiistcbuk 


Boys. 
Boys. 
Uirls. 
Boys. 
Boys, 
(ilrls. 
Boys. 
Boys, 
(ilrls. 
Bo  vs. 
Ml.xed. 
Bovs. 
(iii-ls. 
Boys, 
(iirls. 
Boys. 
Boys. 
Girls. 
Boys. 
(Mrls. 
Boys, 
(ilrls. 
Bovs. 
(ilrls. 
Bc)y8. 
Boys, 
(iirls. 
Boys. 
Boys. 
Boys. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Boys. 

(ilrls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Girls. 

Girts. 

Boys. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Girls. 

Oirl.s. 

(iirls. 

Bovs. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Bovs. 

Girls. 

Boys. 
Girls. 

Boys. 
Boys. 
Girls. 
Bovs. 
Glials. 
Boys. 
Bovs. 
Girls, 
Bovs. 
Bovs. 
Bovs. 
Bovs. 
Boys. 
Boys. 
Boys. 
Boys. 
Boys. 
Bovs. 
(iirl.H. 
Bovs. 
Girls. 
Bovs. 
Girl.s. 
Biivs. 
Boys. 
Boys. 
Bovs. 
(ilrls. 
Boys, 
(ilrls. 
Boys. 
Boys, 
(ilrls. 


III 


IWJti 
1»B7 

1875 

i878 

\m, 

1894 
18(19 
1889 
1882 
1897 
1885 

\m, 

1890 
1891 
1898 
1879 
1878 
1897 
1888 
1888 
189G 
1886 
1889 
1897 
1896 
1897 
1896 
1897 
189S 

187.5 
188:2 

i879 
189,5 
187.5 
1886 
1884 
1884 
1876 
1879 
1879 
188.5 
1882 
1888 
1871 
1880 
188a 

i884 
1884 
1878 
1888 
1897 
1883 
1899 
1881 
1895 
1879 
1892 
1804 
1895 
1881 
1885 
1882 

i882 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1892 
18»1 

isat 

1897 
1888 

issn 

1899 
18)16 
1881 
I8iV> 
1881 
I88» 
1890 
1878 
188S 


z:^ 


.50 

a>t 

470 

878 

.52 

30 

119 

248 

198 

20 

liC 

2,54 

i:t2 

14 

27 
1S4 
290 
2:17 

16 

18 
320 

78 
128 

71 

II 
3361 
14,5  f 

5 
26t 

70 

332 
317 

'243 

212 
205 
463 

8 
215 
327 
368 

41 
281 

26 

.59 
229 
288 
419 

•2A 

8 

l(k5    ; 

94 
102 
171 

60 
181 
1115 
0 
16,5 
247 
5 
254 

8 
318 

'140 

72 

4 

5 

183 

80 

10 

a 
111 

'sio 

8 

78 

442 

VS. 

12 

16 

5 

276 

307 


CO         .4j 


*360.00 
7,319.00 
6,490,00 

'4.a52.;i.5 
1.0.50.1)0 
4,ttj6.80 
4,.525.(IO 
1.800.00 
780.00 
6.6(15.60 
6.925.30 

3..5no.iio 

800.110 

7,50.00 

300.00 

14,80:1.35 

6.410.00 

!,:)( 10.00 

,522..55 

7,080.00 

,500.00 

3.927.00 

1,2«K).00 

7;i8.00 

5,000.00 

a50.oo 

3.,505,00 
500.00 

13,010,95 

5,;!9I.,5fl 

600.00 

6.110.00 

2H,:!(in.on 
3,7m.i«i 

6,620.80 

1,7:10.110 
1,920.00 
7.40O.O0 
11.987.70 
4,6.38.:t0 
1.000.00 
,5,114.00 
1,200.1 «) 
6.:l60.00 
IO,(W2.00 
3,000.00 
I.7IK).00 
2..540,00 
1,200.(«) 
4,  i  1,5.00 
200.00 

:too.(iO 

.5..3a>,00 
2,760.00 
8,085.00 
2,880.45 
1,200.00 
:!.840.00 
3.040,00 

800,(X) 
3.100.00 

.535.00 

2.,500.00 

35.000.00 

8=10.00 

300.00 

350.00 

1.700.0(1 

1,275,00 

1,100.00 

311,15 

3,720.00 

.500.00 

2,675,00 

575.00 

900.00 

4.878.,50 

3.IT7.5.00 

1,(1110,00 

1,000.(1) 

600.00 

.1,1100,(10 

3,3UI.(I0 


*  The  siil«l(lle8  |>ui(l  by  (he  Alliance  are  nxorded  in  fraiu's. 


Alliance  I8ra61ite  Universelle 
Alliance,  New  Jersey 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


422 


Schools. — Omtiii  uetl. 


Tnwns. 


Baled 

Apprentice 

Siilonica 

Popular  Sohtwls 

Apprentli'f 

Appri'iitlir 

Sainakov 

Apprentice 

Sliuinlu 

Apprentlot" 

Apprentice 

Slllstrla 

Smyrna 

Talmud  Torab 

CiimtiU'liH 

rnpiilar  Schools 

A  pprentlce 

Appivntlce,  Talmud  Tonili 

Apprentice 

Solla 

Apprentice 

Apprentice 

S<  )osa 

Apprentice 

Stara-Zagura,  Apprentice 
Tangier 

Apprentice 

Tatar-Baza  rdjik 

Apprentice 

Teheran 

Tetuan 

Apprentice 

Tiberias 

Apprentice 

Tripoli 

Apprentice 

Tunis 

Infant  Sch(X)l 

Cuminei-clal  Scho*il 

Appivntlce 

Apprentice 

Tvi1a 

Varna  

Apprentice 

Apprentice 


If 

i- 

&S.- 

="5 

Boys. 

i8»: 

92 

(iirls. 

1897 

90 

Boys. 

18.% 

10 

Boys. 

isra 

401 

(ilrls. 

18T4 

avi 

Mixed. 

18tf7 

325 

1  Boys. 

iht; 

108 

,  (ilrls. 

1*W7 

Si 

.Mixed. 

1874 

2»IX 

'  Boys. 

1885 

18 

Boys. 

1870 

114  1 

(ilrls. 

1874 

lllll 

Boys. 

1879 

20 

(ilrls. 

1889 

11 

Boys. 

1897 

41 

Boys. 

1898 

285 

(ilrls. 

187!l 

197 

Bo  vs. 

KA 

Mixed. 

1895 

116 

Boys. 

18H8 

327 

Boys. 

1878 

47 

Boys. 

18941 

;i7 

'■  (itrls. 

1884) 

18 

Boys. 

1887 

1.2:B 

(ilrls. 

lH9(i 

Boys. 

1888 

40 

(ilrls. 

1889 

20 

Boys. 

1883 

•Mi 

Boys. 

1890 

10 

Boys. 

1899 

5 

Boys. 

18t>* 

aw 

Girls. 

1883 

298 

(itrls. 

1899 

17 

Boys. 

1880 

Itti 

(ilrls. 

18831 

298 

Boys. 

1889) 

13 

Boys. 

1898 

axi 

(ilrU. 

1899 

Boys. 

18»a 

309 

(ilrls. 

18(18 

312 

(ilrls. 

1892 

14 

Boys. 

1897 

120 

Boys. 

1898 

17 

Boys. 

1895 

14.5 

Girls. 

1898 

107 

Boys. 

1890 

19 

Boys. 

1878 

1.IM4 

(ilrls. 

1882 

:m 

Girls. 

1891 

320 

Boys. 

1899 

52 

Boys. 

1880 

46 

Girls. 

1895 

18 

Boys. 

1S.97 

143 

Boys. 

18«iO 

137 

Boys. 

18«l5 

11 

(ilrls. 

1899 

8 

5.737.40 

»,.5(I0.00 

liOO.OI 

.5,275.00 

1,700.110 

12,750.110 

10,.5IIII.0II 

1,000.110 

2,200.11(1 

1,200.0(1 

i.tai.no 

.522..V) 

:)oo.(«i 

7.150.00 
3,8IKI.I>0 

2,:ioo.iio 

800.00 
.3.I.V).I0 
5,700.00 

wu.m 

2,000.00 
12,4I«I.I10 

3.(«a(io 

1,500.00 

.5,li(IO.IH} 

400.00 

IH  10.00 

9.800.00 

1.200.00 

1,000.00 

3.ti(«l.00 

l,2flO.IK) 

978.30 

14,1KX1.(H) 

4,:ti«).oo 

4,400.00 
750.00 
7,45<i.OO 
7,2(M1.(KI 
i).8l)2.r>0 
4,522.00 
l.MI.OO 
17.447.50 
8,451.00 
1.700.00 

3,154.25 

l.S(KI.IHI 

l.OflO.OI 

2,100.00 

t«0.(K) 

4(K).()0 


Income  and  Expenditure  for  the  Year  189!). 


Income. 

Francs. 

160.1191.(10 

Donations  to  the  general  work  of  the 

t),li05.ft5 

421  ..5.53.75 

IiuHtnt*  fnun  the  foundation  of  Baron  de 

.50,692.00 
11,789.80 

IJiintiicss  de  llirsch.  for  work  of  giving 

12,.500.00 

Varloiw  subventions  for  schools 

Various   subventions   froiu    the  Jewish 

Cnlonizalion  Ass<M'iation 

Subvention    from    the    (.itivenimenl    of 

:::: 

4O..549.10 

2.50,000.00 
10.000.00 

19.988.55 

984.370.15 

EXPEXniTURE. 

Preparatory  School  for  Bovs 

Prepanitnry  School  for  Girls 

Secondary  and  superior  schools 

109.4.51.00 
:i:i.2:57.45 
15.:t4,5.00 

Elementary  schiwls  for  bovs  and  irlrls. . . 

4rxi.313.15 

ExPExniTrRK.— €"ii»iiiui'l. 


Appn'ntlclnir  and  nuinual  works : 

A^cultunil  S4-liiK>t  at  JalTa 

Farm  at  l))eilei 

PiMfessionul  s4-ho(il  ul  Jerusalem. 
A^rlctiliiinil  s4-biH>l  at  Hanuver  . . 

Apprenticing;  work  (boys) 

.\p)»renli(-iiif;  woik  (Kirls) 


Workiiifr  exiienses 

Subventions  and  various  grants. . 


Pensions 


Printing 

Postajre 

(ieneral  exi)enses 

Library 

Rents 

PeriH'lual  sutjs<TlptIons,  pluctMl  to  capital 

accoino 

Tranferred  t»»  reserve  fund 


Expenditure . 
Income 


Dellcit . 


Francs. 


M.8«li.30 
12»,(158.«0 
.15,690.30 
2,908.20 
68,472.90 
30,133.70 


372,080.00 

49,4.56.00 
I8,.544.70 
17.490.00 
13.091.60 
4,111..50 
5l,.506.a5 
3,.'J00.«O 
7,400.00 

I9.988..V> 
11,789.80 


1,182.856.70 


1.182,2.'ifl.70 
984,370.15 


ia7,886.S5 


BlBi.ioiiR.vPHV  :  The  history  of  the  Alliance  Israi^llte  Uni- 
verselle can  he  tniced  in  the  publications  of  this  organi- 
zation. Since  Its  foundation  theadminlstration  has  regularly 
publisltfd  sedil-annual  and  annual  '*  Bulletins."  containing  dt»- 
talle.l  Ti'pnri.s.ir  Its  acllvlty.  slalisllcs,  tables,  etc-.  They  gen- 
emlh  ;ippciiri-il  In  Fifuch.  but  imw  and  then  wen- published 
In  Kngilsh.  lierrnan.  Dutch.  Italian.  JudUHMiennan,  and  He- 
brew. In  ls.s.'i.  tin  the  occasion  of  Its  25th  anniversary,  the 
Alliance  published  an  extensive  n*view  of  Its  work  utnl  of  the 
results  achieved  for  that  iwriod  in  lYench,  Knglish,  tieniian, 
and  Judicospanish.  .\nother  pamphlet  in  lYenrh  aii'l  Kng- 
ilsh appeared  in  1896.  giving  a  genenil  statement  ami  a  slinrl 
review  for  the  whole  lime  of  ILs  existence  (lsi;oJ.i5i;  (his 
puhlh-alton  was  especially  designed  for  tlmse  who  are  not 
ac(|ualnted  with  the  work  and  object  of  the  organization. 

J.  Bi. 

ALLIANCE,  New  Jersey :  An  afrriciilttiral 
colony  sittmtcd  in  tlic  soutlicasti'iii  part  of  .Salem 
county.  New  .Jersey,  five  miles  from  Vinclatul,  ten 
from  Bridjietoii.  ten  from  Millvillc.  and  about 
thirty-live  miles  from  Philaili-lpliiii.  It  was  named 
in  honor  of  the  AUiaiif-e  Israelite  rnivcrsc-lle  of 
Paris,  iiiid  was  founded  May  10.  18H'2.  hytln-  llcln-i-w 
Emigrant  Aid  Soriily  of  N'ew  York  and  Pliiladi-l- 
phiii.  The  settlement  of  this  pioneer  (-olony  followed 
the  t-ruel  persecutions  in  Hussia  that  Ijroke  out  in 
1S81,  and  it  was  colonized  by  a  contiuijent  of  expa- 
triated Hussian  .Jews.  There  were  about  twenty-live 
families  in  this  continirent.  and  the  number  was  soon 
iiK-reased  to  forty-three andaflerward  tosixty-seven. 
■Most  of  the  settlers  had  been  small  traders  or  store- 
keepers at  Inmic. 

The  site  chosen  for  colonization  was  covered  witli 
dense  forest,  but.  working  together  over  a  tract  of 
about  thirty  acres,  the  colonists  cleared  the  land,  and 
by  the  end  of  the  tirst  month  (May)  liad  planted 
corn.  As  tiuickly  as  more  land  was  cleared,  pota- 
toes and  other  vegetiibles  were  pliiiited. 

iSoon  aft(-r  the  settlement,  the  Hebrew  Emigrant 
.'Vid  .Soci(-ty  of  New  York  eret-ted  sev(-ral  large  build- 
ings, and  in  each  of  these  a  number  of  families  were 
housed.  They  were  all  fed  from  a  common  kitchen, 
the  i)rovisions  being  furnished  by  the 
Pioneering,  .society.  This  condition  of  things  con- 
tinued for  about  six  months,  during 
which  time  the  colonists  cleared  or  tilled  more  land. 
Many  of  the  colonists  worked  part  of  the  time  for 
neighboring  Chi-islian  farmers. 

In  I  he  meantime  the  Hebrew  Emigrant  Aid  Society 
(which  at  a  later  stage  developed  into  the  Alliance 
Laud  Trust),  with  Ilcnry  S,  Henry,  Isaac  Eppinger, 


423 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alliance  Israelite  tTniverselle 
Alliance,  New  Jersey 


Leonard  Lcvvisolin,  Lcopuld  (Jcrshel,  nud  Dr.  F.  dc 
Sola  Mciulcs  at  its  lii-ad.  pinvliascd  about  SOO  acres 
of  laud,  iiichidiiii;  the  tract  upon  which  the  colo- 
nists worl\cd,  aiid(livi(hMl  it  into  small  farms ot  lift ccn 
acres  each.  On  these  farms  the  society  erecli'cl  small 
houses  and  dufr  wells.  It  supplied  household  furni- 
ture and  utensils,  as  well  as  stoves,  to  each  family, 
and  during  the  followiiif;  winter  and  sjirin}:  (1HS-2-S3) 
paid  the  colonists  from  eight  to  twelve  dollars  per 
month  for  livini;  expenses,  accordinj;  to  the  size  of 
the  family.  In  addition  to  this  help,  tools,  seeds, 
plants,  and  farndni;  implements  were  furnished  dur- 
ing the  sprintr.  Most  cd'  the  settlers  i)lanted  fruit- 
trees,  grapevines,  small  fruit,  and  garden-truck  for 
the  use  of  their  faudlies. 

During  the  summer  and  early  fall  of  188;$  the  col- 
onists supported  Ihemselves  by  working  out  for  the 
Christian    farmers.       In    the    fall    the 
Manufac-     maniifaclure  of  cigars  and  shirts  was 

taring-  undertaken  in  a  part  of  one  of  the 
Industries  large  liuildini,'s  formerly  occupied  liy 
Introduced,  tin-  colonists,  and  these  industries 
alTorded  employment  for  the  settlers 
during  the  winter  of  1H8:5-S4;  abo\il  forty  families 
occupied  themselves  with  sewing,  while  twenty-si.x 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cigars.  The  idea  of 
employing  the  colonists  in  the  manufacture  of  cigars 
originated  with  Moses  W.  Menilel.  of  N'ew  York,  who 
at  a  later  period  erected  for  this  purpose  the  large 
brick  building  now  used  asa  lailoringeslal>lishment. 

In  the  spring  of  18.S4  the  fa<tory  building  was 
burned  down,  and  this  mishap  abruiitly  terminated 
these  industries.  At  this  juncture  the  more  pros- 
perous of  the  farmers  purchased  horses  anil  such 
farming  implements  as  were  necessary  for  the  more 
systematic  working  of  their  own  holdings,  tinding 
time  also  to  assist  their  fellow  farmers  in  this  direc- 
ti(m.  FurlJK'r  funds  were  forwarded  to  the  colony 
ony  at  this  time  by  tlie  Emigrant  Aid  Society,  which 
were  expended  in  planting  additional  vines  and 
berries. 

When  the  winter  of  188-1-85  set  in.  some  of  the 
settlers  went  to  Fhiladelpliia  and  New  York,  and 
secured  tailoring  work  for  their  own  and  other  fam- 
ilies, which  they  took  out  to  their  homes. 

Notwithstanding  the  help  thus  alTorded.  there  was 
still  great   distress  among  a  number  of  the  settlers. 
On  their  behalf  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  Associa- 
tion of  .lewish   Emigrants  id'  the  City  of  I'hiladel- 
l)hia.  which  .sent  its  president,  Alfred  T.  .Jones,  and 
treasurer.  Simon  Muhr.  to  investigate.     These  ofHcers 
made  frequent  visits  to  the  colony  ami  brought  sub 
stantial  aid  to  the  distressed,  furnish 
External     ing  foo<l.  clothing,  household  goods. 
Assistance,  tools,   and    agricultural    implemi'iits. 
Through   the    genirosily  of  .Mrs.   .In 
seph  Heckendorfir.   of  New    York  city,  w  ho  dona 
ted   .SI, (Mid   for  the  purjiose,  the  cigar  factory   was 
reeslatilished  and  run  for  sonii;  time  by  S.  .lacobson. 
who.   however,  li'fl  Alliance.      About  this  time  Sir 
Samuel  Montagu.  Dr.   .\sher.  ami  Mr.  Uiiijamin  L. 
Cohen,   of   London,  visilc-d   the  colony,   at'  1   on   be- 
lialf  of  the   Mansion   House   Knnil    of   London  con 
tribiited  $7,0110  to  pav  otT  pressing  mortgages,  thus 
conslituling  the  Fund  mortgagee,  with  the  Alliance 
Lanil   Trust   (formeil   for  the  purpose)  to  reprisenl 
it       H   S    lliiuy  was  president  of  the  Trust  until  his 
<leath  in  IMIKI.  and  wassiicceeded  by  Isjuic  Kppinger. 

In  the  spring  of  IMS.")  the  farmers,  who  had  naped 
some  measure  of  prolil  from  the  labor  of  previous 
years,  were  stimulated  by  this  incenlivi-  to  apply 
Ihemselves  with  c'liergy  to  the  workiiiL'  of  Iheir 
lands.  TIk'  conditions  that  pri'vailed  during  the 
fall  and  winter  were  identical  withthose  of  previous 


years,  but  a  fresh  impetus  was  given  to  farming  in 
the  spring  and  sunmier  of  lS8(i  by  the  fact  that 
some  of  the  farmers  had  nii.sed  on  their  lands  prod- 
luts  to  the  value  of  S20t)  to  S400.  A  natural  pride 
in  Ibis  achievement  led  them  to  improve  their  farms 
further.  They  erected  new  dwelling  hou.ses  (those 
that  they  occupied  were  not  adapted  for  a  family  of 
average  size),  barns,  and  other  outbuildings.  When 
fall  and  winter  set  in  the  farmers  fidlowed  their  for- 
mer iiractise<d'  hiring  their  labor  to  the  neighboring 
Christian  farmers,  or  engaged  in  tailoring  and  such 
work  as  was  needed  on  Iheir  own  farms. 

From  IMST  the  affairs  of  the  Alliance  colony 
flourished.  The  success  of  the  old  settlers  atlRicted 
other  .Jews  who  had  settled  in  the  cities  and  inuni- 
grants  who  had  recently  arrived.  These  were  em- 
ployeil  as  tailors  during  the  winter,  and  as  farm- 
laborers  in  the  summer.  In  this  way  many  of  the 
immigrants,  who  subst'cjuently  .settled  as  farmers  at 
lioseiihayn  and  Carmcl,  gained  their  expiTience 
while  working  on  the  farms  of  the  .Vlliance  colony. 
I'rospcrity  again  rewarded  the  efforts  of  the  farm- 
ers in  the  sunuuer  of  1SS8. 

According  to  a  contemporary  record  ("Philadel- 
phia Mercury,"  Oct.  20,  27,  188!)),  as  soon  as  possible 
the  settlers  applied  for  naturalization  pajx-rs  and 
took  active  interest  in  local  i)olitics,  in  which  their 
views  were  as  varied  as  on  religious  topics.  They 
determined  to  keep  a  record  book  in  which  they 
gave  a  concise  history  of  the  reasons  which  caused 
them  to  leave  their  native  land,  and  the  course  of 
events  which  had  led  to  their  settlement  in  the  col- 
ony. A  list  of  the  benefactors  who  had  a.s,sisted 
them  was  given,  and  of  the  main  streets  of  the  village 
that  were  named  after  them.  ' 

The}'  also  recorded  in  the  book  their  determina- 
tion to  build  a  synagogue  to  be  called  Tiphereth  Is- 
rael. This  was  erected  in  18!)();  and  the  religious 
instruclion  of  the  young  was  cared  for.  by  private 
teachers  hind  by  the  colonists  as  well  as  by  public 
clas.ses  maintained  by  the  Land  Trust. 

In  1890  and  the  years  that  followed,  most  of  the 
farmers  were  compelled  to  borrow 
Financial  money  or  mortgage  their  farms  to 
Troubles,  various  loan  associations.  With  this 
money  they  paid  the  debts  previou.sly 
contracted  and  also  made  such  improvements  as  were 
necessary  on  their  farmsteads.  As  longasthey  were 
able,  the  farmers  paid  the  interest  on  the  loans  they 
had  negotiated,  but  a  lieriod  of  depression  .set  in,  and 
the  prices  obtained  for  farm  products  fell  so  low  dur- 
ing the  nineties  that  the  farmers  were  unable  to  meet 
their  obligations.  Threats  of  foreclosure  and  eject- 
ment were  made  by  the  second  mortgagees  (the  Land 
Trust  holds  the  lirst  mortgages),  but  through  the 
limely  intervention  of  thi' ollicers  of  the  B.MtoN  DE 
lllltscil  Ft  Nl>  thesi'  wire  averled. 

The  Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund  raised  the  mortgages  on 
the  farms  and  made  arrangements  with  Iheir  teiumts 
to  rejiay  the  amonnts  expended  for  this  jnirpose  on 
a  gradnaled  payment  basis,  ruder  the  auspices  of 
the  Fund,  tailoring  is  again  being  encountged  in  the 
colony,  and  improved  conditions  now  prevail.  On 
Oct.  ;{().  lltOO,  the  Land  Trust  resolved,  with  the  n]^■ 
proval  of  I  he  IJu.sso  .Jewish  Ciunmitlee,  to  Ir.msfer 
all  inliiest  in  the  colony  and  its  fuiun'  nmnagement 
to  the  IJaroii  lie  llirsch'Ftind  of  New  York 

The  following  .Jewish  organizations  existed  in 
.Mliance  in  liHKI:  Ebeii  ha  'Ezer  and  Tijilierelh 
Israel  synagogues:  Norma  llroiherhoiHl.  Alliance 
Israelite  Libnirv.  Youni:  People's  lienevolenl  So- 
ciety. Alliance  Lodge  No.  4,'<4.  1.  O.  H.  B. ;  Agmlat 
Zion. 

In  addition  to  fanners  and  tailors,  there  are  a  few 


Alliteration 
Allon 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


424 


carpoiitcrs,  bhicksmilhs,  iiud  masons.     Out  of  a  U)tal 
population  of   TUU   thcro  are  euo  Jews.     See  also 

AOBICCLTCUAL  COLONIES   IN    AmEHICA. 

Bibliography:  Cyrus  A.llor.ln  rhila<k\pUla  Lc.juf r.  July  31, 

liWi'  HcvitrlKnl  Ihi  .leu'i.ih  Iminioinliini  ixirirluof  '  "i"'- 
lUlp'hUt :  B  st-rli-s  of  iirtlclts  by  J.  C.  llvis  In  the  Jnvuih  Lx- 
p<jiiiii(,  l«ftH'JllO.  espwIttUy  Jan.att.  19UU.  ,     p     t^ 

ALLITERATION  AND  KINDRED  FIG- 
URES: Successive  use  or  frciniciil  rccurreiicc  of 
the  same  initial  letter  or  soiiiid  iil  Ihc  lll■^'i^niIllr  of 
two  or  more  wonis;  speciticallv,  llie  regular  recur- 
rence of  an  iniliul  letter  or  soinid  in  the  accented 
parts  of  words  in  poetry;  initial  rinu-.  Figures  km- 
dred  to  Alliteration  are  the  following: 

I.  Rime,  a  correspondence  of  sounds  in  two  or 
more  words,  especially  in  poetry:  specitically,  the 
occurrence  of  the  .same  vowel,  and  succeeding  con- 
sonant sounds  (if  there  lie  any),  in  accented  syllables 
at  the  end  of  two  lines,  or  more  rarely  at   the  liegin- 

ning  of  two  or  more  words.  I  nder 
Definitions,  the  head  of  rime  may  he  mentioned  as- 
sonance— correspondence  of  the  vow- 
els, but  not  of  the  consonants,  in  riming  syllables. 
such  as  •' nice  "  and  "night,"  "feel  "and  "  need"— 
used  in  the  Romance  languages.  In  a  wider  sense  as- 
sonance signitics  correspondence  of  so\uul  in  general. 

II.  Play  upon  Words  {pvm.  paronomasia,  (unb- 
blc),  acomliinaiioM  of  words  of  similar  sound  pro- 
ducing a  witticism  or  jest.  Pun  is  more  specitically 
the  witty  use  of  a  word  in  two  senses,  usually  anti- 
thetic aiid  more  or  less  incongruous,  in  which  the 
play  of  tlKmght  turns  chiefly  on  the  sense;  or  less 
strictly,  a  play  on  words  of  the  same  sound  but  of 
different  meanings.  Hut  the  most  fre(iuent  and 
comprehensive  tern\  for  these  tigurcs  in  iincieni  rhet- 
oric is  paronomasia,  which,  however,  in  the  modern 
application  of  the  term,  signitics  any  use  for  elject 
of  words  sinular  in  sound,  but  ditTering  in  meaning; 
a  play  on  words  in  which  the  similarity  of  sotmd  is 
the  prominent  characteristic.  In  Hebrew  there  is 
found  in  Kinihi's  commentary  on  Micah,  i.  10  the 
expression  ninVl-n  |1t;6  bv  ^S13  \\zh.  "w-r  coinci- 
deim  (mno)  ridinilid,  elffjaiithe  eaimn." 

Alliteration  being  the  simplest  and  probably  the 
oldestof  the  figures  produced  by  similarity  of  souiid, 
IS  also  the  most  frc<iuent  of  these  tig- 
urcs in  the  Old  Testament.     Here  its 
pro|>cr  sphere  is  in  syntactically  co- 
onlinated  words,  as  a  rule  synonyms, 
or  related  to  one  another  in  meaning, 
where,  in  not  a  few  cases,  it  forms  set 
phrases.    The  force  of  Alliteration  in  these  combina- 
tions is,  as  in  other  literatures,  that  of  emphasis  and 
imprcssiveness:  IDS"!  1E3V  ■■  duM   ami  ashes,"  tJen. 
xviii.  27:  Job.  xx.\.  U);  xlii.  <",;  psi  ^?2y  "misery  and 
wretchedness,"  or  "sin  and  iniciuity,"   Num.  xxiii. 
21:  Isa.  lix.  4,  etc.;  myOI  HDID  "storm  and  tem- 
pest," Is!i.   xxix.  6,  etc.:  ■^2:^  TJ  INCT  DC  "name 
anil  remnant,  progeny  and  olTspring."  Isji.  xiv.  22; 
Qll  -\2~\  "pestilence  and  blooilshed,"  E/.ek.  v.   1/: 
D'Vm  n^3n  "spear  and  arrows,"  Ps.  Ivii.  5;  riDDtO 
ribm  a^'7•C'y\  ISVn  "f<a-ye  shall  go  out  with  joy 
and  be  led  forth  with  peace."  Isji.  Iv.  12.     In  con- 
junction with  onomatopteia;  np73t21    np13D1   np13 
"empty,  anil  void,  and  waste."  Nahum.  ii.  11;  DV 
naUDi"  HDUDI  nOinD  "a  day  of   trouble,  and  of 
treading  down,  and  of  perplexity,"  Isa.  xxu.  o.     As 
seen  from  tlu^  few  exainples  given  above.  Alliter- 
ation in  Hebrew  is  not  restricted,  as  in  Latin,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  Old  German,  to  precisely  the  same  let- 


Allitera- 
tion in  the 

Old 
Testament. 


tcrs;   nor  is  it  neces.sary  that  the  combined  words 
shoidd  follow  in  immediate  succession. 

Excluding  the  congruence  of  sound  in  the  flexional 
endings,  and   contining   it   to   the   ca,ses  in   which 
the  similarity  is  in  a  stem-syllable,  the 
Rime  and    number  of  "instances  of   rime  in  the 
Assonance.  Old  Testament  iscompamtively  small, 
and  it  is  always  combimd  with   the 
assonance  of  the   whole   word:   pKH   n?33   n?as< 
"the  earth  motirneth  and  fadeth  away."  Isa.  xxiv. 
4;   pxn  t,"V^m  C'V^ni  "the  earth  shook  and  trem- 
bled." Ps.  xviii.  8;  t3'i>D1  TIC  "an  escaped  one  and 
survivor,"  Jer.  xlii.  IT,  etc.;  in31  inn  "waste  and 
void,"  Gen.  i.  2,  etc. 

Of  a.s.sonance  there  is  in  Hebrew— in  which  the  con- 
sonantal element  |iredominates— hardly  any  instance, 
except  perhaps  nilDI  IIID  ]2  "a  stubborn  and  rebel- 
lious son."  Deut.  xxi.  li^.  etc. 

While  in  Alliteration  and  rime  the  stress  lies  on 

the   form,  in  the  play  upon  words  both  form  and 

meaning  come  into  consideration.    Al- 

Parono-      literation  and   rime  combine,  prefer- 
masia.       ably,  svnony ms  and  coordinated  ideas, 
while  playing  upon  words  or  i)unning 
implies  some  surprising  contra.st. 

The  principal  classes  of  pliiy  upon  words  m  the 
Old  Testament  may  be  sununcd  uji  as  follows: 

1 .  Where  the  words  are  the  same  or  similar  in  form 
(homonyms)  and  the  difference  of  meaning  is  con- 
trasted:" .  .  ,  vns^  t;"x  -n-n  sip^  ^ba  onsmt."  n? 
3-inn h«...  "im  d3^  n"'P '^^^  " '^''' '"'^■'' ""'  '"""■'^• 

cncd  unto  me,  in  proclaiming  lilicrty,  every  one  to 
his  brother  .  .  .  behold.  I  proclaim  alibcrtyforyou, 
to  the  sword."  .Ter.  xxxiv.  IT;  mv  DV3  fl'Dnnn 
n^nS  -lV  "  If  '111'"  f'lint  in  the  day  of  adversity.  Ihy 
strength  issmall,"Prov.  xxiv.  10;  tlDn  IIDnn  "n^a 
TlOn  .  .  .  D'niOn  "  With  the  jawbone  of  an  ass, 
heaps  i'ip"onliea])s  .  .  .  have  I  slain."  Judges.  XV.  Hi; 
-I'DH  nnn  an'On  SpS  "  l*''>r  "^^ '  '"■  crackling  of  thorns 
\indera  pot,  .so  is  the  laughter  of  fools,"  Eccl.  vii.  «; 
comiiare  Isa.  xxx.  16;  Jer.  iv.  17,  18;  xi.  17;  Hosea, 
viii.  11:  .Joel.  i.  10^-12;  Dan.  xi.  22,  etc. 

2.  Where  the  same  verbisuwd  indifferent  voices: 

ijson  DSi:  ibtOT  ]nHn  nio  Dnvioc-i  usn  dk 

l^asn  a-in  OnnOI  "if  ye  be  willing  and  obedient, 
ve  .shall  eat  the  good  of  the  land:  but  if  ye  refuse 
iuid  rel)el.  ye  shall  be  devoured  with  the  sword." 
Isa  i  li)  2("j;  compare  Gen.  xlii.  7;  Lev.  xxvi.  82; 
I  Sam.  i.  27,  38;  I  Kings,  viii.  20;  Jer.  xxiii.  19; 
Prov.  xxvi.  17.  etc.  ,  , 

3.  Where  the  words  differ  in  form:  Snj  'p^na 
-ip^n  "Among  the  smooth  stones  of  the  stream  is 
thy  portion."  Isa.  Ivii.  C;  nDL"0  njni  DDC'O^  ip'l 
npVV  njm  npi^b  "And  he  looked  for  judgment 
l)Ut  behold  oppression:  for  righteousness,  l)Ut  behold 
a  crv."  Isa.  v.  T:,-iES  nnn  1N3  "beauty  for  ashes," 
Isa.lxi.  3;  tlNOvij  D'D  'NV1D  .  .  .  DC"  "He  turnct^^i 

watersprings  into  drv  ground.  Ps.  cvn.  .«; 
compare  Deut.  xxxii.  14;  Jer.  1.  3.1-38;  Ezck.  xxviii. 
2(i:  .loel,  i.   15;   Job,   v.    21;  xxxvi.  15;  Eccl.   xn. 

11.  etc.  .    ,.   -1     1    • 

A  name,  as  representing  somethmg  mdividual.  is 

especiallv  a  tempting  mark  for  a  witticism  or  jiun. 

In  Hebrew,  moreover  (as  also  in  the 

Play  upon  other  Semitic  languages),  the  proper 

Proper      names  are  still  in  living  contact  with 

Names,      the  language;  their  meaning  and  form 

are  still  clear  and  transparent.     Xot 

only  are  thoughts  and  sentiments  attached  to  proper 

names  (compare  the  blessing  of  Noah,  Gen.  i.\.  '~7, 

and  that  of  .Jacob,  Gen.  xlix.),  but  even  most  of  the 


425 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alliteration 
AUon 


historical  lore  is  grou|)t'cl  around  them.  The  names 
of  persons,  triljcs.  ami  places  are  made  to  siifrgest 
the  character  attributed  to  tlicni,  or  the  important 
events  connected  witli  them.  The  plays  upon 
proper  names  in  the  Old  Testament  may  therefore 
be  divided  into  two  cla.sses: 

(1)  Etymological  e.\|)lanations  of  names;  in  many 
of  which  it  is  apjiarent  that  merely  a  folk-etymol- 
ogy is  aimed  at,  wliicli  is  .satisfied  with  the  agree- 
nientof  sound  between  the  nanieand  llieappellative 
that  is  to  explain  it.  Tliis  is  the  case,  for  instance, 
when  Gen.  v.  29  nj  is  explained  by  IJOnj'  (cmnpare 
Gen.  U.  and  Hashi  on  tlie  pas.sagei;  or  PNItSt;'  '>y 
pitfi'  I  Sam.  i.  20  (compare  Driver,  "'Notes  on  the 
Hebrew  Te.xt  of  tlie  Books  of  Sanuiel,"  p.  13).  .Many 
other  in.stances  could  be  cited. 

(2)  Plays  either  upon  the  sense  or  upon  the  sound 
of  proper  names:  DJ  •  •  .  Hin  r\-bv  ncn  p3K'na 
"VnU  TpiD  ...  "'In  Heshbon  [Counting  Town  |  they 
have  devised  evil  against  it.  .  .  Al.so  thou  slialt  be 
cut  down.  O  Madmen  [Dunghill]  ;  the  sword  shall 
pursue'  thee,"  Jer.  .\lviii.  2:  .  .  .  ,Tnn  niltV  nty '3, 
IpVn  plpyi  ..."  For  Gaza  shall  be  forsaken  .  .  .  and 
Ekrcin  shall  be  rcioteci  up."  Zeplianiah,  ii.  4;  'mSHI 
D'n"l3  nx  "'  -\nd  1  will  cut  off  the  Cherethini,"  Ezek. 
x.\v.  It);  ti'oi'  naL'T  C*31^  n231Dn  Dm  "O  thou 
inhabitants  of  Lacliish,  bind  the  chariot  to  the  swift 
beast,"  -Micah,  i.  i:i,  etc. 

Like  all  other  embellishments  of  speech,  the  fig- 
ures based  on  the  congruence  of  sound  are  an  cle- 
ment of  higher  style.     They  are  there- 
Euphonic     fore  most  frequent  in  the  Prophets  and 
Figures       in  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
and   Die-     ment.  Plays  ujion  words  are  most  fre- 
tion.  quently  to  be  found  in  the  prophetic 

speech,  which  aims  at  reaching  the 
conscience  of  the  hearer  and  bringing  lK)me  to  him 
.some  truth  in  a  striking  manner.  They  are  al.so  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  Proverl)s.  which  gener- 
ally depend  largely  for  their  elTect  upon  a  happy 
form  and  pointednessof  expression.  But  everywhere 
these  figures  are  merely  a  casual,  not  an  organic,  ele- 
ment of  diction. 

The  Talmud  sometimes  plays  ujioii  words  in  ad- 
ages and  ma.xims:    ID'Sa  IS'i  DnX    Dn3T    nC^tO 
1DV331  1D133  "'I'll'' cliaracterof  a  man 
Word-        reveals  itself  in  three  things:  in  his  be- 
Plays  in     havior  concerning  his  purse,  his  cup, 
the  and  in  his  anger,"  "Er.  d.V).    Compare 

Talmud.  D^rek  Krez  Zutta  v.:  niTD  '^  'IN 
'IS'D  '^  'IX  "Wo  is  me  from  my 
Creator  [who  pimishes  sin],  wo  is  me  from  my  sin- 
ful inclination,"  Ber.  (ll(i;  X.nn  >S1  NUI^  Nnn 
KtSK?  "  Uather  be  [innocently]  cursed  than  be  curs- 
ing," Sanh.  49«(;  ^V3  I'Cy  fv3  i'13N  "Eat  onions 
and  live  in  the  shadow  of  thy  house"  [('.<■.,  rather 
live  poorly  than  makedeblsand  becnmp<lleil  to  give 
up  thy  hnuse|.  Pes.  1 1  !(/.  The  Tahnudie  literature 
is  especially  rich  in  elTorts  to  supply  with  etymolo- 
gies tliosi'  proper  names  that  the  Old  Testament  has 
h'ft  unexplained.  For  exampli-  Qy  V3'"IL"  DJJ3T 
"because  hi-  madi'  the  people  crouch  "  [/.«.,  niaih-  it 
degenemti'l  :  or  Dy3n3'"IOrit;'llt."" '"'cause  he  caused 
8trif<'  [i.e. ,  division  I  among  thepeople";  and  nC'VC 
D'DC'3'b;'  Dn'3xS  ^Nlw"  i'3  n3'"lD  "  because  he  caused 
strife  between  Israel  and  their  Father  in  heaven," 
Jeroboam  is  call.'d  1233  |3  "  because  "  HNI  nS  t:3:L" 
"he  looked  and  ilid  not  m'c  [his  true  pnsiiiiin  and 
destiny  in  history  |,"Sanli.  KH/';  ni":D  "  son  of  Ileze- 
kiah  '  D"ri"3l"  Cn>3N^  ^NIL'"  nX  X'L":nC'  "  iH'cause 


lie  caused  Israel  to  forget  their  Father  in  heaven," 
Sanh.  102i;  (compare  Nimrod  and  Amraphel,  who  are 
idcntilied,  Er.  .">*/  and  Valk.  Gen.  72:  Sliinar,  Shab. 
113A;  Samson  and  Delilah,  Sojah  10<(  and  94,  etc.). 

Since  the  seventh  century  rime  has  become  a  reg- 
ular feature  in  Hebrew  poetry.     The  composers  of 
pii/ulim,  yi/zenit,  selihot,  and  kinot  in- 
In  Post-     dulged  even  to  excess  in  rimes  and 
Talmudic    alliterations.     A  further  oi)portunity 
Literature,  for  this  jingling  was  given  in  the  in- 
troductions to  liooks.     Sometimes  all 
the  words  were  made  to  begin  with  the  .same  letter 
(comi)are.  for  instance,  the  ]'S^X  f)^K  in  the  Iggeret 
of  .Moses  Zacuto,  ed.  Leghorn,  1780:  or  the  ntt'p3 
J'DDn  appendctl   to   many  editions  of  Jedaiah   Pe- 

nini's  "  Behinat  'Olam" ).  The  Hispano-.Jcwish  writers 
scmietimes  formed  plays  upon  words  with  great 
skill.  So,  for  instance.  Juilali  Alharizi  in  his  ".Ma- 
kamat"  (ed.  Lagarde.  188:!) :  ni1N3  D3n^  tlVn  ilDSnn 

siji  vhv  locn  i33t;'3  inn'jn  iSoyci  inn:n  D"n 

Vin'3n  '"Wisdom  gives  power  to  the  wise;  she  leads 

him  in  the  path  of  life  and  affords  him  rest  from 
his  toil:  when  he  lies  down  .she  watches  over  him 
and  does  not  leave  him  alone,"  p.  2,  t5  2,  v.  1,  3t;'i 
'Sn  "£3Vn  "'and  beauty  is  turned  to  disgrace,"  17, 
14,  28;  n?sn  D3ip3i  npSn  DJVl,"P3  "On  their 
tongue  is  prayer,  and  in  their  heart  i)erversene.ss," 
17,  4,  34.  In  the  Azharot  (hymns  dealing  with  the 
()13  precepts),  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Feast  of  Weeks, 
ascribed  to  Solomon  ibn  Gabirol,  we  find:  n'nn  N?1 
riw'np  my  mD3  r\Z"'~\\>  "And  there  shall  not  be  a 
hierodule  in  the  as.sembly  of  the  holy  congregation  " ; 
I3DD  hv  D":;'ni'I3Dn  vh  nCOl  "-Vnd  thou  Shalt  not 
practise  usury  upon  the  i)oor." 

As  an  example  of  play  upon  words  in  modern 
Hebrew,  the  ingenious  e|iignim  of  M.  B.  t!.  Abudi- 
ente  may  find  place  here  ("Bikkure  ha-'Ittim,"  iii. 
22),  in  which  many  words  are  repeated  in  opposite 
senses : 

niiD  ^'yjDi  i"i3  TJ'is!'  ^icns 
nyi^in  -hv  it;ny  -iin3  33ik;' 
nno  H'oi  •,13  ic"i3^  Dvn 
nyiMn  -hv  ivis  1^3  331L" 

which  may  he  rendered  a.s  follows:  "  Yestreen  thy 
garment  w"as  tine  linen  and  robe  n-trailing.  lying  in 
thy  bed  upon  scarlet;  To-day  thy  garment  is  mud 
and  a  rotten  robe  [Amos.  vi.  4,  "after  Sanh.  97a], 
lying  in  the  grave  upon  worms." 

Bnu.IOGRAPnv  :  (itn.^ilus,  I'liilnhniin  Sacrn.  pd.  Paltie,  pp. 
i:tt.V-l2;  Eisner.  I'auhi»  Aimslitiurt  i-t  Ji-mtinrt  I*fn})htta 
iiiler  «■  ('imjiKinili,  pp.  ai-lT,  Ilrt*liiu,  IsSI  ;  (ii'sciilu.s 
Lehrgchiiuilr  <l,  r  llilinliivhtn  Siimuhf.m.  xrt\-mt,ii£n 
et  nci;.,  I^liislc,  ls;i(P;  Wenrlili,  /<<■  ;■>«:»•<«  lliliriiiar  nliinc 
Araliiac  (  iiinniinttllin.  pp.  241  cl  wi;..  Leliwlr.  1H4;1.  l)(>!ililt<s 
tlu*se  lirli'fer  nutlrrs  llie  sultjtt't  law  tie^'ti  (n-atiil  fn  inoinw 
irniplis liv  J .  F.  IIoIIcIiit,  De  I'arnwmuwn  FiiiiliiniMiuf  ri  Fi- 
lliKin  I'liuln  Ainifliilii  yrnitirnldli.'.  U'lpstr.  1.S2:);  J.  <  hrlstoph 
Dt'clipr,  rUxvrlitliii  Iiutuiiuriilin  lif  rnniiiiiimvia  Sarni, 
lliilli',  l~!7;  liiiiiinnui'l  M.  Cn.'uiiKiwIrz.  J'iir"ii<mi<i;'iii  in  llir 
Otil  TrilaiiunI,  n.wiiiii.  ISIM  iilL-wrtutlun).  Fur  .Mlllenitlun 
In  jMirtlrulnr,  so- Julius  l.i'V.  I  if  .lIKfi  riid.mc  ,i/iiir  rm<iMir, 
III  S(irri'»  llil'rirnnim  I.UlrriK  l'»iirj)<i(ii,  llilili'llHTtt,  ls.'i!> 
(pmiKTUiio:  lili'in.  /Ii<  Melrii'i-liin  Fftrmi  n  ilrr  Ilrhrilifchi  n 
riiiKii.  l.eli>,Hlc,  ismi;  lili'iu.  (tniwUltih'  il<»  Ithiilhmtif.  ilm 
VirK  mill  S(rii(>/i<  iilxiiii"  in  il"'  Hrhn'ltHclirn  I'orMr.  Miillt', 
IRT.");  Iili-m.  In  si'vcnil  iirllili'si  In  the  '/..  l>.  M.  H.  xx.  INHM. 
JnhrhlUh.rf  lir  I'hihili^nh-  iiiul  r;i,l,wtlili.  INH.  pp.iWl  i'lH, 
mill  1HH.'>.  pp.  '"".1 1 1  «<  If.;  Saiiiiii'l  Wiilillicnf.  Ihirkc  ha-Shiiin- 
llim.  IxiiilKTir.  1S7U.  IMP 

ALLOIf  ("Strong"?^:  1.  Son  of  Jedaiah,  in 
the  genealogy  of  Simon  (I  Chron.  iv.  37).  2.  One 
of  those'  w  ho  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (I  Esd.  v.  34), 


Allon  Bacbuth 
Almanac 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


426 


pt-rliaps  the  same  as  Anion  of  Xeli.  vii.  ofl.  Ami  of 
Ezra.  ii.  57.  (While  K.  V.  lias  "AUou,"  tlio  Greek 
ami  A.  V.  Imvc  "Allom")  G.  U.  L. 

ALLON  BACHTJTH  ("Oak  of  Weeping").— 
Biblical  Data:  .Vii  oak  near  Bethel,  at  the  foot  of 
wliieli  Dilionih,  llir  nurse  of  Hebekah.  was  buried 
(Geu.  x.\.\v.  S).  In.Iuilj.'es.  iv.  .'ia  tree  is  referred  to  a.s 
the  "palm-tree  of  Deborah."  whieli  has  been  ideuti- 
lied  by  some  with  the  "oak  of  weeping."      G.  B.  L. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :    According  to  the 

Haggadah,  the  word  "allon"  is  the  Greek  S/>oi' 
(another):  and  it  explains  the  designation  of  the 
burial  place  of  D<'bor!di  as  "another  weeping."  bj- 
stating  th;il  before  .laeob  had  eonipleted  his  mourn- 
ing for  Deborah,  he  received  the  news  of  the  death  of 
his  mother.  Scripture  does  not  mention  the  jilace  of 
IJebekah's  interment,  because  her  burial  took  i)lace 
privately.  Isaac  was  blind;  Jacob  was  away  from 
home;  and  Esjiu  woidd  have  been  the  oidy  one  to 
mourn ;  and  his  public  appearance  as  sole  mourner 
would  not  have  b(!en  to  Rebekah's  honor  (Fesik. 
Zakor.  pp.  'i3b  et  xer/.;  Geu.  K.  Ix.x.xi..  end;  Tan. 
Wayishlah.  xxvi.).  L.  G. 

ALLORatn,  JOSHTJA  BEN  JOSEPH  IBN 
VIVES.     Sie  1i:n    \'i\i:s  Ai.i.oKiji  i.   Josih  a  liKN 

JusKl'll. 

ALLITF  (or  RESH  KALLAH) :  In  the  Baby- 
lonian colleges,  title  of  the  cliief  judge,  third  in 
rank  below  the  gaon.  As  a  special  distinction  it 
was  granted  to  prominent  non-Babylonian  scholars, 
particularly  to  those  of  Palestine.  There  were, 
however,  others  who  bore  this  distinctive  title,  for 
there  is  record  of  a  certain  "  Eliezer  Alluf,"  or"Resli 
Kallah."  of  Spain  iu  the  luuth  century.  This  title 
bears  no  direct  relation  to  the  Ili'brew  Cjpx  (duke), 

but  is  closely  connected  with  1J'D17X  {our  herds)  (Ps. 
cxliv.  14).  which,  according  to  the  Talnuid  (Ber. 
17a),  is  a  tigurative  appellation  for  pious  ami  learned 
men  in  Israel.     See  Ac.\di2mies  in  B.\bvloni.v. 

Bibi.ioorapht:  Zunz.  Rif ii-«,  p.  190 :  Harkavy.  .Stiiifif  ii  and 
MitthcUnnoi^n^  til.  4^.  iv.  377:  Halevy.  Dorot  ha-Iiiithonim, 
pp.  217  it  Iti'q. 

L.  G. 
ALLXTFE  HA-^EHILLAH :  A  general  name 
for  prominent  members  of  any  congregation,  and 
typically  used  in  regard  to  the  leaders  of  the  com- 
munity in  the  old  hi/ial.i  (governing  boards)  of  the 
Jews  of  Poland  and  Lithuania.  The  number  of 
these  leaders  varied  from  live  to  ten  according  to  the 
size  of  th(^  community.  Candidates  were  chosen  from 
among  them  to  replace  absent  members  of  the  four 
elders  (D'C'XI).  or  any  of  the  three  to  live  honorary 
members  of  the  board  (D'31U).  They  were  the  so- 
called  "reserve  "  of  the  kahal.  n.  R. 

ALMAGEST  :  The  Arabic  title  of  the  astronom- 
ical work  of  Claudius  Ptolemy  (llourished  1")0).  en- 
titled by  liim  fuidi/uariKf/  nrrrnfif.  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  another  avvmiic  of  Ptolemj's, 
devoted  to  astrology.  The  Almagest  contains  a 
full  account  of  the  Ptolemaic  theory  of  astronomy, 
by  which  the  retrograde  movement  of  the  inner  plan- 
ets was  exjilained  by  a  system  of  cycles  and  epicy- 
cles. It  also  gives,  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  books. 
a  list  of  the  fixed  stars,  with  their  positions,  still  of 
use  to  the  astronomer.  It  contiiuied  to  be  the  clas- 
sical text-book  of  astronomy  u]!  to  the  time  of  Coper- 
nicus, and  even  of  Newton,  and  was  the  foiindation 
of  tlie  astronomical  knowledge  of  the  Jews  (who 
became  acquainted  with  it  through  Arabic  transla- 
tions) in  the  Middle  Ages.  One  of  the  earliest  Arabic 
translations  is  said  to  have  been  bv  an  Oriental  Jew, 
Sahl  Al-Tabari  (about  800),  but  no  trace  of  it  can  be 


found.  From  Ptolemy,  too,  were  derived  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  spheres  and  the  7>n'mw Hi  iinMle.  which 
had  so  much  intluence  upon  the  Cabala.  The  Alma- 
gest was  translated  into  Hebrew  from  the  Arabic, 
with  both  Averroes'  and  Al-Fergani's  compendiums 
of  it,  by  Jacob  Anatoli  about  I'i'M),  the  latter  from 
the  Latin  version  of  Johannes  llispalensis.  Com- 
mentaries on  |>arts  of  it  were  written  by  David  ibn 
Nahmias  of  Toledo,  Elijah  Mi/.ndii,  anil  Samuel  ben 
Judahof  Slarseilles(1331):  only  the  latter's commen- 
tary is  extant.  From  the  Almagest  the  Jews  re- 
ceived their  concepticm  of  the  number  of  the  fixed 
stars  as  1,02"2:  the  comparison  of  the  universe  to  an 
onion  with  its  successive  skins,  corresponding  to  the 
spheres:  and  their  idea  of  the  size  of  the  earth — 
24.000  miles  in  circumference — which  indirectly  led 
to  the  si-areh  forthe  New  World,  by  inducing  Colum- 
bus to  think  that  the  way  westward  to  India  was 
not  so  far  as  to  be  beyond  his  reach. 

BiBi.iooRAPiiv:  Stelnsclinelder,  Jcir.  Lit.  pp.  184,  188;  tdebi, 
Hchr.  rchcrK.pp.say-Seo;  Keubauer, Cot. Bod]. Hebr.  JifSS. 

Nos.  soio-aoi;). 

J. 

ALMALIA,  JOSEPH:    Italian   rabbi,    of   the 

beginningof  the  nineteenth  century,  whose  responsa 
"Tokfo  shel  Yosef  "  (The  Strength  of  Joseph)  were 
liublished  in  two  parts  at  Livorno.  in  1823  and  1855. 
Ilis  name  is  wrongly  given  as  Almagia,  by  Mortara 
("  Indicc  Alfabetico,"  n.t.). 

Bibliography  :  Benjacob,  Ofar  ha-Scfarim,  p.  872. 

W.   M. 

ALMALIH,  JOSEPH  B,  AARON  :  One  of  the 

jiatrons  uieutioned  by  Abraham  AnUawa  in  the  pref- 
ace to  his  responsii.  "  Kerem  Ilemed "  (Leghorn, 
1S()9-71).  Kaufmann  regards  him  as  the  grandson  of 
Jacob  b.  Joseph  Almalih.  whose  date  may  be  fixed 
by  an  elegy  composed  by  him  on  the  persecution  of 
the  Jewish  cimimunity  at  Morocco  (1790).  The  per- 
secution in  (piestion  was.  no  doubt,  due  to  the  dis- 
turbed state  of  the  country  that  ensued  upon  the 
death  of  Sultan  Mulei  Sidi  Mohanmied. 

BiBLioGRAPnY  :  Kaufmann. ZudfM  Manikkaniichcn  I'iutim, 
In  Z.  D.  M.  G.  1.  SI')  (■(  ncq. :  Iter.  £l.  Julves,  xxxvll.  121; 
Stelnsclinelder.  Jew.  Quart.  Rev.  xU.  196. 

H.  G.  E. 

ALMANAC  :  An  annual  table,  book,  or  the  like, 
comprising  a  calendar  of  days,  week.s,  and  months. 
Among  the  Jews  it  was  the  holy  prerogative  of  the 
patriarch  or  president  of  the  Great  Sanhedrin  to  fix 
the  calendar  and  according  to  it  proclaim  the  new 
moon.  Witnesses  who  reported  their  having  per- 
ceived the  new  moon  were  heard,  their  statements 
carefully  examined,  and  jierhaps  compared  with 
the  result  of  some  esoteric  calculation.  Hence  the 
phrase  "si>d  ha  'Mrir"  (thf  mystery  of  the  calcu- 
lation), though  it  may  perhaps  apply  altogether  to 
the  intercalation.  These  observations  and  researches 
gradually  crystallized  into  a  science,  the  oral  tradi- 
tions having  been  reduced  to  a  literature  on  the 
C.\i.i:ni).m{  (^see  CiiRoxoi.ociY). 

LiKtIf,  the  Hebrew  eiiuivalent  for  Almanac,  means 
literally  a  table  or  tablet.  Most  of  the  works  on 
chronology  naturally  contained  such  a  calendar.  It 
included  the  proper  designation  of  every  day  as  part 
of  the  week  as  well  as  part  of  the  month;  the  desig- 
nation of  the;«nv(,s7ir//;(the  weekly  Sabbath  portion  of 
the  Pentateuch):  the  dates  of  feasts  and  general  and 
local  fasts;  furthermore,  the  exact  date  of  the  molad 
(new  moon)  and  the  te/ctifat  (the  quarter-days  of  the 
year),  as  w  ell  as  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  xliealah 
(tlie  time  when  a  short  prayer  for  rain  is  added  to  the 
eighteen  benedictions). 

Quite  another  appearance  is  borne  by  calendars 


427 


THE  JEWISH   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


AUon  Bachuth 
Almanac 


whicli  arp  Piikulatcd  for  more  than  one  year,  for  a 
liiindri'd  years,  or  wlicn  they  arc  nifant  to  lie  per 
petiial.  Tlii'sc  must  lie  classilicd  as  chronological 
literature.  The  llchrcw  ealeiular  coutaiiicd  orijri 
nully  no  literary  supplements,  its  only  aim  hein;;  to 
give  a  list  in  order  of  time  of  the  ihtys  of  the  year. 
This  changed,  however,  with  the  compositifin  of  the 
Jewish  calendar  in  a  European  lannuagc.  The  inne- 
tocnth  century  introduced  the  literar.v annual  which 
lias  hecome  an  almost  iudispensjihle  part  of  the 
Almanac. 

The  Almanac  first  appeared  as  a  tablet,  then  as  a 
booklet,  sometimes  appended  to  the  prayer  book  or 
Pentateuch.  In  the  syna.iroirue  the  tablet  was  u.sed 
e.\clusively.  Written  IIcImcw  calendars  were  easily 
lost;  ami.  therefore,  few  have  come  down  to  us. 
But  amon.if  the  di.scoveries  made  in  the  Genizah 
of  Cairo  there  are  also  some  calcnilars.  the  margins 
of  which  are  illuminated  with  arabes(|ues.  Oidy 
throuirh  the  sjircadof  theart  of  i)rintingdid  this  kind 
of  literal iM'e  iriow  up. 

The  tirst  printed  .\lmanac  known  came  from  the 
printinfr-ottice  of  <li  (Jara  at  Venice.  l-'iitT.  It  is 
printed  on  a  folio  sheet.  In  towns  where  Hebrew 
printing ollices  existed  there  ap])eareil  ever}-  year 
nn  Almanac  on  a  siu.irh'  sheet  or  in  a  booklet,  'fhus 
almanacs  have  been  ainuially  |)nblishcd  in  the  city 
of  PraiTue  since  Ui")").  at  Venice  since  KiTO.  and  at 
Frankfort  since  about  KiTK.  Owini;  to  the  srcat  tire 
in  the  last  named  city.  1711.  the  Almanac  was  pub- 
lished at  1  louibuiir ;  anil  from  it  wasevolved  the  well- 
known  Kixlelheim  Almanac,  which  is  still  being 
publislie<l  then',  (irailually  these  calendars  were 
enlarged  by  the  insertion  of  the  memorable  da.vs  in 
Ji'wish  history,  the  civil  dates,  the  Christian  festivals. 
anil  the  days  of  various  fairs.  Similar  in  composi- 
tion and  size  are  the  bibliographically  well-known 
cali'nd.'irs  |M-inted  at  Amsterdam  since  17(17.  at  I)y- 
hcrnfuith  since  171','.  at  Wilmersdorf  since  171.">.  at 
Mantua  sinci'  17i7,  at  Altona  .since  1738.  at  Herlin 
since  17ai»,  and  at  KUrth  since  174").  The  Sidz 
bach  Almamic  contains  not  only  all  memorable 
davs.  among  which  it  counts  the  fires  at  Prague 
(ItiHOl.  Fiankfort-onthe-.Main  (1715).  Posen  (1718), 
I\ikolsl)urg  (1721).  but  also  the  birthdays  of  the 
rulers  anil  i>rinces  of  Europe.  Since  lI'iS  a  list 
of  the  most  important  highways  has  been  added. 
The  calendar  printeil  at  Cassel  in  1791)  gives  a  list  of 
the  Hesse  Cassel  princely  family  and  "information 
when  all  the  mails  at  Cass<'l  leavcaml  arrive."  The 
calendar  of  .Metz  gives  also  a  list  of  the  festivals  and 
names  of  the  months  which  were  institiiteil  by  the 
French  Hevolulion.  The  tirst  Almanac  which  con- 
tained a  lileniry  supplement  was  pulilished  by  J. 
Heinemanii  in  Berlin.  |s!lM_-,>ll.  under  the  title  "Al- 
maiiaeh  ti'irdie  Israelitische  .lugeiid."  as  the  O.vford 
pulili<  iition.  "The  .lewish  Kalendar  in  the  Year 
Ti-LVJ  "  (lliici).  does  not  bilong  to  this  category. 

The  following  bibliographv.  which  includes  only 
calendars  published  in  Ihr  mneieenth  century,  lays 
no  claim  to  completeness.  Only  tho.se  almanacs  arc 
noted  which  cover  a  period  of  not  less  than  one 
year. 

AMKRICA. 

Till'  Jewlsli  Cnleniliir  f"r  KItIv  Vi-iim  (IKM-iniMI.  «ltli  nn  F-ssuiv 

iin  111!'  Jewlsli  (  iili'iuliirs,  liv  J.  J.  Lyiuisi  iind  .\l>ruliiiin  Ui-  Siilu. 

Mimtn'iil.  IK'M. 
Ttie  Aniertrjin-IIt'tirew  .Maniiitl,  h  CiiltMKlar  for  F.li;h(4M>n  Years, 

Willi  a  I'lillii'iiiin  i.t  Kvi'iil.s,  et<\,  l)V  A.  N.  t'oleiiian.    Tr<>v, 

,N.  v.,  isx). 
Tlie  Cenlarlal :   ('aleiHlar  for  One  Iliiiiiln'<l  Years,  by  K.   M. 

Mvers.    .Sew  Yi.rk,  l««l. 
Harliavy's  Vulk.H.KalfndiT.    New  Ynrk,  IW.  linii. 
Ji'wlsli  Vi>nr-ll<Hik.  hy  (  yriis  Arllir,  isiiliaiiil  tlie  years  tciltuwlnir. 
Year-IWKik  uf  Vurliais  CoTiiai'ifatltnis,  Keiie.M-t  Yl!*niel  anil  litt- 

ttef  Sbaltim,  111  IMillailelphla. 


Hebrew  Alinanarh.  Blooh  Publishing  and  PriiHInK  Co.,  Cincin- 
nati, ojiio.  In  i^ropress. 

AiiM'hran  .tews'  Annual  ini'-).  Blocli  PuhlLshlni;  and  Printing 
{'o.,  Clnilnnatl,  olilu.  Ed.  by  Geiirge  Wise,  18«,5  and  the  years 
fulliiuing. 

ACSTRIA-HCNOART. 

KnlendcT  n.  Jahrtiuch  fiir  Israellten  auf  Aas  Jahr  560S-OS  ,  .  . 

heniusi;cget)en  von  islilor  iiusrh.   li.  .talirg.    Vienna,  IM3-4r. 

Kl.si)  Magyar  Zslilcj  Nepuir  es  Evki'mvyo  184S.    J.  K.  SzokO,  Pest, 

1H4S. 

Strenna  Isnielltlca  l'cintenent«>  II  Calendarlo  Ebraico  .  .  .ed.ua 
anntiarld  .  .  .  elalHTiUa  da  Isacru  Kegglo.    Giirz,  18.53. 

Illuslrlrter  IsnielltLseher  Vcilkskalender  .  .  .  nebst  Gallerie  von 
JUdlsi'lien  Meikwiirdlgkelten  .  .  .  berausg.  v,  «'.  Pasehelea. 
I'ragiie,  ls.'i_'-»l. 

Jtthrliucb  fiir  ismellten.  5m.V-34  (Is^M-tM)  .  .  .  berausg.  v.  Jos. 
Wirtlieliner.  Neue  Folge,  10.  .lahrg.  Zwelte  Folge,  .T«2»i-a8 
llsii.v-iiT)  .  .  .  herau.sg.  v.  S.    Szanlo.    Jahrg.    l-:i.    Vienna, 

1S.>1-I1K. 

Illustrlrtes  Israel  it  isches  .lahrhiich  fiir  Ernst  und  S<'herz  auf 
die  Jahre  U&i  und  .^ILM  (IK">!Mil)  .  .  .  HenuLsgabe  und  Ver- 
lag  V.  s.  Winter  ...  3.  Jahrg.     Pest,  1H.">IM«I. 

Jahrliuih  f.  d.  Israelii.  Kultu.sgeiuelnilen  in  Ingam.  berausg.  7. 
I.ei.p.  l(,,M-nli,.rg.     1.  Jahrg.     Arad,  IHliO. 

Zeltbote,  Iicr  Isnielitische  Kalender  f.  il.  J.  51)2.5.  Zur  Unter- 
haltung  unil  Kelehrung.    1.  Jahrg.    Prague,  ISIH. 

Kikkurlin.  .luhrhuch  fiir  Freunde  cler  Hebr.  sprache  u.  Literatur 
.  .  .  heniusg.  V.  N.  Keller.    '■!.  Jahrg.    Vienna,  ls<M-ii.5. 

Bmndeis'  Illuslrlrter  Israel.  Volkskalender  .  .  .  berausg.  u.  re- 
diglrt  V.  Jacob  B.  Brandels.  I'rague,  1880  and  they  ears  fol- 
lowing. 

Tascbenkiilender  fiir  Israellten.  Brunn,  1S82  and  the  years  fol- 
lowing. 

Zsldi'i  Kci/igiirgestesI  Neptar,  ar  56.50  Kl  Km ;  Budapest,  1889, 
ism  I. 

Ta.si-lii-nkalender.    Budapest,  5tVU  (ISiB). 

Luah  (Hebrew  and  German).    Vienna,  .5657  (1896-97). 

DE.N.MARK. 

Jodish  Almanak,  for  Skiidajin't  niai.  Forfallet  ag  udglvet  af  M. 
Mlelzlner.     Copenhagen,  Isiil. 

E.Vfii.ANn. 

[From  "J.  Jacobs  and  I..  Wolf's  Bllillotheca  Anglo-Judalca." 
London,  IstSS,  pp.  ira  et  s,i(.] 

Abendana,  J.— T)ie  .lewisti  Kalendar,  rcmtalning  Account  of 
their  Fasts  ami  Festivals  for  the  Year  ■>1.5i.  Kmo.  Oxford, 
1B!K.    Also  publislied  (or  liiiti,  'm.  'ii.5,  •)»;,  and  'liit. 

A.  Ale.xander.-  AlMianaek  for  Jewish  Coinnien'ial  Travelers, 
with  Names  of  Knirlish  Towns  In  Hebrew  Letters,  Giving  Ue- 
luilsof  Coaihfs,  Market  Davs.  etc.     {'Ki. 

A  New  Calendar  for  Ihi' Years  :Vi.'il-.'.ia«i.  limo.  1791.  Printed 
by  iM'rniission  of  tlH*  getitlenien  of  ilic  Mahaiuad. 

Moses  Meldola.     A  New  Almauaek  for  Die  Year55ti8  A.M.    13ino. 

isirr. 
2''iy  PN-13''  j-;-pn  D'B^N  .-t:'3n  '-■i:'  niS  Hebrew  and  Engllsli 

Almanack  forihe  Year  5.590,  corresponding  with  lKl5-:i<l.  1K1.5. 
Hebrew  and  Kngllsh  Almanac  for  the  Years  18^7-40,  with  the 

Jewish  (  harilable  Institutions.     IHIJtHJil. 

. . .  ^'^^  J'l",  .^•■'~  ,N'i.i . . .  T.->  ,io'sr>p  ,n'j|-)ri , . .  Spno 

Helirewanil  English  Almanack.  ,K'n.-i  ,"in  ,13"in  ,n"in  ,mn 
Hinio.    London,  I8;J7-5I. 

r^n\^  •::•,  Hebrew  and  English  Almanack.  Itimo.  LODdoa, 
|s;!!M14. 

II.  Barnett.-  Almanack.    1S41. 

Valleiillne,  Isaac.— nis.  Hebrew  and  English  Almanack  for  the 
Years  A.M.  5(«H  and  mt'i.     (i(mllnued  to  the  piv.sent  da.v.) 

I)e  Ijira.  Illuminated  Hebrew  Calendar  for  Vani.  Printed  In 
gold  anil  twelve  dilTereni  roloni,  fnuii  an  original  design  bv 
Mr.  lie  i.ani  Dedicated  to  Sir  Moses  Montellon-.  "  Voiiv  o'f 
Jai-oli"  of  urtolHT  111.  IS45.  siiys  timt  Mr.  de  Ijira  presented  a 
copv  to  Ihe  t^uei'li  iM'iNonallv  "on  Fridav  last." 

Helin'W  and  English  Almanai-  for  the  YearSiais  i  |S47-ISi.  Care- 
fully revised  and  lorreiled  bv  Ihe  Chief  HabbI,  Ihe  Hev.  Dr. 
Ailler.  and  Ihe  liev.  Iiavid  Meldola.     London,  IMT. 

lie  Lam.  Illiimlnateil  Hebrew  and  English  Calendar  for  50I1H. 
Iiedlenleil  lo  Sir  Anthony  de  Kothsehlld.  Printed  In  nine 
colors  and  gold,  with  a  tablet  represenling  "  King  Sotomon's 
Judgment."  in  honor  of  the  n'ceni  n'lurn  of  Baron  de  Uolhs- 
clillil  as  a  MemlMT  of  Parliament  for  the  city  of  Ixiudoo. 

Ph.  MOS.S.    Calendar.  English  and  lleha'W.    18ii;). 

J.  Madden.    Almanae,  .51115  liliI.sVii. 

Abnihains.     Luah.    Commenced  In  IS7X'-ot. 

.M.  11.  Myers.— Jewish  Calendar  and  i>lur>'.  ComplhMl  by  Uev. 
M.  II.  Myers.     London,  ISilT      (Annuall.v  simv  IsTil.i 

Jiicob.H,  Josi'iih.— The  Jewl.sb  Year-lliKik.  (Annually  since  1896. 
Conllnui'd  from  lUUOby  Hev.  Isidore  Harris,  i 

France. 
Almanacli  Israelite.    Purls,  ISiHJl. 
Annualn-  Isniellte  .  .  .  Iiairs.  Cohen].    Parla,  1831. 
Almanaell  i)  rCsllkl-  des  Isnielltes.     Paris,  IS4I. 
Almanaeb  Itellgleiix  et  Monil  .  .    .  l^  I'Csap' des  Israt^lltCS  .  .  . 

|mr  \.  iM-n  Bariicti  (  n-bange.    Purls,  I>v5i^-7n. 
CuU'lldrler  a  I'l'suge  de.s  Isnielltes.     Purls,  1866-tM, 


Almanac 
Almeida 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


428 


Anniiiiln'  lies  Anhlvos  IsniPlltfs  .  .  .  [rar  H.  I'nigue.    Paris, 

IKn;  iiiiil  ttie  vcam  fiiMciwIiiK. 
Anniiulrv  Isnii-IIU'  .  .  .  par  A.  Duriarher.    Paris,  18M  and  Uie 

years  followliijf. 

GERMANY. 

Jnhrhuoh  cles  Nulzllchi'n  und  InOThnltemlpn  fiir  iKrnellten  .  .  . 
hcniiisir.  vnn  K.  Kli-ln.  Jiilirj,'.  I.-1!».  llreslau.  IMI-47.  KOn- 
ilfilwrv.  !*<'■'■  I'n-sili'n.  \XW.  siuttgiirt,  l(i').'K>4.  tninkfort- 
..n-ihc  Miiin,  IKVl.    Mainz.  IMlMil. 

Vulkskaliiiilir  filr  IsmcllU>n  aut  ilas  Jalir  .WI7  (1847).  Zur 
Heleliniiit'  uml  rntprhaltiinK;  v.  M.  Tmplowltz.  Mlt  Bel- 
trflgi-n  von  Plurkowsky.    1.  Jahrt;.    Kreuzburs,  1(M6. 


TMe-Page  of  a  Hebrew  Almanac  Published  by  L.  Ale.^ander 
In  London,  1813. 

Deutsoh-Israelltlscher  Volkskalcniler  und  Jabrburh  auf  da.s  Jahr 

IS.'H  .  .  .  herausg.  von  A.  lUiheinann.    1.  Jaliri;.    Jobannls- 

burg,  18.53. 
Peutsoher  Viplkskalender  und  .labrhiich.     Inshesondere    zum 

Gebrauoh  fur  Israeliten.     Mit  Lltfrarischen  BeitrilKen  .  .  . 

heraus.  v.  H.  I,k-bermann.    M.  Jahrg.     lirlep.  1S.-).3-8.h. 
Kalender  und   Jahrbuch  .  .  .  fiir   die   JOdisrfit-n   Gt'iiu-lnden 

Preiis-sens  .  .  .  herausp.  von  Ph.  Werthfim.     Ufrlln.  18'(7-.59. 
Berliner  Volkskaleiider  fiir  I.sraelilen  .  .  .  bearlii'itil  von  M. 

Poppelaiier.     lierlin.  ls*lx'  and  the  years  followinjr. 
Allp'ineiner  Hauskalctuler  fiir  Ij-nielilen  .  .  .  heniusg.  v.  I.  K. 

Buchner.    l"rankfi>it-<in-the-Main.  I.hiB. 
Jahrhvich  fiir  Isniellten  i  Fortsseizcing  des  K.  Kleln'sehen  Jahr- 

Ituehes,  21.  und  :?-.  Jahrg.t.    ~.  Jahrp.    I.elpsie,  IWK^U. 
Aehava.    Vereinsbuch  .  .  .  henuisp.  v.  Vereine  zur  I'nu^rstiit- 

zunp  hilfsbi'diirfiiirer  Isniel.  I.clu'er.  I.ehrer-Wltwen  und  Wai- 

sen  in  Ili-llKi  hiarid.      I.ei|)>lc,  l,SU-ti8. 

Illustrlrter  Judischcr  Faiiillien-Kalender  .  .  .  herausg.  v.  Jul. 

Meyer.    Halbi'ivtaflt,  1877  und  the  years  following'. 
Ma.x  Lamm's  WiH'hen-Kalender.    Hebriiisch  u.  Deutseh.    lehen- 

hausen,  18711  and  the  years  following.    [.32  separate  sheets 

iH-und  toiTHther.] 
Vulkskah-nderdes  "Israelii."    Mainz.  1883-88.    Fortgesetzt  als 

Frankfurter  Ismelltlscher  Kalender.  Frankfort-on-the-Maln, 

Is-^'.i  and  the  years  following. 
Montellore-Kulender  .  .  .  herausg.  von  B.  Baer  u.  Jul.  Weinberg. 

Berlin.  IKSj. 
BiTllner  Kalender  fur  alle  Jfidlsehen  fiemeinden  .  .  .  von  J. 

Hefnemann.    Fninkfort-on-the-Main.  18*<.>-x8«. 
Judhjeher  Volks-  und  Haus-Kalender  ifriiber  Lieberraann).    Mit 


elneni  Jahrt)urh  zur  B4>)et)ning  u.  rmerhaltung  .  .  .  herausff* 
V.  M.  Bninn.    Iln>slaii.  188!)  mid  the  years  following. 

Frankfurter  Israellllsiher  Volks-Kalender.  Nebst  |nd.  Holcl- 
Adn'ssbueh.  Fninkfort-on-the-.Maln.  18112  and  the  years  fol- 
lowing. 

Israellllsiher  Amtskalender  fiir  Itabblner.  Pn'<llger,  Lelirer,  u. 
Cantoren  [unil  audere  (ieinelndelM'horden],  herausg.  v.  I. 
Um'KW    2.  Jahrg.    Berlin.  188!MI(I 

IsmelltlHher  Volks-Kalender  .  .  .  herausg.  v.  H.  Sehlldberger. 
Berlin.  18<r_'  anil  llie  vears  following. 

Luah  (Hebrew  and  (iennan).    Uiklelhelin.  .5tli.1-  (1892  ). 

Jftillsi'her  Volks-Kalender  .  .  .  herati.sg.  lin  Anftrage  der  Zlonls- 
tlsiiien  Veri'lnigiiiig  ffir  DeutSi-hland.  Leliwle,  18iW  and  the 
vears  following. 

I.iiah  (Hebrew  and  (iennanl.    Altnna.  .MHU  1 1  siti-SW) . 

Jildlsi-her  Volks-Kalender.    Tologne.  ."iii>  .  Is'.i7-lls). 

Israelltlsi'her  Kalenderfilr  die  Jitd.  (;i'nielnilen  Wtlrttemborg's. 
Herausgelier:  s.  Abraham.    Stuttgart,  IMII. 

I.uah  in.-brewand(iernmni.  One  folio.  Mayen(r..'ift*9  (1898-99). 

Uahiilmr  Dr.  Heppner's  JQd.  LItt.  Abnd.sskalender.  Kosohmin, 
ItKm. 

Holland. 

Jai'i.KiekJe  voor  hel  IsraPlitLseh  Kerkgenootsohap.  The  Hague, 
1842. 

Nederiandseh  Israelltlseh  Muzen-Almanack,  vor  5604  .  .  .  he- 
niusg. v.  (i.  1.  I'olak.    Amstenlam,  184;!. 

N'Mlt-rliindsi-b  Nne'litlseh  Aliiianak.     .\msterdam.  184.'>. 

NciliTlandMli  l>rarliIiMh  .laarboi-kje.     The  Hague,  1849. 

Isra.-lltlsrh  Alnianaek.  Mekon  Zeili-k  voor  het  Jiuir.'i«19  (1858- 
59)  .  .  .  zamengesteld  door  L.  Borstel.    Rotterdam,  1858. 

Palestine. 
Luah  .  .  .  ed  by  Joseph  Schwarz.    Jerusalem,  184.1. 
Luali.    Calendar  for  the  vear  .">ii47-48  .  .  .  ed.  by  M.  Adclmann. 

2  vols.    Jenisalem.  18Hii-»7. 
'F.'lut  le-Visrael :  Zeugnlss  der  Berfihmten  Besucher  des  Alten 

llitn^fs  Moshab  Zekenim.  Jerusiilem,  siimmt  Kalender  fiir  das 

.lalir  IWIll-iiKKI. 
I.uah  Yenishalml  .  .  .  ed.  by  Sender  (Alexander)  Phcebus  ben 

David  Kohen.    Jenisalem,  1889. 
Luah  Krez  Vlsrael  [Literary  Almanac  of  Palestine]  .  .  .  ed.  by 

A.  .M.  Luncz.    Jerusalem,  isittand  the  years  following. 

RlSStA. 

Luah  ha-.soherlin  (Calendar  f<tr  Jewish  business  men),  ed.  by  S. 
1.  Abramovieh.    2  vols.    Zhitomir,  1877.    Wilna.  1879. 

Luah  Israel  (Hebrew  and  Ilu.s.slan)  .  .  .  ed.  by  I.  (iurland.  Six 
vols.:  1.,  Kiev,  1877 ;  11.,  Warsaw,  1878 ;  ill.  iv.  v.  vl.,  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1S79-.S2. 

Luah.  .Wtl  (1880-81)  .  .  .  ed.  by  J.  A.  (Joldenblura.  St.  Peters- 
burg. 188(1. 

Liiali  Veshurun  (Hebrew  and  Russian),  5644  .  .  .  ed.  by  1.  Gur- 
lalid.     St.  Pet.Tsblirg,  188:1. 

Her  Kc'iiierzischer  Kalender  (Judieo-(iennan).  Odessa,  Han 
I  l,K.s);^K7». 

Dht  .liidischer  Kali'nder  (Judieo-German),  edited  by  Sbalkeritch 
("Shomer"!.     Wilna.  .IiW.h  (1ks7-88). 

Der  Warsihauer.liidisiher  Kalender  (Judseo-German).  War- 
saw. M'HI-M  (l.S'-'.MIll. 

Ahla.H.saf  (the  "ColliTtor"),  Hebrew  year-book  with  calendar. 
Wars:iw.  isiti.  etc. 

HaMazkir  oder  Tasehen-Luah  (Judieo-Gemian).    Wilna,  5<'»5 

(ism-!i.-,i. 

•Ivri-TiMiisch  Luah  (Judieo-German).    Wilna,  .5IV58  I181C-98). 
Siiri  lia-Shanah  (Year-Bix)k),  ed.  by  N.  Sokolow.  Warsaw,  1900 

and  the  vears  following. 
Ha-Asif,  ed.  1)V  Sokolow.    6  vols. 

A.  F. 

ALMANZA,  ARON  DE  (..r  SELOMOH  DE): 

A  .M:iraiiii  burn  at  Salaiiiatica,  Spain,  nf  .icwisli  jiar- 
ents.  His  first  wife  was  Leonorc  do  los  Hios  iSotte, 
wlioin  he  mairicd  in  IGiMi  and  with  wlioin  he  (ibtaincd 
a  dowrv  of  "Td.OdO  tlorins  [§21. 000,  or  f4,20O]  in 
money,"  10,000  florins  [.S-"). TOO,  or  £1,140J  wortli  of 
jewels,  iiiid  other  prcscnis."  .Xflcr  her  death  he 
married  a  Christian  woman.  He  mifrralcd  to  Eng- 
land, and  in  I  TO:!  he  published,  in  Enirlish  and  Span- 
ish, an  acfoiint  of  his  conversion,  dedicated  to  Henry, 
I/Ofd  Bishop  of  London,  entitled:  "  .\  declaration  of 
the  conversion  of  Mr.  Aron  dc  Almanzu.  a  Spanish 
merchant,  with  his  two  children  and  nephew,  from 
.Itidaism  to  tlic  Protestant  relijrion.  accorditif;  to  the 
Doctrines  of  Ihc  Church  of  England,  with  his  abju- 
nition  of  the.Tewish  Kii:lits(.«/i-)iind  ceremonies,"  etc. 
In  this  work  the  author  treats  his  former  coreligion- 
ists very  severely  and. in  a  iiostscript.says  that  ".Tew- 
ish  rabbis,  with  the  directors  of  tlie  .Jewish  Syna- 
.gogiicand  some  other  .Jews  in  London."  had  spread  a 
re])ort  to  tlie  effect  that  in  Spain  lie  had  been  a 
Catholic.     He  declares  that  he  would  be  neither  a 


429 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Almanac 
Almeida 


Catliolic  nor  a  Lutlu'ran,  l)clif'viiig  iu  transubstantia- 
tion  as  little  as  in  consuhstiiiitiation:  and  as  for  be- 
ing a  Calvinist,  he  woiild  as  lief  have  remained  a  Jew. 

Bibliography:  Stplnsitinc-lilcr.  Cat.  limll.  No.  4412;  Kuvser- 
llnK,  mill.  t:si,.-I',,rl..Jml.  IWW,  p.  114. 

S.   A.    II. 

AL9IANZI :  A  family  that,  according  to  Luz- 

zatlo.  (Iciivcs  its  name  from  the  city  of  Almansa  in 
Slureia,  Spain.  Tlie  earliest  member  of  tlic  fuiuily 
(if  uliiPiM  there  is  any  kiiowledire  is  Abraham 
Joseph  Almanzi,  i.naii(ll':itliir  (if.jdsiM'ir  Ai,m.\n/.i. 
Abraliam's  sun.  Baruch  Hayyim  Almanzi,  born 
in  Seandiano.  near  Modena,  Italy,  was  bnni.irht  to 
Padua  when  (|uiley(iun;jby  Jiieobof  Triest.  IJarueh 
entered  Jaeob's  business,  livini;  with  him  an<l  his 
son  Jloses.  lie  married  Alleirra  (Simhah)  Consigli  of 
Kovijro ;  and  ,si.\  ehildren  were  the  issue  of  the  union. 
Baruch  died  Alav  12,  1837,  and  his  wife,  Feb.  2, 
1857. 

The  following  is  a  skeleh  jiedigreeof  the  Almanzi 
family : 

Abnibaiu  Juxepli  AlmuQZl 


BariK 

h  Havylin  ; 

m. 

Allegra  (Sliiiliuhi  Con.slpll: 

a.  May  IL'.  1k;c 
1 

1 

Jt)seph ; 

1 
Kosa 

1 
Jaciib 

1 
Relieoca : 

1 
Miriam : 

1 
Hannah 

b.  Manh 

(Susuil- 

Elislia : 

ti.  Feb.  1(1. 

b.  June 

b.  Auff. 

2.T.  wn : 

niilii :  h. 

1).  Fell. 

ISIHi;  m. 

28.181(1; 

17,  1812 

d.  March 

Fell,  r. 

-',  ISIH : 

David 

m.  Samuel 

d.  isaii 

7.  1800 

ISIK;  III. 

(1.  Tri- 

Epbraim 

Fuobini ; 

MiiniLssi*h 

est, 

Castel- 

d.  1872 

Lu//]Ltt(i ; 

Fell.  1«, 

fraiK-o 

d.  Triest, 

18.>S 

IHIK 

1 

SInibah  iFaniiyi;       Abrabam  Israel 
III.  MiiM-s  Ciinstaiilliil  'Turin) 


ALMANZI,  JOSEPH:  Hibliopliile  and  poet ; 
liornal  I^adiia,  .Miireli  2."),  1S()|;  died  at  Triest.  March 
7,  1800.  The  eldest  son  of  Hariieli  Hayyim  Almanzi, 
a  wealthy  merchant;  he  received  a  good  education 
by  private  tiitiirs,  one  of  whom  was  Israel  Coniiin. 
According  lo  the  Italian  custcmi.  he  began  at  an  early 
age  to  wrile  Hebrew  piicnisoii  special  occasions.  At 
the  age  of  twenty  he  Wiisa  devoted  student  of  Jewish 
literature  and  an  ardent  collector  of  Hebrew  books. 
Rare  books  and  maniiscripis  that  he  could  not 
purchase  lu'  copieil.  He  had  a  good  command  over 
the  Hebrew,  Italian,  Latin,  German,  and  French 
languages,  and  is  said  also  to  have  known  Syriac.  His 
tastes  as  a  bibliophile  were  fed  by  the  large  and 
•well-selected  library  formerly  belonging  to  Hay}  iin 
Joseph  David  A/iilai.  which  his  falliir  bad  biiiight 
from  Azulai's  son.  l{jipliael  Isjiiah,  al  Ancoini.  This 
library  was  largely  increased  by  Joseph  Almanzi, 
its  rare  editions  aiid  manuscripls  making  it  one  of 
the  most  important  in  private  pos,session.  Its  treas- 
ures were  freely  iisid  by  Luzzallo,  Sleinschneider, 
Zunz,  etc.  During  the  last  few  years  of  his  life  Al 
maiizi  lived  at  Triest.  where  he  took  a  lively  interest 
in  all  coinmiinal  alTairs.     Hire  he  died  unmarried 

Few  of  .\  I  man /.is  poems  have  been  piililishid  lie 
was  a  gnicefiil  writer,  and.  above  all.  a  clever  trans 
lalor  into  pure  IJiblical  Hebrew  of  the  poems  of  the 
great  Italian  authors.  After  his  death  S.  1).  Luz- 
zatto  published  a  nuiiiber  of  his  Hebrew  letters  and 
of  his  |ioems.  in  a  collection  entitled  "  Yad  Yosef" 
(The  Hand  of  Josephi,  Ciiicow  and  'I'riesl.  IHMil, 

Almanzi  was  the  author  of;  (1)  "Meil  Kiiiah" 
<The  Kobe  of  Mourning — a  play  on  Isa.  iix.  17).  an 
elegvon  Isniel  Conian  ( F{eggio.  1H2I) ;  (2) a  bioirniphv 
of  Moses  llavvim  Luzzatlo  in  "  Kerem  lleiinil  "  vui. 


Josepb  Almanzi. 

(Skvtchuil  from  ft  phulogrhlih.) 


iii.,  reprinted  by  M.  Wolf.  Lemberg.  1879,  together 
with  Luzzatlo's  "  La-Yesharim  Tehillah  "  ;  (3)  "  Hig- 
guyon  be-Kinuor"  (A  Reverie  upon  the  Harp),  acol- 
lection  of  jioems  on  Judali  di  Modena  and  Isaac 
Abravanel  and  of  translations  from  Savioli,  Tasso, 
Pha'drus,  Petrarch,  Vitorelli,  etc.  (Vienna.  1839);  (4) 
an  elegy  on  the  death 
of  Jacob  Vita  Pardo, 
printed  together 
with  S.  D.  Luzzat- 
lo's "  Abne  Zikkaron  " 
(Prague.l.H41;  thecojiy 
of  the  inscriptions  pub- 
lished by  Luzzatto  was 
made  by  Almanzi ) ;  and 
("))'•  Xe'zem  Zahab  "  (A 
Golden  Ring).  Hebrew 
poetry  (Padua.  18.')^(). 
He  left  a  number  of 
Hebrew  poems  in  man 
uscrijit,  amon.ir  them 
translations  from  Hor- 
ace (see  "  Hikkuie  ha- 
'Ittim,"  Vienna,  1845). 
Alm;inzi's  lamily  pub- 
lished in  his  honor  a 
catalogue  of  his  He- 
brew library,  which  was  compiled  by  his  lifelong 
friend  Luzzatto.  who  also  wrote  a  preface.  Luz- 
zatto hail  already  described  the  manuscripts  of  the 
collection  in  the  "  Hebriiische  Bibliographic"  of 
Sleinschneider  (iv.  ,52,  121,  145;  v.  20,  43,  101,  12H, 
144 ;  vi.  49,  85,  141).  The  greater  ])art  of  the  manu- 
scripts were  bought  by  the  liritisli  jiuseum ;  the  col- 
lection of  rare  books  found  its  way  to  the  bookseller 
Fi'ederik  Midler  in  Amsterdam.  ;ind  was  bought  in 
l.'OiS  by  the  trustees  of  Temple  Kmanu-EI  iii  New 
York,  who  in  1893  presented  it  to  the  library  of  Co- 
lumbia I'niversity. 

Blni.iiir;R,\riiv  :  The  nntlci>s  in  reirard  tn  tbe  Almanzi  family 
are  lalii-n  fnmi  a  Mahznr  In  tlu*  .Mitianzl  e'lllfrtjoii.  on  tbe 
tly-lfaf  lit  wlilcb  till'  clali's  an-iliscTilwilm  huniluTltliii.'utli<itb 
IlariK'b  anil  Joseph  Almuiizl.  It.  ilouiu'll,  Tlif  ydinilji  Al- 
mitnzi.  In  ./cir.  (^tuiti.  }ii:v.  iv.  .'ilKI  ft  t^t'q.i  SU'ln.setmelder. 
Ilitir.  Itihl.  111.  aO;  S.  D.  Luzzatto.  In  Yad  Ymef ;  Cat.  i/c  (<i 
liihliiithniuc  .  .  .  de  feu  Joseph  Atmanzif  Padua.  Is<i4,  n.'- 
prlnteillii  l'<(d  I'lwc/.  Monuincitta  Jttxt'plti .  ,  .with  an  Hal- 
Ian  translation  bv  Vlttorio  ra-stlRllonl,  188fl.  On  tbe  oollwtlon 
ot  iHHiks  Zunz.  y,.  (I.  p.  24:i:  JJr/ir.  liilA.  vlll.  1»:  (ielirer's 
Jihl.  /.fit.  III.  2IS,  211-1 ;  M,,nat.<vhrift.  xlv.  14B :  Iloest,  Cala- 
li>\lil'i'  ItDrlnr.  Il>ni'l>rfirifti-n  .  .  .  nactmcla^senron  (Viii- 
.^t  jipt  Ahnnuzi^  .Aiiisierdaiii.  l.si>8 ;  M.  Schwab.  Lfj(  liicuna- 
/i/c.s  (trifutaur.  Paris  188;t.  A  number  of  b-iiers  to  Al- 
iminzi  will  be  found  In  S.  1).  LuzziiIUi'h  IhtirHittche  Bricfc 
.•-  .  berausKeffeben  von  K.  tJraber.  Przenivsl,  l.s.s2. 

D.-G. 
ALMAZAN  (ALMAQAN),  MIGUEL  DE: 
A  Marano  of  Saragos.sa,  and  iirivate  secretary  to 
King  Ferdinand  of  Aragon.  He  was  burned  at  the 
slake  on  the  accusation  of  being  an  adherent  of 
Judaism.  One  month  later,  .March  18,  148(i,  Man- 
uel de  Almacan  of  Saragossa  suffered  the  same  fate. 

M.  K. 
ALMAZAN.  PEDRO  DE  :  Oneof  the  conspir 
nlois  ai;:iiiisi  ibr  jiii|uisii. u-  I'idro  d'Arbnez.  He 
escaped  dealh  by  tliglit,  but  his  wife  Isabella,  to- 
gether wit  li  his  brothers.  Pedro  junior  and  Manuel. 
Were  burned  at  the  stake  at  Saragossji.  January  25. 
14S7,  while  111'  himself  was  burned  in  elti.iry. 

BinLiniiKAniv:  X/H>ro  tVnlf.  Iu  J.  Ammlor  di'  los  Illos.  //(»- 
tiiria  lit'  (<>«  Jiidi'M.  III.  1128. 

M  K. 
ALMEIDA.  ISAAC:  Turkish  rabbi  ami  au- 
thor: liMiii  ill  till- l;illei  half  of  the  seventeenth  ccn- 
tiirv  .  died  belxMin  172:1  and  1739  He  was  ii.s.so- 
eiaie  rabbi  in  {'onstanlinoph-.  His  printed  work, 
"lliddushini  we  ShcPlot   ii  T.  slniln.i  "  (ti.,vclla'  and 


Almeida 
Almemar 


THE  JEWISH   E^•CYCLOPEDIA 


430 


respousii).  appeared  as  an  appendix  to  "Slieue  ha- 
Meorot  Im-Gedolim."  a  rare  work  by  Elijah  ben  Ju- 
dah  C'ovo  (Constanlinople.  1739).  After  his  death  it 
was  rei)ublished,  edited  partly  by  Joshua  ben  Josepli 
Cbendali.  publisher  of  the  larger  work  mentioned, 
and  partly  by  Almeida's  son,  Solomon.  Almeida 
was  living  in  17'.';{,  as  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  on 
page  ISii  of  "Shene  ha-Meorot"  the  work  "  Neeman 
Shemuel"  is  mentioned  as  havinir  lieen  reeently 
printed;  and  this  Ixiokuppeiiicd  in  Saloniea  in  ll'i'A. 
On  page  I'm  it  is  mentioned  that  Almeida  was  asso- 
ciate rabbi  (dayyan)  in  Constantinople. 

Schiller-Szinessy,  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Cam- 
bridge nianuseripts,  p.  23,  mentions  an  Isjiae  ben 
Solomon  Almeida,  who  in  a  Hible  manuscript  of 
the  fourteenth  or  lifteeuth  century  was  named  as  its 


Yel.iiel  of  Pisii,  to  perform  all  possible  kindly  olliees 
toward  Lopez  d'Almei(hi  and  to  win  his  good-will 
by  iinpres.sing  upon  him  tliegnititicalion  of  the  Ital- 
ian Jews  at  the  generous  altitude  of  Alfonso  toward 
their  coreligionists.  The  success  of  Abravauel's 
effort  is  d(i\d)lful  (si'c  Si.XTUS  IV.). 

Aff'iiim  v..  ih.  ItiR; 
p.  88;  Gratz.  (Jeivh. 

11.  <;.  K. 

:   Corrupted  from 
"the  pulpit,"  is  an 


BuiLiniiKAriiv :    I)f  Plna,   Cniiiita  ile 
Curninlv.  Iliinirnpliir  tier  JacliJuU-n, 

d.Jwh'n.  -M  .-.I.,  vlil.  :ta<. 


ALMEKAK  or  ALMEHOR 

the  Arabic  nl-miii/xir,  "  the  chair," 
elevated  platform  in  the  synagogue,  on  which  the 
desk  .stands  for  reading  the  lessons  from  the  Penta- 
teuch and  Pro])hets.  In  the  synagogues  following 
the  S|)anish  ritual  the  jirayers  are  also  read  from  it. 


The  Almemar  or  Reaoinq-Uesk  of  the  Synagogie  at  Florence,  Italy. 


owner.  Wliile  he  can  not  be  positively  identified  as 
being  of  the  family  of  Isaac  Almeida,  it  is  not  im- 
possible that  such  is  the  case. 

Rev.  xi.  137: 


Bibliography:    Stelnsehneidcr.  Jrn:  Quart. 
ZeUner.  Cat.  Hchr.  Birnkt  Brit.  Mus.  p.  44. 


J.  Vr. 


AlillEIDA,  LOPEZ  D' :  Head  of  the  embassy 
sent  by  .\lfonso  V.  of  Portugal  to  Pope  Sixtus  IV., 
in  the  year  1472.  His  mission  was  twofold:  to  con- 
gratulate the  pope  )ipon  his  accession,  and  to  in- 
form him  of  the  kings  victory  over  the  Moors  of 
Arzilla,  in  Africa.  Don  Isaac  Abravanel,  who  was 
prominent  at  the  court,  endeavored  to  induce  the 
embassy  at  the  .same  time  to  plead  with  the  pope  in 
favor  of  the  Jews.     He  wrote  to  liis  Italian  friend. 


In  Russia  it  still  goes  by  its  Talmudic  name  nD'3. 
which  is  simply  the  Greek  /?w«.  n  speaker's  tribune. 
Being  the  counterpart  of  the  wooden  pulpit  from 
which  Ezra  read  the  Liiw  to  the  assenil)led  jx'ople 
who  stood  all  around  him  (see  Xeh.  viii.  4).  its  proper 
place  seems  to  be  in  the  middle  of  the  synagogue  (see 
the  literature  in  'Ben  Chananja,"  viii.  No.  39,  pp. 
()81-688;  "  Die  Almemarfrage  "  by  Leopold  Low,  re- 
piinted  in  "  Gcsammelte  Sehriften,"  iv.  93-107).  but  it 
lias  in  modern  times  often  been  moved  forward  elose 
up  to  the  Ark.  L.  N.  D. 

The  Septuagint  reading  in  the  passage  in  Xeli.  is 
(if/fia  for  PUD.  In  the  'Aznrah.  or  Temple  liall.  a 
heiiia.  or  wooden  pulpit,  was  erected  for  the  king 
when,  every  seventh  year,  he  read  the  prescribed 


431 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Almeida 
Almemar 


section  in  Dcut.  xxxi.  10.  11  (Sotoli.  Mish.vii.  8).  The 
Alexandrian  synagogues,  alsn.  liad  a  wooden  beina 
in  tlie  center  (.Suk.  oli).  In  Ijolli  passages  cited 
I^sbi  explains  the  word  "bema"as  "our  alnieni- 


So-called  "  Cbair  of  Moses  "  In  Synagopue  at  Kal-Fung-F"ii, 
China. 

(From  "  Jew.  Qiurt.  R»t.") 

bra."  In  J.  Weil's  "Rcsponsji,"  p.  147.  it  is  called 
"altar"  (see  Berliner,  "  Ausdeni  Lcben  d.  Deutscben 
Juden,"  2d  ed.,  p.  116,  in  which  attention  is  calle<l 
to  "Or  5^irim","  ii.  21.  which  latter,  in  turn,  desig- 
nates it  also  by  the  name  "  Kalheder  ").  This  term, 
however,  goes"  further  back.  In  "  Hev.  ftt.  Jiiives." 
xxxiv.  290,  Bacher  calls  attention  to  the  Kinnp 
HB'DT  ("chair  of  Moses")  mentioned  by  Aim.  tlie 
Palestinian  amora  of  the  fourth  century,  in  Pesik. 
cd.  Biibcr,  "ih  (see  Esther  H.  to  i.  2  and  J^x.  U.  xliii. ). 
Bacher  compares  it  with  "the  seat  of  Moses"  in 
Matt,  xxiii.  2.  Under  the  same  name,  "the  seat  of 
Moses,"  an  Almemar  has  been  found  bv  Father  Goz- 
ani  among  the  Jews  of  China,  at  Kait^ing-Fu.  It 
was  described  by  him  as  "a  large  elevated  seat  in 
the  middle  of  the  synagogue,  from  which  the  Torah 
is  read  each  Sabbath  day"  (see  Mayer  Sid/.berger, 
"Hev.  fit.  Juivcs."  XXXV.  110). 

Kegarding  the  (|Ueslion  whether  the  Almemar 
must  be  in  the  center  of  the  svnagogtie  or  not  tab 
binicnl  authorilies  dilTer.  .^faimonides.  "Yad  ha- 
Hazaljiah  "  (Tetillah.  xi.  !!),  Jacob  Asheri.  and  Mo.ses 
Isserles  ("Orah  Ilayyim."  55  b">0,  T))  hold  the  aflirin 
ative  view,  folhiwing  Suk.  52A;  while  Joseph  Karo 
In  "  Kesef  Mishnch"  to  .Maimonides.  and  all  modern 
nibbis,  with  a  few  exceptions,  hold  the  negative. 

Bini.lOfillAIMIV  :  LtiiiKilcl  I/.w.  /((i/./<iHi.«i/ji-  (iHlacMen  lllirr 
Xuhljftiiijhi  it  utnl  hriinilirhkfil  ilir  St/imiiiniiu-lit-fttnnfn. 
In  Urn  I'hnnnttjn,  \n\.\  vlll.  (isldss;  litem,  (imnmnulti 
.SV;inY/.ij.lv.!«;  1117.  opinlc.nsof  .Mill,  Kiuwl,  J-ninkel.cjilifcr, 
Hi'.in,  MiTxhi'linir.  Sum.  Hlrs<t).  Hnlillii'Im.  HiimliunfiT.  Kalin, 
A.  Kdhn,  Mnnnlii'lmiT,  MuIit.  .Nc-iulii,  l>lilll|>[M>n.  S<liwiil>.  1,. 
SK'ln, Siiloimin.  Shirlrikii, iind ZliwiT,  all  In fuvur of  pliulnif  llii- 
Alnit'inur  near  tbi'  Ark. 

K. 

Architecturally  Considered:  The  Almemar 

is  generally  ii-claiigiilar  in  form,  but  sometimes  the 
front  or  back  is  curved,  Tlie  sides  are  open  and  are 
approached  by  st<'pa,  never  less  than  three  in  num 
In-r  and  sometimes  more:   and  tlu-re  are  to  be  found 


various  arrangements  of  railings  or  balustrades  with 
lamps  on  the  corner-posts.  As  a  rule,  wood  is  the 
material  employed;  but  there  are  instances  where 
marble  and  bronze  are  used.  The  desk  is  covered 
with  rich  drapery. 

In  the  older  synagogues,  and  in  most  orthodo.x 
ones,  the  position  of  the  Almemar  is  invariably  either 
in  the  center  of  the  building  or  further  back  nearer 
the  entrance.  The  space  between  it  and  the  Ark  is  left 
open  and  entirely  free  of  seats.  Recently,  however, 
the  custom  of  combining  the  Almemar  with  the  Ark 
has  become  general.  The  advantage  of  this  is  ob- 
vious: first,  the  service  is  not  interrupted  ;  secondly, 
a  much  larger  area  is  secured  for  seats.  So  while 
tradition  demands  that  the  Almemar  should  stand 
by  itself  in  the  center  of  the  floor,  the  practical  ne- 
cessity of  a  larger  seating  capacity  has  oeca.sioned 
the  adoption  of  the  newer  arrangement  in  the  great 
niajority  of  modern  synagogues.  At  first  the  com- 
bination was  made  by  simply  moving  the  Almemar 
in  its  regulation  form  to  a  jiosition  immediately  in 
front  of  the  Ark.  In  this  position,  however.'the 
reader  could  not  face  the  congregation.  Conse- 
quently the  logical  development  of  this  scheme  has 
resulted  in  enlarging  the  platform  upon  which  the 
Ark  rests,  giving  it  capacity  enough  for  the  reading- 
desk  and  the  jiulpit.  which  latter  is  a  separate  struct- 
ure often  placed  in  front  of  the  reading-desk  on  a 
slightly  lower  level. 

In  many  of  the  Paris  synagogues,  and  in  the  larger 
ones  in  New  York,  a  fine  decorative  composition  is 
the  result  of  the  coml)iuation  of  the  Ark  and  Al- 
memar. The  synagogue  in  Munich  is  another  exam- 
ple of  this;  and  by  the  \ise  of  different  levels  and 
the  arrangement  of  steps  and  balustrades  great  im- 
pressiveness  and  architectural  interest  are  attained. 

In  the  Florence  synagogue,  where  the  Almemar 
is  near  the  Ark.  no  innovations  are  ma<le  except  as 
to  its  position.  It  is  constructed  of  richly  inlaid 
wood;  and  the  railings,  which  are  of  bronze,  rest 
on  a  base  of  marble  similar  to  that  used  for  the  floor 
and  for  the  steps  of  the  Ark,  The  pulpit  is  an  in- 
dependent structure,  entirely  separate,  and  is  |)laced 
against  one  of  the  piers  at  the  side  of  the  building. 


Almemar  of  Synugotrm  ,i; ._.; ,.,  !.,.-,^,,.:.  ; ,  .uiiJ. 

(tr.,..i  B>r«n,  "  KIIU  Stow.") 

The  Aliminar  in  the  Jewish  synagogue  at  Kai- 
Fung  Fu  in  China — tin-  ohlcst  of  which  there  is 
any  knowledge — was  a  simple  desk  with  the  sides 
ixtended  and  the  whoh'  placed  on  a  circular  plat- 
form, A.  W.  B 


Almeyda 
Almond 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


432 


ALMEYDA,  JOSE  HENRIftXTES  DE:  Awri- 

tiT  in  Ainstiriiam  in  llic  rally  purl  of  tlicciirlitcrntli 
centurv.  He  publisluil  in  l*i)rtufriu'si':  "  Aiiafrnmiii 
Achrosl  iia  do  Safrniilo  Nome  tic  Tcini.  coin  hum  1  Jrevc 
Discurso  jior  Intmilo."  AmstiTdam.  1700.  This  was 
dcdicntcil  to  D.  Ahraliam  Israel  Siiasso  in  Amster- 
dam, and  consists  of  odes  upon  many  words  made  by 
comhiniufrthe  letlersof  minCromh)-  It  is  very  rare 
indeed,  lie  also  )>ul)lished  in  the  same  lanir'iajre 
"Pancgyrico  Encomastico  ao  e.xcell.  Seulior  1).  .loao 
Gomez  (la  Silva.  Emhaxadorextr.  deKeydi'  Portugal. 


AIiMODAD  (Septuafrint  and  Vulgate,  reml  El- 
modad) :  'llie  eldest  son  of  .loktan  (Oen.  x.  21).  I 
Cliron.  i,  'ii)].  The  meaniusr  of  the  name  is  uncer- 
tain. The  first  element.  "Al."  may  be  the  Arabic 
article,  and  the  second  perhaps  a  corruption  of 
"Maudail  "  (see  .ToKT.\x). 

ALMOHADES:  A  Moorish  dynasty  in  norlli- 
westeru  Africa  and  in  Spain  durinir  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries.  Willi  the  rise  of  the  Almo- 
hades  ( Alniuwahliidinl   ilvnastv,   a  radical   cliaiifie 


Al.MKMAR  OF  ASIIKENAZIC  SVNAGOGl  K,    JEBUSALK.M. 

(From  u  |>liulO(;raf>h  by  the  AmeriCAn  Colony,  Jeruulem.) 


porPrimeiio  Plenipotenciariode  paz  a  estasprovin- 
cias  de  Holandc,"  Utrecht,  1712;  a  volume  of  verse 
dedicated  to  Don  J.  G.  de  Silva.  who  had  been  .sent 
as  special  peace  plenipotentiary  from  the  king  of 
Portugal  to  the  united  provinces  of  Holland.  The 
work  is  also  extremely  rare,  not  being  found  even  in 
the  Montezinos  collection,  so  rich  iu  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  works. 

Bmi.iOGRAPHT:    Kayserling,    Blhlioteca    Enjxillola-Portiiy. 
Jrulaica,  p.  10. 

.1.  Vu. 

ALMILIBY,  ADAM:  A  Portuguese  Jew  who. 
together  with  ls;uic  Belamy,  was  appointed  a  farmer 
of  the  royal  taxes  in  1358  by  King  Alfonso  IV.  By 
virtue  of  this  office  both  were  exempted  from  wear- 
ing the  Jew-badge,  and  were  endowed  with  jjower  to 
enforce  the  collection  of  the  royal  customs.  During 
their  term  of  office  the  Jews  of  Portugal  were  relieved 
of  all  imposts  except  the  poll-tax. 

BlBLiOGRAPiiT  :  Mendes  dos  Remedlos,  Os  Judeus  em  Portu- 
gal, p.  3«7. 

M.  K. 


was  suddenly  apparent  in  the  territories  which  it 
succeeded  in  bringing  under  its  scepter.  Religious 
laxity  had  penetrated  the  western  parts  of  the  Mos- 
lem world  to  such  an  extent  that  the  most  impor- 
tant tenets  of  the  faith  were  utterly  neglected. 
Being  consummate  theologians  and  imbued  with  the 
sjiiritof  uncompromising  orthodoxy  as  taught  by  Al- 
Ohazzali.  the  Almohade  rulers  initiated  a  reaction  of 
the  most  thoroughgoing  kind.  The  new  state  of 
things  was  felt  by  the  Jews  as  soon  as  'Abd  al-Mu'- 
min.  the  second  Almohade  prince,  took  Morocco  in 
1149,  and  not  long  afterward  those  of  Moham- 
medan Spain  were  also  made  to  feel  the  difference. 
It  was  only  one  of  the  consequences  of  the  renewed 

rigidity  of  the  law  that  non-Moslems 

Forced       should  not  be  tolerated  in  the  Almo- 

Conversion  liade  stales.     The  Jews  and  Christians 

to  Islam,     had  to  choose  between  conversion  to 

Islam  and  emigration.  Synagogues 
and  churches  were  either  destroyed  or  changed  into 
mosques.  Many  people  left  their  homes,  others 
agreed  to  pronounce  the  formula  of  the  Moslem 


433 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Almejrda 
Almond 


<'ree(l,  while  secretly  contiiiiiins  tlie  observance  of 
their  own  religion.  In  aer-onlance  with  the  cstab- 
lislu'd  practise  the  merely  formal  a(I<iption  of  Islam 
wasdeemed  siitlieient  by  tlie  early  Almohade  rulers; 
and,  as  Moslem  doctrine  emphasized  the  nnity  of  God 
in  its  most  stringent  fashion,  many  Jews  tlioughl  it 
only  a  small  transgression  to  so  acknowledge  in  ad- 
dition Mohammed  as  a  propliet.  In  orderto  prevent 
the  harm  \vhi<li  it  was  felt  must  \dtimatcly  result 
from  sneli  a  notion,  Maimun  1).  Joseph,  the  father  of 
Maimoiiides,  who  at  that  time  had  settled  at  Fez 
with  his  family,  wrote  his  "Epistle  of  Consolation"  in 
which  he  advised  Ins  brethren  not  to  lose  heart  and 
faith.  In  the  same  cause  liis  son  Moses  wrote  his 
"Letter  concerning  Conversion,"  to  encourage  those 
who  felt  the  gravity  of  even  this  otitward  desertion 
from  the  faith  of  their  fathers. 

But  such  ])rocei'diiigs  <lid  not  remain  unnoticed 
by  the  later  Almoha<le  |)rinccs,  who  were  not  sjitis- 
tied  with  the  mere  utterance  of  a  religious  formida. 
Abu  Yusuf  Ya'kul)  Almansur.the  fourth  Almohade 
prince,  suspecting  the  sinci'iity  of  the  cimvertcd 
Jews,  forced  them  to  don  a  distingviishing  garb, 
consisting  of  a  black  tunic  with  long  sleeves,  and  a 
yellow  scarf  as  head  covering.  His  successor  Abu 
Ahdallah  changed  the  color  of  the  gaberdine  also 
to  yellow.  Hcfore  the  middle  of  the  thirti'enth  cen- 
tury the  power  of  the  Altnohadi's  was  broken  in 
Sjniin;  but  in  northern  Africa  the  lot  of  the  Jews 
continues  a  hard  one,  even  down  to  the  present  day, 
as  a  result  of  the  Almohade  reaction. 

Bini.IOOKAPnv :  Gratz,  Gcucli.  iL  Juilni,  vli.  23,  !)8;  fur  tlie 
Alinnliades  tn  (reneral,  .sen  (i'liilzilnT.  Matfi^Utlhu  zur 
Kenyitnbw  tU'r  AlmiihaiU'nlnirrfiintu  in  yiiril-Africa,  tn 
Z.D.M.a.  xll,  .10-141);  Die  Ilrliiiiitt)us.ifi„meli)  ilirAlmn- 
lindrn.  Ililil.  lilK-171,  and  tin-  autliorlUes  tht-n>  eited.  On 
Malniun's  letter,  art-  liitnidtii'tion  Ut  SIminonds'  tHlitlun  tn  Jew, 
Quint.  Itiv.  II.  IK.  Itl'i  it  .«.■./. 

ir.  iiii!. 

AliMOLI,  ALMTJLI,  or  ALMALI :  A  Span 
ish-Jewisli  family  name  ileiived  from  tlic  Arabic  <il- 
mii'ttlli  i"{\w  one  who  raises  up").  In  addition  to 
those  referred  to  in  the  following  articles  two  other 
members  of  the  family  are  known.  A  Salomon 
Almuli  is  mentioned  in  a  Barcelona  list  for  the  year 
I'Jty  (Jacobs.  "Sources."  No.  'il'i.  p.  l(i).  In  a  simi- 
lar list  occurs  the  name  of  Gento  Almuli  of  Calat- 
yud(Kayserling,  "Jew.  Qmirt.  Rev."  viii.  49'2). 

G. 

Jesse  Almoli  :  Son  in  law  of  Rabbi  Meir,  of  Bo- 
ton,  w  hose  I'ol lection  of  responsii  lie  arranged  for  pub- 
licalioii  in  the  year  HM'ill.  .M.    K. 

Nathaniel  b.  Joseph  ibn  Almoli :  .\  physician 
of  Saragossa,  Spain,  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, lie  translaleil  .Maimimides'  commentary  on 
the  tifth  ()rd<'r  ("  Kodasliim"  =  sacred  things)  of  the 
Mishnah  from  llie  original  Arabic  into  Ilelirew.  In 
November,  liiHi.  Rabbi  Simii.mi  was  sent  by  the  Jew- 
isli community  of  Rome  to  Spain  toobtain  a  Hebrew 
Version  of  the  comm<'ntary;  and  he  was  advised  by 
Solomon  Ihii  Adret  to  jirocuri'  a  capalile  tninslator 
in  Saragossa.  A  copy  of  tin'  full  commentary  on  the 
first  live  Orders  was  to  ln'  found  oidy  in  that  town  ; 
and  as  the  tirst  Oriler  had  alreaily  been  translated  by 
Alhari/.i,  and  lh<'  second  and  lldrd  by  .scholars  in 
llm.sea.  there  ninained  for  the  scliolarsof  Sarago.s.s)i 
oidy  the  fourth  an<l  fifth  Orders.  On  Siinhah's  ar- 
rival at  Sara,i.'os.sa  .\lnioli  cxprcssi  il  his  w  illingn<ss 
to  undertaki'  the  translation  of  one  Order;  and  the 
fifth  was  assigned  to  him. 

rnfortumitelv  for  the  work,  Almoli  had  not  mas 

t^'rc'd  the  neollebrew  language;  he  liad  a  defectivi' 

mann.script  to  decipher,  anil,  as  he  liimself  admits, 

he  was  not  an  experienced  Talmudist,       Further- 

L— 28 


more,  through  want  of  care  in  copying,  the  trans- 
lation has  come  down  to  modern  times  in  a  most 
deplorable  condition.  Almoli  lacked  utterly  the 
faculty  of  adapting  tlie  correct  Hebrew  words  to  the 
Arabic  originals,  a  faculty  possessed  in  an  eminent 
degree  by  .Vlhariziand  the  Tibbonides.  Frequentl}' 
Almoli's  style  is  clumsy,  and  his  expressions  are 
often  vague;  therefore,  his  plea  for  indul.sence  is 
not  altogether  without  reason.  With  all  these  de- 
fects, the  translation  still  has  the  merit  of  first  ren- 
dering this  celebrated  commentary  accessible  to 
tlio.se  unacquainted  with  Arabic. 

Biui.ioGRAPHV:  Stelnsclinelder,  Cat.  BmU.  col.  2051;  Idem. 
Ill  l>r.  I'llim.  II.  92.") ;  Vogelsteln  and  RleRer,  Oesch.  d.  Ju- 
lUn  in  num.  1,251.420. 

J.  Vr. 

Solomon  b.  Jacob  Almoli  (Almuli)  :  Phy- 
sician and  Hebrew  author  of  the  si.\teenth  century; 
lived  in  Turkey,  probably  in  Constantinople.  As 
a  ph3'sician  he  seems  to  have  enjoj-ed  quite  a  repu- 
tation, but  he  is  better  known  as  a  Hebrew  gram- 
marian. In  l."il7  lie  wrote  an  introductory  ode  to 
Elisha  b.  .Vbraham  b.  Mattathia's  "Mageu  David," 
which  was  a  defense  of  IJind.ii's  grammatical  system 
against  Proliat  Duran's  criticism.  Shortly  after,  he 
l)ul)lished  "Halikot  Shewa,"  a  gnmunatical  essay 
upon  the  .v/«'iv(  (Constantinople,  151!)).  He  also  wrote 
"  Meassef  I.ekol  ha-Mahanol  "  (The  Collector  from 
All  Camps)  (no  date  or  place),  wliich  was,  in  a  way, 
a  prospectus  for  a  .Jewish  encyclopedia.  (The  book 
ise.Mremely  rare;  the  Bodleian  possissesonly  a  manu- 
script copy  of  a  part.  Neubauer.  "Cat.  Bodl.  Hebr. 
MSS. "  Xo!  1030,  4. )  Best  known  and  oftenest  printed 
of  all  his  works  is  his  "  Pitron  Halomot  "  or  "  Mefas- 
her  Helmin  "  (Solution  of  Dreams),  a  dream-book,  in 
which  he  explains  all  passages  in  the  Talmud  refer- 
ring to  dreams  or  their  interpretation.  It  consist.sof 
three  chapters  upon  the  interpretation  of  dreamsand 
upon  the  avertingof  evil  dreams,  and  was  first  pub- 
lislied  in  Salonica,  about  l")l(i.  It  was  republished 
in  l.~)IS  in  Constantinople,  then  later  in  Cracow  ;  was 
printed  in  .Vmsterdam  by  JIanasseh  ben  Israel,  and  in, 
U)94  aiipeared  in  a  JiuUeo-German  translation.  He 
also  wrote  a  philosophical  treatise  upon  the  nature 
of  the  .soul  and  its  immortality,  entitled  "Sha'ar  ha- 
Shcm  he  iladash."  Constantinople.  1.5;):!.  He  appears 
to  have  lieeipine  a  man  of  wealth  in  later  years, 
for  he  published  at  his  own  ex])cn.se  numerous 
grammatiial  works.  Thus  in  l.V.i9  he  publislied 
Ibn  Ezra's  "Yesod  Mora,"  and  in  l.'iSO  the  work 
"Sefat  Yeter"  by  the  sjune  author.  To  an  edition 
of  Ibn  Yaljyah's  "  Leshon  Linunudim"  in  l.")42  he 
sujiplied  an  introductory  poem  beginning  with  the 
words  "Reii  Sefer,"  Outside  of  the  frequently  re- 
jirinted  "Pilron  Halomot,"  his  other  works  are  ex- 
tremely rare. 

Biiii.iiHiR.\riiv:  SipinselmeldcT,  Cut.  linill.  rol.  22S1 ;  Carmoly, 
llint.  ili:.i  Mi'ili-i'in.i  .luifs.  p.  l.')lt:  Dukes.  Zur  itiititiinim-iifn 
Simulikiinili-.  p.  TO;  Liliritturlilatl  iUk  Orimlx.  xl.  285; 
UiMiliiii.  (Imrh.  il.JDilinrhin  Ainlf.  p.  X't;  Cimtorto,  lyore 
hii-Iiiirot.  Ma:  Wvlt.  liilil.  Ililir.  I.  UMl.  No,  lllill). 

J.  Vn. 

ALMOLIK  (ALMALIK),  ABRAHAM  BEN 
JUDAH   ELIMELECH.     .s.  e  Ai;u.\ii.\.m  iii..n  Ji 

IIAII 

ALMON  :  .\  city  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin 
givin  to  the  priests  (Josh.  xxi.  IS);  now  called 
'.\lmil.  Found  also  in  the  corresponding  list  of 
1  Chron.  vi,  4."«  [A.  V.  00].  but  there  atUod  Alemetii, 

O,  B.  L. 

ALMOND  (Tpt,");  .\  lermapplicd  toa  Iree^Jer.  i, 
11,  r.ecl  \ii.  ."i).  to  a  fruit  ((Jen.  xliii.  11,  Num.  xvii. 
2^  [A.  V.  8]),  and  to  a  bml  or  flower  (Ex.  xxv.  a:j. 


Almon 
Alms 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


434 


xxxvii.  19).  Once  (Gon.  xxx.  37)  the  same  tree  is 
ciilleil  Ift;,  its  name  in  Amniiiic,  Arnl)ic-.  and  Etliinpic. 
Till' alinimd  is  the  Aim/f/diiluH  nnniiiniiin  (L.),  of  the 
order  llijsiictii.  Its  Hebrew  name  (Klukol)  is  derived 
from  a  stem  nuanini;  to  "waken"  or  "watcli,"  to 
which  Jeremiah  maiies  reference  in  his  use  of  it 
(Jer.  i.  11).  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  fjiven  be- 
cause it  was  the  tirst  tree  to  awaken  from  the  sleep 
of  winter:  hiil  it  more  probably  ex  pres.ses  its  color  or 
some  other  physical  quality.  Al>out  January  tlie  hare 
tree,  still  devoi<l  of  leaves,  is  suddenly  covered  witli 
blo.ssoms  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  broad.  The 
petiils,  pink  at  the  bottom,  become  white  at  the 
top,  pnxlucing  the  effect  of  a  perfectly  white  tree. 
It  is  a  native  of  western  Asia.  The  fruit  was  con- 
sidered a  delicacy  (compare  Oen.  xliii.  11).  In  Ecd. 
xii.  5  it  is  used  metapliorically.  according  to  most 
interpreters,  of  au  old  man's  gray  head. 

G.  A.  B. 

ALKOIf  BIBLATAIM:  A  stopiiinir  idace  in 
Moab  ill  the  Israelites'  jminicy  from  Kirypt(Num. 
xxxiii.  46,47).  Called  IJelh  Diblataim  in  Jer.  xlviii. 
22.  G.  B.  L. 

ALMOKA VICES    (AX-MtTRABATIN)  :    A 

Moorish  dynasty  in  uorilnvestcrii  Africaaiid  in  Spain 
in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  lentiiries.  The  ri.se  of 
this  dynasty  marked  a  lu-w  epoch:  for  the  first  time 
non-Arab  rulers  occupied  a  Moslem  throne.  Yusuf 
ibn  Taslitin,  the  founder  of  this  dynasty,  did  not  even 
understand  Arabic.  He  was,  therefore,  unacquainted 
with  many  traditions  and  customs  of  Moslem  gov- 
ernmenl,  but  was  also  free  from  Moslem  prejudices, 
rjeligious  observances  were  anything  hut  rigid:  the 
treatment  of  non-Moslem  subjects  was.  therefore, 
dictated  by  liberal  iirinciples.  Yusuf  was  of  a  kind 
disposition  and  a  lovi'r  of  justice,  and  the  Jews 
under  his  sway  had  little  to  complain  of.  In  Africa 
he  indirectly  provided  new  homes  for  them  by 
founding  Morocco  and  Tlem<;en  (ll)(i2l,  and  no  doubt 
also  brought  about  a  welcome  change  for  many 
Jews  living  in  Spain  when  he  conquered  the  Oni 
miades.  Only  on  one  occasion  is  he  said  to  have 
threatened  the  Jews  of  Lucena  with  compulsory 
change  of  faith  :  but  they  ultimately  bought  him  off 
with  large  .sums  of  money.  Under  the  rule  of  his 
son  Ali  (110(i-4;!).  when  the  Almoravides  were  at  tlu' 
heightof  their  power,  Jews  occupied  important  posts. 
The  poet  Solomon  Al  Mu'allim  ( Abu  Ayyub).  praised 
by  Alharizi  for  his  great  talent,  was  his  physician. 
Among  other  prominent  Jews  was  the  physician 
Abndiam  ben  Meir  ibn  ICanuiial  (Abu  al-Ha.san).  to 
whom  Jud;ih  ha  Levi  (who  spent  the  years  of  his 
training  in  a  place  belonging  to  the  rulers)  dedicated 
seven  poems,  Isaac  (Abraham)  ibn  JIuliajir,  and  Sol- 
omon ben  Farusal  (Ferrisol).  The  Almoravide  do- 
mini(m  soon  declined,  and  was  superseded  in  Spain 
by  that  of  the  Ai.moh.\de8  in  1149.  II.  H. 

ALMOSNINO  :  A  distinguished  Jewish  family 
originally  dwelling  in  Aragon.  The  name,  accord- 
ing to  Jellinek  (see  Steinschneider,  "Cat.  Bodl."  Xo. 
6430),  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  and  denotes  "an 
orator."  The  following  members  of  the  family  are 
those  best  known  to  fame: 

Abraham  Almosnlno  :  Fatherof  Joseph,  a  phv- 
sician,aud  Hayyim.  1  le  and  Abraham  Canombrial 
weregrandfathersof  I  he  mot  her  of  Jloses  Almosnlno, 
and  were  burned  at  the  stake  by  the  Inquisition 
(Steinschneider,  "Cat.  Bodl."  col.  i771). 

Hasdai  Almosnino :  Rabbi  in  Tetuan.  He  is 
the  author  of  "  .Mishmerct  ha-Kodcsh  "  (The  Holy 
Charge),  a  supercommentarv  on  Rashi's  commen- 
tary on  the  PentaU'ueh,  published  at  Leghorn,  1825 ; 


and  "He.sed  El"  (The  Mercy  of  God),  a  series  of 
annotations  upon  Biblical  anil  Talmudical  passages, 
publislii-d  at  Leghorn,   isid. 

Isaac  Almosnino :  Itabbi  at  Gibraltar  and  later 
hakam  of  the  Ijindon  Spanish  and  Portuguese  con- 
gregalionfBcvis  .Marks):   died  in  1784. 

Isaac  Almosnino :  Named  as  the  author  of  a 
translali<in  of  Aiistnlle's  "Ethics"  into  Hebrew  (see 
Kayserling,  "  Bibl.  Esp.-Port.  Jud."  p.  11);  but  in 
all  probability  he  has  been  confused  with  Moses 
Almosnino. 

Joseph  Almosnino  :  Son  of  Isaac  and  grandson 
of  .Moses  b.  Barucli  Almosnino:  born  HU'i;  died  at 
Nikolsburg,  Moravia,  in  l<iS9.  He  was  rabbi  at  Bel- 
grade, and  author  of  numerous  responsa,  collected 
by  his  son  Lsaac  undiT  the  title  "  Edut  bi-Y'ehosef  " 
(Testimonies  in  Joseph)  and  published  at  Constanti- 
nople, 17I1-3S. 

Moses  b.  Baruch  Almosnino :  Distinguished 
rabbi ;  born  at  .Salonica.  1.">I():  dieil  in  Constantinople 
about  l.")8l):  elected  rabbi  of  Neveh  Shalom  com- 
munity of  Spanish  Jews  in  that  city  in  1553.  and  of 
the  Liwyat  lien  congregation  in'  1560.  He  was 
eminent  alike  for  knowledge  of  ralibinical  matters 
and  for  scholarship  in  the  science  of  hisday,  particu- 
larly natural  physicsanda-stronomy.  furnishing  com- 
mentaries upon  many  treatises  translated  from  the 
Arabic  and  Latin.  In  1,565  he  .successfully  re|>re- 
sentcd  his  brethren  at  an  audience  with  the  sultan  Se- 
limlL,  petitioning  forthe  confirmation  of  their  civil 
rights.  He  wrote,  in  1570,  a  rather  prolix  Hebrew 
commentary  on  the  Biblical  "  F'ive  Rolls, "  under  the 
title  "Yede  ^losheh  "  (The  Hands  of  Moses) ;  also  an 
exposition  of  the  Talmudical  treat  ise  "  Abot "  (Ethics 
of  the  Fathers),  published  at  Salonica  in  1563;  and 
a  collection  of  sermons  delivered  upon  various  occa- 
sions, particularly  funeral  orations,  entitled  "Meam- 
mez  Koah "  (R<'enfoicing  Strength).  These  were 
published  in  Hebrew  by  his  son  Simon,  the  expense 
being  defrayed  by  two  other  .sons,  Abraham  and 
Absidom.  Another  Hebrew  work  bv  Almosnino 
was  "Tetillah  le-Mo.sheh  "  (The  Prayer  "of  Moses),  an 
apologetic  work  on  the  Pentateuch,  published  at 
Salonica  in  1-563.  and  republished  at  Cracow  in  1598 
and  1S()5.  In  Spanish  he  wrote  a  homiletic  work, 
"  Regimiento  de  la  Vida."  which  treats  among  other 
things  of  the  origin  of  good  and  evil,  the  influence  of 
the  stars.  Providence,  the  moral  life,  education  of 
chihlren,  and  freedom  of  the  will.  To  this  was  ap- 
pended a  chapter  on  "  Dreams.  Their  Origin  and  True 
Nature,"  written,  as  it  is  stated,  at  the  request  of  Don 
Joseph  Nasi,  duke  of  Naxos.  Although  written  in 
Spanish,  the  work  was  printed  in  Hebrew  characters 
at  the  press  of  Joseph  Jaaliez,  Salonica.  1564,  and 
was  republished  at  Venice  in  1604,  and  at  Salonica  in 
1729.  An  appendix  of  live  pages  contains  a  list  of 
difiicult  Spanish  words,  occurring  therein,  translated 
into  Hebrew.  An  edition  in  Spanish  letters  was  pub- 
lished by  Samuel  Mendes  de  Sola  and  associates  in 
Amsterdam,  1729,  dedicated  to  Aaron  David  Pinto. 
This  work  is  considered  by  Sanchez  to  be  one  of  the 
rarest  in  the  Spanish  language.  A  historical  work 
by  Almosnino,  "Extremos  y  Grandezas  de  Constan- 
tinopla,"  also  in  Spanish  with  Hebrew  characters, 
was  transliterated  and  republished  by  .Jacob  Cansino, 
.Madrid,  1638. 

According  to  Steinschneider  ("  Hebr.  Uebers."  p. 
215).  Moses  Almosnino  was  also  author  of  a  com- 
mentary upon  Aristotle's  "Ethics."  Carmoly  (p.  12) 
mentions  it  under  the  title  of  "  Pene  Mosheh  "  (The 
Face  of  Moses),  stating  that  it  was  written  by  Moses 
at  Palestria  near  Salonica,  and  that  his  son  Simon, 
after  his  f.ither's  death,  desired  to  publish  it  (1584). 
Samuel  Almosnino :   Rabbi  at  Salonica  in  the 


435 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Almon 
Alms 


sixteenth  century.  He  wus  the  author  of  a  commen- 
tary on  some  of  tiie  minor  propliets.  published  among 
the  rare  commentaries,  in  Moses  Frankfurter's  large 
Bible.  Amsterdam,  1724-27 ;  also  of  a  rommentary  on 
the  Pentateuch,  with  particular  regard  to  Hashi's 
conimentar_v. 

Bini.iOfiRAPiiY  :  Stcinschnplder,  Cat.  liadl.  cols.  841, 144."i.  1770- 
177:).  il(l4 ;  Idem,  llehr.  U<  hers.  jt.  134  ;  Filrst.  Dilil.  Ju,l.  I.  41) : 
KiiyserllnB,  liilA.  Efp.-Port.  Juil.  pp.  II),  11  :  Cunmily.  Lu 
FttmiUc  Almiisnino  (reprinteti  from  lyi'nivtrs  l)trhf'1iti\ 
1H.VI),  In  Lileralurlilatt  i/rx  (trii-ntx.  xil.  61!) ;  Sanrhez.  I'n- 
mrt/i  Caxti'Uanas  Anteritircj*  al  «ifl/o.  xv.  pp.  18.)  (t  «<■//. ;  Jnr. 
(iuarl.  Itcv.  xl.  13B;  (Jratz,  In  Munatio'chrifl.  .\lll.  ■£]  cl  »ci/. 

F.   DB  S.   M. 

Solomon  Almosnino :  Secretary  to  the  Bevis 
Marks  Syna,gogue(Scplianlic).  in  London,  England; 
born  Sept.  5,  1*92;  died  in  London.  1S7S.  lie  was 
descended  fnini  an  an- 
cient Spanish  family, 
his  grandfather,  who 
was  chief  rabbi  of 
Gibraltar,  having  mi- 
grated to  England  in 
t  lie  middle  of  the  eight  - 
I  inth  century.  In  the 
yrar  1.S14  Almosnino 
Nvas  appointed  clerk  to 
I  he  secretary  of  the 
liivis  Marks  Syna- 
i;ogue,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  secre- 
tiiry.  in  1821.  was 
ilected  his  succcs.sor. 
He  practically  man- 
aged the  alTaiis  of  the 
congregation:  and  its 
entire  funds  passed 
Solomon  Almosnino.  throtigh  his  hands.    He 

was  concerned  in  all 
the  historical  events  of  his  community  for  half  a 
century.  Being  entirely  bound  up  in  his  work,  all 
his  hopes,  fears,  and  aspirations  were  concentrated 
in  the  mtthniiiiid  rimm  (vestry  room)  at  Bevis  Marks. 
His  modest  and  unassuming  kindness  won  for  liim 
the  respect  and  friendship  of  all  sections  of  the 
community. 

Bini.iiKMnpiiY :  Jew.  Chron.  and  Jew.  World,  January,  ISTS. 

G.  L. 

ALMS  :  A  word  derived  from  the  fireek  i/ir/iiiiniri/ 
(mercifulness),  used  by  Greek  siieaking  .lews  to  de- 
note almost  exclusively  the  ottering  of  charity  to 
the  needy,  from  a  feeling  of  both  compassion  and 
righteousness  iuilnkitli).  (See  LXX.  on  Prov.  x.\i. 
21,  and  Dan.  iv.  2-4, )  The  word  "idnisgiving,"  how- 
ever, is  far  from  expressing  the  full  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  /.iilakah,  which  is,  charily  in  lhes)iiiil  of  up- 
rightness or  jiisliee.  .Veeording  to  llii'  >Ios:iie  con- 
ception, wciillh  is  a  loan  from  (fod,  and  th<'  poor  have 
a  certain  claim  on  the  possessions  of  the  rich;  while 
the  rich  are  positively  enjoined  to  share  God's  lioun 
ties  with  till'  poor,  A  systematic  mode  of  ri'lief  of 
the  nee<ly  was.  theri'fore.  provided  by  the  law  and 
by  till'  institutions  of  the  synagogue  Isec  t'li.MiiTY). 
But  all  these  provisions  coidd  not  eiilirely  remove 
want.  "The  jHior  shiill  neverceascMiul  of  the  lanil." 
says  the  lawgiver,  and  commiuids:  "Thou  shall 
open  thine  liiuiil  wide  uiilo  thy  brother,  to  thy  poor, 
and  to  thy  nc>eily,  in  thy  lan<l  "  (l)eut.  xv.  II).  In 
the  course  of  time  the  giving  of  Alms  out  of  mere 
pity  and  without  regard  to  Ihi'  permanent  relief  of 
the  reeipieni,  became  a  meritorious  practisi>,  pos,ses- 
sing,  like  saeritice,  the  power  of  atoning  for  man's 
sins,  anil  redeeming  him  from  calamity  and  death. 
The  vers<'  Prov.  xi.  -I  (compare  .xvi.  (1,  xxi,  W)  was 


expounded  in  this  sense:  "Water  will  quench  bla- 
zing tire;  so  doth  almsgiving  make  atonement  for 
sins."  "Lay  up  alms  in  thy  store-house;  it  shall 
deliver  thee  from  all  affliction"  (Ecclus.  iii.  30, 
xxix.  12). 

Accordingly,  King  Xebuchadnezzar  is  told  by 
Daniel:  "Break  off  thy  sins  by  righteousness  fze- 
dakah — almsgiving]  and  thine  inic|uities  by  showing 
mercy  to  the  poor"  (Dan,  iv.  27),  and 
Talmudic  both  Daniel  and  the  king  become  mod- 
Conception,  els  of  charity  (Midr,  Zutta,  Cant..,  ed. 
Buber,  p,  21)".  (See  Ai.tak.)  TlV  en- 
tire stoiv  of  Tobil  is  a  les.son  on  almsgiving  and  its 
redeeming  powerslTobit,  i.  ;},  K!;  ii.  14;  iv.  7-11 ;  xii. 
8,  9).  "  .Mnis  deliver  from  death  and  purge  away 
all  sin  "  (compare  Prov.  xi.  4):  whence  the  custom 
of  giving  Alms  at  funerals  (see  Zki)ai>aii  Box). 
"  Kvery  one  who  occupies  himself  with  charity  shall 
behold  the  face  of  God,"  as  it  is  written  (Ps.  xvii. 
1.5,  Ilth.):  "  I  behold  Thy  face  bj'  almsgiving"  (zedek; 
see  Midr,  Teh.  I.e.,  B.  IB.  10'().  Almsgiving,  prayer, 
and  fasting  constituled  the  three  cardinal  disciplines 
which  Ihe  synagogue  transn)itt<'d  to  both  the  C'liris- 
tian  church  and  Ihe  .Mohammedan  mosipie(see  Tobit, 
xii,  8;  and  compare  Matt.  vi.  1-18;  and  the  Koran, 
where  almsgiving,  called  Zfdnt  (.\ramaic  zakiitn), 
or  iiridakii  (zedakah),  is  always  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  prayer  (sura  ii,  40,  104;  ix,  54).  The 
Manda-ans,  too,  made  almsgiving  (zii/kn)  and  fasting 
the  means  of  obtaining  eternal  life  and  bliss  (see 
Brand,  "  Mand;iisehe  Sebriften,"  pp.  2H  et  .■<eif.).  Ac- 
cording to  Kab  .\ssi  of  the  thiril  centui'y,  "almsgiv- 
ing is  eiiual  in  value  to  all  other  commandments" 
(B.  B.  !)/( ,  ((impale  Luke,  xv);  "  It  saves  man  from 
sudden,  uniialuial  death  and  the  soul  from  doom" 
(K.  .lohanan.  B.  B.  10(/,  after  Prov.  x,  2):  "Almsgiv- 
ing is  more  than  any  saeritice,  though  personal  charity 
is  superior  even  to  almsgiving"  (R.Eleazar,  Suk.  49A). 
H.  Eleazar  slates  also  that  it  should  precede  prayer, 
taking  Ps.  xvii.  l.">als()  lo  mean,  "  After  almsgiving  I 
shall  behold  Thy  face,"  B.B.  10('.  Likewise  each  fast- 
day  was  virtually  an  occasion  for  almsgiving,  as  the 
day's  offerings  were  handed  over  to  the  poor  (Ber. 
6i),  Compare  .Midr.  Zutta,  Cant.,  ed.  Buber.  p.  21: 
"The  Israelites  fast  and  give  their  food  and  that 
of  their  children  to  the  poor" — (juoted  by  Ori.sen, 
"  Homilies  to  Leviticus,"  x.  (see also  .\rislides,  xv.  9). 

"  .Vlmsgiving  is  a  powerful  jiaracletc  (mediator)  be- 
tween the  Israelites  and  their  Father  in  heaven;  it 
brings  the  time  of  redemption  nigh  "  (B.  B.  lOc).  In 
allusion   to  the  various  Biblical   pas- 

The  Gift      .sjiges  concerning  zedek  and  zedakah 

of  King  — righteousness  in  the  sense  of  alms- 
Monobazos.  giving — Tosef  ,  Peah,  iv,  20 (also  B.  B. 
12(/)  narrates  a  sloiy  of  King  Monoba- 
zos,  the  husband  of  (ineen  Ilclciia  of  .\(liabene.  who 
lived  aboul  I  he  year  is.  lie  is  in  the  legend  probably 
confounded  with  hisson  Izates,w  ho,  aflerhis  father's 
dcalh,  became  a  convert  to  .ludaism.  and  sent — in 
addition  to  Ihe  rich  gifts  of  his  mother — large  sums 
lo  .lerusjilem  for  (he  relief  of  the  poor  (.losephns, 
".\nt."  XX.  2.  g  5).  "When  the  generous  gifts  he 
had  bestowed  upon  the  poor,  in  the  time  of  great 
famine,  provoked  Ihe  protests  of  his  brothers,  who 
reproached  him  for  having  thus  s(|uandered  what  his 
royal  ancestors  had  gathered  together,  he  replied; 

"Mv  ancestors  laid  lip  tiere  on  enrtli ;  I  In  ticiivcn  IPs.  Ixx.w. 

12) : 
>lv  nnci'stors  laid  up  ln'B.iiin>s  wlicn^  tlM>  liiiinnn  tiaiid  can 

reach  thciii :  I,  where  no  huiniin  hand  can  reach  them  IPs. 

l.xx.xl.x.  l.'ii ; 
My  iinceKtors  tiild  up  In*aKiin'!(  thai  tM-ar  no  fnill ;  I.  such  as 

iHiir  fnili  il!«.  ill.  Ill) : 
.Mv  ancestors  laid  up  Ireasuivs  of  Maiuuiou  ;  1,  Irvatiun-S  of 

souls  il»niv.  XI.  an) ; 


Alms 

Aloes 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


436 


My  aiucstiirs  iniiliiTiMi  iiml  will  not  rt-ap  thi'  iH'iK'flt :  I  have 
galhiMvil  uiiil  slmll  irap  tin-  l»MU'tlt  lUcul.  xxlv.  l!l-aj) : 

My  aiucsli>i>  luiil  up  m^asuivs  (<ir  this  world  :  I.  f"r  Ihf  world 
to  I'oiiu'.  iL<  II  Is  saiil  ilsa.  Ivlll.  81  :  "Tliy  rinlilf<maiif.<,s 
[aliiisBlvhiKl  shall  n«  bi-torv  thre  aud  the  glory  ot  Ilie  Loi-d 
sIibU  bf  thy  reanvard." " 

This  contrast  I)elwpi'n  tlip  treasures  of  unrigliteoiis 
Mamnioii  (Prov.  x.  2|  aud  the  treasures  of  right<?ous- 
ne3»  laid  up  for  the  world  to  come  (Isji.  xxxiii.  6;  see 
the  translation  in  the  Septuagiut  and  Sliab.  31<0  is 

also  alluded  to  iu  a  similar  utterance 

God  and     of  Jesus,  in  Luke,  xii.  33,  34;  ^Matt.  vi. 

Mammon.     19-24:  "Sell  what  ye  have  aud  give 

alms;  proviile  youreelves  bags  which 
wax  not  old,  a  treasure  iu  the  heavens  that  faileth 
not.  where  no  thief  approaiheth,  neither  moth  eor 
rupteth.  For  where  your  treasure  is  [whethiT  of  un- 
righteousness or  righteousness]  there  w  ill  your  heart 
be  also  [your  soul — iu  the  world  to  come]."  Here 
follows  ill  Slatthew  the  passage  of  the  single  (sincere) 
eye  and  the  evil  eye,  misplaced  in  Luke.  xi.  34-36. 
which  recalls  several  similar  rabliinical  utterances: 
"He  that  gives  a  free  otTering  should  give  with  a 
wellmeaniug  [uiibegrudging]  eye"  (Yer.  B.  H.  iv. 
II);  whereas  tlie  rich  man  who  shows  an  evil  (be- 
grudging) eye  to  the  collectors  of  Alms,  will  lose 
liis  riches  (according  to  Ecd.  v.  12.  Ex.  U.  xxxi). 
Compare  Paul  in  II  Cor.  ix.  7-9:  "God  lovcth  the 
cheerful  giver,"  with  B.  B.  lOi  in  connection  with 
Ps.  cxii.  9.  God  lavishes  his  bounty  in  the  same 
measure  as  men  give.  Thus  also  K.  Eleazar  refer- 
ring to  Ilosea,  X.  12:  "The  kindness  displayed  in  the 
giving  of  alms  decides  the  tinal  reward  "  iSiik  49/<). 
"Therefore  no  disciple  of  the  wise  should  live  in  a 
city  where  there  is  no  alms-box  "  (Sanh.  l~b).  Alms- 
giving should,  therefore,  be  done  in  secret  (Eleazar, 
B.  B.  9ii :  Derek  Ere?  Zutta,  ix.  4,  after  Prov.  xxi. 
14),  and  not  before  men.  for  "  he  who  gives  before 
men  is  a  sinner."  as  it  is  said,  that  God  shall  bring 
also  "  the  good  deed  before  his  judgment  "  (Eccl.  xii. 
14,  Hag.  .>(/.  Shub.  104rt.  B.  B.  IOk).  In  view  of  the 
current  exposition  (see  Sifieon  the  passage)of  Deut. 
XV.  10,  "Let  not  thine  eye  be  evil  against  thy  poor 
brother.  .  .  thoushalt  surely  give  him."  as  meaning 
"thou  shalt  surely  give  him — him  directly — and  no 
one  shall  stand  between  him  and  thee."  the  Essaioi 
or  Essenes  ("the  secluded  ones")  had  their  treasury 
in  a  chamber  of  their  own  in  the  Temjile,  so  that 
both  the  giving  and  the  taking  should  remain  unob 
served  (Mishnah  Shek.  v.  (i).  Such  a  "chamber  of 
the  Essenes"  (silent  or  modest  ones)  D'XCTl  nat'? 
existed  in  every  town  in  order  that  the  poor  of  good 
families  should  be  enabled  to  receive  their  support 
in  seclusion  (Tosef.,  Shek.  ii.  16). 

In  the  same  spirit  Jesus,  in  the  "Sermon  on  the 
Jlount  "  (JIatt.  vi.)  says:  "Take  heed  that  ye  do  not 
your  alms  [zedakah — righteousness]  before  men  to 
be  seen  of  them. otherwise  ye  have  no  reward  of  your 
Father  which  is  iu  heaven."  The  Temple  "treasury" 
in  the  story  of  the  widow 'smite  (Luke.  xxi.  2;  Mark, 
xii.  41  ;cotiipare  Josephus."  Ant."  xix.61."B.  J."  v.  2) 
iiilo  which  rich  ami  ]ioor  cast  their  gifts. consisted  of 
thirteen  trumpet -like  receptacles  of  brass,  so  shaped 
to  prevent  dishonest  people  from  taking  out  coins 
while  pretending  to  cast  them  in  (Shek.  v.  1  and  Yer. 
40,  3;  oOA.  For  later  times  compare  'Er.  32'J  and  Git. 
Gull).  The  words  of  Jesus.  "  This  widow  hath  cast  in 
all  the  living  that  she  had."  refer  to  Lev.  ii.  1,  as  in- 
terpreted by  the  rabliis  (  Lev.  R.  3).  "  The  (loor  widow 
briugeth  her  very  life  [>i<fcs!i]  in  her  little  '  meat- 
olTering. '"  and  are  an  exact  parallel  to  the  story 
of  the  widow  and  the  priest,  or  the  iioor  and  King 
Agrippa. given  in  the  Jtidrash  as  illustrations.  But 
■while  the  gifts  cast  into  the  receivers  were  intended 


for  Temple  use  and  not  for  chant)-,  the  fact  that 
tlie   term   knrbnn   (sacritice   for   the   treasury)  was 
retaineil  for  "charity"   in  Christian 
The  communities  until  the  third  century 

Alms-Boxes.  ("B.  J."  ii.  4:  Mark.  vii.  11,  "Aposl. 
Const. " ii. 30 ;  Cy  prian, "  De  Oper. "and 
"Elecnios."  xiv. )  shows  that  it  was  actually  treated 
like  the  Temple  gifts.  Even  the  trumpet  shaped 
alms  holders  seem  to  have  been  retained  in  the  Chnrc^h 
until  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  judging 
by  the  term  cnnclia  (conch-shells)  applied  to  the 
charity  treasury  (see  Mehlhorn,  "Aus  den  Quellen 
tier  Kirclien-Gesch."  i.  27.  note  10;  against  Hatzin- 
ger  und  Knius  quoteil  in  Uhlhorn,  "Christl.  Liebes- 
thiltigkeit,"  p.  399).  At  any  rote  it  is  with  an  allu- 
sion to  the  trumpet-like  form  of  the  alms-box  that 
Jesus  .said  (Matt.  vi.  •ietiu'i/.):  "Then'fore  when  thou 
doest  thine  alms  do  not  sound  a  trumpet  before  thee, 
as  the  hypocrites  do  in  the  syua.irogues  and  [at  the 
public  fasts]  in  the  streets,  that  they  may  have  glory 
of  men.  .  .  .  Let  not  thy  left  liand  know  what  thy 
right  hand  doeth:  that  thine  alms  may  be  in  secret; 
and  thy  Fathei,  which  seeth  in  secret,  himself  shall 
reward  thee  openly."  The  latter  sentence  may  refer 
to  Prov.  xi.  21  a/nil  leynd  =  "hand  to  hand")  inter- 
preted by  the  rabbis  (Sotah,  ih,  'jn)  as  alluding  to 
the  giving  of  charity  in  secret.  Compare  also  the 
Mandaan  teachinir  (Brand,  "Mandilische  Schriften," 
pp.  28,  64): 

"  If  vou  give  alms  do  not  do  It  before  witnesses.  If  you  (five 
with  the  right  hand,  do  not  tell  It  to  your  left ;  If  you  give  with 
till'  li-fl.  do  not  tell  It  to  your  right.  Any  one  who  giveth  and 
has  w-|tnesse.s,  it  shall  not  Ite  areounted  to  hini." 

Almsgiving  is  regarded  as  an  offering  brought  to 
God. 

"  Thev  that  give  alms  to  the  jioor.  give  It  to  Me."  says  God.  for 
it  Is  said:  ".My  korban.  My  hnad  "  iNuni.  xxvlll.  i).  Surely 
Gotl  uee<ls  no  bread.  neveitiii'ifs.s  Me  says  :  "  I  eounl  your  glfljj 
iLs  though  you  wen*  My  children  supimrting  their  father  "  (MUIr. 
Zut^a.  Cant.,  ed.  Buber.  p.  'Si :  compare  the  exact  parallel  In  Matt. 
XXV.  4.5.  when*  Jesus  speaks  siuiply  in  the  name  ot  God,  the 
Father  of  alli. 

The  aViuse  of  almsgiving  made  itself  felt  occasion- 
ally in  Talmiulic  times.  "  He  who  takes  alms  by  de- 
ception, or  without  need  of  the  s;ime.  will  finally  go 
loruin."  saysan  old  Baraita(Kel.  68a). 
On  Giving  Compare  Ecclus.  xii.  1-6:  "  When  thou 
Alms.  wilt  do  good,  know  to  whom  thou  doest 
it.  Give  tuito  the  good  and  not  unto 
the  sinner"  (compare  "  Didache,"  i.  5,  6).  Still,  says 
H.  Eleazar  (Ket.  68«):  "Let  us  be  thankful  that  there 
are  deceivers  among  the  needy,  to  excuse  us  some- 
what for  the  guilt  which  the  many  uncared-for  bring 
upon  us." 

To  give  Alms  only  to  such  as  are  worthy  was  there- 
fore made  an  object  of  special  solicitude.  "  When 
given  to  undeserving  persons  it  is  not  a  meritorious 
act,  receiving  reward"  (B.  B.  9'.<).  "Hapi)yhe  that 
considereth  the  poor,"  Siiys  the  Psalmist  (Ps.  xii.  2); 
not  "he  that  giveth."  This  is  an  admonition  to  us 
to  take  personal  interest  in  him  and  not  simpl.v  to 
give  him  Alms  (Lev.  R.  xxxiv.). 

"He  hath  dispersed,  he  hath  given  to  the  poor; 
his  righteousness  [almsgiving]  endureth  forever" 
( Ps.  cxii.  9).  Compare  Talmud  Kallah :  "  What  shall 
men  do  in  order  to  acquire  wealth  for  their  children? 
Let  them  do  the  work  of  heaven  by  dispensing  alms 
among  the  poor."  in  accordance  with  Ps.  cxii.  9,  and 
Yalk.  to  Prov.  xi.  24:  "  He  that  lavisheth bountifully 
shall  increase  his  wealth,  and  he  that  giveth  spar- 
ingly shall  see  his  fortune  decrea.se." 

In  the  course  of  time,  almsgiving  gave  way  to  or- 
ganized charity.     See  Charity. 

BiBLiOGRAPiiY :   D.  Cassel.  Die  ArmenvenpaUung  des  Alien 
Israel,  lm7.  K. 


487 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alms 
Aloes 


AIjMTJG.     Sic  Ai.diM. 

ALNAHARWANAI  ("NJNnnjijN),  JOSE:  A 
Hebrew  sclicilur  111'  llif  fraoiiic  periixl;  pnibalily  of 
Neliardea.  Ih^  is  Ilic  author  of  ariiiieil  alplialx'tkal 
treiitisc  in  Hebrew  on  the  Jewish  calendar,  printed 
in  "Kerein  Hemed,"  part  ix.  This  poem  is  inter- 
esting for  the  light  it  throws  on  the  history  of  the 
Jewisli  calendar  as  well  as  on  the  history  of  neoHc- 
brew  poetrj'. 

BlBLiOGRAPMY:  Stelnsctinclder,  In  Erseh  and  c;nit)er,  Kncuclo- 

fildie,  tj  a,  xxxl.  104 ;  llarkavy,  Zilihuron  ki-ItMonim,  v.  115- 
18. 

M.  K. 

ALNAKIF,  ISAAC  BEN  JOSEPH:  Litur- 
gical poet  of  the  thirteenth  century  (in  Spain?),  who 
composed  a  sulut  (liturgical  poem  between  the 
Sherna'  and  'Amidah)  for  the  Passover  service  (sec 
Zun/.  ■•  Liter-aturgesch."  p  ■")04;  "Jew.  Quart.  Rev." 
xi.  :!loi  W.  M. 

ALNAQUA  :  An  important  family  of  Spanish 
Jews,  the  lirst  mention  of  whom  occurs  late  in  the 
twelfth  century.  In  Hebrew  the  name  is  written 
nipj  or  nipN^i'N.  It  is  the  same  as  nitpjX  or  NTiNpjX, 
though  Sieinschncider  seems  lo  be  of  a  dill'ercnt 
opinion.  In  modern  works  the  name  appears  as 
Alnaqua,  Alnecpia  (Zeduer),  Ahineaw  i  (Kayserling), 
and  Ankoa.  Originally  from  the  Iberian  peninsula, 
inendHTSof  the  family  sprejid  to  northern  Atricaand 
Turki'V,  where  by  marriage  they  became  related;  to 
the  Duransand  lienvonistes.  The  lirst  two  of  whom 
mention  is  made  are  .Judah  and  Sanuiel.  who  fell 
victims  to  court  slanders  in  Toledo  about  tlu'  year 
I'iOi).  The  three  brothers,  Abraham,  Joseph,  and 
Solomon,  who  lived  in  the  fourteenth  century,  came 
each  to  an  untimely  end:  the  first  was  assassinated 
(1341);  the  other  two  were  cut  off  liy  the  plague  a 
few  years  later.  In  the  lifteenth  century  tlie  .\lna- 
quas  settled  in  nortliern  Africa,  wdicre  they  became 
the  leaders  of  the  communities.  From  Znnz's  notes 
the  following  genealogical  tree  may  be  traced: 

? 


Judah 


Samuel 


Aliratiani,  d.  1341 

I 
Eptirolm,  d.  i:£V> 


Joseph 


Solomon 


Samuel,  d.  I:i44  or  i:!4o 


Israel,  il.  1.101 

I 
Ephralm.  d.  1442 


Israel 


Judata 


Epiinilm  [Daughter] 

about  Uils  m.  ^'ma|)  Duran 

In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the 
Alnacpias  are  to  be  found  in  Turkey,  prominent  as 
scholars  and  pbilanlliropisls.  In  the  nini'teeiilh  cen- 
tury .Vlmdiam  bm  .Mnrdeeai  Ankawa  was  a  Ilalakist 
of  .some  renown  in  ..Morocco  (Steiuschneider,  "  Hebr. 
liibl."  i.  118), 

Uint.iodinriiv:  Zunz,  Z.  ^7.  pp.  4.'l.'>-4;iil :  Solomon  Ihn  Vcnra, 
Shetn(  )'( /Mi<f/i/),  (Hi.  WteniT.  p. -*7 :  KaysiTlInu,  ,NVj(/i(nvf jrri, 
p.  lU  ;  steln.s<linilil<T,  Jfw.  Quart.  U,i:  x.  l:c.',  xl.  :ili). 

M.  n.-(i. 

Ephraim  ben  Israel  Alnaqua  (Alnucawi, 
Ankava,  Ankoa;  called  Kab  in  Africa):  Phy- 
sician, ralibi,  and  theoloijical  wriler;  founder  of  the 
Jewish  community  at   Tlemc;en,    North   .Vfrica,  in 


which  place  he  died  in  1443.  According  to  a  legend, 
Alnaqua  escaped  from  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  which 
had  martyred  his  father  and  mother  at  the  stake, 
and  came  to  Africa  mounted  on  a  lion,  using  a  ser- 
pent as  a  halter.  Azulai  refers  to  him  as  a  mir- 
acle-worker. Alnaijua  succeeded,  after  all  other 
])hy.sicians  had  failed,  in  curing  the  only  daughter 
of  a  king  of  the  family  Beni  Zion.  Refusing  the  re- 
ward of  gold  and  silver  oirered  him  by  the  king,  he 
begged  only  that  the  Jews  living  near  Tlem<;en  might 
be  luuted  in  it.  In  this  way  the  eonuuunily  was 
formed.  Aluaqua's  first  care  was  to  establish  a  large 
synagogue:  this  is  still  in  existence,  and  bears  his 
name.  Above  the  rabbi's  chair,  on  which  the  verse 
Jer.  xvii.  12  is  engraved,  a  lamp  burns  perpetually. 
Alnaqua's  grave,  surrounded  by  those  of  his  family, 
is  in  the  old  cemetery:  it  is  saeied  to  North  African 
Jews,  and  is  frequently  visitctl  by  pilgrims  from  all 
Algeria.  , 

AInaquahadtwosons,  Israel  and  Judah.  The  latter 
lived  at  Oran,  Mostaganem,  and,  later,  at  Tlem<;en, 
and  became  the  father-in-law  of  Zemah  Duran.  Al- 
lUKiua  wrote  for  his  elder  son  Israel  "Sha'ar  Kebod 
Adonai  "  (Entrance  to  the  Glory  of  God),  containing 
answers  lo  the  criticisms  of  Nahmanides  on  the 
•'  -Moreh  "  of  Maimonides.  Manuscripts  of  this  work 
exist  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford.  He  wrote, 
also,  some  religious  hymns. 

Bibliography  :  Azulal,  Ahrm  ha-Gedolim.  s.v.:  Benjacob, 
Ozar  ha-Scfarim,  p.  .">9!l ;  Neubaiier,  Cat.  Uodl.  Hebr.  MSS. 
Nos.  a»,  2 :  law, 3 ;  lirrue  Afrkaine.  1870,  pp.  377-383 ;  Zunz, 
Z.  G.  p.  435;  Idem,  Lilcraturgegch.  p.  524. 

s. 

Israel  ben  Joseph  Alnaqua:  Ethical  writer 
and  martyr;  lived  in  Toledo,  Spain;  died  at  the 
slake,  together  with  Judah  ben  Asher.  in  the  sum- 
mer of  the  year  l;i91.  He  is  the  author  of  an  eth- 
ical work  in  twenty  chapters,  entitled  "Menonit  ha- 
-Maor  "  (CaniUestick).  The  work  commences  with  a 
long  poem,  an  acrostic  on  the  author's  name.  Then 
follows  a  preface  in  rimed  prose.  The  introduction 
to  each  chapter  is  headed  by  a  poem,  giving  the 
acrostic  of  his  name,  Israel.  It  was  printed  in  l.iTS. 
A  manuscript  of  it  is  in  the  Bodleian.  An  abridgment 
of  it  was  published  at  Cracow,  l."(9:l,  under  the  title 
"Menorat  Zahah  Kullah"  (Candlestick  Wholly  of 
Gold).  It  is  divided  into  fiv(^  s<^ctions,  which  con- 
tain observatitms  (1)  on  laws  in  general;  (2)  on  edu- 
cation; (3)  on  commerce;  (4)  on  the  behavior  of  liti- 
gants and  judges  in  court;  (.">)  on  conduct  toward 
one's  fellow  men.  This  is  supplemented  by  a  trea- 
tise, n2'\  in'7S  nDL".  consisting  of  Talmudic  and  mid- 
rashic  sjiyingsaud  maxims,  wliich  has  been  published 
in  German  (Hebrew  characters)  in  Wagenscil's  Be- 
Ichrung  der  Jlld.-Deutschen  Red-  und  Schreibart," 
Kiinigsberg,  1C99. 

Bini.ioGRAPiiv:  Ziinz,  Z.  fl.  p.  iXi;  Benjacob,  Ofar  haSefa- 
rim.  p.  337.  No.  Ulitl:  Sleinsilinelder,  Cat.  Bodl.  No.  5447;  S. 
Scbccliter,  ilmiatKiiclirift,  xxxlv.  114,  234. 

M.  B. 

Yom-Tob  Alnaqua:  Talmudist  and  aulhor; 
lived  al  Saloniea  in  llic  eightcenlh  cenlury;  aulhor 
of  31D  DV  nn'^C  containing,  (1)  Responsa  on  the 
fourTurim;  (2)  novella'  on  various  Talmudic  trea- 
tises; (3)observalionson  the  lauguageof  Maimonides 
and  of  the  Tiirim  ;  and  (4)  liomilies  (Saloniea,  1788). 
BlBLlOGKAPiiv :  Benjacob.  Ofar  haSefarim.,  p.  5«5. 

J.  S.   R. 

ALNUCA'WI,    EPHRAIM.     See    Ai.n.\<}1'.\, 

Ei'Mi:  MM 

ALOES  :  Translation  of  D'")nK.  occurring  four 
limes  in  tli<-  ( Mil  Testament  (Num.  xxiv.  (1.  Ps.  xlv. 
y,  Prov.  vii    17.  Canl.  iv.  14).  and  of  iP.iif/ in  the  New 


Alonzo  de  la  Calle 
Alphabet 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


438 


(John,  xix.  39).  In  all  thi'se  passages,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  tirst,  it  sipnities  a  perfume  used  U))on 
ftarments  or  a  bed.  It  was  the  gum  of  the  Aloexi/lnn 
and  Ai/iiiliiriii  tinitn  of  Malacca  and  of  -1.  iir/nllo- 
cliiitii  of  Bengal  (Toy,  "Proverbs,"  p.  \'h\.  in  "Inter- 
uutioual  Critical  Commentary  ").  and  not  the  wood 
itself.  It  was  distinct  from  the  common  bitter 
nloe  used  in  medicine  and  from  tlie  American  aloe 
("Encyc.  Bibl.").  In  Num.  xxiv.  (i  the  word  indi- 
cates a  tree;  but  that  a  tree  of  soutlieaslern  Asia 
should  be  known  to  an  eighth-century  Israelitish 
poet  sulliciently  to  be  used  in  a  siiuile  is  more  than 


The  Aloe. 

1.  Pl»nl  showlug  meth.»d  of  p-owlb.     S.  Flower-aulk.     3.  L«af. 

doubtful.  In  the  Scptuagint.  in  the  pa.ssage  in  ques- 
tion, the  word  is  rendered  "  tents  "  ;  but  the  occur- 
rence of  "gardens"  before  it  and  of  "cedars"  after 
it  compels  us  to  look  for  a  tree  of  some  kind.  Dill- 
mann  (Com.  to  Num.  xxiv.  6,  2d  ed.,  p.  157)  con- 
jectures that  the  word  was  originally  D?'X  (compare 
Ex.  XV.  27.  Gen.  xiv.  6).  yv^  signifies  also  terebinth 
(compare  Scptuagint  to  Gen.  xiv.  6),  and  this  would 
accord  with  the  context  quite  as  well.       G.  A.  B. 

ALONZO  DE  LA  CALLE.    See  America.  Dis 

rOVF.UV    OF, 

ALONZO  DE  CARTAGENA,  or  DE  SANTA 
MARIA:  ."Marano:  l)i>rn  in  Burgos,  Si>aiu.  in  Ki.s.i. 
Alonzo,  together  with  his  father,  Salomon  ha- 
Lcvi,  or  Paul  de  Bcrgos,  and  his  brothers  and 
sisters,  was  baptized  in  1891.  Having  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  the  Law,  while 
yet  yoimg  he  became  deacon  of  Santiago  and  Se- 
govia. Owing  to  his  erudition  and  adroitness  he 
exerted  great  influence  at  the  Castilian  court,  whence 


he  was  sent  to  Lisbon  to  negotiate  jieace  between 
the  kings  of  Castile  and  Portugal.  Alvaro  dc  Luna 
sent  him.  with  Gonzalo  Garcia  de  S.  Maria,  his 
brother,  to  represent  Spain  at  tlie  Council  of  Ba- 
sel. Alonzo.  who  upon  the  death  of  his  father 
received  tlie  episcopal  see  of  Burgos,  inherited  also 
his  father's  hatred  for  the  .lews.  To  his  intiuence 
may  be  a.scribed  the  malevolent  decrees  of  the  Basel 
Comicil,  es|)icially  the  bull,  so  hostile  to  the  Jews, 
which  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  till  then  a  most  mild  ec- 
clesiastic, issued  on  .\ugust  8,  1-142.  to  the  bish(>i)s 
of  Castile  and  I.eou.  by  virtue  of  which  all  Christians 
were  prohibiteil  from  intercourse  with  the  Jews,  and 
the  latter  were  stripped  of  all  their  civil  rights,  and 
debarred  from  hiildirig  any  iiublic  oltice.  Alvaro  de 
Luna,  a  man  very  friendly  to  the  Jews,  did  all  in 
his  power  to  prevent  the  piddication  of  the  bull,  and 
succeeded  in  wimiing  the  king  over  to  a  humane 
treatment  of  the  Jews.  This  caused  Alonzo  to  be- 
come the  most  violent  opponent  of  Alvaro  de  Luna. 
De  Luna  was  ultimately  discharge<i  from  ollice,  and 
subse(iucntly  assassinated.  Alonzo.  called  "  the  joy 
of  the  .Spaniard  and  the  delight  of  religion,"  pub- 
lished several  philosophical  and  theological  works, 
as  Well  as  some  erotic  poems. 

BlBi.IocRAiMIY  :  .1.  Amador  dc  los  RIos.  Uintnrin  ih-  hix  JmViofi 
ile  Kxpafirt,  iii.  11  etsni.\  idem.  EKtuilitts  ItiMitricns  I*itliti- 
C(»8  If  Litcrariott  Sohrc  los  Judhts  de  Kttpafta^  pp.  .'>S4  ct  acq. 

M.  K. 

ALONZO  DE  HERRERA :  Cabalist,  philoso- 
pher.       Si'e  IIkKKF.KA.   .\l,nN/.(i  DK. 

ALPALAS  (ALFALAS),  MOSES:  A  Jew- 
ish preacher  at  Salimica  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Of  his  many  homiletic  and  theo- 
logical writings,  there  have  apjieared  in  i)rint,  "  Wa- 
yakhel  Moslieh  "  (And  Moses  Collected),  a  collection  of 
sermons  (Venice,  l.")97),  and  "Iloyl  Jlosheh  "  (Moses 
Was  Content),  apologeticessjiyson  Judaism  and  the 
excellence  of  the  Mosaic  law  (Venice.  1597).  The 
name  Alpalas  is  probably  the  same  as  the  Arabic 
"alFallas"(The  Money-Dealer;"  Jew.  Quart.  Rev." 
xi.  591). 
BiBHOORAPHT :  Stefnschnelder,  Cat.  Bndl.  col.  1768. 

M.  K. 

ALPHA  :  The  Greek  name  for  Aleph  was,  ac- 
cording til  the  older  tradition  of  H.  Ishniael  (She- 
kalim,  iii.  2;  compare  Ai.Efii),  used  as  a  mark  for 
the  tirst  of  the  shekel  boxes  in  the  Temple.  Accord- 
ing to  Men.  ix.  1-6,  Alpha  designated  the  first  qual- 
ity of  the  flour  used  in  the  Temple  (see  Alphabet). 

K. 

ALPHA  AND  OMEGA  :  An  expression  found 
in  several  places  in  the  Kevelation  of  John  (xxi.  6, 
xxii.  13,  i.  8),  a  book  which  is  today  almost  imi- 
versally  recognized  by  New  Testament  scholars  of 
the  critical  school  as  derived  frfim  an  originally  Jew- 
ish work.  It  is  found  in  passjiges  like  "  I  am  the 
Aljdia  and  the  Omega,  the  beginning  and  the  end" 
(xxi.  G);  "lam  the  Alpha  and  the  Omega,  the  be- 
ginning and  the  end.  the  first  and  the  last"  (xxii. 
13);  and  also,  "I  am  the  Aljilia  and  the  Omega,  the 
beginning  and  the  end.  saith  tlii'  Lord,  who  is,  who 
was,  and  who  will  come,  the  Almighty  Ruler  "  (i.  8.). 
This  is  not  simply  a  paraphrase  of  Isa.  xliv.  6:  "I 
am  the  first  and  the  last."  but  the  Ilellenized  form 
of  a  well-known  rabbinical  dictum:  "The  seal  of 
God  is  Emct."  which  means  Truth  and  is  derived 
from  the  letters  n  D  K.  the  first,  the  middle,  and  the 
last  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alldiabet.  the  beginning, 
the  middle,  and  the  end  of  all  things.  Thus  Jo- 
sephus  defines  God  as  "  the  beginning,  middle,  and 
end  of  all  things."  See  Zipser's  edition  of  Jo.sephus 
"Contra  Ap."  edited  by  Jellinek,  1871,  pp.  1.59,  160. 


439 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alonzo  de  la  Calle 
Alphabet 


Aiilir|ue  Flnfrer-RlnR  Bearinir  the 
Alpha  and  OmeKa,  Fcmiul  at 
lUuue. 

(From  Vlporoni,  "  Dli-t.  dc  U  Blblf.") 


In  Yoma.  696  and  Sauh.  64n,  the  following  is  re- 
latiil:  "The  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  prayed 
to  God  to  remove  from  the  earth  the  Evil  Spirit,  as 

the  cause  of  all  the 
trouble.  Iinnicdiate- 
ly  u  seriill  fell  fmin 
hciiM'M  «  ilh  Ihi-  word 
nOX  ('I'ruth)  written 
thereon,  and  there- 
n  ])on  a  tiery  lion 
eame  out  of  the  sane- 
tiiary.  It  wa.s  the 
Spirit  of  Idolatry 
leaving  the  earth. 
"  Thi.s  legend  show.s. " 
sjiid  H.  llanina.  "that 
the  seal  of  God  is  nON 
— Truth."  More  light  is  thrown  on  the  passage  (Yer. 
Y'el).  xii.  13rt.  Gen.  K.  l.xxxi.),  where  the  verse  (Dan 
X.  21),  "I  sliall  show  thee  what  is  marked  iiiion  the 
writing  of  truth  "  {luketn/j  emet)  is  (iX\Aamvd  in  the  fol- 
lowing niaiuier:  Whateverdeeree  bears  thi'signum  of 
Go<I.  nON.  is  iinmutable  ■  for.  .Siiys  Simon  lien  I.akish  ; 
"  N  is  the  first.  D  the  middle,  andn  the  last  letter  of  the 
ali^habet — this  being  the  name  of  God  according  to 
Isa.  xliv.  6  explained  Yer.  Sanh.  i.  ISa:  'I  am  the 
first  Ihavinghad  none  from  whom  to  receive  the  king- 
dom];  I  am  the  miildle.  there  being  none  who  .shares 
the  kingdom  with  me;  [audi  am  the  last],  there  be- 
ing none  to  whom  1  shall  hand  the  kingdom  of  the 
world.'"  Evidently  the  original  utterance  in  the 
Apocalypse  referred  to  (!od  (and  not  to  Jesus).  A 
careful  investigation  of  the  j^assage.  however,  makes 
it  quite  probable  that  the  whole  was  originally  writ  ten 
in  Hebrew  with  reference  to  the  verse  in  Daniel,  anil 
owing  to  its  being  translated  into  Greek,  the  con- 
nection between  vers,  riandjfi,  viz.,  the  reference  to 
nOK,  was  lost.  Cimipare  Justin's  "Address  to  tlie 
Greeks."  xxv..  which  says:  "  Plato,  when  mystically 
(•xpressing  the  attributes  of  God's  etcrniiy.  sjud. 
'God  i.s,  as  the  old  tradition  runs,  the  end  and  the 
middle  of  all  things' ;  plainly  alluding  to  the  law 
of  Moses. "  Compare  also  Irenieus,  "  Ad  versus  Hasre- 
ses,"  xiv.  3. 
BtBLIOORAPHY :  GfrOrer,  GtMliichte  dex  VrchrUttenthtimn.  ij. 

ALPHABET,  THE  HEBRE'W :  The  chanic 
lers  lit  the  lletinw  AI|ihulM-t  arc  derived  from  the 
8o-<-alled  Phenician  or  Old  .Scmilie  letters,  to  which 
almost  all  systems  of  letters  now  in  use,  even  the 
Koman,  can  be  traced.  But  this  latter  is  in  mediate 
relation  only  In  the  original  source,  while  the  He- 
brew Alphaiiet  has  kept  closer  to  the  primitive  signs. 
In  spite  of  the  great  progress  made  in  Senntie  paleog- 
niphy  during  the  last  decades,  which  enables  the 
student  to  follow,  step  by  step,  the  sevenil  styles  of 
<huracter8  used  by  the  various  Semitic  peoples  from 
the  ninth  century  n.c.  down  to  the  iiresent  day.  no 
opinion  can  as  yet  lie  expressed  with  any  certainty 
as  to  the  origin  of  llie.s<'  eharaeters.     Attempts  have 

repiiitedly  been  made  to  derive  them 
Oripin  of  from  the  Egyptians  (see  nibliogni|iliy 
Alphabet.     1.   at    end),   or    fnun    lh<'    Habyloinan 

I  l!iblioi;raphy  '*».  lint  with  indifferent 
success.  The  ri'ason  for  this  uncerlainty  lies  per 
liaps  in  the  fact  that  the  oldest  known  fnrms  of 
these  letters  come  from  a  time  that  had  been  pre- 
ceded by  II  long  period  of  developiiK'ni.  during 
which  time  the  chariKtirs  themselves  may  have 
undergone  important  nicMliliealions  It  may  also  be 
siud  with  a  certain  amount  of  probability  that  the 
alphabet  did  not  possess  from  tlie  l)eginning  all  the 

cimnicters  that  it   now  contains.      Thus   \i\    (n>  is 


manifestly  an  expansion  of  ^  (fl);  ©  (O)  is  merely 

X  (n).  enclosed  in  a  circle:  again  In'  the  addition 
of  a  horizontal  line  between  the  top  and  bottom 

.strokes  J.  (D)  is  formed  from  x  (t),  and  a  perpendic- 
ular stroke  served  perhaps  to  develoji  y^  (v)  from 

W  (B>).  Though  it  may  be  impossible  to  determine 
with  certainty  fif  what  mcc  the  inventor  of  these  let- 
ters was.  Iliealiibabet  undoubtedly  received  these  ex- 
pansions from  a  Semite.  If  it  lie  conceded  that  the 
names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  originated  with 
the  sjune  man.  then,  since  their  form  is  Aramaic,  one 
could  say  that  he  was  an  Aramean :  but  they  may 
also  have  arisen  .somewhat  later.  The  names  for  the 
characters  were  chosen  with  reference  to  near-by 
things,  such  as  jiarls  of  the  body  and  other  objects 
of  tile  daily  life  ]ieculiar  to  the  Bedouins,  the  name 
of  each  of  which  began  with  the  very  sound  the  let- 
ter indicated.  In  a  few  cases  the  ntimes  seem  to 
have  lieen  diTived  from  the  form  which  the  sign  rep- 
resented. These  names,  as  well  as  the  order  of  the 
letters,  certainly  existed  at  least  one  thousand  years 
n.c.,  for  they  were  known  when  the  Greeks  adopted 
their  alphabet  from  the  Semites.  At  this  period  the  al- 
phabet must  already  have  undergone  local  variations 
among  the  different  ethnical  groups  of  the  northern 
Semites. 

The  most  important  monument  written  in  alpha- 
betical characters  of  this  epoch  comes  from  a  terri- 
tory closely  bordering  on  Palestine.  Not  only  does 
the  language  of  this  section  greatly  resemble  the 
Hebrew,  but  the  writing  already  exhibits  a  coloring 
which  a])|)roaches  theepigraphic  monumentsof  Pal- 
estine. This  is  the  famous  Moabite  stone,  which  was 
discovered  in  lS(;s  by  the  Alsjitian  missionary  Klein 
near  Dibon  in  the  land  nf  Moab.  Various  govern- 
ments attempted  to  obtain  posses.sion  of  this  valu- 
able stone:  and  when  Turkey  began  to  participate  in 
ihe  strife,  the  Bedouins,  from  intense 

Moabite  hatred  of  the  Turks,  broke  it  into  bits. 
Stone.  The  greater  part  of  the  fragments 
were,  however,  recovered  and  placed 
in  the  ^luseum  of  the  Louvre  in  Paris.  This  monu- 
ment dates  from  Jlesha.  king  of  Moab.  mentioned  in 
II  Kings,  iii.  4.  who  describes  upon  it  his  victorious 
wars  a.gainst  Israel  and  his  doings  in  the  interior  of 
his  land.  The  language,  with  slight  deviations,  is 
Hebrew,  and  reads  almost  like  a  chapter  from  the 
Book  of  Kings.  The  form  of  the  letters  is  already 
es.sentially  cursive.  One  iieculiarity  which  the  in- 
scriptions on  this  monument  have  in  common  with 
Hebrew,  and  which  the  latter  idiom  has  developed 
still  further,  is  of  special  interest ;  namily,  the  tend- 
ency to  bend  the  stems  of  the  letters  which  slant 
to  the  left,  so  as  to  bring  them  nearer  to  the  letter 
that  follows,  and  also  to  extend  the  letters  more  in 
the  width  than  in  their  length  or  i>erpendicular  di- 
mension. These  are  the  eigiil  lines  of  Ihe  inscription 
transliterati'd  into  the  later  Hebrew  chaniclers,  ac- 
cording to  Lid/barski's  "Hundbucli."  Plate  I.  See 
Mo.MiiTK  Stonk.  and  Bibliography  3. 

1-1.  3N3  .■]'^-:  .^^O  .fBJ  .  \2  -V"-    I'X    1 
3''2  .  1JN1  .  rv  .  Jf'^ir    3N';    '^j- .  l'-3  .  *3«  I  "»'    2 

c  .  yc'ca  I  nmi-ij  .  k-:;''  rut .  r-3n  .  r7«i  i  -iN  .  -"hn  .  ',■'  3 
i:j:  I  '««• .  ''ja  .  'Jni^  ■  '3i  ■  IJ'^c^  ■  '■:=  ■  'J>='^  ■  '=  ■  ?=*  ♦ 

INJ  .  £•■::  .  IJN'  .  '3  .  ]2-^  ■  It'  .  3K0  .  ?N  .  W"l  ■  ''NIC"  .  l*-:  .  '    5 

■\3-iD  .irN  .'I'a  I  3n:  .  tk  .urw .  kh.oj. ■>:(<". ^ja .  no'ri'i  i  ni  g 
■^K  .''3 .  TN .  'icy . i:"\'i.o''>.-<a(<.i3K.''i<ie"i i  nraavns.Nim  7 
t"i .  rs- .  jys-iK  .  "J3  .  '=• .  'Jni   ni' .  na  .  as"i .  1  N3inc  .  r  8 

Palestinian  monuments  of  the  earliest  antiquity  arc 
very  rare.    From  the  preexilic  time  there  exists  but 


Alphabet 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


440 


one  inscription  of  any  U'ngtli.  found  in  the  Siloam 
tunnel  in  ISHl.  It  relates  un  episode  from  the  con- 
struction of  the  conduit,  and  dates  perhaps  from  tlic 
time  of  Hezekiah.  The  six  lines  below  tnjnsliter- 
ated  are  taken  from  a  photograph  in  the  "  Zeitschrift 


A  peculiarity  of  these  seals  is  the  sepanilion  of 
the  lines  by  two  parallel  strokes.  See  Sk.\i.s,  and 
BiblioKrapliv  5.  For  seal  No.  1  compare  Li<l/bar- 
ski,  "llandbuch,"  p.  4«7,  and  Clermont-Ganneau, 
"liecueil  d'Archeologie  Orieutale,"  iii.  189;  for  No. 


Inscription  Tocnd  in  tuk  siloa.m  AyiEDicT. 

(From  Vlf^ronx.) 


der  Morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft,"  vol.  xxxvi.  See 
Siloam  iNsciiirxioN,  and  Bibliography  4. 

■(ip3.n3p:n    121  .  n-n    nti .  napjn  -   -    1 

p.VK  . S"'  .ptcw .  aiiijnS .  pen  .  rSif  .nyai .  lyi . '■n  . CN.jnjn  3 

n  .D'DI.Sn LjC'Ciia  .mt .  P'h  .  >3  .iyi.SN.Ni  3 

wS'i .  )TiU)^;  .  j!ij  .  lyi .  .-ipS  .  U'N   B3Jn.i .  «i .  n^pj  i 

KD1  .  nCN  .  I'^Nl  .  B'.-Nr3  .  13131  .  '•N  .  NSirl  .  1=  .  D'll    5 

D3snn  .  li-Ni  Sy  .  isi .  n3J .  I'l .  icn  .  n 

As  may  easily  be  seen  from  the  text  the  language  is 
pure  Hebrew,  and  differs  externally  only  in  the  spar- 
ing use  of  the  nmtrix  lietionum.  The  script,  which 
was  probably  previously  traced  upon  the  polished 
stone  by  a  TnO  ISD  (a  ready  writer)  with  a  reed, 
resembles  the  writing 
used  in  the  preparation 
of  a  lei;al  manuscript 
rather  than  that  seen  on 
moninnents.  It  shows 
a  conspicuous  prefer- 
ence for  curved  lines, 
which  not  infrequently 
end  in  little  strokes  or 
flourishes.  Besides  this 
monument  there  exist 
from  preexilic  times 
only  some  very  short 
in-icriptions.  They  are 
mostly  on  seals,  some 
of  which  may  be  even 
older  than  the  Siloam 
inscription.  They  are 
characterized  by  the 
frequent  occunence  of 
names  composed  with 
'ffV;  as  well  as  by  the  utter  absence  of  any  represen- 
tation of  livin.c;  things.  There  is,  however,  a  series 
of  seals  that  certainly  bear  Hebrew  legends,  and  yet 
have  pictures  of  animals  or  of  Egyptian  symbols. 


(From  ClermoBt-GaaneAU,  In  "  ArchCologie 
OTieoule.") 


Seal  No.  i. 
iniiiy  p  in'::n> 

(From  CkTmont-GanoMU,  (n 
"  JourD&l  A«allqae."J 


3  compare  Clermont-Ganneau.  ib.  154  et  nrq. :   for 

No.  2    Clermont-Ganneau,    "Journal    Asialique," 
1883.  i.  129. 
H^ -^ -3  C  ^  >f\  C»         Other  smaller   in.scriptions 
•V  A*-//  *^         with  Old  Hebrew  characters 

occur  as  "  fac- 
Seals.  tory-niarks" 
upon  clay  ves- 
sels, which  were  found  in 
Jerusalem,  in  Tell-esSafi,  and 
in  Tell-Zukariya  (southwest 
of  Hebron).  These  are  proba- 
bly the  product  of  the  royal 

potteries  which  existed  in  the  dilTerenl  cities,  and"  in 

addition  to  the  word  "fp^h.  "to  the  king,"  the  seals 

mention      also      the 

name  of  the  town  in 

which     the     pottery 

was    sitviated    (com- 
pare Lidz  barski, 

"Ephemeris."    i.  M; 

Palestine      Explora- 
tion Fund,  Quarterly 

Statement. July,1900, 

pp.  207  et  mg.     The 

following  town- 
names  have  been 

found;     Socho,    Zif. 

Ezer.  Hori,  Hebron. 

This  explanation  of 

the  legends  is  due  to 

Clermont-Ganneau 

and  Canon  Dalton.  It 

is  more  acceptable 

than  the  other  which 

would   see   here  the 

name  of  the  king  or 

some    other    person.  .    . 

The  illustration  accompanying  this  text  shows  "pOp 

and  pan-     These  smaller  monuments  of  epigraphy 


St-al  .N...  :>. 

in^cy  ri'N  'j'JsnS 

(From  ClerinoDt-GaDtipa:].  to  "  Arch^Iogle 
Orienule.") 


441 


THE   JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alphabet 


and  most  of  the  seals  date  from  precxilic  liiiics.    Like 
the  Hebrew  language,  the  Hebrew  Alplmbet  at  tliis 

time  was  abnost  ex- 
clusively used  in  Pal- 
estine. Only  tbe  up- 
per classes,  who  were 
in  relalions  with  fnr- 
eifiii  lands,  spoke  and 
wrole  Aramaic  (II 
Kinsjs.  xviil.  20;  com- 
pare G.  llollniann.  in 
Stade's"Zeitschrift," 
i.  337,  note  1  to  Isa. 
viii.l).  I5ul  a  marked 
change  took  ])lace 
after  tlu^  Habylonian 
exile.  The  Aramaic 
lanjjuajre.  which  had 
then  already  spread 
over  the  whole  of 
Asia  Minor,  though 
used  by  the  side  of 
the  local  dialects,  was 
jiradwally  accei)ted 
by  the  Jews,  toiretlier 
with  its  script.  But  inasmuch  as  the  Hebrew  was 
still  used  as  tlie  literary,  the  "lioly,"  hinguage,  the 
writers  did  not  altogether  give  up  the  use  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrew  characters. 

During  tlie  first  centuries  after  the  Exile,  the  Jews 
certainly  used  Hebrew  in  their  writings.     From  this 
period  up  to  the  time  of  the  JIaccabees  there  are  ex- 
tant no  monuments  bearing  inscriptions;  for  the  fol- 
lowing one  there  exist  many  remains,  though  in  small 
dimensions,   being   maiidy  contincd   to  coins.      One 
would  think  that  the  characters  usimI  on  a  coin  would 
be   those   most   widely   kn.own;   and. 
Coins.       indeed,  in  Syria,  Aramaic  script  and 
language  are   principally    used  upon 
coins.    But  the  right  to  coin  money  was  in  olden  times 
as  to-day  looked  upon  as  a  .sign  of  polit  ical  independ- 
ence.    Therefore,  when  the  J(nvs,  aft<r  their  suc- 


Trade-Mark  on  Pottery  Founrl  at 
Lai'lilsli. 


Shekel  of  Simon  Maccobeus,  St'cond  Year  of  Indemndence  (140- 
l;iS)  B.C.I. 

A,  3[PJ1E'  Snic"  ''lie'  B,  ne-ni-in  B-'>e'n' 

(AfUr  MuMcn,  "Coins  of  Iha  Jiwi.") 

cessful  revolt  against  the  Seleucids,  felt  themselves 
masters  in  their  own  land,  they  not  oidy  wanted  to 
have  their  own  coins,  but,  to  give  more  forcefid 
expression  to  their  newly  won  in(h'i)endence,  they 
in.scribeiUcgemlsintheirown  languagi-and  tlicirown 
script.  The  letters  on  these  coins  resemble  very  closely 
tho.st!  of  the  Siloam  inscriptions  and  the  smaller  mon- 
uments. But  what  is  there  I'vidently  the  llourish  of 
the  reed  as  it  hurried  ovir  the  surface,  or  an  indtation 
of  it,  appears  here  in  fixed  form.  The  curvrd  stems 
of  the  old  script  have  been  broken  at  right  angles, 
upon  the  lower  leg  of  which  the  letter  appears  to 
rest.    The  appended  stroke  and  nourishes,  which  be- 


fore appeared  accidental,  became  essential  parts  of 
the  letter,  while  other  original  parts  have  been  con- 
siderably reduced.  Another  iiiculiarity  of  this  wri- 
ting is  the  freedom  observed  in  placing  the  character 
(see  Plate  I,,  cols.  4-6).  For  about  a  hundred  years 
these  characters  were  used  upon  the  coins;  they  were 
then  supplanted  by  the  Greek. 

Not  until  the  revolts  against  Nero  and  against  Ha- 
drian did  the  Jews  return  to  the  use  of  tlie  old  He- 
brew script  on  tlieir  coins,  which  they  did  from  sim- 
ilar motives  to  those  which  had  governed  them  two 
or  three  centuries  previou.sly;  both  times,  it  is  true, 
only  for  a  brief  period  (see  ('oins,  and  Bibliography 
ti).  In  addition  to  the  above,  there  exists  only  one 
other  small  monument  bearing  the  same  sort  of  let- 
ters. It  is  the  capital  of  a  cobnnn,  discovered  in  1881 
byM.  Clennoiit-Ganneau  near  Arawas,  with  the  in- 
scriptions dIjU'^  IDC  -\'\-\2  and  'E/f  Oc6(*  ("God  is 
One").  This  may,  however,  possibly  be  of  Samari- 
tan rather  than  of  Hebrew  origin. 

Whih'  the  Jews  adopted  tlar  Aramaic  alphabet, 
gradually  abandoning  their  own,  the  Samaritans  held 


A.  H. 

Copper  Coin  of  the  Revolt  Against  Nem  (iiO-t!7). 

A,  o'^t^n'    B,  ''XTi"  r^Nj'i  rntt  pjb> 

(After  Madden,  "  Coioi  of  the  Jews.") 

fast  to  the  original  forms,  in  order  to  show  themselves 
the  veritable  heirs  of  ancient  Ilebrai.sm.     They  then 
not  only  used  the  Hebrew  text  for  sacred  books,  but 
employed  it  in  secular  writings  as  well,  and  later  on 
even  used  it  for  both  Aramaic  and  Arabic,    The  let- 
ters already  adorneil  with  angles  and 
Samaritan   corners  were  still  further  overloaded 
Alphabet,    under  their  hands  and  developed  into  a 
sort  of  Gothic  (see  Plate  I.,  cols.  K-liI), 
It  is  the  same  character  used  in  all  the  Samaritan 
books  of  to-day,  ami  remains  the  oidy  otTslioot  of  the 
old  Hebrew  script  extant,  while  the  modern  Hebrew 
-Vlpbabet  is  of  Aramaic  origin. 

The  Aramaic  characters  had  undergone  many 
changes  in  development  before  the  .lews  became  ac- 
<|iiainted  with  them.     The  oldest  moinuuinls  with 


_^^^rjr^7ip^rr^..'i^'u,^Z,-i'^^ 


In.scrl|)Uon  on  Column  Dlscovt-rcd  Near  Amn'&s  by 
Cleniioni-lfunueuu. 

this  alphabet  are  tho.se  discovered,  about  ton  j'cars 
ago,  in  or  near  the  ruineil  mound  of  Zingirii,  north 
of  Nieopolis  (Islalile),  and  dating  fn>m  the  eighth 

•  ('oiiipnn'  "Anlilvi's  ili-s  Missions  Sok'ntlflqtics  et  Lllterulnw," 
III,  sfrifM,  \x.  at',  II.  Sll. 


AlphatMt 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


442 


century  B.C.     The  texts  are  |)artly  in  Aramiiie  and 
partly  in  the  local  dialect,  which  was  a  compromise 
between  Animaicand  Hebrew  (see  Bib- 
Aramaic     liograi)hyT).    Several  hiimlred  monu- 
Origia  of    ments  of  smaller  dimensions  represent 
Modem       the  succeeding  centuries,  amnnij;  which 
Hebrew       those  worthy  of  special   mention  are 
Letters.       tlie    two    tombstones    found    in    the 
mound  of  Xerab.  near  Alepiio.  which 
date  from    the   sevcnlh   century  ii.c.  (see  note  8). 
A  larger  number  of  inscriptions  came  from  the  ar- 
chives of  Nineveh  and  Uabylon.    As  a  rule,  these  arc 
cuneiform  inscriptions  relating  toconuiierce.and  giv- 
ing short  Aramaic  legends  somewhat  in  the  fashion 
of  a  label.     It  is  obvious  from  this  that  the  oflicial 
scribes  of  Nineveh  and  IJabylon  were  not  |)erfectly  fa- 
miliar with   the  complicated   cuneiform    alphabet, 
and  therefore,  in  order  to  facilitate  futuri'  reference 
to  these  archives,  inscribed  ui)on  the  talilets  a  brief 
explanatory  synopsis  of  their  contents  in  Aramaic 
(compare  "Corpus  Inscriptionum  Semiticarum."  ii. 
No.  15  et  seg.). 

These  dockets,  written  entirely  in  cursive  char- 
acters, are  of  special  scientific  value,  because  they 
allow  us  to  follow  up,  step  by  step,  the  transition  of 
the  Aramaic  alphabet  fmm  tlie  oriixiiial  rorni  to  that 
in  which  it  became  known  to  the  Jews  in  Babylonia, 
and  even  throiigh  some  later  developments  (see  plate 
11.,  col.  3).  During  that  period  the  alphabet  had 
undergone  material  changes,  and  at  its  close  scarcely 
a  sj'mbol  retained  the  form  of  three  centuries  before. 
The  letters  3.  T,  T  exemplify  this  evolution  in  a  char- 
acteristic manner.    Originally  they  were  written  with 

closed  heads  (  ^ ,  4,  ^)though,  in  writing  rapidly, 

less  and  less  attention  was  paid  to  the  juncture  of 
the  lines.  But  what  was  at  first  only  negligence  be- 
came later  a  fi.xed  custom.  The  heads  were  opened 
more  and  more,  and  the  former  convergent  strokes 
developed  into  parallel  lines,  so  that  these  three  let- 
ters took  on  the  following  forms:     P,  '^,  *^.     In 

'Ayiti  (0)  the  circle  opened  more  and  more  until  the 
curve  \j  became  an  angle  open  at  the  top:  V.     In 

Aleph  ( dl  )  the  sides  of  the  angle  separated,  the 

Chang-es  in  upper  one  moving  more  and  more  to 
Letters.      the  right  and  becomingunrecognizably 

small.     So  also  in  Kaph  "T  :  the  upper  side  of  the 

angle  is  moved  to  the  left  and  placed  perpendicu- 
larly at  the  end  of  the  other  leg;  thus  3  became  u, 

and  therewith  came  to  resemble  closely  T  and  ^.  In 
He  the  lower  horizontal  lines  were  detached  from  the 
perpendicular,  one  of  them  was  gradually  omitted, 
and  the  other  attached  to  the  horizontal  crossbar,  as 

^,  ^,   /I,  71.     The  metamorphosis  of  "^  =  1  took 

place  by  the  reduction  of  the  head  until  it  became  en- 
tirely flat  and  1  is  curved  to  a  1.  Again  in  Znyin  and 
Ttxi  the  double  curved  line  A/  is  gradually  straight- 
ened, the  former  becoming  |,  while  Yud  develops 
into  /^,  which  sign  is  gradually  made  smaller  until  it 
is  reduced  to  scarcely  more  than  a  mere  dot.  In  Ikt. 
the  central  horizontal  stroke  only  was  retained,  and 

■was  moved  more  and  more  to  the  top:  H,  H.  n.  In 
Tet,  too,  one  line  of  the  cross  was  omitted  and  the 
other  fastened  to  the  now  open  circle  so  that  the  let- 
ter could  be  made  with  one  stroke:  Q.     In  the  case 


of  Mem  and  Shin  the  broken  line  y  first  becomes  "Jf 
and  for  the  latter  of  these  two  letters  the  middle 
stroke  is  then  made  parallel  with  the  right  one,  so 
that  a  new  sign  results.  ^,  while  in  the  case  of  Mtm 
"f  becomes  *H  or  *H.  In  this  latter  form  the  straight 
stroke  1  extends  above  the  curved  line  and  soon 
becomes  greatly  lengthened.     Sinularly  the  head  of 

^  (D)  is  transformed  into  a  zigzag  2j-,  and  gradually 

becomes  ^  which  is  simplified  to  2i.     The  circular 

head  in  Kitph  was  at  first  not  closed:  it  l)ecomes  first 

P,  and  then  by  the  addition  of  a  hook  to  the  left  is 

changed  to  p.  In  Tnr,  the  cross-line  \  forms  an 
angle,  the  right  side  of  which  is  lengthened  until  it 

reaches  the  base    A,  T\- 

The  particular  form  given  to  these  Aramaic  letters 
with  ink  upon  papyrus,  at  the  close  of  this  {■volu- 
tionary  period — that  is.  abou'  the  fifth  or  fourth  cen- 
tury li.c. — is  shown  by  a  series  of  Aramaic  i)apyri 
from  Egypt  collected  in  the  "Corpus  Inscriptionum 
Semiticarum,"  ii.,  table  xv.  Imitations  of  these  cur- 
sive forms  were  also  executed  upon  stone.  A  glance 
at  the  text  in  the  "Corpus  Inscriptionum  Semitica 
rum."  ii.,  table  xvi.,  revealsthe  astonishing  fact  that 
not  only  the  general  features  of  the  script  are  much 
like  the  cursive  Hebrew  of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  that 
many  of  the  signs  taken  by  themselves  are  almost 
identical.  It  is  scarcely  probable  that  any  material 
differences  in  the  mode  of  writing  existed  in  west- 
ern Asia  at  the  time  when  the  use  of  the  Aramaic  al- 
phaliet  became  general  among  the  Jews.  The  Jews 
in  exile  were  certainly  very  (juick  to  abandon  their 
mother  tongue  for  the  Aramaic  in  word  and  script. 
When  release  came,  the  exiles  returned  in  numbers 
to  their  native  land,  and  it  was  among  them  that  the 
art  of  writing  as  a  profession  was  most  i)revalent. 
Meanwhile,  masses  of  other  nationalities  had  settled 
in  Palestine,  either  from  choice  or  from  comjiulsion. 
and  these  people  for  the  most  part  also  spoke  Ara- 
maic :  but  the  most  important  factor  was  the  circum- 
stance that  the  government  functionaries  both  spoke 
and  wrote  Aramaic. 

An  extended  iirivate  epistolary  correspondence 
among  the  Jews  of  Palestine  at  that  time  could  hardly 
have  existed ;  nearly  all  writing  was 
Causes  of  limited  probably  to  literary  produc- 
Adoption  lions,  or  to  commercial  and  official 
of  Aramaic,  documents.  For  the  former,  the  in- 
digenous script  could  very  well  be 
retained,  and  since  literature  was  mostly  confined 
to  the  priests,  it  is  also  tolerably  certain  that  they 
at  lea.st  remained  faithful  to  the  ancient  mode  of 
writing.  On  the  contrary,  all  oflicial  or  semi -official 
documents  had  to  be  written  in  Aramaic.  It  became, 
therefore,  necessarj-  for  business  people  to  learn  two 
alphabets,  one  for  tlieir  social  needs  and  the  other  to 
enable  them  to  read  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Naturally 
.lews  who  lived  in  foreign  lands,  and  who.se  numbers 
continually  grew,  were  especially  compelled  to  do 
this,  which  circumstance  no  doubt  furnished  a  rea- 
son for  writing  even  the  holy  books  in  the  Aramaic 
character:  and  these  established  themselves  so  firmly, 
that  they  were  regarded  at  the  time  of  the  Mishnah 
as  the  only  sacred  ones  (compare  Mishnah  Yadayim, 
iv.  .5). 

The  opinion,  therefore,  has  been  expressed  that  the 
Hebrew  Alphabet  slowlj'  developed  into  the  Aramaic 
(compare  Blcek-Wellhausen,  "Einleitungin  das  Alte 
Te.st. "  .5th  ed. ,  p.  5.51),  but  this  view  can  hardly  be  up- 
held.   Among  the  Jews  the  two  alphabets  co-existed 


443 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alphabet 


side  by  side,  though  this  by  no  means  |)rechides  the 
possibility  tliat  a  writer,  either  from  iirnorance  or  in- 
advertenee,  may  liave  occasionally  inserted  Animaic 
letters  into  liis  Hebrew  text,  or  vice  versji  Sucli  errors 
would  occur  especially  when  the  parallel  letters  dif- 
fered very  sliirlitly.  That  this  mixiii;:  of  the  letters 
occurred  in  the  inscription  below,  which  is  regarded 
by  authorities  as  the  oldest  one  with  square  charac- 


Os-suary  Inscription  of  "Slialam- 
Zlon.  Daugliter  <if  Simeon  the 
Priest."  , 


InscrtpUon  In  a  Cavern  at  'Arak-el-Emir. 

ters.  may  be  due  to  chance.  The  inscription  consists 
of  only  "live  letters,  and  not  all  even  of  these  can  be 
identified  with  certainty. 

Acconlinir  to  both  .Jewish  and  Christian  tradition, 
the  introduction  of  the  Aramaic  script  and  its  use  for 
the  Holy  Scriptures  are  directly  attributed  to  Ezra  the 


time,  construct  the  grotto,  but  altered  the  work  of 
others  to  suit  his  own  purposes.  In  this  word  the 
letter  J?  has  the  old  Semitic  form  and  the  letters 
a.  n.  and  '  are  simi- 
lar to  the  Aramaic 
characters  of  the  Per- 
sian period,  while  the 
T  has  taken  the  form 
of  a  much  later  date 
(see  Plate  III.,  col.  1). 
The  inscription  of 
the  Bene  He/ir  to  be 
found  on  a  family 
vault  in  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat  prob- 
ably dates  from  the 
tirsl  century  n.c,  and  was  afterward  regarded  as 
the  resting-place  of  St.  James  (see  "Corpus  Inscrip- 
tionum  Hebraicarum,"  Plate  I.,  No.  (i;  Driver, 
■•  Notes  on  the  Hebrew  Te.xt  of  the  Book  of  Samuel." 
pp.  xxiii.  :and  Berger.  "Histoire  de  I'Ecriture."  2d 
ed..  pp.  257  et  seq.).  "From  about  the  same  period  are 
to  be  dated  the  ossuaries,  or  stone  sarcophagi  wherein 
the  bones  of  those  deceased  were  preserved;  these 
are  found  in  great  numbers  in  Palestine  (see  Plate 
HI,  col.  2;  "Corpus  In.scrii).  Ilebra."  col.  76:  and 
Clermont-Ganneau,  in  "  Revue  Arche- 
Stone-Chest  ologique,"  serie  iii.,  i.  237).  Notwith- 
Inscriptions.  standing  the  lack  of  care  in  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  inscriptions  and  in  spite 
of  their  uninteresting  details,  these  stone  chests  pos- 
sess an  apjireciable  value,  because  by  their  aid  may 


IX 


IMMtia^n  a 


IN.SCRIPTION   OX    FAMI1.V  VaCLT  Of  THE   BEXK   HK/.IR. 


)jnv  11)17;!'  ^11^' 


n-jn  -ja  -iij-'-Ni  >i  -  •  D c'  >J3 

I'tn  <ja3--- 

scribe  (see  Sanh.  21/i.  22(j:  Yer.  Meg.  71'/;  Origen, 
ed.  -Migne,  ii  ,  col.  1104:  Jerome.  "  Prologus  Galea- 
tus").  The  former  statement  is  certainly  not  correct; 
nor  can  the  latter  be  established  satisfactorily.  Sup- 
posing the  inlroduetioii  of  the  Aramaic  script  to  have 
taken  place  in  the  tiftli  century  oreveii  later,  the  older 
manuscripts  would  Imrdly  have  been  destroyed  on 
that  account.  At  all  events,  this  iiiiieh  is  assured. 
that,  irrespective  of  the  Siinmrilaiis.lln'  knowledge  of 
the  older  script  still  existed  among  the  Jews  for 
several  centuries  (Meg.  Hi.-.  Origen.  "lli'Xiipla"  on 
Ezek.  ix.  4.  (|Uotesthe  testimony  ofacon  verted  Jew). 
Ancient  moiuiments  with  .S(iiiare  letters  are  very 
rare.  That  at  'Arakcl  Emir,  nferred  toabove, south- 
oast  of  EsSiilt  on  the  Wadics  Sir.  may  he  considered 
tlie  oldest  (see  Chwolson.  "('or|>usInseriptionum  He 
braicanun."  1 ;  l,id/,barski,  "  llanilliueh."  pp.1 17.1  !MI. 

4H^I).      It  consists  of  one  single  word. 

The  'Aralf-  the  correct  reading  of  which  is  proh- 

el-Emir  In-  ably  n"31V.    The  cav<Tn  in  which  it  is 

scription.     founil  is  generally  iiliiitilie<l  as  tin'  one 

wlii<h.  according  to  .Iiiscplius("  Ant." 
xii  4.  S  1 1  ••  "as  built  by  llyreanus.  nephew  of  the 
high  priest  Onias  II..  in  the  land  of  the  Ammonites 
when  he  lied  thither.  Since  thistliL'ht  look  place  in 
the  year  ISIi  n  r..  the  inscription e.iulil  not  havelieen 
cut  earlier;  luiless  it  be  that  Hyrcauusdid  IH'I   ai  ihui 


( ■■  Tills  Is  the  lonib  and  restlnc-plnoe  of  Eleazar.  Honlah, 

Joezer,  Jatlah.  Simeon,  Jobanan.  st>ns  of 

and  Eleazar.  sons  of  Monlah.  of  the  children  of  Hezlr.") 

be  traced  the  development  of  the  square  letters  into 
characters  which  do  not  greatly  differ  from  the  pres- 
ent ones. 

Even  before  the  formation  of  the  S(|uare  charac- 
ters, most  of  the  letters  could  already  be  ni!i(l<'  with 
one  stroke.  But  the  attempt  was  presently  made  to 
give  them  such  forms  tlail  a  whole  word  might  be 
wi-itten  with  lis  few  breaks  as  possilile.  and  each 
letter  be  gniduidly  made  to  approach  as  near  as  pos- 
silile the  one  following;  thus  in  some  of  the  letters 
w  hich  wei-e  originally  dosed  by  a  perpendicular 
n'tltD"!'  line,  this  line  was  bent  toward  the  left. 
But  this  heiidiiigof  the  perpen<Iicular  line  tm)k  place 
naturally  only  when  ligature  with  the  next  letter  was 

tKsuar>-  Inscription  of  "Judoli  the  Scribe" 

disind)le  or  permissible:  when  the  letter  stood  at  the 
end  of  the  word,  the  change  in  the  sign  was  unneces 
sjiry.  and  the  tinal  letters  ]'.  t).  |.  -\  still  relitined 
their  originid  downward  stroke:  though  they  are 
eiiiisidei-.ibly  lengtlien<d  in  the  forms  of  our  prest-nt 


Alphabet 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYLLUPEDIA 


444 


letters.  In  the  leltiT  D  the  orij;iiinl  Ix'iit  stem  was 
curved  upwurd  still  more  until  it  reaclieii  the  upper 

horizontal  stroke,  so  that  the  liiial  Vfi  in 

Final         today  has  the  form  D-      'llie   I'aliny- 

Letters.      reiie  script  pos-sesses  a  liiial  Ann  with 

a  li'iii;theiied  stem;  the  Nahalean  con- 
tains similarly  tiiial  Kn/i/i,  -V'/«,  y^nU:  and  S/iiii,  and 
further  a  closed  linal  Afiiii  and  final  //c.  In  the  .same 
manner  as  exhihited  in  final  -lAw  the  /iir/ai;  on  the 
head  of  ."v/m./- developed  into  a  straight  line,  and — 
as  was  the  ease  in  the  Palmyreiie  and  Syriac  script  — 
the  stem  was  a^jain  bent  tipward,  so  as  to  reach  the 
upper  liori/oiital  line;  but  it  remained  ojieii  for  a 


Bouiulury  InscTiptiDii  uf  the  City  of  Gezer. 
■>TJ  cn,"i  (Limit  of  Uezen. 

longer  period  than  .Vtin  (compare,  for  the  t  wo  letters, 
also  Shab.  104«).  As  a  result  of  the  effort  to  ap- 
proach the  letter  following  it,  the  hook  on  Lumcil 
has  been  lengthened  and  advanced  more  and  more 
toward  the  front  until  it  finally  became  p.  So  also 
in  the  ca.se  of  V  the  right  side  was  prolonged  be- 
yond the  point  of  inter.section  and  finally  produced 
y.  In  such  letters  as  1,  n,  and  1  the  stem  could 
not  be  bent  to  the  left  without  conflicting,  the  first 
two  with  the  letters  3,  3.  and  the  third  with  J.  But 
since  the  head  of  1  gradually  disappeared  or  became 
nothing  but  a  short  stroke,  the  whole  letter  ap- 
proached verj'  closely  to  f,  which  oven  in  the  Persian 
times  had  been  reduced  to  a  mere  |  .  But,  in  order 
to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  add  a  small  stroke  on  the  left  side  of 
Vaw,  thus  V  The  treat  nieut  of  Yvd  varied :  it  often 
occurs  with  a  stroke  on  the  left  side,  a  remnant  of 
the  lower  horizontal  line;  but  this  line  was  very  in- 
significant and  often  was  not  written  at  all.  The 
stem,  as  a  rule,  was  made  very  small  (JIatt.  v.  18, 
iCira  Iv  !/  fiia  Kepaia) ;  though,  in  order  to  make  its  form 
harmonize  more  nearlj'  with  that  of  the  other  letters, 
it  was  occasionally  lengthened  and  then  reseinl)lcd 
the  V  In  the  earliest  editions  of  the  Seiiluagint.  it  is 
said  that  the  Tetragram  was  written  in  Hebrew  char- 
acters which  looked  like  the  Greek  nilll  (Jerome,  ed. 
Migne,  i.  429;  see  also  Gesenius,  "Gescli.  d.  Hebrili- 
sclien  Sprache  und  Sehrift,"  p.  176).  Of  the  upper 
transverse  line  in  Aleph  only  the  left  side  remains, 

und  in  order  to  reach  the  base-line,  it 

Changes  in    was  gradually  lengthened.     The  same 

Letters.       is  llu^  case  with  J,  though  there  as  well 

as  in  A!i'ji/i.  the  whole  left  m<inbcr  of 
the  letter  is  pushed  to  the  bottom.  In  the  letter  Jfe 
the  former  lower  horizontal  line  is  gradually  made 
parallel  to  the  vertical  stem  and  fastened  to  the  upper 
cross  line,  from  winch,  by  a  process  of  shortening,  it 
has  been  separated  oidy  since  the  Middle  Age.s.  Some 
of  the  older  forms  of  this  letter  show  an  extension  of 
the  right-hand  stenv  above  the  cross-bar.  In  the  ease 
of  JIci  H  :=  n,  a  system  of  curtailment  affected  the 
upper  horns  of  this  letter,  gradually  reducing  it  to 
its  present  form.  An  extension  of  the  upper  part 
of  Tav  is  also  noticeable  in  the  older  forms  of  this 
letter,  which  causes  the  Tur  to  approach  in  ajipear- 
ance  the  corresponding  Syrian  sign.  As  early  as  the 
middle-Aramaic  period  the  letters  Q.  p.  C  appear  in 
forms  almost  identical  with  those  now  in  use,  though 
in  the  older  Koph  the  stem  is  not  longer  than  in  the 


Inscrip- 
tions 
in  Square 
Characters. 


other  letters,  and  it  hangs  from  the  horizontal  line; 
the  stems  of  the  Shin  are  dmwn  together  to  a  point, 
and  often  the  left-hand  stem  pas-ses  beyond  this 
point.  Compare  Plate  III.,  cols.  2,  3,  and  Talmud 
Shall.  1(14./. 

Tlie  oidy  inscrii)lions  in  S(iuai"e  characters  dating 
from  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ari': 
( 1 )  the  monuments  marking  the  boundaries  of  Gezer 
(.see  "C.  I.  H."  ii.  ;  compare  also  IJdzbarski.  "  Hand- 
l)nch,"  p.  484.  and  "  Ephemcris."  i.  oti),  and  (2)  the 
bilingual  legends  u])on  the  sjireopha- 
gus  of  Queen  Zadda  (see  illustration 
below),  I'll  to  now  (lildl),  five  of 
these  boun(lary -stones  have  been  dis- 
covered, thanks  to  Clermont-Ganneau ; 
they  served  to  indieatethe  town  limits 
of  Gezer.  beyond  which  it  was  forbidden  to  pass  on 
the  Sabbath",  The  sjircophagus  bears  the  short  leg- 
end nnj^D  mV.  which  is  repeated  in  Syriac.  The 
(jUeen  or  ]uincess  mV  here  referred  to  has  bci'ii  idi'n- 
tilied  as  the  princess  llelenaof  Ailiabene,  who  is  said 
to  have  settled  in  Jerusidem  about  the  year  40of  the 
common  era.  From  the  fact  that  it  preserves  the 
oldest  Syriac  inscription  known  this  bilingual  stone 
possesses  additional  value.  .Several  fragmentary  in- 
scriptions found  in  Jerusalem  and  vicinity  may  be  as- 
signed to  the  first  centuries  of  the  common  eratC'hwol- 
s<m,  Plate  I,,  Nos,  3,  4,  7,  9),  To  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries  belong  the  inscriptions  found  in  the  syna- 
gogues of  Kefr-Bir'im  in  Galilee,  northwest  of  Sa- 
fed;  see  illustration  on  following  page. 

Older  even  than  these  are  theinscrijitionsover  the 
Synagogue  in  Palmyra,  which  contain  the  Shcma'. 
(See  Plate  II,,  col.  7;  compare  S.  Eandauer  in  "  Sit- 
zungsberiehte  dcr  Berliner  Academic."  1884,  ]).  933, 
and  Ph.  Berger,  "Ilistoire  de  I'ficriture."  2d  ed.,  p. 
2.')9. )  The  elianicters  on  the  walls  of  the  catacombs 
of  Venosa  are  also  very  old,  and  belong  jirobably  to 
the  period  between  the  second  and  the  fifth  centuries; 
most  of  them  are  painted  in  red  Icail.  Till  now  the 
oldest  gravestones  have  been  found  in  Italy  (com- 
pare Aseoli,  "  Iscrizioni  Inedite  o  Mai  Note  Grecche, 
Latine,  Ilebraiche  di  Aniichi  Sepolcri  Giudaici,"  in 
the  "Transactions"  of  the  fourth  Oriental  Congress 
in  Florence,  published  atTuiin  and  Home,  1880,  and 
also  "C.  I.  H."  No.  2iet  seq.).  See  Plate  III.,  cols.  7 
and  8. 

The  nundier  of  inscriptions  relating  to  this  pe- 
riod is  very  small,  and  their  contentsare  of  little  im- 
portance. Owing  to  the  many  upheavals  which 
took  iilace,  notably  in  Palestine,  during  this  inter- 
val, much  epigraphic  material  was  imdoubtedly  de- 
stroyed, though  it  is  certain  that  if  very  many  mon- 
uments had   been   produced    the   existing   remains 

woidd  have  been 
much  greater.  From 
the  mode  of  execu- 
tion it  would  appear 
that  then  there  was 
not  much  activity  in 
epigraphic  work,  for 
the  script  seems  to 
come  from  inexperi- 
enced, chnnsy  hands.  Compared  with  it,  tlie  de- 
degree  of  perfection  to  which  the  Palmyrene  script 
had  arrived  is  striking,  though  this  in  essence  is  tlie 
same  as  the  Hebrew  square  script  (compare  Plate  1 1., 
col.  7l.  The  Nabatean  alphabet  also  in  a  compara- 
tively short  period  developed  into  a  smooth  and  pleas- 
ing cursive,  due  entirely  to  the  repeated  effort  to 
connect  the  letters  with  each  other.  The  connection 
of  single  characters  in  words  occurred  even  in  the 
inscriptions  of  the  Bene  Hezir,  but  the  general  accept- 
ance of  ligature  was  systematically  opposed.     Such 


Inscriplion  on  Qiu'en  Zadda's  Sar- 
cophajfiis.    ( From  "C.  I.  S."  ii.  156.) 


445 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alphabet 


at  least  was  the  case  with  the  text  of  the  Holy 
Scripture,  as  is  proven  by  testimony  of  Men.  2il(» 
("Any  letter  not  entirely  sunoundeii  by  elear  pareli- 
nient  on  all  four  siiics  is  unlawful").  Tliis  injune- 
tion  lias  not  been  barren  of  i-lfcit ;  for.  cicspile  the 
various  nioditications  tlirouirli  wliiehtlie  Hebrew  Al 
pliabel  has  passed,  of  all  the  .Semitic  systems  of  let- 
ters it  has  departed  least  from  its  fundanu'iital  form. 
Nothing  alters  the  indi  viiluality  of  the  letters  so  much 
as  tlie  u.seof  ligature,  becau.se  the  little  stroke  which 
.serves  to  unite  the  letters  is  often  made  too  imjior- 
taut  a  factor,  so  that  the  letter  sometimes  is  merged 
entirely  in  it.  This  is  most  clearly  e.xemplilicd  in 
modern  Arabic. 

As  has  already  been  remarked,  specimens  of  wri- 
ting fnim  the  oldest  periods  are  alTorded  only  by  in- 
scriptiiins;  there  are  no  manuscripts.  And  yet  it 
may  be  safely  a.sserted  that  toward  the  end  of  tiie  an- 
cient periodtheholy  books  were  written  substantially 
as  now.  A  i)assage  in  the  Talmud  even  declares  that 
those  small  "ornaments." as  they  are  called,  the  three 
pIT  or  pj"t  placed  over  the  seven  letters  J>  J  fj  '  £DVE^. 
were  at  the  time  not  only  customary  but  nbliga- 
tory  (.Men.  'iWi).  Whether"  written  wit"h  1  <ir  V  these 
signs  were  originally  iKitbing  more  than  nrnaments 
which  accidentally  took  the  form  oi  Znyin,  and  the 
letters  which  received  them  were  simply  all  those 


his  explanation  of  the  term  kektb  An/mri  na  the  name 
for  the  modern  script;  according  to  him  "lltJ'X  is 
equivalent  to  Aaav/un,  Ivpia,  and  n'llt'X  therefore 
meant  Syriac.  Aramaic.  Of  interest  also  is  an  expres- 
sion of  liiibbi  Judah  which  shows  that  the  contrast 
between  the  straight  lines  and  stiffness  of  the  Ara- 
maic, as  compared  with  the  angular  irregularity  of 
the  Samaritan,  was  considered  quite  striking. 

Much  more  dlfflcult  to  understand  are  the  other  names  for  the 

Hebrew  script :  Vy  and  ^NPa-^  ;  for  vy  the  reading  IV  most 

often  ooeiirs,  deiiotlnir  the  "brolieii"  script.    Ainiin.  in  Stade's 

"Zeltsclirift,"  I.  :fsr>.  (i.  Hoflmann.  referring  u> 

Names  tln>  :ipi»'llation,  says  tliut  in  Kplphanius  ("]>»> 
for    Hebrew  lirrjiTiiis."  .\ll.  icii  this  same  s«-ript   Is  calli>d 

Script.  "  (ifcssloii,"  "dee.ssenon,"  conseiiuciitly  Y*"^ 
would  be  the  c<>rrc<-l  readintr :  and  a-Tording  t*) 
HolTrimnn  also,  ki  tuli  iM'af  meant  Ilrst  sivlif.. nu  sirlpt,  and 
afterward  .script  iiiscd  on  coins).  Both  Holtuiann  and  HaK-vy 
I"  Melanges  de  Critique  et  d'Histoiri-,"  p.  4;i'>,  Pari.s,  18SS)  rceog- 
nize  In  n.Nj>3''  un  adjective  from  ttie  name  of  some  locality.  The 
former, with  It.  Hananecl  In  the  Tosafot.  adopts  the  reading  njia^ 
for  the  place  (north  of  .N'eapolls),  while  the  latter  reads  hn'^ij-j 
(.N'eapolisl.  Since  II.  HIsda  was  a  Ilabylonian  It  is  quite  conceiv- 
able tlittt  he  wius  unuc(|iminled  with  the  Samaritan  alphabet,  and 
that  he  regarded  the  ani'ietii  fonns  a.s  identical  with  those  found 
upon  the  clay  tablets  "iNrD"'  3r'3.  Tliis  opinion  of  li.  HIsda 
may  have  been  strengilicned  by  theexistencc  of  il]4'  name  'N,"'i3. 
Aci'ording  to  K.  Niiilian.  who  was  likewise  a  lialivlonian,  the 
tlieory  might  be  held  that  keiab  Da'az  stinid  for  sivliform.  In- 
cisive, or  cuneiform  te.xt.    Though  this' form  of  writliig  may  not 


SVNA(»1CUK    IXSrRM'TlllN    .*T    KKKl!    lilRl'.M.      ( Krolll  "('.  1.  11."  p.   17.1 

-v:';--3  nj-ia  nd.i  nin  t^vc-i  ni-y  'i''  p  'i^n  nov  ''n^S"  nicv2  ''331  ^t^  Bipr3  Bi- 
("  May  peace  al)ide  within  this  [holyl  place  and  In  all  [lioly]  places  of  Israel  I    Jose  ha-Levl.  son 
of  Levi,  erected  tliis  lintel :  blessing  atteiid  his  works  (V)  \  " 


which  ended  in  a  perpendicular  stroke:  for  the  heads 
that  they  now  possess  are  of  a  later  origin.  At 
tirst  they  may  have  been  nothing  l)Ul 
Omamenta-  thicker  points,  such  as  were  made  to 
tion  of  termiiiati'  the  strokesof  the  Samaritan 
Letters.  ornamental  writing  (eompaie  I'late  1., 
col.  10),  and  since  the  great  majority 
of  the  letters  begin  with  a  horizontal  stroke,  haliit 
may  have  led  the  writer  to  add  a  small  horizontal 
stroke  to  the  others.  1  and  '  are  not  included  in  the 
letters  ^"'J  JJ  C3VK',  because  the  stroke  at  the  top  is  a 
part  of  their  original  form  (see  I'late  III.,  col.  2); 
lience  these  two  letters  did  not  receive  any  of  thepJI'T. 
(For  further  information  concerning  the  pjn  and  the 
I'Vlp  of  the  letters  compare  .1.  Derenbnuig's  work 
cited  ill  IJibliography ,  ^  1».  end  of  this  article. )  There 
is  this  further  possibility,  that  these  marks  are  ilia- 
crilical.  It  may  readily  be  supposed  that  t  reei'ived 
such  a  mark  in  order  todistingiiisli  it  fnim  1  ami  ';  3. 
to  avoid  cimfusion  with  3;  still  this  hypothesis  is  not 
tenable  for  all  the  letters.  It  would  be  just  as  dilli 
cull  to  determine  w  liy  p.  n.  T.  3.  and  in  many  manu- 
scripts the  letters  'and  n.  should  receive  a  ;'/'//».  iKor 
the  form  (pf  the  letters  with  these  tnijiiiin  in  modern 
Oennan  iniinuseripts,  see  I'late  IV.,  col.  7.)  It  is  cer- 
tain llmt  lilt  received  its  ■■  roof"  (Men,  29(/ ;  compiuc 
al.so  col.  2-i)  solely  in  order  to  dilTerentiat<'  it  from  n. 
As  regards  the  names  given  to  the  Ili'brew  alpha- 
bets al  tlie  time  of  the  .^Iishnah  anil  the  (ieinara.  the 
name  Av7ii/) '/Ar/ (Hebrew  writing)  needs  no  further 
explanation.     Perhaps  liabbi  Jose  may  be  correct  in 


) 

have  Im'cii  pnictlseil  at  this  time,  yet,  both  then  and  later,  the 
nibblsh  of  \\v  olil  ruins  supplied  In  numbers  clay  tablets  covered 
with  rlie^c  .■hanicteis.  sultlcient  to  perpetuate  the  knowledge  that 
this  was  ihf  f.irni  (»f  tliejuicieut  s<"ript.  A  nieniion  of  tluM-lay 
tablet  in.seriptions  may  be  found  even  In  tlie  Kitirist  of  the  An- 
Nadim,  compowd  In  the  year98T  (compare  M.  Jostrow,  Jr.,  in 
"Zelt.  f.  Assyr."  x.  SI9I. 

Owing  to  the  intlexible  rules  governing  the  writing 
of  the  Tonili  I'olls  there  could  not  bi'  any  material 
variation  in  the  form  of  their  letters.  The  great  im- 
portance, however,  which  was  attached  to  these  man- 
uscripts led  to  great  care  in  thec.xecu- 
Influenceof  tionof  thcclijiraelers:  the  scribes  strove 
Ligature,  to  produce  the  most  beautiful  effect  so 
far  as  could  be  done  within  the  pre- 
scribed limitations.  In  the  case  of  alphabets  having 
a  highly  develoiied  system  of  ligature,  like  the  Ara- 
bic, the  w  ritir  might  obtain  good  results  by  artistic 
grou]iing  of  letters,  but  in  a  block  text,  such  as  the 
Hebrew,  in  whicli  every  letter  must  \w  strictly  sepa- 
rate<l.  elTorts  in  the  direction  of  ornamentation  were 
conlined  to  the  individual  lettiT.  Hence  the  Hebrew 
script  followi'd  the  .same  development  undergone  pre- 
viously by  till'  Palmyrene.  Even  at  the  early  periiwl 
wlii'ii  the  Animaie  alphabet  bninehed  out  into  the 
Hebniic,  Palmy  line,  and  .\rablc.  Ilu'  syinliols  had  an 
almost  reel  angular  form  (corn  pari-  I.idzbarski."  Hand- 
bucli,"  Table  XXVI  .  col.  41,  and  developed  until  the 
characters  became  almost  perfect  squares,  and  thus 
formed  the  kitnli  iiiirutilxi'  ("square  writing"!. 

Kiom  the  earliest  days,  throughout  West  Asia 
writing  was  done  with  the  calamus,  imported  in 
most  cases  from  Egypt.     Since  this  reed  was  cosily 


Alphabet 


THE  JEWISH  ENfVfLOPEUlA 


446 


broken  it  was  not  found  practical  to  nmlic  too  sliarp 
a  point,  auil  tliis  circumstance  resulted  in  producing 
an  instrument  analoirous  to  tlie  modern  stub  pen, 
which  gave  the  chanicters  in  all  texts  of  West  Asia 
the  form  of  a  "round  hand."     The  heavy  and  light 

strokes  in  the  letters  alternate  in  such  a 

Iniluenceof  manner  that  grjidually  the  horizontal 

Writing'       strokes  become  heavy,  while  the  per- 

material,     pendicular  ones  naturally  diminisli  in 

thickness.  .Such  a  modilication  took 
place  in  the  Hebrew,  and  all  the  hori/nntnl  strokes 
were  made  thick.  As  has  been  remarked  above,  the 
scribes,  probably  from  force  of  habit,  ailded  even  to 
the  letters  bcgiiuiing  with  upright  stems  a  short  thin 
stroke  (juite  similar  to  the  little  ornaments  on  the 
letters  y'i  TJ'tjyC*-  The  reed  pen  ("  habilis  calamus  ") 
glided  easily  over  the  stirface.  C'onse(|Uently.  wher- 
ever it  was  used  asnii  instrument  forwriting — that  is. 
in  Saracen  lands — the  cliai-.icters.  in  spite  of  being  in 
the  square  form,  show  a  tendency  to  roundness,  the 
verticivl  strokes  at  the  same  time  becoming  more  or 
less  inclined  at  an  angle.  In  th<'  Occident,  however, 
the  ()uill  was  used,  which  offered  a  similar  obstacle  to 
sharp  iioiiiting.  and  as  a  consc(|uence  it  a.ssumed  in 
its  results  much  the  character  of  the  calamus.  On 
the  other  han<l.  the  walls  of  the  (luill  are  much  thin- 
ner than  those  of  the  ri'ed;  and  this  gave  rise  to  an 
appreciable  difrcrence  between  the  pen  stroke  and 
one  made  by  the  calamus.  The  ability  of  the  quill 
to  retain  a  sharper  nib  adapted  it  especially  to  the 
finer  strokes  of  the  lelters.  but  its  comparative  flexi- 
bility led  more  easily  to  the  breaking  of  the  lines. 
Again,  since  the  nibs  of  the  ipiill  pen  ])arted  very 
easily,  in  fact  spread  so  far  asunder  that  the  ink 
failed  to  till  out  the  space  between  them,  distinct 
scratches  would  sometimes  make  their  appmrance 
at  the  beginning,  or  sometimes  at  the  end.  of  a  thick 
stroke.  In  the  Saracenic,  or,  as  they  were  called, 
Sephardic  (Spanish)  lands  the  Hebrew  Alphabet  is 
distinguished  for  its  roundness,  for  the  small  differ- 
ence between  the  thickness  of  the  hori/.onlal  and  up- 
right strokes  as  well  as  for  the  inclined  jiositiou  of 
the  letters.  The  script  of  the  Christian  Occident — 
called  Ashkeuazic  from  the  Hebrew  name  f<ir  Ger- 
many, where  the  Jews  were  the  most  ])opulous — 
shows  sharper  corners,  thinner  tipright  stems,  broken 
and  pointed  lines.  Several  minor  peculiarities  arose 
also  in  the  letters  J.  V.  p. 

Within  the  range  of  these  distinct  features,  in  dif- 
ferent countries  various  gradations  and  tran.sitions 
occur;  thus  the  characters  used  by  the  Jews  of  South- 
em  France  and  Italy,  owing  to  their  proximity  to  the 
Jews  of  Spain,  and  those  used  by  the  Greek  Jews, 
owing  to  their  relations  with  their  Oriental  corelig 
ionists,  assumed  a  rounder  form  than  the  strictly 
Ashkenazic.  The  Ashkenazic  alphabets  may  be  di- 
vided, therefore,  into  a  G<'rman,  a  northern  and  a 

southern  French  (^NVJ'31"»a  303);   an  Italian  (2ri3 
t'Pyil).  and  a  Greek  branch.     Among 
Local  Vari-  the  SciJhardim  there  are  fewer  varia 
ations  of     tions  noticeabh'.  yet  it  is  i)ossible  to 
Script.       distinguish  in  the  Sephardic  alphabet 
variations  due  to  North  African,  Pal- 
estinian, and  Babylonian-Persian  Jews.     Th<'  sjime 
script  used  for  the  Torah  rolls  is  employed  for  the 
rest  of  the  Biblical  books  or  other  important  works, 
only  in  this  case  the  pvt.  pD  and  the  roof  of  theV/i? 
are  omitted.      In  other  works,  however,  embellish- 
ments and  flourishes  occur  which  were  strictly  jiro- 
hibitcd   in   the   preparation   of  the   Torah.     These 
ornamentations  were   influenced   by  the  miniature 
illuminations   used   by   Christians,    and    sometimes 
even  artists  of  that  faith  were  employed.  Two  works, 


freely  used  among  the  people,  were  thus  especially 
illuminated,  the  Niegillah  (Book  of  Esther)  and  the 
Haggadah  for  Pas.sover. 

In  the  St.  Petersburg  Imperial  Public  Library 
may  be  found  the  oldest  Hebrew  Bible  maiui.script 
extant.  It  dates  from  lIKi-'JlT.  and  the  letters  are 
in  general  the  siune  as  thosit  made  now.  though  sev- 
eral slight  moditications  appear.  Thus  in  T  atiil  n 
the  horizontal  line  projects  to  the  right  over  the  up- 
right, besides  in  n  and  in  p  the  left  stem  hangs  from 
the  cro.ss  beam.  '  is  coniiiarativelv  long,  but  1  not 
longer  than  the  other  letters  (see  I'late  IV..  col.  1). 
One  or  two  centuries  earlier  is  the  manuscript  of 
K.cclesia.sticus  discovered  in  Egypt,  in  which  all  these 
characteristics  are  wanting,  but  'he  very  peculiar 
width  of  the  lower  part  in  L"  may  be  noted  (i/i.  col. 
'i).  Columns  3,  4,  and  .5  in  I'late  IV.  exhibit  other 
Oriental  alphabets;  those  of  the  Ashkena/.im  may 
be  illustrated  by  specimens  from  illumiuated  Ger- 
man manuscripts.  For  the  former,  coiupare  cols. 
!-•')  ;  col.  (!.  in  which  thccusped  letters  ])redoniinatc, 
is  taken  from  a  German  Seliliot  maiuiscript  of  the 
thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century  (Steinschneider, 
"  Vcrzciclmiss  der  llcbr.  Han<lschriftcn."  Berlin,  i. 
4.  !l;  Tab.  ii.  :^),  The  more  secular  the 
The  work,  the  less  importance  wasatlached 
"  Ketibah  to  it.  and  the  less  care  was  taken  that 
Taniinah."  the  execution  of  its  letters  should  con- 
fortti  to  the  rules  set  down  for  the  w  ri- 
ling of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  he.  as  it  was  called, 

a  non  nyr\2  (see  Sifreon  Dent,  xxxvi.  D^C'3n3)-  In 
the  Talmud  (Shab.  Wii/i)  kitihnh  iiiiDiiinh  means  sim- 
plj'  "correct"  script,  but  later  it  was  applied  to  the 
s((uare  as  opposed  to  the  cursive  alphabet;  thus  Mai- 
nionides'  statement  (compare  Steinschneider.  "  Vor- 
lesungen  i'lber  Hebrilische  Handschriftcn."  p.  29), 
that  the  ketab  titin  designates  the  (Jerman  square 
script  as  compared  with  the  Oriental,  seems  to  rest 
on  an  error. 

Still  less  care  was  taken  in  the  execution  of  the 
letters  in  cases  where  the  text  transcribed  was  not 
even  Hebrew.    For  though  it  is  true  that  w  ithin  their 
own  coimtry  the  .lews,  in  exchanging  their  language 
for  that  of  another  nation,  adopted  also  the  alphabet 
of  that  nation,  yet.  throughout  the  Di- 
Translit-     aspora.  the  vernacular  of  the  country, 
eration  of    which  was  invariably  ado|)te<l  by  the 
Foreig-n      .Jews,  was  written  by  them  with  lle- 
Languag'es.  brew  characters.    So  that,  whether  the 
vernacular  be  German.  French,  Span- 
ish, Italian,  Arabic,  Persian,  or  even  Tatar,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  Karaites  of  Southern  Russia,  the  He- 
brew was  th<'  alphiibet  used.    Accordingly  there  grew 
up  in  coexistence  with  thesi|uarca  cursive  script,  the 
tendency  of  which  was  to  give  the  letters  such  forms 
as  would  pennit  their  being  more  easily  and  rapidly 
made.     But  the  mandate  against  the  use  of  the  lig- 
ature in  connection  with  the  writing  of  the  sacred 
texts  was  powerful  enough  to  influence  the  develop- 
ment of  this  system  of  writing  also;  for  the  ligature 
occurs  comiiaiatively  seldom   even  in  the  cursive 
script.     Thus  a  most  potent  factor  in  I  he  transfor- 
mation of  the  alphabet  was  held  in  restr-aint. 

The  primal  dilTerence  between  the  two  alphabets, 
square  and  cursive,  was  size.  In  unimportant  works 
the  lettering,  for  economy's  sake,  was  small;  such 
wasalso  the  case  with  marginal  or  explanatory  notes. 
The  former  was  called  htihuli  r/iiniinJi,  or  "large 
script  ■' ;  the  smaller  characters  were  known  as  /v/j- 
>i(i/i  ihikkiili  or  kiUiiinnh.  "small  script"  (compare 
Steinschneider,  I.e..  note  1,  and  Low,  "Graphische 
Heqtiisiten,"  p.  73,  where  .still  other  names  for  the 
various  styles  of  script  may  be  found).  Through 
greater  carelessness  and  haste  in  writing,  the  corners 


447 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alphabet 


of  tlio  square  letters  became  somewhat  roiiiidcd.  and 
the  heads  were  made  smaller  or  disappeared  alto- 
gether; later  on,  distinct  modifications  took  place  in 
some  of  the  letters. 

The  brief  inscriptions  daubed  in  red  ink  \\\mn 
the  walls  of  the  catacombs  of  Venosa  are  probably 
the  oldest  examples  of  cvirsive  script.  .Still  loiif^er 
texts  in  a  cursive  al]ilmbet  arc  furnished  by  the  clay 
bowls  found  in  Baliyloniu  and  bearini;  exorcisms 
against  maf;ical  intlucnccsand  evil  spirits  (see  Bibli- 
ography 111).  These  no  doubt  date  from  the  seventh 
or  eiglitli  century,  and  some  of  the  letters  are  written 
in  a  form  that  is  very  antiijuated  (Plate  V.,  col.  1). 
Somewhat  lessof  a  cursive  nature  is  the  manuscript, 
which  dates  from  the  eiirhth  century  (see  Biblioirra- 
phy  11).    Cols.  --Ill  xliibit  ciirsi\c  scripts  of  various 


of  Plate  V.  exhibit  the  German  cursive  script  of  a 
later  date.  The  next  to  the  last  is  taken  from  a 
manuscript  of  Elias  Levita.  The  accompanying 
specimen  presents  Scphardic  .script.  In  this  flowing 
cursive  alphabet  the  ligatures  appear  more  often. 
They  occur  especially  in  letters  which  have  a  sharp 
turn  to  the  left  (3,  t,  3,  J.  V.  DK  and  above  all  in  J, 
whose  great  open  bow  offers  ample  s[iace  for  an- 
other letter. 

The  following  are  the  successive  stages  in  the  de- 
velopment of  each  letter:  Alep/t  is  separated  into  two 
parts,  the  first  being  written  thus  <,  and  the  perpen- 
dieidar  stroke  jilaced  at  the  left  )^ .  In  the  mmlern 
(Jernian  cursive  these  two  elements  arc  separated, 
Ihuslc.  and  lIuacutcanL'le  was  rounded.     It  received 


jiSivf*  jsj^y^  -ijj  /i'99jjj  o^f)oy*  j*j£"jLfj  ■  o'spjjy^  v^-yy  'i^y  ojpy  ^%\'  hJ 
•lyV   J72>l/»  'Mfi*  J»j)t/  j>)j'yvsn  Mii  O'JsirX/f  of     '  J>JJ)t'j>/jit'J'  7>X->-i^  oJ*>^ 

SI'KCIMKN    VV    MOIIKU.V    SKI'MAKDIC    SCRIPT. 
(Portkm  nf  (hi-  orltfltiRl  iirltcic  on  "  McxlKm  Ak-ziin<lrla,"  wrHt,-n  for  "The  J*wi«h  Enfy.-loptHila  ") 


countries  and  rrntui'lr^.  The  (iilVrrcnccs  \'isiblc  in  the 
sipuire  alphabets  are  much  more  apparent.  For  in- 
stance, the  Sephardic  rounds  olT  still  more.  and.  as  in 
Ambic.there  is  a  tendency  to  run  the  lower  lines  to  the 
left,  whereas  the  Ashkenazic script  appears craniiied 
and  disjointed.  Instea<l  of  llie  little  ornaments  at 
the  upper  endsof  the  stems,  in  the  letters  ]•  J  TJ  tOV!^ 

a  more  or  less  weak  tlourish  of  the 
Cursive  line' iii)pi'ars.  For  the  rest  I  he  cursive 
Script.        of  the  Codices  remains  fairly  true  to 

the  S(|Uare  text.  Documents  of  a  )>ri- 
vate  nature  were  certainly  written  in  a  much  more 
running  hand,  as  the  sjimplc  from  one  of  the  oldest 
Arabic  epistles  written  with  Ilebnw  letters  (tenth 
century '.')  clearly  shows  in  the  papyrus,  in  "  FUhrer 
(lurch  "die  .\ussiellung."  'i'able  Xl.\..  Vienna.  tS!l|. 
(compare  Plali'  V.,  col.  1)  But  since  the  jireservalion 
of  such  ipistles  was  not  held  to  be  (if  impiirtance.  ma- 
terial of  this  nature  from  the  earlier  times  is  very 
scarce,  and  as  a  consi(|Uenee  the  develupment  of  the 
script  is  very  hard  to  follow.     The  last  two  colmnus 


also  an  abbreviatcil  fornicomieetcd  with  the  favorite 
old  ligature  L  ,  and  it  is  to  this  ligature  of  AlepU  and 
A((H((yniiat  the  contracted  Oriental  Ali/ili  owes  its  ori- 
gin (Plate  v..  col.  7).  In  writing  /!<(.  tin-  lower  part 
necessitated  an  interruption,  and  to  overcome  this 
obstacle  it  was  made  J,  and,  with  the  total  omission 
of  the  whole  lower  line,  ?.  In  Oimfl,  the  left  hand 
stroke  is  lengthened  more  and  more.  Ihiht  had  its 
stroke  jnit  on  obliiiucly  to  distinguish  it  from  Itmti  ; 
howevi'r,  sim-e  in  rapid  writing  it  easily  assumed  a 
form  similar  in  appeamnce  to  1,  T  in  analogy  with  a 
was  later  changed  to  /^.  A  tnuisformation  very  simi- 
lar to  this  took  placeiii  the  ca.sesof  final  A'<i/i/(  and  of 
A'"/)/(  (see  cols.  'i.  Tt.  11,  14).  except  that  ly'/iti  opened 
out  a  Irille  more  than  Kii/i/i.  The  luwer  part  of  '/.in/iii 
was  bent  sharply  to  the  right  and  rei-eived  a  litlli? 
hook  at  the  bottom.  The  left  hand  stroke  of  Tit 
was  linglhencd.  I.miiiil  gradually  lost  its  senneir- 
cle  unlii  (as  in  both  the  NalmlaanArabie  and  Syriac 


Alphabet 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


448 


systems)  it  became  ii  simple  stroke,  wliieh  «as  bent 
sharply  toward  the  riijlit  iu  the  most  modcru  eursive 
script."  Final  Mem  branches  out  at  the  bottom,  and 
in  its  latest  stage  is  drawn  out  cither  to  the  left  or 
straiu'ht  down.  In  Sinu/c  the  same  development  also 
took^plaee.  but  it  afterward  became  again  a  simple 
circle.  In  order  to  write  'A.V'n  without  removing 
the  pen  from  the  surface,  its  two  strokes  were  joined 
with  a  curl.  The  two  7V's  spread  out  in  a  marked 
nourish.  As  to  ?ii(k  the  right-hand  head  is  imide 
longer,  at  first  only  to  a  small  degree,  but  later  on  to 
a  considerable  extent.  In  the  beginning  S/iiii  de- 
velops similarly  tothesjune  letter  in  the  Nabaticau, 
but  afterward  "the  central  stroke  is  lengthened  up- 
ward, like  the  right  arm  of  Zude.  and  linally  it  is 
joined  with  the  left  stroke,  and  the  tirst  stroke  is 
left  olV  altogether.  The  letters  n.  1.  H.  ].  J.  1.  D. 
have  undergone  little  modilication:  they  have  been 
rounded  out  and  simplified  by  the  omission  of  the 
heads. 

When  printing  was  introduced,  the  selection  of  a 
style  of  type  depended  ui)on  the  same  conditions  as 
inthe  cas'e  of  the  execution  of  manuscripts.  Square 
or  block  letters  were  cast  for  liiblicul  and  other  im- 
portant works;  in  the  various  countries  different 
models  for  letters  were  often  followed ;  one  form 
was  preferred  at  one  time,  another  at  another;  how- 
ever, the  style  selected  by  the  Ashkenazim  prevailed 

and  maint"ained  its  preeminence  over 

"Kashi"     all  the  other.s.     Hooks  of  a  secondary 

Script.        character,  works  which  accompanied 

another  text,  such  as  commentaries 
and  the  like,  were  jirinted  in  the  cursive;  and  here 
a  style  of  tvpe  became  popular  which  very  closely 
rese'mbled  the  Hispano-African  cursive  (compare 
Plate  IV..  col.  9).  Since  the  script  occurs  ofteuest  in 
commentaries  on  the  Bible  and  the  Talmud  by  Rashi, 
it  has  become  known  as  the  Riishi  script.  For  the 
printing  of  .ludanj-German  texts,  a  further  develop- 
ment of  the  Ashkenazi  alphabet,  called  "  Weiber- 
Deutsch,"  has  been  created  (compare  Plate  V.,col. 
13;  see  Bibliography  12). 

Bibliography:  1.  Euyptiun  Origin  nt  AlplmliPt :  .1.  L.  Sn.nl- 
sehiitz,  Zur  GfschU)itf  (Irr  niichxlalu  iisi  liriti,  K'niii-'sln'it.'. 
183S;  Arehlldluaie  ihr  Hihrilir.  i.  :Ki  <  r  m  ./..  K.iiiii.'>1«ti;. 
185.i;  J.  OlslKiilsen.  f'hir  ilrii  Urximi  mi  il'  •<  Atiilinh,  l,s.  in 
PhiloUiliniisih:  SUKlini.  i..  Kill.  IMl  ;  II.  lirui-'s.li.  ('/")■ 
BililuiHI  Id"  I  t^iit  i^'iilf  1 1' I'll  •l'>Si}iri  It.  in  Vinliow-Huitzcn- 
(\orff.  Sdiniiihi  mid'  in  fill  II  ix^iiisiliii  III  ir  til  r  i'lirt/iVi/i.  series 
iii.  No.  1)4,  Hi'iliii.  isiis;  Km.  ill-  niiug<:  Miniuirc niir  I'Oriuine 
Etimiliinni  lie  VAhihiihil  I'hiiiiiicn.  I'uris,  1874. 

2.  Assyrlun  OriRin  o(  Alpliuliet :  \\ .  Deirlse,  Dcr  Vrxpruufi 
(Its  AUnemtliischeu  Alphal>r.t>iauit(Ur  Seimmiri''i:hcii  Ki  il- 
.vc/in/(.  In  Z.  D.  M.  G.  xxxl.  103  et  .if «/. ;  Friedrich  Dc- 
lllzsch,  Dii-  Knl.ilfliiina  <lf»Altentcn  Sihriflsiixli  ins.  pp.  TJl 
et  acq.,  Leipsii-.  Is'.iT;  II.  ZInimern,  Ziir  Fnnn  iinrhilrin  Vr- 
xprung  tlis  Aliiliuhil.i.in  7..  D.  M.  '.'.  I.  IK  il  sni.:  Bull. 
TJie  Oriiiin  (if  the  I'heiiiriaii  Alfnliet.  in  i'iof(C((i)i('»  "f 
Soc.  Bihl.  Arch.  xv.  :i<i--'-4iis. 

3.  MoablteStone:  Liclzharski,  Iliiiulhiirh  iter Neirel.iemitl.vhen 
EpHiri'l'hili,  '•  'ii'  et  sn/..  willi  tin-  nuiiierniis  wurks  mi  tliein- 
scriptlun,  of  whicll  the  f.illcwinL'iiiv  lln-  ni.sl  prciiiimrit  :  (  li. 
Clermimt-Cianneau.  Let  .S7.7.  i/.  Dhihiin  mi  SIrli  <liM<-i,i.  Ilm 
(le  Miiiili.  I'arls,  ISTO  :  Tli.  Nnlil.'kc  Iiie  liixehiifl  ile.i  K<'iiiil.'< 
Mem  run  Mnab,  Kiel,  IHTii :  K.  SchlcittriKiriii.  Die  .si.  (/.  .w.ViWc 
Mem'H.  KiinidK  iter  Mmihilir.  Hiillc.  IKTii;  li.  Sim-iicl  iind 
A.  SiK'in.  Di.  In.iehrifl  ilm  Knniiii  Mesn  rem  Mnah.  Frei- 
burg, i.  B.  ls.sii ;  vb.  (Icrnicint-iianneau,  Lu  Stele  de  Mena,  In 
Jeiiniml  Asi'illiiiie.  series  vill.,  vol.  ix.  7-'  ('(  ,sf Q. ;  A.  Nord- 
lander.  Die  In.ielirifl  ih.i  Ki'niiiis  .^tesu  roii  .Vi»i'>.  Lcipslc. 
189«;  A.Sociiiandll.  }hii/.ini:rr.  Zur  Mesiiiitsehrifl.  Ilnietite 
itlier  die  Viihiinilliiini  ilir  Kiniiulieheii  (ie.-'ell.-'eliiill  dir 
Wi.iKeiisehiitt  ill  Leijiziy.  IX'.n.  pp.  171  et  neq.;  M.  Litlzliai-skl. 
Etn.  .\(ieliiirUfiniii  iter  MeKeiiiiKchrifl.in  Ephemeri.i  fUr 
Seiniti.'<elie  h'liiiiniijhili^  1.  1  et  seq. 

4.  Sllnam  Insi-ription:  K.  Kaiilzsc-li,  Die  Silniihiii.ichrtft  in  Zeit. 
DcuLicli .  FaUI.'it  .Vcr.  i\:  Ur>  et  .<(■</.,  ullioi  sei/.  iwltli  ri'imidui- 
tionsbv(".SchickandA.Soi-in);H.(iiHhi-.  Die .■<iliuiliiii.-^eliriH. 
in  Z.  b.  M.  G.  .TXXVi.  TS,  et  .leii.:  K.  .1.  I'IU'Ii.t.  The  Dale  i.f 
the Sit'inm  luscriiitiem.  in  Vroeenlliiiis.'^ue.  Bihl.  A  eeh.  xix. 
165  et  scq. :  C.  U.  render.  Date  uf  the  SiUmin  Te.rt,  ib.  pp.  -'(H 
<■(  SOI. ;  E.  J.  Pllclierand  E.  Davis,  ilii  the  Date  iif  tlie  Sihiiiiit 
Inxcription  In  Pal.  Erpliir.  Fund,  Quarterly  Statement, 
1898,  pp.5«et8cg.,  70;  Cli.  Clermont-tianneau,  ib.  pp.  158-1B7: 


A.  Soeln,  Die  SHiiahiniiehrift.in  Zeit.  Dntlfch.  Pal/lnt.  Ver. 
xxll.Ol  if  Kcy.:  >l.  l,ld/liarsicl,Z'ir.Sili«i;iiii«/inr(,ln  Ephe- 
ineriK,  1.  .'W  et  iteq. 

5.  Inscriptions  on  Seals:  M.  A.  Ij'vy.  Sieuel  und  Gemmcn 
mil  Araindigehen.  Phrini2ii>ehen,  Althilirdmehen  .  .  .  In- 
fehriflen.  Bn'.slau,  isilil :  I'll.  Cleniiont-tianneau,  Sccaitx  el 
Caehits  /..ni.litix,  Phiniciciw.  et  .s'l/nViix,  In  Jimrnal  A»i- 
aliiiiii.  l«i.  I.  la  it  .s(<;.,  .'KM <■(«<■<(.,  11.  ;XM  c(  «(■«.;  LeSceau 
de  iihiiiliinhau.  Eiinetinnnairc  liiiiial  Iiirai'lile,  In  Hevue 
Areliiiilmiiiine,  series  111.,  vol.  v.  1;  Ximeellex  Ditailles  a 
L'\}enile.^  SemHique.t,  Ciimpte/*-rcndiM  de  I'Aeadt-mie  dcs 
Diicriptiiin.'i.  isse,  pp.  iTietseq..  IWH,  pp.  1:11  f(  ivq.;  Ph. 
Berner,  i/i.  p.  340;  111.  Cleniionl-duniiiau,  Lc  Secau  de 
Adiiniphelet  in  ElmleH  d'Areheolinlie  t Irieiilille,  1.  8.')  f (  Hiq.; 
U.  BrQnnow,  ^DIteihln^|en  den  Di  iilseli.  l'iild.it.  Ver.  18U«, 
pp.  4  (■(  «(■<).,  pp.;;i<(jiri(.;Cli.Cleniioiii-i.iiiin'-iiu.  I'll  iVrin I'mu 
Caehet  Archnieiue.in  Ueviie  ,l)i(i.n;.,|,ci,ii.,  series  111.,  vol. 
xxvlll.348:  E.Sarliaii.  AramOinelir  In.-'eluitten.in  Sttzungs- 
luricht  der  Iterlincr  Alid<lemir  der  Wis^ensvliaflen,  l.s!l«,p. 
li»U  :  B.  siade.  I 'it  im  Jahre  ism:  I'idilizirte  AltneiniliM-he 
Sieqehteine,  in  Zeil-vhrift  der  AltlextiiinenttUher  II'Ltii'ii- 
iii7i(ir(,  xvll.  an  it  seq.;  A.  11.  Savci-.  Nnte  nil  the  Seal  Einind 
at  (ipliel  in  /'il(.  Eiphir.  Eiiiiil.  Qiiinterlii  Slalenient.  181(7, 
p.  181  et  sii;.:  (urtliiT  roiiiniunlcutlons  by  (  li-niiiml-lianneBU, 
Pllrlier,  and  .savre,  i;i.pp.:iiM  et  Keq.;  I 'omj4. .•<-i .  in'ii."''!'  I'-ilca- 
li.'iiiii  i(i.v  /ii«  riyif I..II.1.  IS1I7,  pp.  :I74  it  «'/•:  Iteeue  Itdilique, 
vl.  'ilC;  (■li.cicniinnl-iiiiiini-nii.  l.e  Secau  de Elaina.i.  Edxde 
Elichiiii.  in  /(.  rii.  ,1 1 r)i.'"("i;i'/ni-,  series  Hi.,  vol.  xxx.  344  et 
neq.:  Cachet  Unu'lite  aiir  .\..iii,«  de  Aliaz  et  de  Pelthai,  Re- 
cuedii  Pi-  I'liehel  Isniehli  Aeeliaiifue  aur Xnmxd^hhmacl 
el  reiliiil'ilinii,  ill.  pp.  ;i'd  l-Tvl;  Cniiiptes.reniluy,  18!»8,  p.  812; 
I.idzliiiiNki.  Iliiiiilhneh.  |i.  IMl:  c  li.  (liTMiinil-Canneau,  Secau 
l.iracliU  iiu  .Vow  d'Aliiqiid.  Funim  de  '.Loti/ii/iiik.  Uectieil 
111.  157  et  acq.;  (Juatrc  i\'imr.<iiir  Seeaujr  li  Livcndex  Semi- 
liquet!,  lb.  pp.  188  ft  acq. :  I.ldzl.aiNkl.  Kiilicnierin,  1.  in  f(  neq. 

8.  Coin  Inscriptions:  M.  A.  I,ivv.  Ge-^ch.  der  JUd.  Mtlmen, 
I.clpsir,  1863;  Fr.  Maddon.  ('..iii.^  ■>(  tlie  ./i  iis,  London,  1881 ; 
Th.  Keinach,  Lcs  il/olllioiis./iiiri.'i.  I'uris.  1SS7. 

7.  Zendifirli  or  sinjirli  liisiri|itloiis :  ,4  ii.vi/iii;.i(ii|70i  in  Sfnii- 
.ii')iii/i,  .lii.v|/rn»ir(  idiil  y/iniii.si/ij/tli.ii  till  Auflraqe  des 
Dnenl-r.iiiiili-.t  211  lleiiin,  1.,  Berlin,  ISSH  ;  J.  llalevy.  Deux 
Iiiseriiiliiiiis  Seiiiitique.i  de  Zindjirii  In  Rerue  Semilique,  1. 
77  it  .«!.(.;  ;,..<  />!  ii.r  Iiiscriiiliiinx  }{eti'eiine.i  de  Ziniljirli,  lb. 
pp.  l:iS,(s,i/..3IS,(  .SI./..:)!'.!'*  .M  !(..  II.  3.".  I  r  seq.;  D.  ILMililer, 
Die  Alt.'teiniti.vhcii  Iiisehrideii  nui  Snnhehirli,  in  W.  Z. 
K.M.  iii.:£)i(,<ii|.,  W.iet  sei/.:  Tli.  .NT.Iili-ki'.  ;(.  i.i.  I  ;.iiii{;.'ii  ju 
den^?-niiii7i.<i'(ifii  Iii.ychrifleii  roii  Seiiil.-iehirliinZ.  D.M.O. 
xlvil.  lUiiV  .•<i.(.:  .I.Hali'.vv,  1,11  I'leiniere  Diserlpliiin  dc  Uar 
Relioiih.  /(.I'll,  it  Corrii;.'. .  in  llrr.  Sein.  iv.  185  ct  seq.:  D.  H, 
Mi'lller,  Die  llaiiin.iehrilleii  des  llnr-rehuli,  in  W.Z.K.M.X. 
Wiet  seq.;  K.  Siuliaii,  .4  riiiiii'/i.-i'fi.-  I  nscliriften,  inSdzutwu- 
lieriehte  der  Prcmisischcn  Akudciiiie  der  triitsenKchaftcn. 
IsiKi.  pp.  11151  et  seq.;  M.  Lidzliarski,  Ilandlnieh,  I.  440  e(  scq.. 
II.  tallies  xxii.-xxiv. 

8.  Araniaie  Inseriptions:  Cli.  rieniiont-Canneau,  Z-cs  SUle* 
A  rameen  iii'.i  de  Ac  irah ;  fy  ude.t  d'  .1  rcln'nliiqic  Orientale.  11. 
1S3  •■(  .sii(.;  Album  d'AutitiuUt.^  Urientalci.  tables!.,  il.  Paris, 
1S'.I7  :  (i.  Hoflmann,  Aramtiixche  Inschriftcu  auK  Iferfib  hei 
All  iqin.  in  Jiiurnal  Ariatique.xi.  20etscq.;  M.  Lldzbarskl, 
Haiiilliuch.  1.  44.5. 11.  table  xxv. 

9.  Letter  ornaments:  Scfcr  Taqhiu.  Liber  Cnrnmilarum 
.  .  .  ed.  J.  J.  L.  Bargts,  Paris,  IWlti;  Derenbourg,  In  Journal 
A.iiatiiiue,  series  vi.,  vol.  ix.  346  ct  scq. 

10.  Hebrew  Inscriptions:  Oirpm  Inncriptionum  Hehraica- 
nim.cols.  18-21 ;  Babelon  and  Schwab,  in  liev.  tt.  Juive»Av. 
1115  (■(  seq.;  Hvvernat,  in  Zeitschrift  filr  KcHnchriftfor- 
seliiinq.  ii.  113tt  .t./.:  (iriinlmuin.  iti.  pp.  SUctsfq. :  Niildeke, 
ib.  pp.  3il5  et  seq. ;  Schwab.  In  /drill'  i(',4»i)AnVi!iii7if,  i.  117  et 
w./.,  ii.  V.Viet  seq.;  Prueeedinqs  Sue.  Bibl.  ^rc/i.  xil.  382ct 
sii)..  xlil.  .'>83  ft  .sf./. ;  llarkavv,  in  " Zapi.ihi"  of  the  (Jriental 
sHition  of  the  Petersburg  Archieol.  Society,  iv.  K!  ft  scq.; 
Laoau,  in  lievue  d'AssurinliHlic.  Hi.  49  ct  scq.;  Wohlstein,  In 
Zeit.  f.  As.<iiir.  rtli.  313  ct  sec/.,  ix.  11  ct  scq.;  Friinkel,  ib.  Ix. 

:)IVH  f  I  scq. 

11.  Hebrew  Papvri :  Steinscbneiiler.  Hebrili.iehe  Papiinisfra^ 
liieiile  iiiisili  III  Fiiilllliin,  in  .\eiiii)itisihe  7.i  ilsehrifl.  xvii.  93 
el  seq..  aii.l  table  vii.;  ( '.  /.  //.  cols.  I'_'u.  ( ,v. ./.:  Kniian  and  Krebs, 
Alls  den  rapiirus  iter  Kiniiqlicheii  ,Vii.<iiii.  p.  390.  Bcriin, 
IM'.m.  For  the  Hebrew  papvri  in  The  CiiUcctinn  uf  Erzherziiii 
lliiiiier.  see  D.  H.  Miiller  and  D.  Kaufmann,  in  Mitlcihamen 
alls  ill  r  Samiiihniq  ihr  Piiji|/nw  Erzherznq  /Jniiic  r.  I.  :!8, 
anil  ill  Fnliyer  diireh  die  Saininliinu.  etc.  pp.  3111  it  seq. 

13.  l.i'iiiT.il  Sourc.'s:  liesciiiiis.  (.'..-iMidt.  der  tielirdi.tehen 
S\ieiiihe  mill  .<ehrift.  pp.  i:lT  et  seq..  I.cilisic.  1S15:  II.  Hupfeld, 
Krilisihi  Beh  iieliliiiui  F.iiiiijir  Diiiilnlii  und  Mis-Tcr- 
sl II mil' lie II  StiUeii  ihr  Alttesliiini  llti.irhi  il  Te.rtqe.-ichicllle  In 
Tlieiiliiqi.'iehe  Sliiilien  und  Krilihi  n.  ill.  3.')n  it  .ii<;.:  Marqllls 
de  Vngiic.  L'Aliihiilii  I  Heliraliiiieel  r.ilphabct  Aranlcen.  In 
lltriic  .{reliiiiliiiiiiiiie.  new  series,  xi.  lir.i  it  .If.;. ;  Fr.  Lenor- 
iiiani. /•;.«iii  .iiirt.i  /'roji.u/iiiioii  iti  V Aljihabet  I'hinicicn, 
i.  1~!  et  seq..  3i!l  it  .1.1;.,  Paris,  1S75;  Ad.  Ni-llbauer.  The 
Iiitriuhicliiin  nf  the  Square  Cliaractcrs  in  Bilitinil  ^tam^- 
seriiits.  in  Sludia  Bibllea.  ill.  1  it  sf i;.;  Ph.  Berger.  Ili.iUnre 
de  I'^critnrr  dans  ('.4H(i.(i(iti'.  3d  ed.,  pp.  18.S  ft  .-a.;..  Paris, 
1892;  M.  Lldzbarskl.  Handlmch.  i.  18:i  f t  sfq.,  189  et  scq.; 
Leop.  Li'iw.  tVrap/ii.'tf/ic  Ileqnisitennvd  Erzeufpii.ise  bei  den 
Juden.  11.38  ft  sc/i.,  Leipsic,  1871;  M.  Stelnschneider,  Vorle- 
svngcn  liber  die  KumlcHcliraischerHandschriftcn,vp.Z!et 


PLATE    I. 

oT.n  1 

TKRREW  AXn   SA^IAUITAX  ALPHABETS. 

Modern 
Hebrew 

>7"»  H.r, 

Seals, 
Nth-Tjth  cent. 

n.c. 

Siloam. 

;i»j  D.c. 

Maccabean 

Coins. 
:.M  (■(-■lit.  B.C. 

Uusiiioueuti 
Cuius,     - 
2d  uufi  1st 
cent.  B.C. 

Uevcilutliiuarv 

(■i.iiis. 

1st  ami  :id 

eellt. 

iNSCKlfTIOSS. 

MS.  I2iy. 

4th 
■  ent. 

'ith 
ei-ut. 

mil 
I'i'iit. 

JX 

-^ 

-i^lrt 

ft 

t^tv;e 

^  F 

6 

y<y< 

X(^ 

rk 

a 

5 

5    5 

^5 

5  35 

j^yo 

5 

a 

3 

5 

; 

1 

-1   ^ 

^ 

^1  A 

-7  ^ 

n 

T 

1 

/:2i. 

^ 

4 

S  ^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

n 

^ 

?^^  n 

AA 

^  a 

^^H 

H 

^ 

^ 

-^ 

1 
n 

13 

Y 
XX 

® 

1 

B 

B   B 

f 

/x 

^ 

=?. 

7 

H^ 

=t  -v 

91-Z21 

1  =1 

/?/ 

/7/ 

f^ 

D 

7 

71  5 

J 

n  0 

7 

:3 

y 

id 

^ 

^ 

^ 

ia/^i 

/ 

1/  / 

r 

1/   y 

V 

L 

^ 

^ 

z: 

D 

r 

4;v^UJ,y 

J 

"^  t/ 

^  't/ 

t!^ 

^ 

iii 

a 

zj 

0 

; 

'7^) 
^     f 

J 

y  y 

^7  7^7 

J 

D 

i 
^ 

:^ 

o 

0 

6 

0   0 

o  0 

Go  0 

o 

^ 

V 

9 

B 

; 

7 

J 

D 

3 

i' 

h- 

r^  (^ 

i=*-f 

-^^-t^ 

'Zr  ^ 

i^^X, 

r7/ 

•^m 

P 

m 

? 

f 

?r 

V 

r 

n 

^ 

i  ^ 

1 

s 

^ 

^  1 

S 

q 

q 

^ 

17 

\v 

w  v^ 

WW 

W     Wi4/ 

u/  c : 

vv  uo 

UJ 

LU 

LU 

VJJ 

J^ 

X 

X   t 

X 

^ 

X    ^ 

X 

X 

X 

A' 

1 

a 

3 

4               5 

6 

T 

8 

9 

10 

l.-::'J 


PLATE    11. 
ORIGIN   AXD  DE^^:LOPMENT   OF  THE   IIEBUEW   SQUARE   ALPHABET. 


AUA.MAIC    ISS(  RIPTl 

INS. 

r.M.MVItKNK.                 1 

SVUIA    AND   MKSOPOTAMIA. 

•Vsia  Minor, 
.^tti-ad  cent. 

B.C. 

ArnWii. 
rith-4Ih 

cent.  B.C. 

Eeypt. 
5th-tUl  rent. 

B.C. 

Ornamental 
C'lmnicler. 

tursive 
Characler. 

/.iuiriill. 
^lU  i-cnt. 

Nrnib, 

Till  i-i-nu 

B.C. 

•'C.I.S."II.  1-8; 

i<th-:Wc<-nI. 

B.C. 

.N 

+ 

^ 

^"^^V 

■Kf  >^ 

f-KH^ 

vrw* 

b<i^^ 

A'A^rv 

3 

5 

3 

A53MM 

ii  1? 

96^ 

^^^^:> 

Jif^ 

rj  a 

X 

^^ 

^ 

A    A 

"1    A 

A  A 

^  A 

kX  H 

A  \ 

"T 

^ 

q 

A^^HH 

^  H 

^H 

H  11^ 

^HX 

^r^ 

n 

^ 

^ 

^^^^^ 

A<\^ 

^'J\'(> 

ii^^-rs 

^>fM 

>i^H 

1 

i 

M 

1  n 

m 

1)  I 

'l^l 

ll^ 

T 

IZ 

/v 

X    2    V 

2211 

1X2 

)   I 

1  7  1 

1 

n 

H^ 

WH 

HMHHrt 

n  H 

Hnn 

nn;; 

h  }\ 

-N    J^ 

u 

®G 

CD 

/^  c/  d 

d 

b 

b6L' 

6  6 

6 

« 

-^ 

^ 

^  ^ 

^A^ 

ai 

-«A  A  -< 

-^■7  ■:> 

)   -^ 

1 

6 

W7 

^1i 

n 

L  L 

J  J 

:d 

> 

7 

yiii 

^7 

'111 

^  >> 

Mi 

J 

> 

1 

;^' 

> 

)) 

))) 

^'^si 

D 

ff 

ff 

fT%^ 

n 

^ 

I'-Sb 

23>3:3 

^ 

>> 

o 

o 

O  a  o  v/ 

O    \J 

O  V 

V  V  y 

yyy 

yj^ 

B 

7 

7 

7 

? 

7 

7;; 

33 

3  3 

2; 

\^ 

r 

rrr 

r- 

VVlfV 

)^V 

^J{ 

y  p 

P 

?f 

9 

T  r. 

y"? 

pp^ 

nyi 

P   T^ 

-\ 

A 

^ 

^  1 

Ml 

11) 

n\ 

ZY^ 

■^ 

w 

w 

wV  V 

V 

v;/ V 

W  V 

yjwx^ 

v:/  ^ 

n 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Ml 

5 

A/ 

6 

r 

a 

450 


PLATE    III. 
ANCIENT    HEKKKW    INSCRIPTIONS. 


I'AI.KSTI.NK. 

I'ALMVKA. 

ITAL 

V. 

.\IiKN. 

'Arak 
("l-Knilr, 
3d  cent. 

I!.f. 

SariiipliiiKi. 

Ist  cent.  B.C.  to 

Isl  i-f  lit.  V 

"I'.I.H." 

-*,  :i ; 

l.st 

ci-nt.  ? 

••(■.Ml.- 

'1,  H; 

Iht  H.f. 

t<i 
Istct-nt. '! 

•■I'.I.H." 

IT; 

:kl-4th 

cent. 

'.id  cent. 

Venosa, 

2d  to  Tjib 

rent. 

BrlndLsl, 
7tli  cent. 

•C.I.H." 

SB; 
year  718. 

N 

^'/^'^X  A" 

IS 

A^^ 

\K 

NK 

N 

>^>^ 

n 

y 

ao^^^ 

3 

!J 

na 

:i 

/  ^ 

':j^ 

n 

A 

X 

/^.A 

1 

^^  ^  -) 

1^ 

1 

'i'-'i 

1 

-T 

n 

^ 

r1  /I  /I  t^  7l 

Tirin 

nn 

n 

nn/n 

run 

n 

1 

1  7  ?  7  M 

11 

1  1 

1 

1 

111 

1 ; 

1 

T 

1    r 

1-/ 

1 

f 

f 

T 

n 

H  K  li 

Hrt 

H  n 

n 

nn 

h 

n 

u 

li) 

13 

ovv 

ID 

^ 

=1 

1tia  J' 

A^ 

1 

1 1 

'\V^ 

'» 

t 

D 

n 

J 

D 

^1 

:d 

::> 

D 

h 

U 

^V 

^7 

hhh 

^ 

^ 

DP 
1 

:)'3 

J 

D 

ID    D 

D 

i  li  ^  l>  D 

V 

VD^ 

0 

3 

0 

3 

y  y 
J 

yy 
1 

0^ 
3 

0 

y 

i; 

^  T 

:y 

y 

:/ 

p 

r  ^ 

pp 

n 

>Y? 

? 

n 

1 

n    n 

^^ 

1 

1 

^ 

^  -^ 

M-i 

-) 

p 

^  \^^  1^ 

l> 

f^ 

^iv^/ 

\i/ 

Vvl^V 

\3X^J/ 

^ 

j^ 

^  n  :r> 

n 

Ji 

iin 

:nn 

-Ti 

/Ijl 

n 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

G 

r 

8 

9 

451 

PLATE 
MAXl'SCHIPT 

IV. 
AVHITING. 

S(,H'A11K   ClIAIlArTKIt. 

UAlilllNICAL   ClIAHAI  TKIi. 

Eastkkn. 

Westkrn. 

K  VSTKKN. 

UK.^TJ.llN. 

4'^ 

-1 

;3 

11! 

^5 

•J 

||{ 

J. 

?'3 
<2 

J. 

^1 

il 

^5 

^3 

P 

ii 

'6 

N 

X 

Ki; 

Pt 

^ 

A 

JS 

IJ^ 

«• 

-^i 

s 

V 

x^ 

T^ 

^? 

So 

a 

::. 

3 

n 

:i 

3 

CI 

h 

"^ 

2 

3 

:s 

5 

5 

3 

3 

,3 

D 

X 

Ji 

4 

A 

; 

^ 

^ 

A 

4 

Jl 

i 

;i 

A4 

> 

Jt 

-) 

> 

1 

n 

^ 

1 

-I 

^ 

n 

^ 

n 

? 

T 

Y 

*7 

•7 

1 

"1 

T 

1 

n 

n 

rr 

n 

n 

h 

n 

h 

rr 

/*) 

r> 

P 

n 

n 

n 

n 

:» 

n 

1 

1 

1 

■^ 

1 

1 

"» 

•^ 

^ 

1 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

^ 

1 

> 

\ 

T 

t 

r 

T 

T 

; 

1 

'f 

r 

/ 

/ 

I 

\ 

T 

f 

1 

n 

n 

n 

n 

n 

h 

n 

Y) 

n 

n 

n 

P 

h 

n 

n 

n 

T> 

n 

u 

V 

a 

v 

P 

\3 

t5 

^ 

P 

P 

p 

6 

V 

V 

v> 

V 

P 

^ 

1 

* 

s 

? 

) 

>9 

^ 

i 

1 

^ 

> 

< 

< 

^ 

^ 

♦ 

» 

D 

V 

? 

\^ 

\^ 

=5 

'5 

? 

5T 
V 

^1 

? 

=1 

'1 

^1 

?1 

^1 

:d 

Dt3 

25P 

730 

:dd 

DD 

^a 

^D 

>i>D 

>^D 

>?D 

y)'Q 

VO 

i?D 

>5D 

>?t3 

r>9 

»o 

J 

D 

'0 

p 

3^ 

p 

p 

0 

t5 

5 

n 
;> 

M 

> 

M 
P 

M 

p 

P 

D 

;^ 

^ 

y 

V 

:j^ 

;? 

;5^ 

!^ 

^ 

jii 

i> 

>> 

^ 

^ 

^ 

5^ 

-:? 

:> 

3 

p 

? 

1 

V 

7 

53^ 

P 

"I 

5^ 

? 

^1 

r 

-I 

P 

1 

P 

1 

P 

1^ 

^ 

V 

U' 

u^ 

■\y 

V 

V' 

li- 

1^ 

Vi' 

V 

p 

>y 

\:? 

v> 

13 

n 

n 
1 

2 

n 

3 

4 

5 

n 

6 

r 

8 

-75 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

J) 

14 

15 

16 

17 

PLATE   V. 
CURSIVE  WRITING. 


Eastern  Fcihms. 

WKSTKUV    FtiFCMS.                                            1 

^1 

1" 

C 

s 

i 

--5 

iX:^ 

i- 

-1 

c^ 
c  = 

5 

iN 

A/ 

J 

5^ 

y" 

^K 

A 

^ 

V 

M 

K 

K/c 

a 

iin 

J. 

:3 

D 

J 

3 

3 

D 

:3 

j> 

3 

3? 

3 

? 

X 

>4- 

J 

^ 

JJ 

J 

-i 

Ji 

J 

^ 

_) 

-J 

^ 

^ 

/ 

T 

i,H 

> 

> 

> 

> 

> 

> 

*> 

> 

7 

7 

>^ 

-; 

^ 

n 

n  n 

:3 

? 

^ 

'^r 

; 

? 

? 

r? 

O  3 

O 

/-) 

n 

r 

1 

I 

;j 

1 

; 

/ 

J 

) 

) 

; 

J 

; 

) 

) 

/ 

t 

■r 

( 

; 

f 

i 

/ 

/ 

r 

/ 

/ 

r 

I 

\ 

J 

n 

/^ 

t) 

>0 

A 

fS 

/) 

n 

/? 

p 

/^ 

/> 

n 

P 

f 

u 

01? 

o 

V 

y 

y 

y 

f' 

>' 

>H 

\y 

0 

u 

u 

(^ 

^ 

J  > 

« 

» 

* 

t 

) 

» 

J 

> 

/ 

/ 

1 

< 

1 

5^ 

Jj 

J 

=1 
1 

7 

^7 

n 
I 

'1 

^1 

JJ 

11 

^1 
1 

(r 

:d 

D 

^0 

yo 

yo 

>0 

>•  o 

MO 

jy  0 

ho 

>^-e 

hb 

«p 

t)-0 

Iff 

J 

J  j 

n 

^1 

'\ 

^( 

^1 

^( 

_» 

-'I 

-"l 

-■l 

-^  I 

n 

J 

D 

^0 

J? 

P-J 

p 

JD 

P 

p 

/> 

p 

o 

o 

D 

p 

0 

>> 

yi^ 

> 

J^ 

V 

3/ 

V 

1/ 

x» 

d> 

L> 

f" 

-XJ 

j> 

i 

s 

J- 

J"- 

J'- 

*1 

^7 

^1 

5 

D- 

y^i 

? 

PD 

P 

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12 

13 

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4.Vt 


Alphabet 
Alsace 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


454 


ftq..  I^lpslc,  IfW ;  1)1'  Wi>tle-S<-hni<ler,  Lihrhurh  dcr  7f w- 
tnrinch-kriliMhen  KinUilung  in  ilitg  Atle  Trglamnit,  xth 
ed..  pp.  IM  f(  «<v.,  U'lpslc.  imW:  B.  Sladc.  Lchrhucli  id  r 
Helirtliivhf It  (iramriuilili.l.  —  ft  «';..  UMpsIc,  1S79;  Bl«'k 
and  Wellhiiiispii,  FAiitiilinnj  in  ii<w  Alte  IV,«/<iiiif h(,  'ith 
ed..  pp.  .'■■''ii  < '  Nil..  Bfrlln.  IK-^l;  C.  S<'liliittiiiann.  Srhrifl  uiid 
Scliriflzfiehi  II  In  Itlfliin's //diKiici'ird  r/nic/i  ilt.s  IfililiHchcn 
Allrrtiiin.i.  M  iHl.. pp.  Hill i (;<ii/. ;  H.  L. Stnuk. Silireilikurmt 
mill  Sihiifl  liri  ihii  llttirllirn  In  Iiitil-t:ni\ihhiji!UHc  fllr 
Ih-iilrxliiiilisihi  Thiiihuiii.  M  cil..  xlil.  iKIl .  (  .«..;.  Facslnillfs 
of  Hi'hH'W  iiiiiiiusi-ript.s  niav  1h>  found  In  tin'  f"iio\vinjr  works  : 
Chwulscin.  ('.  /.  //.  If^l  '(  "III-  In  Oriinliil  Sn-iin  nf  Ilie 
PlMimtinnnafthe  I'lilmtirapliieal  Siiriitji.  I.<.n(lnn,  IKT.VHi: 
Stcinsi'lini'ldiT,  ('11(0(1  v"'"  "f  ""'  Ililnnr  Mmiiisrriijl.i  nf 
till-  Liliiiiri(.i  of  J^niden  (18.")S),  .V«»ii-(i  (ls7."ii,  and  lifiUn, 
t.  (1HT81:  Neubaucr.  Cat.  liodl.  llihr.MSS.  (facsimiles);  B. 
Sladc.  lioKh.  den  Viilk(s  Iin-arl,  I.  Berlin,  1HX7.  For  a  coin- 
pli-ie  lilliliography  see  M.  Stelnsclnielder  In  IVnlriillikitl  fllr 
/ii/»(i'»((ii/v.i(('c.ic(i,  Iv.  l.Vi  »■(  ,117/.  For  table.s  of  alphabets 
,«i'e  /'li'illoil(ii>ll,'i  of  tjif  Pi(lfo(;rn))/iico/  Sufiilll,  Ix.t.wii. 
(EutlngI;  Blckell  and  Ciirtl.'is,  intlUnes  nf  Ihliriw  Oram- 
null,  Lelpslc  ISTT:  Eutinir,  in  (Vn-piw  Inncriritinmim  Ile- 
hraicnmm;  Neubauer,  The  Introduclion  of  tlte  Sfiitarc 
Characters  (Brunnow). 


(Old  Hebrew  and  Samaritan.) 

1.  Mesba  Stone.    2.  Seals  and  (ieins ;  see  BlblloRraphy  and 

Lidzbarski,  Ifandhuch,  Plates  111.  1,  xlvi.  :!.  Slloani  Inscription. 
4-(>.  Coins.  iUTorilinir  to  Madden.  7.  Inscription  from  'Amudas. 
8  11.  InsiTipiions  from  the  llfth  century:  compare  Lidzbarski, 
Iliindhuch,  1. 440 ;  ami  Berper,  Htitnire  df  rf-j-rihnx.  2d  ed.,  pp. 
:SKI  (■(  feq.  lu.  Samaritan-rentateuch  Maniisi-ript  of  the  year 
1219,  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  accordinfj  to  the  lirkidal  scrifK  vol, 
x.wiil.  in  the  f  iiWiciidVwis  of  tin:  i'aleouraphical  Sncictu- 

Plate  II. 

(Oriifin  and  Development  of  the  Hebrew  Square  Alphabet.) 

1.  Inscriptions  of  Zenjirli.  2.  Inscriptions  of  Nerab.  3.  In- 
scriptions on  weights  and  clay  tablets.  4.  Inscriptions  from 
Asia  Minor;  compare  Lidzbarski,  /7i(ni(/>tic/j,  i.  446;  and 
Ephfmirix,i.o9ct  saj.  h.  Insi-riptions from  Arabia ;  see  C.I.S. 
II.  113-11.5.  ti.  Inscriptions  and  papyri  from  Egypt,  C.  I.  >».  ii. 
122  ft  sai.  7-8.  Palmyrene  Inscriptions ;  compare  Lidzbarski, 
Ilandhuchy  it.,  plate  x,\vli.  et  seq. 

Plate  III. 

(Ancient  Hebrew  Inscriptions.) 

1.  Inscription  from  'Arak-el-Einlr.  2.  Inscriptions  on  ossu- 
aries, according  to  C.  /.  H.  plate  iv.  193.  3.  C.  I.  H.  2  (Gezerl 
and:S.  i.C.I.H.  6  (Bene  Hezin  and  «  (I'iazai.  .i.  17(Kefr 
BIraim).  0.  Inscriptions  from  Palmyra.  7.  Inscriptions  on  the 
Catacombs  of  Venosa.  8.  Tumulary  in.scriptlons  from  Brindisi, 
seventh  century.    9.  Tumulary  inscriptions  from  Aden,  Gti. 

Plate  IV, 

(Manuscript  Writing.) 

1.  Babylonian  Codex  of  the  Prophets  in  St.  Petersburg.  2. 
Manuscript  of  Sirach.  3.  Pentateuch  with  Targum  from  Babv- 
lonla  or  Persia,  twelfth  century.  British  Museum,  Oriental,  1407, 
(According  to  Paleofrraphical  Society,  Oriental  series  liv.)  4. 
Manuscript  of  the  l'rophe(s.  from  Persia.  Babylonia,  or  Southern 
Arabia,  twelfth  century.  British  Museum,  Hari.  MS.  .5720  (l*aleiv- 
prapliical  Society,  Oriental  series  xl.).  .5.  Haftarot  with  the 
Targum  .lonathan  from  Southern  Arabia  from  the  year  14M. 
6.  Hagiographa  with  Rashl.  (ierman  (.\slikenazii.  of  the  year 
1347.  Cambriilge  Iniversity  Library,  Ee  5, 9  ( Paleographical  So- 
ciety. Oriental  series  xli.i.  7.  Modem  (ierman  script  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  with  ornamental  flourishes  or  strokes.  8.  Papyri 
from  Egypt.  9.  MS.  alphabet  of  theTahaliioiilm  (.\frican  Sephar- 
dlci  of  ■l2S2.  British  Museum,  Additional  Manuscr.  of  27113 
(Paleographical  Six-ietv,  oriental  series  Iv.).  10.  Scfer  ha- 
MiMinl  written  at  Mustaghanem  (Algeria).  In  i:i63-64.  Cam- 
bridge I'niversity  Libr.,  Cod.  1 1. 22  (Paleographical  Society,  Ori- 
ental series  XXX.).  '11.  See  5.  12.  Epigraph  from  a  Karaite 
Pentateuch  roll  from  Theodosia  (Crimea),  about  132.5  (C  7.  II, 
1:18).  13.  IlHsbi  on  Baba  Mezl'a,  written  probably  at  Mosul  (be- 
traying the  iiilluenceof  atireek-Ashkenazi  handi  in  lllHl.  British 
Museum,  ( irieiital.  73.  (According  to  Paleogniphical  Six-iety  series 
XV.).  14.  Taliiuid  Yemshalml.wriltenat  Rome  In  12S*<-.S'.t(italian- 
Ashkenazi  hand).  Leyden  I'niversitv  Library.  Cod.  Hebr.  Sca- 
Ilger  3.  I  Paleographical  Society,  Oriental  series  Irt.  I  15.  Mena- 
hem.  3/iiJ'.i/>fro(,  probably  written  in  France  in  1091  (French- 
Ashkenazltv-pe).  British  Mu.senm.  Additional  Manuscr.  of  27214. 
(According  to  the  Paleographical  Societv,  oriental  series  xlil.) 
16.  Snnak,  copied  by  U.  Mosi's  of  Zurieli  iKiench-Ashkenazli, 
In  1401.  Cambridge  Unlversitv  Librarv.  Additional  Manuscr.  No. 
660  (Paleographl(al  Society,  Oriental  series  Ixviii.) .    17.  See  6. 

Plate  V. 

(Cursive  Writing.) 

1.  Incantation  upon  Babvlonian  dish,  in  C.  T.  B.  18.  2.  Egyp- 
tian of  the  twelfth  century.  3.  Constantinople,  1.506.  4.  Tenth 
century.    .5.  Spanish,  date  14S0.    6.  Spanish,  tenth  centurj'.  7. 


Provencal,  tenth  century.  8,  Italian,  tenth  century.  9.  Greek, 
dated  137.5.  10.  Italian,  dated  14.51.  II.  Italian,  tenth  century, 
12.  (iennan,  tenth  century.  13.  Eleazer  of  Wonns.  N":"i  ^iiD. 
copied  at  Home  In  1.515  liy  Ellas  Levlta,  (7emian-Ashkenazlc, 
British  Museum.  Additional  hanuscr.  of  27199  (Paleographical 
Society,  Oriental  series  Ixxlx.).  14.  Aslikenazlc  from  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

M.  Li. 

ALPHABETTJM    SIRACIDIS.     See  SraACH, 

I'sKt  11.1, 

ALPKON,  JACOB:  Iliiliaii  tniiislator;  died  Dec. 
22,  1(122.  He  adapt  11 1  ami  translated  into  Italian  Hen- 
jarain  ben  Abraham  nf  Stjliiik's  "Mizwot  Nashiin  " 
(Precepts  for  Women)  for  the  use  of  Jewish  Avomcn 
in  Italy.  The  translation  became  very  popiihir  and 
went  through  several  editions  at  Padua  and  Venice 
(1C25,  16.')2,  and  1710).  The  name  Alpron  is  cor- 
rupted from  neilpiin  =  neilbronn. 

BinttooRAPHY :  .\fona(K»c/in/(,  xllll.  317;  Fiirst,  BiW.  Jiid. 
1.49. 

J.   S.  R. 

AL-BABI  IBN  ABU  AL-HTJKAI?:  .Je^vish 

poet  of  llic  IJanual-XuiUiir  in  .Midiiia,  who  tlour- 
ishiHl  shortly  before  the  Ilegira  ((i22).  His  family 
was  in  possession  of  the  fort  Al-Kammus,  sittiated 
near  Kliaibar.  Like  most  of  tlie  Medina  Jews,  he 
took  part  in  the  quarrels  between  the  two  Arab  tribes 
of  that  town,  and  was  present  at  tlie  battle  of  I5u'aih. 
617,  which  took  place  in  the  territory  of  the  Banu 
Kurai/.a.  Al-Rabi  5vas  a  poet  of  nolo.  He  had  a  con- 
lest  at  capping  verses  with  the  famous  Arabic  poet. 
Al  Nabijihah.  the  latter  reciting  one  hemistich,  while 
Al-lJabi  had  to  supply  the  next,  keeping  to  the  same 
meter  and  finding  a  rime.  He  has  been  credited  wit  h 
the  authorship  of  other  poems,  but  upon  dubious 
authority.  One  of  these  poems  used  to  be  recited  by 
Abun,  the  son  of  the  Calif  Othnian.  From  its  con- 
tents, however  (it  criticizes  the  folly  of  his  own  peo- 
ple), it  seems  more  likely  to  have  been  written  by  one 
of  Abiin's  sons,  who  bore  the  same  name  as  Al-Rabi, 
It  might,  then,  have  been  compo.sed  after  the  submis- 
sion of  the  Banu  Kuraiza.  Al-Rabi's brother  Sallam 
and  his  three  sons  were  among  Mohammed's  most 
bitter  opponents.  An  account  of  Al-Riibi  can  be  found 
in  vol.  x.\i.  of  the  Kitabal-Aghani,  ed.  Brilnnow,  p. 
91.  He  is  cited  among  the  Arabic  Jewisli  poets  by 
Closes  ibn  Ezra  in  his  "  Kitab  al-Jludhadarah"  ("  Rev. 
6t.  Juives."  xxi.  102).  Steinsehneider  can  hardly  be 
right  in  saying  that  he  was  a  Moslem  (".Jew.  Quart. 
Rev."  xi.  (109,  note  1).  as  the  Arabic  authorities  are 
ijuite  certain  about  his  Jewish  origin. 

BiBLiOGRAPnT :  Noldeke,  Bcitrtlac  zur  Kenntniss  der  PoeMe 
dcr  altcn  Arabcr.  pp.  72  ct  geq.;  Hlrschleld,  In  Eev.  £f. 
Juives,  vll.  1.52,  299. 

H.  HiK.— G. 

ALROY,  or  ALB.UI,  DAVID  (called  also  El 
David  and  Menahem  ben  Suleiman  ibn  Al- 
rulj.i) :  A  pseudo-Messiah  who  lived  about  1100;  bora 
at  Amadia  in  Kurdistan.  lie  became  tliorotighly 
prolicient  in  Biblical  and  Talmiidie  knowledge, 
studying  under  Hisdai.  the  Prince  of  the  Exile,  and 
tmder  Ali,  the  head  of  the  Academy  in  Bagdad.  lie 
was  versed  in  the  literature  of  the  Moslems  and 
known  as  a  worker  of  magic. 

The  condition  of  the  califate  in  the  days  of  Alroy  af- 
forded a  ready  opportunity  for  a  venturesome  char- 
acter to  stir  tip  political  tumult.  The  crusades  had 
caused  a  general  condition  of  unrest  and  a  weakening 
of  the  authority  of  the  sultans  of  Asia  ilinor  and 
Persia.  On  all  sides  there  arose  spirited  chieftains 
who  set  tip  small  independent  states  in  defiance  of 
their  paramount  ruler.  This  state  of  affairs  was  in 
itself  a  source  of  disturbance  among  the  Jews  of  the 
califate,  and  was  aggravated  by  the  existence  of  a 


455 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alphabet 
Alsace 


vexatious  poll-tax  levied  upon  all  males  above  the 
age  of  fifteen  (see  Lebreeht's  essay  on  "The  State  of 
the  Califate  of  Bagduil  "  in  Asher's  edition  of  "  Ben- 
jamin of  Tudela,"  ii.  318  et  seq.). 

The  materials  for  a  rebellion  being  thus  at  hand, 
David  Ahoy  raised  the  banner  of  revolt  against  the 
Seljuk  Sultan  Miiktafi,  and  called  ujion  tlie  op- 
pressed people  of  Israel  to  regard  him  as  their  long- 
expected  Messiah.  He  promised  to  lead  his  brethren 
to  the  recapture  of  Jerusalem,  after  whicli  he  would 
be  their  king,  and  tliey  would  forever  b('  free.  In 
the  adjacent  district  of  Adlierbaijan  there  lived 
a  iiuml)er  of  warlike  Jews  wlio  had  their  homes 
among  the  mountains  of  Chaftun,  and  these  men 
Alroy  sought  to  win  over  to  his  cause.  To  his 
brethren  in  JIosul,  Bagdad,  and  otiier  towns,  he 
sent  letters  aniioimcing  liis  divine  mission,  and  sum- 
moning tlieni  to  aid  him  in  waging  war  upon  the 
Moslems  and  to  shake  oil  their  yoke.  Ilis  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  magic  arts  is  said  to  have'  con- 
vinced many  Jews  of  the  truth  of  his  jiretensions, 
and  Alroy  soon  found  liimself  with  a  considerable 
following,  l)urning  to  free  themselves  from  Moslem 
tyranny.  He  resolved  to  attack  the  citadel  of  his 
native  town,  Amadia,  and  directed  his  supjiorters  to 
as.senible  in  that  city,  with  swords  and  other  weap- 
ons concealed  under  their  robes,  and  to  give,  as  a 
pretext  for  their  presence,  their  desire  to  study  the 
Talmud  with  sucli  adislinguished  sch<ilaras  himself. 

What  fcillowed  is  uncertain,  for  the  sources  of  the 
life  of  Alroy  tell  each  a  dilTerenl  tale,  and  the  sub- 
se([Uent  events  are  closely  interwoven  with  a  ma.ss  of 
legends  that  have  no  liistorieal  basis.  In  all  i)rob- 
ability,  the  attack  upon  the  fort  at  Amadia  failed: 
AIro}-  and  his  deluded  followers  were  defeated,  and 
he  himself  was  put  to  death. 

Tlie  legends,  however,  are  full  of  interest,  and  the 
version  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  which  is  set  forth  as 
though  maiU'  up  of  liistorieal  facts,  is  well  worth 
rejirodueing. 

The  news  of  Alroy's  revolt  reached  the  ears  of  the 

Sultan,  who  sent  for  the  would-be  Jlessiah.     "Art 

thou  the  Kingof  tlie  Jews?  "  asked  the 

Benjamin  .Moslem  sovereign,  to  which  Alroy  re- 
of  Tudela's  jilied,  "lam."     The  Sultan  thereupon 

Version,  cast  lhej<'wish  iiretciideriiito  prison  in 
Tabaristan.  Tlireedayslater,  while  the 
Sultan  and  his  council  were  engaged  in  consider- 
ing Alroy's  rebellion,  the  pseudo- Messiah  suddenly 
appeared  in  tlieir  midst,  having  miraculously  made 
his  escape  from  prison.  The  Sultan  at  once  ordered 
Alroy's  rearrest;  but.  by  his  magic,  tiu'  rebel  made 
himself  invisible  anil  left  the  jialace.  Ouided  by  the 
voiceof  Alroy  the  Sultan  and  liis  nobles  followed  him 
to  the  banks  of  a  river,  where,  having  made  himseH' 
visible,  the  marvelous  wizard  was  seen  to  cross  the 
water  on  a  shawl,  and  make  his  escape  with  ease. 
On  the  same  day  he  returned  to  Amadia,  a  jinirney 
which  ordinarily  took  ten  days,  and,  aiipearing  to 
Ilis  followers,  related  to  them  his  wondrous  exploits. 

The  Sultan  now  llirealeiied  to  put  the  Jews  of  his 
dominion  to  the  sword  if  Alroy  were  not  surrendered, 
and  till'  Jewish  authorities  in  liagdail  endeavored  to 
induce  Alroy  to  abandon  his  pretensions  to  the  Mes- 
siahship  for  fear  of  Ihc'evil  that  niiglil  liefall  Israel. 
From  .Mosul  also  an  appeal  was  madi'  to  him  by  Zak- 
kai  and  Jose|ih  Barihan  .Mlalah.  the  leachrs  of  the 
Jewish  community:  but  all  in  vain.  At  length,  the 
governor  of  Amadia,  Saif  al  Din,  bribed  Ihi'  falliir 
In-law  of  the  daring  rebel  to  slay  him.  which  was 
done,  and  the  revolt  was  brought  to  an  einl.  Tln' 
Jews  of  Persia  had  eonsidemlile  ditlleullv  in  appeas 
ing  the  wrath  of  the  Sultan,  and  were  obliged  to  pay 
a  large  indemnilv. 


The  death  of  Alroy  did  not  entirely  destroy  the 
belief  in  his  heaven-sent  mission  for  the  redemption 
of  his  people.  Two  impostors  came  to  Bagdad  an<i 
.succeeded  in  perpetrating  a  huge  fraud  upon  the 
credulous  followers  of  the  pseudo-Mes.siah.  They  an- 
nounced that  upon  a  certain  night  they  were  all  com- 
manded to  commence  a  flight  through  the  air  from 
Bagdad  to  Jerusalem,  and,  in  the  meantime,  the  fol- 
lowers of  Alroy  were  to  give  their  jiroperty  into  the 
charge  of  these  two  messengers  from  their  dead 
leader.  The  denouement  of  this  cunning  sclieme 
may  be  imagined :  and  jet,  for  many  jears  after- 
ward, a  sect  of  Meuahemites,  as  they  were  termed, 
continued  to  revere  the  memory  of  the  so-called 
JNIessiah  of  Amadia. 

The  principal  source  of  the  life  of  Alroy  is  the 
"  Itinerary  "  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (ed.  A.  Asher,  i. 
12"^127).  This  version  is  followed  in  its  main  out- 
lines by  Solomon  ibn  Verga,  in  his  "Shebet  Yehu- 
dah"  (ed.  Wiener.  Hebrew  text,  p.  HO).  Ibn  Verga 
states,  on  the  authority  of  Maimonides  (which,  how- 
ever, can  not  be  substantiated),  that,  when  asked  for 
a  proof  that  he  was  truly  the  Jlessiah,  Alroy  (or 
David  El-David,  as    Ibn    Verga   and 

Ijiterary     David  (Jans  in   his  "Zemah   David" 

Sources,  call  him)  replied.  "Cut  otT  my  head 
and  I  shall  yet  live."  This  was  done, 
and  thus  the  ))retender  escaped  a  cruder  fate.  David 
Oans,  Gedaliab  ibn  Yahya  (in  his  ".Shalshelet  ha- 
Kabbalah  "),  who  calls  him  David  Almusar,  and  H. 
Jose])h  ben  Is;iac  Saiubari  (see  A.  Neubauer,  "Me- 
dia'val  Jew.  Cliron."  i.  123)  close! v  follow  Benjamin 
of  Tudela's  version.  The  name  Jfenaliem  ibn  Alruhi 
("the  inspired  one"),  and  the  concluding  ejiisode  of 
the  imjiostors  of  Bagdad,  are  derived  from  the  con- 
temporaneous chronicle  of  the  apostate,  Samuel  ibn 
Abbas  (see  Wiener's  " 'Emek  ha-Baka,"  pp.  168  et 
se(j.,  wv.'et  wr/.).  The  name  Menahem  {i.e.  the  com- 
forter) was  a  conunon  Messianic  aiipellation.  The 
name  Alroy  is  probably  identical  with  Alruhi  (see 
Wiener, /.f. ;  GrStz,  "Gcseh.  d.  Juden,"  pp.  269  et 
neq.,  420;  Basnage,  "Hist,  des  Juifs."  vii,  9).  Lord 
Beaconstield's  novel,  "The  Wondrous  Tale  of  Al- 
roy," is  purely  imaginary,  and  exalts  a  man  who 
was  probably  a  vulgar  impostor  into  a  high-souled 
"  hero  of  a  dramatic  romance,"  and  invests  him  with 
a  halo  of  glory. 

BiBi.iofiRAPiiY :  Loeb.  la  Rev.  £t.  Jiiivcs,  x\-l.  215,  xvll.  3(M. 

M,  A. 

ALSACE:  A  Cierman  territory  which,  together 
with  Lorraine,  forms  a  IteirltKhiiiil.  or  imperial  terri- 
tory. It  lies  between  the  River  Kliine  and  the  Vosgis 
Mountains.  The  precise  date  when  Jews  settled  in 
this  and  the  neighboring  regions  can  not  be  deliniiely 
fixed.  According  to  some  historians  there  were  Jews 
in  Cologne  ill  thi'  fourth  ceiitiiiv:  others  date  their 
presence  in  Mayence  from  the  end  of  the  eiglilh 
century.  If  these  statements  be  true,  it  is  not  impo.s- 
sible  that  Jews  resided  also  in  the  chief  city  of  Al.sace 
during  the  period  of  the  Fnuikish  and  Carlovingian 
kings.  This  was  Schoepflin's  view  in  the  last  cen- 
tury ("  Alsatia  Iliusli-ata,"  translated  by  Uaveiiez,  v. 
U3);  but  he  furnished  no  liroofs.  However.  Benja- 
min of  Tudela,  in  his  account  of  his  travels  bi'tween 
the  years  1160  and  1 173.  spiaks  of  having  met  many 

rich  and  learned  Jews  in  the  towns  of 

Traces  of     Treves. Worms. Speyer.andStrasburg; 

Early    Set-  hence,  Jewish  (ommnnities  must  have 

tlements.     existed  there  in  the  second  half  of  the 

I  welflh  century.  According  to  J.  Kut- 
iii!:(".\eltereHebrflischelnschrifteniniElsn.ss,"lS*t7). 
tin- oldest  of  till'  gravestones  unearthed  in  isiis  in 
the  Kue  des  Juifsat  Stnisburg  dated  from  this  time. 


Alsace 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


456 


Another  tombstone  bore  the  (hite  of  1223;  but  most 
of  the  remainder  are  of  the  fourteentli  century. 

The  second  code  of  laws,  promulgated  by  the 
prince-bishop  of  Strasburg  about  tlie  year  1200,  jire- 
si'ribed  that  the  Jews  of  that  city  sliould  furnish 
the  episcopal  standards  ("iTkuiutcubuch  der  Stadl 
Strassburf;,"  i.  4.'^1).  In  12;i;i  a  Jews'  quarfir  ex- 
isted in  the  city  C'Urkundenb. "  i.  l.^.-i),  and  the  (enn 
"Jew  "  was  applied  to  some  of  the  Christian  inhab- 
itants either  as  a  sobriquet,  or  because  they  Wi're  de- 
scended from  baptized  Israelites.  Under  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.,  there  were  Jews  in  Hagenau  (Hicher 
de  Lenones,  ad  annum  Vi'M:  Hoelnner.  "Fonles," 
iii.  !)S);  and.  some  time  later  (about  12()0).  those  of 
Weissenburg  were  accused  of  ritual  nuirdcr.  and  ex- 
pelled from  the  town  ("  Annales  de  Colmar";  Hoch- 
mer,  "Fontes,"  ii.  4).  The  author  of  Ibe  anonymous 
appendi.x  to  the  "'Annales  de  Colmar"  (about  i;!(IO) 
says:  "In  Alsatia  .  .  .  chyrurgici  pauei,  ]iliysi(i 
paticiores;  Judei  pauci;  hareliei  in  locis  phirimis 
abundabant"  (In  Alsjitia  there  were  few  surtreons 
and  fewer  physicians;  Jews  also  were  few,  but  in 
most  places  heretics  aljounded:  "Annales  de  Col- 
mar," ed.  Gerard  et  Liblin,  p.  230).  When  the  bishop 
of  Strasburg,  Walter  von  Geroldseck,  quarreled  with 
the  citizens,  one  of  his  grievances  was  the  maltreat- 
ment of  the  Jews  by  his  rebellious  subjects;  and  in 
an  agreement  entered  into  with  his  successor  the  town 
council  engaged  not  to  exact  the  payment  of  im- 
posts from  the  Jews  for  five  years  ("  Urkundenb."  i. 
374). 

For  nearly  three  quarters  of  a  century  the  Jews  of 
Alsace  were  simply  tolerated  ;  but  in  the  last  decade 
of  the  thirteenth  century  their  perse- 
Era  of       cution  began.     In  1290  the  people  of 

Persecu-  Miilhausen  rose  against  the  Jewish 
tion.  usurers.  One  of  them,  a  certain  Sol- 
man  of  Neuenburg,  was  beaten  to  death 
by  the  mob;  and  King  Rudolph  I.  l>v  proclamation 
annulled  all  debts  to  the  Jews,  amounting  to  200 
silver  mark.s— about  S20. 000  or  ,£4.000  of  the  present 
day  (Mosmaim.  "Cartulaire  de  Mulhouse,"  i.  88). 
Two  years  later  (1292)  the  Jews  of  Colmar  were  ac- 
cused of  ritual  murder,  and  a  ri(jt  ensued  (Boehmer, 
"Fontes,"  ii.  30).  During  the  following  year  the 
people  of  Rufach,  aided  perhaps  by  the  avaricious 
clergy,  began  to  show  intolerance  toward  the  Jews 
of  that  city,  who  tied  precipitately  to  Colmar  (///.  ii. 
31).  In  tlie  "Annales  de  Colmar'"  (p.  168)  it  is  re- 
corded that  in  1296  a  Jew  of  Sulzmutt,  having  been 
accused  of  theft,  was  hanged  by  his  feet  on  a  gibbet 
and  remained  in  this  position  for  eight  days,  when, 
according  to  the  account,  he  succeeded  in  freeing 
himself.  Another  Jew  was  murdered  at  Ensisheim 
in  1299  (tb.  p.  182). 

Persecution,  once  begun,  diminished  somewhat  at 
certain  intervals,  but  never  ceased  entirely.  When 
Kins;  Henry  VII.  of  Germany  in  1308  delivered  the 
Jews  of  Rufach  and  Sulzmatt  to  John  of  Dirjilieim, 
bishop  of  Strasburg,  several  of  them  were  imprisoned, 
and  others  perished  at  the  stake  for  unknown  reasons. 
A  second  massacre  of  the  Jews  occurred  in  Rufach 
in  the  year  1338,  on  the  anniversjiry  of  the  conver- 
sion of  St.  Paul:  and  .shortly  afterward  nearly  all 
the  Jews  were  expelled,  at  least  temporarily,  from 
the  bishopric  of  Upper  Alsace  ("Alsatia  Illustrata," 
iv.  262). 

The  period  between  1337  and  1338  was  particu- 
larly vuifortunate  for  the  Jews  scattered  over  tlie 
neighboring  country:  and  from  the  meager  records 
of  contemporary  writers  it  appears  that  the  move- 
ment against  them  ultimately  developed  into  a  gen- 
eral uprising  of  the  peasantry.  In  Jlay,  1337.  Ura- 
behoven,  a  knight  of  Dorlisheim,  and  Zimberlin,  a 


noble  of  Andlau  (according  to  another  authority, 
a  simple  innkeeper),  collectively  taking  the  name  of 
"  Kiinig  AiiMi.KDiCK "  (King  lieather-arm).  placed 
themselves  at  the  head  of  a  mob  of  peasants  and 
niassjicred  the  Jews  of  Ensisheim, 
Massacres.  MUhlhaiisen.  Rufach,  and  other  towns. 
They  Ihi'U  marched  on  Colmar  anil 
summoned  the  magistnites  of  the  city  to  surrender 
the  Jews  to  them;  but  the  citizens  of  Sirasliurg 
having  decided  to  assist  in  the  defense  of  the  threat- 
ened city,  the  mob  dispersed  ("Chroniiiue  <le  Kie- 
nigshoven,"  ed.  Hegel,  p.  7.')9).  At  about  the  same 
time  the  Jews  of  Riheauville.  who  in  1331  ha<l  been 
turned  over  by  Louis  of  Uavaria  to  the  Sieur  de 
Ribeaupierre  as  surely  tor  a  loan  of  40(1  marks  in 
silver  (corresponding  to  Sso.ooo  of  tlut  ])re.sent  day), 
were  accu.scd  of  Ijcini;  jKiisoners  and  were  massacred 
("Alsjxtia  Illustrata,"  iv.  2(i2i. 

Isolated  cases  of  murder  also  oecurre<l  at  Stras- 
burg. In  1337  a  Jew  accused  of  killingalittlegirl 
was  bvirned ;  and  the  child  was  buried  with  great 
liomp.  and  honored  by  the  crowd  as  a  martyr  (Gran- 
didier,  "  Nouvelles  (Kuvres  Im'dites."  v.  344).  Still 
Strasburg  pniclii  ally  remained  the  city  of  refuge  for 
the  Jews  of  AI,s;iee  up  to  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century;  and  as  its  com- 
Strasburg  merce  and  industry  developed,  the  im- 
a  City  jierial  free  city  adjusted  its  relations 
of  Refuge,  with  the .lewsinamannerthat.  though 
onerous,  was  at  least  endurable.  In 
accordance  with  an  agreement  made  in  132.'"),  the  .lews 
occupied  a  quarter  of  their  own  in  the  eily  of  Stras- 
burg anil  had  their  own  cemetery  ("  Urkundenb."  ii. 
394).  If  they  could  not  acquire  real  estate,  they  were 
not  compelled  to  submit  their  actions  at  law  to  any 
judges  other  than  the  mayor — a  privilege  that  assured 
them  a  measure  of  protection,  though  it  was  doubt- 
less costly.  A  certilicate  of  protection  (Srhntzhriif) 
issued  in  1338  to  sixteen  persons,  and  valid  for  five 
years,  cost  1,072  marks,  of  which  1.000  were  jiayablc 
to  the  city,  60  to  the  king,  and  12  to  the  bi.shop.  As 
compensation  fortius,  the  Jewswere  permitted  toen- 
gage  in  money-lending;  the  rate  on  loans  being  fi.xed 
for  them  at  .5  or  6  per  cent  a  week,  or  at  43  per  cent 
per  annum  ("Chronique  de  Ka'nigshoven,"  ed.  He- 
gel, append,  iv.  977). 

The  degree  of  culture  among  these  Jews  is  shown, 
at  least  relatively,  by  the  fragments  of  their  grave- 
stones which  have  recently  been  unearlhcd.  and  by 
the  fact  that  Jews  of  other  cities  attended  the  lec- 
tures of  the  rabbis  of  Strasburg.  There  is  still  e.xtant 
a  letter  of  the  mayor  of  Sehlettstadt  to  the  mayor  of 
Stra.sburg  jmiying  the  latter  to  allow  some  of  the  .lews 
of  the  former  place  to  sojourn  in  Strasburg,  in  order 
that  they  might  take  advantage  of  the  teaching  of  the 
rabbis  there  ("Urkundenb."  v.  1029). 

Then  came  that  horrible  "year  of  terror."  which 
descended  upon  all  Alsace  and  swept  away  most  of 
its  Jewish  communities.     A  letter  of 
"  Confes-     Rudolph  of  Oron,  bailiff  of  Lau.sanne 
sions"        (Nov.    1.5,   1348).    announced    to   the 
Under  Tor-  mayor  of  Strasburg  that  certain  .lews 
ture.         of  Lausjinne  had  confessed,  under  tor- 
ture, that  by  order  of,  and  in  collusion 
with,  their  coreligionists  of  Italy  they  bad  poisoned 
all  the  wells  in  the  Rhine  valley.     It  was,  they  said, 
to  avenge  the  cruelties  of  King  Leather-arm   that 
the  Jews  spread  around  this  poison,  which  would 
not  kill  them,  but  would  kill  the  Christians  ("Ur- 
kundenb." V.  164-210).     In  December.  1348,  the  city 
council  of  Obemai  (Enhcim)  notified  that  of  Stras- 
burg  that  they  had   put   to  the  torture  five  Jews, 
arrested  at  the  last  large  fair  at  Speyer,  and  that 
these  had  admitted  their  participation  in  this  crime 


467 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Alsace 


("Urkundenb."  v.  177).  On  Dec.  29,  tlie  council 
of  C'olmar  also  announced  that  a  certain  Ikt;- 
nianii.  one  of  the  Jews  under  its  protection,  hail, 
un<ier  torture,  accused  Jacob,  the  cantor  of  the 
8ynu},'ogue  of  Strdsburg,  of  liavinfr  sent  him  tlie 
poison  which  he  put  in  the  wells  of  Colniar:  one  of 
his  cousins,  a  woman  named  Bela,  had  similarly 
poisoned  the  wells  of  Anunerschweier.  Notwith- 
standing these  accusations,  the  chief  magistrates,  in- 
fluenced no  doubt  as  nuicli  by  self  interest  as  by  hu- 
manity, continued  to  protect  the  Jewish  conununity 
oftheircity.  Buta  general  uprising,  instigated  by 
the  civic  magnates  and  the  neighboring  nobles — 
possibly  also  by  the  clergy  itself — broke  out  at  Stras- 
burg  in  February,  1349.  The  coiincillor,  Peter  Swar- 
ber,  and  his  two  colleagues  were  deposed,  nudcted 
in  heavy  tines,  and  expelled.  Afterward  the  new 
conununal  authorities  constituted  by  this  revolu- 
tionary movement  decreed  the  extermination  of  all 
the  !Strasl)urg  Jews  as  well  as  of  all  Jewish  refugees 
residing  temiiorarily  in  the  city.  At  this  time  there 
•were  barely  3, (Mill  Jews  having  settled  dwelling- 
places  in  the  citv,  which  contained,  at  most,  l.j,000 
or  -MMH)  inhabitants  all  told.  On  St.  Valentine's 
day  (February  14),  1849,  the  Jews  in 
Strasburg'  the  city  were  burnt  in  mu-xKC  on  the 
the  Scene  of  site  of  their  own  eemelery,     A  small 

a  Hole-  luimber  who  had  abjured  their  faith, 
caust.  togelher    with    some    cliildren,    were 

saved,  the  latter  being  snatched  from 
the  flames.  The  number  of  the  victims  of  this  hor- 
rible holocaust  has  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  tra- 
dition ("Chronique  de  Ku'nigshoven,"  i)p.  7()l-7t)4). 
Undoubtedly  they  owed  thi'ir  fate  chielly  to  their 
Wealth,  as  isattestcd  bj'  the  chronicler:  "  Irgelte  vas 
ouch  die  saehe  davon  dii'  Juden  geloedel  wurden  " 
(TJK'ir  money  was  the  cause  of  the  .lews'  death  I. 
Other  Jews  were  burnt  at  SehlettstadI  together  with 
a  supposed  Christian  accomidice  ("  Irkundeid)."  v. 
19.")).  At  C'olmar  and  in  other  towns  the  Jews  were 
sacrificed  without  being  luard  in  their  own  defense; 
only  at  Landau,  where  they  were  numerous,  was  an 
attempt  at  defense  made,  and  there  without  success. 
The  imperial  authorities  did  ab.solutely  nothing  to 
I)rotect  the  Mtrri  minti'ip  itiijierinlis  {servants  of  the 
imperial  ehamberl,  as  the  Jews  were  then  called 
in  (he  Holy  i{oman  Emjiire.  In  Aiuil,  i:!49,  Charles 
IV.  of  (Jermany  laiil  claim  to  the  proceeds  of  all  the 
loans  maile  by  the  .lews  of  Strasburg  to  the  Count 
of  Wrirlemberg.  On  June  "),  i;5t9,  a  defensive  alli- 
ance was  formed  between  the  munieiiial  authorities 
of  Stnisburg.  the  bishop  of  Strasburg.  and  the  Abbot 
of  .\Iurbach,  the  Coinit  of  Wi'irlemberg,  anil  a  num- 
ber of  other  Alsatian  grandees,  to  re)iel  any  attempt 
to  inc|uiie  into  the  massacre.  Some  months  later 
Charles  IV.  absolved  the  people  of  Spiyer  from  all 
responsibilitv  for  the  ina.s.sacre  of  Februarv  (I.,etter 
of  Sept.  12,"l34«,  ••  Trkundenb."  v.  2(IT),  These  at- 
tempts at  extermination  did  not  annihilate  the  Jews 
of  Alsace  nor  prevent  accessions  to  I  heir  number. 

The  proper  names  recordid  in  the  authorities  cited 
])rove  that  the  greater  pari  of  the. lews  who  dwell  in 
Alsace  ilurinir  the  fnurleenlh  century  came  from  the 
right  bank  of  the  liliine.  In  li!o(!  Ihere  weri'  .lews 
again  at  .Miildliausen :  for  Petri  ("  .MUhlhauser  (Je- 
schhihten."  p.  4."))  gives  an  aicoinit  of  a  Jew  in  lliat 
town  w  ho  had  been  apprehended  by  the  lord  of  Neu- 
enslein,  thru.st  into  a  sack,  and  carried  to  Franche- 
Comte  in  order  that  nuisoin  might  be  exiorteil  from 
him. 

In  granting  new  franchises  to  the  town  of  Ilago- 
naii.  Charles  IV.  accorded  ti)  it  the  riirht  to  receive 
or  to  reject  at  will  ]iroteeled  .lews  C  .\lsntia  lllus- 
trata,"  v.  247);   and  in  |:'.T4  he  evtendcd  the  same 


privilege  to  the  city  of  Kaisersberg  (ih.  v.  293).  Jews 
were  living  at  Colmar  in  138.">.  In  1369  Jews  were 
again  admit  ted  to  Strasburg  C'Urkundeid). "  v.  71.')). 
An  ordinance  (Judi iiiinluiin;/)  concerning  them, 
dated  ^Nlay  14,  137.5,  refers  to  the  presence  of  a  dozen 
families  ("Urkundenb."  v.  880);  another,  issued  in 
1383,  directs  that  they  be  treated  and  protected  as 
other  citizens  ("  Lrkiindenb. "  vi.  89);  and  a  short 
time  afterward,  on  the  reeonunendation  of  the  Count 
of  Attinger,  sixteen  families  were  admitted  from 
Ulm.  Bretten,  BreLsach.  We.sel,  and  Mosheim  ("  Ur- 
kundenb." vi.  9.")).  In  1384  the  mayor  ajjpointed  a 
Jew,  .Maitre  Gulleben,  as  physician,  with  a  .salary 
of  three  hundred  crowns  (about  S3G0  nominal)  per 
anninii.  Although  the  community  was  not  large,  it 
nuist  have  been  rich,  as  in  138.5  the  Count  Palatine 
Robert  alone  owed  the  .Tews  of  Strasburg  the  sum 
of  1.5,40()  tl.  (S7,700  nominal;  see  "Urkundenb."  vi. 
143).  Undoubtedly  their  wealth  was  a  r'onstant 
source  of  menace  to  them;  for  King  Wenceslaus  of 
(iermany  (Fell.  6,  1380)  ordered  the  municipality  to 
enforce  against  the  Jews  sumptuary  laws  in  matters 
of  dress,  and  to  require  them  to  resume  the  yellow 
.shoes  and  sugar-loaf  hats  formerly  worn  by  them 
("Urkundenb."  vi.  162;  see  B.\I)<;k).  The  same  year 
the  mayor  lined  them  20.000  ti.  (§10,t)00).  In  1387, 
delegates  from  the  Rhenish  cities  assembleil  at  Speyer 
(where  in  1385  they  had  considered  the  Jewish  (pies- 
tion)  and  adojited  resolutions  iinmiial  to  the  Jews. 
On  the  demand  of  I  he  delegates  from  Strasliurg  it  was 
resolved  that  neither  male  nor  female  Christians  be 
allowed  to  act  as  iloniestic  servants  or  wet-nurses  in 
Jewish  families,  under  penalty  of  being  branded  on 
th(^  forehead  ("Urkundenb."  vi.  204).  During  this 
year  King  Weneeslaus  placeil  under  the  ban  all  Jews 
of  Colmar,  Schli'ttstatlt.and  Ilagenau  who  refused  to 
pay  the  taxes  he  demanileil  for  their  protection,  and 
even  included  three  imjierial  cities  that  had  retained 
for  themselves  such  .Jewish  <ontributions  ("  Urkun- 
denb." vi.  194).  In  the  month  of  June  a  Jew  of 
Italian  or  French  origin  (Mamelot  der  Morschele,  dor 
"Walch)  chanced  to  enter  thi' cathedral  of  Strasburg; 
and  though  he  had  done  nothing  objectionable,  lie 
was  beaten  by  the  verger,  expelied,  and  threatened 
with  drowning  if  he  should  reenter  the  city  ("  Ur- 
kundenb." vi.l98). 

The  Jews  were  a  source  of  considerable  revenue  to 
the  lily  treasury.  They  numbered  al  that  lime  about 
Iweiilv  families,  who  paid  an  annual  lax  of  727  fl. 
(^36.5. .50  nominal);  and  the  richest  one  among  them, 
culled  in  the  records  "der  rvche  Sigmuiul,"  paid  203 
II.  (.'i;i01..59;  see  "Urkundenb."  vi.  211). 

In  the  autumn  a  new  and  much  graver  peri!  threat- 
cnid  the  .\lsalian  .Jews.  A  weaver  of  Bi.schheim. 
named  l.auwelin.  was  accused  of  having  olTered  his 
own  child  to  the  Jews  of  Strasburg  for  a  ritual  sac- 
ritice,  and — tloiditless  under  torture — was  convicted 
of  I  he  crime;  anil  as  a  punishment  his  eyes  were  put 
out  ("Urkundenb."  vi.  207).  By  the  beginning  of 
the  year  138H  the  entire  Jewish  community  was  ex- 
pelled and  their  real  estate  contiscated — a  condition 
which  was  maintained  initil  the  Freiiih  Revolution 
of  1793.  In  1392  thes<rollsand  the  tablesof  the  Ijiw 
belonging  to  the  synagogue  were  still  iireserved  in 
Slrasi>Mrg  ("Chronique  de  Kienigshoveii,"  pp.  97.5- 
986).  Colmar  was  also  the  scene  of  acl.s  of  violence 
w  hich  did  not  eiiil  so  brutally.  Weneeslaus  annulled 
all  the  claims  of  the  Jews  of  that  city  against  their 
Christ ian  debtors  in  1392  (Mossniann.  "Jiiifs  de  Col- 
iiHir."  p.  8).  In  1397another  story  of  poisoned  wells 
was  circulated  in  Upi>er  .\lsace  through  a  certain  .lew 
of  Ribeaiiville,  whose  confessions  implicated  fresh 
vicliins  (SchreiluT."  Freiliurgi  r  Urkundenb,"  ii.  108). 

The  liftcenth  century  was  a  period  of  comparative 


Alsace 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDIA 


458 


culm  for  the  Jews  of  Alsace.    During  tlmt  perioil  they 
Were  the  victims  of  incessnnt  chicanery  ratlier  than 
actual  persecution.  <'xcept  in  the  later 
The  decades  of  the  century  when  acts  of 

Fifteenth  violence  were  reneweil  (14T(>-TT),  at 
Century,  the  commencement  of  the  general  agi- 
tation produced  liy  the  IJiirgundian 
wars  lietween  Louis  XI.  and  Charles  the  Hold.  In 
14;3t)  Emperor  8igismund  prohibited  the  citizens  of 
llasrenau  from  renting  or  sellinir  houses  to  the  Jews 
C'Alsatia  Illustrata,"  v.  170).  On  Oct.  31.  1437,  he 
prohibited  the  Jews  of  C'olmar  from  acquiring  any 
real  estate  in  the  town  or  its  suburbs,  without  special 
permission  from  the  mayor,  who  seems  to  have 
wearied  of  his  proteges ;  for  in  147H  only  two  families 
were  tolenited  within  the  city.  My  decree  of  Emperor 
FredericU  III.  the  Jews  of  SehU'ttsladt  were,  in  turn. 
e.xpelU'd  from  that  citv  Dee.  12.  1471»(J.  Genv,  "Die 
Keiehsstadt  Sehlettstailt."  p.  20(i);  but  he  refused  to 
sanction  the  expulsion  of  those  at  C'olmar — no  doubt 
because  they  found  iutluenlial  defenders  at  his  court 
(Mossmann.  op.  cit.  p.  IK). 

The  opening  of  the  sixteentli  century  marked  a 
revival  of  economic  and  religioiis  antipathy  toward 
the  Jews  of  Alsace.     To  the  city  of 
The  Jlilnster.   where   during    the    .Middle 

Sixteenth  Ages  there  had  l)een  no  Jews.  Maximil- 
Century.  ian  I.  gave  permission  to  admit  or  re- 
ject members  of  that  race:  hut  the 
citizens  decided  to  exclude  from  the  rights  of  citizen- 
ship all  persons  who  even  borrowed  niunev  from  the 
Jews  (••  .Vlsiitia  Illustrata,"  v.  281).  At  le"ngth(.Tan. 
22,  l.jlO).  this  ruler  granted  to  the  city  of  t'olmar 
the  long-desired  right  to  expel  the  Jews,  so  that 
whenever  their  business  affairs  called  them  to  that 
city  they  were  com]ielk'd  to  pay  a  toll  and  to  wear  the 
yellow  badge  on  their  garments.  Maximilian  also 
presented  the  Jewish  synagogue  and  the  cemetery  ■ 
to  his  secretary,  Jean  Spiegel  of  tSchlettstadt. 

Driven  from  the  city,  the  Jews  dwelt  in  the  vil- 
lages .surrounding  C'olmar  and  continued  to  do  liusi- 
ne.ss  with  its  citizens;  they  were  then  proliibitiMl 
from  depositing  their  wares  with  Christians.  In 
order  to  rid  himself  of  his  neighbors,  the  mayor 
obtained  i)ermission  from  Charles  V.  to  forbid  their 
entrance  into  the  city  (Aiiril  2.').  1.541).  This  did 
not  hinder  the  imperial  chancellery  from  renewing, 
on  May  24,  1.J41.  at  the  request  of  H.  Josel  of 
RosnEiM.  all  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  C'olmar 
Jews.  U.  Josel  exercised,  though  unotheially,  the 
functions  of  cnllect<ir  of  the  customs  and  protector 
of  the  Jews  of  Alsace.  These  latter  were  far  from 
being  as  luimerous  then  as  they  were  one  or  two 
centuries  later.  A  detailed  census  ordered  by  the 
regency  f)f  Ensisheim  showed  only  52  families  in  the 
whole  of  Austrian  Alsjice;  and  in  l."i74  they  were 
expelled  from  the  country.  Then  there  began  be- 
tween the  city  of  Colmar  and  its  .Jewish  inhabitants 
a  struggle  for  the  favor  of  the  imperial  chancel- 
lery— a  struggle  marked  for  its  corr\ipt  influence, 
and  which,  after  contininng  for  several  years,  ended 
in  l.'54!t  disa<lvantagi'Ously  for  the  Jews.  From  that 
time  until  its  union  with  France.  C'olmar  became  the 
most  important  and  the  most  anti-Semitic  city  of 
Tpjier  Alsjice.  So  strong  was  this  sentiment  in 
1022  that  the  mayor  positively  refused  the  bishop  of 
Strasburg,  and  through  liim  the  archduke  Leopold 
of  Austria.  i)ermission  for  one  of  his  subjects,  a 
Jewish  horse-dealer  named  Kossmann  of  AVettols- 
heim,  to  enter  the  city;  and  it  was  only  in  1691  that 
Jews  were  again  allowed  to  set  foot  in  Colmar 
(•'Kaufhauschronik,"  ed.  AValtz,  ji.  .W).  In  the  other 
cities  similar  conditions  prevailed.  In  1517  the 
mayor  of  Landau  consented  to  admit  ten  Jewish 


families  to  the  city  on  the  paynuut  of  400  tl.  (820(1) 
annually;  but  in  1525  lie  dccicU'd  to  ixpel  them, 
and  linally  did  so,  although  opjiosed  by  the  Elector 
Palatine. "  At  OlKMiiai  the  chief  bailiff.  Jaccjues  de 
Morimont.  forbaile  Jews  to  enter  the  city  except  on 
market-days  ("  Alsatia  Illustrata."  v.  270).  At  Weis- 
sc'uburg  an  imperial  edict  declared  void  the  agree- 
niints  which  the  city  lia<l  enlcred  into  wilh  the  Jews 
(ih.v.  247);  whileal  .Schlettstadt, after havinggreatly 
restricted  the  businessof  the  Jews,  under  an  imperial 
edict  issued  Feb.  24,  l,"i21,  the  mayor  availed  himself 
of  a  suit  for  the  recovery  of  a  debt,  brought  by  the 
Jews  again.st  some  of  the  citizens,  as  a  pretext  for 
their  total  expulsion  in  1.52!)  {CJeuy,  op.  cit.  p.  207). 
In  the  seventeenth  century  a  noteworthy  immi- 
gration of  Jews  into  .\lsace  liesan,  caused   mainly 

Ijy    the   Thirty    Yiars'    War.       They 

The  Seven-  canu' from  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 

teenth        where  the  authorities  were  powerless 

Century,      to  control  or  impede  them.     At  that 

time  military  rule  superseded  civil 
authority  everywhere;  and  both  the  chiefs  of  the 
various  factions  and  those  of  the  army  availed 
themselves  of  the  keen  conuuereial  instinct  of  the 
Jews  to  equip  their  cavalrv  and  to  replenish  their 
commissariats.  To  the  soldiers  they  were  indispen- 
sable as  agents  for  the  disposal  of  iiillage.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  Thirty  'i' ears'  War  Jews  .settled  on 
the  laiKlsof  the  bishopric  of  Strasburg,  in  the  county 
of  Ilauau-Lichtenberg,  on  the  estate  of  the  lords 
of  Hibeaupierre,  and  in  other  cities,  especially  at 
Hagenau.  Desiring  to  augment  their  revenues,  the 
nobles  of  the  vicinity  of  Lower  Alsace  sold  to  the 
Jews  the  right  to  settle  in  the  villages;  for  there 
they  jireferred  to  dwell.  Denizens  of  the  cities  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  the  Jews  of  Alsace,  driven  by  irre- 
sistible force  to  the  coiuury  districts  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  became  a  niral  class  with  no  taste 
for  agricultural  pursuits,  and  remained  such  even  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  By  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
in  mix.  Austria  eedi'd  her  jiossessions  in  Alsace  to 
France,  and  in  1681  Louis  XIV.  took  possession  of 
Strasburg. 

In  the  first  general  census  of  the  "Jewish  nation" 
of  Alsace,  taken  in  1689  by  order  of  Intendant 
Jacques  de  la  Crrange,  a  total  for  the  whole  province 
of  .525  Jewish  families  is  given.  These,  allowing  at 
least  live  persons  to  ejieh  family,  would  represent 
about  2.600  souls.  Of  this  nundier,  391  families  be- 
longed to  Lower  Als;ice,  134  to  Upper  Alsiiee  and 
to  the  Suudgau.  The  urban  .Jewish  po]iulation  was 
insigniticant  (Landau  hail  3  families.  Hagenau  19, 
Wei.ssenburg  8,  Buchsweiler  18,  Saverne  6.  Obernai 
3);  l)ut  in  certain  small  villages  the  number  of  fam- 
ilies was  larger.  There  were  37  families  at  West- 
hofen,  20  at  Marmontier,  17  at  Bollweiler.  and  14  at 
ll.'genheim  ("  Hevue  d'Alsjice."  18.59.  p.  .564). 

From  1G97  the  increa.se  in  population  was  consid- 
erable; iuhis"]MemoiresurrAlsace"(p.  229),  revised 
to  that  date.  La  Grange  gives 3, 655  .Jews  in  Al.sjice.  of 
wliom  897  were  in  I'pper  and  2.766  in  I.,ower  Alsace; 
and  they  formed  about  one-seventieth  of  the  total 
population  of  that  time.  In  1716  there  were  1.269 
families,  numbering  over6,000  individuals,  and  from 
that  time,  owing  to  the  jirolonged  peace  which 
the  province  enjoyed  in  the  eighteenth  century — 

doubtless  also   to   the   uninterrupted 

Statistics     immigration — the  growth  was  aston- 

in  the        ishingly  rapid.     The  statistics  for  17,50 

Eighteenth  show  the  number  of  families  to  have 

Century,     been  2,.585;   in  1760  it  had  increased 

to 3,045,  and  in  1785  to  3.942  families, 
aggregating  19,624  individuals.  The  Jewish  pop- 
ulation  of  the  cities  did   not    show  any  material 


469 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alsace 


increase.  In  Colniar.  Stlilcttstadt.  and  Kaiscrsbersr 
tliere  was  not  a  Jewish  inliabitant :  tStitisbur!;.  with 
a  very  bad  grace,  tolerated  the  presence  of  tlie  fam- 
ily of  the  chief  coniniissjiry  of  the  army,  Cerf-Heer, 
w  lio  liad  been  api)ointed  l)y  Louis  XV. ;  Hagcnau 
liad  vii")  Jews,  Hosheim "  26«,  Buchsweilef  2ilT. 
Kibeauville  285,  Landau  145.  Weis-senburg  165.  and 
(il)erMai  1!H!.  But  cerlain  small  cities  of  I'pper  Al- 
sace bad  Jewish  ])opulalions  that  outnumbiTcd  the 
Cliiislian.  At  Darmeiiach  there  were  'MU  Jews,  at 
lleireMJieim  4(li),  Niederhairenthal  '■i'><'>.  Wintzenheini 
3x1.  ZillislK'im  mar  .Miilliausen  38'J.  Biselihcim.  a 
suburl)  of  the  cily  of  Sirasburi;.  473  ("  Deiiombre- 
nienf  (Tenerul  lies  Juifs  d'Alsjice."  Colmar.  1TS5). 

This  rapid  increa.s<'  in  i>opulation  naturally  added 
to  Ihe  ilil)ie\dties  of  earnins;  a  livelihood.  With  the 
liberal  professions  and  the  larger  channels  of  tra<le 
closed  to  them,  what  could  the  Jews  do?  In  the 
cities  they  were  not  cimsidered  eligible  to  member- 
ship in  the  gilds  of  (nides  and  handicrafts;  besides, 
the  greater  numbir  of  them  were  scattered  over  the 
country.  Their  own  legitimate  avenues  of  trade 
Were  cattle-dealing  and  Ihe  selling  of  second-hand 
goods.  These  were  insuflicieut  for  their  support ;  and 
they  resorted  to  the  lending  of  money  on  notes  or 
mortgages,  at  an  unfixed  rate  of  interest  often 
amounting  to  usury.  The  most  hostile  authors  agree 
in  depicting  the  Alsiitian  Jews  of  the  en<l  of  the 
eighteenth  century  as  poorly  fed.  clnlheil  in  rags. 
anil  pos.sessing  only  a  limited  capital,  which  they 
loaned,  and  on  Ihe  interest  of  w  hich  lliey  realized 
enough  lo  support  themselves.  Tlieanlijiathy  of  the 
masses  to  them  never  died  out,  though  toward  Ihe 
niiildle  of  Ihe  seventeenth  century  the  humiliating 
badge  that  tliev  had  been  ordered  to  wear  dis- 
appeared. A  copy  of  this  badge — a  small  yellow 
disk,  which  was  a  ti  ached  lotlnirclollies — is  found  in 
••  Le  Cornelius  Kedivivus"  of  King  Louis  XIIL.  cn- 
pnived  in  11117.  If  no  longer  niassjicred  (albeit  in 
1(557  a  mob  at  Dachstein  burned  several  Jews),  they 
sutTered  none  the  les,s  from  extortions  and  exactions. 
They  were  beset  by  narrow  and  tyrannical  regula- 
tions, even  in  cities  where  they  were  received  with 
more  than  ordinary  loleralion.  Thus  a  decree  of  Ihe 
Archduke  Leopold  of  Austria  (.May  22,  1(!13)  regu 
laled  everything  iiertaining  lo  their 
Attitude  of  publicand  private  life,  and  proliibited 

Leopold  them  from  acipiiring  real  eslale.  By 
of  Austria.  Iliis  decree  Ihey  could  not  recover 
notes  of  credit  against  Christians  until 
after  they  had  been  recorded  by  the  registrar  or 
j)riivost  of  Ihe  locality.  They  were  prohibiled  from 
|>ubli<ly  celebrating  their  religious  riles,  from  shel- 
liring  a  slniuire  Jew  for  more  than  forly-eight 
liiiurs,  and  fnim  employing  Chrislian  servants  on 
holidays  or  Sundays.  Kor  Ihe  privilege  of  passing 
from  one  town  lo  another  Ihey  were  comiielleil  lo 
])ay  a  sjieeial  tax  (.fiiiliiiznll).  When  Alstice  came 
under  the  dominion  of  France  the  condition  of  Ihe 
Ji'ws  was  not  amellonited.  At  tirat  Louis  XIV.  or 
his  miiusters  inclined  toward  llieir  expulsion  (lfi51); 
later,  by  virtue  of  letters  patent  issued  Sept.  25, 
l<i57,  the  king  look  them  under  his  special  protec- 
linn,  liul  thai  did  not  prevent  the  lord-lieulenant. 
I'oncet  de  la  Kiviere.  from  levying  upon  them,  in 
Ili72.  an  aildilioii.il  lax  for  roval  proleetion  (in  ad- 
ditiiin  to  thai  wliicli  Ihey  paid  to  the  lord  of  the 
manor  direct),  which  amounted  lo  KIJ  11.  (S,').25l  per 
family.  The  Ji'Ws  soon  learned  how  lo  make  them 
selves  usefid  lo  Ihe  new  goveriunent  as  agi'iils  and 
as  farmers  of  Ihe  revenues  of  those  who  held  mo- 
nopolies of  Ihe  Side  of  salt.  iron,  and  otiierminerals; 
above  all,  it  was  not  long  before  Ihey  were  eonsid 
ered  necessary  to  provide  rcinouuls   for  thf    inVMl 


cavalry  that  garrisoned  Alsace.  After  the  Peace  of 
Hyswick  (16i»7)  the  (juestion  arose  how  Ixist  to  re- 
lieve Ihe  province  of  its  Jewish  population.     But 

the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  af- 

Eflfect        forded  new  opportunities  to  the  Jews 

of  Peace  of   to  render  special  services,  and  on  Jan. 

Kyswick.     31,    1713,    Pontchartrain   notified   the 

l)iovineial  and  local  authorities  that 
the  king  did  not  deem  it  tit  lo  expel  them. 

Throughout  the  eighteeulh  century  the  condition  of 
the  Jews  became  more  and  more  precarious.  Though, 
at  Ihe  close  of  Ihe  preceding  century.  La  Grangi'  had 
been  able  to  say  C'Memoires,"  p.  239),  "There  were 
very  few  of  them  who  were  in  easy  circumstances, 
and  none  whom  one  might  call  rich,"  this  was  now: 
even  more  the  case.  In  the  Sundgau  the  haired  of 
Ihe  farmei-s,  who  had  been  ruined  by  Jewish  usurers, 
grew  apace,  anil  a  series  of  decrees  of  the  Sovereign 
Council.  Ihe  parliament  of  ALsace,  served  to  remind 
the  Jews  of  the  fact  that  they  lived  there  only  through 
the  royal  toleration.  Thus,  in  172(i,  the  Council  or- 
ilereil  tiie  destruction  of  the  three  synagogues  of 
Wintzenheim,  Bischheim.  and  Ilagenthal,  which  had 
been  built  without  sovereign  aulliorily ;  in  1733  the 
king  forbade  the  Jews  to  l)akc  their  bread  on  Sun- 
days ;  in  1740  they  were  forbidden  to  dwell  in  the  same 
houses  with  Christians,  even  though  the  Christians 
consented.  All  illicit  intercourse  between  a  Jew 
and  a  Christian  woman  was  iiunishable  by  Ihi-  gal- 
lows, or  at  the  least  the  galleys  for  life,  for  the 
man;  Ihe  woman  being  condemned  to  seclusion  and 
a  flogging. 

From  the  date  of  the  French  coniiuest  of  Alsace, 
the  organization  of  the  Jewish  comnuinities  of  that 
l)rovince  became  more  centralized.  Formerly  each 
lord  of  the  manor,  where  the  Jews  were  sullicieutly 
numerous  to  warrant  it.  appointed  a  chief  over  Ihe 
conimuiiiiy — a  rabbi  who  was  eulrusled  with  the 

adminislrationof  all  the  religious  func- 

Status        tionsof  Iheconununity.  and  who  acted 

of  the       also  as  common  judge  in  all  the  civil 

Rabbis,      suits  between  Jews,  the  hiller  having 

the  privilege  of  ai)pcal  from  the  rab- 
binical tribunal  to  the  .superior  courts.  Over  these 
ralibis  the  government  of  Louis  XIV.  appointed  a  su- 
lierior;  and  on  ^lay  21,  1681.  nominated  Aaron  Worm- 
sir  chief  rabbi  of  the  Jews  of  I'pper  and  Lower 
Alsace,  selling  his  residence  at  St.  Louis  de  Brisach, 
and  later  at  Colmar.  At  Ihe  outset  this  innovation 
met  with  opposition  from  thosi'  most  concerned.  In 
17(<4,  Samuel  Levy,  the  successor  of  Worniser.  had 
much  to  contend  with  from  reealcitmni  mbbis  and 
dilini|uent  laymen,  and  the  Sovereign  Council  au- 
thorized him  to  pronounce  excominunicaliou  upon 
them. 

Little  is  known  of  the  internal  life  of  Ihe  .le wish 
conuuunities  of  Alsace  during  the  ei.ghteeiilh  ceu- 
turv:  and  oidy  a  very  vague  idea  can  be  formed  of 
their  inlelleclual  and  moral  condition.  One  llirtzel 
Levi  of  Wettolsheim,  condemned  for  armed  robln'ry 
on  false  evidence  and  sentenced  lo  be  broken  on  the 
wheel  at  Colmar,  Dec.  31,  1754,  was  exonerated  by 
a  decree  of  the  Parliament  of  Melz.  Sept.  24.  175.5. 
The  dark  side  of  the  Jewish  iiue.slion  of  that  lime  is 
shown  in  the  long  and  signiliiani  suit  over  forged  re- 
ceipts that  engaged  public  attention  in  I'pper  .\lsace 
during  1778  and  177U.     It  appears  that  Ihe  peasiuits 

.strove  lo  avoid  llieir  debts  by  Ihe  aid 

Forged       of  forged  receipts,  made  wholeside  and 

Receipts,    sold   to  them  by  a  number  of  daring 

swindlers,  most  of  w  hum  were  caught 
ami  piiiushed  with  imprisomneiit,  the  pillorv,  or  at 
the  siallevs,  or  with  death  on  the  gallows.  I'hc  dis- 
appointment of  the  peasants,  who  had  been  iluped 


Alsace 


TIIK  .lEWlSU  KNCYCLOPEDIA 


460 


mid  who  Imd  liopcil  for  immcHliati'  relief  fnim  tlicir 
debts,  only  inrreiised  their  hatred  toward  their  eredi- 
tors,  who  were  almost  as  jioor  as  themselves. 

The  royal  edict  of  .laimary.  17K4.  whieh  relieved 
the  Jews  from  eertiiiii  odious  taxes  stieli  as  the  poll- 
tax,  and  permitted  llicm  to  follow  airriiultunil  pur- 
suits, came  too  late  to  elfcct  u  chaiiirc'  in  their  liah- 
its.  whieh  had  lieen  conlirmed  throii!;li  eentiiries  c'f 
time:  nor  diil  it  allay  the  antajionisni  of  their  adver- 
saries. The  t'liiistiaii  rural  population,  hiirdened 
as  itwas  with  debt,  found  consolation  in  its  tradi- 
tional contempt  for  the  .Jewish  minority.  Fear  of 
an  enerjielic  and  well-orjranized  jjolice  led  the  peas- 
ants to  exercise  soiiK'  self-restraint.  Bui  all  at  once 
tin'  question  of  jTranlinj;  C(|Ualily  to  all  tlic  inhalii- 
tants  without  respect  to  relij^ion  suddenly  iirescntcil 
itself.  The  sovereiirn  power,  iiaralyzcd.  was  in  no 
condition  to  control  pojudar  passion;  and  from  that 
time  it  was  feared  that  what  had  been  considered 
merely  the  spirit  of  discord  would  ultimately  develop 
into  a  dis])lay  of  physical  resentment.  From  the  out- 
set public  temperament  was  indicated  in  the  niliurn 
(It  (loU'imrf  (olticial  instructions  of  the  eh'Ctors  to 
the  dejiutics  at  the  States  General  as  to  their  wishes 
and  complaints),  compiled  by  the  various  electoral 
districts  of  Alsace.  Several  districts  called  for  a  re- 
duction in  the  number  of  Jews.  The  clergy  of  the 
districts  of  Colmar  and  Schlettstadt  demanded  that 
thenceforth  in  t)rder  to  check  their  "astoundinjj;  in- 
crease" only  the  oldest  son  in  each  Jewish  family 
should  be  allowed  to  marry.  The  nobility  of  these 
districts  declared  that  the  very  existence  oi'  the  Jews 
was  a  public  calamity.  The  bourgeoisie  of  Uelfort 
an<l  lliiningen  wished  to  deprive  the  Jews  of  the 
right  to  lend  money;  that  of  Colmar  and  Schletlstailt 
desired  that  they  at  least  be  prohibited  from  lending 
money  to  CMiristians;  while  Strasburg  insisted  on  the 
eontirmation  of  its  ancient  anti-Jewish  jirivileges 
and  on  the  right  to  expel  the  family  of  Cerf-Heer. 

When  the  news  of  the  fall  of  the  Bastile  reached  the 
province,  disorder  broke  out  everywhere ;  the  castles 
an<l  convents  of  Upper  Alsace  were  pillaged;  and  in 
the  Sundgau  the  peasants  attacked  the  dwellings  of 
the  Jews.  Under  the  leadership  of  an  adventurer, 
who  claimed  to  be  the  Duke  of  Artois,  brother  of 
Louis  XVI..  the  peasantry  devastated  nineteen  vil- 
lages one  after  the  other,  demolishing  tlie  dwellings 
anil  burning  the  coramcrcial  papers  and  books  of 
their  Jewish  creditors,  Aliandoning  everything  to 
the  pillagers,  the  unfortunate  Jews  lied  for  safety 
to  the  republic  of  Basel  and  to  the  bishopric  of  the 
Siime  name.  Ultimately  it  beeaine  necessary  to  send 
a  number  of  troops,  tmder  General  de  VietingholT, 
into  the  Simdgau  and  the  valley  of  the  Saint  .\marin 
to  restore  peace,  or  at  least  its  outward  semblance,  in 
those  regions.  Some  iihilanthropisls.  who  for  years 
had  interested  themselves  in  the  regeneration  of  the 
oppressed  Jews,  now  degraded  by  a  prolonged  servi- 
tude, worked  upon  the  public  opinion  of  Paris  and 
upon  that  of  the  National  Assembly,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain for  them  civil  rights,  or  at  least  ollicial  recog- 
nition of  their  social  standing.  In  order  to  com- 
prehend fully  the  struggle  that  now  engaged  the 
public  ojiinion  of  Alsace  and  that  of  the  capital,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  number  of  Jews  that 
had  settled  elsewhere  in  France  was  relatively  small, 
and  that  the  Spanish  or  Portuguese  Jews,  the  Jews 
of  Bordeaux,  of  Avignon,  and  of  Paris  had  generally 
attained  a  higher  plane  in  development  than  the 
"barbarian  Jews "  of  Alsace.  Indeed,  public  opin- 
ion in  the  capital  was  more  in  favor  of  a  reform  of 
this  kind  because  it  almost  ignored  local  conditions. 
But  the  deputies  from  the  province  were  unanimous 
in  their  opposition  to  such  a  measure ;  and  the  ma- 


jority of  the  inhabitants— Catholics,  Lutherans,  and 
HefoVmed — were  in  perfect  accord  with  them.  Hew- 
bell.  a  deputy  from  Uppi'r  Alsace,  was 
Reforms  especially  vehement  in  his  defense  of 
Opposed,  "his  hard-working  and  unfortimato 
compatriots,  who  were  oppressed  in  a 
most  atrocious  luanner  by  a  horde  of  cruel  Africans 
that  swanued  over  the  country  "  ;  he  even  declared 
that  the  decree  which  granted  the  Jews  citizens' 
rights  would  be  the  signal  for  their  destruction  in 
Alsace  (ses.sion  of  Sept.  21.  1TH9).  Together  with 
his  colleagues  he  opjioscd  th<'  discus.sion  of  the  Ji'W- 
ish  i|Uestion.  and  endeavdred  to  liav<'  the  matter  ad- 
journeil.  But  one  month  later  (Oct.  14,lTHllia  ilepti- 
talioiiof  Jews  from  Alsa(  e  anil  from  Metz  lu'csented 
themselves  at  the  bar  of  the  National  Assembly  and 
prayed  for  the  redress  of  tla'ir  wrongs;  aii<l  subse- 
(piently  the  Assembly  de<'idcd  that  the  (piestion  of 
the  amalgamalionof  the  Jews  with  the  other  citizens 
be  ])laced  on  the  agenda  of  the  As.sembly. 

On  Dec.  S'^.  ITMit,  the  Asseiubly  debated  ihe  question 
of  admitting  to  the  pviblic  serviceall  citizens  without 
distinction  of  creed;  but  in  sjiite  of  the' tiiianimiais 
opposition  of  the  deputies  from  Alsace,  the  majority 
vote<l  the  admission  of  non-Catholics  oidy,  with  the 
rider  that  it  was  not  thereby  intended  to  jirejudge 
any  matter  concerning  the  Jews  {session  of  Dec.  25, 
1789).  The  opposition  to  the  Hebrew  race  was  not 
restricted  to  the  floorof  the  As.sembly  ;  forinnimier- 
able  pamphlets  were  iiublished,  most  of  which  op- 
posed the  plan  of  amalgamation.  ( 'aiilain  de  Foissac, 
in  command  of  the  garrison  of  Pfalzburg,  was  the 
tirst  to  answer  a  brochure  by  the  Al)be  Gregoire.  M. 
de  Hell,  deputy  from  the  districts  of  Hagenavi  and 
Wcissenburg,  was  the  atithor  of  a  tirade  against  the 
Jews;  and  his  colleague  Plliegcr,  deputy  from  Bel- 
fort  and  Huningen,  issued  "an  ojiinion  "  opposing 
the  granting  of  civil  rights  to  the  Jews.  Notwith- 
standingtliisagitation.anew  ))elitioii  from  the  French 
Jews.  ,Ian.  'JS.iTOb.  reopened  Ihe  diseussicin  in  the  As- 
sembly and  met  with  some  measure  of  success.  A  ma- 
jority (374  yeas.  224  nays)  supported 
Partial  the  claims  of  the  Portuguese  Jews  who 
Redress,  had  settled  in  France,  and  those  of  Avi- 
gnon ;  but  Francis  Joseph  Scliwendt,  a 
deptity  froin  Strasburg.insisted  on  reslricting  Ihe  de- 
bate so  as  to  exclude  all  reference  to  the  Jews  of  Al- 
sace. This,  he  claimed,  was  absolutely  ncce.ssjiry  for 
the  reestablishment  of  the  public  peace  and  to  guar- 
antee the  .safety  of  the  20. (HK)  German  Jews.  The  As- 
sembly, unwilling  to  oppose  the  public  opinion  of  an 
entire  province,  postponed  the  settlement  of  this  im- 
portant problem. which  was  brought  before  them  in- 
.sistently  on  Feb.  20  and  Mari'li  2:i.  In  the  iiinnlh  of 
Fcl)ruar_y,  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, founded  at  Strasliurg,  encouraged  llie  sympa- 
thizers to  raise  their  voices  in  favor  of  e(|ualily  in 
Alsace  itself.  On  the  17th  of  the  same  month.  Fran- 
(;ois-Xavier  Levrault  proposed  that  the  society  re- 
fute the  charges  made  l)y  Captain  de  Fois.sac;  on 
the  20th  they  admitted  totheir  society  the  first  Jew 
member.  Marx  Beer,  son  of  Ihe  rich  banker,  Cerf- 
Beer;  and  on  the  27th  M.  Brunek  of  Friindeck.  who 
had  been  appointed  to  consider  the  ([ucstion  of  the 
civil  slants  of  the  Jews,  presented  his  report.  This 
re])ort  was  received  with  marked  approbation;  and 
the  society  ordered  its  publication  in  French  and 
German.  Thereupon  there  was  intense  excitement 
throughout  the  city.  One  hundred  and  fifty  citi- 
zens petitioned  that  the  priinary  assemblies  be  con- 
veiK'd  in  order  to  discuss  the  question  i)ubliely.  The 
petition  was  read  to  the  General  Council,  and  the 
permission  prayed  for  granted.  Ultimately,  by  an 
almost  unanimous  vote,  the  citizens  of  Strasburg 


461 


THE  .TEWTSn  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alsace 


declared  tlicnisolvcs  opposed  to  tlio  gnuitinjrof  civil 
rights  to  the  Jews.  On  April  H  an  address,  signed 
by  all  the  municipal  olticers  and  hy  thousamlsof  the 
better  classes  of  the  citizens  in  Stnisburg.  was  pre- 
sented to  the  National  Assembly:  it  declared  that 
the  signers  did  not  wish  to  have  any  Jewish  citizens 
within  the  city  walls.  The  Assembly  considered 
Ibis  address  on  April  13;  and  a  few  days  later  an- 
oilier  fnmi  Colniar  brmight  tidings  of  similar  sen- 
liniciils  in  ibe  I  ppi'r  Kliiiie  region.  In  view  of  the 
cnnstaiit  agitatinn  kept  up  by  a  flood  of  counter- 
revolutionary literature  (lislributed  over  the  dis- 
turbed districts  by  the  emigrants  and  the  contuma- 
cious clergy,  a  considerable  time  elapsed  befinv  the 
Constitutional  Commitlee  daretl  to  jiropose  any  deti- 
nite  snlutiiin  of  the  problem. 

While  theories  were  being  discussed  in  Paris,  the 
ill-treatment  of  the  Jews  in  Alsace  had  not  entirely 
ceasc<l.  In  the  new  dcpnilment  of  the  Upper  Hhine 
especially  the  local  authorities  frec|uently  refused 
permis-sion  to  Jews  to  estnlilish  themselves  in  the 
community,  or  prohibited  them  from  collecting  the 
promissory  imtes  of  the  Christians.  At  Oberhagen- 
thal.  for  (xamjile,  the  Jews  were  compelled  to  re- 
(piest  the  executive  of  the  department  to  send 
troops,  whom  they  offered  to  pay,  to  protect  them 
against  the  exaelinns  of  the  municipality  (Proces- 
verbaux  du  Directoire  du  Ihnit  Khin,  March,  17!U). 
In  llegeidieini  a  Christian  woman  was  compelled  to 
(Id  iienance  in  the  Catlmlie  church  for  having  kin- 
dled a  lire  on  the  Sabbath  for  a  Jew  (March  4,  17!)1). 
The  mayor  of  Isseiiheim  thrust  into  i)rison  such  of 
I  lie  Jews  under  his  administration  as  did  not  send 
him  the  t(inguesiif  the  oxen  which  they  killeil(May 
"I.ITIH  ).  AVnise  I  Mings  I  lap  pencil  in  the  depart  Mil 'Mt 
nf  the  Lower  Kliiiie.  Ill  Deceiiiber.  IT'JO,  the  mayor 
of  Dlieriiai  cast  a  young  Jewish  girl  into  ]irisoii  and 
kepi  her  there  until  after  her  delivery,  in  order  that 
her  child  might  forcibly  be  baptized  in  the  Catholic 
cliuich.  altliniigh  the  father  of  the  child,  who  was  a 
Jew.  had  previously  declared  his  intention  of  marry- 
ing the  woman  (see  Ezekiel  Landau's  "  Noda'  lii- 
Yehudah,"  nil  Ebeii  'Ezer,  2d  ed..  No.  27). 

The  priilnngid  discussions  on  the  civil  ciiiistitutinii 
of  the  clergy  led  to  the  shelving  of  the  Jewish  (|ues- 
tion  during  the  summer  of  171)1  ;  but  on  Sept.  27, 
Adrien  Duport  proposed  that  the  Jews  of  France 
lie  accorded  the  right.s  of  active  citizens.  Hewbell 
and  Victor  de  IJroglie,  two  deputies  from  the  Upper 
Hhine,  opiiosed  tjie  proposition.  The  former  in- 
sisted that,  although  the  Assembly  had  no  desire  to 
shield  Jewish  usurers — who,  he  said,  held  notes  to 
the  amount  of  twelve  or  lifteen  millions  of  francs 
against  debtors  whose  personal  estate 
More  never  excecdeil  three  millions  in  value 
Efforts  for    — it  would  beheld  responsible  for  all 

Redress,  the  trouhles  which  its  vote  might  ex- 
cite in  Alsace.  The  Assembly  desired 
to  complele  its  huinaiie  work,  but  all  thai  the  old 
and  the  new  represenlatives  of  Alsace,  uniled  in  the 
conference,  could  obtain,  was  the  deciie  of  Sept. 
2H,  which  reipiiied  the  Jews  to  make  a  formal  re- 
nunciation of  the  jurisdicliiin  of  their  nibbis  and  to 
submit  completely  to  the  civil  laws,  "Few  among 
them,"  wrote  Schwendl  to  his  constituents  on  the 
same  day,  "will  wish  to  take  this  oalh":  and  on 
Oct.  8  he  wrote:  "Nothing  remains  of  the  Jewish 
nation  in  Fnuice:  and  Judaism  is  now  nolliing  more 
than  the  name  of  adislinel  religion:  those  who  are 
unwilling  to  yield  this  will  not  enjoy  any  of  the 
rights  of  Fn"nch  citizens."  Henceforward  it  he- 
came  necessary  to  respect  the  laws:  but  Ihe  wrath 
of  Ihe  reactionarii's  manifestid  itself  violently  in 
many  pamphlets,  as.  for  example,  iu  "  Les  Pounpiois 


du  Peuple  i\  ,ses  Kepresentauts  " — an  interrogatory 
aiUlressed  by  the  electors  to  their  representiitives. 
The  Liberals  themselves  were  somewhat  disturbed 
by  this  movement,  which  they  considered  premature 
and  altogether  too  radical.  The  Jews  seem  to  have 
had  the  majority  on  their  side:  but,  either  from  fear 
of  Ihe  future  or  from  ignoninee,  they  were  quite  in- 
dilferenl  to  the  signal  victory  w  Inch  had  been  gained 
for  Ilieni.  However,  here  and  there,  they  expressed 
their  siitisfaction,  as  at  IJischheim,  on  Oct.  20,  dur- 
ing the  festival  of  the  Constitution,  when  the  rabbi 
and  the  jiriest  fraternized  before  the  national  altar; 
and  at  a  banipiet  given  by  a  wealthy  Israelite  the  pa- 
triotic inliabilants  of  all  beliefs  were  united.  StiliS- 
burg,  in  particular,  held  aloof  for  a  long  time:  and 
it  was  only  on  Feb.  21,  1702,  that  the  .lews  of  the 
viciiiily  were  adniilied  lo  the  city,  to  take  the  oath 
of  alleiriance  prescribed  bv  the  decree  of  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly,  Nov.  13,  1791, 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that,  as  regards  a  very 

large  number  of  the  Jews  of  Alsace,  the  i)rolonged 

distrust  of  them  was  not  altogether  un- 

Causes  of  justitiable.  Many  of  them  engaged  in 
Oppression,  questionable  transactions  in  govern- 
ment bonds,  such  as  assignats,  prom- 
issorj-  notes  issued  by  the  Hevolutionary  govern- 
ment, and  in  the  surreptitious  exportation  of  specie 
prohibited  by  law.  Some  became  the  agents  in  or- 
dinary for  the  sale  of  the  antirevolutionary  pam- 
phlets issued  by  the  Cardinal  de  Kohan.  and  were  the 
transmitters  of  the  correspondence  of  those  French 
citizens  who  had  emigrated  for  political  reasons;  oth- 
ers instigated  the  emigration  of  young  ])easiints  har- 
assed by  the  fractions  prieslhood.  But  there  were 
also  among  ihema  nuiuberof  jiatriots  who  were  lav- 
ish in  their  gifts  to  the  volunteers,  and  who  to  aid  in 
similar  contributions  deprived  themselves  of  their 
jewels,  and  even  ojfercd  to  the  fatherland  the  cande- 
labra of  their  synagogues.  Soon  they  were  treated 
with  as  much  disfavor  by  the  Radicals,  who  had  come 
into  power,  as  previously  by  the  Liberals.  When  the 
Liirislative  Assembly  called  for  3(Kl.tMI0  men,  certain 
of  the  communes,  such  for  instance  as  that  of  AVintz- 
eiiheini,  sii|iplied  the  greater  part  of  its  (piota  from 
among  the  Jewish  minority.  It  may  be  mentioned 
that  while  many  of  the  numerous  volunteers  fur- 
nished by  the  Jews  found  means  to  evade  military 
.service,  several  rose  to  the  rank  of  ollicerand  took  part 
in  the  battles  of  the  Upper  Rhine  during  the  wars  of 
the  Kepublic. 

In  other  places,  asat  Voegtlinshoffen,  theChristians 
again  sacked  the  dwellings  and  synagogues  of  the 
.Tews  (April,  17it2).  In  February,  i7!l3,  a  representa- 
tive, named  Couturier,  who  had  been  sent  into  the 
Lower  Hhine  district  to  investigate  conditions  there, 
declared  in  his  report  that  he  suspected  most  of  the 
Jews  of  being  "the  agents  of  the  English";  and  in 
June,  17ii;t,  other  re]>resentatives  informed  the  Assem- 
bly that  "Ihe  .Jewish  faith  was  abhorred  in  Alsaci'," 
because  its  votaries  practised  only  usury  and  ix-fused 
to  work. 

The  Jacobin  Club  of  Strasburg.  succes.sor  of  the 

"Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  Constitution  "  that  had 

defended  the  Jews  so  zealously  some 

The   Jaco-    years   before,   demaiiiled  on  Oct,    17, 

bin  Club.     "l7!i:t.  theex|iulsionofall  the  Jews  from 

the  city,  and  on  Nov.  lit,  Uepresenta- 

live  IJaudol  seriously  jiroposid  to  devote  himself  to 
their  regeneration  by  means  of  the  guilloline.    When 

Ihe  new  revolutionary  tribunal  of  the  Lower  Hhine 
began  ils<ircuit  in  the  ilei>arlineiit  (November.  17118). 
a  numberof  Jews  were  guillotined  :  while  others  were 
sentenced  lo  transportation  to  Madaga.senr  for  stock- 
jobbing, or  for  violations  of  the  law  regulating  the 


Alsace 
Alsbech 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


468 


mtes  of  interest.  On  Nov.  22  the  Directdry  C'cuiii- 
«il  of  the  district  of  Stnisbiirj;  (licreed  in  an  arlii- 
trury  nmiiner  the  iiliolilioii  of  the  rite  of  eirciinieision 
andof  permission  to  wear  a  beard  ;  and  it  ordered  the 
|iiiblic  burninj;  of  all  books  written  in  the  Hebrew 
langimfre.  On  Dec.  1  a  commissioner  of  the  court, 
named  Martin,  ordered  the  arrest  of  all  nibbis,  can- 
tors, and  synagogue  officials  of  the  district  of  Hari. 
When  the  iteign  of  Terror  spread  to  Alsace  there  was 
scarcely  a  Jew  of  any  means  who  was  not  mulcted  in 
licavv  tines,  and  imprisoned  i.May.  17!I4)  with  other 
suspects,  under  the  pretext  of  liein.i:  guilty  of  stock- 
jobbing, seltishness,  or  fanaticism  (K.  l{euss,  "Selig- 
mann  Alexander,  ou  les  Triliulalions  d'un  Israelite 
Strasbourgeois  pendant  la  Tern'ur"). 

In  June.  17!»4,  the  .Iiicobin  municipality  of  !>averne 
ordered,  under  very  heavy  penalty,  the  destruction 
of  all  the  Jewish  gravestones  in  the  city,  declaring 
them  to  be  "maidfcstations  of  fanaticism."     Mean- 
while, although   the  Jews  were  denounced   by  the 
national  agents  as  parasites,  only  one 
Reigrn  of     Jew  suffered  death  as  a  victim  of  the 
Terror.        Hci.gn  of  Terror  in  the  departmeiu  of 
the  Lower  Rhine. in  1794.    8ofarascan 
be  ascertained,  none  suffered  exccutiim  in  the  prov- 
ince of  the  Upper  Rhine.     But  persc<ution  continued 
till  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  and  on  July  i'-!.  1794.  a 
decree  of   the  ]ieople's  representatives,    llentz  and 
Goujon,  ordered  the  arrest  of  all  the  priests,  rabbis, 
and  cantors  in  the  districts  of  Schlettstadt  and  Alt- 
kirch.  and  their  imprisonment  in  t  he  cit;idel  of  Besan- 
(;on,  where  they  were  detained  till  Au.ijust. 

The  lot  of  the  Jews  was  not  altered  inuuediately 
after  the  downfall  of  Robespierre.  Public  opinion 
was  still  hostile  to  them  in  Alsiice.  and  in  November, 
1794.  the  Constitutional  Committee  of  the  Convention 
had  to  order  the  authorities  of  Strasburg  to  protect 
their  .Jewish  citizens,  against  whom  the  keen  business 
competition  that  existed  in  the  city  had  been  charged, 
and  who  had  greatly  increased  in  nimiber  during  the 
war.  It  is  stated  that  there  were  at  one  time  as  many 
its  8.000  Jew^s  in  Strasburg,  the  total  population  being 
4.5.000. 

When  the  rural  districts  had  quiete<l  down,  tlie 
Jews  gradually  dispersed,  but  did  not  largely  a|iply 
themselves  to  agriculture.  Those  who  remained  in 
the  cities,  when  not  occupied  in  money-lending,  were 
engaged  in  some  sort  of  brokerage.  According  to  the 
report  of  Laumond.  prefect  of  the  Lower  Rhine  for 
the  year  X..  there  were  at  that  time,  in  this  depart- 
ment alone.  WT  pedlers.  In  the  meantime  the  gov- 
ernment strove  to  get  the  Jews  to  take  uj)  the  more 
regular  an<l  the  more  productive  occupations,  but 
without  marked  success.  The  secretary  genend  of 
the  administration  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  named  Rot- 
tin,  in  his  annual  report  for  1799,  refers  in  detail  to 
Hirtzel  Hlnch,  a  Jew  of  Dicbolsheim,  as  an  example 
worthy  of  imitation,  of  one  who  had  applied  himself 
with  energy  and  success  to  agricidtural  work. 

In  the  first  years  of  the  Empire,  the  genend  sit  nation 
was  not  materially  changed.     Considerable  fortunes 
had  been  accmnulated  by  .lews  who  had  speculated 
in  assignats;  others  applied  themselves  to  banking 
and  to  wholesale  trading.    The  intellectual  develop- 
ment of  a  minority  among  them  at- 
TJnder  the    tained  to  the  same  level  as  that  of  the 
Empire,      general  population.    Adejits in  tlie lib- 
eral arts  appeared  with  the  new  gener- 
ation that  had  been  emancipated  by  the  Revolution : 
and  public  offices  were  no  longer  denied  to  worthy 
Jews.     Napoleon  determined  to  hasten  the  develop- 
ment of  this  new  element.     To  this  end  he  sought  to 
condemn  in  an  official  manner,  and  by  an  authority 
that  he  deemed  more  powerful  than  the  civil  law,  all 


regrettable  practises  of  the  Jewish  race.  The  lirst 
step  toward  this  was  his  decree  of  May  30,  1H06,  sum- 
moning a  convention  of  the  .Jewish  notables,  among 
wlK)m  were  many  Alsatians,  such  as  lijibbi  David 
Sint/.heim,  who  took  an  important  part  in  the  discus- 
sions. At  the  instance  of  Napoleon  this  convention, 
presided  over  by  M.  Mole,  councilor  of  state,  discussed 
and  approved  a  st'ries  of  propositions  in  practical  mor- 
als, which  were  to  combine  the  law  of  Moses  with  the 
Code  Napoleon.  Action  on  these  jiropositions  was 
taken  later  by  a  .si'cond  a.ssembly  of  a  more  ccclesiius- 
tical  character,  designated  as  the  Great  Saidiedrin  of 
France,  which  was  convened  in  Febru- 
The  Great  ary,  1807,  liyorderof  the  emperor.  The 
Sanhedriu.  Jewish  religion  was  then  ollicially  es- 
tablished in  Alsjice.  It  was  to  be  gov- 
erned by  two  consistories,  one  at  Strasburg  and  tlie 
otherat  Colmar:  and  a  synagogue,  built  at  Strasburg 
in  IS(I9,  took  the  place  of  the  private  houses  of  wor- 
ship that  had  existe<l  u|)  to  that  time. 

From  this  period  the  history  of  the  Jews  of  Alsace 
is  merged  in  that  of  the  Jews  of  France.  The  an- 
tagonism of  a  large  part  of  the  rural  population  still 
manifested  itself  from  time  to  time,  and  almost  in  an 
official  manner,  either  in  orders  of  the  Councils  Gen- 
eral of  the  departments  of  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Rhine  or  in  certain  decrees  of  the  royal  tribunal  of 
Colmar;  but  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  members 
spoke  no  more  against  them:  and  for  the  first  time, 
thanks  to  the  restricted  suffrage  under  Louis  Phi- 
lippe, a  Jew,  Colonel  Cerf-Beer,  was  elected  to  rep- 
resent one  of  the  electoral  districts  of 
General  the  Lower  Rhine.  The  progressof  |)ub- 
Progress.  lie  instruction,  the  diffusion  of  liberal 
ideas,  and  the  efforts  of  the  Jews  them- 
selves— who  estalilished  an  industiial  school  at  Miil- 
hausen  and  a  school  of  arts  and  trades  at  Stra.sl)urg 
— gradually  improved  the  conditions  of  the  various 
Jewish  commmiiticsof  the  country,  especially  in  the 
higher  spheres  of  provincial  society.  A  speech  de- 
livered by-  Cremieux  at  Saverne  in  1844  led  to  the 
abolition  of  the  oath,  more  Juilnim.  requiriMl  until 
then  by  the  courts  of  Alsace.  Alsatian  .lews  in  larger 
numbers  took  part  in  the  nuuncipal  and  depart- 
mental eoiuicils  of  the  localities  in  w  hich  they  dwelt ; 
they  became  members  of  the  faculties  of  the  colleges 
and  lyceums:  and  were  appointed  to  chairs  in  the 
Academy  of  Strasburg,  They  distinguished  them- 
selves at  the  bar,  in  the  world  of  art  and  letters,  and 
in  medicine.  At  certain  epochs  of  great  political  com- 
motion more  or  less  violent  awakenings  of  the  former 
antipathies  toward  the  Jews  took  jilace.  To  this  may 
be  attributed  the  disturbances  which  occurred  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1848,  at  Allkirch,  and  in  some  other  localities 
of  the  department  of  the  Upper  Rhine  as  well  as  at 
Brumath  and  at  Marmouticr  in  the  Lower  Rhine — 
disturbances  that  had  to  be  suppres,sed  by  troops.  It 
was  from  the  sstme  cause  that  in  January,  18.")2.  after 
the  cmip  iVi'tdt.  troulile  arose  at  Roestlach.  in  the  can- 
ton of  Ferrette.  Again,  at  the  time  of  the  war  in 
Italy  in  18.'i9.  anti-Jewish  mahifestations  occurred  at 
Rixheim  and  at  Ottrott.  Other  instances  of  a  simihir 
nature,  and  of  comparativelj'  modern  date,  could  be 
named  with  little  difficulty.  Nevertheless  one  can 
not  deny  the  great  progress  that  has  been  made  by 
t  he  .lews  throughout  Alsace  in  the  course  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  nor  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the 
religious  and  social  antipathy  in  which  the  .Jews  at 
one  time  were  held.  The  prevalence  of  juster  no- 
tions is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  fear,  enter- 
tained during  the  Revolution,  that  in  a  brief  period 
of  time  the  .Jewish  population,  by  reason  of  its  rapid 
natural  increase,  would  gain  the  upper  hand  over 
the  Christian  population,  has  long  since  been  dis- 


463 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alsace 
Alshech 


polled  bj' fact.    Just  the  reverse  has  tiikiii  place.     lu 
1790,  out  of  a  population  of  about  <>(IO,(XMl  in  Alsace, 

there  were  from  20,(M)()  to ^3, 000  , Jews 
Statistics.   — more  than  one-thirtieth  of  tlie  total. 

In  lyTl,  more  than  eighty  years  later, 
the  Jews  mimbered  ;jO,(X)0  in  a  total  population  of 
1.200,0()(),  or  aliout  one-fortielh  of  tlie  whole.  More- 
over, throiiLrli  the  removal  ot  the  Jews  into  the  towns, 
the  runil  districts  were  relieved  of  a  larjie  part  of  the 
.  population,  that  could  not  live  by  other  means  than 
Usury:  such  localities  lost  one-half  of  their  Jewish 
iiihabilanls.  lierfrbeim  is  an  example  of  this.  In 
1TH4  this  district  had  ;i27  Jews;  in  isyo  it  had  only 
]-'9.  The  population  of  I)armena<h  decreased  from 
340  to  232,  an<l  that  of  Henenheiin  from  409  to  230. 

The  annexation  of  Alsace  by  Germany  in  1S71  led 
to  the  mitrnilion  of  a  larije  number  of  Jews  from 
the  refrion  to  France  (where  anti  Semitism  was  then 
entiR-ly  unknown),  to  Switzerland,  and  even  to 
America.  In  spite  of  the  immigration  of  the  German 
Jews  in  considerable  numbers,  the  whole  of  Alsjice- 
Lorraine,  as  late  as  1890,  contained  but  34,01,")  Jews 
in  a  population  of  1,. ■)(!(). I (00.  or  about  one  forty- 
fourth  of  the  whole.  Of  this  number  Lower  Alsace 
contained  17.810.  Upper  Alsaic  9.7(10.  and  Lorraine 
cjmIv  7,07.").  The  district  of  the  city  of  Strasburg  con- 
tained 4,023  Jews,  that  of  .Miilhaiiseu  3.042.  and  that 
of  Colniar  2,8.(9,  while  the  country  district  about 
Sirasburg  contained  2,006,  and  Ilagenau  2,479:  but 
there  are  several  districts  of  the  Upper  Khiiie  that 
contain  no  more  than  iiOO  to  000  .lews  each,  and  the 
larger  number  of  those  of  Lormine  have  only  000  or 
700  .lews.  In  1900  in  Strasburg.  of  the  total  jiopu- 
lationof  130,000,  the  Jews  numbered  about  4,000. 

BiDLiOGRArilY:  Scheld,  HMolrc  tics  Juifit  il' Alsace,  Paris, 
lsT:t;  Idt'iii,  HMiiire  dcs  Juifa  dc  Htun'cnaii.  In  Hcv.  Kt. 
Jttivcs,  IW.'*;  FliM'lK'r,  Etude  ifur  VHistoirc  dcs  Juifn  d<nis 
Us  Terns  dc  VKvirhc  dc  Stntstuntru,  Metz,  IseT :  Weiss, 
(icsch.  (tcrlici-ldliclitn  StiUnnfldirJwhii  iiii  FUrsthisthum 
Sli'usslmrif.  Iloim.  ts*.k'. ;  i.ocb,  Hirlzel  Levji,  Mitrt  Mtniyr  a 
Colniar cii  i:'''*.\'i-v^ntil\i'!i,  l.ssi  ;  Uifn\,  Ltsjititsd  Stnt!<lnnir{i 
d4'iiuis  l.V,n  justiu\i  la  Urvidutiiat,  Versailles,  IssJJ;  (iliisi-r, 
(icsch.dcr  Jttdcn  in  Strdwtdiry.  Stnislmiv.  ISSH;  .Mossiiitinn, 
^tudc  sur  Vllistolrc  dcs  Juifs  d  Cnliiiar,  IVilmar,  lstM>; 
Fellchenfeld.  Hahlii  Jttsel  run  Itttshrim,  cin  liiilntii  zitr 
Gcsch.tlcrjndi  n  im  lieformatinnszcitaltcr, i^tn^huviz,  IHS>H: 
Reuss,  L\ilsttcc  an  xrii'  Su'cle,  fi.  ">7.'>-.')»l ;  jdeiii,  Lcs  Is- 
raelites d'Alsacc  au  xrii'  Sicrle,  Vnris,  ISIW;  idem.  Selin- 
mann  Alcritndrc.  im  les  Trihulatinns  tVun  Israelite  Stras- 
hdiirueois  I'endant  la  Terreur,  Slmslmrc.  ISTS;  KniK  and 
Ba.sst',  L'Alstice  Arant  Vn'J.  pp.  SiU-ajll  iLes  Juifs),  I'urts, 
is::);  Hallcz,  Des  .luifs  en  Franre,  pp.  iC  1«  (Elatdes  Juifs 
en  .\i8aee.\vunt  In  ltev<jlutiim>,  l'ari.s  1K4'>;  Levy,  t'lii/jiiCfKii 
}Iisliirique  sur  I'Etat  dcs  Juifs  en  France,  ct  Parliculit're- 
ment  en  Alsace,  \n  liev. d'Alsacc, WVt,i.^Mi-^^if>■,  Vi^nmand 
Kevlllt',  l^s  Juifs  d'Alsacc  seats  VAncien  Heifime,  in  Her. 
il'Alsucc.  WA,  pp.  STl-afl):  (!)<•  Helll.  Les  Juifs  d'Alsacc 
Ditirent-ibt  etre  Atlmis  n«  littnu  tie  Citniiens  Actifsf  ITtIO 
tZuselirift  tier  Klsdssischett  Jwlen  au  die  Chrtuen  Kin- 
vtihnertles  Flsasscs,  ITtifi):  ( hninrkt.  liapisirt  lu  ti  Itt  Sitciele 
ties  Amis  tic  Itj  Ct^nstitutitni  le  :i7  Fi-vrier,  i:nn,  sur  la  t^ues- 
titat  tic  I'Ktat  I'iril  ties  Juifs  tl'Alsace.  siraslnirvr,  IT!*); 
Jjctlre  tl'un  Alsacien  sur  les  Juifn  if  Alsace,  I*arts,  ITttn; 
Veltrr  tlie  Vertreihitnu  tier  Jutleti,  ITItii;  Vntcrthaeniiist 
tleltirrsamslc  Vttrstellunu  tier  Ittstimuitcn  fictneititic  tier 
Sttitit  Strtisshurii  tin  tlie  ytdianalversttwiulung,  stnislmnr, 
ITlto,  Schreilten  Kines  Sicht^utlrn  tin  tlen  Verfitssir  the 
Rcuublikaiii'^eht  n  I'hrmiiK.  tins  Jutlenthuin  Jielrelfiutl, 
ITW. 

IJ.    K. 

AL-SAMERI :    The  man  who  nmdc  the  golden 

calf  ill  Ibe  »ililiriH^s       See  S.WIKIll. 

ALSARI,  JACOB:  Teacher  of  Ilebri  w  and 
grauMiiariiiii,  wlin  li>r  eighteen  years  leeluri'd  in  lle- 
tirew  in  Zeikowo.  Prussian  Poland,  near  the  liussian 
frontier.  His  son  Joseph,  bom  in  Zerkowo  in  l.'^o."), 
eliiinis  to  have  Ininslaleil  I  In-  family  nanii'  into  Ger 
man.  an<l  a<'(|uired  a  reputalion  as  .luliiis  Klirst. 
Jacob  .\lsari  wrote  "Don-  Ma'alidi"  on  .\iigelology 
and  on  ae<'ents.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  relig- 
ious p<H'ni  and  notes  to  the  Targumim.      None  of 


these  works  has  been  published.     The  name  is  said 
to  be  originally  Arabic. 

Bibliography:  Delitzsch,  Zur  Geschichte  tier  Jlldischen 
Pttcsic,  pp.  \24,  V£>  (Iniin  information  of  somewliat  doubtful 
autbentlelty  given  l>y  JuUus  Fiirst),  Leipsic,  ISB. 

P.  Wi. 

ALSARI,  JOSEPH.     See  First,  Jri.irs. 

ALSHECH  lAiab.  "the  Elder"?),  MOSES: 
Habl)i  ill  Salcd.  Palestine,  in  the  second  half  of  the 
si.xleenlh  century,  and  son  of  Hayyini  Alshech.  He 
wasadiscijileof  H.  Joseph  Caro.  author  of  the  "Shul- 
l.ian  'Aruk  "  ;  and  liis  own  discijiles  included  the  cab- 
alist  K.  Hayyim  Vidal.  Although  .\lshech  belonged 
to  the  circle  of  the  cjibalists  who  lived  at  Safed,  liis 
works  very  rarely  betray  any  traces  of  the  Cabala. 
He  is  celebrated  as  a  teacher,  preacher,  and  casuist. 

Little  is  known  of  his  life.  In  his  works  he 
avoids  mention  of  himself,  telling  only  of  his  course 
of  study:  thus  in  the  preface  to  his  commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch  he  says: 

"  I  never  aimed  at  thinm  too  liigh  or  beyond  me.  From  my 
earliest  days  the  study  of  the  Talmud  was  my  chief  occupation, 
and  I  a.ssi(iuinisly  atlemled  the  yt^shiUih  r<""llejre]  where!  made 
myself  familiar  with  the  discussions  of  .\baye  and  Itaha.  Ttie 
DiL'ht  I  devoted  to  n'seareh  and  the  day  to  Halakah.  In  the 
ituTuin^'  I  read  the  1'aliiuid  and  in  the  ufternoon  the  Posekim 
'^■as^Ii^Ist.  ( (niy  on  Fridays  could  I  Iliid  time  for  the  reading  of 
Scripture  and  .Midrash  in  preparation  for  i^iy  le4-tures  on  the 
sidra  of  the  week  and  simitar  topics,  which  I  delivered  every 
Sabbatlx  before  large  audiences,  eager  I*)  listen  to  my  instruc- 
tion." 

These  lectures  were  afterward  published  as  "  Com- 
mentaries" (perushim)  on   the  books  of  the   Holy 
Scrijitures.  and  .Vlshech  gives  a  remarkable  rea.son 
for  their  public:itioii.        He  sjiys:    ".Many  of  those 
who  had  listened  to  my  lectures  re- 
His  Lee-     jieated  them  partly  or  wholly  in  their 
tures.         own  names.  These  ofTenses  will  be  pre- 
vented by  the  jiublication  of  my  own 
work."    These  lectures,  though  somewhat  lengthy 
for  our  taste,  were  not  tedious  to  his  audience.     The 
author  repeatedly  declares  that  in  their  [irintcd  form 
(as  "Commentaries")  he  greatly  curtailed  them  by 
omitting  everything  which  was  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary, or  which  he  liad  already  mentioned  in  another 
place. 

Like  Abravanel  and  some  other  commentators, 
Alshech  headed  each  section  of  his  comments  with  a 
number  of  t|Ucstions  which  he  anticipated  on  the 
part  of  the  reader:  lie  then  proceeded  to  give  a 
summary  of  his  view,  and  concluiUil  with  answer- 
ing all  the  (|Uestions  seriatim.  His  Commentaries 
abouiul  in  references  to  Talmud,  .Midrash,  and 
Zohar,  but  contain  scanty  references  to  other  com- 
mentaries, such  as  the  works  of  Abravanel.  R.  Levi 
b.  Gerson,  or  Maimonides.  His  e.x|<lanations  an-  all 
of  a  honiiletical  character;  his  sole  object  being  to 
find  in  each  sentence  or  in  each  wonl  of  the  Scrip- 
tuies  a  moral  le.s-son,  a  suii|iort  for  trust  in  GihI,  en- 
couragement to  patient  endurance,  and  a  proof  of 
the  vanity  of  all  earthly  goods  as  compared  with  the 
everlasting  bliss  to  be  acquired  in  the  future  life. 
He  fie(|Uently  and  earnestly  appeals  to  his  brethren, 
exhcdting  them  to  repent,  and  to  abandon,  or  at 
least  restrict,  the  pursuit  of  all  worldly  pleasures, 
and  thus  accelerate  the  approiuh  of  the  .Me.s.sianic 
era.  .Vlshech  posses.sed  an  easy  lunl  lluent  style; 
his  expositions  are  mostly  of  an  allegorical  charac- 
ter, but  very  rarely  approach  mysticism.  In  liis 
commentary  on  the  .'^ong  of  .Solomon,  he  calls  pe- 
s/ia^  (literal  explanation)  and  *"</  (mystical  inter- 
pretation) the  two  opposite  extremes,  wliile  he 
declares  his  own  niethtKl  of  intriHliicing  allegorical 
exposition  to  W  the  safe  mean  between  these  ex- 
tremes. 


Alshecb 
Altar 


THE  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


464 


Alsliccli  wrote  llic  following  foiiiniciiturifs,  most 
of  wliich  have  appeureil  iu  several  editions: 

1.  "  Tiirat  Moslicli "  iCoinincMitary  on  tin-  Pcniatrui'li).  (Iret  ed. 

Bflvi-di'rv  iH'iir  ('■inslamluo|ile,  ubuul  lju:j.     t'ouipleU',  with 

Indeics,  Vi-nlcr.  ItKil. 
i.  An  ulislnirt  i>(  this  rxninicntary  was  pn'pan-d  tiy  Jos.  1>.  Ar- 

vi'ti  l^ot'li. anil  luLsuiipi'an-d  In  vatlousfoiiusHilzzur  Alshwh  'al 

!ia-Tnndo.  Anist»T(laiii.  1T4H. 
;i.  "Miinit  lui-Zi  iIk-uI  "  (ColUiled  Vlslons>,  on  the  prophets  and 

their  prophivies.  Venli-e,  miil. 

4.  Extniets  from  this  coninientary  are  Ineludec)  in  "  MInt.iah 
Ketaniiah,"  a  eoininentarv  on  the  earlier  pn»phets:  ptitillslied 
111  the  Hllilla  Ual)l>inli-8  (liohelel  Moshehi,  Ariisterduni.  lTi4. 

5.  '■  Itorueriiol  El"  (I'rals^'s  of  (iod),  on  llie  lxH)k  of  I'salms, 
Venii-e,  Itafc*. 

0.  '■  Itali  I'enlnlin"  (Multitude  Of  Pearls),  on  Pniverhs,  Venlee, 
IIHII. 

7.  "llelkat  Mehokek"  ITheljiwjflver's  Portion), on  Job, Venice, 

mit.  ' 

8.  "Slioslmnat  hii-'AinnkIm"  (liily  of  the  Viilleys),  on  the  Sonj; 
of  Solomon.  This  e<tTinnentJiry  was  the  Ilrst  t«i  ajipear  In  i)rint, 
and  was  etllted  by  Alshei-h  liiiiiself  In  l.V.tl.  Ai-«-ordink'  to  this 
eoiriuientary.  the  Sont;  Is  an  allegory,  and  represents  a  dlalo^'ue 
between  (iod  and  exiletl  Isniel  on  the  latter's  mission, 

fl.  "  *Ene  .Mosheh  "  (Eyes  of  Moses),  on  Kuth.  AIshe<*hsaysof 
the  h<Hik  of  Kuth.  "Surely  from  it  we  irilpht  take  a  le,sson 
how  to  serve  dud":  and  illuslr.ites  this  statement  through- 
out his  cnmnu-tiiary,  Veinee,  HM)1. 

lU.  "  Debarlni  Nlliumim"  IComfortiii)^  Words),  on  the  "Lam- 
entations (<f  Jeremiah."  The  title  is  not  merely  a  eupheudsm 
for  Ijimentatifins;  tlie  author  repeateilly  attempts  to  shi>w 
that  there  is  no  eause  for  ilespulr.  (iod  beluKWith  Israel,  and 
tli(»uirti  the  'rnni'le  isdestri'Vfd  thesheklnuh  has  not  departed 

from  Die  W.->liTll  Wall.  Velltc.-,  llilll. 

U.  "  Debiirim  Tol.ini  "  M, i  Wnrdsj.  on  Errlpsiastes.    Alsheeh 

calls  Eecleslastes.  on  aeeount  of  Its  deep  thomrhts,  "  Waters 
without  end"  (oceans).  He  endeavors  In  the  commentary  to 
llliistnite,  as  the  wntml  Ich'a  of  the  bfKik,  the  dictum,  "  All  Is 
vain,  e.\cc]i[  ilic  fear  of  ihc  Lord,  which  Is  the  essential  con- 
dition of  iiiioi's  ri'iil  exisieticc."  Venice,  lOOL 

72.  "  Massal  Mosheli  "  ( Moses'  (ilft),  on  the  iHiok  of  E.sther,  pre- 
sented by  the  author  to  his  brethren  as  a  Purim  jfift,  Venice, 
llilll. 

13.  The  commentaries  of  .Mshech  on  these  last-named  live  books 
("meifl'lot"itr  rolls)  a)ipe;ncd  in  an  iiliridu'ed  form,  edited  by 
Kleazer  b.  Ilanalliah  Tai-niu'rad.  .\nisIi'nlaMi.  11H)7. 

14.  "  Habazelet  ha-sharon  "  ('riic  Rose  of  Shaixm),  on  the  book 
of  lianle'l,  Safed,  irn^),  and  Venice,  l.">:i:.'. 

1.5.  .\  commentjjry  on  the  ■'Haftiimt"  called  "  Likkute  Man" 
((iatherlnps  ot  Mainiai,  Wiis  compiled  chlelly  from  "  Muriit 
ha-Zobeot."  by  E.  JI.  Markbrelt,  .\msterdam.  1T()4. 

IG.  "Varlni  Mosheh"  Is  the  title  of  a  coituiicnlary  on  Abot, 
gathered  froiri  the  works  of  Alshech  by  Joseph  B.  M.  Schlen- 
ker,  Fiirth,  17(i4. 

17.  .\  commentary  of  Alshech  on  the  Ha^g^adah  (Home  Service 
for  the  two  idtjhts  of  Passover)  appears  in  the  edition  of  the 
Hauffadah  callefl  "Bet  Horim"  (House  ttt  Free  Men).  The 
conmientary  Is  full  of  Interesting  remarks  and  earnest  exhor- 
tations (Metz,  17(17).  Even  in  the  intmductlon  the  laws  for 
Passover  and  the  order  for  tlie  evenimr  are  ireated  allepor- 
Ically,  and  made  the  vehicle  for  reilLions  nieditation.  It  Is, 
however,  not  likely  that  .\lshech  wrote  tlle^e  imies  for  the 
Ha(?eadah.  They  were  prob:i)ily  i:;iihered  froiri  his  works 
lon^r  after  his  death,  as  oth.-rwise  the  HaL'iradah  would  have 
been  published  with  his  coiniiielitary  much  earlier. 

18.  "Responsa":  as  casuist  he  was' frequently  consulted  by 
other  rabbis,  and  his  decisions  were  collected  in  a  volume  of 
responsa  (Venice.  Vm'>:  Berlin,  17i5fi).  His  contemporaries  fre- 
quently quote  his  opiiuons.  Dunne  his  lifetime  Azariah  de 
Rossi  produced  his  "Meor  'Enaylm"  (Lipht  for  the  Eyes),  in 
which  the  author  rejeiied  some  Ijeliefs  generallv  received  as 
traditional;  Alshech,  at  the  request  of  his  teaiiu-r.  It.  Joseph 
("aro,  wnite  a  deeiaratlon  affalnst  the  "  Meor  'Enaylm  "  as  be- 
Inp:  contrary  and  dan^'erous  to  the  Jewish  religion  (Herein 
l.lemed,  v.  141). 

1!).  .\lshech  wrote  also  a  poem,  "  Dirge  on  the  Exile  of  Israel," 
in  a  very  simple  style  in  ten  rimed  verses.  It  has  been  in- 
troducefl  into  various  earlier  morning  rituals,  such  as  "Aye- 
let  ha-Shahar"  (The  Moniing  Dawni.  It  is  also  contained  In 
the  collection  of  prayers  and  hymns  called  "Sha'are  Zion" 
(The  Gates  of  Zion). 

BiBi.iOGRAPiiy  :  Azulal,  .Sftf  m  ?ia-Gf  rtojim,  s.v. ;  Stelnschnei- 
der,  r«f.  Bof/f.  col.  1773-1777 :  De  Rossi,  r>t'2(0tJrtnV>  ^fonco, 
9.V.;  on  the  name  Alshech  see  Steioscbneider,  iu  Jeic.  Quart. 
Rev.  xl.  616. 

M.  F. 

AL-TABBAN,  LEVI  B.  JACOB  IBN,  with 
the  Arabic  Sdiiiame  Abu  rFihm  :  Graiiiniariau  and 
poet,  flotirished  at  Saragossa  in  the  beginning  of  the 
twelfth  century.  He  was  the  friend  and  elder 
contemporary  of  .ludah  ha-Levi,  who  jiroliably  was 
governed  more  by  affection  than  by  critical  judg- 
ment, when  he  styled  Al-Tabban  "King  of  Song?' 


Al-IIarizi's  opinion  of  his  jioetic  talent  was  not  so 
high,  for.  in  his  enumeration  of  coiiteiiiponiiy  poets, 
he  refers  to  "  Levi  and  .laeob  [which,  as  it  has  been 
suggested,  may  be  a  corruption  of  J.,evi  hen  Jacob] 
ibn  Tabban  "  as  verse-nmUers  who  "thresh  poetry 
like  straw"  (compare  "Tahkctncuii.  '  chap.  lii. ).  Ho 
is  alsoalludcd  to  by  Alirahaiu  ibn  Kzra  in  the  preface 
to".Moziiayim."  lie  was  the  author  of  a  gi'ammat- 
ical  work  in  Anibic,  called  "Miflah"  (The  Key),  of 
which  only  the  title  has  been  jireserved.  Of  his 
liturgic  jioenis  a  nuiiiln  r  arc  extant  in  the  festivtU 
liturgies  of  Tripoli.  .Vvignon.  anil  Algeria,  and  can 
usually  be  easily  identitied  by  hisciisloniiiry  acrostic, 

3pV'P'1^  (ir  '1^  'JN-  The  spirit  of  niclancholy  which 
jiervades  his  ptiiitiiitial  ]i(a-m  in  the  Tripoli  jirayer- 
liook  (]).  (13//),  "To  you.  ()  men,  I  call."  as  well  as  the 
dirge-like  i"ccit.al  of  abuse  and  misery  which  it  con- 
tains, shows  the  poem  to  have  been  produced  in  an 
age  of  persecution  and  tyranny  iinictised  against  the 
.Tews.  To  such  circumstances  jioint  also  others  of 
his  literary  pi-odiicts.  which  are  marked  by  distress 
and  gloom.  No  doubt  the  allusions  in  them  all  ari^ 
to  the  devastation  of  the  province  of  8arago.s.sa  car- 
ried on  by  the  Christians  under  Alfonso  VL,  wlio.si; 
triumphant  iidvance  Yusuf  ibn  Tashtin  was  calleil 
from  Africa  to  check. 

Bibi.I()(;r.vpiiv  :  Sachs,  Die  RcUgiline  Pnexlc  dcr  Juden  <n 
SiKtiikn.  p.  290;  Blumenfeld.  (_>z<tr  JS'rhmnil,  11.  SI  cf  scr/.; 
Edehnann  and  Dukes.  Trc u^ttrcs'  of  (ir'fnnl.  p.  'M,  Ixjndoii. 
1S5():  Steinschnelder,  Cat.  IIikU.  col.  1(11(1;  idem,  in  Jew. 
Quart.  Iici\.  xl.  (HI,  translates  the  name  Al-ralilian  a.s 
"straw-merchant";  Zunz,  LifcrnfKrt/csc/i.  pp.217  cf  .sc</. ; 
(irjltz,  Gesch.  d.  Judcn,  2d  ed.,  vi.  12();  Baclier,  Ahrahaiii 
itm  Ksra  ah  (Irammatiker.  p.  1H7 ;  Kokowzoff,  A'ifo/Mtl 
Muwdzaiia,  p.  S,  St.  Petersburg,  IsiW;  Steinschnelder.  .7cic- 
ish  TAterature  (lS.'i7);  Berliner's  Mnfiaziu,  iv.  lUt;  MIciiiU'l, 
f)r  hn-Haiiiiim,  No.  K;  Fiirst,  Uilil.  Jud.  11.  2S1),  iioU-  to 
Sol.  Fraiico. 

H.  G.  E. 

ALTABIB,   ABRAHAM:     Spanish  physician 

who  lived  in  C'aslile  in  the  lirst  half  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  He  was  the  contemporary  of  Abra- 
ham ibn  Zarzal.  the  physician  of  Don  Pedro  the 
Cruel,  king  of  Castile.  He  wrote  a  supercomraen- 
tary  to  Abraham  ibn  Ezra's  Pentateuch-commen- 
tary, in  which  he  often  ojjposes  ."solomon  Franco 
and  his  supercommeutaty.  Altabib's  work  is  still 
only  in  manuscrijit. 

Bini.iooRAPiiv:  M.  Friediander,  Essai/s  on  the  JTritinqx  af 
Altraham  ibn  Ezra,  1S77,  pp.  223,  Si;),  24.5. 

JL  K. 

ALTARinatD.  «"'z4m7(,Aramiiic  naiD.  Ezra,  vii. 
17,  "jdaee  of  slaughter  "). — Biblical  Data:  In  the 
book  of  Genesis  it  is  often  sjiid  that  altars  were  erected 
(viii.  '20.  .\ii.  7,  .\iii.  8,  xxvi.'2.5..\.\.\iii.  '20,  etc.).  These 
altars  wtic  usually  licajis  of  .stones  .such  as  Laban 
and  .Jacob  built  to  sacrifice  upon  (Gtii.  xxxi.  H'i  et 
«eq.),  for  they  are  said  to  be  "built"  (nj3)  in  several 
instances (c..!/.,  viii.  20.  xii.  7,  etc.).  Once(xxxiii.  20). 
the  Altar  is  said  to  have  been  "erecteti "  (3V3)  and 
hence  must  have  been  a  "  pillar"  (n3VD)-  Dillmann 
(f '////.  to  Gen.  xxxiii.  20).  Ijclieves  that  here  inhlienh 
has  been  substituted  for  lunzzihiih.  In  the  law  of 
Ex.  XX.  '24  etsrq..  the  Altar  which  is  preferred  is  an 
Altar  of  earth.  Probably  it  is  this  kind  of  Altar  which 
is  referred  to  in  Gen.  xxx  v.  1.  .3.  which  was  said  to  be 
made  (nL"y).  The  same  law  permits  stonealtars(?^x. 
XX.  25),  but  provides  that  they  shall  be  mtide  of  un- 
hewn stone  and  prohibits  (v.  26)  that  they  be  as- 
cended by  steps.  According  to  this  law  also  altars 
tiiiiy  be  built  (or  earthen  altars  made,  ncy)  wherever 
there  is  a  theophany.  Those  referred  to  in  Genesis 
mention  as  a  rule  no  special  theophany,  though  the 
pillar  at  Bethel  (Gen.  xxviii.  18-32),  whicli  was 
closelj' allied  to  an  Altar,  was  erected  in  consequence 


465 


THE  JEWISH   ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Alshech 
Altar 


of  sucli  a  tlicDpliaiiy ;  and  hence  all  were  thought 
pri)l)al)ly  to  !"■  so  huilt. 

Thi-  Altar  tor  the  luhiTnac'le  (Ex.  xxvii.)  was  made 
of  acacia  wood  overlaid  witli  bronze.  It  was  five 
cubits  S(iuarc  and  three  culiits  hi^'h.  It  had  a  gratini? 
or  networii  below  (v.  4)  and  a  ledge  (v.  5),  intended 
perhaps  for  the  priests  to  stand  \ipon.  It  had  Imnis 
at  the  corners  and  also  four  brazen  rings  in  wlii<li 
to  insert  |)oles  for  carrying  it.  The  utensils  for  it  aie 
also  described— i)ans  for  clearing  away  ashes,  shov- 
els, basins  or  Siiucers  for  caleliing  blood,  tlesh-hooks 
and  tire-iians  for  removing  coals.  According  to  Lev. 
vi.  \'2.  lire  was  to  burn  on  it  perpetually. 

An  Altar  of  incense,  also  for  the  Udjernacle,  is  de- 
scribed  in  Ex.  XXX.     It,  too,   was  to   be   made  of 
acacia  wood  and  overlaid  with  gold. 

Altar  in  It  was  to  be  S(iuare.  a  cubit  each  way. 
Tabernacle,  and  two  and  a  half  cubits  high.  Tiiere 
was  a  molding  nl)  iiniund  it.  and  four 
rings  at  the  corners  for  the  insertion  of  poles  for 
transportation — all  overlaid  with  gold.  The  taber 
nade  was  also  provided  with  a  table  for  showbreail, 
made  of  acacia  wood,  with  a  crown  or  molding  of 
gold  around  it  (Ex.  xxv.  23(7  ner/..  xxxvii.  10  I't 
Kii/..  Lev.  xxiv.  (i,  Num.  iv.  7).  In  Dent.  xii.  the 
lil)orty  of  binlding  altars  in  more  than  one  place  is 
withdrawn,  but  tiie  form  of  the  Alt^ir  which  is  fa- 
vored is  not  specified. 

In  the  period  covered  by  the  books  of  Judges  and 
Samuel  saeritice  was  oM'ei'ed  in  many  places  as  in  the 
book  of  Genesis;  especially  where  a  theophany  oc 
curred  (Judges,  vi.  11  it  sef/.,  xiii.  3  tt  seq. ;  II  Sam. 
xxiv.  16  itKit/.).  These  sjicritices  were  in  the  tirst 
instance  offered  on  the  natural  rock  (Judges,  vi.  20, 
xiii.  19).  A  rock  might  do  also  when  in  stress  for 
want  of  a  better  Altar  (I  Sam.  xiv.  :i:i,  34).  Altars 
Were  afterward  built  on  such  spots  (.Judges,  vi.  21): 
I  .Sam.  xiv.  3.5;  II  Sam.  xxiv.  IS  it  acq.).  The  altars 
of  the  period  were  probably  for  tlie  most  part  made 


square  and  ten  high  (II  Chron.  iv.  1).    If  these  dimen- 
sions are  not  exaggerated  (Benzinger,  "Archa'olo- 


Assyhiui   .Miar. 

(Nuw  la  Ihv  l...n«r».) 

of  atone  (see  I  Kings,  xviii.  31.  82)  and  also  had  liorns 
(I  Kings,  i.  .It),  ."(l). 

The  principal  Allarin  Solomon 'sTemplcappears to 

have  been  of  bron/.e  (I  Kings,  viii,  (!4 ;  II  Kings,  xvi. 

14;    11    Chron.  iv.  1  it  mi/.).     If  we  may  trust   the 

chronicler  it    was  of    immense  size — twenty   cubits 

1  -30 


Persian  Portable  Flre-Allar. 

(From  Jiisli.  "  Gew-h.  <\eT  Alu-n  Pwaer.") 

gie."  p.  388.  accepts  them),  an  ascent  of  steps  must 
have  been  necessary  for  this  structure.     It  was  made, 

like  all  tin- furniture  of  Solomon's  Tern- 
Altar  in     pie,  by  workmen  sent   from   I'heuicia, 
Solomon's    and  doiditless  represented  an   innova 
Temple,      tion.     The  Temple  seems  also  to  have 

contained  an  Altar  or  table  of  show 
bread  (I  Kings,  vi.  20  it  >»'<]..  vii.  4S  rt  tui/.),  as  did  an 
earlier  temjile  (I  Sam.  xxi.  (>.  7).  and  the  tabernacle. 
Ahaz  modilie<l  the  arnuigementsdl  Kings  xvi.  10  c^ 
.»<'/.).  Whili'at  Damascus  he  saw  an  Altar  that  pleased 
him.  and  be  sent  the  pattern  of  it  to  rrijah.  [hr  priest, 
commaniling  thai  one  like  it  b<'  made  for  the  Temple 
—a  command  which  was  carried  out.  It  is  inferred 
that  this  Altar  wasof  stone  sincc>  it  was  built  (v.  11). 
and  since  the  chief  .Mtarof  tlu'  temjile  waseverafter 
of  .stone.  Upon  this  Altar  the  daily  sjicritites  were 
offered  thereafter,  while  the  bronze  Altar  was  reserved 
for  the  king.  This  sloni'  Altiir  is  calleil  "tlu'  great 
Altar"(ll  Kings,  xvi.  l."!).  At  the  tinn'of  Josiahall 
the  altaiN  in  the  land  but  this  were  abolished,  and  the 
Temple  beiamc- till' .sole  ]dace  of  saerilice(II  Kings, 
xxili.).  so  that  the  history  of  the  Altar  is  merged  in 
that  of  the  T.inple. 

In  Kzekiel's  ideal  Temple  the  Altar  of  burnt  offer- 
ing was  to  be  built  as  follows:  a  l)a.se  eighteen  cubits 
square  and  a  cubit  high  to  be  surmounted  by  a  plat 
form  siMein  cubits  square  and  two  high  ;  on  this  an- 
other platform  foiiri.iTi  <  nbits  ...pian-  and  four  high 


Altar 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


466 


arose.  Above  tliis  was  the  Altar  lieartli  lijKnx)* 
twelve  cubits  square  and  four  high.     This  at  each 

corner  was  surmounted  by  a  horn  a 
£zekiel.      c\il>it  in  hiijrht  (see  Toy's  "Ezekiel," 

8.  HO.  T.  p.  inn.  In  the  opinion  of 
many  scholars  this  description  holds  irood  for  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem,  in  which  probably  Ezekiel 
bad  served;  perhaps  therefore  it  was  such  an  Altar 


people  of  Israel  and  their  Father  in  heaven;  there- 
fore, iron,  which  is  used  as  an  instrument  of  mur- 
der, should  not  be  swung  over  it.  What  a  guaranty 
for  those  that  endeavor  to  establish  peace  between 
man  and  man.  and  between  nations  and  nations,  that 
MO  evil  shall  befall  them!"  said  Jolianiiii  ben  Zakkai 
(Mek  Jelhro.  11;  Tosef.,  B.  I.C.  vii.  (i).  And  in  the 
same  spirit  he  said :   "  If  the  altar  of  the  Lord  must 


BR0NZ£  altar  of  THK  TKMI'LE,  Ukstored. 
(Afler  Calmet.) 


as  this  which  Ahaz  saw  at  Damascus.  Ezckiel  is 
also  in  like  manner  a  witness  to  the  presence  of  the 
table-altar  of  showbrcad  in  the  Temple  (Ezek.  xli. 
22). 

In  the  poste.xilic  temple  the  principal  Altar  was  of 

stone  (Hag.  ii.  15,  IMacc.  iv.  44f<.wi;.).while  the  table 

of  showbread  or  "  golden  "  Altar  and 

PostexiUc    Altar  of  incense  also  found  places  (I 

Days.        JIacc.  i.  21.  iv.  49  ct  scq. :  Josephns, 

"Ant.".\ii.  5,  §4;  "Contra  Ap."  i.  22). 

"U'hen  these  implements  were  defiled  by  the  heathen 

sacrifice  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  they  were  replaced 

by  new  ones  (I  Mace.  iv.  44  et  sec/..  49  et  scq.). 

All  these  formed  a  part  of  Herod's  temple.  The 
main  Altar  was  of  stone,  and  according  to  Josephus 
("B.  J."  V.  5,  g  6),  fifty  cubits  square  and  fifteen 
high,  though  the  dimensions  are  differently  given 
in  the  Mishnah  (Middot,  iii.  1).  It  was  approached 
by  a  gradual  ascent.  G.  A.  B. 

In    Ba'bbinical    Literature :     "  The    Altar 

is  the  means  of  establishing   peace    between  the 


be  built  of  whole  stones  (according  to  Detit.  xxvii. 
6).  all  the  more  should  the  men  that  perform  the 
peaceful  work  of  divine  instruct  ion  be  whole-souled 
and  peaceful"  (ih.  7).  In  a  similar  strain:  "If  the 
very  stones  of  the  altar  are  to  be  treated  with  re- 
spect and  with  deconim,  how  much  more  living 
man!"  (Mek.  I.e.,  end). 

The  Hebrew  name  for  Altar  (riDTD)  is  explained  as 
signifying,"  It  wipes  away  sin ;  it  nourishesthe  higher 

man;  it  fosters  love  for  God;  and  it 

Metaphor-    atones  forall  guilt  "  (Kct.  10/;):  its  four 

ical  letters  D"n.  nsin,  ni3T.  rh^no    (ini- 

Meaning'  of  tialsof  inrhihili.zekut.berakali.hnyniin). 

Name.        point    to    Forgiveness,    .Justification, 

Blessing,  and  Life  (Tan., Terumah,  10). 
It  was  considered  a  miracle  and  a  proof  of  the 
manifestiition  of  the  Shekiuah  that  the  continual  fire 
upon  the  Altar  did  not  destroy  the  copper  with 
which  the  stones  were  overlaid  (Lev.  R.  vii. ;  Tan., 
Terumah.  11). 
The  Altar  was  made  a  special  object  of  veneration 


467 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Altar 


on  the  seventli  day  of  tlie  festival  of  Tabernacles, 
when  the  people  made  a  circuit  around  it  seven  times, 
and  addressed  it  on  depiirtiiiir:  "To  thee  belonjreth 
beauty,  O  Altar!  To  Him.  the  Lord,  and  to  thee, 
()  Altar!  "  (Suk.  iv. .')).  Tlie  belief  was  that  th<-  Altar 
ou  Jlount  Moriah  was  the  same  that  Xoah  built,  and 
that  .Vdam  had  already  broujihl  his  first  sjicriticc  to 
this  identical  spot  ( H.  Ishniael.  in  I'irke  H.  El.  xxxi. ; 
Tar}r.  Yer.  Gen.  viii.  20;  .\.\ii.  !().  For  "upon  sac- 
rificial worship  rests  the  world  "  (Ab.  i.  3;  All.  K.  X. 
(.1)  iv. ;  (I})  V. ;  Yer.,  Ta'auit,  iv.  6»((;  Bab.,  Ta'anit, 
27* :  yivg.  31A). 

Still  this  regard  for  the  Altar  was  not  universal 
amonjr  the  Jews.  Aversion  to  it  was  manifested  not 
so  much  by  the  Hasidim  (Esscnes).  whose  ojiposition 
was  directed  ratlier  against  the  illegally  apjiointed 
high  priests  than  against  Siicrifices  in  general,  as  by 
the  priests  themselves,  amcmg  whom  the  cry  was 
raised  by  Miriam,  the  <lauglilir  of  liilgah  (who  be- 
came an  apostate  in  the  time  of  the  Syrian  invasion 
of  the  Temple):  "O  thou  wolf  who  swallowest  all 
the  wealth  of  Israel,  and  yet  failest  to  give  relief  in 
time  of  need!  "  (Suk.  oG/*;  Yer. .Suk.  end;Tosef..  Suk. 
iv.  28).  But  this  very  expression  "  wolf,"  applied  to 
the  Altar,  came  into  later  pojiular  use  without  any 
allusicm  to  its  voraciousness  (Gen.  \i.  xcix. ;  Targ. 
and  Jerome  on  Gen.  xlix.  27). 

Of  the  two  Altai's  in  the  Temple,  the  golden  one 

for  the  incense  is  sjiid  to  symbolize 

Altars  in     the     devotion    of    the    soul,     whose 

the  nourishment  is  of  a  finer  nature;  the 

Temple.  bronze  Altar  for  animal  sacrifice,  that 
iif  the  body,  which  is  fed  ou  flesh 
(Midr.  Tadsheh  xi.). 

When  theilestruction  of  the  Temple  with  its  Altar 
filled  the  [leople  with  alarm  as  they  thought  of  their 
unatoned  sins.  Joliaiiaii  Inn  Zakkai  comfort<'d  Ihrin 
sjjying:  "You  have  aiiollier  means  of  atonement  as 
powerful  as  the  altar,  and  that  is  the  work  of  char- 
ity, for  it  is  Siiid :  '  I  desired  mercy  and  not  sjicritice  '  " 
(Hosea,  vi.  (i ) ;  and  he  referred  to  Daniel  x.  11 .  "the  man 
of  desirable  virtues"  U'li  ffdimnlut,  translated  also 
by  the  Septuagint,  tTirte/i/ur,  "the  merciful  one"), 
who  served  Go<l  bv  almsgiving  an<l  prayer  (Ab. 
R.  K.  (.l)iv.  after' Dan.  x.  11).  The  Altar  being 
called,  also,  the  "table  h<'fore  the  Lord  "  (Ezek.  xli. 
22;  Mai.  i.  7.  12),  the  Altar  of  incense  placed  before 
the  ark  of  the  covenant  is  said  to  be  only  the  symbol 
of  the  study  of  the  Law  by  the  wise,  while.the  Altar  of 
sacrifice  represents  the  charity  offered  by  the  rich, 
who  spread  their  bounties  for  the  poor  ou  the  table 
in  front  of  their  houses  (Targ.  Yer..  Ex.  xl.  n,  6; 
Compare  Ab.  iii.  ;i;  Men.  XWn;  Ber.  TiTin;  Hag.  27i( : 
Y<piiia  7bO.  Paul  apiiliid  the  same  idea  of  the  Altar 
ns  the  table  of  the  l.onl  to  the  ('onimiinioii  meal  (I 
Cor.  X.  lH-21).  And  while  among  the  rabbis  indi- 
gent and  uon-rcsiih'ut  students  of  the  Law  were  the 
chief  ones  chosen  as  partakers  of  the  meal  in  order 
to  render  it  a  "  table  of  the  Lord  "  (see  Ber.  lOA), 
according  to  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (ii.  26,  iv. 
8).  widows  and  orphans  were  calli'd  "the  altars  of 
the  Lord."  the  widows  reprcsiiiting  the  Altar  of 
burnt -olTering.  and  the  virgins  the  Altar  of  incense. 
Even  the  law  concerning  the  exclusion  of  impure 
gifts  from  the  .Vltarof  (;od(Di'UI.  xxiii.  1!»)  was  aji- 
plied  to  the  Church  charity.  In  striking eontra-st  to 
the  Church  view  of  the  superior  merit  of  virginity. 
Tan.  (Wayishlah.  <>)  says:  "The  pious  wife,  remain- 
ing modestly  within  her  domestic  circle,  is  like  the 
altar,  in  that  she  is  an  atoning  power  for  her  house- 
hold." 

But  the  Altar  was  also  taken  a.s  symbolic  of  the 
sacrifice  of  one's  life  in  the  cause  of  Go<i.  The  cele- 
brated mother  w  Im  saw  her  si'Ven  sous  die  a  martyr's 


death  (according  to  the  Talmudic  legend,  in  Hadri- 
an's time,  and  not  in  that  of  Antiochus  Epiplianes), 
cried  out;  "O  my  sons,  go  forth  and  tell  Abraham 
your  ancestor  (supposed  to  sit  at  the  Gate  of  Gan 
tden):  'Thou  didst  build  one  altar  whereon  to  offer 
thy  son  as  sacrifice:  I  have  built  seven  altars! '  "  (Gi^. 
57//).  In  IV  Mace.  vi.  29,  xvii.  22,  we  also  read  that 
the  blood  of  these  sjiintly  martyrs  (the  seven  sons) 
was  an  atonement  for  Israel's  sins:  an  idea  often 
repeated  in  the  Talmud  (M.  K.  2N(().  The  death  of 
the  righteous  has  the  same  atoning  power  as  the  Red 
Heifer.  On  this  idea  rests  Paul's  doctrine  of  the 
atoning  power  of  Jesus'  death  (Rom.  iii.  25,  and 
elsewhere)  and  the  identification  of  Jesus  with  the 
Altar  in  Heb.  xiii.  10. 

The  Altar  with  its  sacrifices  on  earth  has.  accord- 
ing to  the  ancient  Gnostic  vie\v,  its  archetype  in 

heaven:    >Iichael,    the  archangel,    as 

Its  Arche-    high  priest  offering  (the  souls  of  the 

type  in       saints)  upon  that  Altar  (Hag.  124,  Zeb. 

Heaven.      (i2(/.  Men.  110«;  Seder  Gan  Eden,  and 

Midr.  'Aserctha-Dibberotin  .Jellinek's 
"B.  II."  iii.  137).  The  same  heavenly  Altar  is  re- 
ferred to  constantly  in  the  Church  liturgy.  Under 
this  heavenly  Altar  the  saints  rest  after  death 
(Ab.  R.  X.  (.1)  xxvi.  and  xii. ).  Similarly  the  souls  of 
those  slain  for  the  word  of  God  are  said  in  Rev.  vi.  9, 
viii.  9,  to  rest  under  the  hcavenlj-  Altar.  K. 

Critical  'View  on  Forms   and    Origin:    A 

glance  at  the  above  material  makes  it  clear  that  in 
form  the  simplest  Altar  was  a  natural  rock  or  stone. 
A  stone  with  a  large  flat  top.  in  which  were  natural 
depres.sions  for  receiving  the  lilood  and  natural  chan- 
nels to  act  as  conduits  for  it,  was  usually  selected. 
Several  such  have  been  identified  (see  "  Biblical 
World."  ix.  229  it  siy/.).  The  first  advance  toward 
complexity  was  the  substitution  of  a  heap  of  earth  or 
of  stones  for  the  simjile  rock.  This  heap  \yas  some- 
times surrounded  by  a  trench  (I  Kings,  xviii.  3'2), 
evidently  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  water  and 
blood,  as  was  the  case  with  the  .iihabghab  in  the 
sanctuary  at  Mecca  (Wellhausen.  "Reste  des  Arabi- 
silien  Heidenthums."  p.  105).  A  great  departure  from 
this  is  found  in  the  Altar  of  Sohuiion's  Temple  and 
the  Altar  of  the  Tabernacle.  The  foraier  was  of 
bronze  and  of  Phenician  workmanship.  Its  form  is 
in  doubt.  The  Chronicler  (II  Chron.  iv.  1)  makes 
it  an  enormous  square  ten  cubits  in  height,  but 
there  is  no  mention  of  it  among  the  utensils  of  the 
Temple  in  I  Kings,  vii.  It  is  mentioned  in  I  Kings, 
viii.  04  (a  late  insertion,  see  Kittel  in  X'owack's 
"Hand  Ivoiuiiieiitar").  Wellhausen  ("Proleg."  5th 
ed.,  p.  -15).  and  Stade  ("Gesch."  i.  333)  hold'that  it 
%vas  omitted  by  a  late  redactor,  who  thought  that 
the  bronze  -Vltar  of  the  Tabernacle  must  have  Iwen 
moved  into  the  Temple  by  Solomon.  Robertson 
Smith  ("Religion  of  the  Semites."  2d  ed.,  p.  4><7) 
objects  that  no  separate  bronze  Altar  is  mentioned 
as  having  been  carried  away  by  Xebuchadiuzzar 
(II  Kings.  XXV.),  and  .seeks  to  show  that  the  pillars 
Jachin  and  Boaz  had  (iiiiU  or  fire-pans  in  them,  in 

which  fire  was  kept  burning  by  fat  of 

Forms       the  sjicrifice.    Thus  they  became  huge 

of  Altar,     candlesticks  or  cres.s«>ts  (compare  also 

Toy,  "Ezekiel,"  in  Haupts  "S.  B.  O. 
T."  p.  186,  who  accepts  this  viewV  If  this  be  s<i.  the 
two  iiriilf  of  Moab  which  Benaiah  smote  (II  Sam. 
xxiii.  "20,  Jfih.)  Were  similar  pillars  iH'fore  a  .shrine 
(compare  "  C.  I.  S."  i»2si.  for  a  eippus  on  which  pil- 
lars or  posts  before  a  shrine  are  figured).  We  learn 
from  the  inscriptiim  of  .Mesha  (lines  11,  12,  17  et  ftt/.). 
that  an  iirirl  was  a  structure  which  couhl  be  carried 
off.     .Most  siliolurs,  ho%vever,  hold  that  the  Altar  of 


Altar 
Alt-Ofen 


THE  .JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


468 


Solomon  WHS  II  reiil  lironzp  Alliu{coiii|>iiri>  lii'iiziiifrcr. 
"Anil.."  p.  38H;  Nowiiik,  ••Arch."ii.  41,aiiil  Stiuli'. 
■'Gtsch."  i.  3:iH).  and  that  WcUliaviSfn's  explanation 
of  its  oxrision  from  I  Kiiijis.  vii.  is  correct.  In  favor 
of  this  rather  than  the  view  of  Smith  is  thi'  fact  that 
acconliiifT  to  E/.ekiel  (.\liii.  Hi),  an  uriil  was  part  of 
11  very  (lilTerent  .structure.  Pnibalily  the  reason  that 
it  was  not  earricil  away  hy  Nehuchadnez/.ar  istiiat 
in  times  of  stnss  it  hail  been  previously  disposeil  of 
(compare  II  Kings,  xvi.  17,  18).  A  large  channel  in 
the  Temple  rock  at  .lerusalem  is  thought  by  .some 
to  mark  the  site  of  the  Temple  Altar,  and  to  have 
acted  as  a  conduit  for  the  blood  from  the  Altar  (see 
Nowack's  "Ilebrilische  Arcliilologie,"  ii.  41). 

That  the  form  of  the  Altar  of  I  he  Tabernacle  differed 
still  further  from  the  primitive  type  than  that  in  the 
Temple  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said  already 
of  its  form.  The  form  of  Altar  introduced  by  Aliaz 
Is  probably  given  in  Ezekiel's  description  (\liii.  13 


Altar  of  Incense,  Restored. 

(.\fler  Calmrl.f 

et  »eq.),  already  noted.  The  later  altars  in  the  Tem- 
ple were  evidently  built  on  this  general  plan,  though 
they  dilTered  in  detail  and  in  size. 

Among  the  early  Semites  deities  were  identified 
with  natural  rocks  or  trees,  and  when  an  ofTering  was 
presented  to  them  it  was  placed  upon 
Origin       the  rock  or  suspended  from  the  trei'(see 
and  W.  Robertson  Smith.  Ac.  pp.  ls.5.  2(1!),/ 

Devel-  .«((/.,  and  Doughty.  "Arabia  De.serta." 
opment.  ii.  .'51.5).  This  custom  of  sacritice  pre- 
vails in  all  essential  features  in  parts 
of  Arabia  to  the  present  time  (Doughty,  np.  cit.  i.  449 
e(  seq.).  Natural  rocks,  in  which  were  channels  and 
depressions  for  conducting  and  receiving  the  blood, 
served  as  Altars  in  Israel,  at  least  in  places,  till  the 
period  of  the  Judges  (compare  Judges,  vi.  21  et  acq. ; 
xiii.  19  et  seq. :  "Biblical  Worid,"  ix.  328  et  seq.).     A 


great  advance  was  made  over  the  religious  thought 
of  this  early  period  when  it  was  considered  possible 
to  persuade  the  god  to  come  and  reside  in  an  object 
selected  by  lln'  worshiper.  Such  objects  among  the 
Semites  were  usually  .stones,  and  were  called  by  the 
Arabs  iiiisii/i  (sing,  iiiii/l)),  u\\i\  the  Hebrews  hi, fj^cW 
(sing,  iimzzi'liii/i).  They  served  not  only  as  a  resi- 
dence of  the  deity  (a  hdh  Kl.iivn.  xwiii.  IT),  but 
also  as  an  Altar,  t  )il  was  poured  on  the  Altar  (Gen. 
xxviii.  IS),  and  the  fat  of  sacrifices  was  smeared  on  it 
to  bring  it  as  closely  as  possible  into  contact  with 
the  deity  (see  Anointixo  and  M.vzzkh.mi.  also  W. 
Hobertson  Smith.  I.e.  jip.  21)4  </ w^.,  ami  Wellhausen, 
"  Heste  des  Aniliischeii  Hcideiithunis."  2d  cd..  p]). 
101  it  «'/.).  The  conception  of  sacritice  at  this  time 
was.  as  Smith  has  shown,  commensal  (sec  S.vcni- 
Kici;).  and  I  he  god  was  able  to  dispose  of  his  portion 
if  thus  brought  into  jiliysical  contact  with  it. 

Th(^  transition  to  tire-altars  came,  first,  from  the 
custom  of  cooking  the  meal,  and,  secondly,  from 
a  moreelevated  conception  of  the  deity  which  made 
men  believe  that  the  god  inhaled  the  smoke  of  the 
burning  olTcring  and  so  took  his  part  in  that  way. 
This  ncecssitati'il  theaddilion  of  a  tire  hearth  to  the 
mazzcbah.    This  transitional  form  has  actually  been 

fiiiind  in  Abyssinia  in  monoliths  with 
Fire- Altars,  firc-heaiths    attached    (see     Theodor 

Bent's  ".Sacred  City  of  theEthio])ians," 
pj).  \'^  et  seq.).  Where  sacritice  was  offered  on  a 
natural  rock,  it  could  easily  be  burned  there.  After 
a  heap  of  stones  had  been  subsliliiti'il  for  a  natural 
rock  the  addition  of  a  lirc-heartli  as  in  the  Altar  of 
Ezekiel  would  be  necessary.  N.-iturally  it  was  |ilaced 
at  the  top  of  the  structure  in  imitation  of  the  natural 

rock,  and  not  at  the  side  as  in  case  of 

Bronze       those  which  grew  out  of  I  he  mazzebol. 

and  Stone   Solomon's  bronze  Altar  was  an  inno- 

Altars.      vation  of  civilization  and  gave  way 

later,  through  the  revival  of  an  earlier 
form,  to  the  stone  Altar. 

The  Altar  of  acacia  wood  overlaid  with  bronze  is 
mentioned  only  by  the  Priestly  writer  and  those  de- 
pendent upon  him.  It  would  not  have  endured  a 
sacrificial  fire,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of  modern  schol- 
ars that  it  never  had  actual  existence. 

The  Altarof  incense  belongs  to  the  secondary  ele- 
ments or  additions  to  the  Priestly  writer,  and  its 
existence  before  the  time  of  Ezekiel  is  even  more 
problematical. 

The  table  or  Altar  of  showbread  is  a  survival  in  a 
dilTcrent  way  of  the  commensal  idea  of  sacritici'. 
The  story  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  in  the  (ireek  book 
of  Daniel  shows  that  the  idea  that  the  god  actually 
consumed  the  food  lay  at  the  bottom  of  this  part 
of  the  ritual.  With  advancing  <ivilization  the  table 
increased  in  splendor  till  it  was  called  the  golden 
Altar. 

The  origin  of  the  horns  of  the  various  kinds  of 
altars  is  shrouded  in  obscurity.  Stade  ("Gesch."  i. 
46.'))  suggests  that  they  arose  in  an  attempt  to  carve 
the  Altar  into  the  form  of  an  ox.  while  Robertson 
Smith  held  ("Religimi  of  the  Semites  "  2d  ed..  ]>.  43('i). 

that  they  were  subsiituted  fortlie  horns 

Horns  of    of  real  victims  which  hail  at  an  earlier 

Altar.        time  been  hung  on  the  .\ltar.     At  all 

events  they  were  regarded  as  a  most 
sacred  portion  of  the  Altar  (I  Kings,  i.  51 ;  ii.  28,  and 
Lev.viii.  l.'iux.  9;  xvi.  IS). 

Bini.ioGRAPHY  :  Smith.  lieUiiidu  nf  the  Semites.  ISfli:  Starle, 
tir.trli.  f.»rn<-h.  l.s.si-H,s.  and  in  liis  Zeil.  iii,  li.'fl  el  w<;.;  Wi-11- 
jiaiis.'n,  /i',,vf,  'li.<  .\mlii.-'elieii  II,i,lentlium.-<,  2d  ed.,  isnr: 
KiUcTs  AV,„,f/s./J(i(/(, /•  jin<i  KniPtzschmar's  Kzekiet,  botli  in 
N()wa,-k'.s  UnuiJ-K'fmmeittar;  BenzinKer's  Krun'ue  and  Ber- 
ttiolet's  llesekieU  tx,th  in  Marlf's  KitrzerHetnd-Kinnmentetr; 
Toy's  Ezekiel.  In  H<iuiit'.>i  .S.  C  O.  T.:    Nnwack,  Leiirliueli 


469 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Altar 
Alt-Ofen 


Hetn-tlifcher  ArcMloliigie.  ItW:  Benzlntrer's  Hehr.  Arch.. 
IWH:  Greene,  Helirew  Ruck  Alliun  In  BiliUinl  H'urW,  l,v. 
'J^  et  acq. 

O.  A.  B. 

ALTAR,  JONAS  (JONATHAN  HA-LEVI)  : 

]!uliciiii:ui  nililii;  linru  17.V>,  diid  .Manli 'J."),  isri."),  in 
(ioltsclijeiiikau.  He  irprcscntcd  the  striclcst  or 
tliodoxy  as  cviilenccd  by  liis  iM>lctni(al  pamphlet 
airaiiist"  Aaron  Cliurin.  jiulilislicd  in  Prague  in  WHS. 
entitled.  "  MetilHislict  Inn  Vecmatan,"  in  wliieli  lie 
I  iideavoi-s  to  prove  the  reliirioiis  necessity  of  keepinjr 
ihe  head  covered  diirinir  prayers.  He  wrote  also  a 
number  of  articles  for  the  weekly  "Zionswiichter." 
edited  by  Enoch.  K.   T. 

ALTAR,  MEIR  HA-LEVI :  Son  of  precedin- ; 
born  in  (^illsch  .li-nikuu.  I'.oheinia,  INKi;  died  there 
in  INtiS,  lie  iraiislalcil  into  German  the  Yozerot  or 
liluririial  pieeis  for  Sabbath  readinir,  |mblished  by 
.M    I   I.anchui,  Prague,  ll!'3U.  '  K.  T. 

ALTARAS  :  A  family  name  variously  spelled  : 
.DX1U  -inSD  .yXISD  ii'xl  L'nt3-  It  is  not  certain 
whclher  this  is  the  Siinie  name  as  that  borne  by  the 
Spanish  Karaite.  Sidi  ibn  al  Tanis  (DXiriPX*.  author 
of  a  work  containing  the  opinions  of  Abu  Alfaraj. 
Allaras  is  mentioned  by  Abraham  ibn  I  laud  ("Sefer 
lia  Kabbalah  ";  in  Xeiiliauer,  "  .M<ili:eval  Jew. 
Chron."  i.  79)  an<l  by  Joseph  ben  Zaddik,  in  Xeu 
liauer,  //»..  p.  !Ki ;  see  also  Schreiner.  "Jesehua'  ben 
.bhuilah,"in  "  Program  of  tlu'  lierlin  Lehranstalt  f  llr 
ilie  Wissenschaft  des  Judeuthums,  190U,"  p.  iJ). 

Bun.loiiRAPIIV:   StelnahnelUer,  In  Jrrv.  (junrl.  /d  r.  xi.  IIS, 

G. 

ALTARAS,  DAVID  BEN  SOLOMON:    An 

Italian  niblii  ami  edilc.r  who  lli.uri'-hed  at  Venice, 
lt'>7.">-1714.  He  wrote  the  short  Hebrew  gnmnnarin 
till-  cpiarto  Bible  (Venice,  167.V7H).  He  edited  a  daily 
prayer-b(iok  (Venice. KiUti)  and  a  vo<ali/.ed  edition  of 
the  .Mishnah  with  short  notes.  Venici\  I7."if>-fi(l.  His 
will  is  iirinled  under  the  title  t^•3^  f|1V  "ISD,  Venice, 
1714. 

Iliiii.KiiiKArilv:  Zedncr,  Cnl.Thlir.  /?iji*k  /}n(.  .Uii>.  p.  .548 ; 
Villi  SIrmilen,  t\it.  p.  11.:  SleinschneliliT,  i'ttt.  limll.  N(»s. 
4TST,  TWill  (list  iif  wiirk.s  edited  bv  hlmi;  idem,  liihtiuur. 
nuiulhmlt.  S<:  X,. 

n. 

ALTARAS,  JACaUES  ISAAC  :  French  sliip- 
liiiililer  and  pliiliuil  lirojiisl  :  born  in  .\leppo.  Syria, 
in  1 7!^().  anil  dieil  at  Ai.\  (l)i  paitnient  of  Bouches 
du  Phone.  Knince).  Jan.  30,  1m7:1  He  was  the  son 
of  a  rabbi  in  Palestine,  and  left  Jerusjilem  in  1806  to 
eniragi'  in  business  in  Marseilles  asa  ship-builder  tra- 
ding  with  Ihi'  Levant,  in  which  he  was  sui-cessful. 

In  the  middle  of  the  century  a  project  was  started 
to  assist  Hiissian  Ji  \vs  to  emii.'rale  lo  .Mireria.  then 
reieiilly  con(|Ucred  by  France.  Allaras  took  up  the 
idea  with  zeal. and  arnierl  with  lettiTsof  inlrodiiction 
from  (Jui/.cd  and  with  promisesof  support  fioni  many 
inlluential  Jews,  he  sUirled  for  .S|.  Pctersliurir.  in 
lN4(i.  intending  to  petition  tin'  czar  to  allow  40,0110 
Jewish  families  to  emignite  from  Russia  to  Algeria, 
but  he  was  promptly  informed  by  tli<'  minister  of 
foreii;n  alTiiirs.  Count  Xes.selroile.  that  he  had  laid 
the  matter  before  the  czar,  and  that  his  iip|>licalion 
could  only  be  supported  on  conililion  of  an  advance 
payment  of  about  sixty  riililes  in  taxes  and  lines  for 
each  family,  in  confonnily  with  the  Hussian  laws, 
which  do  not  allow  the  I{iissian  subjecis  to  leave 
till'  country  for  lifetime.  .Vltanis  considen'd  llies<' 
dilliculties  insunnounlable.  and  thus  the  project  was 
aliandoned.  .Mtanis  was  president  of  ihe  Marseilles 
Consistory  for  thirty  years,  and  a  knight  of  the  Le- 


gion of  Honor,  and  helped  with  Marini  to  found  a 
school  for  Jewish  children  at  Mui-seilles. 

BiBI-iiiiiRAPHV:  La  FumiUe  dc  Jncnh.  xlv,  1873;  Bulletin 
<k  r Alliance  Ixrcu'lili  rnircrsilh.  .No.  a).  IWIH;  (ilnzliurg. 
hcltir,  11.  LettfTs  fn'iu  Berlin  imd  Lelpsieof  Wolf  Uosenthal  to 
Ills  hntther  Letin  ftosemlml,  Nos.  .'>!»,  til-ti:i:  Lchct  -Inifiriin, 
cnlliMtlon  of  articles,  supplement  to  Ha-JIeliz.' \>p.  si,  KJ,  St. 
I'eterebiirif,  Itft-'J. 

H.  R. 

ALTARAS,  MOSES:  An  Italian  rabbi  of  the six- 
tieiilh  and  .siventeenth  centuries;  known  as  the  au- 
tliorof  a  translation  into  Juda'o-Spanish  (but  in  Latin 
characters)  of  the  Shulhan  'Aruk  under  the  title  "'  Li- 
bro  de  Mantenimiento  de  la  Alma,"  Salonica.  I0B8; 
Venice. IIJO'J  and  1713.  It  was  written  for  the  use  of 
the  Maranos  who  could  not  reail  Helirew.  Accord- 
ing to  Steinschneider.  Altanis  was  merely  the  patron 
of  the  work,  which  was  actually  written  by  a  man 
named  Meir,  otherwise  unknown. 


BiHLioiiRAPiiY  :  steinschneider.  Cat.  Bixll.  col. 
linpr,  liihl.  Efii.-Piirt.  Jud.  p.  11, 


Kayser- 

D. 

ALTARAS,  SOLOMON  :  Venetian  rabbi  of  the 
eiglileriiih  cinluiy.  pmbably  the  son  of  David  Alta- 
ras.  edited  among  other  worksa  collection  of  pnij'ers 

under  the  title  "iDIXn  t3pS  (A  Collection  of  Praj'crs 
and  Hymns),  Venice,  1718. 

BIBLIOCRAPIIV  :    Beniacob,  0?<ir  fta-Sc/arim,  p,  270;  Sleln- 
scbnelder,  fa(,  BiM.  col.  3(M), 

D. 

ALT-BREISACH  :  Ancient  fortified  city  in  the 
grand  diiiliy  ol  liadin,  Germany;  the  scene  of  Jewish 
]iersecution. 

In  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  black  death 
devastated  the  world  (1348-.5I),  this  city,  like  that  of 
.Mayence,  was  the  scene  of  a  fearful  massacre  of  the 
Jews,  who  were  falsely  accused  of  poisoning  the  pub- 
lic wells  and  thus  causing  the  pestilence. 

The  total  population  in  1900  was  3,000,  of  whom 
about  4.')0  were  Jews.  The  community  maintains 
fifteen  benevolent  foundations,  and  two  sick-benefit 
associations. 

BiBi.iooRAPHV:  Salfeld,  Afarfi/nilDflium  d.  Iflimlicrger  3Ie- 

iiuirlmchen.  p.  2«4.  Berlin,  1898;  Heoker.  Epidemiol  iif  the 
Middle  Auex.  ed.  Sydenham  Society,  e.v. 

F.  H.  V. 
ALTENKUNSTADT.     See  Bcrkcxst.uit. 

ALTENKUNSTADT,     JACOB     (KOPPEL) 

BEN  ZEBI  ilsih.wn  al-.;i- Koppel  Harif);  Kabbi 
at  \erbo,  Hungary;  lived  in  the  lirsi  halt  of  the 
nineteenth  ceiiturv.  He  wrote  "  I.Iiddushe  Vabe/,  " 
(novella)  on  the  Talmudic  treati.se  Hulliii.  Press- 
burg.  Is;i7.  which,  as  the  author  states  in  his  intro- 
duction, is  an  extract  from  a  more  exhaustive  s<'ries 
of  novelhe  written  by  him  on  the  whole  Talmud 

BiBl.loiiRAPHV  :  steinschneider.  Cat.  Binll.  eo\.  UHI;  Walilen, 
Shcm  ha-lJedMm  Itc-Uadcieh,  II,  iS. 

I.   Bu. 

ALT   NEXT  SYNAGOGUE,   PRAGUE.     See 

PiiAi.n: 

ALT-OFEN  (Hungarian;  oBuda.  ;>31N)  .  Old 
HuiiL'arian  1  ily.  now  incorporated  in  Hudapest  as  the 
third  ilislricl.  The  earlier  liistory  of  the  Jews  in  Alt- 
Ofen  begins  with  the  twelfth  century  and  ends 
with  l."i41,  when  the  Turks  obtained  i>oss<s.sioii  of 
the  cilv.  Jews  probably  settled  at  Ofen  at  the  time 
of  the  Crusades,  when  so  many  lied  from  Oemiany 
into  Hungarv.  The  first  certain  information  about 
the  Jews  in  .Ul  Ofen  is  of  Ihe  year  1217.  when  Isjiac 
ben  Moses  of  Vii'iina,  the  author  of  "Or  Zarua," 
mentions  that  the  Jews  of  Ofen  (meaning  All  Ofen) 
submitted  the  i|Ueslion  to  him.  whether  the  warm 


Alt-Ofen 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


470 


springs  thcrt'  might  lie  ciiiiilojed  for  ritual  baths.  In 
the  lust  half  of  the  fifteenth  centtiry.  acconlinc  to  the 
testimony  of  Israel  Isscrlein  (died  1470).  of  \Vienei- 
Nevistadt.  there  was  a  Jewish  eongregatiou  at  that 
place  ("  Fesukim  u-Ketabini."  LSI). 

TJie  modem  period  began  with  the  final  expulsion 
of  the  Turks  from  Buda  in  1G8G,  when  a  few  Jews 
returned.  From  thistiuie  on  the  congregation  raiiidly 
inereased,  fostered  by  the  broad  administration  of 
the  baronial  family  of  Ziehy  de  Vasonykcd.  who  as 
lords  of  thedom.'iin  of  AltOfeneXercisi'd  their  feudal 
rights  over  the  Jewish  community  in  a  most  liberal 
and  kindly  manner.  Owing  to  this  attitude,  the 
number  of  Jews  constantly  increased.  In  ITiT  only 
'2i  families  lived  there;  in  17;^.">  these  had  increased 
to  43  families,  numbering  ISs  individ- 
TJnder  uals,  who  collectively  paid  annually 
Feudal  KiO  llorins  "'protection  money"  to  the 
Lords.  Zicliy  family.  Two  years  later,  thecom- 
munity  was  able  to  purchase  the  site 
of  their  synagogue  from  their  feudal  lord  and  a 
large  district  for  a  cemetery:  the  seller.  Countess 
Susannah  Zichy,  contracting  "  to  defend  the  Jewish 
congregation  in  the  posses-sion  of  this  land  against 
everyone,  native  or  foreign."  On  their  part  tliecon- 
gregation  was  bound  to  burj'  no  stranger  in  this 
cemetery  without  permission  of  the  feudal  lord,  un- 
der penalty  of  24  Hhenish  llorins  for  each  stranger. 
The  burial  tax  was  6  llorins  for  every  corpse  brought 
from  outside  the  community  ;  and  one  ))ound  of  pep- 
per for  the  interment  of  every  one  dying  by  accident. 
This  cemetery  was  located  in  the  middle  of  the  town 
(in  the  present  Kaserucngas.se),  upon  the  ruins  of  an 
old  Roman  bath,  and  was  used  by  the  Alt-Ofen  com- 
munitv — which,  in  course  of  time,  reached  nearl}' 
4,000  souls— until  1888.  It  was  likewise  used  by  the 
commiuiity  of  Pest  until  the  year  1795.  From  the 
year  17G5  until  the  end  of  the  centiiry  it  wastheonly 
Jewish  cemetery  in  the  territory  of  the  cities  of  Pest, 
Ofen,  and  AU-Ofen.  The  Ofcn  community,  which  in 
1735  had  numbered  32  families  or  156  persons,  was 
entirely  disbanded  in  1765,  and  the  remains  of  those 
interred  in  their  ci'inetery  were  exhumed  and  rein- 
tcried  in  the  Alt-Ofen  burial-place. 

Here  reposes,  among  others,  J.  B.  Oppenheim — 
the  first  rabbi  of  the  community — who  was  buried 
in  17.54;  and  the  inscription  u])on  his  tombstone  des- 
ignates him  as  "a  luminary  of  .Tiulaism."  He  was 
followed  in  office  by  Nathan  Gilnsburger  of  Belgrade, 
who  was  also  buried  in  this  cemetery,  in  1781. 

During  the  official  lifi'of  these  first  two  rabbis,  the 
progress  of  the  community  of  Alt-Ofen  was  continu- 
ous, owing  to  the  constant  acquisition  of  new  rights 
and  jirivileges  conferred  by  their  feudal  governors. 
All  these  rights  were  secured  by  formal  agreements, 
which  were  made — sometimes  for  a  period  of  six 
years,  sometimes  for  ten — with  the  baronial  house 
of  Zichy.     Upon  the  transfer  of  Alt-Ofen  back  to 
the  Crown,  these  privileges  were  confinned  by  the 
successive  kings  of  Hungary.      These  agreements 
secured  to  the  Jewish  community  of  Alt-Ofen  at 
that  time  an  aggregate  of  privileges  of  a  character 
that  scarcely  another  congregation  in  Hungary  en- 
joyed.   They  were  guaranteed  the  undisturbed  prac- 
tise of  their  religion  under  the  protec- 
TJnder  the  tion  of  the  baronial  house ;  the  right  to 
Jurisdic-    decide,  as  a  court  of  first  instance,  in 
tion  of  the  disputes  between  .Tews  and  Jews,  and 
Crown,      even  between  Christians  and  Jews;  the 
liberty  to  buy  and  to  sell  the  large  man- 
sions and  grounds  of  the  nobility  upon  securing  spe- 
cific permission  in  each  case.     In  1774  there  were 
twelve  such  estates ;  and  in  1806  twenty-four.    These 
residences  were  exempt  from  the  billeting  of  troops 


and  the  compulsory  furnishing  of  post-horse  relays. 
But  new  settlers,  as  well  as  those  who  desired  to 
leave  the  <'ity,  had  first  to  satisfy  all  congregational 
dues  before  they  were  entitled  to  the  baronial  pro- 
tection. By  this  means  the  feudal  lord  secured  to 
the  conununity  a  source  of  revenue  that  at  times 
was  very  considerable.  In  some  casi-s  as  much  as 
1,500  lloniis  was  jiaid  for  the  privilege  of  permanent 
residence. 

Marriage  was  permitted  without  liindrance  until 
t7H7,  after  which  every  young  couple  had  to  jiay  a 
'■  Krenmitz  ilucat  "  to  the  count,  in  return  for  which 
they  were  enrolleil  in  the  list  of  t^chulz-Juden 
(Jews  under  proiecli(m).  On  their  own  premises  the 
Jews  might  dispense  beer,  brandy,  and  kosher  wine; 
they  could  pasture  their  cattle  on  the  town  common ; 
might  dress  every  kind  of  meat  in  the  slaughter- 
house that  they  owned;  "Sabbathposts"  ("Ekubin) 
might  be  set  up,  tinder  the  protection  of  the  govern- 
ment; they  might  follow  any  trade  with  the  excep- 
tion of  shoemaking,  in  regard  to  which  the  roval 
government  in  181><enforced  certain  limiljitions.  The  - 
amount  of  the  protective  tax  the  community  paid 
varied  from  1,350  to  1.800  fiorins  annually  ;  in  addi- 
tion they  were  required  to  present  the  count  with 
200  florins  on  his  birthday  and  at  the  Christian  fes- 
tivalsof  the  New-year,  Easter,  and  Martinmas  (Nov. 
11).  It  was  not  (lilticult  for  the  comnmnity  to  raise 
these  relatively  large  sums,  because  their  own  indi- 
rect revenues  were  very  considerable.  For  instance, 
the  returns  from  the  sale  of  kosher  li<|Uor  in  1M07 
amounted,  for  wine  alone,  to  6. .500  florins  (§3,2.50), 
for  beer  and  brandy  210  florins  (S105),  irrespective 
of  150  firkins  (1,500  gallons)  of  untaxed  wine  for 
private  use. 

In  addition  to  the  rights  guaranteed  to  the  commu- 
nity, they  enjoyed  certain  ])rerogativ<'s  not  less  im- 
])ortant.  The  right  of  jurisdiction  naturally  brought 
with  it  the  right  to  carry  their  verdicts  into  execu- 
tion; and  when  the  matter  was  of  a  police  or  relig- 
ious nature,  they  C(ndd  incarcerate  the  condemned  in 
the  prison  which  was  in  the  synagogiu'  yard,  or  in- 
flict blows  with  a  slick — a  maximum  of  twelve  blows 
being  fixed  by  the  government.  The  community  had 
the  care  of  funds  belonging  to  orphans,  the  adminis- 
tratiim  of  estates,  and  the  settlement  of  disputed  in- 
heritances. The  community  thus  gradtially  attained 
almost  to  the  power  of  a  jKjIitical  body.  It  became 
interested  in  tlie  disposition  of  public  works,  as  for 
instance  the  laying  out  of  streets;  and,  indeed,  the 
baronial  authorities  consulted  in  such  matters  with 
the  Jewish  community  as  well  as  with  the  Christians. 

The  inner  organization  of  the  congregation  was  on 
a  .sc;ile  commensurate  with  this  outward  aspect.    At 
its  head  was  a  judge,  called  ".Judge  of  the  Jews," 
who  was  elected  by  the  twenty-four  Councilors  of 
the  Community  tipon  the  issuance  of  the  baronial 
jiermission,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  baronial  repre- 
sentative, of  the  rabbi  and  of  two  men  learned  in  the 
Law.     Of  the  Councilors,  twelve  belonged  to  the 
Inner,  and  twelve  to  the  Outer  Council.     The  tax- 
receiver,  president  of  the  community, 
The  Inner   and  two  "orphan -fat hers"  were  also 
Organiza-  elected  by  tin-  whole  community.    Af- 
tion.         ter  their  election  they  proceeded  to  the 
synagogue,  where  they  took  the  oath  of 
office  at  the  hands  of  the  rabbi.     The  Inner  Council 
held  sessions  every  Tuesday  and  Thursday,  taking 
cognizance  only  of  the  more  petty  matters.    Deliber- 
ation upon  questions  concerning  the  community  as 
a  whole  required  the  presence  of  the  Outer  Council 
as  well.     The  members  of  the  Inner  Council  drew  a 
small  Sidary  from  the  communal  treasury,  which  was 
withheld,  however,  for  unpunctuality.     According 


471 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alt-Ofen 


to  a  decree  of  the  baronial  prefecture  in  1801,  ab- 
sence from  three  sessions,  witliout  sullicient  reason, 
was  followed  by  aiTcst.  Civil  matters  were  decided 
by  the  judge  and  the  Inner  Coiincil  witliout  consul- 
tation Willi  the  bet  din — ^wIkjsc  jurisdiction  extended 
over  religious  iilTairs  only — and  they  were  jiaid  after 
every  session,  the  rabbi  receiving  iiO  krcutzcrs,*  the 
members  or  "  dayyanim  "  IT  Ivreutzerseach.  The  writ- 
ten transactions  of  the  community  wen-  in  charge  of  a 
notary,  wlio  was  required  to  know  botli  German  and 
Hebrew,  but  the  minutes  had  to  be  kept  in  (Jernian. 
The  great  power  with  which  the  Jewisli  judge  was 


Dr.  M.  Oesterreicher — who  was  the  first  Jew  to  be 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Pest — the  Jewisli 
liospitul  was  estahlislied  and  placed  under  the  man- 
agement of  the  Hebrah.  The  still-existing  "Bikljur 
Holim  Association,"  which  took  care  also  of  the 
}-ouiig  with  a  view  to  the  inculcation  of  religion 
among  children,  was  established  in  that  [leriod.  Sev- 
eral private  synagogues,  in  addition  to  the  large  con- 
gregational one,  afforded  ample  religious  facilities. 
The  synagogue  possessed  more  than  thirteen  scrolls 
of  the  Law  in  1700,  as  is  apparent  from  the  appendi.x 
to  the  "Masoret"  of  Meir  Todros;  the  "Buda"  (the 


SvNAOooi'E  IN  Alt-Open. 

(From  B  photo|rTa)>h.) 


tlius  invested  gave  hini  considerable  standing  in  the 
outer  world  as  well  as  in  the  community;  and  this, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  times,  was  c.v  pressed  by  va- 
rious iMsigniu  of  ollice.  He  carried  a  heavy  statT  eni- 
lielllshed  willi  an  enormous  silver  knoh  as  a  sign  of 
Ills  rank,  and  in  the  street  was  always  accompanied 
by  a  liveri<'d  footman. 

The   inner  development    of   the  conimunity  kept 

]>ace  with  its  ever-growing  iiilluence  and  standing, 

and  a  niunlier  of  religious,  congrega- 

Institu-  tional.and  benevolent  institutions  were 
tion8  organized  in  the  second    half   of    the 

Founded,  eigliteenlh  <(nliiry.  One  of  thi'  first 
WHS  eertaiidy  tiie  Hel>nih  Kaddisha, 
which  was  founded  in  lT7((at  Die  latest,  as  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  tliat  in  1780,  at  the  instance  of 

*TIk>  value  of  n  krt'Utzer  to-day  In  about  bait  a  cent  (U.  8.)  or 
o  rartlilngtKiiK.). 


Hungarian  name  for  Ofen)  mentioned  there  is  most 
undoulitedly  AltOfen.  because  at  this  tirae  there 
were  no  Jews  in  Ofen  proper. 

The  greatest  ac(|uisition  was,  however,  the  Jewish 
public  .school,  which,  in  pursuance  of  a  special  edict 
of  Kmperor  Jo.si'ph  II.,  was  opened  on  May  17.  1784. 
Thisschool  was  the  first  Jewish  public  school  in  Hun- 
gary. ('onsi<lerable  opposition  attended  its  founda- 
tion, as  it  was  genenilly  feared  that  it  woidd  birome 
a  nursery  of  irreligion  ;  iiiilee<i,  .so  great  was  the  fear 
of  disturbance  that  public  proclamation  was  made 
in  all  the  synagoi;nes  by  ordir  of  the  prefect,  that, 
under  penally  of  Hogging,  nobody  .should  stand  at 
till'  doors  or  windows  of  the  school  during  ses,sious. 
The  attendance  was  at  first  very  sparse,  so  that  en- 
deavors were  diligently  made  to  close  up  the  oppos- 
ing private  scluM)ls,  anil  compel  their  pujiils  to  attend 
the  cougregatioual  one  regularly.    Slow  ly,  however. 


Alt-Ofen 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


472 


the  new  institution  won  its  way,  and  when  in  due 
time  its  nccomniodiitions  Ixrume  too  sniiill.  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  pres«'iilc(l  the eomnuinily  with  the  adjoin- 
inj;  house.  I)ouhtles.s  the  hnalty  and  piety  of  the 
tirst  teaeliers  eontrilmted  a  great  deal  to  the  increased 
esteem  whieli  the  iiistiliition  enjoyed;  its  fame  e.x- 
tended  tlirouirh  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  hind. 
One  of  its  first  teachers  was  called  to  the  public  school 
of  the  Brody  coLumunily.and  the  first  preacher  of  the 
I'est  eoinniunity.  Joseph  liach.  was  a  tia<her  liiri'. 

From  ITSI-DO.lhe  conununity  was  without  a  rabbi. 
Nathan  GUusbur^rer  die<l  in  IT^il.  an<l  althouirh  the 
prefect  urged  it  repeatedly,  the  comnuinity  could  ar- 
rive at  no  airreemeiit  as  to  a  succes.sor.  Wolf  I5os- 
kovitz,  a  wealthy  man.  well  versed  in  Jewish  lit- 
emture  and  a  member  of  the  community,  had  a 
hiirh  o])inioii  of  his  own  Illness  for  the  post,  but  his 
own  family  wdrUed  anainst  him.  Som<'  (Jalician 
linen-dealers  directed  the  attention  of  llieir  Alt Ofen 
friends  to  Jloses  Mlinz.  born  in  I'ndnlia.  an<l  livinu' 

as  a  jirivate  citizen  in  Brody  ((ialicia). 
Moses  An  inquiry  of  Kzikicl  Landau,  the 
Mlinz,  chief  rabbi  of  Pra.L'ue.  elicited  an  an- 
Kabbi.      swer  which  not  only  strenirthcned  the 

recommendation,  but  styled  Miinz  "a 
miracle  of  our  times";  ac<-ordin>rly  in  ITiMI,  Moses 
Mnnz,  then  forty  years  old.  becami-  chief  nibbi  of 
Alt-Ofen,  which  post  he  held  until  his  death  in  ls;51. 
The  choice  of  the  con^'reiralion  wasa  must  fortunate 
one;  Miinz's  learninjr  carried  the  reiiutatioii  of  the 
eonjrregation  far  beyond  the  eonlines  of  llunirary. 
Xumerousreli.s;ious  questions  were  subnntted  to  him 
by  confrregations  in  all  jiarts  of  the  monarchy. 

In  171)9  a  niunber  of  rcmarkal)le  regulations  were 
enacted  by  the  Covuicil  and  bet  din  of  Alt  Ofen, 
which  were  no  doubt  dictated  by  the  circumstances 
of  the  times.  These  regulations  afford  an  insight  into 
the  social  and  religious  life  of  those  days.  The  fol- 
lowing prohibition  ( Issur)  was  proclainii'<l  in  all  .syna- 
gogues: "It  is  forbidden  to  give  or  receive  presents: 

(rO  to  or  from  newly  electcil  olticers  of 

Inner  Life    the  congregation  and  hebrah;  ('»)  upon 

of  the         a  wedding  engagement;  (r)  before  or 

Commu-      after  a  wedding;  ('/)  U])on  a  bar-nuz- 

nity.         wall  (a  boy's  religious  majority),  or 

upon  receipt  of  the  degree  of  'lialx'r' 
[associate]  or  '  morenu  '  [ralibi];  (r)  upon  taking  up 
residence  in  a  new  dwelling."  The  following  were 
also  forbidden:  the  extravagant  "third"  Sabbath- 
meal  before  and  after  a  wedding  (of  which  usually 
almost  the  whole  comnuuiity  took  |iart );  the  banquet 
aflera  bride  t<iok  her ritiial  bath,  and  dancing  by  the 
young  people  on  that  night;  the  e.vtnivagant  wed- 
ding-dinners,iu  which  uninvited  guests  |iarticipateil; 
and  finally  the  procession  by  the  newly  married  pair 
— a  custom  imported  by  fiuabian  Jews — free  ]iass- 
age  for  which  had  to  be  ]nirchascd  with  money.  The 
reason  for  these  prohibitions  was  the  tendency  to- 
ward display  whi<h  led  many  to  the  verge  of  linan- 
<ial  ruin.  ,Nl:uiy  refused  to  accept  office  in  the  con- 
gregation, or  to  perform  certain  religious  fum-tions, 
because  of  the  very  consideral)le  monetary  outlays 
attendant  thereon,  outlays  which  had  been  allowed 
to  grow  into  a  species  of  almost  religious  duty.  Pos- 
sibly also  the  continuous  influx  of  newcomers,  wh'. 
were  for  the  most  part  poor,  had  some  influence  in 
bringing  about  this  curious  legislation. 

Parallel  with  these  regulations  of  the  community 
riui  many  of  humane  and  patriotic  nature,  dating 
from  the  tirst  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  "When- 
ever the  country  at  large  was  iu  dire  need,  the  com- 
munity rose  to  the  occasion.  In  the  national  trotdiles 
of  1800  they  took  tip  a  collection  among  their  mem- 
bers, heading  it  with  a  conmiuual  contribution  of 


400  florins  (8200);  in  1810  they  gave  2,625  florins 
(§1,312.50) — in  those  days  a  considerable  sum — to- 
ward the  foundation  of  the  National 
Public        .Museum;  which  evidence  of  generosity 
Spirit.        induced  the  Palatine  Archduke  Joseph 
to  send  a  very  cordial  lett<'r  of  thanks 
to  the  community.    In  1830  they  gave  15(1  florins  (§75) 
to  the  vicar  Alt-Ofen  von  Pec.sy.  toward  the  build- 
ing of  the  Metropolitan  Church  at  (iron. 

In  1831,  Rabbi  Moses  Miinz  died,  after  a  short  ill- 
ness, and  Ixfcire  the  clo.se  of  the  year  of  mourning 
intrigviing  for  the  vacant  post  began.  A  large  ma- 
jority of  the  congri'gation  elected  IIirs(  h  Heller, 
called  "  Harif  "(sjigacious  or  quick  witted).  who  had 
been  formerly  nibbi  in  Bonyhad,  and  just  before  his 
call  to  Alt  Ofen  had  accepted  a  like  position  in 
Ungvar.  Heller  declined  at  flrst,  because,  a<cord- 
ing  to  the  testimony  of  a  friend,  he  knew  nothing  of 
the  outer  wiirld,  and  had  been  overwhclmeil  with 
threatening  letters  from  a  vigorous  reform  Jiarty 
which  exisK'd  in  the  .Vlt-Ofen  congregation.  In 
addition,  the  Ungvar  congregation  declined  to  re- 
lease him  from  his  engagement  with  them  luitil  he 
had  served  them  long  enough  to  defray  the  exjiense 
they  had  been  put  to.  (inly  when  the  Alt-Ofen 
congregation  jiaiii  2.500  florins  in  compcnsjilion  to 
that  of  I'ngvar.  and  Heller  had  been  convinced  that 
by  far  lln'  larger  majority  of  the  members  were  en- 
thusiastically iu  his  favor,  would  he  enter  upon  the 
position  in  Alt-Ofen  (.V])ril,  18;W),  where  he,  how- 
ever, died,  six  months  lat<T,  on  October  27th.  After 
Heller's  tleath  the  rabbinate  remained  vacant  for 
twenty-seven  years;  all  religious  matters  were. 
during  that  period,  attended  to  by  the  dayyanim, 
among  whom,  as  among  their  predecessors,  there 
were  many  who  enjoyed  a  wide  re|iutation  for  .Jew- 
ish scholarship;  for  instance,  Klhanan  Dayyan.  P.  L, 
Freudinger,  Jacob  Neusehlossof  Wetsch.  I.  II.  Oes- 
terreicher,  M,  I.  Oesterreicher,  his  son 
Jewrish  and  successor,  and  liis  son  again,  P.  L. 
Scholar-  Oesterreicher,  who  died  in  IHilit.  There 
ship.  were  nmnerous  scholars  among  the  lay 
members  of  the  comnuuiity.  who  main- 
tained their  own  schools,  some  of  which  attracted 
many  Talmud  students.  Prominent  among  these 
scholars  were  L.  L.  Lowenthal,  L.  II.  Schlesinger, 
and  M.  L.  Boscovitz.  There  were  other  scholars,  as 
F,  Goldberger,  I.  Totis.  and  J.  Heuss,  who  had  syna- 
gogues in  their  own  homes,  in  which  stipendiary  Tal- 
mud scholars  studied,  and  for  their  maintenance  rich 
legacies  were  provided. 

Closely  following  the  death  of  Heller,  several 
causes  contril)Ute(l  to  the  ileeadence  of  the  .Jewish 
community  at  Alt-Ofen.  Pest  came  rajiidly  into 
prominence,  and  since  the  feudal  system  of  "  pro- 
tective agreements"  fell  into  disuse,  the  wealthy 
merchants  and  residents  of  .\lt-Ofen  moved  to  Pest, 
leaving  the  poorer  and  straitened  contingent  behind 
to  manage  communal  affairs.  As  a  result,  some 
33,000  florins  (.Sl()..-)(l(l)  iif  the  legacy-funds  were  ap- 
plied to  current  communal  e\|)enses,  thereby  en- 
dangering the  maintenance  of  many  testamentary 
obligations.  Another  disintegrating  influence  was 
exercised  by  the  growth  of  the  many  private  syna- 
gogues, splitting  up  the  community  into  many  small 
congregations,  and  leading  in  1H,")1  to  a  bitter  strug- 
gle between  them  and  the  oflicial  congregation, 
which  continued  till  1889,  when  the  last  of  these 
small  synagogues  was  definitivc'ly  closed  up.  The 
jiolitical  aflfairs  of  the  country  contributed  much  in 
those  days  to  the  decline  of  the  community.  Its 
patriotic  stand  in  the  fight  for  freedom  in  1848 
brought  it  almost  to  the  verge  of  financial  ruin.  It 
donated  of  its  own  accord  a  large  portion  of  the 


473 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Alt-Ofen 


synagogal  silver  pampliernalia  to  the   Hungarian 
government    for   coinage    into    money.     Inasmuch 


munity  labored  until  at  last,  in  1889.  the  king  (Francis 
Joseph)  was  plea.se(l.  on  tlie  proposition  of  the  min- 


as  it-i  young  men  had  been  found  bravely  tighling  in    |   ister  of  public  worshiji.  Count  Csaky.  and  on  the  ap- 
the  ranks  of  the  defenders  of  the  country.  Genend   1   plication  of   the  chief  rablii.  Dr.   Julius  Klein,   to 


Vim  (iwiu^j^nadcnMu  Dtiuu 

tf  laixtotortpccf  at  tier  ytycti6m  vntii^tn^i 

ili^^^ff}^Lvi^.^<f  i*i  0-^.^/iiu^^sit   /i^^A/J^ti*.,  y<^,.^^*v-^  A*-^ -«<'*fl2l 

rRK.lMnl.F.  I)K  TIIK   CIHRTKU   (ilVK.N   To  TIIK  JKWS  OK  Al.TO.NA    (SKK   NE.\T  P.VGE)    BY    Kl.Mi   CIIUISrIAN    nV    DKNMAIIK. 


:^^£:^Zv,. j"^^'-  4,  .rrr.- 


f^r 


^iU 


'vw. 


Slr;SATI  IIK    AMI  SKAI.   OK   TIIK   CllAKTKIl. 
(From  ft  phfHf^»(>h,> 


Ilavnau,  "the  hangman  of  the  Ilunirariiin  nation." 
laiil  a  war-contribution  upon  it  of  14. '-'7(1  tlorins 
($7.i;i.">)  and  of  .V)  liorscs  with  complete  cciMipmenl 
for  till'  sjime:  a  Inirdeii  iMijiosed  upon  no  other  con- 
gregation in  Hungary.     I  nder  this  load  the-  coni- 


remit    the  pavnunt   of   the   ludance.  amounting  to 
l,3-.'.s  ihiriiis  (StkU). 

The  reawakening  of  the  Hungarian  nation  after 
IKflO  injected  new  vigor  intotlie  community,  which 
iH'gan  to  recover  from  the  saddened  circumstances 


Altona 
Altruism 


THE  JEW  ISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


474 


of  the  previous  (leeades.  The  first  ijromisiiii^  sign 
was  the  reappoinltuent  to  the  vacant  nibliimite,  of 
the  young  Slarcus  Ilirsch.  of  Tisza-IJii.  wlio  in  addi- 
tion to  profound  Talnuidio  schohirship  possessed 
wide  secular  knowledge,  aeipiired  at  the  university 
of  Prague.  Soon  tliereafler  the  management  of  the 
business  affairs  of  the  eonimunily  was  entrusted  to 
the  hands  of  Michael  Stern  and  Samuel  Ehrlich: 
two  men  of  noble  character  and  enthusiastic  love  for 
Judaism.  They  restored  matters  to  something  like 
order,  and  to  their  experienced  administration  it  was 
owing  that  the  sums  which  had  been  diverted  from 
the  legacy-fund  were  soon  replaced.  At  this  time 
(18t>3-ti">).  too,  the  first  Hungarian  Jews  were  raised 
to  the  ranks  of  the  nobility  (.S.  W.  S<hossberger  as 
'"De  Tornya"  and  Samuel  F.  Goldberger  as  "  De 
Buda"):  these  were  descended  from  Alt-Ofen  fam- 
ilies. In  1880,  Dr.  Hirsch  was  elected  chief  rabbi  of 
Prague,  and  left  Alt-Ofen,  which  remained  without 
a  nibbi  another  .seven  years  till  J)r.  Julius  Klein,  of 
Szigetviir,  became  his  successor.  After  his  death  in 
189B.  Dr.  Elias  Adler  became  rabbi. 
The  following  are  stjitistics  of  the  present  condi- 
tion of  the  community.  It  possesses 
The  Pres-  a  synagogue  of  clas-sic  architecture, 
ent  Com-  built  in  1820;  owns  thirty -eight  Torah- 
munity.  rolls,  silver  synagogal  parapliernalia 
weighing  23.000  grams;  curtains  for 
the  Ark — some  of  which  are  masteriiieces  of  the 
gold-embroiderer's  art  —  all  of  which  represent  a 
value  of  20.000  tlorins  (SS.OI)O).  In  its  legaev-fund 
are  nearly  100,000  tlorins  (§40.000),  the  income  from 
which  is  devoted  to  benevolent  purposes.  It  has 
eighteen  charitable  societies,  which  are  a  veritable 
blessing  for  the  numerous  poor  of  the  congregation. 
There  are  8 10  families  on  its  register,  of  whom  nearly 
half  are  artisans,  the  ma.iority  of  them  being  em- 
ployed in  the  calico-print  works  of  Samuel  F.  Gold- 
berger &  Sons,  founded  in  1780.  Another  impor- 
tant calico-factory  is  that  of  Gerson  Spilzer,  whose 
products  find  exteu.sive  sale  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ; 
it  was  founded  in  1826.  Other  contributors  to  Hun- 
garian industries  arc  AVillielm  von  Leipziger,  knight 
of  the  order  of  the  Iron  frown,  who  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  securing  the  distillery  law  of  1889.  which 
contributed  so  much  to  the  rehabilitation  of  Hun- 
garian finances. 

BiBi.iOGR.4PHT  :  Kotin.  Th'hrr  Khtf'ik  (Hebrew sources).  18R4 ; 
idem,  M'lmi'fr  Zxiilnturt.  iHistnry  of  the  Hunparlan  Jews), 
18*^;  Lnw.  y<uh\i'  liissmi  Siliriften,  li. ;  Mctffyar  Ztfitln 
Szt'mh:  1891 ;  Itelch,  Bct-Et,  111.:  also  synagogal  aud  nntloual 
arclilves.  j    g 

AliTONA  :  City  and  port,  situated  on  the  Elbe, 
adjoining  Ilnmburg,  in  Holstein,  which  was  for- 
merly a  Danish  dueliy.  but  is  now  a  part  of  the 
province  of  Sleswick-llolstein.  Prussia.  The  Jew- 
ish community  of  this  city  was  founded,  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  counts  of  Schaumburg.  at  the 
beginning  of  tlie  seventeenth  century.  The  earliest 
tombstone  in  the  old  cemetery  bears  the  date  1021. 
On  August  1,  1641,  the  comnumity  received  its 
charter  from  King  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  (see 
page  preceding);  and  in  1671  it  united  with  the 
congregation  of  Hamburg — then  unimportant — and 
afterward  with  that  of  Wandsbeck.  making  one 
congregation  known  as  the  Three  Conununities 
I'riN  (N  Altona.  n  Haml)urg.  1  Wandsbeck).  Their 
joint  chief  rabbi  had  his  seat  at  Altona;  and  he  ex- 
ercised jurisdiction  over  the  whole  Gennan-Jewisli 
population  of  those  communities  as  well  as  over 
that  of  the  duchy  of  Holstein.  These  conditions 
continued  until  1811,  when,  under  the  French  oc- 
cupation, Hamburg  was  ordered  to  form  a  Jewish 
community  by  itself.    The  union  was  dissolved:  and 


the  Altona  comnuinity  has  since  then  been  oflicially 
known  as  Ilochdeutsche  Israeliteu-Gemeinde  zu  Al- 
tona (  High-Girman  Jewish  Community  of  Altonai. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  until 
1885,  there  existed  also  a  Portngui'se-Jewish  eom- 
munity.  known  as  Bet  Jacob  ha  Katan,  and  later  as 
Neweh  Shalom,  which  was,  however,  but  a  branch 
of  the  Portuguese  congregation  of  Hamburg. 

The  economic  conditions  of  Alttma  were  much  im- 
proved by  the  settlement  of  Jews,  on  whom  King 
Christian  IV.  bestowed  the  privilege  of  engaging 
in  slii|)building.  The  Hamburg  Jews,  who  had  no 
such  privilege,  turned  their  activities  to  Altona;  and 
the  growth  of  the  Altona  whale  fishery  in  the  eight- 
eenth century  was  due  largely  to  their  efforts. 

The  Three  Communities  hail  the  following  chief 
rabbis:  Solomon  Jlirels  of  Xeumark.  1678-1706; 
Zebi  Ashkenazi  (Hakam  Zebi).  and  Moses  ben  Sllss- 
kind  of  Rothenburg  (died  1712):  Ezekiel  Katzenel- 
lenbogen.  known  by  his  responsa"  Keneset  Yisrael." 
1712—19;  Jonathan  Eibeiisclii'itz.  born  1()90.  formerly 
rabbiat  PragneaudSIctz.well  known  forhiskecn  in- 
tellectand  vastknowh'dge.authorof  "  Kreti  u-Pleli."' 
"Urim  we-Tummim."  and  other  works  (died  1764); 
Jacob  Emden  (174.')).  who  had  for  a  short  time  been 
rabbi  of  Emden.  but  who  afterward  lived  privately 
in  Altona:  it  was  lie  who  accused  K.  Jonathan  of 
being  a  secret  follower  of  Shabbetliai  Zebi,  and  at- 
tacked him  in  various  pamphlets:  Isaac  Horowitz, 
1767;  David  ben  Loeb,  Berlin  (died  1771);  and  Raphael 
ha-Kohen  (grandfather  of  Gat)riel  Riesser).  1776-99, 
who  was  particularly  learned  in  Jewish  civil  law, 
and  resigned  his  office  on  account  ol  a  contliet  with 
the  Danish  government,  which  disputed  his  right  of 
excommunication.  Raphael  intended  to  go  to  Pales- 
tine, but  was  prevented  by  the  Xaiioleonic  wars.  He 
died  in  1803.  His  successors  were  Havvim  Zebi, 
Berlin  (1799-1802),  and  Zebi  Hirsch  Zaiiiosz  (1803-7), 
author  of  "Tiferet  Zebi." 

Among  the  chief  rabbis  who  held  office  after  the 
dissolution  of  the  union  were:  Akiba  Wertheimer, 
(1815-35):  Jacob  Ettlingcr  (183.5-71),  who,  by  his  ha- 
lakic  writings  and  his  activity  as  a  teacher,"  greatly 
promoted  the  study  of  the  Talmud,  and  upheld  the 
rabbinical  reputation  of  Altona:  Dr.  Loeb(  1873-92), 
a  scholar  and  eloquent  preacher;  and,  finally,  Dr.  M. 
Lerner.  who  was  elected  in  1894.  Besides  the  chief 
rabbi  there  were  two  rabbinical  assistants  (dayyanim. 
whose  special  fiuiction  it  was  to  render  ritual  decis- 
ions), Jacoti  Cohen  and  Elijah  Munk  (died  1890).  Sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  chief  rabbi  are  several 
communitiesof  Holstein  :  Kiel.R(  ndsburg.and  Frieil- 
riclistadt;  also  the  neighboring  community,  Wands- 
beck, which,  however,  has  its  own  rablM. 

The  community  of  Altona  possesses  a. synagogue, 
erected  after  the  fire  of  1713;  a  lecture-hail.  found<'d 
by  Hakam  Zebi;  an  orphan  asylum:  a  home  for  the 
aged;  a  school  for  boys  and  girls:  and  a  society  for 
the  promotion  of  Jew  ish  knowledge.  The  present 
cemetery  is  situated  in  the  suburb  of  Bahrenfeld. 
In  Altona  itself  there  are,  side  by  side,  the  old  Ger- 
man-Jewish cemetery,  in  which  Chief  Rabbi  Ett- 
linger  was  the  last  person  interred,  and  the  verj' 
interesting  cemetery  of  the  Portuguese  Jews  of  Ham- 
burg, which  was  purchased  in  1611  and  closed  in  1871 
(see  illustration). 

The  Jewish  population  in  1900  numbered  about 
2,000,  in  a  total  of  1.50,000;  whereas  soon  after  the 
end  of  the  Danish  rule,  in  1867,  it  numbered  2,350, 
in  a  total  population  of  50,000. 

BinLiOGRAPHT:  Zeit.  f.d.  Grxch.  il.Jmlrn  in  DeutKrhlnnii, 
1.281,  ii.."ttcfs^q.. 282;  Baa-tch.  liritriliir  ziir  Genchichtc  de^ 
Deutschen  SeescM^auc^,  p.  30,  Hamburg.  1899. 

A,  F. 


475 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Altona 
Altruism 


AXiTRUISm :  A  term  derived  from  the  late  Latin 
alkr  Itic  ("tliis  other");  dative,  nltevi  huir.  con- 
tracted toiilli niir.  It  seems  to  liave  been  first  used  by 
Comte  (1798-1857),  to  designate  conduct  impelled  by 
motives  utterly  unselfish  and  inspired  by  the  sole  de- 


Buddhism  were  at  one  and  the  same  time  egoistic 
and  altruistic.  Self-obliteration  in  this  life  as-sures 
self  realization  in  the  other.  Self-realization  be- 
ing, according  to  Buddhism,  the  mother  of  all  evil, 
self -obliteration  is  the  road  to  permanent  hai)piness. 


rui;U  L.t  ^.sK    l.l.MLit,UV    OK    ALiU.N.V. 
(From  ft  pbotogTft)>h.) 


sire  to  bring  about  the  happiness  of  another  without 
reganl  to,  or  even  at  the  expense  of.  one's  own.  As 
such  it  isopposcil  to  egoism.  It  slaiuls  to  reason  that 
there  is  no  c(|uivalcnt  of  it  in  ancient  or  nmilern  He- 
bn-w.  Till'  very  idea  which  it  connntes,  e.\aggeralc<l 
self  iiblilcnilinn.  is  nnt  iiidisjciiDUs  tn  .ludaism.  An 
analysis  of  the  basic  idea  of  .Icwisli  ethics  will  reveal 
the  ri'Hson  why.  Both  Altruism  and  itsconlmry,  ego- 
ism, belling  to  ethical  systems  founiledon  tliecducept 
of  happiness  as  the  id  tiniate  motive  of  conduct  and  the 
giimiiiiiiii  Ih'iiiiiii.  According  as  the  happiness  of  the 
individual  self  or  thai  of  the  individualotherorothers 
is  priiji'cted  iiili>  ilmninant  im)iorlance,  hedonistic 
((■<.,  happiness)  ethics  becomes  either  egoistic  or 
allruistii-.  .\nd  even  those  systems,  largely  theolog- 
ical, that  secMungly  lijive  harmonized  Altruism  with 
egoism  have  done  this  by  accenlualing  that  self  ha])- 
piness  will  only  beattained  through  ciaiiluct  leading 
to  the  increase  or  the  establishment  of  the  happiness 
of  another. 

In  this  sense  both  the  ethics  of  ('hrisliaidtv  and 


Buddhistic  as  well  as  Christian  Altruism  are  thus 
founded  on  other-worldliness.  which 
Ethics  of    in  the  Christian  scheme  liowers  in  the 
Christian-    assnnmce   of    personal    felicity    in    a 
ity  and       higher  state,  wlu'rcas  in  that  of  Bud- 
Buddhism,  dhisin  it  i)roinis<>s  release  from  all  evil 
of  self-existence  in   the  blissful   and 
hajipy  Nirvana. 

Tli(>  non -theological  systems  of  ethics,  almost  with- 
out exception,  have  failed  to  establish  a  higher  har- 
mony between  egoism  and  Altruism.  In  the  more 
recent  writings  on  evolutionary  ethics — the  school 
of  Herbert  Spencer — the  endeavor  is  made.  Cpon 
psvchological  grounds  it  is  maintained  that  every 
altruistic  act  is,  if  not  in  its  motives,  always  in  its 
elTects  egoistic.  Maternal  love,  for  example,  leads  to 
the  happiness  of  the  mollur  through  her  own  self- 
sacrili<e.  The  pre-Spencerian  (hedonistic)  schools 
have  posili'd  either  self  or  thi'  othiT  as  the  fountain- 
head  of  moral  conduct.  Comti'  virtually  reverted 
to  the  fundamental  thought  of  the  Knglish  moralists 


Altruism 
Altschul 


THE  .lEWltJlI  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


476 


of  tilt  sovciitfcntli  and  cijrhtci'nlli  CfiiturifS,  iiccord- 
iug  to  whom  the  syiiipulhii'S  rooted  in  liunmii 
riHture  are  the  nmiuspriii'jis  of  nionilitv  (Cumljer- 
hiud.  Shaftesbury,  lliitchesou.  BiitUT.  I'uley.  A(hiiii 
Smith).  JI(xlerii  Altruism  is  a  reaction  apiinst  the 
cxajriierated  ejioism  of  the  i)hilosoiihy  of  the  KrciK  li 
He  volution.  IciKlinjr  to  thcixaltation  ot  sucli  ll^'ments 
ami  ab.st  met  ions  u.s  tlie  economic  man — a  beiiif;  sup- 
posed toact  upon  one  sole  miitive  to  the  exclusion  of 
any  other:  viz..  unmiliirateilorevenenliiilitened  self- 
ishness. Modern  HIh  ralism  in  jiolilics,  rcliirion.  and 
economics  liavinjr  taken  its  cue  from  the  writinj;s  of 
Rous.seau.  Voltaire,  and  the  encyclopedists,  it  was 
but  natural  that  the  pendulum  of  llnniiilit  should 
swinir  back  to  the  opposite  poll' and  posil  as  the  secret 
of  all  true  lifean  ecpially  ixcissive  love  for  the  fellow, 
in  which  the  s<lf  of  man  tailed  to  receive  its  Icjiiti- 
mate  due.  This  onesided  emphasis  ujion  altruistic 
conduct  in  turn  evoked  the  counter-revolution  cul- 
minating in  the  apotheosis  of  the  seltisli,  desociali/ed 
man,  the  "  overman  "  of  Xietzsche'sdoctrine.  as  before 
him  Max  Stirner  had  developed  the  theory  of  the 
sellish  ninn's  supremacy  and  autocracy. 

This  fatal  antithesis  bewecn  self  and  others  is 
avoided  in  tlieethiesof  .ludaism.  The  fundamental 
motive  of  the  moral  life  is,  accordiiij;  to  Judaism, 
not  the  quest  for  happiness.  Momlity  is  summed  up 
in  service.  The  purpose  of  human  life  is  service  now 
and  here.  In  the  creation  narrative  man  is  destined 
to  be  ruler  over  every  beinjr  and  thing 

Morality  created.  In  this  purpose  all  that  live 
Summed  up  and  breathe  in  the  wide  sweep  of 
in  Service,  human  fellowship  have  a  i>art.  Non(! 
can  be  spared.  He  who  should  elTace 
himself  would  commit  as  grievous  a  breach  of  the 
covenantas  he  who  should  crush  another.  The  meas- 
ure of  the  service  which  is  upon  us  is  contingent  upon 
the  strength,  talent,  possession,  and  ])ower  which 
have  come  to  us.  The  ethical  ambiti<in  on  this  basis 
runs  to  the  desire  for  increase  of  strength,  knowledge, 
possession,  and  power.  Weakness  is  not  a  virtue. 
The  stronger  the  man  the  better  able  he  is  to  render 
service.  Therefore,  the  appeal  of  Judaism  is  that 
each  shall  become  a  self  and  strive  for  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  fullest  possible  measure  of  self.  Self- 
realization  is  the  realization  of  a  part  of  the  service 
placed  upon  all.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  and  (lowing 
from  the  same  concept  of  service,  what  is  ours  is  ours 
only  as  a  means  to  enlarge  the  comm<in  life.  We 
are  stewards  of  our  talents  and  property,  trustees 
thereof  in  the  .service  of  all.  As  the  weakness  of  one 
diminishes  the  sum  of  service  rendered,  it  becomes  the 
duty  of  the  strong  to  look  after  the  weak;  to  help 
them  to  strength,  in  order  thus  to  increase  the  sum 
total  of  strength  at  the  disposal  of  all. 

In  this  way  Judaism  overcomes  the  opposition  of 
egoism  to  Altruism  and  tinds  the  highersynthesison 
the  basis  of  the  community  of  service.  Self-asser- 
tion flowers  into  the  sympathy  and  help  extended 
to  others  struggling  for  fuller  self-realization.  In 
the  Jewish  view  of  life  as  a  service  both  c.'/"  and  alter 
find  their  higher  harmony.  Hillel's  maxim,  "If  I 
am  not  for  myself,  who  will  be?  If  I  am  only  for 
myself,  what  am  I?  If  not  now,  when  then?'' epito- 
mizes this  concordance  of  self  and  the  others.  Ego- 
ism is  limited  to  its  legitimate  lield,  that  developing 
every  man  into  as  strong  a  self  as  is  possible  with  a 
view  to  more  perfect  service;  and  even  so  is  Altru- 
ism saved  from  exaggeration.  Self-effacement  is 
contrary  to  the  mf)ral  law  of  life.  The  highest  aim 
in  the  economj'  of  society  and  of  creation  is  self- 
assertion  in  the  service  of  all.  Xot  egoism  which 
feeds  self  at  the  expense  of  others,  nor  Altruism 
which  effaces  self  while  thinking  of  others,  but  mu- 


tualism as  implied  in  the  words,  "  Love  thy  neigh- 
bor as  thyself,"  is  the  guiding  principle  of  Jewish 
ethics,      "  "  K.  t;     II. 

ALTSCHUL,  ALTSCHULER,  ALTSCHUE- 
LER,  or  ALSCHTJLER  :  Various  birinsof  a  fam- 
ily name  borne  by  Aslikcnazic  Jews  in  many  coun- 
tries. Though  each  of  these  forms  now  represents 
groiil)s  that  are  distinct  from  one  another,  anil  that, 
apparently,  are  not  interconnected  by  ties  of  rela- 
tionship, they  all  seem  to  have  had  a  common  origin 
and  to  have  been  used  and  given  without  discrimi- 
nation. It  is,  nevertheless,  possible  that  the  name 
at  the  outset  was  apjilied  to  more  than  one  family. 
All  records  prove  that  the  original  scat  of  this  fam- 
ily was  Prague,  the  capital  of  Bohemia;  and  the 
transcription   of  the   name  in   two  separate  worils, 

^It;'  U^N.  or  -^VC'  ti^JX.  or  the  abbreviation  of  the 
Siune.  t'  X — which  latter  has  often  been  misunder- 
stood (sec  Nos.  19,  '27,  below) — clearly  indicates  its 
etymology.  It  is  derived  from  the  Alt'  Schul'  or 
Old  Synagogue,  which  still  exists  at  Pnigue,  and  is 
not  to  be  confused  with  the  Altneuschul;  and  the 
tirst  Allschuls.  or  Altschulers.  were  either  jironiinent 
attendants  at  or  patrons  of  this  place  of  worship  (see 

N.VMKS). 

The  name  Altschul  is  supposed  to  have  been  first 
borne  by  a  descendant  of  Provencal  refugees  who 
had  .settled  in  Prague  about  1302.  Prague,  besides 
being  the  ]ilace  of  origin,  was  also  the  cliief  seat  for 
several  renturiis  of  the  Altschul  or  Allschuler  lam 
ily.  But  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  that 
city,  in  VAi.  many  of  the  Altschuls  who  found  an 
asylumin  othcrcountriesdiil  not  return;  and.so.  from 
the  sixteenth  century  on.  we  find  them  iirnniinent  in 
what  is  now  Kussian  Poland.  Lithuania,  and  Itussia 
proper  (see  Nos.  9,  28.  30),  and  in  Italy  (see  IS'o.  2M). 

Later,  members  of  the  family  dispersed  still  fur- 
ther (see  Nos.  ii,  4,  12,  2."),  29);  and  to-day  the  name 
is  borne  by  lumierous  families  throughout  Austria- 
Hungary,  Germany,  Russia  (where  it  is  claimed  that 
the  writer  Closes  IJi vkes  and  even  the  Gaon  of  Wilna 
are  Altschuls),  England,  and  America.  In  the 
United  States  several  Altschulers  have  achieved  dis- 
tinction, notably  the  Hon.  Samuel  AlLschuler.  can- 
didate for  the  governorship  of  Illinois,  and  Alschue- 
ler.  the  violoncellist. 

Heliable  records  from  which  to  prepare  a  com- 
plete genealogical  tree  are  lacking.  'The  three  charts 
given  below  are  perhaps  all  that  can  be  established 
with  any  degree  of  certainty.  For  the  reason  just 
stated,  some  members'  names  appear  in  the  following 
biographical  notices  that  are  not  in  the  charts,  and 
vice  versa.  Because  it  occurs  most  frequently  the 
form  of  "Altschul"  has  been  adopted  throughout 
the  three  tables,  as  well  as  in  the  list  of  individual 
members;  though,  as  has  been  said,  the  other  forms 
of  the  names  also  occur. 

(Provencal  refugee.  1303?) 

\ 

(2)  Abraham  Elrerle  (c.  1490) 

I 

(17)  Moses  (c.  1512) 

I 
(15)  Jacob  (died  1596) 

Eleazar  Perles 

1 

Abraham  Enoch  Perles 


( 1>'<)  Judah  Aaron  Moses 
(c,  1610) 


(8)  Eleazar  Perles 

(c.  I(i35) 

1 

(13)  Isaac  (died  1676) 

(3)  Abraham  (c.  1680) 


477 


THE  JEWISH  E>'CYCLOPEDIA 


Altruism 
Altscbul 


Uezeklab  EZfklel  Ija;!zaD 

i 
SfllK 

I 
Eleazar  l;ianoli  (c.  ITUO) 


(20)  Moses  Mplr  Perles 
(died  arwul  lT:iiti 


(7)  David  Perles 
(died  ITS3) 


(1)  Aurun  (died  17:t!>i 

II     i! 

1 .  Aaron  ben  Moses  Meir  Perles  Altschul : 

Diiil  in  1T:1!(.  He  was  tlic  uullinr  dT  "  Tchai-iil  Aha 
roll  "  (Tla-  Purity  nf  Aainiu.  a  cnmiiicntary  on  Isaac 
bell  Alibrts  "Seder  luiNikl^iir  " :  niakiiifr  iiuiuerous 
lulilitioiis  to  the  text,  and  jilossiiig  iiiaiiy  dillieiilt  pas- 
sages in  .JiKhfo-Geriiian.  The  \v(irk  was  published  at 
OITenbaeli  in  1725  (some  allesetliat  it  had  been  jjiib- 
lished  in  IT'21  also);  and  a  manuscript  copy  is  in  the 
liiulliiaii  Library.  Oxford  {Neiibaiier,  "Cat.  Bodl. 
Ilrlir.  .MSS."  Nrl.  T!C>). 

2.  Abraham  Eberle  Altschul:  So  far  as 
known,  the  earliest  bearer  of  the  nAnie  of  Altschul. 
lie  lived  in  Prague  toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
(enturv. 

3.  Abraham  ben  Isaac  Perles  Altschul: 
Printer  and  publisher  at  Ainsterdani  during.'  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  lather 
also  was  a  iiublislier  and  printer.  In  UiTs  Abraham 
jiroduceil  a  prayi'r  book  fur  the  Sabbath,  and  in  Uis.5 
reeditedlhe  "  (Jrammatieal  Talile"  of  Joseph  Shalit. 
He  is  also  the  author  of  a  calialistic  commentary  on 
111''  Pentateudi,  as  yet  tiniiublishcd  (Steinschneider, 
"(at.  liodl."  cols.  f(M.  \r>-ii>.  -'S27). 

4.  Abraham  ben  Jacob  Altschul,  of  Leipa, 
Bohemia:  Prinleral  Frankfori  (Ui  tlie  ( idiT,  in  Kl'.iT 
(Mrinsrhneidi-r.  "Cat.  l!oiII."eol.  OslTi. 

5.  Ascher  Anschel  ben  Naphtali  Herzel  Alt- 
schul :  Printer  in  .Moravia  and  lioheinia  durinj;  the 
lirsl  ((iiarter  of  the  seventienth  century.  In  lfi08 
he  was  at  Prossnitz:  in  11)04.  at  Prajrui' with  the  sons 
of  Moses  Schedel ;  and  from  that  year  down  to  ll>'.2;i 
with  various  other  J<'\vish  publishers,  notably  the 
Prairiw  linns  of  Hayyim  Cohen.  .Moses  Cohen.  Katz, 
and  I,cinberKer  (Steinschneider,  "Cat.  Uodl."  col. 
2.S4(li. 

6.  DavidbenAryehLoeb  Altschul:  A  learned 
member  of  the  community  of  Prairue;  lived  toward 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  collected 
notes  for  a  coinmentarv  on  the  Bible,  which  his  son 
Jt'hiel  Hillel  (No.  iS)  ('ompleted  and  editid. 

7.  David  ben  Eleazer  Hanok  Perles  Alt- 
schul: Cantor  at  the  Pinkas  syna,i;oi,'iie  in  Pra,i;ue: 
died  in  17:i8.  On  the  death  of  Emiieror  Leopold  I. 
(.May  ■">.  17(1.")).  he  composed  an  elefr.v  in  Jii<heo.(!er- 
man,  which  he  called  "  Kbel  Kabed  "  —  (irievous 
JIouriiin);(Stein.schneider,"Cat.  Hodl."cols.  ").")(),  884; 
"Serapeiim,"  i.\.  »15,  344;  Wolf,  "Bibl.  Ilcbr,"  ii. 
1320). 

8.  Eleazar  b.  Abraham  Hanok  Perles  Alt 
schul  :  llditor  and  aulbor  .  diid  in  Prairue  bet  ween 
l(i:ij  and  lliliH.  He  was  the  editor  of  several  works, 
to  most  of  which  he  aildeil  remarks,  ;;los.ses,  or  com- 
ments of  his  own.  In  the  epitaph  written  for  him 
by  his  son  I.saac  (No.  l!i)  lie  is  (|Uoted  as  the  author 
of  several  works;  but  these  ari'  no  lonjjer  extant. 
The  only  one  that  may  pi'rhaps  he  allrilmted  to  him 
in  its  entirety  is  the  "  Dikclnke  Yi/I.mk."  a  >;niin 
inatical  work;  but  it  has  been  claimed  that  even  for 
this  book  the  notes  had  been  previously  collected  by 
his  father  in  law,  Isaac  b.  Jekiitliiel  (Kohen)  Kilskes, 
and  that  the  name  wa.s  not  ^iveii  to  the  work  merely 
in  honor  of  the  latter.  The  "Dikiluke  Yi/.l.iak"  is 
still  unpublished  (Neiibniier. "Cat.  BiMll.IIebr.  MSS." 
.No.  14117). 


The  following  works  \vere  edited  by  Eleazar:  (1) 
"  Keneh  Hokmah "  (Acquire  Wisdom),  or  "Kcneh 
Hinah"  (.Vciiuire  Undei-staudinj;).  This  book,  which 
is  really  part  of  the  "  Sefer  ha-Kanah,"  and  which  the 
editor,  in  the  ])reface,  claims  to  have  copied  from  a 
l)archmeiit  manuscript  "several  hundred  years  old," 
found  by  his  father  in  a  loft,  is  mainly  a  cabalis- 
tic expr).sition  of  the  "Keriat  Shema,"  as  well  as  of 
the  divine  name  of  seventy-two  "  letters  of  abbrevia- 
tion." etc.  (Prague,  1609-11).  The  Zohar  an<l  other 
cabalistic  sources  have  manifestly  had  an  iiilhicnce 
on  this  work  (Steinschneider,  "Cat.  liodl."  col.  1)37; 
"  Literaturblatt,"  .\i.  7G1).  (2)  "Zebal.i  Todah"  (Sacri- 
fice of  Thanksgiving),  containing  the  "Prayer"  of 
Solomon  Luria,  the  "Thirteen  Prostrations  "  of  Abig- 
dor  Kara,  and  the  "Supplication"  of  Islimael  ben 
Elisha,  published  at  Prague  in  161.')  (Wolf,  "Bibl. 
Hebr."  vol.  iii).  (3)  "Yam  sliel  Slielomoh,"  Solo- 
mon Luria's  commentary  on  the  treatise  "Baba  Ka- 
ma" (Prague.  Itil(i).  (4)  "  Tikkun  .Mozal'  Shabbat,"  a 
prayer  book  for  Sabbath  night.  A  cabalistic  exposi- 
tion of  the  Sabbathniiiht  service  is  added  to  the  te.\t ; 
and  toward  the  end  of  the  volume  there  is  a  German 
adaptation  of  some  of  the  prayers.  The  work  was 
first  published  by  Eleazar's  son  Isaac  (Xo.  13)  at 
Amsterdam  in  IC.").");  and  with  it  is  included  the  epi- 
taph composed  by  Isiiac  for  his  father,  of  which 
mention  has  already  been  made  (Steinschneider,"  Cat. 
Bodl."  c.,1.  474). 

9.  Eliakim  (Gottschalk,  Goetzel)  ben  (Zeeb) 
Wolf  Altschul  Bro<isky  :  Picaclur  and  dayyaii 
in  Hu.ssia  at  the  betrinninir  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
He  wrote  "Slieliif 'Ez  "  (The  Thin  Board;  see  Ezek. 
xli.  Iti.  where  uliehif  'iz  is  translati'd  "wood"),  a 
supercommentary  on  Kashi ;  and  "  Erez  Ilemdah  " 
(The  Coveted  Land),  on  the  division  of  Canaan  by 
Joshua.  These  two  works,  together  with  an  <'dition 
of  the  "Zebed  Tob  "by  his  father  (Zeeb)  Wolf  Alt- 
schul. were  published  in  one  volume  in  Warsaw.  1814 
(Fiirst.  "  Bibl.  Jud."  i.  43;  Ben  Jacob.  "Ozar  ha-Scfa- 
rim,"  p    l.")l).  H.  B.— W.  M. 

10.  Emil  Altschul:  Austrian  physician;  born 
at  Prague.  Bohemia.  .Vpril  8.  1812;  died  there  1.8(d. 
The  son  of  a  rabl)i.  he  was  intended  f<ir  a  rabbinical 
career,  aii<l  therefore  studied  Hebrew  and  the  cognate 
languages.  But  a  strong  inclination  for  the  study 
of  medicine  induced  him  to  attend  the  University  of 
Vienna,  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of  JI.I>.  in 
1.832.  In  Boskowitz.  Moravia,  where  he  practised, 
lie  made  the  ac<iuaiutance  of  a  physician  who  called 
his  attention  to  the  high  value  of  homeopathy,  and 
from  that  time  lie  devoted  himself  to  this  new  selioid 
of  medicine.  In  184.'<  lie  became  profissor  in  the 
medical  department  of  the  riiiversity  of  Prague.  He 
wrote:  "  \'ollstilndiges  Kezepten  Buch  der  I'rakli- 
schen  .VugeiihcilkuniU' "  :  "Tascheiiworterbuch  der 
Praktischeii.Vrzneimittellebre  ftlr-XusClbeiideAugcn- 
ilrzte"  (1830);  "  .Miscillen  aus  dem  (Tesammteii  Gc- 
biete  der  .M<(licin "  (1838);  "Der  I!oiii<')opathisolio 
Zahnarzt"  (1841):  "  Kritisclies  Selidsihreiben  liber 
das  Bisherige  Verfahreii  mit  den  ISterbenden  "  (1840; 
this  panii)lilel,  on  the  prevailing  treatment  of  the 
dying,  made  a  great  stir  among  .lews);  and  "Lclir- 
biich  der  Physiologischen  Pliarmakoilynnniik " 
(1.><.")1»). 

.\ltscliul  foundeil  and  published,  in  l.'*.">3.  the  first 
liomeopathic  magazine  in  .Viistria,  under  the  title 
"  .Monalsschrift  ft\r  Theorctischc  und  Praktisclie 
Homoopalhie." 

ninLiOiiR.vrHY :  Bermann.  nrMrrrrirhinrhrji  nirtgmj^hitfhft 
Lrriknii.  vol.  I.;  A.  Slimledl.  Itlitlter  (llr  Utrmlur.  IStT, 
p.  W):  Wiir/lwfti.  Ili'vnil'liixchfn  Lcxikon  licr  Oatcrrfich- 

S. 


Altsohul 
Alva 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


478 


1 1 .  ]E^anok  ben  Hoses  Altschul :  Learned 
nuinlMT  (if  the  .ItuUli  i  niiiiiiuiiily  nf  Prajrue;  Ixirii 
in  151J4;  died  in  1033.  Fur  tliiriy  years  lie  served 
as  synagogue  messenger  aud  cdinniunal  notary  of 
Ids  native  town,  and  was  one  of  the  signere  of  tlie 
nuK-li-debated  will  of  Murdicai  Meisel.  On  one  oc- 
casion, in  10'23,  Hanok  narrowly  e.scaped  an  igno- 
nuuious  death.  Some  tapestry  had  been  stolen  from 
the  palace  of  Count  Charles  of  Lichtenstein  ;  and  the 
investigation  ordered  by  the  "Stadtlmupt"  (citj' 
mayor).  Albrecht  von  'Waldstein.  seemed  to  incrim- 
inate Hanok,  as  well  as  two  Jews  who  had  bought 
the  stolen  goods.  The  three  were  sent^-nced  to  be 
hanged :  but.  fortunately,  facts  exonemting  Hanok 
were  discovered  and  he  was  libinitcd. 

12.  Qayyim  ben  Mordecai  (Gumpel)  Alt- 
schul: Employed  with  his  brother  Hajihael  (No. 
'2'))  as  a  printer,  probal)lv  at  Amsterdam,  from  Ui'.tl 
to  1733  (Stcinschncider,"  "Cat.  Bodl."  cols.  2849, 
3023). 

13.  Isaac  ben  Eleazar  Perles  Altschul :  .Vu- 
tlior;  died  in  lllTO.  He  srenis  In  have  settled  in 
Amsterdam  about  l(i.-)();  for  hepublislied  in  thai  city 
the  "Tikkun  MozaU  Shabbat"  of  his  father,  Elea- 
zar Perles  Altschul  (No.  H),  and  another  Sabbath 
lirayerbook,  that  contained  a  Judico-German  ver- 
sion of  many  of  the  prayers.  To  Isajic  is  also  ascribed 
the  editing  of  two  cabalistic  works:  "Siah  Yizhak  " 
(The  Meditation  of  Isjiac).  a  collection  of  praycis, 
and  "  Wayizra'  Yizhak  "  (And  Isaac  .Sowed),  a  key 
to  the  Zohar  (Steinschneider.  "Cat.  Bodl.  "  cols.  47-i, 
.")03.  HIT.  and  in  "Serapeum."  x.  32). 

14.  Israel  ben  Solomon  Altschul :  Printer  at 
Praijue  from  1013  to  WH)  (Steinschneider,  "Cat. 
Bodl."  cols.  377.  2!n3). 

15.  Jacob  Altschul :  Son  of  Moses  ben  Abra- 
ham (Elierle).  No.  10:  (licil  in  l."96. 

16.  Judah  Aaron  Moses  ben  Abraham 
Hanok  Altschul :  Kabbi  at  Kromau.  Jloravia, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  was  the  author  of  an  ethical  work  known  by  the 
title  of  "  Wayehal  >IosheIi "  (And  Moses  Prayed ; 
compare  Ex.  xxxii.  11).  This,  however,  is  really  the 
name  of  only  the  first  part  of  the  work ;  that  of  the 
second  being  "Tor.it  ha-Asham  "  (Precepts  Concern- 
ing the  Sin-offering).  The"Ayayehal  Mosheh  "  is 
a  cabalistic  ascetic  treatise  on  devotion;  while  the 
"  Torat  ha-Asham  "  enumerates  the  various  modes  of 
jienancc  for  each  transgression  of  the  Jewish  laws 
(Prague,  1613;  Frankfort-on-thc-Oder,  1691;  incor- 
porated also  in  an  edition  of  the  daily  prayer-book, 
printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1881-82).  Three  other  works 
— notably  his  "Bahure  Hemed  "  (Desirable  Y'oung 
Men,  Ezek.  xxiii.  6),  a  commentary  on  Kimhi's  "  Mik- 
lol,"  and  an  independent  work  on  ritual  and  dogma 
— are  still  unpublished  (Steinschneider,  "Cat.  Bodl." 
cols.  331.  1291 ;  Ben.iacob.-'0?ar  ha-Sefarim."  p.  148). 

17.  Moses  ben  Abraham  (Eberle)  Altschul : 
Son  of  No.  2;  lived  at  Prague  up  to  l.)42.  In  that 
year,  when  Jews  were  expelled  from  the  town,  he 
sought  refuge  in  Cracow,  and  there  became  pnntas 
(president)  of  the  Bohemian  congregation,  which  had 
but  recently  been  organized.  Moses  married  a 
daughter  of"Eliezcr  Trebitsch,  rabbi  of  Schlettstadt, 
Alsace;  and  his  nephew,  the  young  Eliezcr  Tre- 
bitsch, who  had  followed  Moses  to  Cracow,  became 
rabbi  of  the  same  Bohemian  community. 

18.  Moses  Altschul:  Son  of  Hanok  (No.  11); 
succeeded  his  father  in  his  communal  functions; 
died  in  1643.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Zikron  Bayit  " 
(In  Memory  of  the  House),  still  \mpublished  (Kisch, 
in  "Griltz  Jubelschrift,"  ii.  .38,  and  in  "Monats- 
schrift,"  xxxvii.  131  et  seg. ;  compare  also  Moses  ben 
IJanok  Altschul,  No.  19). 


19.  Moses  ben  ^anok  Altschul:  Commonly 
known  as  Moses  Q&i^oks,  ami  often — as  early  even 
as  1676,  on  the  very  title-page  of  the  Frankfort  edition 
of  his  work — mistjiken  for  an  ik/i  Yd-uit/itiliii/i/ii  (a 
native  of  Jcrusjilem).  This  error  is  due.  as  stateil 
above,  to  a  corruption  of  the  initial  letters  of  his 
patronymic,  t;>  X  into  t,'"8<.  The  dates  of  his  birth 
and  death  are  not  known ;  but  as  his  son  Hanok  (No. 
11)  was  sixty-nine  years  old  when  he  died  (1633), 
Moses  must  have  been  born  about  l.~)4.")  or  earlier.  It 
is  probable  that  Moses  b.  Hanok  died  shortly  after  the 
publication  of  his  work,  the  "  Brantspiegel  "  (1602). 
The  Moses  b.  Hanok  (No.  18)  who  wrote  "Zikron 
Bavit "  is  the  grandson  of  the  subject  of  this  ar- 
ticle. 

Moses  b.  Hanok  was  a  considerable  figure  in  the 
history  of  Jewish  literature  or,  more  projierly  sjieak- 
ing,  of  Judico-Gerinan  literature;  for  he  was  one 
of  the  first  to  use  the  vernacular  in  a  polished  dic- 
tion, though  he  dealt  with  a  subject  that  was 
not  new  nor  peculiar  to  the  secular  life — that  of 
ethics.  The  "Brantspiegel"  (Mirror),  called  in  Hi- 
brew  "Sefer  ha-Marih."  first  ])ulilished  at  Basel, 
was  intended  as  a  direct  appeal  to  the  Jews  of  the 
l)eriod  to  live  in  social  and  mond  purity.  Tlie  b(«>k 
is  divided  into  dmpters,  the  number  of  which  varies 
from  sixty -eight  to  .sc'venty-six,  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent editions.  They  all  indicate  the  many  roads  to 
morality,  and  the  pi'uance  that  the  Jew  should  un- 
dergo for  deviating  from  these  roads.  The  author 
alleges  two  reasons  for  the  title  of  his  book:  (1)  It 
was  called  "Spiegel"  (Mirror)  because  the  autlior 
wished  that  it  should  Inconstantly  before  the  i)eople, 
to  show  them  their  own  jiresentments.  (2)  "Brant" 
or  "Brand"  (Burning;  that  is.  Magnifying)  was  pre- 
fixed because,  as  the  author  states,  ordinary  mirrors 
make  things  appear  very  small ;  while  this  glass  was 
inten<led  to  show  objects  (especially  bad  qualities) 
in  enlarged  forms,  .so  that  i)eople  would  then  try  to 
remove  them.  The  author  remarks,  in  the  preface, 
that  his  book  may  be  read  on  Sabbath.  The  work 
became  very  pojnilar;  it  called  f<jrth  many  imitations 
and  analogous  works,  such  as  the  "Sitten  Spiegel," 
"Zier  Spiegel,"  "Zucht  Spiegel."  and  at  a  much  later 
date  the  "Kleine  Brantspiegel"  (Small  Mirror);  and 
in  the  epitaph  of  Mo.ses  Altsehul's  son  Ilanok  the 
work  is  expres.sly  mentioned  (Steinschneider.  "Cat. 
Bodl."  cols.  1313,  1823,  1824,  and  in  "Serapeum,"  x. 
325;  Wolf,  "Hebr.  Bibl."  i.  No.  1.544,  ii.  1272,  107,  iii. 
7.")0;  see  also,  "Monatsschrift."  xxxvii.  131). 

20.  Moses  Meir  ben  Eleazar  ^anok  Alt- 
schul :  A  highly  esteinn(i  nieudxT  of  the  Jewish 
community  of  Prague,  who  maintained  friendlv  rela- 
tions with  Samson  Wertheimer;  died  in  1739.  Moses 
was  the  author  of  several  works,  of  which  only  two 
have  lieen  published;  namely.  (I)  the  "Megillat  Se- 
fer" (The  Roll  of  the  Book). a  commentary  on  Esther, 
which  appeared,  together  with  Solomon  Isaki's  anal- 
ogous work  (Prague,  1709-10),  and  (2)  his  edition  of 
the  "  Yashir  Mosheh  "  (Moses  Sang),  of  Moses  Cohen 
of  Corfu  (Prague,  about  1710;  Steinschneider,  "Cat. 
Bodl."  col.  1846). 

21.  Moses  (Nathaniel)  ben  Aaron  Freund 
Altschul:  Printerat  Prague  toward  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  was  in  the  employ  of  the 
grandsons  of  Moses  Katz  in  1694-9.5,  and  in  that  of 
the  grandsons  of  Judah  Bak  in  1696  (Steinschneider, 
"Cat.  Bodl."  col.  2990). 

22.  Naphtali  Herzel  ben  Asher  Anschel 
Altschul:  Printer  in  the  employ  of  Jacob  Bok  at 
Prague  during  the  tirst  half  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. His  most  notable  production  was  a  prayer- 
book  for  holy  days — in  editing  which  he  was  aided 
by  his  brother  Simon — and  the  printing  of  "ZeBnah 


479 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Altscbul 
Alva 


u-RePnah  "  (Go  Out  and  See),  the  well-known  trans- 
lation of  pmvers  into  .Tiidiro-Gcnnan  (Prairuc.  Ui".J9; 
StiMnschni-iircr.  "Cat.  Hodl."  cols.  :is!),  :Ml\-2.  iiillii). 

23.  Naphtali  (Hirsch)  b.  Asher  Altschul : 
Talmudic scholar;  lived  in  Kussiaaiid  Poland — prin- 
cipally at  Lublin.  Jliczdyrzei,  and  .liloniir — toward 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  seems  to  have  traveled 
extensively,  and  in  1007  was  at  Constantinople,  In 
the  preface  to  his  conunentary.  he  mentions  Bendit 
hen  Joseph  Achselrad,  the  author  of  "'AlKxlat  ha- 
L<'wi."  and  Xahnian.  a  learned  relative  of  his. 

Naphtali  was  the  author  of  two  works,  one  of 
which  was  a  commentary  on  the  Prophets  and  the 
Hagiograijha.  This  he  called,  in  reference  to  his 
own  name.  "  Ayyalah  Sheluhah  "  (A  Swift  Deer;  see 
Gen.  xlix.  21).  and  supplein<nted  it  by  a  Judseo- 
Gcrman  rrlossary:  it  was  published,  with  the  text 
of  the  Biiile.  at  Cracow,  l.j!»3-(t5.  The  other.  "  Imre 
Shefcr"  (Beautiful  Words),  was  nn  alphabetically 
arranged  cataloirue  of  all  matters  that  preachers  and 
rabbis  Avere  at  all  likely  to  discus.s  in  their  .sermons. 
with  indications  as  to  the  various  ways  in  which 
each  topic  might  be  treated  (Lublin.  I(i02).  A  rab- 
binical decision  of  Xaphtali's  is  found  in  the  re- 
sponsjiof  Meir  Lublin  (Xo.  ,j9'?;  Steinschneider."Cat. 
Bodl."  cols.  r,n.  2(l-,'l;  i't.in.  "Jfid.  Lit,"  ji.  4.-i4). 

24.  Naphtali  (Hirsch)  ben  Tobiah  Alt- 
schul: Editor  and  printer  at  Crac(]W  toward  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  where  he  .seems  to 
have  .settled,  after  having  resided  at  Lidilin.  He 
was  popularly  known  as  "Hirsch  the  editor";  and 
to  him  are  due  an  edition  of  Josejih  Caro's  "Shul- 
han  'Anik  "  (Cracow.  I.j93-94)and  the  publication  of 
the  Psidms  in  liturgical  order  (Cracow.  l.")98;  Stein- 
scbiiildcr.  "C;it.  Bodl."  cols.  ."..").  II  Si,  Dilll). 

25.  Raphael  ben  Mordecai  (Gumpel)  Alt- 
schul: Printer;  emplnyid.  willi  his  brother  Hay- 
yinuN'o.  12).  probably  at  Amsterdam  from  l(!91-17i32 
(Sleinschneider.  "Cat.  Bodl."  cols,  ;!77.  2»i;i). 

26.  Samuel  Altschuler  :  Lawyer  and  politician; 
born  id' (iernian-Jewish  parentage  in  Chicago.  Xov. 
2il.  ls.')9;  removed  to  Aurora,  111,,  twoyearsafterand 
was  educated  in  the  public  schools  and  high  school 
of  that  city.  Altschuler  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
issd.  He  is  atliliated  with  the  Democratic  party, 
and  in  1H92  was  a  candidate  for  Congress  in  the  Eighth 
District,  hut  was  defeated,  although  he  ran  ahead  of 
his  ticket. 

In  1893  Governor  Altgeld  appointed  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Court  of  Claims,  lie  was  elected  to  the 
legislature  in  1890  and  again  in  IS'JH.  As  leader  of 
the  minority  he  rosi-  to  prominence  by  defeating 
two  obnoxiously  corrupt  bills.  In  19tM»  he  was  an 
unsuccessful  candiilale  for  the  post  of  governor 
of  the  state  of  Illinois,  although  lie  receivi^d  3,400 
more  votes  than  the  Democratic  presidential  can- 
didate, 

27.  Simon  b.  Ascher  (Anschel)  Herzel  Alt- 
schul :  I 'rim  IT  and  I\  prvcitir  iiMlji-  cmplny  of  the 
sons  (rf  ,Iainb  Bok  at  Pratrin-  in  Hl'.Mt  (sii-  Nd",  22). 

28.  Simon  ben  Judah  Loeb  Altschul:  Com- 
munal notary  (kh/i  r  Int  ilinjut  Prague  in  theopening 
years  of  the  eiL'hleenth  century  (Steinsclineider, 
■"Cat.  Boill,"  col.  :io49), 

20.  Solomon  ben  Joshua  Altschul:  Writer; 
>nidoubtedly  of  (icniian  origin,  perhaps  from 
Prague;  lived  in  Italy  about  the  middle  of  the$i.\- 
Iccnih  century.  He  edited  Ihi' "  Megillat  Sefer."  a 
work  on  rhetoric  by  an  nnknciwn  author,  which  is 
b.ised  on  parts  of  the  "  I'oilic  .\rt  "  attributed  to 
David  ben  Solomon  ibn  Yahya  (Viiuee:  D.  .\del 
kind.  ir>.")2).  Owing  to  the  fact  thai  .Solomon  had 
established   himself   in   Italy,   his  name  has  some- 


times been  transcribed  from  its  Hebrew  letters  as 
".AIto.sol." 

BinLlOGRAPMY:  Steln-sehnelder,  Cat.  Bodl.  cols.  570,  2284; 
Morljira.  Imliri-  ,l//<//*(tiVf».  p.  3. 

30.  Yehiel  ( Jehiel)  Hillelben  DavidAltschuI: 
Uabbi  at  Jaworow  (Galicia)  toward  the  nii<ldle  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  He  completeil  the  com- 
mentary on  the  Prophets  and  the  Ilagiographa  which 
his  father  (Xo.  G)  had  begun,  dividing  it  into  two 
parts:  (1)  ".Mezudat  Ziou  "  (The  Fortress  of  Zion), 
a  lexicological  glossary-;  and  (2)  "Mezudat  David" 
(The  Fortressof  David),  a  commentary  on  the  Biblical 
text  (in  part:  Leghorn,  17.53.  1770;  Berlin,  1770;  nu- 
merous editions  also  appeared  throughout  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century — at  Slavuta.  Wilna, 
Lcmberg,  .losefov,  etc),  .lehiel  was  the  author  of 
"Binyan  ha-Bayit"  (The  Building  of  the  House),  a 
work  on  the  Temple  of  Ezekiel  and  the  visions  per- 
taining to  it  (Zolkiev,  1774;  Leghorn,  1781). 

BiBI.IOfiRAPnv:  Stelnschnelder,  Cat.  Bodl.  cols.  144.  154.  1272, 
iiiKl  Nepl-lihirnndi.  Tiilerliit  Ocdnlc  Yi»racl,  p.  IfSi,  where 
the  lUilliDr's  name  Is  Hrrnni'<nisly  ^ven  as  .\lt-Schuld:  Furst, 
liUil.  Jud,  I,  44.  where  the  aiithrT  is  called  .lehlel  Michael,  and 

is  regarded  as  distinet  fr tiiat  ef  Jehiel  lllllel:  .\zulal, 

.s'/iim  li<i-(!iduli\n,  11.  IS;  Uenjaeulj.  (izdr  /e!-.s'. /(in/;i.  p.  .si. 

31.  (Zeeb)  Wolf  ben  (Dob)  Baer  Altschul: 
Russian  rabbi  of  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Zebed  Tob  "  (The 
Good  Dowry;  see  Gen.  xxx.  20).  a  work  on  the 
third  Temple  of  Ezekiel.  The  title  is  intended  a-s  a 
pun  on  the  author's  name  Zeeb  (Shklov.  1794);  an- 
other edition  was  jiublished  by  his  son  Eliakim(Xo. 
9);  seeFi'irst.  "  Bibl.  Jud.  '  i.  44;  Benjacob,  "Ozarha- 
Scfarim,"  p.  1."). 

Bnil.IooRAPnv  :  For  the  entin' ,^lt.sohul  family.  S.  Hock.  Die 
Fiimitirn  /*rrt(/',«.  under  .-t/t,*!-/!!*/  and  Pirh^;  Joseph  Kobn, 
In  Hn-(liirni,  1.  211  ft  .vn;,;  Sleinschneider,  Cat.  Btidl.  cols. 
HI 3,  914:  Michael,  Or  ha-llayulm.  So.  4SX),  Zunz,  Z.  G.  pp. 
2tl«,  289. 

H,  B.— \V.  >!.— A.  P. 

ALTTPKA  :  Village  on  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Crimea.  Russia;  mentioned  in  the  letter  of  Joseph, 
king  of  the  Chazars.  to  Hasdai  ibn-Shaprut  about 
900)  as  one  of  the  cities  tributary  to  the  Chazars. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY:  .K.  Harknvy,  S'iohshchenltia  o  Chazaraliti,  In 
Ycvrciskaya  Bilil.  vll.  IBO. 

H.  R. 

ALUSHTA  :  Village  on  the  southeastern  .shore 
of  llic  (,'riiMia.  in  the  district  of  Yalta.  Russia.  Some 
ruins  exist  of  the  fort  -Vluston  built  there  by  Em- 
peror Justinian  in  the  sixth  century.  L'nder  the 
name  of  Alussthe  place  is  mentioned  in  the  letter  of 
Joseph,  king  of  the  Chazars.  to  Hasdai  ibn-Shaprut 
(about  900)  as  one  of  the  cities  tributary  to  the 
Chazars,  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Genoese,  and  was  known  by  the  names  of 
Lusta.  Austa,  and  Alusta. 

There  are  now  only  a  few  Jews  in  the  village; 
and  these  are  employed  in  the  neighboring  vine- 
yards. 

BiBi.iofiRAPiiY:  A.  Harkavy,  .*xilw/if)ifH(!/<i  o  ChazarakKla 
yevrcu*katia  Bdtl,  vll.  1(XI,  uiid  iirlvale  soun.-t^. 

H,  R. 

ALVA  or  ALBA.  DUKE  OF  :  Fernando  Al- 
varez de  Toledo:  born,  l.")OH;  died  at  Thomar,  Por- 
tugid.  1582.  A  famous  Spani.sh  genend  who  fought 
in  the  various  campaigns  of  the  Emperor  Cliarles  V. 
and  of  Philip  11.  .Vfter  winning  several  th-cisive 
battle's,  he  was  sent  as  governor  to  the  Xelherlands 
in  1,'")07  to  suppress  a  revolt  against  Spanish  tyranny, 
and  became  the  most  cruel  and  rigorous  supporter  of 
the  In((uisition,  He  established,  and  i>icsided  over, 
the  Council  of  Bloo«l.  the  victims  of  which  doubtless 


AWalensi 
Alzey 


Till-:  .IKWISII   EXCYCLUI'KDIA 


480 


iiicliiilpd  Jews  lis  well  iis  Cliristiiiiis.  It  sccnis  ti> 
Imvc  ln'i'ii  Alva's inti'iilion  to  lid  lliccountry  of  Jews. 
To  the  city  eoiincil  of  Ariiheiin  mid  XUtplicii,  for  ex 
ample,  lie  wrote  timt  in  ciisc  any  Jews  were  found  in 
those  places,  tliey  were  lo  be  arrested  and  held  until 
further  orders  from  him.  The  eoiincil  evidently  an 
lieipated  Alva's  desire  in  the  matter;  for  its  report 
read  that  "  there  wore  no  Jews  amoii>;  them."  Fur- 
thcrniore,  the  few  Jews  reniaiiiinir  in  the  town  of 
Wiijrjreiiinjjen,  CJeldeiland,  were  e.vpelled  ill  eelehra- 
tion  of  tlw  iiirtli  of  a  Spanish  infante.  Alva's  liostil- 
ity.  moreover,  grew  manifest  in  his  attitude  toward 
the  hooks  of  the  Jews,  Hot li  at  Liege,  and  at  .Viil- 
werp,  there  appeareil  under  liis  auspices,  in  the  years 
l.'iTO  Hiid  l.")Tl,  copicsof  the  Trent  "  Index  of  I'rohili 
ited  Hooks,"  which  hail  lieeii  piililislied  in  l,">(i4.ancl 
to  whicli,  in  Alva's  edition,  were  appended  the  most 
rigorous Sjianisli  amendments.  The  latter  interdicleil 
"all  hooks  written  in  llelirew,  and  those  in  any  other 
langiia.ice  which  contain  Jewish  cereiiionics  or  which 
treat  of  Jewish  life."  Thus,  the  Honmncc  transla- 
tion of  Josephlis'  "  Alitii|ilitics  of  the  .lews,"  was 
anathematized  as  heretical.  (See  C'e.nsokshiI'  ok 
Books,  ) 

BiBt.locRAPiiY:  Gratz,  ^r.irh,</,,/H'lfii,,'!<l  <'rt„lx.477:  Rpiisch, 
IJir  Iiiilrx  dir  Virlinlfiiiii  Illlclii  r.  I,  Viitt  sn/..  Bi>nn,  ISKi- 
HTt;  I'npper,  Tlir  <'i'n--«'rsiiiii  til'  llihrrw  /Jofj/t'.f.  p,  .V>.  New 
Yelk,  fsSKI. 

II,    G.    K. 

ALVALENSI,  SAMUEL:  Spanish  author; 
iMirn,  14:!."i;  died,  1  l.sT.  lie  was  the  son  of  the  learned 
Abialiam  Alvaleiisi,  of  Toledo,  and  piijiil  of  Isaac 
Campantoii,  the  last  Gaoii  of  Castile.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  small  treatise,  entitled  "  Kelale  Kal  we- 
Homer"  (Hiiles  of  the  Deduction  a  fortiori),  which 
treats  of  Talmiidic  methodology.  It  was  |)iil)lislied 
in  a  compilation,  "Mehaiere  Nemcrim,"  by  Abraham 
Akra,  Venice,  Vm.  '    ,M.   K. 

ALVALENSI,  SAMUEL:  Perhaps  the  grand- 
son of  the  above;  was  born  in  Spain  at  the  end  of 
the  lifteenth  century,  was  taken  after  the  expulsion 
of  14!)'.J  to  Fez.  where  he  became  the  favorite  of  King 
Abu  Said,  of  the  Meiines  dynasty.  About  l.")3()  the 
Xarifes  rose  against  the  Meriues,  and  Samuel  Alval- 
ensi,  together  with  some  of  the  loyal  alcaldes,  fitted 
out  a  fleet  and  sailed  with  four  hiinilreil  men  loCeiita, 
which  was  then  besieged  by  the  rebels.  Despite  the 
numerical  superiority  of  tlie  enemy,  who  mustered 
30,00(J  men,  he  inflicted  upon  them  heavy  los.scs  and 
compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege  and  to  return  to 
Fez,  lie  showed  similar  courage  in  1.539  at  the  re- 
lief of  Sati,     Samuel  afterward  settled  in  Azamor, 

mnLiOf!K,vpiiv:  Diccci  (le  Torres,  J/wfoi're  rfcv  Clirrifs,  Frpiieti 
translation  t>,v  tbeDiikeof  An(?oiileine,  tlie  fattier,  p,  tit) :  .\lMmIi, 
i\'oHe)/r»(/iVi, 'pp.  ;j(I,T  ct  scq.i  De  Barrios,  Historkt  Universalis 
Judai/ra,  p.  H, 

M,  K, 

ALVAREZ  or  ALVARES:  Name  of  a  His- 
pano-I'ortiigiicse  family  which  has  included  among 
its  members  many  scholars,  distinguished  men,  and 
martyrs.  Bmncliesof  the  family  have  settled  in  Hol- 
land, France,  England,  and  America. 

Duarte  Henriques  Alvares  :  A  Portuguese  Ma- 
rano;  lived  several  yearsat  Jladrid,  and  afterward  in 
the  Canary  Islands,  where  he  occupied  the  jiosition  of 
royal  treasvirer.  In  16.")3  be  went  thence  to  Lomlon, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  small  and 
secret  Jewish  community  of  that  city,  (See  "  Trans- 
actions of  the  Jew.  Hist.  Soc.  Eng.,"  i.  83  et  neq.) 

Garcia  Alvarez,  of  Astorga, whose  Jewish  name 
was  Samuel  Dios-Ayuda  (=  Joshua),  was  a  wealthy 
and  benevolent  man.  He  is  mentioned  about  1400 
in  a  satire  written  by  the  priest,  Diego  de  Valencia. 


a  converted  Jew,  and  is  therein  called  "the  delight 
and  the  ornament  of  the  w  hole  Jewry," 

Isabel  Nunez  Alvarez, of  Viseii  in  Portugal,  wife 
of  .Miguel  Uodiigucz  of  .Madrid;  was  the  owner  of  a 
synagogue,  situated  on  the  street  "de  las  Infantes" 
in  Madrid.  She  died  a  martyr's  death  in  the  llames, 
July  4,l(i3-.  Pile  Ini|iiisilion  ordered  the  synagogue 
to  be  torn  down,  and  n|)on  its  site  a  Ca)>iicliiii  moii- 
aslerv  was  siibsi'(|iiently  erected,  (See  Kay.serling. 
"Scp'hanliin,"  |ip,  i03,  340,) 

Jacob  Alvarez,  a  member  of  the  academy  "Ar- 
bol  de  las  Villas  "  (Tree  of  Life)  in  Amsterdam  in  \<ix\. 
He  is  spoken  of  as  "its  light,"  and  "the  ,shield  of  the 
Talmud." 

Joseph  Israel  Alvarez  was,  in  lOHJ,  a  member  of 
the  ac;ideniy  of  poets  ("  de  los  Floridos  ")  ill  Amster- 
daiii ;  he  was  distinguished  for  the  elegance  of  his 
diction. 

Juan  Alvarez,  a  physician  of  Zafra,  the  first  vic- 
tim of  ilie  Iiiipiisition  in  Lima.  He,  his  father  .Vlonzo, 
his  wife,  and  his  ehildreii  were  all  publicly  burnt  as 
adherents  of  Judaism  about  l.'iMU.  (See  "  Publ,  Am. 
Jew,  Hist.  .Six-  "  ii.  T."i ;  iii.  ;  iv.  ;  vi.  7.").) 

Leonora  Alvarez  was  convicted  of  having  .sev- 
eral tiiiiis  lapsed  to  Judaism,  and  was  burnt  in  Se- 
ville, June  G,  WiA.  at  the  age  of  forty.  Alonzo  Al- 
varez, her  brother,  was  condemned  to  life-iinprison- 
ment  at  the  same  time  for  lieing  a  .Jew, 

Meir  b.  Solomon  Alvarez.  See  Ai.ocades,  Meik 

It.  .Slil.oMnN, 

Moses  Alvarez  was  a  member  of  the  academy 
"Arbol  de  las  N'iilas "  in  Amsterdam,  from  1741  to 
1701,  Another  Moses  Alvarez  was  one  of  the  first 
settlers  in  Newport,  R,  I.  He  was  naturalized  in 
1741,  and  died  in  17G0.  (See  "  Publ.  Am.  Jew,  Hist, 
Soc,"  vi.  7(). ) 

Simon  Alvarez,  of  Oporto,  was  the  first  victim 
of  the  lii(|Uisilioii  in  Coimbra.  his  place  of  residence. 
He  was  arrested  on  the  ehar.u'e  of  practising  Jiida- 
isiii.  found  guilty  u]ion  cvidenei'  extorted  from  his 
little  daughter,  and,  together  with  his  wife,  burnt  at 
the  stake. 

Antonio  Alvarez-Soares,  a  Spanish  ]ioet.  He 
composeila  poem  upon  the  dedication  of  the  first  syna- 
gogue established  in  Amsterdam  in  1007.  The  poet, 
Daniel  Levi  de  Barrios,  who  ])osse.ssed  the  manuscript 
of  his  ]ioeins.  describes  him  as  an  able  versifier. 

Antonio  Alvarez-Soares,  of  Lisbon,  a  namesake 
of  the  iiieceiling,  was  also  a  poet.  He  was  much 
esteemed  in  Lisbon  for  his  lyrics.  He  published  in 
1028  a  collection  of  |ioems  called  "Varias  Rimas." 
He  emigrated  to  Flanders  in  1030. 

Bini.ioiiR.ti'iiv:  De  Barrios.  Triiimplu}  del  (lor.  Popular,  pp. 
Til  <(  St,/,;  liarhosa  .Macliado.  llil,liolcva  Limtaiia,  1.  2iii: 
Kavserlin^',  Si  ijluirdim,  pp,  175,  Sill, 

M,  K. 

ALVARO  DE  LUNA  :  A  gifteil  Spanish  states- 
man of  the  fifteenth  century  who  attained  the  high- 
est military  rank,  that  of  Grand  Constable.  With 
Chancellor  Don  Juan  Furtado  de  Mendoza  and  Don 
Abraham  IJenveniste,  he  exercised  for  many  years 
unlimited  infiiience  over  the  young  and  weak  king, 
I).  Juan  II.  of  Castile.  Throughout  his  life  Alvaro 
was  a  friend  of  the  Jews  and  prot*'Ctor  of  the  Mar- 
aiios,  both  of  whom  were  promoted  by  him  to  the 
highest  offices, 

Abraham  Ben  veniste,  with  whom  he  was  intimately 
associated  for  thirty  years,  and  Joseph  ha-Nassi  were 
appointed  by  him  as  farmers-in  chief  of  taxes.  Of  the 
;\Iaranos,  Diego  Gonsalez  was  made  general  receiver 
(contador  mayor) ;  Diego  Arias  Davila,  mana,irer  of 
the  royal  revenues;  Juan  Alfonso  de  Baena,  royal 
private  secretary ;  and  Juan  l^acheco  became  through 
liiiii  the  trusted  companion  of  the  king.     Owing  to 


481 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDL\ 


Alvalensl 
Alzey 


this  well-known  friendship  for  Jews  and  JFaranos, 
Alvaro  was  for  a  lonir  time  a  thorn  in  the  ttesh  to 
both  the  Infante  Don  Ilenrv  and  the  aired  I'aid  de 
Burgos,  the  primate  of  Spain,  the  Jewhater.  I'aiil's 
sons.  Alvar  Uaicia  de  S.  Maria  and  Alfonso  of  Carta- 
gena— less  from  jxilitieal  than  from  ri-iigioiis  reasons 
— Ijeeanie  his  bitterest  enemies.  They  eondueled  a 
furious  struggle  against  him  for  many  years,  which 
ended  in  his  (l<}\vnrall.  Alvaro.  who,  in  his  hours  of 
leisure,  dc\ote(  I  himself  to  lilerary  mailers  aii<  I  wrote 
a  book  about  (M'lebraled  women  ("  IJbro  de  las  Mu- 
jeres  Ilustres  ").  was  taken  prisoner,  dragged  toVal- 
ladolid,  and  beheaded  there,  July  3,  1-15;!.  Friar  Al- 
fonso de  Esjiina.  the  fierec'st  enemy  of  th<'  .Jewish 
race — to  which  he  hiinself  belonged — accompanied 
him  triumphantly  on  his  walk  to  the  seall'old. 

Uiiii.icHMi.M'iiv  :  J.  Aiimilor  ile  Ins  Illcw.  Kl  Cawkslahlr  Dun 
Alnirii  ill'  lAiiia  In  llivMn  ile  KkiihHii.  \I\.  :  Idem,  llintoriii 
de  lit»Ji((liiis  lie  Hstnttln  u  Pnrluoul^  HI.  2U  ff  neii. 

M,   I\. 

ALYASHAR,  JACOB:  Talmudist;  born  at 
W'iliia,  Hussia,  aljnul  \'i'.>'):  died  in  Safed  about 
ITS.").  The  congregation  at  Hebron  in  lT(i")  sent  him 
as  their  einissjiry  {iiifshnllith)  to  Persia.  On  the  out- 
break of  a  war  in  1775,  Ho/.rah,  the  city  in  which 
he  resided,  was  besie.ned ;  but  h<',  his  wife,  and  new- 
born son,  Eliezer  Jcruham,  <'scaped  and  settled  in 
Safe(l.  He  celebrated  his  delivi^ranee  in  Hebrew 
vi-rses  calleil  "Mcgillat  I'aras"  (The  Roll  of  I'er.sia), 
pnl)lishe(l  by  his  granilson.  1{.  Jacob  Said  Alyashar, 
in  ■■  Ish  Emuniin  "  (Jerusalem.  1885).  J.  D.  E. 

ALYASHAR  fmore  correctly  ELATSCHAR), 

JACOB  SAUL:  Hakam  Bashi  (chief  rabbi)  ct  J, tu- 
sail  111;  burn  at  Sal'eil.  .lune  1,  1M7.  He  was  taken 
to  .lerusalem  in  IS'JIi.  Ilis  leacher  was  H.  Benjamin 
Mordecai  Xabon.  who,  in  1828,  married  his  wid- 
<iwe<l  mother.  In  18.').')  Alyashar  was  apjiointed  asso- 
ciate.judge  to  the  Ilakam  i!ashi,.\braham  .\shken;i/i ; 
in  li^till.  chief  dayan.  holding  the  position  until  his 
jiromotion  in  IX'.t:!  to  the  jmst  of  Ilakam  liashi  liy  all 
parties  in  Jerusidem.  as  successor  to  the  lali'  !{.  I'an- 
iel.  The  sultan  .Midul  hamid  conlirmed  hisajjpoint- 
ment  in  a  tirman,  sending  him  an  ollicial  robe  and  a 
me<lal  of  the  ^led  jidie  oriler:  and  Emi)cror  William 
II.  of  Germany,  on  his  visit  to  Jenisideni  in  1898,  also 
]iresented  liiin  with  a  medid.  He  speaks  Hebrew, 
Andiic,  Turkish.  Italian,  and  Oreek. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  his  published  works;  the 
titles  all  contain  the  word  "  Ish  "  (C'K).  the  compo- 
ni-nt  letters  of  which  are  the  initials  of  his  name;  (1) 
'•  Kereb  Ish  "( Inward  Thought  <ir  .Man)  (l's.l.\iv,  (i); 
(2)  "Ish  Kmuium"  (Man  of  Kailh),  a.  collection  of 
festival  sermons,  I88.">;  (;!)  "  .Ma'asch  Ish  "  (The  Work 
of  Man),  responsa,  together  with  (4)  "Derek  Ish" 
(Man's  Way),  sermons.  18i)2;  (."i)  "Simha  le-lsh  "  (Joy 
lo  Man),  responsa,  pidilished  with  (l!)  "(iirsa  de-Vati- 
kiita  "  (  Karly  Teachings),  I'Xplanalions  of  Talmudic 
problems;  (7)  "Ya'aseh  Ish"  (Man  Shall  Do),  an<l 
(H)  "  Dibre  Ish  "  (Words  of  Man),  in  one  volumi',  re- 
sponsa and  sermons,  18i)(i;  (il)  "  Olat  Ish"  (.Man's 
OITering).  decisions,  181li»;  (10)  "Sha'al  I.sli"  (Man 
Asked),  responsa,  in  course  of  |mblicalioii  in  IflUO. 

Bliu.ir)(iit.vPMV :  I.uncz,  Almnuiw,  Iflal,  Autnhtintrnphti  of 
Juriih  Siliil  ,HliitKihnr,  pn.:tt»  tit. 

J.  n.  E. 

ALTPITJS  OF  ANTIOCH:  Eminent  geog 
rapher  of  the  fourth  century;  inliniale  friend  of  the 
lioman  emperor,  Julian  the  .\poslate.  Alypius,  of 
noble  and  gemrous  character,  was  governor  of 
Britain  :!."),">-:!ti(l.  whence  he  was  ricalled  by  the  em- 
peror lo  superintend  the  reconstruction  of  the  Tem- 
ple at  .lerusjilein,  Al  first  he  showed  inucli  zeal  in 
the  accomplishment  of  his  task.  but.  by  degrees,  see- 
I  -:u 


ing  the  little  effort  made  by  the  .Jews  to  aid  him.  lie 
lost  interest  and  left  the  field  clear  for  the  intrigues 
of  the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  who  sought  by  every 
means  to  cause  his  failure  in  carrying  out  the  gener- 
ous purposes  of  the  emperor. 

IJiBi.iocn.vpiiv  :  Tti.  Uelnticii.  in  Auteitrit  Grers  ft  Rnwaltm, 
\>.'.VA:  (iriitz,  (jexeh.  iter  Juden,  Iv.  371;  I'auly-Wlssowa, 
lti'al-Kncuvli>i)ddte^  col.  1709. 

I.  Bit. 

ALZEY:  A  tf)wn  in  Hhein-Hes.sen  (Germany), 
on  the  Site/.  While  the  lirst  traces  of  the  residenco 
of  Jews  in  the  Palatinate,  to  which  Al/.cy  belonged 
from  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Freilerick  Barbarossji, 
date  from  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
no  date  is  given  for  tlie  first  settlement  of  Jews 
in  Al/ey  itself.  The  name  of  the  congregation  aj)- 
pears  lor  the  first  time  in  the  "  Martyrology  "  of 
Nuremberg,  where  it  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
l)laces  which  sull'ercd  in  the  ilreadful  iiersecutions 
of  the  year  of  terror,  134!t.  The  first  reference  to 
members  of  the  congregation  dates  probably  from 
the  year  i:i88.  where  a  certain  Bonil'ant  and  his  wife 
JUtte.  and  a  Jew  of  the  name  of  Lassiirus.  are  men- 
tioned. The  congregation  never  played  any  very 
conspicuous  ]iarl  in  history,  and  the  number  of  its 
members  until  the  beginning  of  this  century  was 
very  small.  The  .lewsof  Alzey  shared  the  unliappy 
fate  of  their  perseculed  brethren  in  the  Middle  Ages; 
at  (>ue  time  they  were  e.xpeiled  from  the  town,  at  an- 
other residence  therein  was  permitted  them,  all  ac- 
cording to  the  inclination  of  the  Count  Palatine  of 
the  day.  From  the  year  1301,  when  the  Ji-ws  were 
driven  from  tlu-  Palatinate  by  Count  Huprecht  II., 
they  do  not  seem  to  liave  returned  to  Alzi'V  for  sev- 
eral centuries,  or  at  best  only  temporarily;  for  in  the 
census  of  the  year  1.5.")0.  which  re.fristcred  the  names 
of  all  Jews  living  in  the  Palatinate,  none  are  men- 
tioned from  Alzey,  although  this  town  was  the  olli- 
cial center  where  limited  passports  were  i.s.sued  at  a 
fi.\ed  tarilT  to  all  .Jews  who  traded  in  the  region. 

It  is  only  toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
liuy  that  Jews  again  appear  in  Alzey  as  a  regular 
congregation.  Until  the  year  1791,  religions  .services 
were  held  in  private  houses.  The  first  synagogue 
was  built  in  that  year  throu.sh  t\u-  liberality  of  Klias 
Simon  Belmont.  A  census  in  17'2'2  enumerated  nine 
families  in  1  lie  congregation,  anil  si.xty-threc  families 
in  the  whole  district.  Twenty  years  later  there  w  ere 
only  eleven  in  the  congregatiim.  In  1748  the  elector 
Karl  Theodor  set  the  legal  limit  of  families  in  the 
town  of  Alzey  at  three.  He  adiled,  that  "  since  there 
were  already  more  than  that  luimber,  no  aihlitional 
families  woidd  be  allowed  to  settle  there  until  the 
number  had  been  diminished  by  death  to  less  thait 
three."  From  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
congregation  grew  stca<lily;  in  the  fourth  decade  of 
the  nineteenlhcentury  about  fifty  families  are  found, 
and  there  are  now  (Uil)l)  seventy-five.  Of  the  ()..")II0 
inhabitants  of  .\lzey,  about  ;tO((  are  Jews,  who  devote 
themselves  mainly  to  mercantile  pursuits.  The  jires- 
ent  synagogue  wasconscciatcd  in  the  year  18."hl.  The 
first  rabbi  (in  this  new  building)  was  Dr.  Samuel  Ad- 
ler,  son  of  Isjiac  Adler,  nibbi  of  Worms.  By  min- 
isterial decree  of  August  17,  1842,  he  was  appointed 
ilistric-t  nd)bi  of  Alzey,  which  post  he  held  until  the 
year  18,-|(i.  He  was  culled  to  tlie  Temple  Emanu-KI 
in  New  York  in  18."i7.  His  succes.sor  was  Dr.  David 
Holhschild.  who  oHieiale<l  for  nearlv  Ihirtv  vears 
(from  [8(i2  till  Jun.'.  isilj);  he  died  January, 'lSi(2.  in 
Aix  la  Chapell.'.  Since  October,  1891,  Dr.  Josiph 
Lew  has  been  the  niblii  of  this  congregation. 

.Mention  must  In-  made  of  several  members  of 
the  Belmont  family,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  re- 
spected of  the  congregution.     According  to  the  Alzey 


Amadeo 
Amalek 


THE  JEWISH   E^X•YCLOPEDIA 


482 


••  .Mcinoiiiil-HiHik."  Sinihiili.  son  of  Eplimini  Belmont, 
was  t ho  lirst  of  llmt  niinu-  to  settle  in  Al/.ev:  lie  had 
been  lieiul  of  the  Jewish  community  in  Ueikelheim. 
near  Kieiiznneli.  which  then  l)elonK<'il  totiie  I'lUiil- 
iniitc.  Mis  son  Joseph  Jcssel,  culled  Halibi  Jessel  of 
Al/ey.  held  the  siime  position  in  the  Alzey  district; 
liedii'd  in  1738.  These  men  as  well  as  their  descend- 
anis  were  conspicuous  for  th-jir  piety  and  for  their 
uncommon  public  spirit.  The  Elias  Simon  Helmont 
already  mentioned  an<I  his  nephew  Sinum  founded 
the  so-called  "Helmont  fund,"  which  provides  a  mar- 
riajre-porti(m  for  poor  girls. 

Bnu.ioc,i!,irnv :  I.riwenstcln.  ncitrilm  zur  Geitch.  d.  Jwlen  in 
J/i  ulMhIanil.  l.tiV,.  1.  4,  111.  iX.  .51,  14B,  182.  In  tlieiirchlvps  nf 
the  cunfrrepjtlonthcre  isa '■  JfcHKir-jBiich."  T    I  r 

AMADEO  OF  RIMINI.     Sic  Ji.iiioi.\ti   hex 

miosis    OK    KlXANATI. 

AMADIA,  AMADIAH,  AMADIEH,  AMA- 
DEEYAH  :  .V  town  in  Asiatic  TurUcy,  vilayet  of 
r.ai;dad.  iiorlh  of  !Mosul,  the  birthplace  of  the 
pseudo-Messiah.  David  Alrui  (Alroy).  In  1103,  ac- 
cordinfT  to  the  author  of  " 'Eniek  ha-Baka,"  it  had 
a  Jewish  popidation  of  about  a  thousand  families. 
In  189.1  it  had  a  Jewish  population  of  1,900  persons, 
who  owned  about  150  houses.  They  trade  chiefly 
in  {;all-nuts. 
Bini.ionRAPiiY :  Joseph  hn-Kohen,  'Emf  A"  ha-Iiaha  (riemian 

Iranslaliim  liv  .M.  WIcneri.  p.  27,  l.eipslc  1H.V*;  Ijiyanl.  .Vim  - 

ri  )i  iiihI  il.1  liciiiain.t.  ii.  141 ;  EiitziUliiiirdirlin'hi  Slnmr,  vol. 

1.,  St.  Petersburg,  1891 ;  Lunyman's  (Idzctlccr.  l-iindon,  Istfi. 

II.  H. 

AMASO,  JOSHTTA  JTTDAH :  Talmudist,  of 
a  Spiinish  family  seltleil  at  Salonica  in  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  wrote  "Oliolc  Yehu- 
dah"(The  Tents  of  Judah).  published  at  Salonica 
in  1820.  It  contains  (1)  homilies  on  the  Pentateuch, 
and  (2)  halakic  dissertations  on  !Maimonides'  "  Yad 
ha-Hazakah,"  on  partof  the  treatise  "Shebu'ot,"  and 
an  epitome  on  the  dietary  laws. 
BiBLIOGRAPny  :  Benjarob,  Ozar  ha-Scfarim,  p.  20. 

I.  Bk. 

AMADOU  DE  LOS  RIOS,  JOSE:  Spanish  his- 
torian of  the  Jews  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  arclie- 
ologist :  bom  1818 :  died 
at  Seville,  1878.  De  los 
Rios  was  for  some  time 
inspector  -  general  of 
public  instruction  in 
Spain.  He  wrote  many 
works  archeological  in 
character,  two  of  which 
are  of  interest  to  Jews. 
In  1848  he  published  in 
^ladrid  "Estudios  His- 
toricos.  Politicos,  y 
Literarios  sobre  los.Iu- 
dios  de  Espafia."  This 
was  translated  into 
French  (Paris,  1861), 
and  later  on  was  ex- 
]ianded  into  the  larger  work  on  the  .same  subject. 
"Historia  Social.  Politica.  y  Religiosa  de  los  Ju- 
dios  de  Espafia  y  Portugal"  (3  vols..  Madrid.  187.V 
76).  Amador  de  los  Rios  was  interested  chiefly  in  the 
constitutional  position  of  the  Jews;  and  his  work, 
from  this  side,  is  very  thoroughly  done.  lie  was. 
liowever,  unacquainted  with  Hebrew,  or  Jewish 
sources:  and  his  treatment  of  literarj-  history  in  the 
earlier  book  is  derived  merely  from  the  uncritical 
notes  of  De  Castro. 

BiBLiooRAPHT  :  List  of  his  sources  given  In  Jacobs'  .SmirceJ'  nf 
Spanish-Jewish  Ilistoru,  pp.  2i;5-244,  and  summary  of  the 
contents  of  tbe  book,  pp.  214-221.  j 


Jos^  Amador  de  los  Rios. 

(TVom  the  froDtUpItrce  t«  bis   "  HisUrln. 


AMALEK,  AMALEKITE8.— BibHcal  Data : 

Name  lit  a  nomadic  nalion  .idulli  of  Palestine.  That 
the  Anialekiies  were  not  And)s.  but  of  a  stock  related 
to  the  Edomites  (consequently  also  to  the  Hebrews), 
can  be  concluded  from  the  genealogy  in  Gen.  xxxvi. 
12 and  in  I  Chron.  i.  30.  Amalek  is  a  son  of  Esiiu's 
lirst-born  .son  Eliphaz  and  of  the  concubine  Timna, 
the  daughter  of  Seir,  the  Horite,  and  sister  of  Lotun 
(Oen.  xxxvi.  12;  compare  Timnah  as  name  of  an 
Edomite  chief  or  clan,  verse  40).  On  the  other  hand, 
Gen.  xiv.  7  speaks  of  Amalekites.  in  southern  Pal- 
estine, in  the  time  of  Abraham.  That  they  were  of 
obscure  origin  is  also  indicated  in  Num.  xxiv.  20, 
where  the  Amalekites  are  called  "the  lirst  of  the  na- 
tions." The  Amalekites  were  the  first  to  cimie  in 
contact  with  the  Israelites  (Ex.  xvii.  8).  vainly  oppos- 
ing their  march  at  Rephidim,  not  far  from  Sinai 
(compare  Deut.  xxv.  17,  "smiting  the  hindmost,  all 
that  were  feeble  behind." and  I  Sam. 
Position  XV.  2).  Consequently,  they  must  be 
and  Con-  considered  as  possessors  of  t  he  Sinail  ic 
nections.  peninsula,  of  the  modern  desert  el-Tili, 
or  at  least  of  the  northern  part  of  it. 
According  to  Xuni.  xiii.  29.  xiv.  25,  which  speaks 
of  Amalekites  defeating  the  Israelites  in  the  lowland 
(verses  43,  45).  they  occupied  also  soulliern  Pales- 
tine, partly  together  with  the  Canaanites;  see  also 
Gen.  xiv.  7  (Amalekites  in  "En-mishpat,  which  is 
Kadcsh  ").  The  extreme  south  seems  to  be  meant, 
the  pasture  lands  of  the  Negeb,  not  the  arable 
parts. 

The  relation  of  the  Kexites  to  the  Amalekites  is 
not  quite  plain.  According  to  I  Sam.  xv.  6,  they 
live  with  them  (or  at  their  side;  compare  Judges,  i. 
10;  Num.  xxiv.  21).  while  elsewhere  they  are  asso- 
ciated with  Israel  (1  Sam.  xxvii,  10)  or  even  specially 
with  the  tribe  of  Judah  (I  Sam.  xxx.  29;  I  Chron, 
ii.  55).  This  would  indicate  that  the  Kenitcs  formed 
a  connecting  link  between  the  Israelites,  or  their 
southern  tribes,  and  the  Amalekites.  Gen.  xv.  19, 
which  foretells  dispossession  of  the  Kenitcs  by  Israel, 
would  agree  with  this  (see  C.\rN;  Kenites).  A  sim- 
ilar relationship  might  be  assumed  for  the  Kene- 

ZITES. 

The  Amalekites  themselves  always  appear  as  hos- 
tile to  Israel.     Thus  (Judges,  iii.  13).  together  with 
the  Ammonites,  they  assist  E.irlon  of 
Enmity  to  Moab.  and  (Judges,  vi.  3,  33,  vii.  12) 
Israel.       they  aid  the  Midianites  and  the  chil- 
dren of  the  East  against  Israel.     Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  7  refers  to  both  occasions.     It  is  on  this  ac- 
count that  Saul  leads  an  expedition  against  them  (I 
Sam.  XV.).    The  defeat  and  capture  of  the  Amalekite 
king.  A.gag  (the  only  Amalekite  name  preserved), 
by  Saul  seem  to  be  referred  to  also  by  Balaam  (Num. 
xxiv.  7).     It  is  not  known  wliat  locality  is  meant  by 
"the  city  of  Amalek,"  which  evidently  was  situated 
"in  the  valley" — that  is,  the  plain  (I  Sam.  xv.  5). 
One  would  not  expect  that  the  settlements  of  such  a 
wandering  nation  would  deserve  the  name  of  a  city. 
David  waged  a  sacred  war  of  extermination  against 
the  Amalekites,  who  retaliated  (I  Sam.  xxx.  1)  hy  a 
successful  surprise  of  Ziklag.     David,  however,  fol- 
lowed and  caught  the  Amalekites  on  the  retreat, 
regaining  their  captives  and  spoils.     On  this  occa- 
sion the  Amalekites,  like  all  desert  warriors,  made 
their  raids  upon  camels.     After  this  defeat  Amalek 
disappears,  so  that  it  seems  as  though 
Fate  of      the  nation  had  actually  been  extenni- 
Amalek.     nated  bv  the  wars  with  Saul  and  David. 
I  Chron.  iv.  42-43  states  that  in  the 
time  of  Hezekiah  live  hundred  Simeonites  annihi- 
lated the  last  remnant  "of  the  Amalekites  that  had 
escaped  "  on  Mount  Seir  and  settled  there  in  the  place 


483 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amadeo 
Amalek 


of  Amalek.  Thus  the  related  tribes  Amalek  and 
Edom  were  united  airsiiii  at  the  end.        W.  M.  31. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature :  Amalek — the  first 

foe  to  attack  tlie  people  of  Israel  after  they  had 
come  out  of  Efrypt  us  a  free  nation:  twice  desif^- 
naled  in  the  Pentateuch  (E.\.  .wii.  14-10.  Deut.  x.w. 
10)  as  the  one  against  whom  war  should  be  waged 
until  his  memory  be  blotted  out  forever — became  in 
rabbinical  literature  the  type  of  Israel's  arch-enemy. 
In  the  tannaitic  Ilaggadah  of  the  first  century  Am- 
alek stands  for  Rome  (Bacher,  "Ag.  Tan."  i.  140  H 
eer/.,  211  ct  m'f/.);  and  so  does  Edom  (Esau),  from 
whom  Amalek  deseended  (Gen,  xxxvi.).  A  kinsman 
of  the  Israelites,  Amalek  nevertheless  displayed  the 
most  intense  hatred  toward  them:  he  inherited  Esau's 
hostility  to  his  brother  Jacob,  Wlien  other  nations 
hesitated  to  harm  God's  chosen  ones,  liis  evil  exam- 
ple induced  them  to  join  him  in  the  fray,  "Like  a 
roliber  he  waylaid  Israel";  "like  a  swarm  of  lo- 
custs": "like  a  leech  eager  for  blood";  "like  a  fly 
looking  for  .sores  to  feed  on  " ;  Amalek  {'(im  Ink  =  th(' 
peo[)le  which  licketh)  hurried  over  hundreds  of  miles 
to  intercept  Israel's  march: 

•'  Havlnp  talicn  llic  list  of  the  tribes  from  the  archives  of 
Eirypt,  tie  iirniytMi  tiis  liusis  In  from  of  tlic  Isnielitisli  cainp— 
over  which  (iod's  plory  rested  in  tlie  slu'ltfrinir  pillar  of  chiiut— 
and  called  the  names  of  ttie  tribt-s  aloud,  one  after  the  oilier, 
and  pretendln»f  to  have  business  negotiations  with  tlieni,  lio 
ln*acherously  Miew  llie  la.st.  or,  rather,  the  pidlty  ones  anions 
them,  those  chosen  liy  lot "  (Tan,  Kl  Teze,  Lx.,  and  Pesik.  lli.  'Milt). 

According  to  some  he  also  used  witchcraft  to  secure 
victoiv  for  his  men  ("i'alk.  Heubeni,  and  Chronicle  of 
Jeralimeel,  xlviii.  13).  "  Jloreover,  he  mutilated  their 
bodies,  making  sport  of  the  Aliraliamie  covenant"  (.see 
I'esik.  I.r.  and  Pesik.  H.  .\ii.,  Mck.  J'.eshallah). 

Evidently  the  colors  for  tliis  iiicture  are  drawn 
fioni  tli<'  palette  of  later  experience.  Accordingly, 
in  rabbinical  literature  .stress  is  ratlier  laid  on  the 
monil  lesson  of  the  episode.  Amal<k  was  but  the 
scourge  in  the  hand  of  God  to  punish  the  people  of 
Isniel,  who  had  become  "  faint  and  weary  "  in  the  ob- 
servance of  God's  eommanils  and  "feared  not  God." 
They  laeki-d  the  power  of  faith  (]dayon  the  naiue 
"  Kcphiiliiu "  =  /•'(/■'/  i/iKliii/iiii,  "the  hands  became 
weak"),  and  thei-efore  said:  "Is  the  Lord  among 
us  or  not  't"  (Ex.  xvii.  7.  8).  Like  a  wayward  child 
that  luns  back  to  its  father  when  a  dog  comes  snarl- 
ing along,  the  Isiaelites  were  unmindful  of  God's 
doings  imtil  like  a  dog  Amalek  came  to  bite  them. 
Then  Moses  fasted  and  prayed,  saying:  "OLord, 
who  will  in  the  fulure  spr(>ad  Thy  Law.  if  Amalek 
succeeds  in  destroying  this  nation':'"  And  with  up- 
lifted arms,  holding  the  stall  anil  pointing  heaven- 
ward, he  inspired  Joshua  and  the  people  with  his 
faith  until  the  victory  was  won  (Mek.  i/i.). 

Harsh  asst'cms  the  command  to  blot  out  Amalek's 
memory,  its  jnstitieation  was  seen  in  the  leniency 
shown  by  King  Saul,  the  son  of  Kisli,  to  Agng, 
the  king  of  the  .\iuaU'kites  (I  Sam.  xv.  9),  which 
made  it  possible  for  Haman  the  Atragite  to  appear 
(Esth.iii.l) ;  his  cruel  plot  against  the  Jews  could  only 
111- counteractiil  by  another  descindant  of  Kish.  Mor- 
decai  (I'esik.  H.  xiii).  Eveiy  year,  therefore,  the 
chapter,  "  Henn'inber  what  Amalek  did  imto  thee" 
(Dent,  XXV,  17-I!I),  is  read  in  the  synagogue  on  the 
Sabbath  preceding  Purim. 

With  regard  to  the  remarkable  oath,  "Truly  the 
hand  upon  the  throne  of  Yah !  the  Lord  will  have 
War  with  .\malek  froiu  generation  to  generation" 
(Ex.  xvii.  Ki:  .\.  V.  is  not  litenil  here);  the  rabbis 
say:  "  Never  will  the  throne  of  God  —  the  Lord  of 
Truth,  Justice,  and  Lovi — be  fully  established  until 
the  seed  of  Amalek  —  the  principle  of  hatred  and 
wrongdoing  —  be  destroyed  forever  (Pe.sik.,  I.e..  and 


Targ.  Y'er,  I.  and  II,  to  Ex,  I.e.).  Henceforth  "  Ama- 
lek "  became  the  popular  term  for  Jew-hater.     -^ 

Critical  'View :  Jlodern  critics  have  seen  In  the 

genealogy  of  Amalek  a  mere  indication  that  Ama- 
lek was  closely  allied  to  the  Edomites,  but  very  in- 
ferior in  power  to  them  (compare  the  lowly  station 
of  Timna,  merely  a  concubine).  In  Judges,  vi.  3,  33, 
vii.  12,  the  mention  of  Amalek  is  considered  as  a 
later  gloss  by  IJudde.  Xijldeke  ("Eney.  Bil)l."i.  128) 
considers  the  account  of  Saul's  expedition  to  be  ex- 
aggerated in  the  figures,  and  in  the  geographical 
definition.  Winckler's  view  ("Gcsch.  Israels,"  p. 
211)  stands  rather  isolated.  He  considers,  for  ex- 
ample. Judges,  iii.  13  as  impossible  (because  the 
Amalekitesdid  not  touch  upon  Jloabitish  territory), 
and  regards  most  pa.s.S!iges  iiuoting  Amalek  as  parts 
of  mythological  or  mythical  st<iries  (including  even 
the  larger  part  of  the  lives  of  Saul  and  David).  Thus 
he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  "probably  the  nation 
of  Aiualek  rests  on  a  mythological  idea."  On  Egyp- 
tian and  Assyrian  monuments,  various  points  of  con- 
tact with  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  .Sinaitic  peninsula 
in  war  or  commerce  are  reported  or  even  represented ; 
hitherto,  however,  the  name  Amalek  has  not  been 
discovered  on  them. 

_  The  territory  ascribed  to  Amalek  in  I  Sam.  xv.  7, 
"from  Ilavilah  until  thou  comest  to  Sliur."  is  per- 
plexing. If  Ilavilah  is  the  siinie  land  mentioned  in 
Gen.  ii.  11,  x.  2!)  (compare  I  Chron.  i.  23),  and  xxv. 
18  (hardly  that  of  x.  7) — that  is,  the  extreme  eastern 
country  of  the  wandering  desert  tribes,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Babylonia — then  one  would  have  to  identify 
the  .Vmalekite  territory  with  northern  Arabia,  fi'om 
Egypt  to  the  Euphrates.  It  wonhl  embrace  the  land 
of  the  Midianites  and  other  "sons  of  the  East,"  but 
would  baldly  leave  room  for  Edom.  Therefore,  the 
modern  commentators  either  understand  here  another 
Ilavilah,  ortheychimgethc  text,  So,c.jf.,Wellhausen 
("Text  der  Bdcher  Samuelis,"  p,  97),  who  changes 
"from  Havilah"  to  "lui-Telem,"  that  is,  "from  (the 
city  of)  Telem  "  in  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  24)  which  (in  I 
Sam.  XV.  4)  is  mentioned  as  the  starting-place  of 
Saul's  expedition.  Certainly,  Amalek  appears  else- 
wheie  always  as  an  insignificant  robber  nation,  and 
the  siime  correction  seems  necessjiry  al.so  in  I  Sam. 
xxvii.  8,  wheie  the  .\malekites  (with  the  Geshurites 
and  Gezrites)are  "the  inhabitants  of  the  land  which 
[reaches]  from  Telem  (read  "mi-Telem"  with  the 
better  manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint.  instead  of  the 
traditional  "me'Olam"  (of  old)]  as  thou  goest  to 
Shur. "  If  this  be  so,  Amalek  had  no  territory  east 
of  the  Edomites. 

As  to  the  presence  of  alleged  Amalekitcsin  Pales- 
tine proper,  such  colonies  have  been  assumed  on  the 
basis  of  Judges,  v.  14  and  xii.  1.").  The  first  passage 
speaks  of  "Ephraim  whose  root  is  in  [A.  V.  "was 
against  "]  .Vmalek  "  ;  in  the  second,  the  judge  Abdon 
is  stated  to  have  been  "bnrii-d  in  Piralhon  [south- 
west of  Shechem].  in  file  land  of  Ephraim.  in  tlie  liill- 
connfry  of  the  .\malekife."  The  Si'ptuagint.  how- 
ever, in  bidli  places,  seems  to  have  read  (at  least 
ill  the  Coilex  Alexandriiius  and  in  the  recension  of 
Lucian)  "the  valley,  the  lowland  {'inuk)"  instead 
of  .\malek,  so  that  these  two  passages  are,  to  say 
the  least,  unsafe  authority.  Tlie  existence  of  single 
Amalekites  in  the  midst  of  Israel,  such  as  the  Ama- 
lekite,  the  "son  of  astraiiger"  (II  Sam.  i.  8.  13),  is  not 
surprising,  ainl  may  possibly  explain  lheexpre.s.sion 
"the  mount  of  the  .Vmalekites  "  in  Judges,  xii.  IS, 
Thus,  it  is  unnecessfiry  to  assume  a  northern  branch 
or  remnant  of  the  .Vmalekiti'S. 

.\rabic  writers  have  attached  great  importance  to 
the  iiniiie  of  the  Anmlekiles.  and  have  invented  many 


Aman 
Amarkol 


THE  JEVVltJH  ENXVCLOPEDIA 


484 


stories  iilHiut  this  |>riiiicval  imtii)n.  wliidi  they  fun- 
cied  to  Imve  ruled  ovit  Aral)iii  and  the  surri)iindiii<? 
countries,  espeeinlly  over  Egypt.  Niildeke  ("Clier 
die  Ainnlekiter."  GiUtiniren,  181)4)  1ms  fully  shown 
the  tietitious  character  of  all  these  tales. 

W.  M.   M. 

AMAX  :  1.  This  name  is  found  only  in  the 
ApiK  ly  plia.  Tobit,  xiv.  10.  lie  is  there  mentioned 
as  the  perseeutor  of  Arhiaeharus,  hut  even  in  that 
pas,siii;e  the  reading  is  not  certain,  the  versions  giv- 
ing Nadab,  Accab,  and  Adam  as  possible  readings. 
See  AniK.vu.  2.  l-'or  Amvn  in  A|)Ocr.  Esther,  xii. 
(i.  \vi.'  1(1,  17,  read  11a.ma.n.  G.  B.  L. 

AM  AN  A  :  1.  River  rising  in  Anti-Lebanon  ami 
flowing  through  Daniaseus,  the  modern  XalirKarada 
(II  Kings,  v.  12,  where  there  is  a  variant.  Aliana: 
see  AEt.vN.x").  2.  Mountainous  distriel  of  llie  Leba- 
non from  which  the  Amana  river  rises  (Cant.  iv.  8).  It 
occurs  in  cuneiform  literature  as  Am-ma-na  (De- 
litzsch,  "Wo  Lag  das  Paradies?"  p.  103). 

G.  B.  L. 

AMARAGI,  ISAAC  BEKOR  :  Translator  and 
histdrical  writer  nl  the  ninclccnth  century,  who 
lived  in  Saloniea.  He  translated,  from  the  Hebrew 
into  Judipo-Spanish,  Samson  Hloch's  geographical 
work,  "  Shebile  -Olam"  (Salonica,  18.J3-57, 1860),  with 
additions  of  his  own,  and  wrote  a  short  history  of 
Napoleon. 
BiBLiOGR.vPHY  :  KayserllDjt,  Bihl.  Esp.-Pwt.  Jitil.  p.  V2. 

M.    K. 

AMARAGI,  MOSES  :  Physician  in  ordinary  to 
the  eouit  of  Sultan  .Murad  IV.  (1623-40)  in  Oon- 
staiitin(i])Ie.  He  was  rich  and  learned  and  a  jiatrou 
of  Jewish  scholars.  In  his  okl  age  he  returned  to 
his  native  city,  Salonica,  where  he  died. 

M.  K. 

'AM  HA-AREZ  :  A  term  used  in  common  jiar- 
lauce  in  the  .sense  of  "ignoramus."  applied  particu- 
larly to  one  ignorant  of  Jewish  matters.  Compare 
Ganudiel's maxim  (.Vbot,  ii.  ii):  "  No  'Am  ha- Are/,  can 
be  pious  [hasid]:  also  Lev.  1{.  .\xxvii. :  "Jephthah, 
the  judge,  who  failid  to  oljbiin  release  from  ids  rash 
vow,  was  an  'Am  ha-Arez  " — that  is,  "one  of  tlie 
multitude  whicli  knows  not  the  Law  "  (see  John,  vii. 
49).  According  to  the  Tannuim  of  the  second  cen- 
tury an  "Am  ha-.Vrez  is  "he  who  does  not  eat  his 
ordinary  food  in  a  state  of  [iriestly  purity  "  (H. 
Meir);  or,  according  to  the  majority  of  rabbis,  "he 
who  does  not  give  his  tithes  in  due  manner";  ac- 
cording to  R.  Elie/.er,  it  is  "he  who  does  not  read 
the  Slienia'  evening  and  morning  " ;  according  to  R. 
Joshua,  "he  who  does  not  put  on  the  phylacteries 
[tefjllin]":  according  to  Ben  '.Vzzai."  lie  who  does  not 
wear  fringes  [zi/it]  on  his  garments"  :  according  to 
R.  Nathan,  "he  who  has  no  mezuzah  on  his  door- 
post" (Dent.  vi.  9);  according  to  R.  Nathan  ben 
Joseph,  "he  who  has  clnldren  and  does  not  educate 
them  in  the  Law";  and  according  to  others,  "he 
who  has  not  associated  with  tlie  wise  in  order  to 
learn  the  practise  of  the  oral  law  "  (Ber.  47i;  Sotah, 
22«;Git.  fill/).  Ishmael  b.  Eleazarssiys:  "The'amme 
ha-arez  [the  vulgar  crowds]  incur  the  penalty  of 
death  by  the  disregard  with  which  they  treat  tlie 
sacred  Ark  and  the  synagogue,  calling  the  one 
simi)lv  '  chest '  and  the  other  ■  the  ])eople's  house  '  " 
(Shab.  32rt). 

'Am  ha-Arez  meaning  literally  "  the  people  of 
the  land  "or  "the  rural  population."  this  appella- 
tion, like  pagan  from  "pagus"  or  heathen  from 
"heath"  in  the  early  Christian  centuries,  came  to 
denote  the  country  people  inaccessible  to,  or  un- 


touched by,  the  inlluenee  of  the  teachings  offered 
by  the  religious  community — in  a  word,  by  the 
Synagogue. 

The   history  of   the  term  'Am  ha  Are?  leads  us 

back  to  the  beginning  of  the  second  eoinmonwealth. 

or  rather  to  the  lime  of  the  exile,  when  "none  re- 

niaimil,   save  the  poorest  sort  of  the 

Historical    iieople  of  the  land"  (II  Kings,  xxiv. 

Origin.  14):  these  had  mingled  with  the  rest  of 
the  surrounding  l)eo])le  and  lost  their 
specific  characti'ras  Jews,  Then  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
made  "separations  from  the  i>eoi)les  of  the  lands 
I'amme-ha-arazot]  the  condition  of  admission  to  the 
congregation  (Ezra.  ix.  1;  Nell.  x.  31).  Henceforth 
separation  from  the  lawless  multitude  became  the 
watchword,  and  the  result  was  the  formation  of  the 
parly  of  the  Separatists  ("Hasidim"=  the  pious; 
like  the  -Vraniaan  "  I'erushini  "  =  those  that  se|)ai'ate 
themselves  from  all  impurity).  United  in  as.soeia- 
tions  (liaberim)  in  every  town  for  common  worship 
and  common  meals,  as  well  as  forcomnuinal  works 
of  charity,  the  faithful  observers  of  the  law  (Phari- 
.sees)  shunned  any  contact  with  an  '.Viii  ha-.Vrez.  any 
one  of  "till'  vulgar  crowd."  as  (letililli.^  because  such 
a  one  failed  to  oljserve  conseieiiliously  the  l.evitieal 
laws  of  purity,  or  to  give  the  portions  of  his  prod- 
uce due  to  the  priest  and  the  Levite.  Moreover,  he 
was  regarded  as  a  transgressor  of  the  law,  sinc<'  he 
neglected  to  fullil  all  those  duties  which  the  religious 
practise  of  the  synagogue  had  in  the  eoursi'  of  time 
introduced  as  meansof  thesiuictitication  of  lil'e.  The 
very  touch  of  his  garment  was  detiling  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Pharisaic  brotlierliond  (Hag.  ii.  7).  nor  was 
he  trusted  in  matters  of  Levitieal  i>urity  or  of  tithes 
even  as  a  witness  in  court  (I)em.  ii.  '2  et  mij..  Pes. 
494).  As  a  matter  of  course,  no  marriage  relations 
with  him  were  entered  into  by  the  Phari.sees. 

Such  exclusiveness  naturally  tended  to  intensify 
the  hatred  between  the  massesand  the  Pharisees,  and 
bitterexpressions  were  used  on  both  sideswhicli  <  an 
scarcely  be  taken  literally.  "When  I  wasoneof  the 
uneducated,  I  used  to  say,  '  Give  me  one  of  the  learned 
seniles  that  I  may  bite  him  like  an  ass, '"said  R. 
Akiba.  R.  Eliezer  says,  if  they  were  subject  to  the 
'Am  lia-Arcz.  they  could  not  be  sure  of  their  lives. 
Accordingly  it  is  declared  that  an  '.\m  ha-Are?  is  so 
dangerous  a  man  that  he  may  be  killed 
Antipathy  ontlie"Saliballiof  Sabbaths";  orsays 
of  the  amillier.  "torn  like  a  tish"(Pes.  4!W). 
Pharisees.  Such  ex])ressions  have  been  taken 
perhaps  too  seriously  by  Montetiore 
("  Hibbert  Lectures, "  1892,  p.  499) ;  on  the  ot her  hand, 
Lazarus("Ethicsof  Judaism,"  i.  ajipendix,  note48((, 
J).  2.W.  English  translation)  goes  too  far  in  the  other 
direction,  taking  them  as  mere  jests.  That  a  hostile 
feeling  ]irevailid.  is  shown  by  the  expression  in 
John.  vii.  49:  "this  people  who  knoweth  not  tlw 
law  are  cursed."  Even  more  animosity  is  shown  in 
the  lialakic  dictum  of  Joshua  ben  Levi  in  the  name 
of  Antigonus:  "The  claim  of  the  haber  upon  the 
charity-treasury  to  provide  his  wife  with  raiment  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  'Am  ha-Arez  for  the  support 
of  his  life"  (Ver.  Hor.  iii.  48";  compare  also  B.  B.  8^). 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  this  contemptu- 
ous and  hostile  attitude  of  the  Pharisaic  schools 
toward  the  masses  that  was  the  chief  cause  of  the 
triumphant  power  of  the  Christian  church.  In 
preaching  the  good  tidings  to  the  poor  and  the  out- 
cast, Jesus  of  Nazareth  won  the  great  masses  of 
.Tudea.  The  Pharis;iic  schools,  laying  all  stress  on 
the  Law  and  on  learning,  held  the  'Am  ha-Arez  in 
utter  contempt.  The  new  Christian  sect  recruited 
itself  chietly  from  the  ranks  of  the  untaught,  laying 
special  stress  on  the  merits  of  the  simple  and  the 


485 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aman 
Aiuarkol 


liumble.  As  Mrmtcfiore  well  says:  "The  'Am  ha- 
Arcz  was  prububly  the  creation  of  the  burtlensome 
ai^ninaii  and  purity  la«s. "  Si  ill  it  is  liardly  corrcrt 
to  siy  that  "aftfr  the  (Icstructioii  of  the  Ti-iiijiU'  the 
'Am  ha-ArfZ  .slowly  disappeared."  Nor  is  it  more 
Iliaii  mere  eoiijeeture  of  llaniburgc'r  that  during  the 
war  of  IJarKokba  the  'Am  ha-Are/,  furnished  the 
informers  and  traitors.  I{.  Judah  at  the  elose  of 
the  second  century  still  points  to  the  gulf  sejiarating 
the  'Am  ha-Arcz  from  the  learned.  an<i  Judah  ha- 
Nasi  refuses  him  a  share  of  the  conunvmal  charity, 
probably  because  his  disci]iles  reiiuireil  it  all  for 
their  own  support  (15.  15.  Mk).  Now  and  then  hatred 
gives  way  to  love,  as  in  the  following:  "A  man 
should  not  say.  'Love  the  pupils  of  the  wise  but 
hate  the  'Am  iia-Arez  ';  but  one  should  love  all  and 
hate  only  the  lieretics.  the  apostates,  and  informers, 
following  David,  who  says:  'Those  that  hate  Thee, 
< )  Lord.'l  hate  '  "  (Ps.  e.xxxix.  21 ;  Ah,  K.  N.  ed. 
Seheehtcr,  x  vi.  04).  Again,  "  he  who  teaches  the  son 
of  an  'Am  ha-Arez  the  Law,  for  him  the  Lord  will 
annul  every  misfortune  decreed  upon  him''  (15.  M. 
85(0. 

Bliii.ioiiRAPIIV  :  Geicer,  Vrxchrift,  p.  1'>1  :  H!inil>nrir(T.  R.  B. 
TAi.H-Mi;  Rosentlial,  Virr  Aporrnjihi^cfn-  liUrlh  r  awi  ilcr 
Zeit  unit  .S'(/m((  H.  Akilia'x.  I.-W."!.  pp.  :i'i  :.1i;  liucher.  Afi. 
Tun.y  Index  'Am  ha-Arezi  Montell'.'re,  llil'i'trt  X.cttarf.'', 
1892,  pp.  4ir7-o02;  Scbarer,  Gesch.,  3d  eil.,  li.  400. 

K. 

AMARIAH:  1.  The  great  grandfather  of  the 
prophi  1  Zcpliuniah  (Zepli.  i.)  2.  The  son  of  Aza- 
riah.  who  was  high  priestin  Solomon's  temple  (I 
Chron.  v.  37).  According  to  Ezra.  vii.  3.  he  was  an 
ancestor  of  his.  In  I  Es(l.  viii.  'J,  and  II  Esd.  1.  2,  he 
is  called  Aniarias.  3.  The  great -great -grandfather 
of  Azariah  (I  Chron,  vi.  7,  5'.3).  4.  Oneof  the  signa- 
tories to  the  covenant  under  Nehcmiah  (Neh.  x.  3). 
5.  A  Judahile  ancestor  of  Athaiah  living  in  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  lime  of  Xehemiah(Xeh.  xi.  4).  6.  A  priest 
who  returned  from  the  capli\ity  with  Zerubbabel 
(N<'h.  xii.  '.i,  13).  7.  A  son  of  Hebron  and  grandson 
of  Kohath  the  Levite  (I  Chron.  xxiii.  1!»,  xxiv.  '23). 

8.  A  prii'st  who  was  put  in  charge  of  religicnis  af- 
fairs in  .ludah  by  .Tehoshaphat  (II   Chron.  xix.  11). 

9.  A  Levite  appointed  by  Hezckiah  as  a.ssistant  to 
Kore,  who  was  stationefl  at  the  east  gate  of  the 
Temple,  and  had  charge  of  the  free-will  otferings  to 
(did  (H  Chron.  xxxi.  1")).  10.  A  man  of  the  .sons  of 
Hani  who  had  taken  a  foreign  wife  (ICzra,  x.  4'2). 

<l   li.    L. 

AMARILLO,  AARON  BEN  SOLOMON:  Tal- 
niudie  author  of  the  eighteenth  centuiv.  He  was  a 
descendant  of  the  Amarillos,  a  family  of  scholars  that 
gave  several  great  rabbis  to  Turkey.  Like  his  father, 
Solomon,  and  brother,  Moses,  both  authors  of  several 
ralibitne:d  works,  he  was  active asa  writer,  and  ))ul)- 
lished  in  IT'.Hi  Ids  collection  of  rcs]i(ins;i  under  the 
title  "  I'ene  .\haron."  It  is  arranged  after  the  order 
of  the  "Tnr,"  and  throws  light  on  nianv  subjects  in 
the  Held  of  Jewish  lore.     (Sec  Zedner,"" Cat.   Hcbr. 

Hooks    11, i!       \|us    ■•  .V   ,•    I  L.    G. 

AMABILLO,  ABRAHAM:  K.ilibi  at  Salonica 
about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  His 
sermons  on  the  Pentateuch  were  pnblisheil  under  the 
title.  "  Sefer  Merit  .\braham  "  (The  Covenant  of  .\bra- 
liam).  Salonica,  IMO'i  (see  Zedner,  "  Cat.  Helir.  Hooks 
Hrit,  Mus  "  ,■..'■.  I.  W,    M, 

AMARILLO  (gAYYIM),  MOSES  BEN 
SOLOMON:  liabbi  at  Salonica  during  the  tirst  half 
ot  III.  I  i;.'liteenth  century.  He  eililed,  and  often 
annolaled.  the  works  of  his  father.  Solomon  .\m.\- 
iMi.i  i>.  and  is  thi'uutliorof  a  collection  of  novella'  on 
legal  (|ncstions  treated  of  by  .Maimonides.    To  this 


are  added  two  separate  collections  of  opinions  and 
comments  on  criminal  law,  the  first  dealing  with  the 
Jiayment  of  indenmitics,  the  second  with  the  laws 
concerning  the  sale,  loss,  and  robbery  of  pro])erty. 
The  thri-e  paits  aiijieared  together,  under  the  title 
"Halakah  le-Mosheh  "  (The  Decision  of  Aloses),  Sa- 
lonica, 17.")().  To  a  collection  of  his  rcsponsa  whi<-h  he 
had  previouslv  |)ul)lished  he  gave  the  title,  "Debar 
Jlosheh  "  (The  Word  of  JIoscs),  Salonica,  :74'2-")0. 

IlMii.KKiiuPMV:  Beiijacol).  Oznr  hii-Scfarim.  pp.  102,  1;JS; 
Kih-sl.  ItihI.Jud.i.H;  Wieaiir,  Bibtiothcca  Fricdlamiiana, 

No.  a  W),  p.  sii. 

W.  M. 

AMARILLO,    SAMtTEL :    Collector  of  royal 

laxesat  Tudela,  Navarre,  from  13H0tol391,  particu- 
larly of  the  duties  iiaid  by  the  Jews  and  the  Moors  of 
the  town  on  real  estate  sold  to  Christians.  At  the 
court  of  Navarre  he  superintended  the  purchasing 
of  clothing,  spices,  horses,  etc. 

inHi.ioiiiiAiMiv  :  Jacobs,  Sfnirces,  No.  14.59. 

51.  K. 

AMARILLO,    SOLOMON    BEN    JOSEPH: 

Rabbi  at  .Salonica.  wijn  died  in  I7'.i'2.  Auiarillo  was 
the  father-in-law  of  Solomon  Abdallah  and  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  the  learned  rabbi  Jose|)h  Cobo.  Ama- 
rillo  wrote  a  number  of  works,  all  of  which  were  pub- 
lished during  his  lifetime  by  his  son  Jloses.  The 
latter  tirst  collected  his  father's  sermons,  ethical  and 
theological  in  ch:iracter,  under  the  title,  "  Pene  Shelo- 
nioh  "  (The  Face  of  Solomon),  Salonica.  1717.  Next 
he  edited,  with  numerous  annotations  and  a  preface, 
Amarillo's  rcsponsa,  nearly  all  of  them  critical  discus- 
sions on  parts  of  the  "Shulhan 'Andv."  The  work 
was  called  "  Kereni  Shclonioh  "  (The  Vineyard  of  Solo- 
mon), and  was  published  at  Salonica  in  1710.  The 
"  Shulhan  'Aruk "  seems  to  have  been  Amarillo's 
favorite  theme  of  discussion:  for  in  X'i'i'i  there  ap- 
IK'ared  another  volume,  similar  to  the  "  Iverein  Slielo- 
moh  "  anil  intended  as  a  sequel  to  it,  "'Olelot  ha- 
Kercm  "  {Gleanings  in  the  Vineyard).  This  also  was 
edited  and  iiublished  at  Salonica  by  Moses,  together 
with  the  analogous  work  by  Ilayyim  Shabbethai, 
"Torat  llayyini  "  (Law  of  Life). 

Buu.ioiiiiAiMlv  :  Steinsrhnelder.  Cat.  Bi'dl.  cols.  SB,  228.'! ;  Ben- 
laeoli.  n^tir  ha-Si\fttrini.  pp.  :^4",  4:(i.  4.S7;  Azulal.  Shem 
litt-Utii'tUm,  I.  liU,'il.  UiW>;  tYttnco,  Hiittoirc  dot  Jui/h  da}is 
I'Emiiirr  (Mtimmii.  p.  VM. 

W.  M. 

AMARKOL  (^aiDX:  from  the  Persian.  nHi(/;'/'('r; 
.Vrniciiiaii.  //.(//(((/■((/(/;■  =  master  of  linance):  A  title 
applied  to"  a  Temple  trustee  superintending  the  cash- 
iers" (Jastrow,  "Diet.":  see  Shek.  v.  2).  Whili^  the 
three — or,  according  to  Raraita,  Tamiil,  '2~ii.  thirteen 
— cashiers  (r/iz/uin'm)  handled  all  the  money  that 
flowed  into  the  Temple  treasury,  "the  iiiiiinknlim, 
seven  in  numlier,  luld  the  seven  ki'ys  to  the  seven 
gates  of  the  Temple  hall  ynzdrali],  noneopcning  his 
gate  before  all  the  others  had  a.ssembled  "  (Tosef., 
Shek.  ii.  \ii.  and  Ycr.  ib.  v.  49(#).  Above  the  seven 
ainarkolim  wen^  two  eatholici.  and  these  again  were 
under  the  supervision  of  the  high  iiricst  (Ver.  Shelj. 
V.  l.r.). 

Abba  Saul  \wn  Hatnit,  in  his  bitter  attack  against 
the  priestly  house  of  Ishmael  ben  Phabi,  says:  "They 
themselves  arc  high  [iriesls.  and  their  sons  gi/.barim, 
and  their  sonsin  law  ainarkolim  "  (Tos,  Men.  xiii. 
'i\.  Pes.  .'>7</).  In  Targ.  Yer.  to  Num.  iii.  3'2,  and 
Num.  P.  iii..  Elcazar,  the  son  of  Aaron,  "the  chief 
over  the  chiefs  of  thi'  Levitcs,"  is  given  thi'  title  of 
.'Vmarkol.  Eliakim,  th<>  son  of  Ililkiah,  as  keeper  of 
the  kevs  of  the  Tiiupli'  is  also  calhd  .Vmarkol.  in 
Targ.  Isji.  xxii.  '23,  and  .leniuiah  ben  Ililkiah  is  rep- 
resented as  a  descendant  t>f  the  anairkolim,  who  had 


Amasa 
Amber 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


486 


!=: 


Iluir  inlicritancc  in  Aimtliolli  (Tiirg.  Yer.  i.  1).  lu 
luUlitiou  nvi'  i"  Ziuli.  xi.  13  (A.  \.,  the  potti-r)  is 
transliitcd  in  Targ.,  Anmrkol  =  treasurtT.  BUcbler 
lias  sliown  (ajraiust  SiliCircT,  "Gosch.,"  1st  cd.,  ii. 
■,'lli)  by  rc'fiTrinjr  to  .Inscplms,  "('Dntia  Ap."  ii.  8. 
thai  certain  Tt'inpli'  dlticcrs  handi'il  tlic  keys  i)f  the 
Ti-niplc  to  tlicir  succfssois  eacli  day,  as  a  symbol  of 
tlicir  cliargf — and  tlii'si- were  none  others  than  the 
aniarkoliin;  wlio  were,  however,  laymen  and  not 
priests.  And  it  was  in  view  of  this  that  the  title  of 
Aniarkol  was  applied  to  them. 

In  Targ.  Yer.  to  Num.  i.  6  ei  scq..  iii.  1!2;  II  King.s, 
xxii.  4:  II  Chron.  xx.xi.  13:  Isa.  xxii.  23,  the  title  of 
Aniarkol  is.  however,  applied  to  nixiim  (princes),  to 
pekkliiii  (overseers),  and  to  nltinnere  lia-mif  (t)w  door- 
keepers), in  accordance  with  Yer.  Shek.  v.,  Num.  H. 
iii..  Lev.  K.  V. 

The  etymology  given  in  Tosef.,  Shek.  ii.  15,  mnr 
k<il  ("master  over  all"),  has  no  more  value  than 
the  cue  given  in  Hor.  13r/,  amiir  kiilhi  ("  he  who 
has  everything  to  say"):  wherefore  the  derivation 
from  cat/wliriis  (Levy,  "Xeuliebr.  Wijrterb. "  under 
OIDX;  sec  Gciger.  "Urschrift."  p.  llC)  must  be 
rejected. 

BiBLiooRAPHY  :  S<'harer,  Gench.  M  ed.,  ii.  27(1  ct  nrq.  The  llrst 
who  calleil  attention  to  the  t'crslnn  lor  Armenian)  etymology 
of  the  word  wius  Levy,  in  (teiffer's/^<'i7.sc/i.lH*>7,  pp.  315-21S,who 
referred  lo  Prud'liuitmie  in  Jnnnui}  ^l.^iiitiiiue,  1866,  p.  11.'). 
Then  folioweii  I'ciles'  Ktifini>ltnii.-<c}tr  Stinlk-n,  1H71 :  Noei- 
duke,  in  (Joettiiiiiir  Gihhrli-  Aiiziiiifit.  1S71;  and  Lagarde, 
Armcnisctn'  .s7ie//rN.IsT7,  No.  1316;  Semitica,  i.  4.1:  see  also 
Kohnt,  Arurli.  1. 1-".! ;  Ittv.  El.  Juivcu.  xvi.  VMi ;  liiicliler.  Die 
Priefler  umi  tkr  ('«/(».<,  p.  W ;  Jew.  Qxiart.  Rev.  vili.  67:). 

K. 

AMASA.— Biblical  Data:  1.  According  to  II 
Sam.  -wii.  ',;■'>,  llie  son  of  Ithi-a.  an  Israelite:  I  Clu-on. 
ii.  17  calls  his  father  Jether,  the  Ishmaelite.  He  was 
a  nephew  of  David  and  cousin  of  Ab.salom,  who  made 
him  chief  of  the  ai'iiiy  that  rose  against  David  (II 
Sam.  xvii.  2.5).  After  the  dcatli  of  Absalom  ami  the 
defeat  of  his  army,  David  purposed  making  Amasa 
geueral-in-chief  of  his  forces  (II  Sam.  xix.  14).  To 
him  was  entrusted  the  su])i>i-ession  of  the  uprising 
under  Slieba,  the  son  of  ]5icliri  (II  Sam.  xx.),  liut 
Joab  murdered  Amasa  and  took  his  place  as  leader 
f>f  the  host.  For  this  tieacliery  Joab  was  subse- 
(piently  piit  to  death  (I  Kings,  ii.  5,  32).  2.  Son  of 
Ilaiilai.  of  the  Bene  Epbraim.  who,  obeying  the 
wonls  of  the  pi'ophet  Obed,  refused  to  receive  as 
captives  the  .Tudeuns  who  had  been  taken  from 
Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  bv  tlie  victorious  Israelites 
under  Pekah  (II  Chron.  xxviii.  12).  G.  B.  L. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature :    The  Jerusalem 

Talmud  relates  (Sanh.  x.  29r()  that  when  Amasa  and 
Abiier,  Saul's  guards,  refused  to  be  jjarlicipants  in 
the  murder  of  the  priests  (I  Sam.  xxii.  1"),  Ama.su 
lioldly  said  to  the  king:  "Can you  lay  claim  to  any- 
thing moi'c  than  our  belts  and  mantles  (our  marks 
of  distinction)?  Here  they  lie  at  your  feet !  "  This 
did  not  offend  Saul:  and  Amasa  remained  near  him 
during  his  entire  reign,  accompanying  him  when  he 
went  to  the  witch  of  En-dor  (Tan.,  ed.  Buber,  Emor, 
4.  and  the  parallel  pa.ssages  ciuoted  there).  It  was 
quite  natural,  therefoie.  that  David  should  appoint 
as  commander-in-chief,  in  place  of  Joab,  one  already 
tested  by  Saul.  Amasa  di<l  not.  however,  possess 
the  martial  spirit  of  Joab:  and  when  he  was  sent  to 
gather  an  army,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  Torah.  God's  law  seemed  more  important  to 
him  than  the  will  of  the  king.  It  was,  therefore, 
wrong  on  the  part  of  Joab  to  execute  Amasa  for 
transgressing  the  king's  orders  (Sanh.  49(0- 

L.  G. 


AMASAI:  1.  Son  of  Elkanah,  a  Levite  of  the 
Kohuihile  liimily  (I  Chron.  vi.  10,  20;  II  Chron. 
xxix.  12).  2.  Chief  of  the  captains  who  met  David 
at  Ziklag  and  offered  their  services  to  him.  It  is 
possible  that  he  is  identical  with  Am.\s.\  (I  Chron. 
xii.  19).  3.  One  of  the  priests  who  blew  trumpets 
when  David  brouirht  back  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant 
(I  Chron.  xv.  24).'^  G.  B.  L. 

AMASHAI  (H.  v.,  Amashsai) :  A  i)riest  who 
dwell  al  .Iciusalem  (Nell.  .\i.   i:!).  G.    B.    L. 

AMASIA,  AMASIEH,  or  AMASIYAH : 
Cily  in  .Vsiii  Minor,  on  tlie  Veshil-Irniak  (tb<'  ancient 
Iris).  The  poiiululinn  in  19(10  was  23,0110.  The  city  is 
now  of  little'  iiniiorlance:  but,  to  judge  fiom  the  num- 
ber of  .Spanish  fugitives  that  sought  shelter  there, 
it  must  have  been  piosperous  during  the  sixteenth 
century. 

A  tragedy  of  interest  to  Judaism  occurred  in  the 
sixteenth  century  within  its  ])recincts.  A  Christian 
had  entered  the  house  of  a  Jew  and  had  not  come 
out  again.  A  number  of  Jews  were  susjiected,  and. 
under  torture,  confessed  to  his  murdcT  luid  were 
hanged.  Anumg  them  was  the  learned  K.  Jacob 
ben  Jo.scph  Abiub.  A  few  days  later  the  Christian 
returned  to  the  city:  whereupon  Sultan  Solyman 
the  Magnificent  ordered  thiit  the  per|)etrators  of  the 
conspiiacy  receive  summary  punishment.  ]{.  Moses 
Hanioii  ajijieared  before  the  court  and  obtained  an 
order  thai  in  future  any  accusations  of  ritual  niui'der 
should  be  tried  before  the  "I'oyal  tribunal"  and  not 
before  an  oi'dinaiy  judge.  This  is  the  sicconnt  given 
by  Joseph  ben  Solomon  ibn  Verga:  and  it  is  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  that  given  by  Joseph  ha- Kohen 
in  his  "  'Emekha-Baka,"  though  the  name  of  the  place 
is  not  nieniioned.  and  .loseph  Abiub  is  ilie  one  who 
is  said  to  have  met  his  death.  Gedaliali  ibn  Yahya 
gives  the  date  of  this  false  accusation  as  1.53U.  Joseph 
ha-lCohen,  howcvei-,  gives  l.')4.5;  and  he  is  followed 
by  Zunz  and  Graetz. 

Biiu.iooRAPItv:  Solomon  lien  Verga,  Shchet  Yehvitah,  ed. 
Wiener,  p.  Ill,  German  transl.  p.  227 :  Joseph  ha-Kohen, 
'Emck  hn-liaka,  ed.  Letterls.  p.  122,  Cracow,  ISfti,  M.  Wie- 
ner's transl.  p.  8.5,  and  note  p.  207 :  Zunz,  S.  /'.  p.  58. 

I.  Bn. 

AMATHTIS  (till'  miidern  'Amateh) :  A  fortress 
near  the  Jordan,  noi-th  of  the  river  Jabbok  and  21 
miles  south  of  Pellii.  At  the  beginning  of  the  tirst 
century  li.c,  Amathus  was  an  important  foitrcss 
held  by  the  despot  Tlieodonis.  About  the  year  98, 
Alexander  Janna'Us  caplui'ed  butcouM  not  I'etain  it, 
and  therefoie,  a  few  years  later,  ra/.ed  it.  Amathus 
became  the  capital  of  one  of  the  five  districts  into 
which  the  proconsul  (Tabinius  divided  Palestine  in  the 
year  57  n.c.  According  to  the  Talnuid  (Yer.  Sheb. 
ix.  38(?)  Amathus,  inOV  (probably  only  a  jihonetic 
modification  of  inon.  whence  the  modern  'Amateh) 
is  identical  with  the  Biblical  Zaphon  (Josh.  xiii.  27: 
Judges,  xii.  1,  Ilr/j.),  but  the  correctness  of  this  iden- 
tilicalion,  in  view  of  the  Asaphon  mentioned  by 
Josephus,  is  not  beyond  doubt.  Amathus  is  called 
by  the  latter  a  son  of  Canaan  (Josephus,  "Ant."  i. 
6.  g  2).  Another  form  (found  in  Yer.  M.  K.  iii.  .S2ff)  is 
tnoy,  which  suggests  an  original  form,  pnOJ?.  unless 
the  I  is  simply  an  error  for  y  It  is  nowa(iays  called 
Tell-'Amateh. 

Bini.ioGRAi'MV;  Bulil,  C.'i"r;ivi(</nV  il.  Allrti  Palestitia,  pp.  Sfi. 
i')!':  Nt-ntuMiiT.  (r.  T.  p.24H;  Hil'li-.iheiiniT.  licitrflfie zur Geftii- 
ropliie  I'(iliMina'.\  p.  4S,  ni.te  ;i.v,-  Sehurer,  Ocsc/i.  1.  221, 
224,  27.1,  ii.  .W. 

L.  G. 

AMATO  (HABIB)  LTJSITANO  :  Physician. 
See  Jr.\N  Kodrioo  de  C.vstel-Bkanco. 


487 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amaea 
Amber 


AMATTJNI  :  Members  of  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful ol  the  olil  Aniieuiiui  thins,  whose  liiil)itation 
was  along  tlie  slopes  of  Mount  Anirat.  Their  vil- 
laircs  an<l  castles — of  which  ruins  are  still  visihle — 
faced  Mount  Aranit  across  the  plain.  They  con- 
trolled the  district  helween  Erivan  and  tiuniri — 
the  modern  Ale.xandropol.  Closes  of  t'horeue  (fifth 
centurv)  rehites  (see  liibliography)  that  the  clan 
was  of  Jewish  origin  and  came  from  the  eastern 
borders  of  the  country  of  the  Aryans,  i.e.,  Persia; 
and  that  they  ilesecniled  from  an  eponymous  hero 
named  .Manue,  after  whom  the  Persians  in  his  ihiy 
still  called  them  Manueans.  He  adds  that  Arsaces, 
the  tirsi  i>f  the  I'ailhian  kings,  brought  them  into 
Armenia,  ami  Ihal  they  were  in  his  day  a  powerful 
clan  in  the  region  of  Ahmatan.  The  Armenian  king 
Artashes — the  mythical  contemporary  of  Domilian. 
Trajan,  and  Hadrian — gave  them  villages.  Accord- 
ingto  tliesiime  source.  Awfiliiiii incimliiitrt'nw,  "new 
settlers."  or,  eciually,  "  proselytes  "  ;  and  it  is  perhaps 
the  Persian  word  itinut. 

The  Amatuni  were  probably  a  Judaized  clan. 
They  are  nienlioned  in  the  tifth  century  by  Aga- 
thangelos  and  Lazar  of  Pharp,  and  they  furnished 
leading  captains,  counselors,  and  ecclesiastics  to 
Armenia  until  the  beginning  of  the  crusiiding  epoch. 
There  is  nothing  imi>robable  in  the  tradition  pre- 
served by  Moses  of  Chorene,  since  all  the  towns  in 
Armenia  and  Caucasian  Iberia  were,  according  to 
chroniclers  of  the  tifth  century,  full  of  Jews.     See 

ahso  H.VOK.VTUNI. 

BinLiOGRAPnY:  Moses  of  Ctiorene,  JJIMnry  of  Armenia,  [i. 
m,  8.5,  111.  a,  .51,  05;  I.  Berkbln.  Iz  Diinw  Mi7iuvsliavo,  Uml 
AmatunU  In  VmkUnd,  188.3,  Nos.  11.  li'. 

F.  C.   C. 

AMAZIAH.— Biblical  Data:  1.  Priestat  Beth  el 
in  the  irign  nf  Jeroljoam  II.  When  the  prophet 
Amos  came  to  Beth -el.  and  there  prophesied  I  he  death 
of  Jerobdam  and  the  caiitivity  of  Israel.  Amaziah 
tried  toe.xpel  him  from  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (Amos, 
vii.  1(»,  12.  14).  2.  A  Simeonite  (I  Chron.  iv.  34). 
3.  A  Levite  of  the  familv  of  Merari  and  ancestor  of 
Ethan  (I  Chron.  vi.  30).  "  G.  15.  L. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:  According  to  H. 

Jleir.  the  priest  Amaziah  is  iilentical  with  the  false 
prophet  mentioned  in  I  Kings,  -xiii.  \l  it  net/.  (Yer. 
Sanli.  .\i.  ;!i)/<  and  Cant.  U.  ii.  5).     See  Jos.\th.\x. 

8oN  OK  (il.llslloM.  L,    G. 

AMAZIAH,  KING  OF  JTJDAH.— Biblical 
Data:  Son  of  Joash  an<l  father  of  Azariah  (II 
Kings,  XV.  1);  came  to  the  throne  about  Tit'i  u.c.  As 
soon  as  his  kingdom  was  established  he  slew  the  mur- 
derers of  his  fallierdl  Kings.  .\iv.  .'>),  but  contrary  to 
custom  pirmilled  Ihiir  children  to  live.  Very  early 
in  his  reiL'n  he  lil  led  out  an  army  to  reeon(iuer  Kdom. 
which  had  rebelled  during  the  reign  of  Jehoram  (II 
Kings,  viii.  2(>-2'J),  his  great-grandfather.  Amaziah 
achieved  a  great  victory  over  the  Edoniites.  and  slew 
10,0(10  (the  ehronicler,"  II  Chron.  x.w.  11,  12,  sjiys 
20,0(10)  of  them.  He  carried  homo  and  set  up  liic 
gndsof  SeirdI  Chron,  .\.\v.  14)  as  objects  of  worship 
His  brilliant  victory  over  I'Mom  inllaled  his  pride,  and 
he  challenged  toacombal  Jehoash,  gnmdsonof  Jehu, 
king  of  Israel  (II  Kings,  xiv.  H-14).  The  hitter's 
disdain  and  scorn  for  .\maziali  are  emluxliiil  in  the 
slinging  i)anible  of  the  thistle  an<t  the  cedar  (II 
Kings.  .\iv.  U).  In  his  resentment.  Amaziah  rusheil 
into  a  disastrous  ballleat  Heth  shemesh.  and  a  humil 
iiiting  defeat  overtook  his  army  and  the  land.  The 
king  was  captured,  4110  cubits  of  the  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem broken  down,  the  city.  Temple,  and  palace  were 
looted,  and  hostages  carried  to  Samaria.     It  is  not 


known  how  long  Amaziah  survived  these  disasters, 
but  the  reconstructed  chronology  of  the  kings  of  Ju- 
dah  would  reduce  his  twenty-nine  years'  reign  to 
fourteen  or  lifleen  years.  He,  like  hisfather(II  Kings, 
xiv.  I'J,  20,  xii.  2o'  21),  was  the  victim  of  a.ssassins, 
!i|>parentl3'  bent  upon  putting  out  of  the  way  one 
who  had  brought  upon  the  land  such  dire  disasters. 

I.  M.  P. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature :    Moses  ibn  Ha- 

bil),  in  his  work,  "Darke  Noam"(ed.  Rodelheim, 
ISOG.  p.  ah),  gives  an  alleged  epitaph  of  Amaziah's 
general,  found  in  Morviedro,  Valencia.  It  is  as  fol- 
lows: n'  mpb  ^n:  -\\:-b  mn^ipa  nrp  ixcc'Haisc 

your  voice  in  bilter  lament,  for  the  great  chief  whom 
God  hath  taken");  then  follows  something  illegible; 

and  at  the  end.  ITSOnS  ("'to  Amaziah").  The  epi- 
taph, probalily  authentic,  and  belonging  to  some 
one  of  the  name  of  Amaziah.  gave  ri.se  to  the  belief 
that  it  referred  to  the  "great  chief"  Amaziah. 

L.  G. 

AMBER  :   The  Hebrew  word  hnafunn!.  rendered 
"aniljir  "  by  the  A.  V.,  occurs  only  in  Ezekiel  (three 


Spet^lniens  of  Aiiii»-i  in  lui-  Minomloclcal  Museum  of  ttie  Jardln 
(les  I*lnnl<^,  Paris :  exUlbltlnff  Files,  Spiders,  and  Beellea  em- 
bedded. 

times).  Its  meaning  has  puzzled  commentators  from 
Talmudic  times  to  the  present  day.  Hag.  W>  gives 
I  lie  mianiiig  as  if  it  were  a  composite  word,  "beasts 
Ihal  ullcr  lire."  The  Septuagint  does  not  throwauy 
light  upon  the  subject,  as  its  rendering,  "elektron," 
is  an  ambiguous  word,  and  may  mean  Amber  or  au 
alloy  of  silver  and  .gohl.  Friedrich  Delilzsch  (in 
his  notes  to  Haer  and  Delitzseh,  text  of  Ezek.  xii.) 
identilics  "hashmal"  with  the  As,syrian  "eslimaru." 
which  was  a  shining  metallic  alloy.  The  .\ssyrian 
homeof  this  compound  would  explain  whv  the  word 
is  peculiar  to  Kzekiel.  If  "Amber"  is  tlie  correct 
renilering  of  Ezek.  i.  4.  27.  viii.  2.  it  refers  to  a 
bituminous  substance  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  in  two  different  varieties:  in  the  Baltic  dis- 
trict it  is  of  a  yellow  color,  while  in  the  .south  of 
Europe  it  is  red.  Neither  variety,  however,  tils  the 
re(|uirenients  of  the  ])a.ssages  in  Ezekiel,  where  some- 
thing metallic  and  shining  is  intended. 

G.  B.  L. 


Ambergr 
Ambrose 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


488 


AMBERG  :  A  town  in  the  district  of  the  Upper 
I'iUutiiiiiti-  ami  Hejrcuslnirjr  (Hiilisboii),  Hiivarisi;  iii- 
hahitcil  liy  Jews  from  tlie  tliirteeiith  century,  lu  1298 
the  town  autliorities  or(iere(i  that  the  rijriits  of  tlie 
Jews  l)e  respected;  but  in  tlie  sjiine  year  Ilie  Jewish 
community  sulTered  from  persecutions  instigated  by 
tlie  h'aderiif  the  peasjints.  l{inilll<iseh.  The  Niirem- 
bersj  ■■ -Marlyrolojiriiiin  "  ^ives  the  names  of  the  fol- 
h)win'r  who  (lied  I  here  for  the  failh  ;  Kalonymiis  ben 
Slmbbelhai  and  his  wife  (iwtliii;  Jiidlin,  his  wife, 
step  daujrhler,  and  two  children;  Uanich  ben  Jeliiel 
ha-Kohen,  his  wife  Minna,  and  two  children  :  Lemliu 
ben  Harnch.  a  young  teacher;  Gerslion  ben  Solomon 
ha-Levi;  Mo.ses  ben  Israel.  In  18()4  permission  was 
friven  to  yussmann,  "  Ilochmeister  "  of  the  Jews  in 
Hegensbursr.  to  keep  a  school  in  .\nibertr:  and  in  13()(> 
the  Jews  of  that  town  obtained  the  sjime  rights  as 
their  Imlhren  in  Heidelberg.  In  VM\'.t  one  Heiidil  and 
liis  son  Noel  were  received  into  the  community  for 
three  years  without  the  payment  of  any  la.\.  The 
sjime  privik-ge  was  extended  to  the  "  Ilochmeister  " 
Hlo.sse  of  Wene  (Wien  ?),  who  also  received  p<Minission 
to  establish  a  school.  All  who  attended  his  .school 
were  to  be  amenable  only  to  Jewish  law  as  inter- 
preted by  the  "Ilochmeister."  Count  Palatine  Ru- 
pert promised  full  protection  to  all  Jews  settling  in 
Amberg.  In  1389  a  Jew  of  Amberg,  named  Ebcrl, 
sold  his  house,  which  was  situated  near  the  syna- 
gogue. In  1300  another  Jew.  Noah.  negotiatc<l 
■with  the  town  council  of  Amberg.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  Jews  w-erc  expelled  from 
Amberg.  and  their  synagogue  was  annexed  to  the 
church  of  the  town,  the  Frauenkirche.  They  re- 
moved to  the  neighboring  towns,  Sulzbach.  Sclmait- 
tach.  and  Sulzbiirg,  which,  from  that  time,  con- 
tained larger  Jewish  connnunities;  but  eventually 
the  Jews  returned  to  Amberg  in  small  numbers. 
In  19(10  there  were  9-t  members  in  the  congregation 
which  now  belongs  to  the  rabbinate  of  Sulzbiirg. 
The  building  in  which  the  synagogue  is  situated 
■was  purchased  in  1896. 

BiBLioGR.iPiiv:  Salfi'lii,  Dns  ^r<lIi||r<>li)aium  cleg Nnmherger 

Meinin-hiii)ii^.  ix'.v:.  p.  1S2 ;  l,ii\vensteln,  JBeitrilue  zur  Gcwh. 
(i.Jti<ltn  ill  I ii  nlsr)ihttiil,  ISii^,  i.  5,6;  A.Eckstein,  Gesch. 
d.  Jwit  It  tin  hitiiiltt:rth  p.  -i. 

A.  F. 

AMBRON,  AMBRAN,  ..r  EMBRON  (poy)  : 
An  Italian  family,  prominent  since  1492,  at  which 
period  they  emigrated  from  Spain  ("Rev.  £t. 
Juives,"  ix.  70,  74).  Of  this  family  the  following 
are  known  to  have  lived  in  Rome:  Shera-Tob(l.')39): 
Zcrahiah  (l.WG);  Judah  ben  Shem-Tob  (Ifv^jd);  Jacob, 
•\vho  in  1018  was  president  of  a  charitable  institu- 
tion; Gabriel  and  Barucli.  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century;  Gabriel  (1720);  Alexander 
(1737);  Hezekiah  ben  Gabriel.  The  last-named  paid 
the  printing  expenses  of  the  prayer-book  "Sha'are 
ha-Teshubah"  (Venice,  1775). 

Bibliography  :  Vogelstein  and  Rieprer,  Ge^ch.  d.  Judrtr  in 
Hnm,  li.  278 ;  Berliner,  Gesch.  d.  Juden  iti  Rom,  11.  5",  90, 
l;ir,.  191, 192. 

yi.  B. 

AMBRON,  SHABBETHAI :  A  philosophical 
■writer;  lived  in  Rome  in  the  first  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  His  life-work  was  a  book  on  the 
universe,  with  the  somewhat  ambitious  title  "Pan- 
cosmosophia. "  It  was  first  mentioned  in  the  Venice 
"  Giomale  de'  Letterati "  (1710),  and  soon  after  in  the 
Leipsic  "Neuer  Bilcher-Saal  der  Gelehrtcn  Welt." 
According  to  these  sources,  the  author  made  a  sys- 
tematic attempt  to  refute  the  astronomical  view-s  of 
Ptolemy,  Copernicus,  and  Tycho  Brahe,  and  to  .set 
up  a  cosmogony,  the  underl3ing  principle  of  which 
was  that  the  earth  was  flat.     He  attempted  to  sup- 


port his  views  by  an  appeal  to  .lewish  tradition. 
The  author  had  already  prepared  some  hundred 
copperplates  to  illustrate  his  theories,  when  the 
Roman  Inquisition  prohibited  the  printing  of  the 
work.  Anibron  sent  his  manuscripts  to  Venice,  but 
here  also  his  ellorts  were  frustnited  by  the  im])al 
nuncio,  Mottei.  On  learning  that  German  scholars 
were  interested  in  his  work,  he  sent  it  with  the  ])lales 
to  the  publisher  of  the  "Neuer  BiUher  Sa.dder  (Je- 
lehrten-Welt,"  who  promiseil  to  print  it.  The  work, 
however,  has  not  been  published,  and  all  truce  is  lost 
of  the  manuscript. 

Ambron  also  devoted  considerable  work  to  a  pro- 
jected Bibliotheca  Rabbinica,  with  the  intention  of 
correcting  Bartolocci's  errors  and  misconceptions. 
This  manuscript  shared  the  fate  of  the  foregoing. 

In  1721  he  is  known  to  have  been  a  member  of  the 
Roman  (''/iir/rir/if.  In  a  pasi|uil  written  against  Lor- 
enzo Ganganclli  (later  Pope  Clemens  XIV.) it  is  said: 
"  Denam  e  Anibrun  amo  coino  fratelli — I'lio  inglese, 
uno  ebreo,  die  fi  il  signore  "  (He  loved  Denam  and 
Ambrun  like  brothers — one  was  an  Englishman,  the 
other  a  Jew  who  played  the  rOle  of  a  lord).  Con- 
sidering the  great  difference  in  age  between  Shab- 
bcthai  .Vmbron  and  Lorenzo  Ganganclli  (became 
jiope  in  1709).  it  is  doulitfnl  if  the  Ambrun  of  the 
pasquil  is  identical  with  the  subject  of  this  notice. 

BiBLiOGR.iPIIV:  GinrnaU  de'  Letterati  d'Jtatia.  II,  ,521^'i24, 
Venice,  1T1I>;  Xi  iier  HDelier-Stud  der  Gdehrten-n'ell  ITIO, 
1712,  !7i:i,  11.  isn,  iv.  328  et  hi-ii..  xxv.  iKi,  x.\vi.  14:);  Jtmrual 
ties  Siirani!'.  November.  1712;  Wolf,  liihl.  lleltr.  I.  Htii; 
.\'epl-(;iilronill,  Tiilediit  Gednle  J'i.vrriW,  p.  :t»  ;  Fiirst,  «iW. 
Jud,  iii.  IKJ;  Benjaeob,  Oz<tr  hii-Sefarim,  p.  l.'»9;  Sloln- 
sciinekler,  Litleraturlilatt  des  ItrieiilK,  VH3.  p.  22:!;  Vopel- 
stein  and  Rleger,  Gcich.  d.  Jiulen  in  Rom,  II.  278-2S1. 

M.  B. 

AMBROSE:  Church  father  and  author;  bom 
about  340  at  Treves;  died  397  in  Milan.  This  auda- 
cious prelate — who  as  bishop  of  Milan  dared  to  say 
of  his  emperor,  "The  Emperor  is  in  the  Church,  but 
not  over  the  Church" — is  more  renowned  perhaps  for 
his  energy  and  zeal  than  for  his  learning.  His  at- 
titude toward  Jews  and  Judaism  was  uncompro- 
misingly hostile.  An  address  of  his  to  Christian 
young  people  warns  them  against  intermarriage 
with  Jews  ("De  Abrahanio."  ix.  84,  xiv.  4,")1).  But 
his  opposition  assumed  a  more  positive  and  active 

character  in  the  matter  of  the  bishop 
The  Callin-  of  Callinicuni  in  .Mesopotamia.  Itap- 
icum  Riot,    jiears  I  liat  in  3H8  a  mob,  led  by  the  locjd 

bishop  and  many  monks,  destroyed  the 
synagogue  at  Callinicuni.  The  emperor  Theodosius 
the  Great,  who  can  scarcely  be  accused  of  lack  of  re- 
ligious zeal,  was  nevertheless  just  enough  to  order 
the  reereetion  of  the  synagogue  at  the  ex|Hnse  of  the 
rioters,  including  the  bishop.  Ambrose  immediately 
issued  a  fiery  |irotest  to  the  emperor.  He  writes  to 
Theodosius "(" EpistoUc,"  xl.  xvi.  1101  el  »f;.)  that 
"  the  glory  of  God  "  is  concerned  in  this  matter,  and 
that  therefore  he  can  not  be  silent.  Shall  the  bishop 
be  com|iellcd  to  reerect  a  syna.soguc'/  Can  he  re- 
ligiously do  this  thing?  If  he  obey  the  emperor,  he 
will  become  a  traitor  to  his  faith ;  if  he  disoliey  him, 
a  martyr.  What  real  wrong  is  there,  after  all,  in 
destroying  a  synagogue,  a  "  home  of  jiertidy,  a  home 
of  impiet.v,"  in  which  Christ  is  daily  blasphemed? 
Indeed,  he  (Ambrose)  must  consider  himself  no  less 
guilty  than  this  poor  bishop;  at  least  to  the  extent 
that  he  made  no  concealment  of  his  wish  that  all 
synagogues  should  be  destroyed,  that  no  such  places 
of  blasphemy  be  further  allowed  to  exist.  He  also 
states,  in  extenuation,  that  in  the  time  of  .Julian,  the 
.Tews  destroyed  the  Christian  basilicas  in  Gaza,  Asca- 
lon,  Alexandria,  and  elsewhere.  It  is  hard  to  .say 
just  what  foundation  there  is  for  this  charge  against 


489 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amberer 
Ambrose 


tlie  Jews,  seeing  that  all  the  misfortunes  which  befell 
the  Christians  in  Julmn  the  Apostate's  rei^n  were 
laid  upon  their  shoulders.  CDUtiuuinjr  in  this  strain 
Ambrose  implored  llie  emperor  to  recall  his  edict. 
The  emperor  made  no  reply  to  this  appeal ;  but  his 
silence, instead  of  disconeerlinf:  theenerf;eticchurcli- 
nian,  simply  indu<  ed  him  to  take  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  which  a  visit  by  Theodosiiis  to  Milan  in 
the  winter  of  :!HH-S9  offered,  to  speak  upon  the  Tiiatter 
from  the  pulpit  in  the  emperor's  presence  ("  Kpist." 
xl.,  xvi.  111;)).  He  was,  however,  shrewd  enouirh 
to  appeal  to  imperial  nmu;nanimity,  and  with  the 
most  favorable  result;  for  after  the  service  Theo- 
dosius  f^rceted  the  bishop  with  the  words, "Thou  hast 
l)reache(l  apiinst  me!"  "'Not  against  thee,  but  in 
thy  behalf  1  "  was  the  prelate's  ready  reply  ;  and,  tak- 
in.i;  advantage  of  the  emperor's  passiufj  humor,  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  his  jiroraise  that  the  sentence 
should  be  completely  revoked.  In  this  maimer,  this 
altogether  discreditable  alTair  ended  in  the  victory 
of  the  Church,  with  the  very  natural  conseijuence 
that  thereafter  the  prospect  of  immiuiity  thus  af- 
forded occasioned  spoliations  of  synagogues  all  over 
the  empire.  That  Ambrose  could  nevertheless  oc- 
casionally say  a  good  word  for  the  Jews  is  shown  by 
a  pa.s.S!ige  in  his  "Enarratio  in  Psabnos"  (i.  41.  xiv. 
94:i).  in  which  be  remarks."  Some  Jews  exhibit  purity 
of  life  and  much  diligence  and  love  of  study." 

That  in  his  lileniry  activity  Ambrose  drew  ex- 
tensively upon  Philo  is  well  known:  the  fact  even 
gained  for  him  the  name  of  "Philo  Cliristianus,"  the 
Christian  Philo  (Aueher,  introduction 
Ambrose,  to  Philo,  "(Jua'Stiones  el  Solutiones"). 
the  "Chris-  He  was  the  cliamul  through  which 
tian  many  types  and  personitications  orig- 

Philo."  inating  with  the  Alex.indrian  .lewish 
philosopliy  were  eniliodied  in  both  the 
art  and  the  liteniture  of  the  Jliddle  Ages  down  to 
Dante.  So  closely  does  he  follow  Philo  that  many 
corrupt  passiigesof  the  hitler's  text  may  be  emended 
through  Ambrose's  (piotation  of  them,  and  many 
misreadings  may  in  this  way  be  corrected  (compare 
Forster,  "  Ambrosius,  Uischof  von  Mailand."  p.  180, 
and  the  Vienna  editicai  of  And)rose.  xxii.  pt,  i.  360). 
Examples  of  Ambrose's  indebtedness  to  Pbilo  are  to 
be  found  in  his  interpretation  of  the  four  rivers  of 
Paradi.se  (compare  Ambrose,  "  De  Paradiso,"  iii.  14, 
xiv.  iMO,  with  Philo,  "  Leg.  AUegr."  xix.  )as  the  four 
cardinal  virtues,  wisdom,  temperance,  courage,  and 
justice.  The  law  concerning  the  children  of  the  two 
wives  (Dent.  xxi.  1.5)  is  explained  by  Ambrose  ("  De 
Abel  et  Cain,"  i.  4,  xiv.  322)  almost  exactly  in  the 
Words  of  Philo  ("De  Abel  et  Cain,"  v.).  Philo  inter- 
prets Adam  as  signifying  "reason  ":  Eve,  "emotion." 
Aiiibros(;  has  it;  "Adam  mentem  diximus;  Evam 
sensum  esse  siguilicavimus"  ("De  Abrahamo,"  ii.  1, 
xiv.  455). 

For  a  complete  collection  of  allegorical  interpreta- 
tions dniwn  by  Ambrose  from  Philo.  see  Siegfried 
"Philo  von  Alexandria,"  pp.  3T1-H7.  This  collec- 
tion will  serve  to  show  his  in<lebtrdness  to  Philo. 
not  only  in  the  matter  of  actual  allegorical  imagery 
borrowed  from  liim  and  the  adoption  of  his  rulis  of 
inlerprilatioii.  but  also  in  the  numerous  echoes  of 
thi^  Philonic  doctrines  concerning  (iod  and  man  which 
therein  abound.  Besides  Philo,  the  IV.  Maccabees 
exerted  great  inllueiice  upon  Ambrose,  parlieidarly 
in  regard  of  his  homilelie  styli\  which  in  later  days 
was  regarded  as  miapproaehably  tine.  Freudentlial 
shows  how  he  cpioted  long  extracts  from  this  book 
in  his  sermons,  freipn^ntly.  Indeed,  wcird  for  word, 
liut  in  a<lditii>n  to  these  .\le\andrian  soureis  it  is 
not  so  geni'ially  known  that  there  are  luimerous 
traces  of  Palestinian  Jewish  intlui'iiee  upon  Amliros*-. 


Such  Palestinian  interpretations  as  that  of  the  expla- 
nation of  Jacob's  blessing  (Gen.  xlix. )  as  referring  to 

circumstances  in  the  careers  of  the  sons 

Palestinian  ("De  Henedictione  Patrum,"  ii.  8,  iii. 

Influence     2.  xiv.  076-677)  may  have  been  derived 

upon  Am-    from  hearsay.     That   he   adopts   the 

brose.        Jewish  conception   of   the  Antichrist 

as  springing  from  the  tribe  of  Dan 
("De  IJened.  Patr."  vii.  32,  xiv.  6.S4)  does  not  neces- 
Siirily  prove  his  acciuaintance  w  itli  rabbinical  lifictrine 
at  tirst  hand ;  for  at  this  period  the  Church  as  a  whole 
had  adopted  the  .lewish  conception  of  Antichrist. 
Ambrose's  remark  ("De  Fide,"  iii.  11,  88,  xvi.  007) 
that  Melchi/.edek  was  not  "an  angel,  as  the  Church 
hath  received  it  from  Jewish  nonsense,"  but  a  holy 
man,  shows  that  he  was  not  above  palming  olT  as 
Jewish  what  is  distinctly  not  so,  for  his  statement 
is  controverted  by  the  oid  Ilaggadah  which  identi- 
ties Melchi/.edek  with  Shem,  as  K|iii>banius  ("  Adv. 
Ilaer."  ii.  1.  etc.  (.see  Ginzberg.  "  Mouatsschrift." 
189!),  ]).  49.5).  But  Ambrose's  familiarity  with  Jewish 
traditions  is  evidenced  liy  such  statements  as  ("  De 
Abrahamo,"  ii.  1,  xiv.  4.5.5)  that  Abraham  means  "one 
who  crossed  over."  This  does  not  indicate,  as  has 
been  charged,  that  he  confuses  Abraham  with  Eber; 
but  thai  he  follows  the  well-known  Haggadah  (Gen. 
H.  xlii.  8)  that  Abraham  is  called  "Ibri"  (Gen.  xiv. 
13)  because  he  "came  over"  the  river  Eujilmites. 
That  he  confuses  Korah's  "children  "  with  Korah's 
"followers"  (see  Forster,  "Ambrosius,"  p.  31(1).  also 
originates  in  Palestinian  tradition;  an  old  baraita 
(Said).  1104),  conuuenting  on  Ntim.  xxvi.  ll."uol- 
withslanding  the  children  of  Korah  died  not,"  makes 
the  statement  that  in  Gehenna,  into  which  Korah's 
conspirators  descended,  "a  stronghold  was  formed 
for  tlie  children  of  Korah  where  they  seated  them- 
selves and  siuig  hymns."  Ambrose's  explanation 
that  God  brought  all  the  animals  before  Ailam.  in 
order  that  he  might  note  that  each  male  had  its 
female  ("De  Paradiso,"  i.  11,  xiv.  299),  is  the  old 
Haggadah  in  Gen.  R.  xvii.  11.  He  states  that 
Adam  exceeded  the  truth  when  he  told  Eve  not  to 
touch  the  Tree  of  Life  (I.e.  i.  12.  xiv.  303),  just 
as  is  narrated  in  "  Ab.  R.  N."  i.,  ed.  Schechter,  iv. 
When  he  sjiys  that  angels  visiting  Abraham  a.sked 
where  Sarjh  was,  in  order  to  point  out  to  him  her 
moilesty  in  avoiding  strangers  ("  De  Abrahamo,"  i. 
5,  end),  he  is  drawing  upon  Jewish  tradition  (B.  M. 
87«).  That  Ainbro.se  misiiuotes  and  misunderstands 
many  Ilaggadot  should  not  be  surprising  wlien 
Jerome — who  for  many  years  sedulously  studied  at 
the  feet  of  Jewish  rabbis — did  the  same.  Thus 
Ambrose  makes  Barak  the  ".son  "of  Deborah  ("De 
Vidius,"  i.  8.  45;  xvi.  248),  whereas  the  Midrash  de- 
clares him  to  have  been  her  "  husband  "  (Tanna  debe 
Eliyahu  H.  vii.  ;  Valk.  on  Jud.  v.  1 ;  see  also  L. 
Ginzberg,  "Haggada  bei  den  Kirchenvatern."  p.  5). 
Ambrose  as  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the  Jews  on 
the  one  hand,  and  as  a  faithful  i)upil  of  Jewish  tra- 
dition and  Jewish  teachers  on  the  other.  alTords  a 
curious  illustration  of  the  peculiar  treatment  which 
Judaism  has  encountered  at  the  hands  of  individuals 
as  well  as  nations.     See  also  IlK(iKsii-iMs. 

llini.KKiRAPMY:  First  ihIHIhii  et  .tnilmw's  wiirlis:  UiLsel  (Fm- 
Iwni,  l.'i:^.  tiy  F.nLsinu.s ;  iiartkuliirly  llie  llcnf<llrtlne  iitlilon, 
rarts,lils>(  !«i;  Venlie.lVSl  r(  nci;;  Mlinie,  /'iidrileyui  I^iiiim, 
xiv.  .wll.,  I'uris,  IM.'i;  all  qudlatlnn.s  In  tliLs  urtlile  iim 
(nun  tills  ftlllleii:  nn  iHllUon  after  Ihe  Milan  .MSS..  Iiy  llul- 
lerliil.  l.sT.V.sil,  III  II  v.ils.  .A  irlllnil  eilltlun  Is  new  In  coiirsn 
nf  iiiiltllentlon  In  Citri'ii/t  Scripttiruin  Kcch.*iiiJ*ticitnim  IaU- 
iiiiinim.  xxll.:  Hililiiilhfk  lUr  Kinhfiiriltfr,  »<-livU'<t 
werk!i  liv  Scliiille.  viils.  XV.,  x\1. ;  Xicrne  ami  I'tuil- 
\iii  iir  /•'iiOk  r", -M  »<'rle.s,  vol.  x.:  Sitmf  i>f  flic  /'nnri;«il 
U'rititiii^tof  .liii/»nw»-.tnuis.  byile  Komi'stln.  New  Yark.  IslW; 
Hiiiiimpl.  lii-mh.  iltti  Ih'Uiofn  ,lHi/*r'wlii.'*,  IS74  ;  Heh^lnJ^•^, 
hir  Kirrhr  i'hrifK.  x..  Slultjnirt,  IS,,;  Forster.  .imtiriv*- 
tun.  Uircliiif  iiin  Mallaml.  issj ;  kIktI,  (JcKh.dcr  OirietUch- 


Ambrosius 
Amen 


TUE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


480 


lateinlKClien  Lit..  vdI.  I..  Lclpslc,  !»<!•:  Sti'trfrlcd.  I'IiHd  iv.ii 

Alexaiiilria,  Jena,  1K7'> :  II .N'(ii<(i<i  .lm/iMwi<i/i(i,  1MX9; 

FreudenUial,  T>te Flui'iwi  jDscphuiihcititl'UtcScliiift:  Ufbcr 
die  Htmchaft  der  Vemwift,  pp.  3a-W,  Breslau,  1861). 

L.  G. 

AMBKOSnJS,  MOSES  :  One  of  the  earliest 
Jewish  scttliis  in  New  York,  then  caUcd  New  Am- 
stertlam.  He  was  one  of  a  parly  of  twenlvlhree 
Jews  who  am  veil  in  the  New  Netherlands  in  Sept., 
Id'A,  apparently  having  left  IJiiliia,  Brazil,  u|)on  its 
recouquest  by  the  Portuguese  from  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company.  As  each  mcinlicr  of  the  jjarty  had 
made  himself  individually  lialilc  Inr  ihc  passjige- 
money  of  all  the  party,  and  as  the  immigrants  were 
unable  to  pay  this  money  in  full,  Ambrosius  was 
one  of  two  who  were  i)laced  under  civil  arrest  by 
the  municipal  authorities;  but  he  appears  to  have 
been  released  in  a  short  time,  and.  witji  his  asso- 
ciates, to  have  prospered  on  American  soil  under 
tlie  Dutch  Hag.  M.  J.  K. 

AMBROSOLI :  An  ecclesiastic  dignitary  of 
Home.  Ihc  cvcntsof  whose  life  touched  the  history  of 
the  Jewsof  that  city  in  184S.  He  distinguished  himself 
through  his  eloquent  sermons  on  tolerance  toward 
the  Jews,  and  preached  in  Santa  Maria  di  Trastevere 
during  the  agitation  for  the  aboliliiin  of  the  Koman 
Ghetto.  Iliscloiiuence  wasso  ellective  that  liisatid- 
ienccs  were  said  to  have  been  an.xious  to  tear  down 
the  walls  of  the  Ghetto  whenever  lie  spoke  on  the 
subject.  His  influence,  therefore, was  quite  marked 
in  the  movement  which  culminated  in  the  edict  signed 
by  Pius  IX.  on  April  17,1848,  to  remove  the  walls  and 
gates  of  the  Homan  Ghetto.  Berliner  relates  that  he 
heard  from  a  jiromineut  Roman  Jew,  Samuele  Alatri, 
that  on  the  eventful  nighl  when  the  Ghetto  walls 
were  torn  down  and  the  enthusiastic  crowd  cheered 
the  torch-lit  laborers,  the  ])ious  and  learned  Ambro- 
soli  was  present.  Under  his  coat  he  had  coiu^ealed 
a  cruciti.x,  ready  to  draw  it  forth  at  any  moment,  and 
in  the  name  of  the  Christian  religion  resist  any  pos- 
sible interference. 

ISiBLioGRAPnv :  VoRplstein  and  Rleger,  Gesch.  der  Jttden  in 
linm.  U.  373;  BerliaeT.  Letzte  Tone  (>us  dcm  R6mischen 
Ohelto,  pp.  6  e(  seq.\  Jew.  Oirnn.,  1849,  p.  382. 

H.  G.  E. 

AMELANDER  (AMLANDER),  MENA- 
HEM  MANN  BEN  SOLOMON  HA-LEVI  :  A 

Dutch  writer  of  the  eighteeutli  century.  He  must 
have  died  before  1767,  since  in  the  edition  of  the 
Pentateuch  jtublished  in  that  yearmanvof  his  anno- 
tations are  quoted  with  the  addition  to  his  name  of 
the  He))rew  letters  V |  (••  of  blessed  memory ! ").  The 
same  edition  shows  that  he  was  a  recognized  au- 
thority on  Hebrew  grammar,  for  he  is  therein  fre- 
ipiently  styled  p~ip~iy2r\  ("the  grammarian'').  He 
was  probably  a  teacher  and  preacher.  The  famil_v 
name  Amelander  was  discovered  (by  G.  Polak)  in  the 
epitaph  upon  the  toml)stone  of  Amelander's  daugh- 
ter at  the  cemetery  of  Muiderberg.  He  was  a  pu- 
pil of  the  Amsterdam  dayyan  and  publisher,  Moses 
Fraid<fort,  for  whose  celebrated  "Biblia  Habbiniea" 
— (Kehillat  .Mosheh)  Amsterdam,  1724-28,  lie  under- 
took the  proof-reading  of  the  Bible  text.  In  172.')  he 
published,  together  with  his  brother-in-law  Eliezer 
kudelsheim,  a  Juda;o-Gennan  Bible  Commentary 
with  te.xt,  under  the  title  "Maggishe  Minhah"  (they 
who  bring  an  offering),  in  folio,  a  work  whicli  en- 
joyed considerable  reputation,  and,  in  view  of  its 
period,  is  not  altogether  without  merit. 

His  edition  of  "  Midrash  Tanhuma, "  published  in 
1733,  contained  marginal  notes  giving  short  verbal 
and  technical  explanations.  The  Pentateuch  edition 
mentioned  above  (with  the  commentaries  "  Hinnuk  " 


and  "Debek  To'j")  contains  also  a  few  extended  an- 
notations by  him.  In  I)e  Vidas'  "  Heshit  Hokmah" 
(The  Beginning  of  AVi.sdom),  published  in  Amster- 
dam in  177(i,  the  commentiiry  entitled  "La-Da'at 
Hokmah"  (To  Understand  Wisdom),  is  by  Amelan- 
der. His  Viest  known  work,  however,  is  the  Juda'<i- 
German  continuation  of  "Josippon,"  which  lirst 
apjuared  in  Amsterdam  in  1744.  It  contains,  in  ad- 
dition to  many  legends,  a  compendium  of  Jewish  his- 
tory down  to  his  time,  but  is  especially  valuable  for 
information  concerning  the  settlement  and  history 
of  the  Jews  in  Ilollaial,  particularly  in  Amsterdam, 
Indeed,  for  the  history  of  the  German  and  Polish 
Jews  there,  it  is  almost  the  only  source  of  informa- 
tion. Proof  of  the  great  interest  aroused  by  the 
book  is  to  be  found  in  Ihe  fact  that  as  early  as  17G7 
it  was  reprinted  in  Filrth.  The  edition  that  aji- 
peared  in  Amsterdam  in  1771,  entitled  "  Keter  Jlal- 
kut "  or  "Sheerit  Yisrael,"  contained  an  additional 
chapter  continuing  the  history  of  the  Jews  up  to 
the  year  1770.  This  chapter,  however,  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  written  by  Amelander,  but  by 
the  publisher  of  the  work.  A  Dutch  translation  of 
"  Sheerit  Yisrael,"  which  appeared  in  18.').5,  was  made 
by  the  journalist,  L.  Goudsmit,  then  living  in  Am- 
sterdam, and  contained  numerous  annotations  by 
Gabriel  Polak. 

BiBLioGRAPiiT :  Biopraphlcal  statements  In  ttie  footnotes  to  ttie 
preface  of  Goud.smit's  edilion  ot  Sheerit  Yit^rael;  St«inscbnel- 
der.  Cat.  BixU.  No.  (Xm :  FQrsl,  ISihl.  Juil.  II.  SaO ;  Rabbln"- 
vlcz,  Katalng,  No.  12  (No.  917):  Roest,  Cat.  lierBnsenthnV- 
sclxn  Bilil.  1.  ta.iU:  Zedner.  Cat.  Hcbr.  limks,  lirit.  Mus. 
p,  Ml ;  Benjiicoh,  <tzar  )w-.'icfariiii,  pp.  218,  XS. 

J.  Vr. 

AMEMAR  ( =  Ami  Mar) :  .V  compound  word, 
of  which  the  first  element  is  thi'  iirenonieii,  the  sec- 
ond a  title  often  found  among  the  Jewish  .s;iges  in 
Babylonia,  and  meaning  "master"  (compare  the 
dictionary  'Aruk  under  the  word  "Abaye").  There 
are  two  Babylonian  teachers  always  quoted  by  that 
name  alone. 

Atnemar  I.:  An  araora  of  the  third  generation 
(fourth  century),  junior  contemporary  of  H.  Judah 
1).  Ezekiel  CAli.  Zarah.  48rt)and  of  RabSheshet  (Hul. 
107(().  With  the  study  of  the  Halakali  he  combined 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  passages  from  which 
he  often  adduced  to  support  either  a  legal  enact- 
ment or  a  saying  of  the  rabbis.  Thus  to  the  apho- 
rism, by  Alidimi  of  Haifa,  that  with  the  destruction 
of  the  tirst  Temple  the  gift  of  prophecy  was  taken 
from  the  prophets  and  bestowed  upon  the  sages, 
Amemar  appends.  "And  the  wise  man  is  superior  to 
the  prophet,  for  thus  the  Bible  says  (Ps.  xc.  12), 
n03n  22^  S'331  '  and  the  prophet  is  a  wise  heart '; 
and  as  in  all  definitions  the  lesser  is  defined  by  the 
greater,  this  jiroves  that  the  wise  man  ranks  higher 
than  the  iirophel  "  (B.  B.  12«). 

This  singular  translation  of  the  word  "  nabi  "  as  a 
noun,  in  opposition  to  the  ordinary  conception  of  it 
as  a  verb,  is  also  found  in  the  Targum  in  Ibn  Ezra 
on  the  passage,  in  the  name  of  Closes  ibn  Gikatella, 
and  also  in  Maimonides'  "Moreli,"  ii.  chap.  38,  end, 
and  has  recently  been  adopted  by  Griltz  in  his  "  Krit- 
ischer  Commentar  zu  den  Psalmen,"  nil  lor. 

Amemar  II.:  A  senior  contemi)orary  and  friend 
of  Rab  Ashi,  the  projector  of  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud, with  whom  he  frequently  discus.sed  important 
halakot  (B.  M.  08a;  Ber.  12a;  Bez.  22a ;  Ket.  21*; 
Kid.  72A;  B.  K.  79a;  Hul.  53A,  SSa).  Amemar  re- 
established the  college  at  Nehardea,  an<I  restored  it 
to  its  original  reputable  position — it  having  been  de- 
stroyed over  a  century  before  by  Odenathus  (Bar 
Nazar,  Ket.  51J,  Y"er.  'Ter.  viii.  46J;  GrStz,  2d  ed., 
iv.,  note  28) — and  was  its  rector  for  more  than  thirty 


491 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ambrosius 
Amen 


years  (3'JU-422j.  In  addition  to  tliat  ollice  lie  was 
the  president  of  the  court  at  Xehardea  and  intro- 
duced several  chaiiL'es  in  the  ritual  (R.  II.  'Slh,  Suk. 
55i(,  B.  IJ.  'Si(i);  and  on  royal  festivals  he,  tosrether 
with  Hab  Aslii  and  Mar  Ziitra,  ollicially  re])resented 
the  Jews  at  the  court  of  Ye/digerd  II.  (Ket.  Glr/). 
On  one  of  these  occasions,  Ilunu  liar  Nathan  was 
among  the  a.ssenibled  dignitaries,  an<l  the  king,  hap- 
pening to  notice  that  Iluna's  girdle  was  deranged, 
adjusted  it,  remarking,  "It  is  wrillen  of  you  (E-\. 
xi.\.  6),  ■  Ye  shall  he  a  kingdimi  of  jirie.sts  and  a 
holy  nation,'  and  you  must  therefore  wear  the  girdle 
as  priests  do."  When  Ainemar  heard  of  this,  he 
sai(l  to  iluna,  "On  thee  has  been  realized  the  pro- 
phetic prondse  (Isa.  .\li.\.  23),  '  Kings  shall  be  thy 
attendants'"  (Zeb.  l!ti/).  Anieinar's  erudition  was 
continued  in  his  son  .Mar,  who  often  quoted  him  to 
Hab  Ashi  (Fes.  7-t/y;  f^uk.  ii'-V/,  41//;  B.  M.  (>»ii ;  B. 
B.  lT4rt);  iind  some  of  his  hoiniletic  (jbservations 
liave  found  their  way  into  the  Babylonian  Talmud 
((Solah,  'Jif.  B.  B.  4.-)(/). 

Biiil-IOGRAPUY:  BncliiT,  An.  Vah.  Am.  p.  14t!. 

S,    M. 

AMEMAK  B.  MAR  YANTJ?;A  (YAN?;A)  : 

A  Babylonian  teacher  of  the  tiflh  and  si.xth  amoraic 
generations,  who,  together  with  the  e.vilarch  (Kesh 
(jaluta)  lluna  .Mar  II.  and  Mesharsheya  b.  Pakod, 
lirsl  sulVered  martyrdom  in  the  cause  of  Judaism  on 
Babylonian  soil — victims  of  the  persecutions  inau- 
.guratcd  by  King  Kiruz  (Pheroces,  4."i.S-8r)).  Atiiemar 
was  executed  in  the  month  of  Adar  47U,  two  months 
after  the  execution  of  his  fellow  martyrs. 

DuM.iOGRAPMV :  Kpl'ltc  of  Sherira  (ia<in,  ed.  Neubauer; 
iirillz,  (Jesrh.  d.  Juiirn,  Sd  ed.,  Iv.  405;  Hellprln,  Seder  )in- 
iHirm.  ed.  Muskllai/lm,  p.  72;  Zaouto,  Yunasin,  ed.  Flll- 
powskl,  p.  ll.j. 

S.  M. 

AMEN  ("So  is  it,"  or  "So  .shall  it  be"):  A  word 
ii.s4(l  at  the  conclusion  of  a  jjrayer,  or  in  other  con- 
nections, to  exjire.ss  allirmation,  approval,  or  desire. 
It  is  derived  from  the  Old  'rest;iment  Hebrew,  and 
is  [lerhaps  the  most  widely  known  word  in  human 
speech;  being  familiar  1o  .lews,  Cliristians,  and  Mo- 
hammedans. It  ipccurs  thirteen  limes  in  the  Maso- 
relic  text  of  the  Old  Testament, and  in  the  Sejjtuagint 
in  three  additional  passages  (Jer.  iii.  lit,  xv.  11, 
Isa.  XXV.  1).  From  these  ])assages  it  is  possible 
to  trace  in  part  the  gnidual  <levelopment  of  Amen 
from  an  adjective  (or,  according  to  Barth,  "  Die  No- 
nunalbildung  in  den  iSenutischen  Spraclien,"  i)f,7i,  a 
noun,  meaning  "  lirnniess,"  "certainty  ")iutoan  inde- 
clinable interjection. 

The  primitive  use  of  Amen  is  in  I  Kings,  i.  3fi, 
wlicre  also  it  serves  to  introchice  an  allirmative  an- 
swer. This  introductory  Amen  occurs  also  in  Jer. 
xxviii.  (i;  but  in  another  (lassage  (xi.  T))  Jeremiah 
shows  familiarity  with  I  he  detached  Amen.  The  de- 
tached Amen  is  that  use  of  the  Amen  in  which  the 
expected  answer  is  omitte<l  and  l<ft  ti>  be  infeired 
from  the  context.  Num.  v.  'i'l  (in  which  Amen 
is  repealed  twice),  Deul.  xx  vii.  l.">  <<  .w/.,  and  N'eh.v. 
i;!,  show  that  the  delached  .\iMeu  was  employed  in 
solemn  oalhs  for  which  the  luief  Amen  was  more 
C'fTeclive  than  a  whole  sentence. 

Similar  to  thi'  delached  Amen  is  the  use  of  the 
Amen  in  N<'h.  viii.  (>,  I  t'hron.  xvi.  :!(>,  and  Ps.  cvi. 
4H,  from  which  it  is  learned  that  during  the  Persian 
epoch  Amen  was  the  responsory  of  the  i)eo|ileto  the 
doxology  of  lln'  priests  and  the  Levites.  Too  little 
is  known,  however,  of  the  Temple  wiirship  of  that 
period  to  make  it  possible  to  delernnne  whether,  as 
Oraetz  holds.  Amen  and  Amen  Halleluiah  were  \\w 
only  responsories  used.  The  passages  in  Psjilms 
pui"ullcl  to  that  cited  ubovo  (.xli.  14,  l.xxii.   l.S-li), 


Ixxxix.  53)  make  it  apparent  that  the  responsory 
was  longer;  and  there  exists  a  reliable  traditiou 
(Tosef.,  Ber.  vii.  22;  Ta'anit,  i.l  1,166;  Yer.Ber.14c, 
end;  Sotali,  40i)  that  at  a  period  not  far  removed 
from  the  oldest  Pharisaic  traditions  Amen  was  not 
generally  eni])!oyed  in  the  Temple  liturgy.  The 
opposite  view  of  Graelz  in  his  attemj)!  to  distort 
the  evident  meaning  of  the  text  in  this  Tosefta  is 
disproved  by  Sifre,  Deut.  xxxii.  3.  yOd. which  clearly 
shows  that  in  ancient  times  the  usual  responsive 
formula  in  the  synagogue  and  the  Temple  was: 
■■  Blessed  be  the  name  of  the  glory  fif  his  king<lom  for 
ever  and  ever"  (VyD"3"t'"3)  inia^D  TI33  Dt."  Tn2 
IVI  dSv^-  Thus  the  statement  in  the  Tosefta  be- 
comes inlelligible:  while  synagogues  adopted  the 
Amen,  the  Temple  preserved  the  longer  form.  Even 
in  later  times — at  least  during  the  existence  of  the 
Temple — the  Amen  could  not  entirely  supplant  the 

,  ..         .     ,   longerresponsorvlp'O  3  C  3;  andthe 
Litureical      r  L      LL 

Amen.       ''OH'71  D71'?  1-130  N3-l  n'DC'  NH''  pS 

(•lL"'n''iS)  X'D^V  ("Praised  be  the 
great  Name  [that  is,  the  Tetragrammaton]  for  ever 
and  ever  ")  is  a  combination  of  the  synagogue  Amen 
with  the  Temple  formula  V'^D  3  C"'3.  the  Aramaic 
enuivalent  of  which  is  -|  C'  H'  N-  This  explains  the 
great  signilicance  which  the  Talmud  (Shah.  1 194)  and 
the  Midrash  (Eccl.  H.  on  ix.  14,  1.5)  attaches  to  the 
blessing,  a  remnant  of  the  Temple  liturgy. 

Since  the  rabbis  paid  strict  regard  to  precise  ar- 
rangement of  prayer-fortntdas,  naturally  the  use  of 
Amen  in  the  liturgy  was  rigorously  deU-rmined  by 
them.  The  Amen  as  a  responsory  of  the  people  is 
already  spoken  of  by  the  rabbis,  but  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  Amen  was  only  the  resjionsory  to  the  reader's 
doxology  "n'  nns  Tn3  ("  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord !  " 
jMishnah  Ta'anit,  ii.  5;  Suk.  51/>.  It  is  here  recorded 
that  in  the  great  synagogue  of  Alexandria  the  at- 
tendant, at  the  conclusion  of  the  reader's  doxology, 
signaled  the  congregation  with  a  Hag  to  respond 
Amen).  Of  equal  importance  with  this  doxologj- 
was  the  priestly  blessing,  to  each  ver.se  of  which  the 
congregation  responded  Amen  (Mishnah  Sotah,  vii. 
3).  As  expressly  stated  in  a  Baraita  (Ber.  4-jiO.  the 
use  of  Amen  at  the  conclusion  of  a  prayer,  men- 
tioned in  Tobit,  viii.  8,  must  have  been  very  com- 
mon among  Jews  in  ancient  times.  Still,  the  Chris- 
tian custom  of  concluding  every  prayer  with  Amen 
.seems  to  have  brought  this  use  of  Amen  into  bad 
repute  among  the  Jews  (Ber.  I.e.);  and  it  was  de- 
cided in  Babylonia,  about  400,  that  only  at  grace 
after  meals  the  thini  benediction  (originally  the  last) 
should  conclude  with  Amen  (Ber.  I.e.).  while  in 
Palestine  (Yer.  Ber.  v.  4)  Amen  was  used  at  the 
end  of  the  last  doxology.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
Spanish  ritual  followed  the  Palestinian  custom:  the 
(Jerman  and  Polish  Ji'ws  conforming  to  the  Baby- 
lonian usage  (compare  "Shidhan  'Aruk,"  t;  1,  136. 
end,  and  the  conunentaries  Ihircon). 

The  use  of  Amen  in  response  to  the  expression  of 
a  good  wish  can  be  traceil  back  to  tlu'  tirst  century 

of  the  Christian  era (ICet.  tit;//);  whence 
Desidera-     is  derived  the  medieval  custom  of  suf- 
tive  and      lixing  an  Amen  to  every  possible  ex- 
Responsive  jiression  of  ade>iire.     Especially  fa vor- 
Amen.        ite  phrasi'S  are  T  OK  =  pin  'n'  [3  PN 

("Amen!  may  this  be  the  will"  [of 
Ood])  generally  used  after  pmyers  which  do  not 
conclude  with  a  doxology;  NC'Sw"  =  D'D'S  nTTC 
pN  D'31t2  ("  -^bi.V  !»■  live  to  .see  good  days.  Amen  I  "), 
a  rormula  usually  appended  to  the  name  in  letters; 
and    X  n!38<3U"And  let  us  say  Amenl  "),  with  which 


Amen 
America 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


492 


till'  roiidfr  concludes  a  siu'ciiil  i>niycr  i)r  a  prayer  for 
a  private  person.  The  later  responsive  Amen  is  em- 
ployed at  the  betrinnin;;  and  the  conclusion  of  jjnicc 
after  meals  (Ber.  iln):  for.  according  to  the  nihbis, 
every  doxolopy  must  be  responiled  to  with  an  Amen. 
The  ineanini;  of  Amen  is  discussed  by  Uabbis 
Eliezer  ben  llyrcanus  and  Simon  ben  Yohai.  The 
former,  a  younjier  eonterui>orarv  of  the  Apostles, 
says:  "When  the  dwellers  of  Gehenna  chant  their 
Amen  at  the  very  time  that  the  lioly  name  of  God 
is  praised  by  the  conjrresralions  .  .  .  the  doors  of 
hell  yield  and  anirels  cany  them  in  wliitc  robes  into 
panidise  on  Ihe  last  day  "  (Kliyalni  Zullu  xx.).  That 
this  utterance  is  not  a  later  invciition,  is  jiroveil 
by  the  kindred  sayintrs  of  Simon  ben  Yohai  (Shab. 
liOA,  ,Midr.  Tehil."  x.xxi.  H'i).  A  poetical  account  of 
the  power  of  Amen  is  given  in  Y'alk.  ii.  2ilG  to  Isa. 
x.xvi.  2,  in  which  the  final  release  from  hell  is  de- 
scribed as  follows: 

"After  (idil  shall  liave  publicly  revealed  tlie  new  Messianic 
TdhiIi,  Zprul)lBilK-l  will  re<'lle  Ihe  Kaddlsh.  His  V(il(^e  will  lie 
heard  tlinait'lHuit  the  world,  so  that  all  dwellers  upon  earth,  as 
well  as  Jewish  sinners  and  riphteous  heathens  in  hi-Il,  will  e.\- 
elaiiri.  'Amen!'  Move<l  to  pity  by  this  Allien  fniiii  Iln- d\\*-llci-s 
of  hell,  (Jod  will  bid  the  aniiels  Michael  and  (iahnii  iclcase 
them  from  hell  and  place  them  in  paiiidLse:  which  conimaiid 
the  an^fels  will  foiHuvlth  proceed  t<t  eairy  out" 

A  similar  llaggadah  occurs  in  Siddur  1{.  Amnim 
(i:%,  foot),  which  is  referred  to  by  Hogg  ("Jew. 
Quart.  Kev."  ix.  IT).  The  legend  regarding  a  pious 
Jew  who  once  neglected  to  tmswer  Amen  to  the 
doxology,  recounted  by  .lalTe  in  liis  introduction  to 
"Lebiisli,"  i.,  belongs  io  the  Middle  Ages. 

As  the  Amen  wtis  wiilely  emploj'cd  in  the  Jewish 
liturgy  in  the  time  of  Jesus  and  the  New  Testament 
authors.  Amen  occurs  extensively  in  the  New  Testa- 
mcut.  But  the  use  of  almost  one  half  the  number 
of  Aniens  found  llicrein  (fifty-two  out  of  one  hun- 
dred and  nineteen)  is  peculiar  to  the  New  Testament 
writings,  having  no  parallel  in  Hebre%v  (see  how- 
ever, Dalmaii,  "  Worte  .lesn,'' ]i.  lM(i);  for,  as  is  never 
the  case  in  Hebrew,  the  Amen  is  sometimes  found 
at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  without  reference  to 
what  precedes.  The  exjilanation  of  Delit/.sch  that 
this  Amen  is  an  erroneous  form  of  the  Artimaic 
NJ'DN  ("  I  say  ").  is  disproved  not  only 
Amen  in  by  the  fact  that  NJ'DX  is  exclusively 
the  New  IJabyloniau-Aiamaic.  but  by  the  fur- 
Testament,  ther  fad  that  }<3''DX  is  used  exclusively 
in  a  hypothetic  sense  (against  'Er. 
H'lii).  while  in  the  New  Testament,  Amen  cxpres.scs 
certainty.  Another  peculiarity  is  the  use  of  o  'Aut/v  in 
Rev.  iii.  14  as  a  designation  of  Jesus.  The  attempted 
explanation  of  this  use  from  II  Cor.  i.  20  is  altogether 
unsatisfactory. 

The  primitive  Christian  Church  borro\ved  the 
Amen,  as  it  did  most  of  its  liturgy,  from  the  Jewish 
synagogue.  Of  especial  interest  is  the  following 
passage  of  Paul  (I  Cor.  xiv.  16),  "When  thou  shalt 
bless  with  the  spirit  (nat'nt33),  how  shall  he  that 
occupieth  the  room  of  the  unlearned  {'kUutov  tDnn) 
say  Amen?  "  Paul  here  speaks  of  the  reader's  duty 
to  recite  his  prayers  aloud  in  order  that  the  ignorant 
people  might  have  compensation  in  answering  the 
Amen  to  the  doxology.  The  very  same  teachings 
are  given  bv  the  rabbis  (Tosef.,  R.  IT.  iv.  |ii.]  12; 
Gemara,  ib.  nhumv  <p3  IJ^XC';  compare  also  "Shul- 
han  'Aruk  Oml.i  Ilayyim,"  S  124,  -4-6:  S  139.  6).  It 
is  known  that  in  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  (about 
second  century)  Amen  was  pronounced  after  prayer 
and  the  Eucharist  ("Apologia."  i.  g  65,  67).  Je- 
rome shows  by  his  "'ud  ximih'tudinem  calistis  toni- 
trui  Amen  rehoaf''  ("Commentarius  ad  Galatias," 
preface  to  book  ii.)  that  the  Church  had  adopted 
from  the  Synagogue  even  the  practise  of  enunciating 


the  "  Amen  with  the  full  power  " — of  the  voice  (Shab. 
119/<). 

In  accordance  with  the  less  public  character  of  Mo- 
hammedan worship.  Amen  is  very  little  u.sed  among 
the  followeis  of  Islam.  Still  it  is  universidly  em- 
ployed by  them  after  every  recital  of  the  first  sura, 
the  so  called  >>iinil  nlfatiha. 

Biiii.ioc.R.vniv:  ftir.  I.  11-19:  Blau.  Itn:  f:i.  JuiriK,  xxxl. 
1T!»  an  ;  Brunner,  Dc  Vnec  Amen.  Helmstadt.  HITS;  Unlman, 
I)if  liv.rtc  ./mil.  pp.  1H.V1ST:  Di'lltzsch.  Zcitmhrift  IHr 
LutluriKclif  TUciihuik.  is-'ni.  pp.  4i'  <•(  wi/. :  (iriitz.  In  -Uo- 
nalivrhrift.  1S7-'.  pp.  4Sl-4'.iil ;  IIoitb,  Jne.  Quart,  /(tr.  Ix. 
l-Z\:  J.  Cam,  .S/iiiHiiiii  •Arnk.S.  i'A.i:  «.'i(!,2:  B  12!i.  (1  Id; 
g-l.'i:  L]»ne,  Aral  lie- tjiHiUsh  Lfxicnn.  s.v. :  Itaidawl  and 
Zamakt  Shari  on  llrst  sura ;  Maimonldes,  Yad  hti-IIozokah. 
I.,  Tililliili.  vill.il,  Ix.  1-4;  Neslle,  Krixmilorn  Tinien.  Janu- 
ary, isl»7,  pp.  li»i  r(  .sf<;. :  i'.".  Ixli.  ct  wi;..  xcl.  i'(  wy. :  Welwr, 
]>f  Viin-  .iinrn.  Jena.  ]7:M  ;  Wcrnsdorf,  Dr  Amen  Litnrftica; 
W(.ir,  Cim/  I'hit.  ill  y.  r.  on  .Matt.  vl.  I:i.  and  I  Cor.  xlv.  111. 

L.  <;. 

AMERICA:*  The  name  '■America"  is  used  in 
this  ailii  le  ill  its  broadest  signilicalion,  as  apiilii'd  to 
tlie  eiiiiie  weslern  world;  that  is.  North  and  South 
America  and  all  the  adjacent  islands. 

The  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  and  the 
earliest  expeditions  and  attempts  at  .settlement  In 
various  parts  of  the  continent  and  in  many  of  the 
contiguous  islands,  arc  intimately  connected  with 
the  Jews  and  their  history. 

Columbus  rec<ived  great  assistance  from  astro- 
nomical works  prepared  by  Jews,  and  fiom  scien- 
titic  instruments  of  which  Jews  were  the  invent- 
ors. Luis  de  Santangel  and  Gabriel  Sanchez — both 
JIaranos — and  Juan  Cabrero.  of  Jewish  descent, 
urged  upon  Queen  Isiiliella  the  importance  of  the 
plans  of  Columbus,  and  were  instrumental  in  secur- 
ing the  funds  for  the  first  and  second  voyages.  The 
expenses  of  the  latter  were  defrayed  almost  exclu- 
sively out  of  moneys  derived  from  the  confiscated 
properties  of  Jews. 

At  least  five  persons  of  Jewish  blood  accompanied 

Columbus  upon  his  first  voyage,  among  whom  sjie- 

cial  mention  must  be  made  of  Luis  de 

Jews  Ac-     Torres,  who  was  to  have  acted  in  the 

company     capacity  of  interpreter.     Torres  is  said 

Columbus,    to   have   been   tlic  first  European  to 

tread  the  .soil  of  America,  and  the  lirst 

to  di.scover  the  use  of  tobacco.     He  settled  and  died 

in  Cuba. 

On  JIarcli  31,  1492,  the  Catholic  monarchs  issued 
a  decree  to  the  effect  that  within  four  months  all 
Jews  and  Jewesses  were  to  leave  the  kingdoms  and 
lands  of  Spain.  On  April  30  the  decree  was  pub- 
licly announced  by  the  heralds ;  and  on  the  same 
day  Columbus  was  ordered  to  equip  a  fleet  for  his 
voyage  to  the  Indies.  On  Aug.  2,  1492.  aliuiit  300.- 
OUO  Jews  left  Spain  to  sellle  wherever  they  might 
find  a  shelter;  and  on  the  following  day  the  fleet  of 
Columbus  set  sail.  His  journal  opens  with  a  refer- 
ence to  the  coincidence  in  time  of  these  two  events. 
Columbus"  first  account  of  his  discovery  took  the 
form  of  a  letter  to  his  Jewish  patron.  .Santangel. 

The  facts  mentioned  suffice  to  explain  the  very 
early  jiresence  of  .lews  in  America  (see  Kayscrling, 
"Christopher  Columbus  and  Ihe  Partici|)ation  of 
.Tews  in  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Discoveries," 
New  Y'ork,  1894,  and  the  article  AsrERiCA,  Discov- 
ery OP). 

Brazil :  Brazil  was  discovered  in  1499  by  a  Span- 
iard, Pinzon,  and  independently  in  loOO  by  a  Portu- 
guese, Pedro  Alvarez  de  Cabral.     With  him  was  a 

*This  article  is  intended  as  an  outline:  numerous  de- 
tails have  therefore  been  omitted.  Each  stale,  all  of  the  lari?e 
cities,  and  many  of  the  important  towns  are  treated  in  separate 
anicles.  America  is  also  treated  under  numenms  subject-head- 
iiiEs  wherever  appropriate.  Text  references  have  been  inten- 
tionally omitted :  they  will  be  supplied  in  the  individual  articles. 


493 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amen 
America 


Jewish  milliner.  Ons|)ar.  who  was  of  niuch  assist- 
ance in  the  iliseovery  of  Brazil  and  wlio  is  favorahlj- 
iiienlioncil  by  Amerigo  Vespucci  (Kayscrlinir.  I.e. 
p.  117).  Brazil  was  tlie  part  of  America  earliest  in- 
lial)ile<l  by  larire  numbers  of  Jews.  Portugal  sent 
annually  two  shiploads  of  Jews,  and  criminals,  and 
also  deported  persons  who  liad  been  eondcmued  by 
the  Imiuisilion.  The  Maranos are  said 
Early  to  have  quickly  thrown  olf  their  mask 
Portug'uese  and  to  have   jirofesscd  Judaism.      As 

Colonies,  early  as  \'AX  (according  to  some.  l.^Jl) 
Portuguese  Jews,  it  is  asserted,  trans- 
jilanted  the  sugar-cane  from  .Madeira  to  Brazil;  but 
whether  this  be  true  or  false,  it  is  indisputable  that 
nearly  all  the  large  sugar  plantations  <d'  Brazil  dur 
ingllietirst  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  belonged 
to  Jews. 

So  extensive  had  the  emigration  to  Portuguese 
colonies  become  in  l.>iTthat  on  June  30  of  that  year 
an  edict  was  issued  forbidding  .Maranos  to  leave 
Portugal.  A  stringent  law  was  passed  prohibiting 
the  settlement  of  Jews  in  the  Spainsh  colonics  as 
well,  yet  some  of  position  and  wealth  were  among 
the  early  settlers.  This  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
the  prohibition  was  removed  in  X'ul  upon  the  pay- 
ment by  the  Jews  in  the  colonies  of  the  enormous 
sum  of  I, TIM  1. 1)111)  <-ruzados.  eipiivalent  to  about  >>714.- 
000.  In  Kill  lucnlion  is  made  of  wealthy  Maranos 
making  the  leturn  trip  from  Bahia  to  Portugal. 

That  Jews  had  settled  in  Brazil,  prior  to  the 
Dutch  occupation,  in  snilieient  mnnbers  to  make 
them  a  military  factor,  is  shown  by  the  argument 
advanced  in  favor  of  an  attack  by  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company  on  the  Portuguese  in  Brazil,  "that 
the  Jews  there  wmdd  be  ready  to  aid  the  Dutch  in 
any  attempt."  This  attack  was  successfully  luadi' 
in  lt)'24.  at  which  time  all  the  Jews  in  the  country 
united  in  the  formation  of  a  congregation.  Jews 
had  invested  largely  in  the  Dutch 
Under        West  India  Company  ;  and  to  this  fact 

Dutch  the  favorable  attitude  of  the  Holland 
Rule.  authorities  is  traci-able.  Those  who 
had  come  over  imder  Portuguese  and 
Dutch  nde  were  reenfori-eil  in  Ull'.'  by  a  parly  of  (iUO 
from  -Vmsterdam.  bringing  with  them  llakam  I.saac 
Aboab.  who  setiliMl  at  Uecifi' (  Pernambuco).  and  was 
probably  the  lirst  rabbi  in  Brazil.  Among  these 
settlers  was  also  Kphraim  Sueiro.  a  step-brother  of 
Manasseh  ben  Isra<l.  Manasseh  himself  intended 
to  emigrate  to  Brazil,  as  is  Ic^arned  from  a  letter  of 
Vossius  to  firotius;  but  he  was  dis.suaded  by  the 
leading  men  of  his  eominunity.  There  were  also 
settlements  at  Paiahiba.  Bahia.  and  Hio  de  Janeiro. 
Il  iseslimated  that  at  Hecife  alone  there  were  mole 
than  ."i.DDO  Ji-ws  in  1«."4. 

The  Brazilian  Jews  enjoyed  the  same  rights  as 
other  Dutch  subjects;  anil  they  rendered  valuable 
services  both  as  soldiers  and  in  civil  life. 

TIk' lirst  Spanish  and  PortUirueseselllersin  Amer- 
ica. otliiT  than  baiMsliid  criminals,  were  adventurers 
seeking  lanil  for  the  irown  or  gold  for  themselves. 
This  was  not  true  of  the  Jews.  K.\pelled  tiist  from 
Spain,  ne.xl  from  Portugal,  they  desired  only  a  place 
in  which  they  miirht  have  the  op|)ortunity  to  live 
and  to  ihrowolT  tiie  mask  of  Christianity  which  they 
had  bicMi  fori-ed  to  wear.  Though  they  engaged 
largely  in  commerce — in  which  liny  hail  especial  ad 
vantages,  having  correspondents  in  Venice,  in  Tur 
key.  and  in  other  countries  to  which  their  corelig- 
iiinists  had  eniiirniled — they  counted  among  their 
number  several  scholars,  and  durinir  the  Dutch  oc- 
cupalion  maintained  friendly  relations  with  learned 
men  in  .Vmsterdam. 

The  first  truce  of  Jewish  literature  in  America  is 


found  in  lli:jG.  when  some  Brazilian  Jews,  in  dispute 
about  liturgical  questions,  sought  coun.sel  of  Kabbi 
Hayyim  Shabbetliai  of  Salouica.     In  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  there  were  living  in  Brazil, 
in  addition  to  Rabbi  Istuic  Aboab  mentioned  above, 
a  well-known   Talmudist.  Jacob  La- 
First  garto.    and    the    poet    Ei.ivahu   M.\- 
American     ciiokko.     Apparently  the  lirst  Jewish 

Jewish       scholar   born   on   .\merican   soil   was 

Scholar.      .1  Acon  m:  Vf.i.usino.  born  in  Pernam- 
buco in  l(i.j7.  a  philosopher,  phj'sician, 
and  polemical  writer  of  ability. 

In  104(5  war  broke  out  between  the  Dutch  and  the 
Portuguese;  and  in  this  struggle,  which  lasted  nine 
years,  the  Jews  aided  the  Dutcli  until  the  end.  The 
Dutch  capitulation  (1G.')4)  contained  a  rather  ominous 
clause  wherein  the  Portuguese  promised  to  the  Jews 
"an  amnesty  in  all  wherein  they  could  jn'omise  it." 
The  sufferings  of  the  Jews  in  this  war  are  related  in 
a  poem  by  Isaac  Aboab.  which  is  probably  theearli 
est  product  e.xtant  of  Jewish  authorship  on  Ameri- 
can soil. 

Although  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Inquisition 
was  formally  established  in  Bnizil.  there  is  evidence 
to  the  effect  thai  the  Holy  (JItiee  seized  suspected 
persons  and  sent  them  to  Portugal  for  trial.  At  all 
events,  the  Portuguese  con(|Uest  was  followed  by 
the  dispersion  of  the  Jewish  colony.  Many  rettinied 
to  Amsterdam,  some  went  to  the  French  settlements 
— (iuadeloui>e.  JIartini(|ue.  and  Cayenne — some  to 
Cura(,ao.  and  others  to  New  Amsterdam.  AVe  have 
travelers'  statements  to  the  etfecl  that  as  late  as  18.')0 
a  few  remained  in  Brazil  as  Maranos;  and  in  very 
recent  times  small  congregations  have  been  formeil. 

Mexico:  Me.vico.  which  contained  the  most 
highly  civilized  aborigines  on  the  .\merican  conti- 
nent, was  invaded  by  Cortez  in  l.")li);  the  capital 
was  captured  in  1.V2I.  and  the  country  made  a  Span- 
ish colony  under  the  name  of  Xueva  Espana  (New 
Spain). 

The  most  authentic  information  concerning  the 
.lewsof  Mexico  is  unhappily  contained  in  the  records 
of  the  Inquisition,  from  which  accurate,  if  not  de- 
t;iilcd.  accounts  are  derived. 

The  lirst  aulo  da  fe  celebrated  in  New  Spain  was 
held  in  the  year  1-530;  and  the  tii"st  Jew,  or  rather 
"Judaizer"  (./ii(liiiniiiit),  as  he  was  called,  mentioned 
in  these  records  is  a  certain  Franci.sco  Jlillan,  who 
was  "reconciled  "  in  the  year  l."):i!l.  His  ea.se  seems, 
however,  to  have  been  a  solitary  one;  since  formany 
years  after  all  of  those  tried  by  the  Inquisition  were 
Luthei-ans  or  i>cisons  otherwise  suspected  of  heresy. 

In  l.")71  the  Inquisition  was  formally  established 

in  Mexico,  for  the  purpose  "of  freeing  the   land, 

which  had  been  contaminated  by  Jews 

Jews  and    and  heretics,  especially  of  the  Portii- 

the  In-  gue.se  nation." 
quisition.  It  is  not  until  1578  that  the  names 
of  Jews — three  in  tiiat  year — are  again 
met  with;  and  from  tiiat  time  on.  until  the  close  of 
the  Inquisition  records  of  Mexico  in  ls();t(the  Holy 
Ollice  was  not  formally  disestablished  in  Jlexico 
until  IH'iO),  a  large  proportion,  possibly  as  many  as 
one-half,  of  thosetried  were  Jews.  Sinceallof  the.se 
were  >Iaranos,  and  a  great  number  of  the  secret  Jews 
must  have  escaped  the  eye  of  Ihe  Inquisition,  a  fair 
conception  may  thus  be  obtained  of  the  very  consid- 
erable number  who  .settled  and  lived  in  Mexico  dur- 
ing this  piiiod.  Panimus.  tin-  historian,  writing  in 
l.-i'.IJt.  stales  that  in  spite  of  all  obstacles  the  Jews 
publicly  celebniled  llii-ir  Passover;  but  the  state- 
ment is  open  to  question. 

Some  idea  of  the  niimbiT  of  Jews  in  Mexico  in 
the  middle  of  the  si-venteeuth  century  may  be  gained 


America 


Tin-:  JLWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


494 


from  the  fact  that,  in  a  single  trial  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion— tliat  of  a  boy  in  1642 — tlie  names  of  no  less 
than  eighty-six  .Tmlaizersare  mentioned.  It  is  gen- 
erally assumed  that  one  of  the  jirincipal  motives  of 
the  Inquisition  was  the  confiscation  of  estates;  and 
it  is  unquestionably  true  that  a  considerable  propor- 
tion  of  the  Jews  tried  in  Mexico  were  mine-owners 
or  merchants.  Jsevertheless,  there  must  have  been 
many  Mexican  Jews  in  the  humbler  walks  of  life. 
Between  ICOO  and  1650  the  following  occupations  of 
Jews  and  Jewesses  are  recorded:  butcher,  gilder, 
baker,  sugar-hawker,  peanut-vender,  silversmith, 
juggler,  nurserymaid,  ami  seamstress. 

In  recent  times  Jews  have  again  immigrated  to 
Mexico;  and  for  a  short  time  a  Jewish  journal  was 
published  in  the  cajiital  city. 

From  1.590  until  I  lie  revolt  of  Mexico  from  Span- 
ish rule  the  Philippine  Islands  were  governed 
through  the  viceroy  and  audiencia  of  Mexico;  and 
prior  to  1601  at  least  four  Jews  had  gone  from  Jlex- 
ico  to  the  city  of  Manila. 

Other  South  American  States  :  Peru  was  cap- 
tured by  the  t^paiiish  in  lot!y-84;  and  many  Spanish 
Jews  took  refuge  in  Lima.  Philip  II.  took  rigorous 
measures  against  them,  and  early  introduced  the  In- 
quisition. From  imperfect  records  it  appears  that 
a  Jew  was  burnt  there  in  1.5^1.  In  1639  twelve 
Portuguese  merchants,  supposed  to  be  Jews,  were 
burnt,  one  of  them  being  described  as  "the  Judai- 
zing  millionaire  Manuel  Bautista  Perez."  Six  tho\i- 
sand  Portuguese,  of  whom  it  may  be  assumed  many 
were  Jews,  purchased  the  right  of  residence  upon 
the  payment  of  200.000  ducats.  It  appears  to  be 
the  opinion  of  writers  upon  the  Inquisition  that  in 
Lima  the  Holy  Oflice  was  particularly  rapacious, 
and  that  all  rich  Portuguese  were  charged  with  be- 
ing Judaizers.  Yet  it  is  extremely  likely  that  this 
cynical  view  is  incorrect,  and  that  the  larger  num- 
ber of  Portuguese  in  Peru  in  early 
Peru.  days  were  actually  Maranos.  A  few 
details  of  the  history  of  the  Jews  in 
Peru  arc  known,  through  a  memoir  composed  from 
original  manuscript  sources  by  B.  Vicuna  MacKenna. 
of  a  certain  Francisco  Moyen,  who  suffered  most 
grievously  from  the  Inquisition  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  very  recent  times  Jews  to  the  number 
of  about  500  have  resettled  in  Peru. 

Jews  are  also  to  be  foimd  in  very  small  numbers 
in  Venezuela,  Costa  Rica,  and  other  South  American 
states.  To  the  Argentine  Republic,  however,  there 
has  been  a  svsteiuatic  immigration,  due  directly  to  the 
efforts  of  feiron  de  Hirsch.  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  now  settled  in  that  country  about  6.755 
Jews  (see  AciRicuLTrR.^L  Colosies  ix  the  Aisges- 

TINK  RKI'fHI.IC). 

Surinam  :  As  early  as  1644  the  Jews  commenced 
to  go  in  small  numbers  to  Paramaribo.  In  1662 
Lord  Willoughby  secured  from  Charles  II.  permis- 
sion to  colonize  Surinam;  and  two  years  later  the 
Jewish  colony  of  Cayenne,  which  had  been  dis- 
banded, removed  to  Surinam. 

In  February,  1667,  Surinam,  then  an  English  col- 
ony, surrendered  to  a  Dutch  fleet.  The  articles  of 
surrender  provided  that  English  subjects  disposed  to 
leave  the  colony  shoidd  be  at  liberty  to  do  so.  Six 
months  later  Surinam  was  retaken  by  the  English 
fleet  and  became  again  an  English  colony ;  but  l)y 
the  treaty  of  Breda "(Jidy  16, 1667)  it  was  restored  to 
the  Dutch.  The  circumstance  became  important 
because  the  British  governiuent  made  strong  repre- 
sentations to  Holland  on  behalf  of  Jewish  residents 
of  Surinam  who,  under  this  clause  of  the  treaty,  de- 
sired to  leave  for  Jamaica,  but  to  whom  the  Dutch 
authorities  at  Surinam  refused  permission  to  depart, 


on  account  of  their  wealth  and  standing.     In  spito 

of  the  "alien"  status  of  Jews  domiciled  in  English 

|>os.sessions  from  the  point  of  view  of  British  law, 

the  Council  of  Great   Britain  found  it  expedient  to 

recognize  Jewsas  British  subjects  at  this  cai  ly  dale. 

The  Dutch  continued  to  the  Jews  the 

Jews         privileges  which   had   been  iiecorded 

Regarded     them  l)V  the  English.     A  .synagogue 

as  British    was    built    at    Savanna,    which   was 

Subjects,     called  "Jews'  Town,"  and  is  said  to 

have  been  inhabited   exclusively   by 

Jews.     Another  and  a  larger  synagogue  was  erected 

at  Paramaribo. 

Many  of  the  colonists— probably  the  major  part 
of  them — left  with  the  English  tlcet  luidcr  Captain 
Willoughby,  and  settled  in  Jamaica  and  Barba- 
dos. In  1669  the  Dutch  government  gave  the  Jews 
of  Surinam  a  formal  promise  that  they  would  be 
allowed  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  They 
were  largely  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  were  the 
first  cultivators  of  the  sugar-cane  in  Surinam. 
When,  in  16S9,  a  French  fleet  ma<le  a  sudden  attack 
upon  Surinam  it  was  met  with  brave  resistance  by 
the  Jews,  under  Samuel  Xassy :  and  on  a  second 
attack  in  1712,  the  Jews,  under  Captain  Isaac  Pinto, 
made  a  stubborn  fight.  They  were  also  foremost  in 
the  suppression  of  the  negro  revolts  from  1690  to 
1772.  The  first  rabbi  in  Surinam  was  Isaac  Neto: 
the  date  of  his  immigration  to  the  colony  must  have 
been  about  1674. 

In  H)S5  the  Congregation  Berakah  we-Shalom  of 
Savanna  built  a  splendid  synagogue.  This  was  prob- 
ably rendered  possible  by  the  considerable  additions 
to  the  colony  from  Brazil  after  therec<)n(|ucst  of  the 
country  by  the  Portuguese.  In  1S9I)  the  Jews  in 
Surinam  luimbered  about  1,560.  having  two  .syna- 
gogues, one  following  the  Spanish  and  the  other  the 
German  rite. 

Cayenne :  A  colony  w-as  established  here  proba- 
bly as  early  as  16.50;  and  this  was  augmented  by  a 
party  of  1.52  which  set  sail  for  Cayeiuie  in  August, 
1660.  Among  them  was  the  Spanish-Jewish  poet, 
historian,  and  litterateur  Miguel  (or  Daniel)  de  Bar- 
rios. In  1664  the  colony  at  Cayenne  was  dis,solved ; 
the  inhabitants  moving  to  Surinam  (as  stated  above), 
to  Jamaica,  and  to  Barbados. 

Curaf ao :  In  16,50  twelve  Jewish  families  were 
brought  to  Curasao. 

In  1652  two  leagues  of  land  along  the  coast  for 
fifty  families,  and  four  leagues  for  one  hundred  fam- 
ilies, were  granted  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Com- 
pany to  Joseph  Xunezde  Fonseca  (alias  David  Xassi) 
and  others,  to  found  a  colony  of  Jews  in  that  island. 
As  early  as  16.54,  direct  relations  between  these  set- 
tlers and  the  inhabitants  of  New  Xetherlands  were 
established.  In  that  year  immigrants  of  wealth  and 
standing  arrived  in  considerable  numbers  from  Bra- 
zil. The  first  burial-ground  was  established  in  16.56; 
and  by  1692  the  Congregation  Jlikveh  Israel  had 
completed  its  synagogue.  A  second  congregation, 
Xeveh  Shalom,  was  established  in  1740.  and  in  1S05 
a  Reform  congregation,  under  the  name  "  Eiuanuel." 
In  1690  a  party  of  about  ninety  set  sjiil  for  North 
.America,  and  established  themselves  in  Rhode  Island 
(Ne\V|icirt). 

West  Indies :  In  1502  King  Ferdinand  prohib- 
ited the  settlement  in  the  West  Indies  of  any  more 
Jews;  and  in  1.506  he  ordered  the  bishops  to  pro- 
ceed against  such  as  might  be  already  settled  there. 
As  noted  above,  Luis  de  Torres,  who  accompanied 
Columbus  on  his  first  voyage,  settled  and  died  in 
Cuba.  It  is  asserted  that  as  early  as  1493  young 
Jewish  children  were,  after  baptism,  sent  to  the 
island  of  St.  Thomas.     In  1642  mention  is  made  of 


495 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


America 


a  certain  Miguel  Nunez,  a  Marano  in  Cuba;  and 
sonif  aullinritics  incline  to  the  opinion  that  tlie  first 
considiralile  settlement  of  Jews  in  New  Amsterdam 
euiiic  from  that  island. 

Barbados:  Jews  settled  in  Barbados  as  early  as 
KJ'JS;  lint  ilic  lirst  detiuite  information  relates  to  the 
year  1001,  when  certain  traders  petitioned  the  kiiij; 
"to  permit  them  to  live  and  trade  in  Barbados  and 
Surinam.  As  early  as  1004  reference  is  made  to 
a  Jew,  named  8enor  Abraham  Israel  de  Pisa,  w  ho 
found  gold  in  the  island.  Another  person  of  nearh' 
the  same  name,  Isaac  Israel  de  Piso,  fell  under  the 
king'.s  displeasure  in  .March,  100,"),  owing  to  his  fail- 
ure to  find  the  expected  goldmines.  InlOGSJews 
are  mentioned  as  owners  of  sugar-works.  In  1071 
Jloses  Pereyra  was  made  a  free  denizen  ;  and  in  107:i 
the  Jews  began  an  agitation  for  recognition  of  their 
rights  as  citizens.  On  Feb.  IS,  1074, 
Privileges  a  law  was  passed  granting  them  the 
as  to        privilege  of  taking  the  oath  upon  the 

Taking  five  books  of  Jloses;  and  in  January, 
Oath.  1675.  a  favorable  response  was  made 
by  the  Assendily  to  their  petition  for 
the  extension  of  their  trade  privileges.  In  1070  Gov- 
ernor Sir  .Tonathan  Atkins  reported  that  there  were 
about  30  Jewish  families  of  Dutch  extraction  from 
Brazil.  On  Oct.  'i'.K  107".l.  Jacob  Senior  arrived  at 
Barbados.  In  the  year  loso,  according  to  a  contem- 
jiorary  document,  there  were  .54  adult  Jews  and  182 
children,  residing  in  and  about  the  town  of  St.  Jli- 
chaels.  These  Jews  owned  a  large  nund)er  of  slaves. 
In  1679  a  few  of  the  Barbados  Jews  eiuigrated — 3  to 
London,  2  to  Jamaica,  and  1  to  Surinam.  According 
to  the  census  of  1891  there  were  21  Jewish  families 
on  the  island. 

Jamaica  :  Jews  probably  settled  hero  in  considcr- 
alili'  numbers  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

The  lirst  Jews — six  in  number — who  were  intro- 
duced into  Jamaica  under  British  government  in 
1603.  came  on  the  ship  "Great  Guest,"  Captain  Ber- 
nard. In  December,  1071,  Governor  Lynch  reported 
to  Lord  Arlington  that  the  king  could  have  no  more 
protitJlble  subjects  than  the  Jews.  .Meanwhile  jieti- 
tions  of  merchants  against  them  were  considered  by 
the  king's  council ;  the  recjuest  being  that  the  Jews 
be  restricted  to  wholesale  trade,  which  pro])osilion 
the  coimcil  rejected.  In  1700  the  Jews  presented 
to  Sir  William  Beeston,  governor-in-chief  of  Ja- 
maica, a  petition  asking  for  exemption  from  special 
taxes,  and  reciting  other  grievances. 

The  trade  between  London  and  Jamaica  was  prin- 
cipally in  Ji'wish  hands;  and  by  17")(l  about  21KI 
Jews  resideil  and  had  been  naturalized  in  that  island. 
One  of  tli(^  best  known  literary  men  (if  Jamaica  was 
Daniel  Israel  Lupez,  who  translated  the  Psalms  into 
Spanish.  At  the  jiresent  day  there  is  a  flourishing 
Jewish  community  in  Jamaica. 

Leeward  Islands:  On  Aug.  31,  1094,  an  act 
wa.s  pas.sed  tc  pnveiit  Jews  from  engrossing  com- 
ninditiis  im]>iirted  into  the  Leeward  Islands,  which 
act  was  ii'pealed  in  1701 — an  indication  that  there 
must  have  l)e<ri  an  early  setllenu  nt  of  considerable 
lirci|ii>riiiiMs  there. 

Porto  Rico :  Of  Porto  Rico  nothing  is  known 
concerning  any  early  Jewish  .s<>ttlement.  In  recent 
years,  since  thi'  .Spanish  American  war,  Jews  liave 
inimignit<'d  thither;  and  there  is  now  a  flourishing 
coUL'regation. 

The  Resettlement  in  England  and  Its  Re- 
lation to  America:  Not  without  great  iiUeresi  is 
thr  iiilimalc  ciinniclidn  between  .\nierican  history 
and  the  rc'sctlleineiil  of  Ji'ws  in  Kngland.  .\ccor(l- 
ing  to  Lucien  Wolf,  "  -Vmerican  history  really  played 


a  very  considerable  part  in  bringing  about  the  return 
of  the  Jews  to  England."  It  was  in  America  that 
religious  liberty  won  its  lirst  victory.  A  Jewish 
traveler,  .\ntonio  de  Montezinos,  was  fidly  per- 
suaded that  in  the  American  Indians  he  had  found 
the  Lost  Ten  Tribes — a  belief  w  Inch  has  had  an  ex- 
traordinary vitality.  He  related  this  story  to  Jlanas- 
seh  ben  Israel;  and  his  narrative  made  a  profound 
impression.  This  fact  accorded  with 
Aborigines  the  view  of  the  times,  that  the  disper- 
and  sion  was  complete  except  for  one  par- 

Lost  Ten     tieular  land.  England;   and  Manasseh 

Tribes.  argued  that  if  the  Jews  would  return 
to  England,  the  Jlessiah  would  come. 
This  view  ho  promulgated  in  his  work,  "The  Hope 
of  Israel."  The  notion  that  the  American  aborigines 
were  the  Lost  Ten  Tribes  has  played  an  important 
part  among  Americanists.  Besides  those  named 
above,  it  was  lu'ld  by  Roldan,  Garcia,  Thorowgood, 
Adair,  and  Lord  Kingsborougli;  and,  though  with- 
out important  adherents  among  students  of  the 
American  aborigines,  it  is  still  discussed  as  a  theory 
to  be  considered. 

It  seems  not  imlikely  that  some  of  the  members  of 
the  Crypto  Jewish  commimitj'  in  London,  prior  to 
the  Restoration,  came  from  the  Aiuerican  continent. 

United  States  :  The  greatest  prosperity  and  the 
largest  population  reached  by  any  nation  on  the 
American  conliMcnt  have  been  attained  by  the  United 
States;  it  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  it  now 
contains  a  larger  nmnber  of  Jews  than  any  country 
in  tlu^  world  save  Russia  and  .\ustria. 

About  forty  years  after  the  settlement  of  New 
Amsterdam  Jews  commenced  to  arrive  there.  They 
gradually  made  their  way  to  all  of  the  original  thir- 
teen colonies;  and  by  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolutionary  War,  they  had  in  several  com- 
munities reached  honorable  positions  in  commerce 
and  in  society. 

Jlost  of  the  early  colonists  in  North  America  were 

of  Sephardic  stock,  and  came  from   Brazil,  West 

Indies.  Portugal,  and  Holland.     At  a 

Early        later  date  some  came  from  England. 

Colonists     Yet  German  and  Polish  Jews  came  to 

Mainly  America  mvich  earlier  than  is  usually 
Sephardic.  supjiosed.  Some  of  these  .settled  in 
Pennsylvania,  New  York.  Maryland, 
Virginia,  and  South  Carolina  in  the  earliest  Colonial 
period.  The  Seidiardim,  however — at  this  time  con- 
stituting the  larger  nutnber — tisually  organized  the 
congregations;  and  the  fact  of  the  early  inunigraliou 
of  Ashkenazic  Jews  has  thus  been  lost  sight  of  by 
most  writers.  German  Jews  seem  even  to  have  been 
among  tin-  martyrs  of  the  Inquisition  in  Mexico. 

New  York  :' By  a  letter  written  .Vpril  4,  lO.IS, 
from  .Vnistrrdain  by  the  director  u(  the  West  India 
Company  to  the  governor  and  council  of  New  Neth- 
erlands, it  appears  that  Jews  were  on  the  muster- 
rolls  of  soldiers  and  siulors  sent  out  to  the  colony, 
and  that  they  engaged  to  serve  for  a  term  of  one 
year.  .\s  early  as  10.").")  there  were  both  Portuguese 
and  German  Jews  in  the  colony. 

The  first  .Jewish  settler  in  New  Amsterdam  whose 

name  has  been  hande<l  down  was  Jacob  Barsimson, 

who  arrived  on  Nov.  9,  10.54,  in  tlie 

First         ship  "  Pear  Tree"     He  was  followed 

Jewish       in  thesjime  year  by  a  party  of  23,  who 

Settlers,  arrived  in  the  bark  ".St.  Catarina." 
It  is  gi-nendly  assumed  that  they  came 
from  Brazil,  allhoughit  isidso  held  that  they  started 
from  soiiu'  part  of  tlu'  West  Indies,  most  likely 
CuIni;  ami  some  hail,  inuiueslionably,  spent  a  longer 
or  a  shorter  lime  in  Jamaica.  They  were  received 
in  an  unfrietidly  fashion  by  StuyvesanI,  the  Dutch 


America 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


496 


covernor  of  New  Auistenliim,  wlio  wrote  to  the 
directors  of  the  Dvitch  AVest  Imlm  Company  asking 
authority  for  their  exclusion.  This  tlie  dircetors  re- 
fused to  jrrant  (April  ~(>.  10')5)  on  the  jrrounil  of 
"the  considerable  loss  sustained  by  tlie  Jews  in  the 
taking;  of  Brazil,  and  also  because  of  the  larj;e 
amount  of  capital  wliich  they  have  invested  in  the 
shares  of  the  conipauy."  They  directed  that  "they 
[the  Jews]  shall  have  permission  to  sail  to  and  trade 
in  New  Netheilund.  and  to  live  and  reniaiu  there." 
This  permission  was  modified  on  March 
Early  13.  lli.W,  by  the  statement  that  the 
Privileges    Jews  were  not  privilejred  to  erect  a 

and  Re-      synagogue:    and   a   little   later    they 
strictions.    were     precluded     from     employment 
in  any  public  service,  and  from  open- 
ing retail  shops. 

One  of  the  sturdiest  pioneers  of  the  New  Amster- 
dam colony  was  Asser  Levy.  In  lO.io  he.  among 
others,  applied  to  be  enlisted  in  the  militia;  but  per- 
mission was  refused,  and,  in  common  with  all  other 
Jews,  he  was,  instead,  ordered  to  pay  a  ta.\.  This 
he  refused  to  do:  and  on  Nov.  '>,  1G.").5,  he  petitioned 
for  leave  to  stand  guard  like  other  burghers  of  New 
Amsterdam.  The  petition  was  rejected;  but  Levy 
seems  to  have  appealed  to  Holland,  for  it  subse- 
quently appears  that  he  was  ])ermittcd  to  do  guard- 
duty  like  other  citizens.  Step  by  step,  through  the 
courts  and  by  appeals,  he  secured  many  other  privi- 
leges (see  New  Yokk  and  Asskk  Lkvy).  He  seems 
to  have  been  the  lirst  Jew  in  the  state  of  New  York 
to  hold  real  estate:  a  lot  on  what  is  now  the  site  of 
Albany  was  owned  by  him  in  HiOl. 

Another  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  early  Jews 
in  New  Amsterdam  was  Abraham  de  Lucena,  who 
in  1(1.").")  applied,  with  several  others,  for  permission 
to  purchase  a  site  for  a  burial-ground.  The  request 
was  refused  with  the  statement  that  there  was  then 
no  need  for  it.  On  July  14,  16.50,  however,  the  re- 
quest was  granted. 

New  Amsterdam  was  captured  by  the  British  in 
lG(i4  and  its  name  changed  to  New  Y'ork.  For  a 
half-century  afterward  but  little  is  known  respect- 
ing the  Jewish  residents.  Their  increase  in  numbers 
was  very  moderate.  It  seems  likely  that  they  had 
some  sort  of  private  wi)rshi[)  very  soon  after  16.5.5, 
and  that  they  began  to  meet  in  a  more  or  less  public 
way  in  IGTfi.  lu  l(i8'.3  the  congregation  rented  a 
house  on  Mill  street;  and  it  was  not  until  1T29 
that  this  was  exchanged  for  a  regular  synagogue 
building. 

On  Nov.  1.5,  1737,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  New  York  providing  that  when 
the  oath  of  abjurati.m  was  to  be  taken 
Under       by  any  one  '•■{  his  Hritisli   Majesty's 
British      subjects  professing  the  Jewish  relig- 
Rule.        ion.  the  words  "upon  the  true  faith  of 
a  Christian  "  might  be  omitted.    Three 
days  later  an  act  was  jiassed  naturalizing  one  Daniel 
Nunez  da  Costa. 

There  was  a  very  considerable  antipathy  in  the 
colony  both  to  (^atholics  and  to  Jews;  but  in  the 
case  of  the  latter  this  gradually  relaxed,  so  that  they 
soon  came  to  receive  most  of  tlie  privileges  accorded 
toother  inhabitants  of  the  town  and  province.  In 
1737.  however,  the  Assembly  of  New  Y'ork  decided 
that  no  Jew  might  vote  for  a  member  of  that  body. 

Before  and  during  the  Kevolutionary  War  the 
Jews,  like  the  other  inhabitants  of  New  Y'ork,  were 
divided  in  their  allegiance.  3Iany  were  devoted  to 
the  patriot  cause;  and  among  these  was  the  minister 
of  the  congregation.  Gershom  Mendes  Seixas.  who, 
upon  the  occupation  of  New  Y'ork  by  the  British, 
took  all  the  belongings  of  the  synagogue  and,  with 


quite  a  nuinlier  of  the  members,  removed  to  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  founded  the  lirst  regularly  estab- 
lished congregation,  the   Miekve  Israel.     After  the 
close  of  the  war  mr)st  of  these  Jewsietnrned  to  New 
York,  which,  on  the  decline  of  Newport  as  a  com- 
mercial city,  took  its  place  and  rapidly  allnutid  a 
large   population.     The    tide   of    immigiation    now 
commenced  to  flow  toward  the  United  States,  most 
largely   in   the   first   instance   to   New   Y'ork  city. 
Hither  came  Jews  from  the  West  Indies,  from  Ger- 
many, Poland,  Russia.  Humania,  in  short,  from  every 
quarter  of  the  globe.      It  is  estimated 
Modern       that    the    city   of    New   Y'ork    aloni- 
Jewry  of     now (lil(ll) contains  3(t((, 000  Jews;  ami 
New  Tork.  there  are  110  congregations  enumer- 
ated   exclusive    of    numerous    small 
ones.     Jews  are  now  represented  in  New  York  city 
in  every  walk  of  life,  professional,  commercial,  ami 
industrial. 

From  the  citj",  Jews  gradually  penetrated  to  the 
state.  A  congregation  was  founded  at  BulTalo  in 
183"),  one  at  Albany  in  1S37,  and  another  at  Roches- 
ter in  1848:  and  all  of  the  larger  and  many  of  the 
smaller  towns  in  New  Y'ork  state  now  have  Jewish 
conununities. 

Newport,  R.  I.:  The  hostile  attitude  of  .Stuyve- 
sant  luobalily  caused  Jewish  emigrants  to  leave 
New  Amsterdam  as  early  as  16.55  and  to  settle  in 
Newport.  There  is  definite  information  to  the  elTect 
that  15  Jewish  familiesarrived  in  1658.  who  brought 
with  them  the  first  degrees  of  Masonry.  They  were 
reinforced  by  a  contingent  from  Cura(;ao  in  16!)0. 

Quit<'  in  contrast  with  the  oppres.sivc  treatment  in 
New  Amsterdam  was  the   generous   reception   ac- 
corded the  .Jews  in   Rhode  island,  in 
Jews  Cor-     consonance  with  the  liberal  principles 
dially        propounded  by  Roger  Williams.     Al- 
Received.     ready  in  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Jews  of  Newport  had  commercial  rela- 
tions with  their  coreligionists  in  New  Amsterdam. 

It  is  likely  that  religious  services  were  first  held  in 
Newport  in  1658,  although  no  synagogue  was  erected 
until  the  following  century.  A  burial-place,  how- 
ever, was  purchased  on  Feb.  28,  1677. 

In  1750  a  very  important  accession  was  received 
in  the  families  of  Lopez,  Riveia,  Pollock,  Hart,  and 
Hays,  all  persons  of  wealth  and  enterpii.se  engaged 
in  manufacture  and  commerce.  These  families  came 
from  Spain.  Portugal,  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
extent  of  the  properly  of  Aaron  Lopez  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  at  one  time  he  owned  as  many  as  30 
vessels.  Jacob  Rodrigues-Rivera.  a  native  of  Por- 
tugal, came  to  Newport  about  1745.  He  was  the 
lirst  person  to  introduce  the  manufacture  of  sperina- 
celi  in  America. 

In  1763  the  erection  of  a  synagogue  was  begun, 
which  was  completed  and  dedicated  in  the  following 
year.  Two  years  jireviously  there  had 
Synagogue  come  from  Jamaica  the  Rev.  I.saac 
Built.  Touro,  who  was  chosen  rabbi;  and 
under  his  auspices  the  synagogue  was 
well  attended  until  the  outbreak  of  the  American 
Revolution.  In  1763  there  were  between  60  and  70 
Jewish  families  in  Newport.  The  first  Jewish  ser- 
mon preached  in  America  wliich  has  been  published 
was  (ielivered  in  the  Newport  synagogue  on  Jlay  28, 
1773,  by  Rabbi  Hayyim  Isaac  Karigel,  in  the  Spanish 
language,  and  wasafterward  translated  into  English, 
Karigel  appears  to  have  come  from  Hebron  in  Pales- 
line,  and  was  a  close  friend  of  Ezra  Stiles,  the  presi- 
dent of  Yale  L'niversity,  As  early  as  1761  a  Jewish 
club  was  formed,  with  a  membership  limited  to  9 
jiersons.  Just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  the  Jewish  population  of  Newport 


497 


THE  .lEWISlI   KJS'CYCLOl'EUlA 


America 


appours  III  have  conipriscd  ulioiit  2l)lt  families.  Thf 
CDinniuuily  was  ilispcrscil  by  tlic  war;  and  it  never 
repiined  ils  importance.  In  1790  it  presented  an 
address  to  AVashington.  Tlie  Tonro  family  be- 
i|Ueatlied  suflicient  nmney  to  maintain  tliesynajioo-iie 
as  well  as  the  eemeteiy  ;  and  these  an'  still  in  exist- 
ence, althoufjh  the  number  ul  Jews  now  resident  in 
Newport  is  but  small. 

'I'lie  Jewish  commiuiity  of  Newport  held  an  espe- 
cially interesting  and  even  a  uniipie  position  in 
America,  and  impressed  it.self  for  all  time  on  the 
town,  once  th<'  leading  port  of  the  colonies  and  now 
the  most  fashinnable  summer  resort  in  the  United 
States. 

Other  Parts  of  New  England :  An  occasional 
Jew  may  have  strayed  into  other  portions  of  New 
Knglanii  in  the  earl \- days:  but  the  Puritan  atmos- 
phere was  apparently  not  congenial.  The  best 
known  of  the  early  .settlers  was  Juilah  Monis.  who 
became  a  convert  to  Chrislianity,  and  tilled  the  chair 
(rf  Hebrew  in  Harvard  College  from  1722  until  his 
death  in  17(54. 

As  early  as  1670  there  is  mention  of  a  Jew.  Jacob 
Luei'ne.  in  the  Colonial  Records  of  Connecticut. 

When  the  Uritish  took  Newport  many  of  the  Jews 
there  left  and  etTccted  a  temi)orary  settlement  at 
Leicester,  Mass. ;  but  this  did  not  survive  the  close 
of  the  war.  A  number  of  Jews,  including  the 
Hays  family,  settled  at  Boston  before  ISOO.  About 
1S40  Ji-ws  began  to  emigrate  from  New  York  to 
New  Haven  and  IJoston;  and  congregations  were 
lormeil  in  those  cities  in  l.S40and  18-12  respectively. 
The  conununal  life  of  the  New  Eng- 
New Haven  land  Jews  was  without  especial  inci- 
andBoston.  dent:  and  their  numbers  increased  but 
slowly  luitil  after  the  beginning  of  the 
great  Russian  emigration  in  1SS2.  Immediately  the 
overflow  from  Xew  York,  as  well  as  tlu'  emigration 
through  Canada,  commenceil  topourinto  New  Eng- 
land. It  is  estiinate<l  that  (>(), 000  Jews  now  (1901) 
reside  in  .Massachusetts  alone,  and  nearly  20,000 
more  in  the  other  New  Eni;land  slates. 

An  interesting  |)henonienon  has  been  noticed  in 
connecli<in  with  theshiflingof  agricultural  industry 
in  the  I'nited  States.  Willi  the  opening  up  of  the 
Western  country  an<l  the  greater  advantages  offered 
by  the  virgin  soil,  many  New  England  farmers  abso- 
lutely abandoned  their  compar.-itively  unfruitful 
farms  and  moved  West.     These  aban- 

Russian      doned  farms,  especially  in  Connecti- 
Jews  cut,  have  been   taken   up   by  Kussian 

asFarmers.  Jews,  who,  principally  as  dairy  farm- 
ers, have  added  a  new  and  u.seful  ele- 
ment to  the  agricultural  community. 

Maryland:  It  s<-ems  not  unlikely  that  Maryland 
was  the  lirst  colony  in  which  Jews  settled,  though 
Ihey  were  probably  stragirlers:  and  it  was  long  be- 
fore any  coiuMUinal  lite  was  established. 

Scaltere<l  Jews  seem  to  liavi'  arrived  shortly  after 
llie  establishment  of  the  provincial  government  in 
HWil.  At  least  as  early  as  iri."«7  Dr.  Jacob  Lumbro/.o 
was  settled  there,  and  in  Ui">S  he  was  trieil  and  re- 
manded for  blasphemy,  his  release  being  due  to  the 
general  anmesty  in  honorof  the  accession  of  I{iehard 
Cromwell  (de<lared  March:!,  llir)S).  I.ettersof  dini 
zaiion  were  issiail  to  him  Sept.  10,  l(!ti;i.  He  had  a 
plantiilion  and  also  praelised  medicine.  He  is  de 
scribed  as  from  Lisbon  :  but  he  hail  a  sister  in  Holland. 

Till'  history  of  the  Jews  in  .Maryland  is  of  especial 
interest:  since  it  was  in  this  colony  and  state  that 
the  civil  and  political  rights  of  .lews  were  most  re- 
stricted, anil  it  was  here,  of  all  America,  that  the 
most  syslemalie  efforts  were  put  forth  for  obtaining 
the  fullest  recognition  under  the  law.  Marylanii 
I.— :J2 


was  one  of  the  tirst  colonies  to  adopt  religious  toler- 
ation as  the  ba.sis  of  the  state:  but  it  was  toleration 
and  not  liberty,  since  there  was  a  proviso  that  any 
person  who  denied  the  Trinity  was  to  be  punished 
with  death.  Even  after  the  Revolution,  no  one 
might  hold  any  ollice  of  prolit  or  trust  under  the 
state  without  signing  a  declaration  that  he  believed 
in  the  Christian  religion. 

ElTorts  were  made  in  1801  and  1804  to  obtain  a 
revocation  of  this  jiroviso:   but  on  both  occasions 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  legislature 
Jews  Hold    voted  against  its  repeal.     These  eflorts 
Public        were  renewed  in  1819.  and  finally  suc- 
Positions.    ceeded,  so  that  in  1824  two  Jewish  citi- 
zens were  elected  mem  hers  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Hallimore,  being  the  lirst  Jews  to  hold  oliice 
in   the   .stale   of   Maryland.     The  success  of  these 
elTorts  was  largely  due  to  the  persistent  labors  of  a 
single  family — the  Cohens — who  still  maintain  an 
honored  position  in  the  community. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  Maryland,  al- 
though remaining  in  the  Union,  numbered  among 
her  citizens  a  large  body  of  sympalliizers  with  the 
Confederate  cause.  The  conflict  of  o|iinion  was  es- 
pecially severe  among  the  Jews,  due  to  the  pro- 
nounced antislavery  attitude  assumed  by  Rabbi 
David  Einhorn,  who  was  actually  threatened  with 
violiiici-  and  was  obli.ged  to  leave  the  city. 

Pennsylvania :  jews  from  New  Amsterdam 
traded  along  South  river,  subsequently  named  the 
Delaware,  as  early  as  16")."),  and  began  to  arrive  as 
settlers  in  the  colony  of  Pennsylvania  not  much 
more  than  ten  yearsafter  its  establishment.  Unlike 
New  Y'ork  and  Newport,  a  very  considerable  pro- 
jiortion  of  the  early  Pennsylvania  colonists  were  not 
Portuguese,  but  German  Jews;  and  they  settled  not 
in  Philadelphia,  but  in  towns  in  the  interior  of  the 
state.  The  earliest  settlements  seem  to  have  been 
in  Schaefersville  and  Lancaster.  Joseph  Simon,  who 
in  the  latter  place  was  the  ))ioneer,  about  1740  em- 
barkeil  in  the  Indian  trade  and  in  real-estate  trans- 
actions on  a  large  scale.  In  1747  the 
Schaefers-  ileed  fora  Jewish  cemetery  in  Laucas- 
ville,  Lan-  ler  was  made  out  in  his  name  and  in 
caster,  that  of  Isaac  Nunes  Ricus  as  trustees. 
andEaston.  Myer  Hart  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
Easton  in  1750.  He  was  engaged  in 
trade,  and  was  there  naturiilized  on  Oct.  H.  1764. 
Aaron  Levy  sellleil  in  Xorthuniberland  county.  Pa., 
about  17(iO.  and  was  a  large  landowner.  In  1786  he 
projected  I  he  town  of  A.MtoNsiiiito  in  that  county. 
The  Jewish  lommunity  of  Philadelphia  was  for  a 
time  the  leading  one  in  the  United  States,  and  was 
inferior  in  nunibersonly  to  that  of  New  York.  The 
tirst  Jewish  settler  in  Pliilaihl|iliia  of  whom  there  is 
record  was  Jonas  Aaron  (170;>l.  and  the  second  was 
.Vrnold  Bamberger  (1726).  As  early  as  1747  a  num- 
ber of  persons  who  had  joined  together  for  llie  pur- 
pose of  woi'ship  met  for  services  in  a  small  house  in 
Sterling  alley — aflerward  in  Cherry  alley — between 
Third  and  Poiirlh  streets.  They  were  mostly  (Jer- 
man  and  Polish  Jews;  and  their  dilTerences  as  to 
the  liturgy  to  be  followed  prevented  at  the  time  the 
formalioii  of  any  regular  coiigregalion.  When  the 
lirilish  troops  occupied  New  Y'ork 
Phila-  dining  the  Revolutionary  War.  the 
delphia.  miiiisier,  Gershom  Meiides  Seixas, 
with  a  considerable  porlioii  of  the 
New  Y'ork  congregation,  came  to  Philadelphia,  and, 
flnding  no  regular  services,  they,  with  the  help  of 
the  resident  Jews,  established  one  in  accordance 
with  the  Portuguese  rite.  Seixas  was  the  flrsi  min- 
ister. After  him  no  man  of  importance  held  the 
[losition  until  Isaac  Leeser,  1829.    lie  was  the  leading 


America 


Tin:  .IKWISII   EXCYCLOPEDIA 


498 


Jewish  minister  of  Ills  time;  and  not  more  than 
two  or  three  others  have  left  sutli  an  impress  npon 
Aincriean-Jewish  afTairs  as  lie.  Minister,  teaeher, 
organizer,  translator  of  the  ]Jil)le,  editor,  and  piih- 
lishcr,  he  was  in  everj'  way  iiidet'ati.iralilc.  Other 
prominent  jiersons  were  the  I'liillips  family,  chief 
amom;  tliem  liein^'  Salesman  I'liillips.  Henry  31. 
Phillips,  the  latter  one  of  the  liadinLT  lawyers  of 
i'hilailrlphia  and  a  member  of  the  Thirty-liflh 
Congress.  Tlure  followed  Lreser,  as  minister  of 
the  Mickve  Israel  Congregation,  Sa- 

Notable      hato    Jlorais,    a   native   of   Leghorn, 

Philadel-     Italy,  who  from  \x'>\  until  Ins  death  in 

phia  Jews.    IH'JT  was  a  leading  ligiire  in  Ameriean- 

Jewish   alVairs.     He    first    suggested 

the  Jewish  Theolo.ijieal  Seminary  in  New  York. 

The  tirst  (lernmn  congregation  was  the  Uodeph 
Shalom,  which  received  a  charter  on  Aug.  T,'.  1S02. 
but  which  no  doubt  had  meetings  at  an  earlier  dale. 
The  most  prominent  of  it^  rabbis  was  Marcus  Jas- 
trow:  the  best-known  cantor,  Jacob  Frankel.  The 
latter  acted  during  the  Civil  War  as  chaplain  of 
hospitals  under  the  United  Slates  government.  The 
first  leadin.ir  Hefonn  minister  installe<l  in  Philadel- 
phia was  rabbi  Samuel  Hirsch.  Many  other  congre- 
gations have  since  been  formed,  more  especially 
since  1882.  when  the  Hussian  immigration  brought 
large  numbers  to  the  city. 

Philadelphia  has  always  been  prominent  in  educa- 
tional matters.  The  tirst  Jewish  Sunday-school  was 
organized  there  in  18:38;  the  Hebrew  Education  So- 
ciety, in  1848;  and  the  JIaimonidcs  College,  in  1867, 
The  largest  fund  in  the  United  States  for  higher 
Jewish  education  is  that  provided  by  a  deed  of  gift 
from  Hyman  Gralz  to  the  Mickve  Israel  Congrega- 
tion in  ti'ust,  from  which  Gratz  Colh'.sie  is  supported. 
One  of  the  most  comprehensive  of  works  relating 
to  Jews  of  any  single  community  in 

Maimon-     the    United    States    is     "  The    Jews 

ides  of   Philadelphia."  by  Henry   Samuel 

and  Gratz     Morais,  p'dilished  in  Philailelphia  in 

Colleges.  18'J4.  Philadelphia  Jews  have  been 
prominent  in  many  professions,  in  the 
fine  arts,  and  in  all  the  avenues  of  manufacture  and 
commerce.  Up  to  1894  as  many  as  116  had  been 
admitted  to  the  bar;  and  the  number  has  since  been 
greatly  increased.  Three  Jews  served  in  Congress 
as  representatives  of  the  state. 

.lews  gradually  made  their  way  to  the  western 
part  of  the  state,  settling  in  large  numlnTs  in  Pitts- 
burg, which,  after  Phila<leli)hia.  is  the  next  largest 
conununity  in  Pennsylvania.  That  of  Wilkesbarre 
is  notable  for  its  numbers  and  for  the  high  character 
of  its  members.  Since  the  Russian  immigration 
.Tews  have  made  their  way  to  ever)-  part  of  the  state ; 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  town  of  any  size  which  is 
now  without  its  community  or  congregation. 

Georgia  :  In  noui'  of  the  colonies  which  after- 
waril  formed  the  United  States  did  tbi' Jews  arrive 
in  numln-rs  .so  early  after  the  establishmc'nt  of  the 
colony  as  in  Geor.sia.  On  July  7,  l~'ti''>.  Oglethorjie, 
its'  founder  and  .uovernor,  had  assembled  the  colo- 
nists, who  had  arrived  one  month  previously,  on  the 
site  of  the  present  city  of  Savannah  for  the  purpo,se 
of  allotting  to  each  .settler  his  proportion  of  land. 
While  the  colonists  were  partaking  of  a  public  din- 
ner, given  at  theclo.seof  the  day's  ]iroceedings,  there 
came  up  the  Savannah  river,  from  London,  a  vessel 
containing  40  Jewish  emigrants.  Their  arrival  was 
not  e.xpccted;  but  on  the  whole  thev  were  kindly 
received.  One  of  their  number.  Dr.  Nunis.  was  es- 
pecially valuable  for  his  attention  to  the  sick.  The 
trustees  in  London  were  opposed  to  the  settlement 
of  the  Jews;  but  Oglethorpe  included  the  names  of 


a  half-dozen  of  them  as  grantors  in  a  conveyance, 
executed  Dec.  21,  1733.  of  town  lots,  gardens,  and 
farms.  These  original  .settlers,  all  of 
Savannah,  whose  names  have  been  recorded,  were 
the  ])rogenitors  of  families  still  in  ex- 
istence in  various  parts  of  the  Unite<i  States.  The 
tirst  iiuile  white  child  born  in  the  stale  of  Georgia 
was  a  .lew.  Isjiac  Jliiiis.  .\bniliam  de  Lyon  had 
prior  to  1T37  introduced  the  culture  of  grapes,  he 
iiaving  been  a  wine.urower  in  Portugal.  I$y  1742  the 
number  of  Jews  in  Savannah  was  so  diunnished 
that  the  services  in  the  syna.!;o,iriie  hail  to  be  discon- 
tinued, three  oidy  of  the  original  families  remainini.'. 
A  (piarter  of  a  century  later  several  returned  from 
Charlesion. 

In  1774  another  congregation  was  started,  which 
was  gradually  augnicnted  until  the  outbreak  r>f  the 
.'Vmeriean  Revolution.  Immediately  after  the  close 
of  the  war  many  Jews  returned  to  Savannah;  and 
on  July  7,  1786,  they  hired  a  dwelling-house  for  a 
place  (if  worship.  On  Xov.  30,  1790,  a  charter  for  a 
congregation,  tmder  the  name  of  "Mickve  Israel  of 
Sftvannah."  was  .irranted.  The  religious  exercises 
of  the  congregation  were  conducted  gniluitously  by 
Dr.  de  la  .Slotta;  and  in  1820,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
consecration  of  the  synagogue,  he  delivered  an  ad- 
dress which  is  still  a  document  of  the  very  greatest 
value  to  American-Jewish  history.  The  synagogue 
was  destroyed  by  tire  in  1829,  and  was  replaced  by 
a  substantial  .structure  of  brick. 

Augusta  was  the  next  town  in  the  state  settled  by 
Jews.     The  first  arrival — about  1S2.1 — was  one  Flor- 
ence acccmijianied  by  his  wife.     Other 
Augusta,     fanulies  followed  in  1826  from  Charles- 
Macon,  etc.  ton.     The    first    congre.iration,     Bne 
Israel,   was  firganized   in   1846,     At- 
lanta, Columbtis,  and  Macon  have  considerable  com- 
munities; and  a  number  of  congregations  are  scjit- 
tered  throughout  the  state;   but  the  community  in 
Savannah  is  still  the  most  important.     At  Atlanta 
there  is  a  Home  for  Orjiluuis,  foimded  and  managed 
by  the  Indejielideiit  Order  15'rie  Brith. 

South  Carolina:  As  early  as  1742  Jews  left 
Savannah  and  settled  in  Charleston.  A  congrega- 
tion was  formed  in  ll'tO,  and  its  members  worshiped 
for  seven  years  in  a  small  wooden  liouse  in  I'nion 
street,  near  Queen  street.  They  purchased  a  burial- 
groimd  in  17.')7.  and  in  1781  a  large  building  in 
Union  street  which  was  altered  and  prepare<l  for  a 
synagogue.  In  1791.  when  the  congregation  was  in- 
corporated, it  consisted  of  .■)!  families,  numbering  in 
all  about  400  persons.  Two  years  later  these  had 
increased  so  much  that  a  new  syna- 
Charleston.  gogue  was  erected  at  a  cost  of  820.- 
000,  which  was  completed  in  1704. 
The  community  was  augmented  after  the  Rfvolu- 
tion  by  a  large  number  of  Jews  from  Xew  York, 
who  settled  in  Charleston,  and  remained  there 
till  the  commencement  of  the  Civil  War.  Jews 
are  now  settled  in  small  numbers  throughout  the 
state.  The  first  Reform  movwnent  in  any  congre- 
gation in  -Vmerica  was  instituted  in  Charleston  in 
1825. 

North  Carolina :  In  1808  an  attempt  was  made 
to  expel  a  member  of  the  General  Assembly  of 
Xorth  Carolina  becauseof  his  Jewish  faith.  In  1820 
the  number  of  Jewish  settlers  in  the  state  was  esti- 
mated at  400.  which  was  considerably  augmented 
after  the  emigration  of  1848.  The  larirest  commu- 
nitvat  th(t  present  time  ( 1901 )  is  that  of  Wilmington, 

Virginia  and  West  Virginia:  Stray  Jewi.sh 
settlers  came  to  Vir.srinia  about  16)8,  .some  of  whose 
names  and  transactions  have  been  handed  down. 
At  least  one  Jewish  soldier — possibly  two — served 


499 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


America 


ill  Virginia  R'gimonts  under  Wasliinj^ton  in  his  ex- 
IKMlitiiin  across  the  Allejfliany  mounluins  in  1754. 
It  is  likely  lliat  ((uitc  a  nunilx-r  dt'  .lews  reinnved 
friirii  IJaltiniore  and  otlier  pciiiits  in  .Maryland  to 
Kielininudat  an  early  date.  The  Conicre.^Mtion  15eth 
yhaloni  was  formed  in  the  latter  plate  about  the 
year  1791.  The  Kichniond  conumiuily  lias  .since 
grown  to  considerable  projjortions,  as  has  also  that 
of  Norfolk.  Congregations  now  exist  in  about  20 
towns  ill  the  state,  and  iu  at  least  4  towns  iu  West 
Viririiiia. 

Louisiana:  Judali  Touro  came  to  New  Orleans 
as  early  as  1801.  The  first  iiitermeiit  in  tlic  Jewish 
cemetery  of  that  city  took  place  on  June  28,  1828. 
The  coinmuuity  there  grew  rapidly  from  1848  on; 
and  tuinibers  of  congregations  and  important  chari- 
table organizations  were  established.  Similar  jirog- 
ress  is  noticeable  throughout  the  entire  state,  1!) 
town-;  now  having  Jen  isli  communities. 

Kentucky:  The  lirst  person  of  undoubted  Jew- 
ish lilood  to  settle  iu  Kentucky  was  a  Mr.  Salamou, 
of  Philadelphia,  who  established  hiiii.self  at  Ilarrods- 
burg  about  1808.  In  1810  he  was  api)ointed  cashier 
of  the  bank  of  the  United  States  at  Lexington.  A 
service  was  established  in  1838;  and  by  184;i  there 
was  a  synagogue  which,  under  the  name  of  '"Adas 
Israel,"  obtained  a  charter  from  the  legislature. 

Louisville  now  (1901)  has  six  congregations  as 
well  as  a  considerable  iiumlier  of  i)liil;uilliro|iic  and 
educational  institutions.  The  major 
Louisville,  portion  of  the  Jews  of  Kentucky  re- 
side in  Louisville;  but  there  are  com- 
munities in  at  least  a  half-do/.eu  other  towns  iu  the 
slate. 

The  remaining  Southern  states,  with  a  single  ex- 
ception, can  be  but  barely  mentioned  here.  Jews 
settled  in  the  territory  which  is  now  Alabama  as 
early  as  1724;  and  the  lirst  congregation  was  formed 
in  Mobile  in  1841.  Birmingham,  Jlobile,  ilont- 
goineiy,  and  many  smaller  towns  have  tiourishiug 
communities. 

Texas :  Jews  jilayed  a  very  considerable  jiart  in 
the  >ettlenient  and  development  of  Te.\as.  The  first 
Jewish  settler  was  Samuel  Israel,  who  came  from 
the  United  States  in  1821,  when  Texas  was  still  a 
jiortioii  of  Jlexico.  He  received  a  grant  of  land  in 
Fort  lieiid  county,  and  later  a  boiinty-w  arrant  in 
I'olk  county  for  services  in  the  army  of  Texas  in 
1831)  and  1837.  He  was  followed  by  Abraham  ('. 
Labat,  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  who  arrived  in  18;U. 
One  of  the  lirst  to  take  advantage  of  the  new  chan- 
nel of  tra<le  opened  to  the  United  Slates  by  the  re- 
sults of  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto  in  18;!(t,  which 
made  Texas*  an  independent  republic,  was  Jacob  de 
Cordova,  of  Spanish  Town,  Jamaica.  In  18;!7  he 
settled  in  (Jalveston  and  became  a  citizen  of  the  re- 
juiblic;  and  he  had  a  large  share  in  settling  persons 
on  tracts  of  land  in  Texas. 

The  most  important  of  the  cnrly  settlers,  hn-wevor. 

was  Henry  Castro,  jiioneer  of  that  portion  of  Texas 

to  the  west  tif  thecilvof  San  Antonio. 

Early         He  served   in    the    I'reneh   army,  and 

Settlers.  emigrateil  to  the  United  State*  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  in  May.  1827. 
and,  Imviiig  become  an  Amiri<an  citizen,  was  ap- 
jioinled  coiiKiil  for  Naples  at  Providence,  1{.  1.  On 
June  !■"),  1842,  Castro  enteri'd  into  a  contract  with 
President  Houston  for  .settling  a  colony  west  of  the 
M<'dii>a.  This  colony  he  inaugurated  .Sept.  3.  IS44; 
and  it  is  estimated  that  between  ls^:iand  184(i  he 
introduced  more  than  ."LOOOeinigrants  into  the  state. 
On  the  admission  of  Texas  into  tlie  Union,  a  Jew, 
David  S.  KaulTman,  was  ideeled  luie  of  her  con- 
gressmen; and  he  served  until  his  doiith  iu  18.51. 


Texas,  in  iirojiortiou  to  her  .Tewish  jiopulation,  has 
had  an  unusually  large  number  of  Jewish  citizens 
prominent  in  pulilic  life  and  in  the  learned  profes- 
sions. Thirty-two  towns  now  have  Jewish  coniniu- 
nilies;  the  largest  being  those  of  Dallas,  Galveston, 
Houston., San  Antonio,  and  ^\■uco. 

Western  States. — Indiana :  As  regards  He- 
brews in  the  Western  states,  the  first  definite  infor- 
mation is  of  the  arrival  in  Iiuiianapolis  in  1794  of 
Jews  from  England;  but  no  congregation  ajipears 
to  have  been  organized  there  until  Ls-lC.  This  con- 
gregation was,  however,  precetled  by  those  of  Fort 
Wayne  (1848),  Lafayette  (1849),  a'nd  Evausvillc 
(18.")3).  Twenty-three  towns  in  the  state  now  have 
Jewish  communities. 

Itlichigan :  A  congregation  was  organized  in 
Detroit,  ilieh.,  iu  18.51.  That  city  now  has  a  con- 
siderable Jewish  community.  In  no  other  place  in 
the  state  have  Jews  settled  in  large  numbers.  They 
are,  however,  distributed  iu  small  numbers  through- 
out the  whole  of  Jlichigaii,  there  being  no  less  than 
2()  towns  with  Jewish  communities,  among  which 
should  be  especially  mentioned  Alpena,  Bay  City, 
(iraiid  Bapids,  and  Kalamazoo. 

Ohio:  The  earliest  Jewish  community  of  impor- 
tance in  the  West,  and  that  which  still  plays  a  lead- 
ing part  in  Jewish  affairs  in  the  United  States,  is  the 
community  of  the  state  of  Ohio,  more  especially  that 
of  Cincinnati. 

The  Jewish  pioneer  of  the  Ohio  valley  was  Joseph 
Jonas,  who  was  born  in  Exeter,  England,  and  ar- 
rived in  Cincinnati  on  March  8,  1817.  In  1819  he  was 
joined  by  three  others.  Jtany  more,  all  of  English 
birth,  followed,  until  the  year  18:^0,  when  a  wave  of 
German  emigration  Howed  into  Cincinnati.  As  early 
as  1819,  services  were  held  on  New-year's  Day  and 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement.  In  182.5  a  congregation 
was  formed,  under  the  name  "Kalial  Kadosh  B'ne 
Yisrael."  Two  others  were  established  in  1.841,  and 
a  fourth  in  1848.  Largely  through  the  iiiHuence  of 
Isaac  JI.  AVise,  but  powerfully  aided  by  capable  and 
public-spirited  members  of  the  corn- 
Cincinnati,  munity,  Cincinnati  has  indelibly  im- 
pressed itself  upon  Judaism  in  Amer- 
ica. It  is  the  seat  of  the  Union  of  American-Hebrew 
Congregations,  of  the  Board  of  Delegates,  and  of  the 
Hebrew  Union  College,  which  now  supplies  the  pul- 
pits of  a  large  maiority  of  the  Bcformed  congrega- 
tions of  the  United  States, 

Second  in  importance  is  the  community  of  Cleve- 
land, in  which  town  Jews  settled  as  early  as  1839. 
A  congregation  was  founded  iu  1840,  aud  a  second 
in  18.50.  Jews  are  now  settled  in  20  towns  in  the 
stale. 

Illinois :  The  state  of  New  York  contains  more 
than  one-third  of  the  Jewish  iiopulation  of  the 
United  States;  and  the  states  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Illinois  together  comprise  one  fifth,  these  two  latter 
being  about  ec|Ual.  This  is  all  the  more  surprising 
in  view  of  the  comparatively  recent  opening-up  of 
the  western  territory;  thongli  it  isijuite  certain  that 
there  were  Jewish  settlers  in  the  Illinois  territory 
during  Kreiich  rule  about  1700. 

Chicago  reeeivi'd  its  charier  not  earlier  than  the 
year  1837.  The  lirst  authentic  information  of  the 
settlement  of  Jew  s  there  dates  back  to  1841 ;  and  in 
1843  a  large  number  arrived.  The  fimt  Jew  to  buy 
land  in  Cook  county  was  Henry  Jli'yer,  who  came 
to  Illinois  in  the  spring  ol  1.><47.  hi  18-1.5  the  Ilrst 
Jewish  organization  was  established  under  the  name 
of  "The  Jewish  Hurial(!round  Society."  The  Ke- 
liillat  .\nshe  Ma'arab  was  organized  in  1847,  being 
the  oldest  c'ongregation  in  the  Northwest;  u  second, 
B'nai  Sholom,  was  established  in  1852.     Iu  1858  the 


America 


THE  JEWISH    ENlVl  Lol'EDlA 


>00 


first  steps  were  taken   towiinl  the  I'oriniilion  of  i\ 

Jewish  Kefonn  iissdciatioii,  whieli  resiilleil  ih  tliees- 

tal)li'ihineiit  of  tlie  Sinai  ('iinirri'iialinn 

Chicago.  in  IMil.  Since  thai  time  llie  iriowlh  of 
till- Jiwish  eoininunily  there  has  l)een 
in  every  way  proportionate  to  the  growtli  of  tlie 
city  itself,  whieh.  Ihoiijirh  not  yet  TO  years  old,  is  in 
point  of  population  the  seeond  eity  in  the  Unileti 
States.  Fifty  conjirefiations  are  known  to  e.xist ; 
and  there  are  no  dotibt  many  smaller  ones  whose 
names  have  not  yet  heen  ascertained.  'I'hi'  Jewish 
eoinin unity  of  Chieajro  has  many  notable  educational 
establishments  and  hospitals,  and  has  furnished  (lis- 
tinjruished  members  of  the  lejral  profession,  arelii- 
lects.  and  musicians.  Amon";:  its  lu-oniiiu'iit  rabbis 
Liebniann  Adler,  H.  Felsenlhal.  and  Kniil  (}.  Ilirscl: 
may  be  named.  Jewish  conuuuiiilics  are  known  to 
exist  in  l(j  cities  and  towns  of  the  state. 

Central  and  Southwestern  States :  Of  these 
but  a  liai-c  miiilioM  ciiri  In-  made  here. 

Missouri:  For  a  year  previous  to  the  admission  of 
^Missouri  into  the  Uiiion  as  a  state,  the  territory  was 
inhabited  by  Jews,  a  family  by  the  uanu'  of  Bloch 
liavinj;  settled  there  in  ISIG. 

The  tirst  reliirious  set  vices  were  held  in  St.  Louis 
in  1S3G,  and  in  1S37  a  consrreiration  was  established. 
St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City  now  have  very  consider- 
able Jewish  comnnnnties,  and  smaller  ones  e.\ist  in 
f<  oilier  towns  in  tlie  slate. 

Tennessee:  There  are  Jewish  communities  in 
:\I(iii])liis.    Nashville,   Knoxville,  and  other  towns. 

Minnesota:  The  tirst  congrepition  in  Minnesota 
was  established  at  Si.  I'aul  in  iy.")(>,  whieh  now  has 
a  considerabh^  communiiy.  as  has  also  Jlinneaiiolis; 
Didulh  raiiUin.iT  third.  Milwaukee  has  also  a  large 
Jewish  comnuiiiily,  the  tirst  congregation  having 
been  eslablished  in  IS.Ti.  It  has  now  no  less  than 
5  congregations;  and  there  are  congregations  in  K! 
other  towns  of  the  slate  of  Wisconsin. 

Iowa :  The  oldest  congregation  in  Iowa  is  that 
of  Keokuk,  foimded  in  l»fiii.  "The  largest  congrega- 
tion is  in  Oes  Jloines;  and  Jews  now  live  in  1 1  towns 
in  the  state,  though  in  small  numbers  and  greatly 
scattered. 

Kansas :  The  earliest  congregation  scorns  to 
have  been  that  of  lA'avenswor^h.  founded  in  18G0. 
Eight  towns  now  liave  Jewish  communities. 

Nebraska:  The  first  Jewish  congregation  was 
founded  about  IMTO  in  Omaha,  which  now  has  a 
considerable  community.  There  are  also  congrega- 
tions at  Lincoln  and  several  smaller  towns  through- 
out the  state. 

California :  Jews  went  to  the  Pacific  coast  in 
large  numlierson  the  announeemenlof  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  1S4!);  and  as  early  as  1S.")(I  two  congrega- 
tions had  been  established  "in  San  Francisco.  The 
community  grew  with  great  rapidity:  and  it  dif- 
fered somewhat  from  the  other  Jewisli  communities 
in  the  United  States  at  that  time,  in  that  while  the 
sole  additions  of  population  to  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States  were  from  Germany.  California 
received  (piotas  from  England.  France,  and  Holland 
as  well.  Sacramento,  Los  Angehs.  and  many  other 
towns  have  congregations:  but  the  bulk  of  the  Jews 
in  the  state  are  in  San  Francisco.  There  are  at  least 
11  congregations  in  this  city,  a  hospital,  an  orphan 
asylum,  and  manj'  other  organizations.  As  a  result 
of"this  movement  toward  the  Far  West,  settlements 
have  been  made  in  filher  states. 

Other  States  and  Territories :  Jews  were  in 
Oregon  as  early  as  18.50,  and  in  the  city  of  Portland 
a  congregation  was  founded  in  18.58. 

At  Salt  Lake  City  a  congregation  was  established 
in  1881 ;   but  it  is  asserted  that  Jews  went  there 


much  earlier  and  furnished  a  few  converts  to  Jlor- 
inonism. 

Colorado  has  its  principal  community  in  Denver, 
till'  earliest  congregation  there  having  heen  estab- 
lished in  1874.  "a  National  Home  for  Coiisumi)livcs 
was  opened  in  that  city  in  189!).  There  are  commu- 
nities in  7  other  towns  of  the  state. 

The  great  wave  of  Kussian  iniiiiignilion  has  al>o 
pushed  westward.  Montana,  Washington,  and 
North  and  South  Dakota  now  havei  migngaiion-.. 
It  may  lie  conlidenlly  asserled  that,  in  spile  of  llie 
a|ipari'iit  congestion  on  the  eastern  sealioard.  Ilieie  i- 
no  state  or  territory  in  the  I'nion  whieh  at  the  pres- 
ent writing  ( lliol)  is  without  a  Jewish  community. 
Indeed,  this  statement  may  be  exiended  to  include 
the  distant  territories  recently  brought  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  Slates:  since  there  are 
already  congregalions  in  I'orlo  Kico.  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  in  the  Philijiiiines. 

Canada:  Aaron  Hurl,  burn  in  London.  Englaial. 
17'J4.  who  was  in  the  British  army  about  17t)0.  seems 
to  have  lieen  ihe  first  Jewish  settler  in  Canada.  In 
that  <lecade  a  dozen  or  more  men  of  means  settled 
in  Jlontrcal:  and  in  17()8  they  formed  a  congrega- 
tion which  took  the  name  of  "Shearilh  Israel."  In 
1807  the  ((Uestion  of  the  ])olitieal  slatus  of  the  Jew 
was  raised  by  tli<'  election  of  Ezekiel  Hurl  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature.  Kefusingto  take  the  oath  on 
Ihe  faith  of  a  Christian,  he  was  allowed  by  the  clerk 
to  tiike  it  in  the  Jewish  form  and  with  head  covered; 
but,  after  an  exciting  debate,  his  seat  was  declared 
vacant  and  the  election  null.  He  was  reelected  by 
a  heavy  majority,  but  was  again  iirevenled  from 
taking  his  seat;  and  a  bill  was  brought  in  to  dis- 
qualify Jews  for  seals  in  Ihe  House  of 

Political  Assembly.  The  i;o\eriior-treiieral  on 
Status        May  1.5, 'iSOi),  highly  disjileased  with 

of  Jews.  Ihe  legislature,  dissolved  the  House; 
and  it  was  not  until  1831  that  alllhe 
disqualilieatious  of  Jews  were  removed.  It  is  a 
noteworthy  fact  that  Canada  extended  full  ])olitical 
rights  to  .lews  more  than  u  quarter  of  a  century  lie- 
fore  the  mother-eounlry. 

The  first  regular  minister  of  the  ^lontreal  syna- 
gogue was  J.  H.  Cohen,  who  settled  in  ^Montreal 
about  1778.  The  most  distinguished  minister  of 
the  congregation  was  Abraham  de  Sola,  who  held 
olliee  from  1S41J  to  1S,S'>,  and  was  a  well-known  author 
and  professor  of  Helirew  in  McGill  University.  A 
German  congregation  was  established  there  in  IMfi. 
and  a  Reform  congregation  in  1880.  Since  18!M> 
a  large  number  of  Russian  Jews  have  immigratecl  to 
Canada,  many  of  whom  have  engaged  in  agricul- 
tural |iursuits.  .lews  are  also  settled  in  Toronto,  in 
Halifax  (Nova  Scotia),  in  Victoria.  AVinnipeg,  and 
in  various  poiliniis  of  .Manitoba. 

Waves  of  Immigration:  All  the  great  nations 
of  historic  times  have  been  composed  of  immigrants. 
I'ressiue  of  population,  the  nomadic  or  seafaring 
s]iint,  the  desire  for  adventure,  for  eoni|uest.  or 
for  commerce,  the  tyranny  of  governmenis  or  of 
churches,  have  all  contributed  to  I  urn  the  human 
ra<-e  into  a  vast  migratory  species,  more  ca]iable  of 
adaptability  as  it  is  to  new  environment,  llian  any 
other  formof  life.  In  the  birth  of  intense  national 
feeling  following  upon  the  cstablishmi-nt  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  the  fact  has  frequently  been  lost  sight  of 
that  none  of  the  peoples  now  inhabiting  any  great 
slate  is  indigenous. 

The  expiilsicai  of  the  .lews  from  Spain,  and  later 
from  Portugal,  and  the  activity  of  the  Inquisition 
against  the  "secret  Jews,  called  JIaranos,  in  those 
countries,  coupled  with  the  circumstance  that  these 
two  peoples  were  the  principal  explorers  and  colon- 


501 


TIIK  .lEWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


America 


izersof  Central  anil  South  Ainerica,  were  the  factors 
in  (Iptcniiining  tlif  wirly  iiiiniigration  of  Jews  to 
AiMiricii,  wliitli  was  coniiioscil  exclusively  of  Si)an- 
ish  1111(1  Fortujiuise  exiles,  wlio  settled 
Spanish      in    all    the    islaii<ls    to    which    ships 
and   Portu-  from  these  countries  went.     This  ini- 
guese         niiKnilion  began  with  the  first  settle- 
Exiles,        nienl  of  the  American  continent,  ami 
was  almost  exclusively   contineil    to 
Central  anil  South   America;   although  the  settlers 
who  arrivcil  at   Savannah,   Oa..   in   lT;i;!  went   di- 
rect from  Lisbon,  making  liut  the  briefest  slay  in 
Kiigland.     As  the  inuuigratiou  gradually  spread  in 
Snulh  America  small  nund)ers  of  .settlers  made  their 
way   from  Brazil,   Ciu-sicao,   or  the   West   India   Is- 
lands to  North  America,  and  thence  the  lirst  Jewish 
settlements  in  what  is  now  the  United  States  were 
<lerivud. 

To  Spain  and  Portugal  Holland  succeeded  as  an 
exploring  mition  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  With  the  ouilm-ak  of  the  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands  against  Spain  in  loliT  there  developed, 
by  way  of  protest  against  the  bigotry  of  the  S|)an- 
iards,  the  broadest  toleration  then  known  in  Kuro|)e. 
I!y  the  middle  of  the  ci'Uturv,  when  Holland  had 
extorted  recognition  of  her  independence  even  from 
Spain,  when  she  was  in  league  with  Kngland  and 
Sweden  and  was  at  the  height  of  her  jiower,  many 
Jews  of  wealth,  learinng.  and  intlnence — largely 
though  not  exclusively  Spanish  i-xiles — had  settled 
in  her  dominions;  and  these  were  deeply  inlerested 
in  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  which  deter- 
uuned  the  attitude  of  the  government  toward  the 
settlement  of  Jews  in  their  new  dominions.  The 
Jews  in  Brazil,  moreover,  recognizing  the  favorable 
attitude  of  the  Holland  government  toward  their 
coreligionists,  powerfully  aided  the  Dutch  in  their 
successful  attack  upon  lirazil  in  Uiif.  The  Dutch 
dominiiin  lasteil  until  ni.")4 ;  and  dining  the  inter- 
vening period  many  Duieh  Jewscame  to  Brazil  and 
other  setllemciils,  thus  reinforcing  the  original  mi- 
gnition  from  Spain  and  Portugal.  Owing  to  the 
reconi|Uest  of  Brazil  and  the  siibseiiuent  tliglit  of 
the  Jews,  these  Spanish.  Portuguese,  and  Dutch 
Jews  foiincl  their  way  to  the  West  India  Islands  and 
to  North  Atneriea.  Jews  began  to  go  to  New  Am- 
sterdam from  Holland  jirobably  as  early  as  Ki.VJ. 
These,  then,  conslitiile  thi'  main  source  whence  the 
Sephardic  Jewish  .selllers  were  derived,  although 
stragglers  came  from  France,  from 
Dutch-  Knglanil,  and  even  from  the  Orient, 
Sephardic  at  an  early  jieriod.  It  sliouhl  be  stated, 
Jews.  however,  that  not  all  of  the  Dutch 
Jews  were  of  Sephardic  stock.  Pro 
portionate  to  the  extent  of  Kriglish  colonization  in 
the  West  India  Islands  surprisingly  few  Jews  went 
from  Kngland  to  the  .Xmerieau  colonies  or  the  West 
India  Islands.  Some  uiidoiililedly  did  go  to  Jamaica 
and  other  islands,  aS  well  as  to  the  contiiu'nt,  even 
u|)  to  the  begimiing  of  the  jircsent  century;  and 
they  were  pioneers  in  several  states,  but  rather  as 
individuals  than  in  anv  coiisidi-rable  bodies.  This  is 
no  doubt  due  to  the  fact  that  at  the  perioil  of  the 
earliest  settlement  of  .Xjuerir-a  there  were  few  if  any 
Jews  in  Knglaml;  and  later  ')n  they  were  loo  well 
satislied  with  the  coudiliniis  there  lo  seek  a  home 
elsewhere,  although  a  small  niimberdiil  go  to  Canada. 
Jews  of  the  Ashkenazic  rite  went 
Ashke-  early  lo  America,  bul  only  as  strag- 
nazic  Jews,  glers;  an  occasional  one,  to  .Mexico; 
and  a  fiw.  from  Holland,  to  New  Am- 
sterdam. From  ITIiil  forward  (iermany  wasa  theater 
of  war  and  petty  perseeiilions  ami  •<(  the  drafting 
of  able-bodied  men  inio  ihe  armies,  either  for  local 


purposes  or  to  be  sold  as  mercenaries  to  foreign 
l)owers.  As  the  result  of  a  desire  to  escape  these 
hardships  there  ensued  a  .steady  inunigration  of  Ger- 
mans to  New  York,  to  Georgia,  and,  above  all.  to 
Pemisylvania.  where  Germans  were  most  hospitably 
received.  In  ll'ii)  the  German  settlers  in  Pennsyl- 
vania alone  were  estimated  at  90,001)  out  of  a  total 
population  of  270.000;  and  among  this  enormous 
number  there  was  quite  a  considerable  body  of  Jews. 
A  les.ser  number  had  settled  in  New  York  within  the 
same  period. 

The  first  [larlition  of  Poland  in  17T3,  and  the  un- 
settlemeul  of  affairs  consequent  thereupon,  brought 
the  lirst  contingent  of  Polish  Jews  (through  Ger- 
many) to  America;  and  this  nuinlier  gradually  grew 
with  the  successive  disasters  to  Poland  and  the  in- 
corporation of  the  territory  and  people  with  Russia, 
Germany,  and  Austria.  The  Napoleonic  wars,  the 
general  misery  which  followed  in  Germany,  the  de- 
sire to  avoid  military  conscription,  the  eager  wish  to 
partake  of  the  advantages  olfered  in  the  new  coun- 
try, all  impelled  a  steady  stream  of  German-Jewish 
immigration  to  the  L'nited  States  be- 

German-  ginning  about  1830,  reaching  its  height 
Jewish  Im-  between  184.Sand  18.^0.  and  continuing 
migration,  until  1870,  when  it  ceased  to  be  a  con- 
siderable factor.  This  immigration 
was  principally  from  South  Germany,  from  the 
Rhine  provinces,  and  more  especially  from  Bavaria. 
The  immigrants  were  mostly  from  small  towns; 
rarely  from  the  larger  cities  or  from  North  Germany, 
which  contained  well-organized  Jewish  communilies. 

The  most  momentous,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
most  easily  recognized  wave  of  immigration  was 
that  from  Russia,  which  practically  began  in  1882. 
Restrictive  measures  against  the  Jews  liad  been  for 
a  long  lime  enforced  in  the  empire.  The  Jews 
were  regarded  as  a  legacy  from  Poland,  ami  were 
practically  coiilined  to  that  region;  bul  many  had 
.i^radually  .sellled  in  other  parts  of  the  empire.  lu 
.May,  1882,  a  scries  of  the  most  proscriptive  laws 
ever  jias-sed  against  Jews  in  any  country  was  pro- 
mulgated. These  laws  practically  forbade  residence 
outside  of  a  narrow  pale  of  settlement,  restricted 
higher  and  secondary  education  of  Jews,  mercantile 
and  inofessional  inirsuils,  anil  left  open  no  course 
but  emigration  en  bloc.  A  small  portion  of  this 
emigration  was  directed  by  Baron  de  Hirscli  to  the 
Argentine  Republic,  and  some  to  Canada;  but  the 
great  bulk,  by  a  natural  imptilse.  came  to  the  l'nited 
Slates.  In  the  past  year  (1900)  it  would  ajipear 
from    available   tigures   that    no   less 

Russian  than  000,000  Russian-Galieian  Jews 
Jews.  migrated  to  the  Culled  Slales;  and 
within  Ihe  year  Ihe  proscriptive  laws 
of  Rumania  have  started  a  tide  whose  force  none 
can  foresee.  These  various  movemeuls  have  given 
.Vmerica  Ihe  third  largest  Jewish  poindation  in  the 
world,  and  will  probably  in  the  fuiiire  remove  the 
center  of  .lewi.sh  aclivily  to  the  United  States. 

Education:  In  the  very  earliest  years  of  the 
eslalilishment  of  the  first  .Jewish  congregation  in 
New  York  lily  Ihire  was  attached  lo  the  synagogue 
a  school  in  which  ordinary,  as  wi'U  as  Hebrew, 
bnuuhes  Were  taughl.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest 
general  schools  in  .Vmerica.  Religious  education 
and  instruction  in  Hebrew  were  established  in  con- 
nection with  most  of  the  early  synagogues  or  were 
given  privately;  while  for  orilinary  .secular  educa- 
tion the  Jews  resorted  to  the  .schools  and  colleges 
in  existence,  although  these  were  largely  under  the 
patronage  of  one  or  another  s<'ct  of  the  Christian 
iliureh.  There  was  a  Jewish  matriculate  at  the 
Universily  of  Pennsylvania,   for  instance,  as  early 


America 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


502 


as  1772.     As  has  already  been  noted,  there  was  cs- 

taljlishod  iu  I'hihultlphia  as  early  as  W-i><  a  general 
Suiiday-sclKiol   i[uite   irrcsiu'ctive    of 
Early        coiii.'i'j.'ational  orsiaiiizatioii;  and  this 
Jewish  Ma-  whs   Ihe   bcginiiinir   nf  a  movement, 
triculates.    wlueh  lias  spread  Ihrougliout  I  lie  coun- 
try,  for  the   organization    of  educa- 
tional work  along  lines  quite  independent  of  con- 
greg.ilional  activities. 

A  similar  school  was  organized  in  Charleston, 
S.  v..  in  the  .sjinu"  year;  in  the  following  year,  one  in 
Kichmond,  Va. ;  in  1^4')  iliis  movenunt  spread  to 
New  York,  being  taken  up  liisl  by  the  Emanuel 
Society,  although  the  Shearith  Israel  congregation 
had  started  a  Hebrew  school  system  as  early  as  1808. 
In  |S40  MoitDixAi  M.  No.vii,  a  well-known  traveler, 
politician,  and  journalist,  tu'ged  the  formation  of  a 
Jewish  college  in  the  United  States;  and  in  1848  the 
Hebrew  Kducalion  Society  was  founded  at  Phila- 
delphia— originally  a  school  for  general  instruction 
in  the  ordinary  branches  u])  to  and  through  the 
grade  of  grammar  school,  couided  with  instruction 
in  Hebrew  and  in  the  Jewish  religion.  In  1864  the 
Hebrew  Free  School  Association  was  incorporated  in 
New  York;  and  throughout  various  states  of  the 
Union  a  movement  gradually  spread  for  the  organi- 
zation of  free  religious  .schools  which 
Organiza-  would  bring  into  a  common  school 
tion  of  Free  system  children  from  the  various  con- 
Schools,  gregations  in  each  city.  These  were 
largely  intended  to  supersede  the  pri- 
vate instruction  that  had  theretofore  been  given. 
They  were,  in  the  main,  carried  on  by  volunteer 
teaehers;  and  their  distinguishing  feature  was  that 
the  instruction  was  usually  conducted  by  native- 
born  persons  and  in  the  English  language  as  against 
the  German  teacliing  in  the  congregational  schools. 
The  whole  tendency  of  this  educational  work  was 
toward  the  unitication  of  the  community  and  the 
bringing-out  of  its  individual  members  from  the 
rather  narrow  congregational  life  that  had  inevailed. 
"Within  the  last  decade  orso  there  has  been  a  decided 
reaction;  and  religious  schools  and  S.abbatli-schools 
have  been  liighlj'  organized  in  connection  with  in- 
dividual congregations.  Particular  stress  is  laid 
tipon  them  liy  the  congregations:  and  much  of  the 
cynininnal  stiingth  is  derived  from  them.  AVliile 
the  Hebrew  education  societies  and  schools  con- 
tinue in  existence,  they  do  not  develop  or  flourish 
as  might  be  expected;  in  fact,  since  1882  they  liavc 
largely  taken  upon  themselves  an  entirely  new 
function.  With  the  su(l<len  arrival  in  this  country 
of  the  large  number  of  Russian  Jews  having  no 
knowledge  of  the  I^^nglish  language,  and  in  many 
cases  without  any  particular  handicraft,  there  de- 
volved upon  the  American  Jewish  community  the 
necessity  of  providing,  first,  daj'  and  night  schools 
for  teaching  the  new  arrivals  P^ng- 
Technical  lisli ;  and,  .second,  manual  training 
Schools.  and  technical  schools.  These  have 
been  established  in  New  York,  Phil- 
adelphia. Chicago,  and  in  other  cities,  more  or  less 
with  the  aid  of  th<'  Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund. 

Of  higher  education  there  has  been  nothing  gen- 
eral, but  only  special  and  theological.  In  i8."i.') 
I.  il.  Wise  projected  a  theological  college  in  Cincin- 
nati under  the  name  of  "  Zion  College  " ;  but  the 
plan  came  to  naught.  In  l.'stiT  there  was  established, 
largely  through  the  instrumentality  of  Isaac  Leeser, 
Maimonides  College  at  Philadelphia,  which,  how- 
ever, was  of  scarcely  longer  duration  than  its  pred- 
eces.sor.  It  was  not  until  the  year  187.">  that  there 
was  founded,  by  the  I'nion  of  American  Hebrew 
Congregations,  the  Hebrew  Union  College  of  Cin- 


cinnati, which  is  devoted  to  the  training  of  rabbis 
and  teachers.  While  theoretically  without  parti/an 
bias,  it  is  pnictieally  the  representative  of  the  Ke- 
forni  wing  in  America.  In  18Sti  ihere  was  estab- 
lished in  New  York  the  Jewish  Theological  Seini- 
imiy,  also  for  the  training  of  rabbis 

Theolog-     and  teachei's,  and  representing  IlieOr- 

ical  In-  thodo.x  wing  of  the  community.  In 
stitutions.  ISiCi  iheie  was  founded  in  Philadel- 
phia, through  a  trust  vested  in  the 
Mickve  Israel  congri'gation  by  Ilynian  Oralz,  Oratz 
College,  which  is  devoted  to  the  pre|)a ration  of  teach- 
ers for  Jewish  schools,  practically  occupying  the 
place  of  !i  normal  school. 

Throughout  the  United  States  there  Iiave  been 
established  in  connection  with  the  various  congrega- 
tions, and  also  independently,  societies  and  Young 
Men's  Hebrew  associations  which  are  to  a  certain 
extent  educational  in  tlieircharaeter.  They  usually 
sustain  small  libraries  and  |irovide  lecture-courses  on 
secular  and  religious  topics.  In  18!t;i  there  was 
founded  the  Jewish  t'hautau(|ua  Society,  which  has 
branches  all  over  the  country  and  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  regular  schools  and  colleges  as  does 
the  University  Extension  movement,  as  interpreted 
in  America,  to  regular  colleges  for  university  work. 
The  Cof.Ncii.  OF  Jkwimi  Womi-.x  has  engaged  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  educational  work  among  its 
own  members.  In  ISSd  there  was  organizeil  a  Sab- 
bath-school Union  forthe  purposeof  ]ii'oinoliiig  uni- 
formityand  approved  metliodsin  Sabhath  selmul  in- 
struction. There  are  at  present  (I'JOD)  in  the  I'nited 
States  41.")  Jewish  educational  organizations.  "Jill  of 
which  are  religious  schools  attached  to  congrega- 
tions, with  l,137teachers  and  an  attendance  of  about 
O.j.OOO  jiupils.  Tlien^  are  also  27  Jewish  free  schools, 
ehietly  in  large  cities,  with  about  ll,Ot)0  ])upils  and 
142  teachers. 

Three  societies  have  been  organized  in  the  United 

States   to   issue   Jewish   publications — the  lirst.  in 

Philadelphia  in  184.');   the  second,  in 

Publica-     New    York   in    187:!,   and   the   third, 
tion  Soci-     in  Philadelphia  in  is.ss.     This  last  isa 
eties  and     nourishing  organization,  and   has  is- 
Libraries.    sued  many  instructive  and  important 
works.     Among  the  educational  activ- 
ities should  also  be  mentioned  the  American  Jiwish 
Historical    Society  organized  in   1892.     .Vssoeialed 
with  many  of  the  schools  there  are  now  circulating 
and  reference  libraries,  as  well  as  several  independ- 
ent ones,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  Aguilar  Library 
in  New-  York,  founded  in    1880.     The  Maimonides 
Library  of  the  Independent  Order  B'ne   B'rith  in 
New  York  was  organized  in  IS.tI, 

It  should  be  said  in  this  connection  that  this  Order 
and  many  of  the  other  Orders  and  lodges  had  educa- 
tional features — lectures  and  otherwise — and  did 
pioneer  work  in  the  education  of  their  members. 

Of  .lewish  periodicals  and  newspapers  published 
at  one  time  or  another  in  the  United  States,  not  less 
than  s;!  have  been  in  English  or  German,  10  in 
Hebrew,  and  82  in  Yiildish. 

Philanthropy :  <  (f  the  jihilanthropic  work  of 
Jews  in  .\merica  practically  nothing  is  known  out- 
side of  the  United  States  and  Canada;  and  under 
these  heads  the  subject  will  be  treated  in  detail.  In 
a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that,  until  a  very  re- 
cent time,  philanthropic  work  took  the  form  of  ordi- 
nary charity.  The  poor  were  clothed,  fed,  and  kept 
warm,  the  sick  were  visited,  and  the  dead  were 
buried.  The  higher  philanthropic  work,  that  of  pre- 
venting poverty  by  improvement  of  conditions  and 
surroundings,  is  but  a  recent  development.  From 
the  earliest  arrival  of  Jews  in  this  country,  it  was 


503 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


America 


their  ideal  that  none  of  tlicir  poor  should  become  a 
clmrge  upon  the   general   comniunity :   and   in  the 

earlier  days  cliarily  was  dispensed  by 

Early        by  individuals,  i)r  by  funds  collected 

Individual    through  t he cougregat ions;  the  former, 

Charity.      however,  being  the  prevalent  means. 

A  well-to-do  family,  or  even  one  in 
but  eiiinfiirtable  <ircumslaiiees,  would  care  for  one 
or  more  poorer  families,  supplying  them  I'egularly 
with  the  necessaries  of  life.  (.Jiadually.  as  the  lie- 
brew  jiopulation  increased,  this  method  proveil  to  be 
inadequate,  and  societies — generally  small,  and  hav- 
ing specific  objects — were  formed.  Some  were  for 
the  visitation  of  the  sick  and  the  burial  of  the  dead: 
some,  in  connectif)n  wilii  cimgregatidns,  for  general 
charitable  purposes;  and  some  for  the  distribution 
of  unleavened  brea<l  for  the  I'assover,  Still  later, 
as  the  need  grew,  associations  for  the  care  of  or- 
phans, hospitals  frir  the  care  of  the  sick,  and.  later 
still,  homes  for  the  aged  were  erected.  Jlost  of 
these   societies  and   institutions  were  small;   their 

work  was  dime  with  insuflicient  funds 

Charitable   an<l  by  voluntary  oflicers,  and  with- 

Organ-       out  a  delinile  plan.     It  was  seen  that 

izations.      this    scattering    of    forces    produced 

waste,  and  it  was  feared  that  it  ten<led 
to  pauperism;  .so  that  in  all  the  large  cities  a  gradual 
amalgamation  took  l)laee  of  the  various  charitable 
organizations  into  one  society  with  a  trained  ollicer. 
These  societies  usually  included  all  the  organiza- 
tions, witli  the  exception  of  the  hospitals  and  the 
orphan  a.syhims,  in  a  given  city,  and  had  for  their 
purpose  the  rindering  of  immediate  relief.  Later 
still,  in  each  of  a  few  cities,  a  central  organization 
was  formed,  which  included  the  hospitals  and  or- 
phan asylums,  and  whose  object  it  was  to  have  a 
central  body  to  cullecl  funds  for  ail  the  charitable 
organizations  in  the  city  and  to  distribute  them  pro 
rata.  Of  recent  years  it  has  been  realized  that  this 
highly  organized  metho<l  of  dislributjng  charity  has 
resulted  in  placing  the  whole  matter  on  a  somewhat 
mechanical  basis,  and  has  not  always  been  produc- 
tive of  such  good  residts  as  the  old  and  iinscientilic 
giving  from  man  to  man,  which  bore  with  it  the 
evidence  f)f  a  certain  human  sympathy.  Conse- 
(|Ui'ntly  in  all  the  large  cities  an  endeavor  is  being 
made  ti>  return  to  a  more  personal  relation  between 
the  rich  and  the  poor;  and  Sisterhoods  or  Personal 
Service  societies  have  b<'en  organized  to  aid  in  the 
intelli.irent  and  sympathetic  distribution  of  relief. 

The  most  recent  developnu'iit  has  been  the  Na- 
tional Conferince  of  .!(  wish  (liarilies  in  the  I'nited 
States,  founded  Dec.  1.  lisillt.  in  Cincinnati,  and  com- 
pose(l  of    HI   relief    organizations.      lis  object    is  to 

promote  reforms  in  administration  and 

Phil-         uniformity  of  action  without  inlerfer- 

anthropic    ing  with  the  work  of  any  local  society. 

Homes.  Tlure  are  at  present  l-'i  homes  for 

iirphans,  or  societies  for  their  care,  in 
the  United  States;  l'.J  homes  for  the  aged  ;  andllhos- 
jiilals.  It  is  estimalid  that  llnre  are  ."itC!  Jewish 
pliilanlhropie  oiixani/alions  in  ihi'  I'niled  .States. 

Relig-ious  Development:  I'ntil  a  very  recent 
date,  riligious  (livelopment  was  not  marked  by  any 
special  feature.  Tlw  .lews  who  came  to  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  settlements  were  all  Manmos  who, 
while  attaclieil  to  the  Catholic  Church  at  home,  had 
s<'cretly  observed  the  tenets  of  their  own  religion, 
anil  had,  to  a  certain  extent,  mingled  tlii'  rites  nf 
Catholicism  with  those  of  llnlr  own  faith.  From 
the  testimony  given  in  hnpiisition  trials  it  appears 
that  quite  a  series  of  new  customs  arose  from  this 
mixture. 

In  the  Dutch  s<-ttlements,  the  Dutch  tradition  was 


usually  maintained,  the  rabbis  being  importeil  from 
Amsterdam.  From  the  very  lieginning  the  Jews  in 
the  I'lnted  States  consisted  of  both  Sephardim  and 
Ashkenazim;  but  the  former  were  at  lirst  in  the 
majority,  and  organized  the  four  earliest  congrega- 
tions in  the  country;  namely,  those  of  New  York, 
Newport,  Savannah,  and  Philadel))hia.  As  early  as 
17()l)  a  translation  into  Knglish  of  the  Pniyers — 
probably  the  lirst  English-Jewish  Prayer-Book  ever 
issued — was  pulilished  in  New  Yiu'k. 

In  Jamaica  and  in  Canada  there  lias  always  been 
more  or  less  direct  relation  with  England  ;  but  in  the 
I'nited  StJites  the  entire  religious  life  of  Jews  ha.s 
been  especially  characterized  by  the  absence  of  de- 
penilence  upon  any  European  authority,  as  well  as 
by  the  absence  of  any  central  authority  in  America. 
Congregational  autonomy  has  been  the  watchword. 

Tlie   movement   for  ceremonial   reform   began    in 

Charleston  in  IS'J.").     It  was  strongly  supported  in 

.Vlbany.    and    later  in   Cincinnati,   by 

Reform  1.  .M.  Wise,  from  Is.'iO,  but  did  uot 
Movement  niaki>  much  headway  until  the  arrival 
Begun  in  in  the  L'niteil  .states  of  David  Einhorn 
Charleston,  and  Samtiel  llirsch.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  these  men  and  of  other  rabbis, 
— principall.v  from  Germany — the  trend  toward  al- 
lerationsin  the  liturg.v  and  ritual  set  in  very  slron.irly ; 
but  about  issoa  reaction  a.irainst  the  radical  teuileu- 
cies  took  place,  even  on  the  jiart  of  some  congrega- 
tions professedly  attached  to  the  Heform  movement, 
residtingin  the  formation  of  an  intermediate  ora  Con- 
servative group.  With  the  influ.x  of  large  nund>ers 
of  Hussian  J<-ws,  many  congre.irations  of  the  C)rtho- 
dox  type  were  established.  The  genenil  attitude  of 
Jews  in  .Vmerica  is  one  of  very  considerable  attach- 
ment to  the  jirinciples  of  their  rcli.irion  coupled  with 
a  .irradual  abandonment  of  many  of  the  forms  and 
ceremonies,  although  apostasy  and  actual  defec- 
tions  from  the  synagogue  are  rare  (see  Amehic.\, 

JiD.MSM    IN). 

Services  to  the  State  in  Military  and  in 
Civil  Life:  .\s  has  already  been  poinliMl  out  umli-r 
■■  lira/il."  Ihe  .lews  rendered  great  service  to  the 
Dutch  in  their  conquest  of  Hrazil  in  lti24  and  after- 
ward in  lG4li-.")4  against  the  Portuguese.  They  also 
mad<'  a  brave  resistance  against  Ihe  French  fleets 
which  attacked  Surinam  in  lOSit  and  I'Vi  respect- 
ively, and  played  a  considerable  part  in  the  sup- 
pression of  negro  revolts  in  the  same  country  be- 
tween UiDlland  17T2.  They  had  a  sepanile  company 
of  which  David  Nassy  was  captain,  and,  later,  ls;iac 
Carvalho  (1743). 

The  first  Jewish  settlers  in  Canada  were  soldiers 

who  cami'  over  in   HracMock's  army,  and  there  is 

record  of  their  being  engagi'd  later  on 

Earliest  in  eneountci-s  with  tiie  Indians.  There 
Jewish  Set-  wi  re  one  or  two  Jews  in  Washington's 
tiers  'Were    ixpedition   across  the  .Mle.irhaines  in 

Soldiers.  17."i4.  When  the  first  a.iritat ion  began 
which  ended  in  the  Kevolutionarv 
War.  the  Jews,  like  their  fellow  cili/<ns.  wen-  di- 
vide<l.  .Some  remaine<l  loyal  to  the  Urilish  crown; 
but  the  great  majority  adhered  to  the  i'alriot  cause. 
There  were  !l  Jiwish  signers  to  the  "nonimporta- 
tion "  resolutions  of  17li:t;  and  when  the  waractmdiy 
broke  out,  tlwy  not  only  risked  their  lives,  but  some, 
like  llaym  Solomon,  helped  with  tlicir  money  to 
equip  anil  mnintaiii  the  armies  of  the  Uevolution. 

So  far,  the  names  of  4."i  Jews  who  served  as  ol1l- 
cersand  privates  in  theconliriental  armies  have  been 
put  on  r >ril ;  and  this  can  hardly  be  the  total  num- 
ber, asaionsidenible  proportion  were  ullicers.  Pos- 
sibly the  best  known  of  the  latter  was  David  S. 
Franks,  who  was  major,  and  afterward  lienteiiant' 


America 


THE  JEWISH   £^X•Vt■LUl'l■:l)lA 


504 


I'olmicl.  on  the  statT  nf  Gcncnil  Arnolil.  In  tlic  war 
of  isii  tlii-iv  wcii\  as  far  as  known,  4:{  .lews,  of 
whom  the  most  |irominciit  was  Hrisrailirr  (Irni-ml 
Joscpli  IMoomtiiUl,  iu  charge  of  .Military  District 
No.  4.  coniprisini:  I'liiiisyivania.  Dilawarc.  and 
western  New  Jersey.  In  tiii'  Mixicaii  War  there 
were  .")!  Jews,  the  most  proniiiient  lieinir  Daviil  de 
Leon,  who  twice  received  the  thanks  of  Conj;re.ss 
for  iralhmtry.  In  the  Civil  War  tlicie  were  on  hoth 
sides  T.tiys"  Jewish  soldiers,  and  in  the  Spanish- 
American  War  over  2,(HHI.  Hesides,  a  fair  numher 
has  lieen  found  in  the  rejrular  army,  as  well  as  in 
the  navy  (See  Ait.MV.  Ji;ws  iN.  and  I'mtlo  Si.vtks). 

lu  civil  service  lo  the  state  nearly  all  of  the  infor- 
mation at  hand  relates  to  the  I'niled  Slates.     There 
have  been  4  Jewish   memliers  of  the 
Services   in  I'niled  Stales  Senate  and  aliout  20  of 
Civil  Life,     the  House  of  Representatives.     Many 
have  been  in  the  diplomatic  and  con- 
sular services,  anionir  whom  may  Ix'  specially  men- 
tioned Moi'decai  M.  .Noah,  consul  al  Tunis;    15.   K. 
I'ei.xotto.  consul  al  Bucharest;  Simon  Wolf,  consul- 
.^einial  in  Egypt ;  Oscar  S.  Suaiis,  twice  minister  to 
'I'urkey,  au(t  Solomon  llirsch,   who  held  the  same 
]iost. 

Jews  liave  served  as  mayors  of  cities,  inemhers  of 
the  le.gislature,  judges  of  the  courts;  and  they  have 
held  many  minor  otlices  of  trust  and  conlidence. 
Simon  W.  Kosendale  was  altorney-general  of  New 
York;  Isador  Havnor.  altornev-L'enind  of  Jlarv- 
land. 

Thetirst  statue  to  l)elongtothe  rnileil  Slates,  and 
which  originated  Statuary  Hall  in  the  Capitol  at 
■Washiiiglon,  was  one  in  bninze  of  Thomas  JctVerson 
by  David  d'An,!rers,  a  French  sculptor.  It  was  |)re- 
sented  to  the  United  States  in  1S3S  by  a  Jew,  Lieu- 
tenant, afterward  Commodore.  Uriah  I'.  Levy,  of 
the  United  States  navy,  and  was  formally  accepted 
by  Congress  in  1^71  on  the  motion  of  Scn;ilor  Sum- 
ner. 

Civil  and  Political  Rights:  In  the  colonics 
establisheel  on  .Vmericau  soil  jnore  liberty  or  tolera- 
tion was  usually  shown  to  the  Jews  than  in  the 
mother  countries,  yet  they  laboreil  under  serious  dis 
abilities.  In  F,ima,  in  Peru,  and  in  Mexico  they  were 
pursiU'd  by  the  Inciuisilion.  In  the  Dutch  West 
India  Islands  and  provinces  they  were  accorded  the 
greatest  freedom.  In  New  .Vmstcrdani,  while  there 
was  some  objeclion  to  them,  and  they 

Varying      were  at   lirst  denied  burghers'  rights, 

Expe-        the  latter  seem  to  have  been  granted 

riences  of    iliem  at  a  very  early  dale — a  result 

Early        due  lar.irely.  as  already  stated,  to  the 

Settlers.  |)ersistence,  both  by  petitions  and  be- 
fore the  courts,  of  .Vsser  licvy.  In 
Surinam,  in  Hit!!*.  Jews  were  formally  gianted  the 
right  of  free  exercise  of  their  rel!,y:ion.  The  Hritish 
Parliament  in  IToS  passed  an  act  jiermil I ing  "  per- 
sons ])rofessin,ir  the  Jewish  religion  to  be  naturalized 
by  Farliamenl."  which  was  iei)ealed  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  Not  until  ISoS  miglit  Jews  sit  in  Parlia- 
ment;  anil  it  was  oidy  in  luiill  that  the  words  "on 
the  true  faith  of  a  Christian  "  were  removed  from 
the  ordinary  oath. 

The  Englisli  provincial  .irovernors  and  assemblies 
exhibited  a  tolerant  spirit  much  earlier.  Dr.  I.,um 
brozo  was  granted  letters  of  denization  in  Marvland 
as  early  a.s  Sept.  10,  1603.  Iu  1070  Sir  Tlionias 
Lynch,  .irovernor  of  Jamaica,  was  instructed  to  give 
all  possible  encoura.irenient  to  persons  of  differing 
religions.  In  lt>7'.i  Uabba  Couty  of  New  York  ap 
pealed  to  the  king  in  council.  an<l  promjitly  obtained 
redress  for  a  grievance.  In  1074  in  liurbados  Jews 
were  allowed  to  take  the  oath  ujion  the  live  books 


of  Moses.  .V  law  pas,seil  in  Jamaica  in  l(>H;!rei|uired 
a]>plicants  for  naiunilization  simply  to  taki'  the  oath 
of  alli'giance.  In  1727  the  (iiiieral  .\ssemlily  ol 
New  York  voted  that  Ji'ws  taking  the  oath  of  ab- 
juration might  umit  the  wt>rds  "  upuu  the  true  faith 
of  a  Christian." 

This  liberality  was  not  contine<l.  however,  lo  pro- 
vincial assemblies.  In  174u  Parliament  pa.s.sed  an 
act  f(U'  naturalizing,  among  others. 
In  the        such  Jews  "as  are  settled  or  shall  set 

British  tie  in  any  of  His  .Majesty's  colonies  in 
Colonies.  -Vmerica."  Of  the  IS'J  Jtws  who  took 
advantage  of  this  act,  lol  were  in 
Jamaica.  24  in  New  York,  9  in  Pennsylvania,  4  in 
Maiylanil,  and  1  in  South  Carolina.  Following  the 
Declaralion  of  Indei)endence  in  1770  most  of  the 
states  ]daced  all  citizens  upon  an  absolute  equality  ; 
the  oidy  notable  exception  being  Maryland,  in  which 
state  a  pidlonge<l  struggle  took  i>lace  before  full 
political  rights  were  linally  secured  (see  above,  un- 
der "  .Maiyland  "). 

The  stringent  Sunday  laws  now  iu  force  in  nearly 
all  the  states,  forbidding  Jews  to  work  on  the  Chris- 
tian Sunday,  entail  considerable  hardship  among 
Jews  observing  the  Sabbath;  but  these  laws  are  in 
the  nature  of  |iolice  regiilaticais.  and  are  not  disciim- 
inative  against  Jews  as  such 

Science  and  Art,  Literature,  and  the 
Learned  Professions:  Jews  baM'  been  nieinliers 
of  all  the  leariud  luolessidus — principally  the  le,i;al 
and  medical — and  they  have  conlributed  to  nearly 
all  the  sciences  and  to  the  linearis,  'i'he  fact  has 
alrcadv  been  mentioned  that  some  .lews  have  been 
elevated  to  the  bench,  and  others  elected  to  the  post 
of  attorney  general.  Many  eminent  iihysicians, 
medical  writers,  and  professors  in  medical  .schools 
are  .lews.  There  has  been  at  least  one  distinguished 
Hebrew  sculptor,  Moses  Ezekiel,  and  there  are  sev- 
eral others  of  rank.  .Vmong  artists  and  etchers 
should  cspeciallv  be  mentioned  the 
Jews  Koscnthals  of  Philadelphia,  lathiraiid 
Eminent  in  son;  and  of  illustrators  the  best  known 

All  De-  is  Louis  Loeb.  Jews  are  also  found 
partments.  as  inventoi's,  c.;i..  Einil  Berliner,  in- 
ventor of  the  teleiihone  transmitler; 
as  architects,  Daiikmar  Adlerof  Chicago,  and  .Arnold 
W.  Bruimer  of  New  York,  for  instance;  and  as  en- 
.irineei's,  the  most  distin.sruislied  of  whom  is  .Mendes 
Cohen  of  Ballimia-c,  one  of  the  ])ioneer  railroad 
buildersof  the  country,  and  at  one  time  president  of 
the  American  Society  of  Civil  En.irineers. 

Many  Jews  hold  professorships  in  colleges:  JI, 
Bloomiielil  and  J.  II.  Hollander  at  Johns  Hopkins; 
Richard  Oottheil  and  E.  R.  A.  Scli.cman  at  Colum- 
bia; Mollis  Loel)  at  the  L'niversity  fif  New  York; 
.Morris  Jastrow  at  the  University  of  I'ennsylvania; 
Joseph  Jasli'ow  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin: 
('harles  Grossat  Harvard;  whileamueh  largernuin- 
ber  are  a.ssistant  professors  or  instructors. 

The  most  distin.sruislied  Jewish  writer  of  ]ioeiry  in 
the  United  States  was  Emma  Laziirus;  Michael  Heil- 
prin  gained  eminence  as  an  editor  anil  writer;  A. 
Calmnand  Emma  Wolf  are  successful  novelists;  and 
.Morris  Roseiifeld  is  a  gifted  Yiddish  jioet. 

In  music;  a  number  of  Hebrews  have  acciuired  a 
rejiutalilc  po.sition.  Jews  are  also  prominent  as 
actors  and  as  driimatic  authors.  Among  the  latter 
may  be  mentioned  Aaron  J.  Pliilli])S, 
Music  and  who  tirst  appeared  in  New  York  at 
the  Stage,  the  Park  Theater  in  1H1.5  and  was  a 
very  successful  comedian;  Emanuel 
Judah,  who  first  appeared  in  ls-2:!;  and  Moses  S. 
Phillips,  who  acted  at  the  Park  Theater  in  1827. 
.Mordecai     JI.    Noah,    best    known    as    journalist, 


505 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


America 


liiilitiiian,  and  diplomat,  was  also  a  dramatic  author 
1)1  consiilcrabli'  note.  Other  dramatists  aud  au- 
thors were  Samuel  H.  II.  Juilali  (born  in  New  York 
in  17!(0)  and  Jonas  B.  Philli|is;  and  at  the  present 
time  David  Helasco  is  a  most  suecessful  playwright. 
It  would  lie  impossible  to  enumerate  tlie  Jews  now 
on  the  slajie.  The  introduction  of  opera  into  the 
I'niteil  States  was  due  larjiely  to  tlie  instrumentality 
of  Jews. 

In  Commerce  and  Manufacture  :  In  commerce 
Jiws  were  notably  im|iorta]it  in  the  eii;hteenth 
(inlury.  Tlie  faei  that  the  earliest  settlers  were 
men  of  means,  and  were  Si>aiiish  and  I'ortufrucse 
.lews  who  had  relatives  and  friends  sellled  through- 
out the  Ij<?vanl,  irave  them  specially  favorable  op- 
porluiMties  for  tradinj;.  Some  were  ship-owners; 
oiie  man,  Aaron  l.op<'/.  of  Newport,  had  before  the 
Hivolulionary  War  a  lleet  of  thirty  vessels.  Jews 
very  early  traded  lietweeii  the  West  India  Islandsand 
the  North  American  colonies,  as  well  as  with  Am- 
sterdam, Venice,  etc. 

Till'  Jewish  immijinints  who  arrived  in  America 
dnrini;  the  nineteenth  century  were  in  the  main  poor 
people  who  conunenced  iradinu'  in  a  small  w  ay,  usu- 
ally by  peddlini:,  w  Inch,  before  the  existence  of  rail- 
inads.  was  a  favorite  method  of  carryinir  merchan- 
dise into  the  country  districts,  lly  industry  and 
fruicality  they  laid  the  foundations  of  a  considerable 
number  of  moderate  fortunes.  The  Jews  in  New 
York  became  an  integral  part  of  that  great  trading 
<oimnunity. 

In  the  early  colonial  period,  more  especially  in 
I'<nnsylvania  and  in  New  York,  many  of  the  Jews 
tra<led  with  the  Indians. 

The  organization  under  which  the  Stock  E.\- 
change  of  New  York  was  formed,  originated  in  an 
agreement  in  1793  to  buy  or  sell  only  on  a  dctinite 
commission:  and  to  this  dociunent  were  attached 
the  signatures  of  four  Jews.  Since  then  Jews  have 
been  very  active  in  the  Stock  Ex- 
Jews  Ac-     change  and  in  banking  circles,  both 

tive  in  in  New  York  and  elsewhere.  They 
Financial  hav<'  also  taken  a  leading  part  in  con- 
Circles,  trolling  the  cotton  tracle.  Jews  are 
likewise  very  prominent  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  cloaks  anil  shirts  in  the  clothing  trade, 
and  more  recently  in  cigars  and  jewelry. 

In  1H8H  Markens  estimated  that  tlie  wholesale 
trade  in  the  hands  of  Jews  in  the  city  (d'  New  York 
amounted  to  S-Mm,ii(h).()(KI.  and  the  holdings  of  real 

estate  to  .■sl.")(l.(HMI.lllll». 

Agriculture:  Jews  were  the  first  to  introduce 
the  culture  of  the  sugar caiK'  on  the  western  conti- 
nint  and  of  the  vine  in  Oeorgia.  Otherwise  their 
ai;ri<ultural  activity  was  extremely  limited  until 
the  arrival  of  Hussiau  Jews,  from  INHl  forward,  and 
the  powerful  impulse  given  through  them  to  agri- 
cultuii'  by  enugralion  .societies,  by  the  Haron  de 
Hiiscb  Fund,  and  by  theirown  great  desire  to  revert 
to  the  cultivation  of  tin'  .soil  (see  A(;nicil.TlltAI, 
CoioMi-.s  tN  TUK  rsm;!)  Si'\ri>). 

Social:  The  social  organization  <if  Ihi'  Jews  resi- 
dent in  .Vmerica  has  ditTered  little  from  that  in  other 
countries.  In  the  early  colonial  period  the  wealthier 
Hebrews  seem  to  have  taken  part  with  their  Chris- 
tian fellow  citizens  in  the  organization  of  dances  and 
other  social  functions,  anil  clubs;  and  il  is  a  matter 
(■f  iicord  that  the  wealthier  Jewisli  families  liveil 
with  eompaialive  good  taste  and  possessed  tine 
houses,  objects  of  art,  etc.  Ni'Verthele.ss,  in  the 
main,  and  without  any  coinpiilsion.  Jews  preferred 
to  live  in  close  proximity  to  each  other. 

.Vt  the  lime  when  little  loleration  was  shown  in 
other  countries,  there  were  in  .Vinerica  manv  inter- 


changes  of  mutual  good-will  between  Christians  and 
Jews.  I{abbi  Ilaym  Isaac  Karigel  was  apparently  a 
close  friend  of  Ezra  Stiles.  ])residentof  Yale  College. 
Gershon\  Jlendes  Seixas,  minister  of 
Jews  the  Shearith  Israel  congregation.  New 

and  Chris-  York,  was  a  trustee  of  Columbia 
tians  College  (  1TH4-1.S1.") )  although  this 
Cooperate,  organization  was  under  the  Episcopal 
Church;  and  the  Eliiscojial  bishop  of 
New  Y'ork  occasionally  attended  service  in  the 
synagogue.  After  1848  there  arrived  a  large 
number  of  Jews  who  could  not  speak  the  English 
language,  and  to  them  a  certain  odium  attached  on 
this  account;  but  this  seems  to  have  gradually  worn 
olT.  The  general  American  jiublic  exhibited  great 
sympathy  with  the  Jews  in  1840  at  the  time  of  the 
Damascus  murders,  and  again  in  1883  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  persecutions  in  Russia;  and  Hermann 
Ahlwardt,  on  his  visit  to  America  in  I8!t."i.  found 
the  soil  an  unfavorable  one  for  his  anti-.Seniitic 
projiaganda. 

The  only  indication  of  any  prejudice  against  the 
Jews — shown  mainly  in  the  Eastern  states — has  been 
the  exclusion  of  Jewish  children  from  certain  jiri- 
vateschoolsand  of  .lews  generally  from  some  hotels. 

Very  early   the  Jews  in   America  began  to   form 

social  organizations,     A  club  was  started  in  Newport 

as  early  as  17()!);  and  .social  clubs — some  cfimprising 

many  nuinbers  and  possessed  of  mag- 

Hebrew^  niticeiit  properties — have  been  estab- 
Clubs.  lisheil  in  many  sections  of  the  country. 
This  development  of  Hebrew  social 
clubs  has  been  larger  in  the  United  Slates  than  any- 
where else.  American  .lews  have  also  been  espe- 
cially given  to  the  forming  of  secret  "Ordeis. "  which, 
while  they  IkiiI  primarily  an  eiliieational  and  chari- 
table ]iurpose,  hail  much  social  inlluence,  and  tended 
jiowerfiilly  toward  theconlinneil  association  of  .lews 
with  each  other  when  the  liold  of  the  synagogue 
upon  them  relaxed.  These  were  supplemented  later 
by  the  fornialion  of  Yriung  Men's  Hebrew  As.socia- 
tions,  which,  like  the  Orders,  partook  to  some  extent 
of  the  nature  of  social  organizations. 

Statistics:  In  18is  Mordecai  M.  Noah  estimated 
the  Jewish  populuti.m  of  the  United  States  at  ;i.(«»0, 
and  in  183(i  Isjiac  C.  Harby  set  it  at  (i.lKHI.  In  1840 
the  "  Ameriian  Almanac"  gave  the  nund)er  as  1.5,- 
00(1;  and  iu  1848  .M.  A.  Bcik  estimated  il  at  ."lO.IMM). 
The  first  systematic  attempt  to  obtain  slalislinil 
information  was  undertaken  by  the  Hoard  of  Dele- 
galesof  .\mcrican  Israelites,  ihrough  a  committee,  of 
which  William  I!.  Hackenburg,  Simon  Wolf,  and 
others  were  members.  They  esli(naled  lh<'  Jewisli 
population  iu  IKSOat  3:!0,','.')7."  In  188.><  Is;iac  Markeiis 
estimated  it  at  4tM).0(M). 

In  the  rejiorts  on  the  statistic-s  of  dmrclics  in  the 
United  Stales  at  the  eleventh  census  (18il0).  the 
Jewisli  stalislics  were  collected  by  Philip  Cowen. 
His  investigations  slmweil  that  there  were  .">:i:i  con - 
giegalions  with  1:10.4!II>  communicants.  Of  these 
congregations.  liOl  worshipctl  in  edilici-s  with  an  ap- 
proximate sealing  capacity  of  I3!t,384.  Others  oc- 
cupied ■J:!3  halls  and  rooms,  having  an  aggregntc 
sealing  capacity  of  38,477.  The  lolal  value  of  llie 
.synagogue  property  was  esliniateil  al  .$!t.7.Vl,3.'i7. 

In  18!l7  David  Siilzbergercslimateil  tlu'  total  pop- 
ulation at  !):!7.8IN);  and  in  1111)0  il  was  estimated  at 
l,0."iS,l :{.-). 

In  the  latter  year  il  was  estinialiil  that  tlicri'  were 
upward  of  7!M  congregiitions  in  the  United  Slates. 
41.'i  educational  orgHnizutions,  and  .'illli  phihintliropic 
organizations. 

The  tolal  Jewish  immigmlion  to  the  United  Slates 
through  till-  ports  of  New  York,  Pliiladelphia,  and 


America 


THE  JKWISII   E.NCYCLUHE1)1A 


506 


Hiiltiiiioii',  from  IWl  to  .Tuly  1,  litOO,  wiis  .WIHOB. 
This  does  not  take  into  accoviiit  tlic  cmiiriiitioii  from 
('aiiiidrt  or  to  ports  other  than  those  mentioned. 

Kollmviniriue  tahU'S  jrivinsr  the  estimated  distribu- 
tion of  (1)  .lews  of  the  I'liited  Stales  (ineliidinir  the 
Hawaiian  Ishinds  and  Porto  Hico).  and  (2)  Jews  of 
Canada,  British  Columbia,  and  South  America: 

DisTniBUTiox  OF  Jews  ok  tife  United  States. 


AInlxiinn 

Arlz<)na 

Arknnsa.s. 

lalifomtn 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

North  and  South  Uakola 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia.. . 

Florida 

(feorpia 

Hawaiian  Islands 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Mas.saclnisetts 

Michijnin 

Mlnne.sota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 


8,000 
2,(1110 

4,11111) 
2.5,IKII) 
8,UIN) 
8,l)l«) 
8,:ilK) 
1,081) 

;i,5(jii 

3.0UII 
B,i:i.5 

20 

2,0(i<) 

»5,I)0I) 

2.5,000 

H,IIOO 

.3,000 

12,U)0 

12,0IH) 

.5.0111) 

a5,00l) 

UO.OtK) 

il,OOI) 

0,000 

.5,000 

35,00U 


Montana 

Netinuska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina . 

t)hlo 

orefron 

Pennsylvania  . . 

Pttrto  itico 

Uliodc  Island 

South  Carolina. 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Itah 

Vermont 

Vinrinia 

\Va.shln!;t<in 

West  Viiiiinla.. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Total 


2,.t00 
3,0<«) 

2,.5<lll 
l.omi 

2.5,000 

l,.50O 

400,000 

12,000 

50.0(H) 
.5,500 

95,0(«l 

100 

3.5011 

8,000 

10,000 

1.5,0(») 
5,000 
1,(KI0 

1.5,000 
2.800 
1,.5(I0 

1.5,000 
1,0IX) 


DiSTRIBCTION   OF  JeWS   OF   CaN.\D.\,    BlilTISII 

Columbia,  etc. 


Canada  and  British  Columbia 

Barbados 

Jamaica 

Argentine  Republic 

Costa  Rica 

Cura(;ao 

Surinam 

Peru 

Venezuela 

Total 


Years. 

New 
Y'ork. 

Phila- 
delphia. 

Balti- 
more. 

Totals. 

1881-84 

14,310 

1885 

18,.5a5 
27,:>I8 
2.5,788 
29,002 
22,674 
32,:si 
B2,.574 

52,i;m 

25,678 

16,:wi 

27,06.5 
2:1,8112 
17,278 
22.921 
12,!)0« 
4.3,307 

1,076 
2.310 

1,(M<0 
1,701 
1,288 
1,982 
4,»8I 

;t.ii;w 

.5.:!24 
S.KTt 
2,791 
2,499 
1.7.52 
2,079 

i',.58i ' 

5,1.52 
l.i)4I 
l,i)02 
2,221 
1.817 
l.lVVl 
2,409 
1.4li3 
2,4:*) 

19,611 

1886 

29,6.58 

1887 

27,468 

1888 

31,;*!:! 

1889 

2:j,962 

1890 

:»,:«« 

1891 

69.13!) 

1892 

60  :t25 

189:^ 

:e,!»43 

1891 

22.108 

1895 

32,077 

189B 

1897 

28.118 
20.684 

1896 

27,40!) 

1899 

14.372 

1900  (to  July) 

45,940 

460,517 

36,390 

22,579 

593,790 

l,058,i:i5 


.lE5VISn   I.MMIGRATIO.V    INTO   THE    UNITED     STATES, 

1881-1900. 


BibliO(;raphy;  Isaac  Markens,  The  ITchrcu's  fjf  America, 
New  York,  1888;  I.adv  Magnus,  Oullinex  iif  Jcicinh  Hiftorii, 
pp.  .'i34-.3«7,  Philadelphia.  1890;  Charles  P.  Daly,  The  Seltlc- 
mcnt  nf  thejewrt  in  .Xiirfh  A  tnrririu  ed.,  with  notes,  by  Max 
J.  Kohier,  New  York,  !.-•!):):  I'lililiinlinii.i  nf  the  Am.  Jen: 
HiM.  Sne..  Nos.  1-8,  189;MiKK);  M.  KavserlIng,  OirMoither 
i'lilumlius  (Hill  the  iVirtirijOTli'oii  nfllir  Jeirs  ill  the  SpanMi 
mill  Purtnuiiene  JMfCimrie.t.  translated  from  the  (ierman  bv 
Charles  Gross,  New  York,  IWK ;  Henrv  .Samuel  Morals,  The 
Jeu-g  of  Philatlelphiii.  Philadelphia,  1S94;  Simon  Wolf,  Ttie 


American  Jew  ii.i  I'ntrint,  Snlitier.  nml  t'itizen,  Phl!;nlt'l- 
phia,  1895;  Trintmieliiniti  uf  the  Jewish  Hijitoricol  Society 
nf  t:n{ilii)iil.  vols.  I.  111.;  Cynis  Adier,  The  Ainericnii  JeiriKh 
i'eiir  liiHilu  .'twio  'n'liW  :  II.  Vicufla  MacKenna,  Frntieirico 
Moyen:  or  the  JiKiiii.iilinii  n.i  it  W'ns  itt  Smith  .4nicn(7i, 
translated  from  the  Spanish  by  James  W.  DuUy,  London,  1809 ; 
and  numerous  other  stnirces  referred  to  under  the  seimrate 
arlldes. 

A. 

Jewish  Architecture :  The  first  Jewish  set- 
tlers ;inived  in  New  Yorl< — whirh  was  oriiriniilly 
called  Xiw  Amsterdam — in  1C.')4.  and  some  ap- 
peared  in  Newport.    U.    I  .   in   HiTT:    ecinscinnntly, 


IrrjipU-  licth  Zinn.  liulTalo,  N.  Y.-lltizaiitiiie. 

(Kr.iTu  II  pliot..(rriiith.) 

it  was  in  tlioso  iilaees  that  the  lirst  synajroiriies  in 
Ameiiea  were  built.  The  oldest  Jewish  hindmark 
in  Xew  York  city  is  the  cemetery  !it  the  junction  of 
the  Bowei'V  and  Oliver  street,  wliich  was  |i\iiiliiise(l 
in  1681  for  ii  biirial-[)liice.  Thoiijrh  of  aniiiiiiarian 
interest,  it  contains  no  tombstones  of  imiiorlance 
from  tlie  point  of  view  of  design.  The  cemetery  in 
Newport,  of  jibout  the  ssime  date,  was  more  ineten- 
tious;  and  at  this  day  (IHOl),  with  its  carved  Eiryp- 
tiaii  enl  I'uMce  and  hiuh  iron  railiiij^.s.  ei'eetcd  by  Judah 
'I'ouid.  it  isoiieol  llie  si<;lits of  Newport.  AlthnMirli 
the  .lews  had  a  ]ilaceof  piiblie  worship  in  New  York 
as  earlvas  KiSl.  ihe  lii-st  rejrnlar  svna.iroirue — tiiat  in 
Jlill  street— was  not  built  till  172!).  '  J,ike  all  eiirly 
synagogues  in  America,  it  had  no  claims  to  archi- 
tectural lieauty.  but  was  a  siiii])le.  modest  structure. 
Tt  was  subseiiuently  taken  down  and  more  substan- 
tially rebuilt. 

The  first  synagogue  of  note  in  America  was 
erected  at  Newport  in  1702.  It  is  still  intact ;  and  no 
ullcralions  have  been  made  except  for  the  introdiie- 
tifin  of  gas-lighting.  The  Imihling.  whidi  is  an  ex- 
cellent example  of  the  colonial  style  of  the  period,  is 
constructed  of  brick,  and  hiis  a  carvcd-stone  cor- 
nice and  porch.  The  plan  is  rectangular,  with  win- 
dows on  all  four  sides  and  Ji  iirojecling  north  wing, 
conlaining  a  vestibule  and  the  only  entrance  to  the 
women's  gallery.  The  poiih  is  on  the  west  side 
and  till'  .\rk  on  thecasterii  wall.  Thelatleris  neatly 
paneled,  and  its  cornice  is  suriiiounleil  by  the  two 
tables  fif  the  Law.  I(  is  raised  above  the  main  floor; 
it  has  high  railings  all  along  it.  with  a  space  at  the 
left  for  tlie  pulpit.  The  reading-desk  is  in  tlie  cen- 
ter of  the  building:  and  there  are  no  stationary  .seals. 
Twelve  Ionic  columns  support  Ihe  gallery,  which 
extends  on  tlirce  sides  of  the  building  and  is  faced  by 
a  balustrade  high  enough  to  shield  the  occupants 
from  view.     The  ceiling  is  flat,  with  a  deep  cove 


507 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


America 


above  a  modillion  cornice.    This  little  b\iil(ling  was 

dcsigneil  by  Peter  Harrison,  an  arehitect  whose  work 

in  Boston  and  Newporl  is  well  l\n(i\vn;  it  is  treated 

in  his  eustoniary  style,  and  isa  typical 

The  New-   American    synagogue   of   the   earlier 

port  Syn-   times.     The  columns,  cornices,  pilas- 

agogwe.     tcrs,    balustrades,    all    of    which   are 

painted  white  with  some  of  the  carving 

sparingly  gilded,  are  good  examples  of  the  best  work 

of  the  day;  while  the  plan  of  the  interinr  is  exactly 

adapted  to  the  requirements  of  an  Ortliodox  .Jewish 

.synagogue.     There  was  eveu  an  oveu  enMneclcd  with 

the  building  for  the  baking  of  unii-avened  bread. 

In  1805  there  were  but  live  synagogues  worthy 
of  the  name  in  the  United  States,  but  a  little  later 
they  began  to  multiply  in  New  York.  Philadelphia, 
Charleston,  Savannah,  and  other  large  cities.  The 
rabbinic  traditions  regulating  the  position  and  nura- 


meuted  with,  but  general  preference  seems  to  have 
been  for  the  Moorish.  This  nas  due,  no  doubt,  partly 
to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  newer  synagogues  in 
Europi'  had  been  designed  in  this  style,  and  partly  to 
a  vagiK^  impression  that  the  stj'le  itself  was  Oiiental 
and  couseiiuently  appropriate. 

There  were  many  exceptions  to  the  prevailing 
taste,  and  some  of  them  most  successful.  A  syna- 
gogue was  built  in  Charleston,  S,  C,  in  the  Greek 
style.  It  possessed  some  dignity,  and  was  a  fair 
copy  of  a  Doric  temjile.  The  interior  was  treated 
in  tiie  Ionic  order;  the  .\rk,  placed  in  the  east,  w:i9 
of  mahogany  handsomely  carved ;  and  the  details 
generally  were  well  executed. 

The  congregation  Shearith  Israel,  New  York,  tlie 
owners  of  the  original  building  in  Mill  street  re- 
ferred to  above,  built  in  IKCO  a  synagogue  on  strictlj' 
cla.ssie  lines  on  West  Nineteenth  street.     The  facade 


JfSMI  AT    Isn.VKI.  SVNAOOOfK  AT   NF.WPORT,   II. 
(From  a  phoUiKr*|>h.) 


l.-C>il'm(al. 


biTof  windowsand  doors,  the  levilof  Ihemaiii  floor, 
the  site,  and  other  similar  points  appear  to  have  been 
entirely  neglected.  It  was  generally  undcrsiddd  that 
the  Ark  was  to  bi>  at  the  easlirn  end  nf  llic'  buililing, 
the  readinir  cli'sk  in  the  mi<ldlc',  ami  the  seals  in  rows 
under  the  wiimen's  galleries  extending  east  and  west. 
This  was  the  usual  arrangement,  varied  only  in  de- 
tails or  when  existing  conditions  compelled  .some 
deviation  from  established  custom.  .\s  the  various 
congregations  grew  wealthicrandcoulil  alTord  hanil- 
somer  biiildings.  more  attention  was  paid  to  their 
design;  and  attempts  wire  made  t<>  seiiirc  individ- 
uality and  expressiim  wliieli  should  br  typically  .Jew- 
ish.    Various  styles  of  architecture    were   expiri- 


was  ornamentid  by  two  orders,  Ionic  behiw  and 
Corinthian  above;  and  the  ediliii-  was  crowned  by 
an  octagonal  dome.  The  building,  now  ilitnolished, 
wasof  unusual  inliresl.  The  main  entrance  wason 
its  south  side.  The  entire  ground  tloor  was  lIuTe- 
fore  devoted  to  vestibulesan<l  staircases,  in  order  that 

the  entrance  to  the  synagogue  propiT 

Later  Syn-  slionhl  be  at  its  western  end,  and  the 

agogues.     .\rk  placid  at  the  <'ast.     The  geiiend 

elTect  of  till'  inteiior  was  very  impos- 
ing, the  domed  ceiling  being  of  great  height,  ami  the 
.\rk  well  proportioned.  Corinthian  colunnis  sup- 
porl<il  the  gidleriis;  and  pilaslirs,  eorniees,  and  bal- 
u-irades  wer<'   used.      The   windows  were   arched, 


Ameiica 


THE  JEWISH   ENX'YCLOPEUIA 


508 


witli  keystones;  ami  clussic  forms  were  consistcully 
finplovcd. 

Si'vcnil  synnpofTiics  wero  built  in  Xcw  York  by 
tile  lull'  Iliiiry  Fcrnbacli.  the  lirst  .Icwisli  iiicliiliot 
will)  iniictiscci  in  Aincricii.  Like  most  of  liis  work, 
they  were  all  difriiilieil.  handsome  Imildinjis.  well 
adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  several  congrega- 
tious.  They  evideneeil  a  marked  tendency  toward 
the  Moorish  style,  wliiih,  even  when  deiiartcd  from 
iu  the  main  design,  was  insisted  upon  in  details.  The 
most  ambitious  and  noted  -.xample  is  the  Temple 
Emanu  El.  wliich  Fernbaeh  built  in  eollaboralion 
with  Leopold  Ei<Ilit/.  \Vliile  exliibitinir  strong 
Gothic  tendencies  in  its  main  lines  and  in  its  interior 
disposition,  it  is  strictly  Moorish  in  its  details,  which 


Temple  Emanu-EI,  New  York. 

(From  .^  jihologTaph.) 


-Mnori:<h. 


are  well  studied  and  of  great  beauty.  It  is  undeni- 
ably one  of  tlie  most  S|)lendid  modern  synagogues. 
Its  exterior  has  graceful  minarets  and  well-e.\ecute(i 
carving  and  tracery,  in  I  he  manner  of  the  Alhambra; 
and  in  the  interior  there  are  massive  stone  piers, 
with  intermediate  granite  columns  dividing  the  nave 
from  the  aisle.s.  From  the  piers  spring  large  horse- 
shoe arches  which  interrujit  the  clerestory  above  the 
smaller  arches,  thus  prochicing  to  some"  extent  the 
effect  of  a  transept,  in  tlie  ends  of  which  are  circidar 
stained  glass  windows.  The  Ark.  in  the  east,  is  elab- 
orately areadcd  and  paneled,  and  is  set  in  an  arched 
recess  crowned  by  a  smaller  arcade.  The  colors  are 
rich;  blue,  red,  yellow,  and  gold  are  lavi-shlv  used; 
but  they  are  so  well  blended  that  the  general  ciTect 
is  harmonious.  The  galleries,  which  are  of  wood, 
extend  behind  the  iiiers  and  colunms.  and  seem  to 
be  of  secondary  importance.  The  ijlatform  in  front 
of  the  Ark  contains  the  reading-desk  and  pulpit; 


aiKJ  the  seals,  which  face  the  Ark,  (ill   the   nave. 
This  dispo.sition  has  become  very  general  in  modern 


Shearith  Israel  Syniifc'i.gue,  Nvw  York.-Cdiwic. 

(Fri'iii  a  i'hol<>Kraph.) 

American  synagogues;  and  the  advantages  of  com- 


Syna- 

gogues  in 

New  York 

City. 


bining  reading-desk  ami  i)idi)it — thus 
concentrating  the  attention  of  the  con- 
gregation as  well  as  securing  addi- 
tional seating  capacity — have  made 
the  arrangement  a  favorite  one.     A 


further   development  of  this  idea  was  adopted   in 


(From  a  |ihotograph.) 

the  Temple  Beth-El.  corner  of  Fifth  avenue  and 
Seventy-sixth  street,  New  York,  desisrncd  bv  Arnold 


509 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


America 


W.  Bninncr  and  Tli<nims  Tryon.  who  l)iiilt  several 
of  till-  newer  synagogues.  The  l)enches  are  curved 
and  so  arranged  Ihatevery  seat  directly  faeestlie  Ark, 
which  is  on  li  platform  in  a  semi<irciiUir  apseor  recess. 
The  reailing-desk  is  in  front  of  the  Ark  ;  and  the  pulpit 
is  direct  ly  in  front  of  llie  reading-d<sk.  The  surface 
behind  tlie  Ark  isciivere<l  with  mosaic;  and  above  the 
Ark  are  eiglit  niarlile  columns  s\ipp()rting  a  half- 
dome  and  screening  the  organ  and  the  choir.  The 
ceiling  of  the  building  is  vaulted.  an<l  is  supported 
by  arches  springing  from  four  colunms.  There  are 
galleries  on  three  sides,  and  double  galleries  at  the 
west  end.  The  building  is  designed  in  the  Konian- 
esque  style,  with  round  arches  and  elaborate  detail 


Philadelphia,  not  only  does  the  body  of  the  building 
lack  the  expression  of  the  old  synagogue,  but  even 
the  Ark  itself  has  been  modernized.     The  Temple  at 


Temple  Keneselh  Israel,  Phlladelpliiu.— /fcimfdnancc 

(From  ft  pholOKTii|>li.> 

work,  execute<l  in  marble  and  mosaic.  The  exterior 
is  of  limestone ;  and  its  main  feature  is  a  dome  covered 
with  gilded  tnicery. 

The  desire  for  ail  un<ibstrurted  view  of  the  pulpit 
and  the  Ark.  that  suggested  the  use  of  only  four 
colunms  in  lhc>  TempU-  IJeth  Kl,  has  resulted  in  the 
plamiing  of  l)uildings  wholly  without  columns,  the 
roof  being  supported  entirely  by  the  walls.  Other 
I)ractical  reasons  in  synagogue  architecture  have 
suggested  theiiseand  arniiigcnient  of  chairs  as  in 
tlieali'rs;  and  light,  |)erfect  acoustics,  ventilation,  and 
comfort  have  been  so  assiduously  sought  after,  that 
in  the  disire  to  secure  a  )iirfect  audilorium  in  these 
respects  the  arlislic  i  Irment  has  frecpienlly  been  for- 
gotten, and  the  devotional  ens<>mble,  so  important 
in  a  place  of  worship,  has  iM'cn  entirely  sacriliced.  In 
some  cases,  as  in  the  Kcne.selh  Isniel  synagogue  at 


Stem  Mausoleum,  Cypress  Hills,  N.  Y. 

(From  ft  photOBTftph-) 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  is  open  to  the  same  criticism ;  and 
there  is  danger  that  this  fault  in  synagogue-building 
may  become  more  pronounced  as  new  examples  mul- 
tiply. This  serious  and  unnecessary  architectural 
deflect  is  greatly  to  bedeplorcd,  especially  in  the  two 
synagogues  referred  to,  which  are  in  other  respects 
bea\itiful  structures. 

The  iiresent  building  of  the  congregation  Shearith 
Israel  in  New  York  c^ity,  erected  in  1897,  is  an  in- 
stance of  an  imjiortant  modern  synagogue  in  which 
the  orthodox  arrangement  of  seats,  pulpit,  etc.,  has 
been  retained.  The  plan  is  practically  that  of  the 
original  building  in  Mill  street,  so  far  as  the  position 
of  the  Ark,  reading-de.sk,  galleries,  and  seats  are 
c(jneerned:  but  theinaterials  employed  are  costly. 
The  exterior  is  entirely  of  stone;  and"  in  the  interior 
marble  and  bronze  are  lavishly  used.  Classic  ti-adi- 
tions  have  been  respected  throughout  in  the  design, 


SellKman  Mausoleum,  lypirss  HIUs  N.  V. 

(From  ft  photofTftph.) 

and  in  the  interior  as  well  as  on  flic  fa(;ades  the 
Corinthian  order  has  been  adopted. 

The  synagogue  in  the  thriving  colony  at  AVood- 
bine,  N.  .1.,  is  iif  interest,  as  having  iH'cn  built  by 
members  of  the  colony,  who  did  their  own  work, 
even  to  the  extent  of  n'laking  their  own  bricks.     Ii 


America 

America,  Discovei-y  of 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


510 


is  the  simplest  jiDssitik'  structure  both  iu  design  and 
construction,  witli  uo  sins  of  had  tiiste;  ami  it  is  an 
indication  of  earnest,  well-dirccled  endeavor  to  pro- 
vide a  titling  place  of  worship  while  the  struggle 
for  existence  is  still  severe. 

There  has  been  much  divergence  of  taste  in  the 
building  of  synagogues;  but  a  vague  Oriental  ten- 
dency cim  generally  be  noticed  in  all  of  them.  The 
preference  for  the  Jloorish  style,  at  one  time  so 
much  in  favor,  seems  to  have  passed  away,  expe- 
rience having  shown  it  to  be  eminently  unsuitable 
and  un-.Icwish.  In  America,  as  in  other  countries, 
if  places  for  .lewish  worship  are  built  not  entirely 
in  the  prevailing  style  of  church  architecture,  they 
are  at  least  strongly  iiitlueneed  by  it.  Churches  in 
America  have  been  built  in  Colonial,  Gothic,  Homan- 
estjuc,  classic,  and  tlie  various  forms  of  the  Renais- 
sance;  and  there  are  now  many  synagogues  in  all  of 
these  styles,  e.\ce|)t  the  Gothic.  Like  the  synagogue 
at  Clcvehuid  and  the  Temple  Beth-P^l  at  New  York, 
the  Sinai  Temple  at  Chicago  is  Romanesque.  It  was 
built  by  the  late  Dankinar  Adler,  a  Jewish  architect 
of  much  abilitv,  who,  with  Louis  H.  Sullivan,  de- 


New  York,  Brooklyn,  and  Cleveland  other  examples 
of  this  Irealnienl  are  to  bi'. seen.  Tlie  general  ilisposi- 
tion  of  mass  iu  the  Temple  Emanu-Kl.  New  York, 
which  has  two  towers  covered  with  minarets,  is 
pamlleled  in  the  Temple  Sinai,  New  Orleans,  the 
Temple  Kiuauu-El,  San  Francisco,  theTein])le,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  many  others.  This  is  a  favorite  arrange- 
ment, and  is  the  iialund  outcome  of  the  convenient 
plan  of  a  tower  on  either  siile  of  the  main  entrance, 
containing  staircases  leading  to  the  galleries. 

In  nearly  every  case  provision  is  made  in  the  syna- 
gogue or  iu  an  adjoining  building  for  a  religious 
school.  Generally  the  school  is  in  the  lower  story, 
and  often  occupies  as  much  Hoor-space  as  the  syna- 
gogue i)roper  and  contains  a  large  ass<'mbly-ioom 
and  numerous  class-rocmis.  The  school-rooms  are 
generally  well  a|ipointe<l ;  and  much  care  is  taken 
in  their  maintenance  and  i'(iuipnienl. 

On  the  whole,  synagogue  architecture  is  rapidly 
reaching  a  high  plane  of  excellence;  and  buildings 
of  much  beauty  devoted  to  Jewish  woi-ship  now 
abound,  taking  place  among  the  monumental  .struc- 
tures of  America.     Many  of  the  interiors  are  impres- 


TocRO  Cemetery,  Newport,  It.  I. 

(From  a  photoRraph.) 


signed  many  noteworthy  liuildings.  The  synagogue 
Keneseth  Israel  at  Philadel|)liia  is  a  good  example 
of  Renaissance  architecture,  with  a  dome  and  a  tower 
suggesting  an  Italian  campanile.  The  synagogue 
at  New  Haven  is  Spanish  ;  and  many  .synagogues 
throughout  the  United  States  have  been  designed  in 
other  variations  of  Renaissance. 

Domes  are  often  used  ;  and  jirobablv  the  most  in- 
teresting example  is  the  Temple  Betli-Zion  at  Buf- 
falo, which  isan  excellent  Byzantine  building  entirely 
covered  with  a  low  copper"dome.     In  Philadelphia, 


sive,  and,  while  general  simplicity  of  arrangement 
usually  exists,  the  Ark  and  its  surrounding  walls 
afford  opportunities  for  design  that  are  not  often 
neglected.  In  many  cases  the  Ark  is  oonstnicted 
of  carved  wood  or  rich  marbles;  and  Jlexican  onyx, 
gold,  and  mosaics  havc^  been  used  with  good  effect. 
Tombs  and  mausoleums  are  assuming  architec- 
tural irajiortance:  and  the  latter,  man.y  of  which  are 
noteworthy  for  good  design  and  great  dignity,  help 
to  distinguish  the  ceiueterics.  in  which  much  pride 
is  taken.    Buildings  for  various  .lewish  charities  are 


511 


THE  .IKWISII    KNCYCLOPKUIA 


America 

America,  Discovery  of 


minicnms  and  often  of  niiuli  interest.  Orplmn  asy- 
lums, hospituls.  liomes  for  the  aireil  and  tlie  infirm, 
librarii's,  .stliools,  etc..  Iiave  sprun;^  up  in  all  the 
larire  citiw  of  the  United  Stales.  While  these  are 
frequeutly  models  as  to  plans  and  arrangements, 
and  arc  liandsome  in  design,  they  can  not  be  consid- 


he  beeamo  chancellor  of  Aragon.  Together  with  a 
relative,  the  royal  treasurer,  Gabriel  Sanchez  (whose 
father  was  burned  in  effigy  as  a  Jewish  heretic  at 
Saragoss;i  in  149:5),  and  his  friend,  the  royal  cham- 
berlain, Juan  Cabrcro,  who  was  likewise  of  Jewish 
stock,  Saniangel  entered  very  energetically  into  the 


H1.I)  JKWISII    CKMKTKUV,    CIIATIIA.V    SyLAI'.K,    .Nt«"    YuUK. 
(I'rom  a  photoirraph.) 


ered  as  specimens  of  distinctly  Jewish  architecture; 
for,  though  erected  for  Jewish  purposes,  they  are 
ei|ually  ailapted  for  the  usesof  other  denominations, 
while,  uidike  .synagogues,  they  give  no  indication  of 
sectarian  purpose.  A.   AV.   B. 

AMERICA,  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  :   Among 
the  variovis  iliscoveriesof  thi-  tiflcciith  ci'Mtury,  none 
is  more  intimately  eomiected  with  the  .b  ws  and  their 
history  than  tlie  discovery  of  the  New  World.     In- 
ilirectly  and  directly,  the  Jews  contributed  to  the 
success  of  Columbus'  voyage  of  e.\plorati(m:  indi- 
rectly, by  means  of  several  astronomical  works  pre- 
pared by  them,  such  as  "  De  I,umin!U"il>us  et  Die- 
bus  I'rilicis,"  by  Abraham   ilin   Kzra:    anil  directly- 
by  the  invention  of  instruments  for  astronomical  ob- 
.servalion.    The  instrument  for  observ- 
A  Jew  In-  ing  the  stars  calleil  J.\<<)it's  Siakf,  a 
vents        sca-(|uadrant,  was  the  invention,  not 

the  Sea-  of  Itegiomontaniis,  as  has  long  been 
Quadrant,  considered,  but  of  Levi  ben  (ierson. 
who  was  the  first  to  describe  it,  as  is 
proved  by  Steinschncider  and  (iUnther.  Abniham 
Zacuio  then  appli<'d  this  inslrumcnt  in  navigation 
to  the  determination  of  lalituile  without  di'|H'ndiiig 
upon  the  sun's  meridional  height — sometimes  un- 
obtainable— using  the  altitude  of  the  i)olar  star  at 
nii.'lit  to  ascertain  the  ship's  position.  His  Ijitin 
perpetual  almanac  (afterward  translated  into  Span- 
ihhi.  wiHi  its  astronomical  tables,  rendered  Colum- 
bus incali'ulable  .service:  indeed,  on  one  occasion 
it  .sav(  cl  the  lives  of  his  whole  company. 

A  conspicuous  part.  too.  in  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
i<a  was  tnken  by  the  Marano  I.iiis  de  Santangel, 
against  who.se  ri-lalives  the  Impiisilion  waged  a 
war  of  e\tj>rmi nation,  he  himself  beini;  subjected  to 
miuli  inconvenience  because  of  his  Jewisli  origin. 
He  was  the  farmiTof  the  royal  taxes  and  head  of 
an  important  commercial  house  in  Valencia:  and, 
owing  to  his  being  a  contlilant  of  King  Ferdinand, 


far  reaching  plans  of  Columlius.  He  represented  to 
(Jueen  Lsiibella  the  advantages  that  would  accrue 
to  the  crown  and  to  Spain  from  the  discovery  of  a 
sea-route  to  the  Indies — immeasurable  riches,  ac- 
ci-ssion  of  lands,  and  immortal  fame.  Under  the 
inllucncc  of  sucli  glowing  representations,  she  con- 
sented lo  Cohuubus'  undertaking,  and,  since  the  state 
treasury  was  exhausted,  Was  ready  to  pawn  her 
jewels  to  procure  the  ntccs-sary  funds  to  til  out 
ills  e.vpedition.  At  this  stage.  Santangel  sought 
permission  to  advance  the  necessary  sum  out  of  his 
private  treasure,  and  accordingly  loaned  without  in- 
terest, to  the  royal  treasury,  ifor  the  venture,  17,000 
ducats  (about  $20,n<)0,  or  "f4.100;  perhaps  e<iual  to 
SHiil.uodat  the  present  day) . 

On  April  od,  14!)-,  Colmnbus  reo<-ivcd  both  the 
contract  (concluded  only  thirteen  days  before,  be- 
tween him  and  Juan  de  Coloma  on  the  part  of  the 
royal  pair)  and  the  royal  commission  to  tit  out  the 
fleet  for  its  voyage  to  India.  A  month  earlier 
the  e<lict  c.xpelling  the  Jews  from  Spain  had  been 
published  inall  public  places  in  the  domiiiionsof  the 
united  kingdoms  of  Aragon  and  Castile.  On  August 
'..'.  about  liOlt.OOO  Jews  (some  writers  consider  the 
number  much  greater)  left  the  country;  and  on  the 
next  day,  Friday,  August  3.  Columbus  sjiiled  with 
his  thrci'  .ships  in  (piest  of  the  unknown.  Among 
the  members  of  the  expedition  .several  were  of  He- 
brew blood.  Of  thesi-  tjiere  may  be  mentioned  I.uis 
de  Torres,  who  understood  Hebrew.  Chaldaic.  and 
soTne  Arabic,  and  who  was  to  .serve  the 
Jews  with  ailnural  as  inlerprclir:  Alfonso  de  la 
Columbus.  ( 'alle.  who  look  his  name  from  the  Jew- 
ish ((Uarter  (r,illi),  and  die«i  in  Spain 
in  inoit;  Hodriiro  Sanchez,  of  Si'govia,  who  was  a 
relative  of  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Gabriel 
Sanchez,  and  joined  the  expedition  in  compliance 
with  the  special  re(|Uest  of  the  queen;  the  surgeon. 
>Iarco;  anil  the  ship's  doctor,  Bkun.m.,  wIio  had 
lived  fonnerly  in  Tortosti.  and  had  been  piuiished 


America,  Discovery  of 
America,  Judaism  in 


THE  JKWlbll   KNCVCLUl'KlJlA 


512 


ill  UlKl  )iy  till'  Iiuiiiisiliiiii,  in  Viilencia,  as  an  ad- 
litiviil  of  Jiuluisni. 

Luis  di'  ToiR's  wiis  tlio  first  Eiirn|i(>an  lo  licaii 
Anu'ricaii  soil,  ami  tlii'  lirst  todiscovtr  llii' uscof  to- 
bacco, lie  sclllcil  in  Ciilia,  ami.  liavinjr  won  the  con- 
liilciicc  aiul  irooil  will  of  one  of  the  clii'fs,  fcccivcd 
from  liiin  larirc  jiiaiits  of  land  and  many  slaves  as 
presents.  From  tlie  l<inj:  anil  ((iieen  lie  also  re- 
reived  an  annual  pension  of  H.()4.j  maravedis  (almtit 
JUG.  or  €7).  lie  died  in  Cuba.  Luis  de  !?antanjrel 
was  the  lirst  to  receive  a  detailed  statement  of  the 
voyaire  and  discoveries  of  Coliimlins.  contained  in 
a  letter  written  hy  the  admiral.  February  lo.  14iKi, 
in  the  Azores,  where  he  sIo]iiu(l  on  his  way  home. 
From  Lisbon.  Columbus  w  role  a  similar  letter  to  Ga- 
briel Sanchez,  who  jiublished  it  in  Harielona.  These 
letters  have  often  been  ]>ublished  in  lalcr  times,  both 
in  Italian  and  in  Em;lish. 

The  ex  i)enses  of  the  second  expedition,  which  sailed 

from  ( 'adiz.  Sept.  2-">,  14!I3,  were  covered  by  the  funds 

lirocured  from  the  sale  of  thejrolil  and 

Jewish      silver  vessels  taken  from  the  expelled 

Treasure  Jew  s.  or  from  those  who  had  wandered 
Equips  into  Portugal,  or  from  the  converted 
Second  .lews  who  remained  behind,  from 
Expedition,  whom  the  property  was  seized  under 
pretext  that  it  formerly  belon.ijed  to 
the  emijrrants.  Even  Christians  suspected  of  jhisscss- 
ins  any  of  the  .Jewish  treasure  were  not  allowed  to 
retain  it.  All  valnablesof  whateversort.  clothes,  and 
othei  (roods  belongiiisr  to  the  exiles,  notes  of  hand 
which  they  could  not  cash,  the  daniasU,  velvet,  and 
silk  drajieries  of  the  Torali,  were  colle(  ted  and  solil 
to  further  the  voyage.  Of  the  treasure  thus  col- 
lecteil.  Columbus  received  10.000  maravedis.  prom- 
ised to  the  one  who  should  lirst  see  land,  and  LOOO 
golden  doubloons  (about  S.5,000,  or  £1,000)  as  a  spe- 
cial lireseiit. 

15y  his  haughtiness  and  harsh  treatment.  Colum- 
bus had  made  many  enemies,  and  had  also  incurred 
the  ill-will  of  Bernal.  the  ship's  doctor.  The  con- 
spiracy fostered  by  Hernal  and  Camacho  was  dis- 
astrous to  the  admiral,  who  in  his  desjKMate  condi- 
tion was  comiielled  to  call  u|ion  his  old  patrons. 
Gabriel  Sanchez  and  Luis  de  Santaugel.  to  intercede 
for  him  with  the  king  and  iiueen.  For  the  services 
he  had  rendered  to  the  state.  Luis  de  Santangel  ob- 
tained many  inivileges:  perhaps  the  most  importaiU 
of  them  being  a  royal  decree,  issued  Jlay  30.  1497.  by 
which  he.  his  children,  and  his  grandchildren  were 
to  be  protected  from  any  further  molestation  by  the 
Lnpnsition. 

Emigration  to  the  newly  discovered  lands,  ujion 
which  Columbus  had  set  the  seal  of  the  Church,  was 
strictly  forbidden  to  those  Maranos  whom  the  In- 
quisition from  time  to  time  still  |)ersecuted.  Xever- 
theless.  (Jabriel  Sanchez  was  the  lirst  jierson  to  ob- 
tain a  royal  grant  to  exjiort  grain  and  horses  to 
America.  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Maranos,  well- 
to-do  merchants  and  learned  physicians,  emigrated 
to  New  Spain  in  such  numbers  that  the  authorities  of 
Castile  felt  themselves  impelled,  so  soon  after  the  dis- 
covery as  1.511.  to  take  steps  against  the  Maranosand 
the  children  and  grandchildren  of  those  .Tews  who 
bad  fallen  victims  to  thi'  ln(|uisilion,  and  to  this 
end  caused  similar  imiuisitorial  courts  to  be  erected 
in  the  New  World.  One  of  the  tirst  victims  in  New- 
Spain  was  Diego  Caballero.  a  Jlarauo  from  Barra- 
mcda.  The  edicts  of  .June  30.  1567,  and  ]\lareli  1.5, 
15()8,  were  intended  to  prevent  any  further  emigra- 
tion of  the  .Jews. 

.Jewish  writers  soon  began  todevote  theirattention 
to  Columbus  and  his  discoveries.  The  first  to  men- 
tion them  was  Abraham  Farissol  of  Avignon,  who. 


according  to  the  "Stories  of  the  Discoveries  of  Col- 
umbus," which  appeared  in  a  collection.  "The  .Tour- 
neys in  the  NewWorld,"  V'icenza,  1  "HIT. 

Mention  in  refers  to  them  in  his  geographii  al 
Jewish       work.  "  Iggeret  Orliot  'Olain."  written 

Writings,  iii  1.504  (Venice.  I.5S7);  translated  into 
Latin  by  Thomas  Hyde  in  lliOl.  More 
particular  attenticm  was  devoted  to  these  discov- 
eries by  .Joseph  Cohen,  also  of  .Vvignon.  who  transla- 
ted into  Hebrew,  in  1.557,  the  "  Hisloria  General  de 
las  Indias,"  by  Francisco  Lopez  dcGomara  (2  vols., 
1535).  and  included  them  in  his  Hebrew  work. 
"Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  thi'  Kings  of  Fniiice." 
etc.,  Venice.  1.5.52-.53,  Amsterdam,  1733;  translated 
into  English  by  Bialoblotsky,  I.,ondon,  18.34-35. 

BiBl.loc.R.vpiiv:  M.  KayserllDK.  r/irMoji/ur  CiiUimhus  niiil 
the  PartiriiHitiiin  nf  tin:  Ji  trtt  in  tlir  Sjuniiiili  ttml  /Nirfii- 
ttuate  I)isci)Vrrir.%  iniiistuti'il  fn»m  Ilic  (ieriiian  Ity  Ctnuii'S 
(iniss.  New  Vi)rli.  IWH;  Ijimelli)  MiHlnnii.  Uli  Klirei  e  la 
SriiiM-rtti  ittll*  Amrricn,  CiLsjile,  ISiti;  ri'inlnied  fnmi  Tcj*- 
.vi»<i  /sni.dfi™,  tSSK.  Uli-liunl  (ietlliell,  fnUiuiliUK  in  Jrtr- 
iKli  Littrutnrc  in  I'ntiliidtiini^i  of  Am.  Jiw.  /fi>t.  S*tr. 
No.  2. 

>L  Iv. 

AMERICA,  JUDAISM  IN:  .Judaism  in 
America — by  its  logical  and  historical  development  of 
.Tudaism  in  its  most  ri'cent  sphere  of  activity — prom- 
ises to  react  tijion  and  in  certain  directions  nnHlify 
all  existing  phases  of  the  faith.  It  varies  essen- 
tially from  Oriental  .Tudaism.  and  has  surpassed  even 
that  of  western  ICurope  in  its  ail.-iptation — more  or 
less  happy — of  ancient  ideas  lo  modern  forms.  It  is 
in  much  the  inevitable  creation  of  its  novel  einiron- 
tnent  in  a  new  world ;  but  it  is  not  lacking  in  iiide- 
l)endeiU  initiative  along  lines  of  thought  that  some- 
times emanate  far  back  in  the  connnon  history.  Jn 
its  development  three  distinct  threads  of  derivation 
may  be  discerned  w  liich.  w  hen  woven  together  by 
the  hands  of  time  and  eireumslance,  constitute  the 
firm  texture  of  its  fabric  to-day.  These  are:  (1) 
Oriental  .Judaism  (sometimes  called  "Orthodox."  but 
more  correctly  "Ancient."  .Judaism),  transjilanted 
to  this  country  by  the  earliest  settlers,  w  ho  were  of 
Sei)liardic,  I'olisli-Gcrman,  and  British  origin:  (2) 
Sephardic-Con.servalive.  tracing  back  to  the  ration- 
alistic thought  of  Spain  (Sephard)  in  the  early  Mid- 
dle .\ges;  (3)  German-Heformeil.  derived  from  the 
inllux  of  recent  German  thought  broughl  hither  by 
the  living  representatives  of  that  .school,  to  whom 
the  ligid  domination  of  Oriental  .Judaism  in  Europe 
had  grown  repugnant. 

The  first  .Jewish  settlers  in  Ameiiea  naturally 
belonged  to  the  Orthodox  or  Ancient  section  of  the 
faith.  They  were  observant  .Jews,  mainly  of  the 
Orthodox  Sepliardic  ty]>e.  who  had  emigrateil  from 
Eurojie  directly  to  South  America  and  later  on  tn  the 
northern  continent.  Sdiilliey  ("  IJislory  of  Brazil.'' 
((noted  by  Daly.  "The  Settlement  of  the  .Jews  in 
North  America."  ed.  Kohler,  i>.  (i)  states  that  the 
ojien  joy  with  which  the  .Tews  of  Bahia  celebrated 
their  religious  ceremonies  attracted  unfavorable  at- 
tention there.  olTending  their  Catholic  neighbors;  in 
I'ortngal  they  had  been  forced  to  be  ^[iiiaiios 
(pseudo-Christians).  In  ir>5()  a  special  tiurial-lot  on 
the  o\itskirts  of  the  town  was  presented  to  the  Xew 
Vork  .Jews,  who  had  arrived  in  that  city  in  l')-54. 
In  1077  the  community  at  Ncwjiort.  B.  I.,  where 
.Tews  had  settled  in  1()57,  consecrated  a  .Tewish  cem- 
etery. By  1()!)5  the  New  York  colony  had  dedicated 
thefirst  synagogue  on  thcconlincnt  of  North  Amer- 
ica, in  Beaver  street.  New  York.  The  chaplain  to 
the  laiglish  garrison  (Bev.  .Tohn  Miller)  describes 
a  visit  he  jiaid  to  it  in  that  year  (.see  Daly.  p.  27l. 
In  1710  Abf.diam  de  I-ucena.  mini.ster  of  the  New 
York  congregation,  petitioned  Governor  Hunter  for 


513 


THE  JEAVISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


America,  Discovery  of 
America,  Judaism  in 


fxcmiiticm  from  cirtiiiii  civil  uikI  iiiilitiin'  duties  by 
reason  (if  his  sacred  ollice  as  raljl)i  and  liazan  (syna- 
gogue-reader), .stutiiiji;  lliat  tlie  ministerial  functions 
of  his  predecessors  had  secured  for 
Orthodoxy,  them  the  like  innnunity.  Even  as  late 
as  I'H'i.  violations  of  the  ralibinieal 
laws  were  mailers  tor  imiuisition  at  the  hands  of 
the  conjrre;,'alional  aulliorilies.  as.  forinstance,  shav- 
ing on  Sahbalh  ("  I'ulil.  Am.  Jew.  Hisl.  Soc."  i. 
18).  Kalni,  lh(^  Swedish  traveler  (([uoled  at  length 
by  Duly,  l).  50.  note),  s|)eaks  of  the  strict  observ- 
ance l)y  New  York  .Jews  of  the  Salibalh  and  dietary 
laws,  and  notes  the  covered  heads  al  worship,  the 
use  of  the  t<(llil.  and  the  seclusion  of  women-wor- 
shipers at  the  synagogue  in  New  York  in  174M. 

Xor  were  contemporary  .selllers  of  (iernian  origin 
anydiircrcnt  then  in  the  matlerof  Orlhodox  observ- 
ance. Such  cities  as  New  York.  Xcwjiort.  Savan- 
nah (17;):!).  Charleston  (17.")0),  and  I'hiladclphia 
(some  time  before  1781),  were  sought  by  Ortho- 
do.x  Sephardie  Jews,  as  tlie  following  names  of 
settlers  testify:  Abrasias,  Andrade,  Da  Costa,  De 
Lucena.  (iomez.  llendricks(Amslerdam).  Hcnrii|Ues, 
Medina.  Nunez  or  Nones.  I'acheco.  Uodrigucz.Sci.xas, 
in  Xew  York;  and  Abendana.  Cardozo.  Da  Costa. 
De  liUcena,  Oouk'Z.  ,Mailcira.  .Marachc.  Saspmlas. 
and  Sei.xas.  in  I'hiladclpliia.  IJut  the  cities  of  Penn- 
sylvania— Philadelphia.  Lancaster,  etc. — as  well  as 
Richmond.  Va..  were  the  favored  dwelling  places 
for  tho.se  of  (Jerman  extraction,  to  .iudge  from  such 
names  of  early  residents  as  Arnold  liamberger  (173<i). 
(Iratz.  liarnitza.  ICtting.  Frank,  jiossibly  also  Marks, 
.losephson.  Lyon.  Philipps.  Simon,  all  in  I'liilailcl- 
pliia;  and  Mar.x.  Kcliine.  I'.lkan.  Darnistadl.  W'oolf, 

Kursliccdi.  and  liloch.  all  in  Hichm 1  (from  17!ll). 

Of  .Michael  Hart  (Lancaster.  r77ti)  his  daughter 
writes  (Markens.  j).  83):  "lie  was  strictly  ol)serv- 
ant  of  Sabbaths  and  festivals;  the  dietary  laws  were 
adhered  to  in  his  home,  although  he  was  compelled 
to  be  his  own  xli'ihit  (slau,i;hterer)."  The  (jerman 
Jews  were  i)rol)alily  still  in  great  minority ;  for  di- 
vine services  were  everywhere  conducted  according 
to  the  t  )rtliodox  Sephardie  ritual  in  its  ancient  forms, 
amplitieil  and  elalioraled  by  certain  abuses  that  had 
cncrusl<'il  tliemselves  upon  it.  Aniicipaling  events, 
it  may  hf  here  mentioned  that  the  first  synagogue 
founded  by  Orthodox  (Jermans  in  l'hila<lelphia.  was 
<-xtant  in  JHOl;  in  New  York,  that  of  15'nai  Jeshu- 
run  was  founded  in  1H2.");  followed  bv  Anslie  Chesed 
in  isiill  (consolidated  in  1S74  with  Ti'mple  lielli  el). 
In  lisiu  a  I'olisb  cnngrcgalion.  .Sha'are  Zedek.  was 
eslablished  lhere;in  ISII  thi' .Sha'are  llashomayim, 
which  consolidaled  in  ls!)!l  w  ilh  the  Aliawalh  Chesed. 
(Concerning  the  fiaindalion  of  syna.i;o,gues  in  other 
states,  see  Markens,  I.e.,  pp.  78-1:2.1.)  Tlie  lirsl  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the  Sephardie  service  was  |)ub- 
lished  in  New  Y'T^  '">  '"""•  '^t'''  Lady  Magnus, 
"Oullines  of  Jewish  llislory,"  p.  347.  "For  Lstiac 
Lciscrs  edition,  see  li.st  of  piiblications  at  the  end 
of  this  arlicle. 

The  lirst  notes  of  dis.salisfaction  with  the  existin.i; 

routine  of  a  lengthy  ami  eumljersome  liturgy — and 

thus  the  lirsl   ullerancesof  Reform — 

First  Re-     were  sounded  in  the  Orlliodo.x  Sephar- 

form  of  die  eongregalioTi  of  Charleslon.  S.  C., 
Sephardie    and  by  a  Sephardi  of  ihe  Sephardim. 

Origin,  Isime  llarby  (of  Ihe  Morocco  fmnilv 
Arbib).  born  at  Charlislon  in  17HS. 
was  a  not<'d  publicist  and  drainalisi  and  thi'  lirst 
president  of  lln'  Reformed  Socii'ly  of  Israelites  in 
thai  city.  In  his  lirst  aimual  address(Nov.  21,  |H2.")) 
he  expaliati'S  on  the  principlis  and  aims  of  the  so- 
ciety— which  were  "to  promote  true  principles  of 
Judaism  according  to  its  purity  uud  spirit" — aud 
L-3:i 


formulates  the  demands  then  recent ly  made  in  a 
petition  to  the  congregational  authorities  for  the 
improvement  of  the  liturgy.  These  consisteil  of  the 
addition  to  the  regular  service  of  English  versions 
of  the  principal  parts  thereof;  "the  abolition  of  rab- 
binical interpolations  [extracts  from  rabbinical  wri- 
tings] and  of  useless  repetitions;  and  to  read  or 
chant  with  solemnity."  Further,  the  delivery  liy 
the  hazan  of  a  weekly  lecture  or  discourse  upon  the 
.section  read  from  the  Law  was  asked  for;  the  same 
to  be  "ex])lanatory  of  its  meaning,  edifying  to  the 
young,  gralif.ving  to  the  old,  aud  instructive  to 
every  a.ge  and  class  of  society."  Other  demands 
were  made  for  the  abolition  of  profane  offerings, 
"and  not  to  insult  us  with  bad  Spanish  or  Portu- 
guese"; these  ilemands  having  reference  to  the  |irac- 
tise  of  making  money  doiuilioiis  in  |)ublic  at  certain 
sla.ges  of  the  worship,  which  "otrcrings''  were  an- 
nounced alcnid  in  a  mongrel  Spanish-Portuguese 
dialect,  replete  with  linguistic  and  grammatical 
errors.  The  society  numbered  nearly  lifty  members: 
but  its  efforts  did  not  meet  w  itli  the  approval  of  the 
congregational  authorities;  and  in  1S28  Ilarby  re- 
moved to  New  York,  where  he  died  the  same  year. 
Those  remaining,  however.  reiMed  a 
First  Re-  hall  and  conducted  their  worship  ac- 
form  Con-  <nrding  to  their  own  modernized  ideas; 
gregation  and  thus  the  first  conservatively  Re- 
in America,  form  congregation  in  America,  with 
David  Nunez  Carvalho  as  honorary 
reader,  was  formed  by  those  of  Sei>hardic  slock,  the 
lineal  deseemlants  <if  the  rationalizing  and  cultured 
Scplianlim  of  ancient  days. 

it  may  always  lie  a  moot  ((uestion  how  far  these 
iimovatioiis — wliich  w<'re  tlK'U  held  to  strike  at  the 
f  unilamc'iital  priiici]iles  of  Judaism — were  iiitluenced 
or  .suggested  by  the  antecedent  Reform  movement 
in  Germany,  where,  ten  years  earlier.  Jacobson  had 
originated  a  similar  introduction  of  the  vernacular 
into  the  lli'brew  liturgy,  and  of  the  vernacular  ser- 
mon and  hymns  (at  Seesen.  Berlin,  and  Hamburg). 
The  prcibal)ilities  seem  .sri-atly  in  favor  of  Ihe  sup- 
position that  the  ("harleslon  movement  was  inde- 
pendent, if  for  no  oiher  ri-ason  than  that  the  aristo- 
cratic- Sephardim  of  that  conunimity  would  have 
felt  it  derogalory  merely  to  adopt  what  Ashkenazim 
(Germans  and  Poles)  had  inaugurated:  such  was 
the  feeling  existent  in  religious  as  well  as  .social 
nuilters  between  these  two  great  bodies  of  Jews. 
Thus  inau.mu'ated.  ibis  conservative  reform,  aiming 
at  the  eslbelic  and  intelligent  development  of  divine 
si'rvice.  although  |ierhaps  not  inunediately  siu-cess- 
ful,  showed  in  the  seipience  of  events  that  it  had 
struck  lasting  root;  for  when,  in  1840,  a  new  syna- 
gogue was  built  by  the  congregation,  then  under  the 
guidance  of  Rev.  Gustavus  Posnanski  (of  German 
extraction),  who  had  been  minister  since  183.").  an 
organ  and  choir  were  introduced,  together  with  a 
prayer-ritual  modilied  after  the  llamlmrg  prayer- 
book.  This  Icil  to  the  secession  of  Ihe  Orthodox 
minority,  and  to  Ihe  formation  by  them  of  a  separate 
congregation;  which  schism  continued  until  recou- 
solitlalion  took  i>lace  in  18(iC.  The  Charleston  move- 
ment toward  a  conservative  reform,  thus  iiuiugu- 
rated,  .irradmdly  lost  force,  owing  probably  to  Ihe 
complete  lack  of  theologically  e<iuipped  leaders.  It 
did  not  .appear  again  with  any  promiinnce  for  three 
or  fiMir  decades,  when,  under  the  naini'  of  Conserva- 
tives, various  important  congregations — hitherto  Or- 
thodox— adopleil  some  of  ihe  features  of  Ri'form 
(inlioduclion  of  the  organ,  family  pews,  and  an 
idibrcviali'd  liturgy).  .Vmong  these  congregations 
wen-  Riiai  Jishur'un  (Henry"  S.  Jacobs,  minister) 
and  Shaaray  Telilla  (F.  de  Sola  Mendes,  minister), 


America,  Judaism  in 


TIIK  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


514 


l)nili  in  New  York,  the  fomiiT  in  1876,  the  latter  in 

1878. 

But  nlllioiijrh  the  Chnrleston  movement  thus  sub- 
sided for  iin  interval,  the  opportunity  liad  offered 
meanwhile  for  the  interweaving  on  a  larger  seale  of 
tlie  third  strand  in  the  fahrie  of  American  .hulaism, 
that  of  the  more  radical,  more  rationalistic,  scholarly 
German  Reform.  In  lH4:i  til'teen  gentlemen  in  New 
York,  of  German  extraction,  having  constituted  a 
"C'ultus  Verein."  organized  the  Emanu-KI  Society, 
"to  introduce  an  improved  form  of  divine  ser- 
vice." They  were  in  the  main  the  same  wlio  w<Me 
influential  in  founding  the  Order  of  15'ne  IVrith. 
By  1845  their  numbers  had  increased  to  '.V3;  holding 
service  in  a  private  dwelling  at  the  corner  of  Grand 
and  Clinton  streets,  with  Leo  Merzbacher  (born  at 
Fiirth,  ISO!);  died,  New  York.  18.-)(i)  as 

Foreign-  their  rabbi  and  G.  .M.  Cohen  as  liazan. 
Born         About   llie   same  time,   or   ]ios.sibly   a 

Rabbis,  little  before,  the  liar  Sinai  Kcform  con- 
gregation was  formed  in  lialtimore, 
■with  the  ado|)tion  of  the  IIaml)urg  Ti-m|)le  ritual 
("Sinai,"  i.  19!));  and  was  incorporated  Nov.  1,  1843. 
But  for  a  con.siderable  period  Beform  made  little 
headway.  The  representative  leaders  of  the  Ortho- 
do.\  wing,  who  streiuiously  ojiposed  all  imiovations, 
were,  in  the  order  of  their  arrival  in  America.  I.saac 
Leeser,  ciiMS])icucius  for  his  literary  activity  (born  in 
Westphalia,  If^lKi;  merchant  and  teacher  in  Uich- 
mond,  Va.,  ls-24:  ministerin  I'hiladelphia,  IKIiO;  died 
there  IS(iS);  Samuel  51.  Isaacs  (born  in  Holland, 
1^^(14:  installeilat  New  York,  18;i9:  died  there,  1878): 
51orris  .1.  liaphall  (born  at  Stockholm,  1797;  in- 
stalled at  Birmingham.  England.  1841,  New  York 
1849;  died,  18()H),"the  latter'two  both  active  in  New 
York:  Abraham  de  .Sola  (born  at  London,  1825;  in- 
stalled at  Montreal,  1S47;  died  there,  1882);  and  Sa- 
bato  Moniis  (born  at  Leghorn,  1823;  installed  at  Phil- 
adelphia. IS.Jl ;  died  there.  1897). 

On  the  other  side,  in  addition  to  Dr.  Merzbachcr, 
the  lepresentativcs  of  the  more  strenuous  and, 
speaking  generally,  more  scholarly  German  Reform 
movement  were:  5Iax  Lilienthal  (born  in  Bavaria, 
181.");  installed  at  New  York  1844,  at  Cincinnati  \Hnr>. 
died  there,  1882);  Isaac  51.  Wise  (born  in  Bohemia. 
1819;  installed  at  Albanv  1.S4B.  Cincinnati  ls,-)4:  died 
there,  1900);  Isidore  Kalish  (born  in  Prussia,  IHlfJ; 
installed  at  Cleveland  18."i(),  at  Newark  1870;  died 
there,  188G):  .lames  K.  Gutheim  (born  in  Prussia, 
1817;  installed  at  Cincinnati  184.5,  at  New  York  1866, 
at  New  Orleans  1868;  died  there,  1.886);  David  Ein- 
liorn  (born  in  Bavaiia,lsi9;  installed  at  Pesth  1.848,  at 
Baltim<]re  IS."),-,,  at  New  York  1866;  died  there.  1879): 
Samuel  Adier  (born  at  Worms,  1810;  installed  at 
Alzey  1844,  at  New  York  18.56;  died  there.  1891); 
B.  Felsenthal  (born  in  Bavaria,  1822;  installed  at 
Chicago  18.54);  and  Liebman  AiUer,  of  a  more  con- 
servative cast  0>orn  at  Weimar,  1812 ;  installed  at  De- 
troit 18.55,  at  Cliicago  1861 ;  died  there,  1892).  These 
leaders  avowedly  belonged  to  the  radical  German 
Beform  seliool.  which,  not  content  with  such  minor 
innovations  in  public  worship  as  the  Charleston  con- 
gregation had  inaugurated,  demanded  an  adjust- 
ment to  modern  times  and  circumstances  of  the 
professed  principles  of  Judaism,  not  of  its  forms 
merely. 

The  movement  was  of  slow  growth;  for  opposi- 
tion to  it  was  active,  and  feeling  ran  high.  Before 
tracing  the  history  of  its  final  development,  the  suc- 
cessive arrivals  in  America  of  many  destined  to  take 
part  in  the  formative  process  must  be  noted.  In  the 
sixties  came  Samuel  Hirsch  (bom  in  Rhenish-Prus- 
sia, 1815,  officiated  in  Birkenfeld  1842.  in  Budapest 
1852,  in  Philadelphia  1866;  died,  1889);   Benjamin 


Szold  (born  in  Hungary,  1830:  officiated  at  Balti- 
more 1860);  anil  Marcus  51.  Jastrow  (born  at  Ro- 
gaseii.  1S2!(:  olliciated  at  Warsiiw  1S57.  at  Worms 
18(i3,  Philadellihia  1866),  both  belonging  to  the  more 
conservative  wing  of  the  Reform  imrty,  as  ilid  also 
Adolf  HUbsch  (born  in  Hungarv,  1830;  officiated  at 
Prague  1861,  at  New  York  1806;  died  there  in 
1884).  Ne.xt  in  order  of  arrival  in  America  wirv  K. 
Kohler  (born  in  Bavaria.  1S43:  <illiciated  at  Detroit 
1869.  at  Chicago  ls71.  at  New  York  1H79):  Guslav 
Goltheil  (born  in  Piime.  1S27:  olliciated  at  5Ianches- 
ter,  England.  ISOO.  and  at  New  York  ls7;i):  and 
.\le.\anilir  KohiH  (born  in  Hungary,  1.S37;  olliciated 
at  .Stuhlweis,senberg  isni,  at  Grosswardein  1875,  and 
at  New  York  1884;  died  1894),  editor  of  the  "Aruch 
Completum."  To  tlie.se  must  be  addeil,  as  an  exiio- 
nent  of  the  most  radical  features  of  Reform,  such 
as  the  worship  on  .Smiday  in  lieu  of  Saturday, 
Emil  G.  Hirsch  (born  in  Luxemburg,  1851 :  officiated 
at  Baltimore,  Louisville  and  Chicago):  and  possibly 
as  initiating  a  movement  akin  to  certain  siiles  of  the 
Reform  Judaism  may  be  mentioned  Fi'lix  Adler 
(born  18.50),  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, and  founder  of  the  Society  for  Ethical  Culture, 
New  York. 

A  drawback  to  the  usefulness  of  the  older  school 

of  Reform,  profound  scholars  though  many  of  its 

members  were,  was  felt  to  exist  in  the 

Native  impossibility  forthoseof  German  birth 
Preachers,  toacipiire  such  comidete  mastery  over 
the  spoken  English  tongue  as  the  pul- 
pit demands.  5Iany  of  them,  indeed,  continued  to 
preach  in  German;  but  the  use  of  English  in  the  ])ul- 
pit  was  much  advanced  by  the  foiuidation.  through 
the  indefatigable  organizing  i)owerof  I.  M.Wise,  first 
of  the  L'nion  of  American  Hebrew  Congregations  in 
1873.  and  next  of  the  Hebrew  Union  College  in  Cin- 
cinnati (<  )ctober.  1875)  as  the  chief  aim  and  purpose 
of  that  organization.  The  union  began  to  make 
itself  felt  at  once  in  American  Judaism  by  the  gnul- 
uation  aniuially  since  1.8.'^3  of  native  Euglish-sjieak- 
ing  rabbis,  all  of  whom — so  great  was  tlie  dearth  of 
native  preachers — at  once  found  positions.  Up  to 
the  present  (1901)  over  seventy  have  been  graduated, 
the  most  primiinent  of  whom  are  too  conspicuous 
in  the  public  eye  to  need  individual  mention  here. 
Previous  attem])ts  at  a  theological  seminary  had 
been  made,  unsuecessfidly,  witli  " Zion  College "  at 
Cincinnati  in  1855,  and  with  "5Iaimonides  College" 
at  Philadelphia  in  1867. 

Such  coherent  shape  as  this  German  Refonn  Ju- 
daism of  America  possesses  was  given  to  it  only 
slowly,  and  mainly  through  the  a.gency  of  certain 
conferences  of  rabbis,  which,  in  emulation  of  those 
held  in  Germany  in  the  forties  (Brunswick,  1844; 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1845),  were  directed  to  this 
task.  At  a  conference  held  at  Cleveland,  O.,  in 
October,  1855,  Wise,  Lilienthal,  Lee.ser,  Cohn.  and 
others  were  the  dominant  spirits;  and  a  platform 
was  promulgated  so  sweeping  in  its  conservatism 
as  to  arouse  the  vigorous  protest  of  the  reformers. 
After  stating  that  all  Israelites  agreed  upon  the  di- 
vine origin  of  the  Bible,  it  proceeded  to  declare  the 
Talmud  to  be  the  sole  legal  and  obligatory  commen- 
tary on  the  Bible.  Against  this  corollary  (see 
"  Sinai,"  18.55,  i.  29)  Einhorn  protested 
Kabbinical  most  vigorously,  as  did  also  the  New 
Conferences.  York  Emanu-El  congregation  ("Si- 
nai." ?.'•.);  and  their  dis.sent  was  ap- 
plauded by  Leopold  Stein  and  Ludwig  Philipson  in 
Germany.  Nothing  tan.gible  was  done,  however, 
until  1869,  when,  in  an  appeal  to  their  "theologi- 
cally equipped  colleagues  "  (published  in  the  New 
York  "Jewish  Times,"  June  1,  1869),  Einhorn  and 


515 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


America,  Judaism  in 


Afllf-r  issued  a  call  for  another  conference  to  meet  in 
Philadelphia  in  N'oveinlier  of  that  year,  at  which, 
mainly  throuirh  Einliorn,  the  following  principles  of 
Peforni  Judaism  were  enunciated: 


I.  Israel's  Mi'ssinnli'  piml  Ls  not  the  restoration  of  a  .lewlsli 
state  Hixt  Its  si't'lusion  fniin  (iDier  ntitiniis,  luit  ttn-  union  or  all 
pefjples  In  tin*  knowle<l(je  of  the  one  Supn-riu-  (hmI.  tin-  urntlcu- 
tlon  of  all  niankinri,  and  thi'lr  el«*vaIton  to  purity  and  liollnt'ss. 

II.  The  destruction  of  Isniel's  indi-pondrncc  Is  not  to  he  con- 
sidered us  Ihc  punlshuient  for  Isnid's  sinrulncs.s,  but  as  the  ful- 
Ilhnent  of  tin*  rlivinc  puriK)sc  in  senduijr  Israel  forth  into  the 
worWI  u|H)ri  lis  prlcslly  nilsslon.  to  ieail  men  to  a  c»trre<*t  knowl- 
edjrc  of  (iod  and  to  ihc  pciforiuancc  o(  His  will. 

III.  The  Aarouic  pi-lcsllioo(l  and  the  sjicrlllclal  services  In  the 
Temple  were  tiut  pifpanitory  and  temporary  steps  to  the  hetlcr 
flttlntr  of  Israel  for  tills  world-wide  tiLsk.  They  liave  therefore 
disapiM'ured  now  f(pn'\cr:  and  all  n-fi-rences  to  them  in  our 
prayers  should  tie  in  the  way  of  hislorical  mention  only. 

I\".  The  belief  in  a  resurrection  of  the  IxHly  has  no  relijjioiis 
foundation  in  Judaism  :  the  belief  In  the  itnmortallty  of  the  soul 
Is  the  proper  formulation  for  our  belief  In  this  connection. 

V.  The  employment  in  worship  of  the  Hebrew  lan^ua^e,  In 
which  the  priceless  tn-asures  of  divine  revelation  have  iK'en 
presen'ed  ami  the  immortal  monuments  of  a  literature  domina- 
tlntt  all  civilization  have  been  liande<l  down,  must  be  regulated 
by  the  knowledge  or  Ipnorance  of  that  laut'uaKe  by  the  [leople 
(ur  wbuiu  the  ritual  la  arranged. 

B. 

The  nuile  child  of  a  .lewisli  mother  is  by  the  fact  of  Its  birth, 
Just  as  much  as  the  feinali-  child,  a  member  of  the  Jewish  cum- 
inunlly,  even  without  circumcision. 

In  addition,  the  subjects  of  inarria.ffc  and  divorce 
were  discussed;  the  law  of  the  land  was  recognized 
in  sucli  mattei-s  as  the  paramount  authority,  and 
various  moditications  in  keejiing  with  the  age  were 
promtilijated. 

(Questions  not  fully  discussed  at  tlie  conference 
were  ]iostponed  to  another  convention  to  beheld  the 
following  year  at  Cincinnuli.  This  i)rojected  con- 
ference did  not  take  place,  however;  but  in  June, 
IsTI.  a  convention  was  held  there  at  which  certain 
ill  considered  uttei'aiK-es  about  revelation  and  a  per- 
sonal (tod  were  made,  which  provoked  an  intlignant 
protest  liv  Einhorn  and  eighteen  other  Heform  labbis 
(see  CoNKr-;nKX<Ks).  No  other  Heform  conferences 
of  note  took  place  until  November.  1885,  when  at 
Pittsburg,  in  obedience  to  a  call  issued  by  Kohler, 
another  attempt  was  made  to  fnrniulale  principles 
and  to  reconcile  dilTerences.  The  following  is  an 
abstract  of  the  Pittsburg  resolutions: 

Art.  1  declari's  that  .liidalsm  conveys  the  hiphest  ooncepllon 
of  (iofl  and  of  Ills  relation  to  man  :  that  (iod  Is  the  Creator  and 
Ruler  of  the  World.  Kaiher  and  Kducal4ir  of  the  human  race. 

Art.  2  treasures  the  Holy  s<Tiptures  as  the  record  of  Divine 
Revelation,  and  of  the  conse<-ration  of  the  Jewish  la-ople  as  the 
missionaries  of  the  line  (;od.  In  comiiositlon  and  literary  ar- 
ranKcmeni.  the  sriplures  are  only  the  work  of  men,  with  the 
uii]i\oidiible  lliiitiations  of  their  a^e. 

Ai-t.  :t  well,  tines  the  resiilis  of  natural  wienceastlie  tn'st  helps 
t<i  the  uudei-standlni;  of  the  worklnir  of  Divine  I.ove  In  the 
world,  Ihc  inble  serving  jw  (fuide  ti^  Illustrate  the  Divine  Power 
workinif  wllliln  us. 

Art.  4  retfaiils  Ihe  Mosaic  laws  iLs  Intended  for  the  tniinin^  of 
tbe  Jews  of  Palestine  In  their  foniier  siirrouridinpi;  that  only 
the  monti  laws  are  fllvine;  and  that  all  siH-lal.  jiolltical.  and 
priestly  statutes,  inconsistent  with  our  iiKMlern  habits  and  views, 

are  to  Ih-  rejeded. 

Art.  .'i  diilari'S  that  the  Mosalc-niliblnlcal  laws  on  diet,  purity, 
and  dress  fail  to  imbue  iiuHleni  Jews  wKh  the  spirit  of  priestly 
holiness  ;  laid  that  Ihelrobservanceto-ilay  would  obstruct  nither 
than  enhance  monil  and  spiritual  elevation. 

Art.  *l  pni-lalms  Isniel'H  Messianic  hoin-  to  Im'  the  ho[M'  for  the 
ealalillshmeni  of  the  aulhorltv  of  in-iu-e.  truth.  Justice,  uml  love 
amoni;  all  men.  .No  nduni  to  Palestine  Is  exiM'cteil.  nor  the  n-- 
InfftlluMon  iiiere  of  a  Jewish  state,  or  of  a  worship  eonductiti  liy 
di-sci'ndaiils  of  Aanin. 

Art.  7  dei-lan-s  Judaism  to  \h'  an  ever-imiwlnff.  pntffTi'sslve, 
anil  nilional  ii'liirion  of  niixlem  civlll/atlon,  and  tLssen.s  the  ne- 
eiwdty  of  pnwrv  InK  Identity  with  the  (fnal  past  of  thi'  Jewish 
nation. 

Art.  H  hails  the  efTorl.M  made  by  various  relluloiis  denomina- 
tions toward  removing  the  liarrlei-s  si'panitln^  sis-i  front  s<s'i. 

Art.  liileclan'S  II  to  Ih'  ihe  duly  of  Jews  lo  spnad  Ihe  knowl- 
c<lKe  of  (heir  i>>lltrlous  (ruths  atul  ml.sslon  auiontf  Jews  and 
Opntllev. 

Art.  In  dis-lares  the  pnwnt  a^taled  stn(e  of  Judaism  (o  N*  a 
period  of  tmnsltlon  fnmi  a  blind  IM-Uef  111  audiority  and  exclu- 


sion lo  a  rational  and  humanitarian  conception  of  religion  ;  and 
that  the  masses,  therefore,  should  1m-  enlightened  as  to  ttie  his- 
tory and  mission  of  the  Jewish  people,  and  their  six'ial  and  spir- 
itual condition  elevated  through  pres.s  pulpit,  and  si'hool. 

The  declarations  of  the  Pittsburg  conference,  wliile 
to  a  great  extent  acceptable  to  all  shades  of  Judaism, 
contained,  nevertheless,  certain  planks  that  gave  dire 
offense  to  the  more  Orthodox — notably  to  tlmse  de- 
claring against  the  ho]ie  for  the  restoration  of  Pales- 
tine as  a  .lewish  home,  and  against  the  dietary  laws, 
etc.  Various  pronouncements  at  the  conference  in 
favor  of  Suntlay  services  and  discussions  arising 
from  motions  favoring  the  admission  of  proselytes 
without  circunu-isioii  evoked  a  heated  agilaticm, 
which  eventually  led  to  the  foundatinn  (.May  'J.  IMSti) 
of  the  ( )itliiidox  .Jewish  Theological  Seminary  in  New 
York,  the  main  moving  spirit  in  which  was  Morals, 
who  was  its  director  until  his  death. 

One  of  the  first  cares  of  the  Keform  movement 
was  naturally  for  an  improvement  in  the  traditional 
prayer-ritual.  .Moderate  changes,  as  already  shown, 
had  been  advocated  by  the  Charleston  movement, 
and  also  in  the  various  prayer-books  successively  ]nit 
forth  by  Szold  and  Jastrow.  liy  Wise  in  his  "  .^Iin- 
hag  America,"  by  Iliibsch,  and"  by  others:  but  the 
most  radical — embodying  principles  afterward  for- 
mulated by  the  Philadelphia  conference — was  that  of 
Einhorn,  ■•"■Olat  ha-Tamid  "  (The  Perpetual  OlTer- 
iug),  published  18.">(),  with  German  translation;  ed- 
iteil  in  English  by  E.  (!.  Iliiseh  in  !N!M). 
The  Good  work  in  the  line  of  harmonizing 

TJnion        the  various  inde]iendeut   rituals  that 

Prayer-  had  sprung  up  in  all  the  dccadesof  at- 
Book.  tempted  ritual  reform  was  done  by  the 
Central  Conference  of  American  rabbis 
(organized  in  Detroit,  1889;  Isaac  M.  Wise,  first  presi- 
dent) in  producing  the  "  Inion  Prayer-book,"  which, 
lo  a  very  large  extent,  was  founded  on  the  Einhorn 
book  (18'J4-9.")).  Laboring  under  certain  imperfections 
of  literary  style  anil  a  rather  vague  expression  of 
Keform  ideas,  it  is  nevertheless,  in  point  of  practical 
utility,  a  considerable  improvement  over  its  prede- 
cessors, and  has  accordingly  been  adopted  in  the 
ma,iority  of  Reform  and  even  Conservative  congre- 
gations in  America — contributing  thus  to  the  great 
desideiatuni  of  a  uniformity  of  service  all  over  the 
L'nited  States.  A  "  Union  Hymnal."  published  by 
the  stimc  conference  in  1897.  exhibits  the  weak  fea- 
tures of  the  prayer-book  to  an  even  greater  degree — 
a  proposed  new  edition  will  probably  remove  the 
latter.  L'nitication  of  .Sunday  school  instruction  has 
also  been  a  deparlmeni  in  w  hicli  the  Central  Confer- 
ence has  worked  most  acceptably  (the  Hebrew  Sab- 
bath Siln  ml  rnion  biiiig  founded  in  1880  with  Pabbi 
David  Pliilipsou,  of  Cincinnati,  as  president).  For 
the  ediuational  development  in  Aniericau  Judaism, 
see  .Saiuiatii  s(  iiooi,  and  Co.nkiumation. 

The  distiiK  live  tendency  of  ])rogressive  American 
Juilaism  has  thus  been  toward  a  scholarly  and  ear- 
nest development  from  the  Ancient  or  Orthodox 
phase,  in  I  he  light  of  the  circumstances  and  tieinands 
created  by  the  new  sphere  anil  the  modern  age.  As 
concerns  its  future  course  in  the  l'nited  States,  it 
seems  destined  by  its  numbers  and  its  vigor  lo  be  a 
))romiiienl  factor  in  Ihe  development  of  the  Juilaism 
of  the  world.  Any  future  addition  of  nualifving 
elements  can  come  only  from  the  Orthodox  side  of 
European  Jewry;  that  is,  from  the  oppres.sed  dis- 
tricts of  ea.sterii  Europe.  Since  IKS-J,  these  have 
been  arriving  in  large  numbers  throughout  the 
rnited  States.  Hut  pos.sessed  of  learning  as  well  as 
intelligence,  such  elements  will  in  all  probability, 
after  a  geiienition  or  two  in  their  new  surroundings, 
conform  themselves  lo  the  mean  hctweeu  extreme 


America,  Judaism  in 
American  Hebrew.  The 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


516 


Orientalism  mid  cxtn-nu'  Rpform.  It  is  to  this  mean 
that  Anu'riran  .Judaism  as  a  whdlc  is  tending.  Kx- 
piTieiice  teaches  that  Oriental  ortlio- 
Future  Ele-  dnw  in  a  free  country  iloes  not  loni; 
ments  and  suicessrully  withstand  tlie  rationali- 
Problems.  ziiii;  inlluenee  of  modern  eullure.  It 
is  true,  liowever,  that  the  prineiph'sof 
Refonn  Judaism  have  Ijeen  frequently  misunder- 
stood by  the  masses  and  nilsa]iplled  liy  incompetent 
leaders,  with  detrimental  results.  The  error  of  dis- 
proportionate demolition,  as  well  as  the  evil  of  rest- 
lessness, resultinir  in  irreverence  for  things  once 
held  sjicred,  are  Ixiriiuiin!;  to  lie  perceived  and  de- 
plored. Xevertlieless.  fanatical  hostilities  between 
leaders  of  reliirious  Ihoujrhl  arc  no  lonjrer  known, 
each  side  havini;  arrived  at  theconclusion  that  in  an 
interchaii.iie  of  ideas  lies  trui'  wisdom.  The  restora- 
tion of  Sabbath  sanctity,  the  systematic  education 
of  the  younj;,  jiublic  worship  well  ordered  aiui  in 
the  vernacular — these  are  the  problems  in  which  both 
sides  are  to-day  joining  liands  for  common  elTort. 
In  connection  with  the  last-named  field,  the  cilorts 
<if  the  National  Council  of  Jewish  Women — formed 
in  {'liieago  in  IKlKi — are  noteworthy.  Hcmarkable 
Jllso  have  been  the  attcmjits  to  lend  a  reliirious  tinge 
to  the  common  leisure-day  (Sunday)  by  holding  wor- 
sliii>  thereon  in  various  Reform  temples  and  the  en- 
deavors of  the  more  conservative  to  similarly  jirovidc 
religious  editication  for  those  engrossed  in  commerce 
•on  the  seventh  day  l)y  holding  special  services  late 
■on  Friday  evenings.     See  Sind.^y  Skkvices. 

A  Salibath  (iliscrvance  League  was  founded  in 
XewYorkin  1S6S.  but  it  accomplished  little.  Re- 
;suscitated  under  various  auspices  from  time  to  time, 
results  are  not  even  yet  tangible;  but  the  growing 
dis|)osition  in  large  cities  to  observe  Saturday  as  a 
holiday  in  the  commercial  world,  together  with  the 
dawning  percciition  that  the  reputable  Christian  re- 
spects the  Jew  in  direct  jiroportion  as,  other  things 
considered,  he  respects  his  ancestral  religion,  may 
yet  achieve  what  formal  attempts  have  failed  to 
accomplish.  While  the  rite  of  circumcision  was 
violently  denounced  as  barbarous  by  the  early  Re- 
form rabbis  of  radical  stripe  (see  L.  Zuiiz  on  "Cir- 
cumcision," Frankfort,  l.H-14:  also  S.  Iloldheim, 
Schwerin  and  Berlin,  lS-44  ;  Abraliam  Gciger,"(!esam- 
nieltc  Werke,"  v.  181,  2l)'.2,  and  Einhorn,  "Sinai." 
ii.  6i)it,  iii.  7'J6),  the  tenileney  is  now  to  listen  to 
what  medical  science  teaches  of  the  pro|)hy lactic 
value  of  the  rite  from  moral,  mental,  and  sanitary 
standpoints  (Brvant,  "  Phimosis"  in  "The  Practice 
of  Surgery,"  pp".  <)33,  708;  Savre,  "Orthopedic  Sur- 
gery," 1876;  and  T.  Gaillard  Thomas,  "The  Higher 
Functions  of  Medicine,"  pp.  7-10) ;  and  while  to  some 
extent  not  conforming  to  the  rite.  Reform  is  no  longer 
violently  antagonistic.  Regarding  the  belief  in  the 
restoration  of  Israel  to  Palestine — so  stoutly  disa- 
vowed by  earlier  reform — see  the  article  Zionism. 

On  the  practical  side  any  account  of  American 

Judaism  would  be  incomplete  without  reference  to 

the  orders  jieculiar  to  it  (see  Ohdeks). 

Orders        Perhaps  tlie  most  potent  agencies,  in 

and  As-  point  of  the  greatest. good  to  the  great- 
Bociations.  est  number  in  llieeducational  field,  are 
institutions  such  as  the  Jewish  Trade 
Schools  (Xew  York  Technical  Inslilutc,  l.ss:5);  the 
Baron  de  Ilirsch  Trade  School  (founded  in  New 
York,  1890;  enlarged,  1809);  the  Woodbine  (N.  J.) 
Agricultural  School  (founded  1894  by  the  Baron  de 
Hirsch  Fund);  and  the  Natiimal  Farm  School  at 
Doylestown.  Pa.  (founded  1896  liy  Rabbi  Joseph 
Krauskopf  of  Philadelphia).  The  practical  work 
of  all  of  these  is  leaveneil  by  Jewish  religious  instruc- 
tion.    Young  Men's  Hebrew  Associations  exist  in 


many  cities.  The  parent  association — and  by  much 
the  most  consi>icuous  of  them — is  that  in  New  York 
(founded  18741.  which  of  late  (1901)  has  exhibited 
renewed  vitality  ami  vigor.  Similar  work  on  a  very 
large  scale  has  been  for  years  aecmnplished  in  the 
lower  portion  of  the  city  by  the  New  York  Kdu<'a- 
tional  Alliance  (founded  ISSII),  in  a  building  erected 
by  communal  elTort.  but  Jilaeed  upon  a  permanent 
endowment  footing  by  the  wise  muniticenee  of  Baron 
de  Hirsch.  All  tlie.se  institutions,  to  whi<  h  may  be 
added  the  benevolent  "  Sisterhoods  "  organized  in  the 
congregations  for  personal  i-IT<irt  in  philanthropic 
work  (first  suggested  by  Dr.  (Justav  (iotlheil,  Feb. 
:i.  1889).  are  destined  to  have  an  important  inlluence 
in  Americanizing  a  large  number  of  the  youth  (of 
both  sexes)  born  in  the  United  States  of  European 
parentage,  whose  religious  inclinations,  on  attaining 
adult  age,  are  towarti  the  mean  of  American  Ju- 
daism, rather  than  toward  the  e.vtremes  of  either  the 
Oriental  or  the  ultra  Reform  phases. 

In  point  of  literary  activity,  the  productiveness 
of  American  Juilaism  has  not  been  hitherto  en- 
ergetic. In  addition  to  a  very  large  number  of 
periodicals,  weekly  and  monthly  (see  Pkhiodicai.s). 
the  purpo.scs  of  enlightenment  have  been  served 
by  the  various  successive  publication  societies  (see 
Amkhicvn  Jkwisi!  PrBi,ir.\TioN  SoriK.TV  and  .Ihw- 
ISH  Pt'W.ic.\Tio.N  Society  of  Amekh  a).  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  works  in  various  departments  of 
Judaism  (theoretical  and  practical),  published  in  the 
United  States: 

liihtr.-l.  Leeser.  "JewMi  Family  nitile,"  lH.>t;  A.  ili'  Sciln, 
"  Bi'lii-Mintli  lliuejneoth"  U'ncleaii  Aniiimls),  \mi< :  i*/<-;n.  "San- 
itary Insiiiuliiiris  cif  the  Helirews."  IStKi;  I.  M.  Wise,  "Pninaris 
to  ii.ily  Wril  "  ;  M.  Fliarel,  "  Spirit  of  Hlbllcal  I-eiflnlntlon  "  :  I. 
Katisti,  "(iiiide  for  Ilallonal  Imaiirles  iiiio  Itihllc-al  Writlnjra"; 
B.  S/okl,  "Tlif  Hook  of  Joli.nltli  a  New  Coniiufnlarv  "  (Hi-lirew), 
ismi;  M.  Hellprln.  "Historical  I'lictrv  of  tlii' Ancient  Helirews. 
Tninslutfcl  aiiii(YlllcallvE.\uinlnf(l,"  IHTlt;  I!.  Herkowltz.  " Tlie 
Open  ISilile."  ISili;;  A.  It.  Ehrllcli.  "  MIkm  kl-1'liescliuto"  (ciiU 
feal  notes  la  Hel>re\v  on  tlie  lilble),  l.Hliit-lWKP. 

TaUiniil.  I.  Knllsli.  "A  Sketch  of  the  Talmud":  A  Halin, 
"  Raliblnlcal  Dialectics."  IsTlt;  M.  Mlelzlner.  "Jewish  Law  of 
Marriage  anil  Divorce  In  Ancient  anil  Moiteni  Times."  1SH4: 
idem,  "Introilnctlon  to  the  Talmml."  ISiM  :  S.  Mi-mlelsohn, 
"  Criminal  .lurisprndence  of  the  Ancient  Hehrews,"  Isid  ;  B.  (', 
Kemondino,  "  History  of  Clrcnmcl.sion  " ;  I).  \V.  Amrani.  "The 
Jewish  Law  of  Dlvon-e."  Isilit;  M.  Jastrow,  "Iiliiioiiarv  nf  ihe 
Targnmim.  theTalintiil  Balitlanil  Yerushalml.aml  ihc  .Nlidr.ishlc 
Literature."  1S.S(1:  Manrolls,  Max  L.,  "CommeniariMs  Isiiiiciill.s," 
isai;  litem,  "The  Columlila  Collesre  MS.  of  Mi-ithllla."  1S92: 
('.  LeviiLs,  "(irammar  of  the  .Vnimaic  Iiilom  fif  the  Babylonian 
Talmud."  lltiK);  M.  L.  liodklnson.  "New  Edition  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud"  (Enclish  translatloni.  IKiH!;  s.  Sekles,  "The 
I'oetryof  thcTalniuil,"  IssO;  A.  Huelisch,  "(ii'insof  the  orient," 
18S0;'L.  Wcis.s.  "Talmudic  and  other  Legends."  IHSS;  H.  Pol- 
ano.  "  Selections  fi'oin  the  Talmud";  Alexander  Kohut,  "The 
Ettilcs  of  the  Fathci's."  1S.S;-);  A.  S.  Isaacs,  "stories  from  the 
Ralilils,"  ISIPU;  llcnrv  Cohen,  "TalmudicSaylnt'.s."  18114. 

Thiiiliiiiii.—l.  LfcsiT.  "The  Jews  and  the  Mosaic  Law,"  IR.'B; 
L  M.  Wise.  "I*:.ssi'nci'  of  Judaism,"  1S57 ;  iV/r/n,  "The  Cosmic 
Ood."  isrn  ;  A.  Hiihn,  "  Judaism  and  Christianity."  ISKl ;  itifin, 
"  Aiviuiienls  for  Ihe  F.vistence  of  Cod":  F.  de  Siila  Mendes.  "A 
Hebrew's  lii'iilv  to  tlie  M issii miirles,"  ISTii;  L.  Grossman.  "Ju- 
daism and  the  siiiiiieof  l!eliL'i"n  " :  K.  Kohler.  "  Ethical  Ba.sls 
of  Judaism."  l.-vsT  ;M.  Ualiblnowltz,  "  Ha-Mahanaim  "  iHebn-w), 
18HK;  J.  H.  Hertz,  "  iiadivii.  ilie  Jewish  Thomas  il  Kempls," 
imi :  B.  Drachman,  "  The  .Nineteen  Letters  of  Ben  I'ziel,"  IWifl. 

Ji  Irish  lli.ttoni  "'"f  /.iVi-mdoc— History :  M.  J.  Itaphall, 
"Post-Biblical  History  of  the  Jews."  lS.5ti;  A.  de  Sola,  "Tlie 
Jews  of  Persia,"  ims;  iilcm,  "Shabbcthai  Tsevi,"  1S«!I:  Mem, 
"  The  Jews  of  Poland,"  187(1;  iifcm,  "  The  .lews  of  France,"  1871 ; 
I.  M.  Wise,  "  History  of  the  Isracbtish  Nation,"  )R.t4  ;  idem, 
"  History  of  the  Seeoiid  Commonwealth."  issd ;  iilrm.  "  Martyr- 
dom of  jesiis  of  Nazan'th":  H.  S.  Morals,  "  Eminent  Israelites 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  !S.sii;  iXtm,  "Jewsof  Pliiladelphia"; 
iidm,  "'I'lie  Diiixsratouiis,"  18X2;  I.  Markeii.s.  "The  lletirews 
In  .\nierlca,"  l.s"^;  E.  Schreiljer,  "lieform  Judaism  and  Its 
Pioneers,"  ISifJ ;  E.  (i.  Hirsch,  "The  Cnicillxion."  IslC;  M.J. 
Kohler,  "lleliecca  Franks,"  ISirt;  l>.  Phllipson,  "European 
Jewries,"  188(i;  s.  Wolf.  "The  American  Jew  as  Patriot.  Soldier, 
and  Philanthropist,"  1895 :  iitcm,  "  Mordecal  Manuel  Noah," 
18!I7;  iilem.  " Influence  of  the  Jews  on  the  Profresa  of  the 
World,"  isns;  J.  Krauskoiif,  "  The  Jews  anil  Moor^  in  Spain," 
IKsn ;  c.  P.  Daly  and  Max  J.  Kohler.  "  Settlement  of  the  Jews  in 
North  America,"  IH'M:  M.  Jahlomsteln,  "Iiiliie  Veme  Arzot  ha- 
Berit  "  I  Hebrew),  Isaj ;  ti.  A.  Kubut,  "  Correspondence  between 


517 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


America,  Judaism  in 
American  Hebrew,  Tho 


the  Jews  cif  Malabar  ami  New  Yurk."  lMr7 :  M.  Flflfrel,  "  Israel, 
the  IliljlUal  I'wple."  l'Ji«l:  H.  Illowlzl,  "  Jewish  Dreams  and 
Reallili's."  Literature:  I.  Kalish,  ■"The.Sefer  Yezlrah,"  INTT; 
Kinriiu  Lazarus.  "  Soncs  of  a  Semite,"  1(«! :  I).  Phllipson.  "  The 
Jew  In  Ent-'llsh  Fiction,"  1*<'J;  G.  Uosenzwelir.  "  Masse ket 
America"  (Hebrew.,  ISiC;  II.  Uosenthal.  "  Kolicleth :  Wortc 
des  Sainmlers,"  IHlEi:  iilinu  "Slilr  ha-shlrlni :  I»as  Lied  der 
Lleder,"  1W«;  M.  Uosenfclil,  "  Sontts  fnan  the  (iliello,"  IWW ; 
M.  M.  DoUtzkv.  "Shire  Menahem  "  (Helirewi,  IIKHJ;  W.  Poj)- 
per,  "  IVnsoi-ship  of  Heliivw  li.Hiks,"  1«»!1;  N.  S.  Lebowltz, 
'•  Yehudah  Arleh  mi-Modenu"  iHebri'wKM  ed.,  Umi. 

I'raiiir-lli"ikx.—l.  l.eeser,  "  ])allv  Prayers,"  1S47  :  L  M.  Wise, 
"Mlnhae  America,"  liS-Vi ;  D.  Kmhorn,  "  "(llat-Tanilil,"  IxVt; 
ih.,  second  iilltlon,  ed.  by  E.  (i.  HliNch.  1896:  B.  Szold  and  M. 
Jastniw,  "Alxxlath  Israi-l,"  INH  and  1H71  :  M.  JiLstiiiw.  "HeK- 
yon  U'b  (Hausandaehtl,"  18?.">;  L  P.  Mendes,  "Pun"  Words," 
l«m;  New  York  Boanl  of  Jewish  Minister,  ".Jewish  Home 
Pmyer-lMHik."  Issh;  iilfm.  "The  Do<.)r  of  iioix?"  (prayers  at 
the  cemelen't,  ISDS;  (.'enlral  Conference  f»f  American  Habbls. 
"Tnlon  Hebri'W  Prayer-b.jok."  ISSW-'.k'):  (;.  Gotlhcil,  "Sun  and 
Shield,"  ISIKi:  .M.  Ja.strow,  "The  HaKfradah  Senice  for  Pass- 
over "  :  H.  Berkowllz,  "  Klddusli.  or  Sahlmth  .sentiment,"  1897 ; 
Annie  J.  Uni,  "  Meditations  of  the  Heart,"  IIKK). 

7/|;mii».—Penina  Molse,  "Hymns  Written  for  the  Use  of  He- 
lin>w  Coniireifaiions,"  M  ed.,  ItWi:  I.  M.  Wise,  "Hymns, 
Psalms,  and  Praverx,"  1M7:  <i.  Gotthi-ll,  "  Hvnmsand  Anthems 
Adapted  for  Jewish  Worship,"  1887  ;  F.  de  S(.lii  Mendes,  "Syna- 

f'OL'ue  arcd  S.  Ik  Mil,"  1887  ;  I.S.  Most^s,  "Sahludh-srl I  Hyninai." 
8iM:  Confeivnce  of  American  Ilubbls,  "  Ini.'ii  Hviiinal,"  1897. 
St  rniint.^.  I.  Leeser,  "Sernums  and  Dis<-oiii>u's  i.ti  the  Jewish 
RellKlon."  18:^7,  etc.:  D.  Elnhorn.  "AuscewiiliMe  Pivdicten " ; 
J.  Krauskopf,  "Evolution  and  Judaism":  F.  do  Sola  Mendes, 
"Tyndulllsni  and  Judaism,"  1874:  L.  Adler,  "Sabbatii  Home 
ThouKhls":  .\.  Huebsch,  "Sermons  and  Lectures"  (memorial 
volumel,  ISj*.');  H.  Baar,  "Addn's.s(s  on  Honielv  and  RellKlous 
SubJecLs,"  I8WI:  K.  Kohler,  "Backward  or  For^vanl  I"  IKSS:  s. 
Sehlndler.  "  Messianic  F..\|X'Ct.itlonsand  Modern  Judaism,"  18.s<t: 
M.  H.  Harris,  "Temple  Israel  Pulplt,"  l.siM-ini;  Conference  of 
American  Itablils,  "The  American  Jewish  Pulpit,"  Is'.Ki. 

Ciiliiiilitrs.—J.J.  Lyons  and  .\hraham  de  Sola,  "Jewish  Calen- 
dar for  fifty  Years,  with  an  Intrwluctory  Es.say  on  the  Ji-wlsh 
Calenilar."  I8.>( :  A.  N.  Coleman.  ".American  Hebrew  Manual,  a 
Calendar  for  Eli.'ht<'<"n  Years,"  etc.,  I.ss;i;  K.  M.  Myei-s,  "Centu- 
rlal,  "1891):  Harka\y"s  "People's  Calendar,"  1895- UIUO;  Cyrus 
Adler,  "  American  Jt-wish  Year  Book,"  .'iti'id,  etc. 

.Sc;ioo(-/io.i/,».— Sluiha  C.  IVi.voiio,  "Cate«'hlsm  of  Bltile  His- 
tory "  :  J.  Kalzenlieiv,  "  Biblical  History":  S.  DeuLsch,  "Bi- 
ble HIstorv,"  187.'i:  F.  de  Sola  Mendes.  "Child's  Fli-st  Bible," 
1K7.'>:  li/i  HI.  " outlines  of  Bible  Hislorv,"  ismi;  Adolph  Moses 
and  I.  S.  Mosi-s.  "  The  Pentateuch,"  IH'^i :  «/f  «i.  "  The  Historical 
BiK.ksof  (he  Bllile,"  18m:  i</cm.  "Ethics  of  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
lun-s":  H.  AlMirbanel,  "EnirlLsh  ScIkn'I  and  Famllv  Header  for 
Israellies,"  ISKt:  J.  Kraii.sk<ipf  and  H.  lierkowltz,  "Bn):e 
Elhlis":  M.  11.  Harris,  "The  People  of  the  BiKik."  1890;  H.  P. 
Mendi-s.  "Jewish  Hlslor^•.  F.thlcallv  Presented."  I89ti:  Annie  J. 
Moses.  "  Bible  SU)rle»,"  ifliKi:  s.  Hechi,  "  Post-Biblical  History," 
18UI1.  Iteliirlon:  "Johls.in's  Mosiiic  Rellirlon."  translated  bv  I. 
l,ei-ser.  18:111;  I.  I/^-ser.  "Cale-hism  for  Jewish  Chlldivn."  18:19- 
50;  M.  .N'.  .Nathan,  "  Koad  to  Failh."  Isiai;  B.  Szold  and  I.  M. 
Wl.se,  "catechism  of  Judaism  "  :  (i.  Jacobs,  "  Elementary  Cal**- 
chlsm  of  Judaism"  :  J.  M.  de  Sola.  "Jewish  student's  Compan- 
ion," 188n;  iilcm,  " Conllrmalion  Manual"  ino  date)  :  K.  Koh- 
ler.  "(iulde  for  Instruction  In  Judalsn),"  1898.  Si'O  also  Ciui- 
TAiyr.\,  Jkwisii;  amkkican  Jewish  Historical  socikty; 
SCNDAV  Schools;  Zio.m.sm. 

.Iiiilaism  in  the  United  States  liiis  liron  most  fortti- 
iiiilf  ill  siiiiriii!.'  tcsiiiiKPMy  nf  istiini   from   pdliliciil 
milluiriticsiiiKl  fnini  rcpicscntiilivcs  (if  the  Cliristiiin 
fiiilli,  to  a  deforce  Hnliciird  of — und  ju  rhaps  iiiipossi- 
t>l( — in  Europe.     Tlichiijlicst  IcL'islalivc  liody  in  tlie 
land,  tlio  nalioiial  Coni;ri'ss  in  Wasliinirton.  1ms  re- 
peatedly invited  .Jewish  ininislers  to  open  its  ])iit)- 
lic  sessions  with  praver;  tlie  earliest  instance  in  llie 
Senate  was  all'orded  by  M.  .1.  Hapliall.  Fel).  1.  ison. 
followed,  anion};   idhcrs.  bv  .\bnil):iin  de  Sol.i,  .Ian. 
!»,  1K72;   I,.  Slern.  Aiil'.  12."lsT(i;   II.  I'(  icira  Mende.s. 
1H.H4;    J.  Silveniuin.  ls<j-,>.     Siiniliirly  the   IIoii.se   of 
Hepresentatives  lliere  was  opened  liv  .M.  .lastrow  in 
l«fiil;  E.  (}.  Hii-s.li.  March.  1S!I'.>:  E.  N. 
Cordial       Caliscli.  April  7,  l.S<)2.  and  I.  M.  Wise. 
Relations     ISO'2.     Of  the   niinieroiis  state   leicis- 
with  Chris-  laliiies,  New  York    has   invited    Max 
tians.         Selilesiniier     of     .\lbaiiy     (repeatedly 
since  IHUT);  Yirninia.    E.    N.   C'ali.seh 
(friMpienlly  since  ISlll);   Alalmnia.  Oscar  ,1.  Cohen  of 
Moliile;    and  New  .Jersey.  N.  Hosenaii.  I'.tOl.      Isiuic 
L.  1.1'iieht  was  honored  in  the  same  way  by  the  Con- 
stiliilional  Convention  of  the  state  of  Louisiana  :  and 
the  Uepublieiui  National  Convenlion  at  St,  Louis,  in 
lHU(i.  made  Samuel  Sale  one  of  its  chaplains. 


Xor  lias  this  cordial  recognition  of  .ludaism  as  a 
church  been  confined  to  non-religious  bodies:  Jew- 
ish ministers  in  America  have  been  .so  frequently  in- 
vited to  address  Christian  audiences  in  the  churches 
of  the  latter  that  tlie  incident  no  loiiLcer  attracts 
special  attention.  The  earliest  steps  in  this  direction 
were  taken  by  M,  I^ilienthal  and  1.  il.  Wise  of  Cincin- 
nati, who  repeatedly  preached  in  Christian  cliurches; 
while  among  those  who  have  accepted  similar  invi- 
tations in  Unitarian,  Universali.sl,  Lutheran,  and 
I'resbyterian  churches  have  been  J.  Kniuskopf,  in 
Philadelphia.  Kansiis  City,  Des  Jloines.  Cheyenne, 
also  in  liuntsville.  Ala. :  I.  Aaron,  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
and  Hamilton.  Ont. ;  H.  .1.  Messing,  in  Hannibal, 
Mo.,  \Xin:  L.  Stern,  in  Washington.  D.  C.  1899;  I. 
f^.  Leuclit  and  Max  Heller  in  New  Orleans.  La. ;  S, 
Heclil.  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.;  S.  Sale,  in  Baltimore, 
Md. ;  A.  Uuttman,  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y..  18199;  R. 
Lasker,  repeatedly  at  summer  services  in  Winthrop, 
Ma-ss. ;  W.  S.  Friedman,  for  ten  successive  Sundays 
in  Denver,  Col,  ;  Emil  G.  Ilirsch.  very  fre.piently  in 
Chicago;  G.  Gottheil.  in  New  Y'ork  and  Brooklyn: 
P.  de  Sola  Mendes.  at  the  Talmace  "Jubilee"  in 
Brooklyn;  M.  J.  Gries.  in  Cleveland.  O..  and  Chat- 
tanooga. Tenn. ;  L.  Mayer,  in  Pittsburg;  Joseph 
J>euclit.  Newark.  X.  .J.;  H.  Berkowitz,  First  Unity 
Church  of  I'liiladelphia,  also  repeatedly  in  >Iethod- 
ist  and  Unitarian  ehurclies  at  Ivansas  City:  E,  N. 
CaliscI).  liapli.st  Church.  Peoria;  .M.  Schlesingerand 
Alexander  Lvous.  Congregational  Church.  Albany, 
X.  Y,  ;  O.  J.  Cohen.  Methodist  Church.  Dallas.  Tex. ; 
and  Jlildola  de  Sola,  at  St.  George's  Church,  Mon- 
treal. ISSO  (lecture  on  the  Jewish  dietary  laws). 
At  the  Parliament  of  Religions  at  Chicago  in  1S93 
Emil  G.  Ilirsch  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  speech  and 
action;  while  as  recently  as  19(J0.  Jewish  ministers 
were  welcomed  to  prominent  participation  in  the 
Xew  Y'ork  State  Conference  of  Religions,  both  in 
preparing  papers  for  the  sjime  (H.  Berkowitz.  M.  H. 
Harris,  R.  Grossinani  and  in  compiling  a  union  rit- 
ual for  the  use  of  the  conference  (G.  Gottheil). 

Christian  congregations  have  freiiuently  wor- 
shiped in  Jewish  temples,  as,  for  instance.  St. 
George's  Episcopal  in  the  United  Hebrew  Congre- 
gations' Temple  at  St.  Louis,  1888;  several  Presbyte- 
rian congregations  and  a  Unitarian  congiegation  in 
Pittsburg  at  the  Jewish  temple  there,  1885.  etc. ;  the 
First  Baptist  Church  of  Xewark,  N.  J.,  at  the  local 
temple  in  1889,  In  October,  IHQ."),  Miss  Florence 
Buck,  of  the  Unity  Church.  Cleveland.  (),,  preached 
in  the  temple  of  that  city,  and  vice  versa  Jewish  con- 
gregations were  olTered  the  use  of  churches  for  their 
regular  divine  service  on  Sabbath  and  holy  days. 
So,  for  instance,  the  Sinai  congregation  in  Chicago, 
after  the  great  fire  had  destroyed  its  temjile  in  1871, 
assembled  for  a  long  time  in  a  Congregational  church 
for  regular  worship. 

BIBLIOOR.VPIIV:  r.  p.  Daly,  The  Settlement  nf  the  Jrtn  <n 
.Vortli  .liii.  ricd.isl.  Max  J.  Kohler,  New  York,  ISSH;  Isaac 
Markens.  Tin  llrlmm  in  A  inerioi.  New  York,  IKss ;  .|  rm  ri- 
iiiii  Jiiihli  I'Kir  /ioofc.  .'iWll,  «!.  Cynis  Adler,  Philadelphia, 
U*t):  I'lililiiiiliininiif  llic  Am.  Jew.  IliKl-irirnI  Sneiilu.  I'*8 
el  mi;.:  L. (iclKer. . I /»ri/i<ii)i  (Irifirr'K  .Viir/i|(rliis,«  III'  Selirlf- 
ten.  vol.  v.,  Berlin.  Is7il:  II.  L.  PIncknev  and  Alirahuin  .Moisc, 
.-t  .s'l'/crtioii  ^roin  fhc  .i/iV*II(iriroiiK  irrltiiii;s  nf  the  L*Uc 
Imar  llnrliii.  f;»<(., Charleston,  !!«»;  D.  Elnliom,  In  the  ihtI- 
odlcal  .s'iiKii.  18V>. 

F.  ni:  S.  M. 

AMERICAN  HEBRE'W,  THE:  A  weekly 
journal,  the  first  number  of  which  was  published  in 
Xew  York  city.  Nov. '21. 187!t.  It  was  founded  chielly 
through  the  I'lTorts  of  F.  de  Sola  Mendes.  who.  to- 
gether with  Philip  Cowen.  the  publisluTof  the  paper 
from  itslirst  number,  inien'steil  si'venil  other  persons 
in  the  formation  of  a  corponition  to  issue  the  paper, 


American  Hebrew,  The 
American  Jewish  Publication  Soo. 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


518 


which  corporation  was  nnnicd"TlR'  Aincricnn  He- 
brew Publisliing  Coiuiiany."  In  the  Ihiril  number 
of  tliis  periodical,  its  policy  was  declared  as  follows; 
"It  is  not  controlled  by  one  person,  nor  is  it  inspired 
by  one.  ll.s  editorial  staff  comprises  men  of  diverse 
shades  of  opiinon  on  ritualistic  matters  in  .ludaisni. 
but  men  who  are  determined  to  combine  tlieireniru'ies 
for  the  eommon  cau.se  of  .ludaisni."  At  tJH'outset  of 
its  career.  "Tlie   American   llrlirew" 

Orig'in  waseonductiil — and  is  to  this  day — by 
and  Man-  a  hoard  of  editors,  in  which  only  one 
agement.  clianjre  has  been  mad( — that  clian^e 
bcin;;  rendered  nece.s.sarv  by  tlie  death 
of  one  of  its  mcnd)ers.  To  insure  al)solule  imper- 
sonality in  all  matters  pertainin;;  to  the  paper,  the 
names  of  the  |iersons  forming  this  board  have  never 
been  pu))lished. 

Durini;  the  persecutions  of  the  Rumanian  .Tews 
that  follnwcd  tlie  si!,'nin.ir  "f  the  Treaty  of  Berlin 
(1HT8) — which  treaty,  it  was  hoped,  would  alleviate, 
rather  than  agjrravate.  the  condition  of  tlie  Jews 
of  liumania — "The  American  Hebrew  "  pidilished  a 
nunilier  of  important  letters  on  the  subject  from 
European  writers,  which  led  Hie  American  .lews  to 
exercise  their  inlhience  on  behalf  of  their  suffering 
coreligionists  abroad. 

Tlie  perseeulion  of  the  Russian  .Jews  that  began 
with  tlie  enforcement  throughout  Russia  of  the  ^lay 
Laws  in  ISXl  caused  a  large  immigration  of  these 
Jews  to  the  United  Stfites.  In  England  and  America, 
immigration  aid  a.ssoeiat  ions  were  formed;  and  "Tlie 
American  Hebrew  "  assisted  in  the  formation  in  New 
York  of  the  "  Hebrew  Emigrant  Aid  Society."  which 
cared  fur  the  immigrants  on  their  arrival  in  the  United 
States;  though  this  journal  was  not  connected  in  any 
other  wa.v  with  the  society. 

Among  tlw  leading  figures  in  Jewish  life  that  "  The 
American  Hebrew"  has  introduced  to  American 
Judaism  may  be  named  Em.m.\  LA7,.\KfS.  who  at- 
taiiic'il  ilistinetion  as  a  poet.  Under  the  management 
of  this  journal.  Miss  Lazarus  published  her  "Dance 
of  D<'alli,"  a  fourte<'nth-century  tragedy,  based  on 
authi'iitie  documents  ]daced  at  her  disposal  by  Prof. 
Fran/.  Delit/sch.  Sulisci|Uently  Miss  La/.'irus  cim- 
trilmled  the  tirst  poem  she  translated  from  the  origi- 
nal Hebrew,  which  appeared  in  the  issue  for  May  11, 
1883.  In  "The  American  Hebrew"  Miss  Lazarus 
advocated  industrial  education  for  the  younger  gen- 
eration of  Russian  refugees;  lierefTorts  in  this  direc- 
tion. togethiT  with  those  of  other  earnest  writers, 
leading  ultimately  to  the  founding  of  the  "Hebrew 
Technical  Institute"  in  New  York  city,  which  was 
the  lirst  institution  of  its  kind  in  the  United  States. 

Special  numbers  of  "The  American  Hebrew  "  have 
been  published  from  time  to  time.  A  noteworthy 
issue  was  that  of  the  memorial  number  commemora- 
tive of  the  death  of  Emma  Lazarus.  This  was  pidi- 
lished in  December.  1HS7.  and  contained  tributes  in 
prose  and  verse  from  the  pens  of  Browning.  Whit  tier, 
Warner.  Stednian.  Hay.  Burroughs.  Dana.  Eggleston, 
Bov<'sen.  .Maurice  Thompson,  and  Savage. 

Three  years  later  (1890).  "  The  American  Hebrew  " 
published  a  unique  religioliterary  symposium,  en- 
titled "A  Consensus  on  Prejudice."  Among  the 
contributors  to  this  number  were  such  prominent 
educators  as  President  James  McCosh 

Religio-      of    Princeton    University,    President 

Literary      Charles  W.  Eliot  of  Harvard  Univer- 

Sym-         sity,  and  Prof.  Crawford  II.  Toy.    The 

posium.  Christian  Church  was  represented  bj- 
Bishops  Potter.  Littlejohn.  and  Coxe, 
and  Doctors  Vincent,  Dix.  Crosby,  Chadwick.  New- 
ton. Buckley.  Hale,  and  Gladden.  Literary  men  also 
contributed  to  this  number;  and  among  the  leading 


ones  were  Holmes.  Curtis.  Burroughs.  Ilowells.  Hay, 
and  Higginson.  Zebulon  B.  Vance.  Robert  G.  Inger- 
soll.  and  many  others  re|iresented  the  public  nu'U. 
These  persons  all  gave  tlieir  views  on  the  causes  of 
the  existing  iirejuilice  against  the  Jews.  an<i  sug- 
gested means  for  its  dis.sipation.  Among  the  more 
important  literary  contributions  published  in  Ihecol- 
umnsof  "The  American  Hibrew  "  must  hcinstanced 
Max  J.  Koliler's  edition  of  Judge  Daly's  work  on  the 
"Settlement  of  the  .lews  in  ,\nierica."  There,  too, 
many  important  discussions  bearing  on  the  di'velop- 
ment  of  Judaism  in  America  have  been  carried  on. 

Since  its  publication  "The  American  Hebrew  "  has 
absorbed  .several  Ji'wish  periodicals,  among  which 
have  been  "The  .Ii'wish  Chronicle"  fif  Baltimore, 
Md..  in  1,880;  "Jewish  Tidings  "  of  Rochester.  N.  Y., 
in  IN!).");  "The  Jewish  Reformer."  a  weekly  journal 
cfindiicted  for  a  time  by  Kaufniann  Kohler,  I.  S. 
Moses,  and  Einil  <!.  llirsch.  in  ISHti. 

Among  other  matters  of  public  interest  in  which 

"The  American  Hebrew"  has  taken  an  important  part 

are  the  establishnient  in  New  York  city 

Active  in    of  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary, 

Matters  of  and  the  ilispatch.  in  I'.lllO.  of  a  special 

Public       commissioner(  David  Blaustein)  to  visit 

Interest.  Humaiiia  for  the  |)iir|iose  of  aseerlain- 
ing  the  condition  (jf  the  Rumanian 
.Jews.  Mr.  Blaustein  contributed  aseriesof  compre- 
hensive rejiorts  on  the  subject  of  his  investigations; 
and  in  tlu'in  he  also  discussed  the  question  of  emigra- 
tion, which  had  then  already  begun.  The.se  reports 
ai)))eared  in  the  October  and  November  issues  of 
"The  American  Hebrew"  for  1000. 

Editorially.  "The  American  Hebrew"  stands  for 
conservatism  in  Juilaism.  Nevertheless,  the  col- 
umns of  this  journal  are  ever  o])en  to  the  discussion 
of  views  with  which  it  can  in  no  way  accord,  but 
which  may  be  of  interest  to  its  readers.  Nearly  all 
the  prominent  Jewish  writers  and  communal  work- 
ers in  the  United  States  have  been  contributors  to 
its  pages.  "The  American  Hebrew"  has  always 
avoided  the  publication  of  ])urely  private  or  social 
news,  thus  resisting  an  almost  universal  tendency 
among  modern  American  newspapers,     -p    jj    v 

AMERICAN  ISRAELITE,  THE  :  A  w.ekly 
journal  established  in  ( 'iniiiiiiali.  (),.  in  .Iiilv, 
IS.")-),  by  Isaac  Mayer  Wise  uiuler  tlu'  title  of  "The 
Israelite."  It  had  two  objects;  (1)  to  propagate  the 
principles  of  Reform  Judaism;  and  (',')  to  kee])  the 
Israelites  that  lived — often  singly  or  in  coniniunities 
of  two  or  three  families,  in  the  mimerous  small  towns 
of  the  United  States — in  touch  with  Jewish  affairs, 
thus  contributing  to  save  them  to  Judaism.  "The 
American  Israelite"  has  always  advocated  progres- 
sive— thatis.  Reform — Judaism. while  planting  itself 
on  the  platform  of  Americanism.  It  has  constantly 
maintained  that  American  .lews  are  differentiated 
from  American  Christians  in  religion  only,  not  in  na- 
tionality, and  that  there  is  no  such  thing  to-day  as  a 
Jewish  nation. 

For  some  time  Edward  Bloeli  and  Herman  M.  Mrxis 
were  associated  with  Dr.  Wise  as  ])ublislieis.  On 
.Ian.  1,  18T.5.  Leo  Wise,  the  eldest  son  of  the  editor, 
became  business  manager,  and  the  editorial  manage- 
ment gradually  jiasscd  into  his  hands;  though  Dr. 
Wise  wrote  the  leaders  and  most  of  the  editorial 
paragraphs  uninterruptedly  up  to  the  time  of  his 
deatii  (March  26.  1900).  Since  the  latter  dale  the 
management  has  been  a.ssisted  by  Rabbi  David  Philip- 
son  of  Cincinnati,  as  editorial  writer,  and  by  Dr. 
Louis  Grossmaun  of  Cincinnati,  and  Dr.  Julius  Wise 
of  Chicago,  as  editorial  contributors.  On  .July  1, 
1874,  the  title  of  the  paper  was  changed  to  "The 


619 


THE  JEWISH  E^X•YCLOPEDIA  t""f'^^°f^^.''^Tl'^^,^     ^.      „ 

American  Jewish  Publication  Soc. 


AnuTioan  Israelite,"  as  l)cin<;  more  in  consonance 
with  llic  ideas  it  represeutcil.  In  the  West  and 
the  Soiitli  this  periodical  has  always  had  a  wide 
circulation. 

One  of  the  first  thintrs  that  Dr.  Wise  learned  when 
he  uiidcrldiik  to  (■.\tciiil  the  {•ireulatiou  of  "The 
Israelite"  was  that  there  were  very  many  Jews  in 
the  country  who  were  not  familiar  with  Kn^rlish. 
To  reach  and  intiuence  these,  and  to  keep  them  from 
Strayirii;  from  Judaism  allojrether,  he,  in  IHo.J,  l)ej;an 
the  pui)liciition  of  "Die  I)<'l)orah,"  i)rinted  in  Ger- 
man. It  was  condueleil  on  the  same  lines  as  "The 
Israelite,"  ami  liad  similar  aims.  In  this  work 
Dr.  Wise  had  associated  with  him.  at  difTer<'nt 
times,  S.  Hotlienlu'rir,  .Max  l,ili<iitlial.  S<ili}m(iii 
II.  Somie.schein,  neiMri<h  Zirndorf,  and  Gotlhard 
Deutsch.  The  "Deborah"  was  discontinutul  for  a 
time  at  Dr.  Wise's  death.  Init  has  since  been  revived. 
Owing  to  the  intimate  relations  of  Dr.  Wise  with 
"The  American  Israelite,"  much  special  information 
about  the  rnicin  of  American  Hebrew  C'<insrrej;a- 
tions.  the  llel)rew  Union  Colleire.  and  the  various 
lialibinicTl  Conferences  is  contairieil  in  its  jiajres. 

As  a  record  of  the  history  of  the  .lews  of  America 
durintr  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
files  of  "The  American  Israelite  "  and  of  the  "Deb- 
orah "  are  of  considerable  value.  They  indicate  the 
growth  and  development  of  Reform  Judaism  in 
America,  and  of  its  various  institutions.  Jlost  of  the 
piiiminent  rabbis  and  Jewish  thinkers  of  the  I'nited 
Stale-  have  been  among  the  literary  contributors  to 
boll]  prriiidicals.  L.    W'l. 

AMERICAN  JEWESS,    THE:    A    monthly 

(afteruard  i|iiarleily  i  magazine  printed  in  Chicago 
anil  New  York.  There  wi're  nine  vulumes,  the  lirst 
appearing  in  Aiiril.  IS!).-),  the  last  in  .March.  \X'J'J.  The 
oi)ject  of  the  magazine  was  to  offer  to  the  Amer- 
ican Jewess  a  field  for  her  talents,  to  bring  the  Jew- 
ish women  of  the  rnitwl  States  into  clo.ser  touch 
with  each  other,  and  to  act  as  the  official  organ  of 
Jewish  women's  organizations.  The  editor  was 
Rosa  Sonnenschein.  H.  K. 

AMERICAN  JE'WISH  HISTORICAL  SO- 
CIETY :  .\  so.  illy  ur-aniziil  at  New  "link  city, 
June  7.  IMl'J.  at  a  meeting  cmivened  by  Cyrus  .\dler, 
of  Washington.  I).  C.  About  forty  persons  were  in 
attendance;  Oscar  S.  Straus  was  chosen  president, 
and  Cyrus  Adler  secretary. 

The  objects  of  the  society  are  the  collection  and 
pres<'rvalion  of  material  beating  \ipon  the  history  of 
Jews  in  America.  It  is  not  sectarian  but  American. 
anil  welcomes  all  students  interested  in  the  work  as 
part  of  American  history.  The  socii'ty  meets  annu- 
ally fur  the  transaction  of  busim-ss  and  the  reading 
of  papers.  Jleetings  have  bren  held  in  New  Vnrk. 
Philaililpliia,  Haltimore,  and  Washington.  Nine  vol- 
Uliiis  iif  pMblicatiiiris  had  been  issuril.  The  articles 
of  l>^!i:i-l!lo0  covrr  a  wide  range  and  contain  much 
information  and  many  original  documents  never  be- 
fore ])ublished.  Oscar  S.  Straus,  in  his  presiden- 
tial addressis.  IHiCJ-ilT.  has  each  year  dwelt  uiion 
some  phase  of  the  history  of  the  Jews  in  America, 
and  outlined  work  to  be  pursued  by  the  members 
of  the  siiciely.  In  ISilll  Cyrus  .\dler  was  elected 
]irisiilrnt  and  Oscar  S.  Straus  hononiry  president. 
The  resrarclies  of  the  mend)ers  have  established  the 
fact  that  from  an  early  date  Jiws  participated  in 
the  social  and  political  lifeof  the  American  colonies. 
It  is  impossible  to  refir  in  detail  to  the  subjects 
treated  in  the  .society's  publications,  but  the  follnw- 
ing  may  serve  to  show  the  geni'ral  lines  on  which 
its  siiciety's  work  has  hitherto  i)rogres.scd. 

J.  II.  Hollander  and  Leon  HUhner  have  showD  that 


in  the  English  and  Dutch  colonics  Jews  claimed  and 
were  accorded  political  rights  which  were  denied 
them  by  the  home  governments.  Cyrus  Adler,  in 
his  articles  on  the  Inquisition  in  Mexico,  has  de- 
scribed the  persectitions  of  the  Holy  Office  in  that 
country.  Incidentally  he  has  shown  that  Jews  were 
among  the  early  settlers  there,  and  that  a  number, 
driven  out  by  persecution,  sought  refuge,  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  in 
England.  G.  A.  Koliut  has  done  a  similar  service 
for  the  Inquisition  in  South  America.  -Max  J.Kohier 
and  A.  .M.  Dyer  have  made  important  coutribution.s 
to  the  history  of  tlie.Iewishconunuiuly  of  New  York, 
ashavr  Uev.  Henry  CohiMi  and  Rev.  David  Philipson 
to  that  of  the  settlement  of  the  Jews  in  Texas  and 
Ohio  respectively.  Kayserling  has  described  the 
colonization  of  the  South  American  countries  bj'  the 
Jews  and  the  early  liferary  activity  of  the  Jews  in 
Brazil  and  Siu-inam.  Herbert  Friedenwald  has  por- 
trayed the  part  played  by  the  Jews  in  the  .Vinerican 
Revolution,  and  added  considerably  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  settlements  in  the  British  West  Indies. 

II.   F. 

AMERICAN  JE'WISH  PUBLICATION 
SOCIETY  :  .\  society  formiil  for  the  dis.si-mination 
of  Jewish  literature,  and  the  lirst  of  its  kind  in  the 
United  States;  founded  at  Philadelphia  in  184,5  by 
Isaac  Leeser.  The  same  year  an  auxiliary  society 
was  established  at  Richmond,  Va.  The  society 
iniblished,  under  the  general  title  of  "Jewish  .Mis- 
cellany," the  following  works:  (1)  "Caleb  Asher," 
184.");  (2)  "Hebrew  Tales,"  bv  Hvman  Hurwitz, 
184.5;  (3)  "The  Prophet's  Daughter,"  bv  Marion 
Ilartoir,  184(i;  (4)  "  .Moses  :Mendelssiihn,"  bv  M.  Sam- 
uels, 1S46;  (.5)  "Path  of  Israel,"  part  i.,"l)v  J.  En- 
nerv,  1X47;  (ti)  "Davs  of  Old."  bv  Chaiiotie  Eliza- 
beth (.Mrs.  Tonner);  "Rachel  Levi,"  a  tale;  "The 
Jews  and  Their  Reliirion,"  bv  Isaac  Leeser,  1847; 
(7)  "The  Perez  Familv,"  bv  Grace  Acuilar,  1847; 
(8,  9,  10)  "Patriarchal  Times,"  bv  Adelaide 
O'KeefTe,  1847;  (11)  "Path  of  Israel,"  part  ii.,  by 
■J.  p:nnerv,  1848;  (12,  i:^)  "Spirit  of  .ludaism,"  by 
Grace  Airuilar,  184!»;  (14)  "Path  of  Israel,"  part  iii., 
by  J.  Knnery,  ls4!). 

In  1S.51  the  Hart  Building,  at  the  corner  of  Si.xth 
and  Chestnut  streets,  Philadelphia — in  which  were 
stored  the  plates  and  books  belonging  to  the  society 
— was  destroyed  by  lire,  and  the  society  ceased  to 
exist, 

Bnu.IoiiRAPlIT:  Die  OccUhnl.  II,  .111.  .'ilT-.'KT:  III.  a"i  4n.  421- 
4»;  Iv.  ItUtl-liilS ;  V.  4.'>4-(d»;  vl.  41()-4ia,  5r4-5T«;  vll.  474. 

A. 

AMERICAN  JE'WISH  PUBLICATION  SO- 
CIETY :  An  assneiation  fouudeil  in  IN7;i  by  a 
number  of  New  York  Jews;  Leopold  Bamberger, 
Beujamin  I.  Hart.  Myer  Stern,  Edward  .Morrison, 
-.\rniild  Tanzer.  and  Louis  Lewengood.  with  William 
B.  Ilaekeuberg  of  Philadelphia  and  Simon  Wolf  of 
Washington.  It  was  at  first  called  "The  Jewish 
Publieaiion  Society":  but  in  1874  it  added  the  word 
"  .Vmerican  "  Ui  its  title.  The  publication  committee 
consisted  of  (Jiistav  (Jotthiil,  miosis  .Mielziner,  and 
F.  de  Sola  .Meiiiles,  New  York  rabbis:  Marcus  Jas- 
trow  of  Philadelphia,  and  Moritz  Ellinger  of  New 
York,  editor  of  "The  Jewish  Times."  In  187;!,  as 
its  lirst  publication,  the  society  issued  the  fourth 
volinne  of  Griltz's  "  Ge.schicbte  der  Juden."  which 
had  been  tmnslated  by  Rabbi  James  K.  Gutheim  of 
New  Orleans.  In  187.5  two  volumes  were  is,sued:  (1) 
",lewish  Family  Papers:  Let  lei's  of  a  Missionary," 
by  "Gustav  .Meinhardi  "  (Dr.  William  Herzberg), 
tmnslated  bv  F.  il<'  Sola  Meiides;  and  Cil  "  Hebrew 
Characteristics,"  niiscellaueous  papers  from  the  Gcr- 


American,  Sadie 
Anunar,  David  b.  Samuel 


TIIE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


5ao 


iiinn,  comprisinjr  "extracts  from  Jewish  nionilists 
from  the  eleveii'h  to  the  tifleenth  century."  from 
Ziiiiz"8  "Ziir  (ifs(  lii(  lite  uiiil  Literatur";  "Jewish 
Jlurriage  in  PoslBiljlical  Times,  u  Study  in  Arclie- 


.nniyn^i 


mini' 


Device  of  the  Aniertcan  Jewish  Pulillcatlon  Society  of  1873. 
■■  To  the  Law  and  t"  the  Tesliniony." 

olojry,"  by  Dr.  J.  Perks ;  and  "On  Interment  of  the 
Dead  in  PostlJililieal  Judaism."  also  by  Perles;  all 
translated  by  Albert  11.  I,ouis. 

The  tlnanciiil  jianic  of  lST:i  and  the  ensuing  com- 
mercial depre.s,sic)n  compelled  lh(>  suspension  of  the 
society  in  1S75.  See  Jewish  Piulic.mion  Society 
OK  AMtnai  A.  F.  de  S.  M. 

AMERICAN,  SADIE:  Corresponding  secre- 
tary of  Ihc  ('c)iuicil  of  Jewish  Women;  born  at  Chi- 
cago. March  ;i  1.S02. 

>riss  .Vmcricnn  has  been  connected  with  many 
philaiitliri>|iie  inovcnients  both  in  the  general  aswell 
us  in  the  Jewish  couununity.  She  has  been  a  member 
of  the  executive  conunittee  of  the  Chicago  Civic 
Federation  since  1S06:  member  of  the  executive 
committee  of  the  South  Central  District  of  Chari- 
ties; vice-president  of  the  Consumers'  League  since 
1899;  director  of  tlie  Cook  County  League  of  Wom- 
en's Clubs  since  1H99  ;  chairman  of  the  Vacation 
School  and  Playground  Conunittee  of  Women's  Clubs 
since  IsiMl;  prcsichritof  the  League  for  lieligious  Fel- 
lowship, lyUT  and  1.S98. 

Jliss  American  has  been  prominently  identified 
with  the  Council  of  Jewish  Women  since  its  organi- 
zation, having  always  been  its  corresponding  secre- 
tary, and  she  was  secretary  to  the  Jewish  Women's 
Congress  in  the  Parliament  of  Keligions  at  Chicago 
in  1S93.  ovit  of  which  the  Council  grew'.  In  the  ca- 
pacity of  corresponding  secreliuy  to  the  Council  she 
has  spoken  before  various  national  women's  organ- 
izations, and  she  was  delegate  to  the  National  Con- 
gress of  Women  at  London  in  June.  lHii9.  She  has 
frequently  been  invited  to  oectipy  pulpits,  and  lias 
delivered  addresses  in  many  places  on  social,  relig- 
ious, and  educational  topics.  Besides  editing  the 
publications  of  I  he  Council  of  Jewish  Women,  she  has 
contrilnited  to  Jewish  and  secular  journals  numerous 
articles  on  the  Council  and  on  various  subjects  rela- 
ting to  educational  and  charitable  topics.  A. 

AMETHYST  :  A  variety  of  quartz  of  a  clear 
purple  or  bluish  violet  color,  much  used  as  a  pre- 
cious stone.  It  is  generally  accepted  that  the 
Amethyst  held  the  ninth  jilace  and  was  in  the 
third  row  among  the  precious  gems  on  the  breast- 
plate of  the  high  priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  19,  xxxix.  12); 
but  the  derivation  of  the  Hebrew  name  (ihlamah 
is  unknown  (see  Precious  Stones).         G.  B.  L. 

AMI.     SeeAMMi, 

AMI  DES  ISRAELITES,  L'.  See  Period- 
icals. 


AMICO  (iinginally  Amigo),  JOSEPH  :  Learned 
and  iiilbii'iilial  rabbi  burn  in  'I'unis  (V).  who  went  to 
Italy  after  tlie  year  Vt'A).  when  Moses  Provencal 
was  chief  rabbi  of  Mantua.  In  the  (piestion  of 
the  legality  of  the  divorce  granted  to  Sainiiel  V'en- 
turoso  in  Venice,  on  which  the  opinions  of  the  con- 
teinporaneous  rabbis  were  divided.  JoseiJi  Amico 
tdiik  sides  with  .Mdses  Pnivincal  and  Felice  .Melli. 
In  this  ease,  as  in  a  similar  one  at  Haveiina,  he 
cdiiclied  his  decision  in  moderati'  terms,  ami  contin- 
ually exhorted  the  eoiiteiidiiig  sides  to  prinleiice. 
In  a  iiiueh  (lebaled  case  dealing  with  the  levirate 
law  that  came  up  for  decision  in  l.")7;i,  Joseph  Amico 
was  also  asked  for  an  opinion,  and  he  defeiiih-d  the 
thesis  that  "the  law  of  levirate  takes  preeeilence 
over  that  of  relea.se  (/(<(//?"/()■"  Sinei' neilherof  these 
Uesponsa  bears  any  indication  of  dale  or  plaei'.  it 
is  dillieull  lo  say  where  Joseph  Ainieo  lived,  but 
it  would  appear,  from  the  earlier  form  of  his  name, 
(Amigo),  that  he  was  of  Levantine  or  ipiasi  Spanish 
origin.  His  name  occurs  also  in  the  second  jmrt  of 
the  Kesponsa  of  .Moses  ben  Joseph  di  Tiani  and  in 
the  collection  of  rabbinical  consultalioiis  in  the  pos- 
session of  .M.  Zadoe  Kahn.  In  Ihe  "ShalsheliM  ha- 
Kabbalah  "  ((U^O 'uere  mention  is  made  of  a  Jacob 
Amigo.  but  iJic  exact  relationshi|i  lietweeii  these 
two  men  can  not  be  determined  with  any  degree  of 
certaintj',  nor  for  that  matter  can  it  be  decided 
whether  there  is  not  a  misprint  in  the  name  Jacob 
for  Josejih. 

Bini.KicR.vniv:  M.  Proven(;al,  Pcmls,  etc.,  Mantua,  LliB;  Lam- 
pntntj.  rahnd  Yizhak^  iv.'Si;  Nepl-(ihin»n<il,  Tnlcihil  tiniole 
ii.^nu'1,  s.'v. 

O.  J. 
'AMIDAH.     See  Siir.MoNEii  "EsitEn. 


AMIGO,  ABRAHAM  :  A  noted  rabbi  of  Pal- 
estine; nourished  almut  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth eenlury.  He  was  a  contemiiorarv  of  .Moses 
ben  Nissini  lienvenisle.  the  younger,  aullior  of  ihe 
responsa.  "Sefer  Peiie  .Moslieh."  For  his  piety  and 
learning,  Amigo  was  highly  respected  by  bis  eonlein- 
lioraries.  He  wrote  "Peri  llaiiash"  (New  Fruit),  a 
commentary  onthe  subdivision  Oiah  Hayyini  of  the 
Sli  111  hall  '.\nik.  from  Ihc  laws  of  the  Passover  to  Ihe 
end.  The  work  lias  been  lost,  Amigo  was  also  Ihe 
author  of  a  large  work,  containing  responsii  as  well 
as  novelhe  tothi^  Talmud  and  the  halakic  literature, 
which  came  under  the  notice  of  Azulai. 

BiHi.ioGRAPHV  :  Azulai,  Slinn  fut-Gfdtilii»,  ed.  Benjacfib,  II. 
1SJ-1.3S;  Kilnn,  Keneticl  Yinmel,  p.  11 ;  Michael,  Or  ha-Hau- 
yim.  No.  iX). 

H.  G.  E. 

AMIGO,  MEIR:    A  Spanish  Jew,  who  lived  in 

Ihe  second  half  of  Ihe  eighteenth  century  at  Tcmes- 
var  (Hungary).  He  was  nicknaincd  "  Ue  cliico" 
(the  little  king)  on  account  of  his  wealth,  and  was 
highly  respecled  at  the  court  of  Maria  Theresa.  At 
Constantinople  he  had  many  conncclions,  and  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Diego  de  Aguilar.  When, 
through  private  sources,  Aguilar  learned  of  Ihe  im- 
minent expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Bohemia,  he 
wiote  to  Aniiiro  a.sking  the  latter  lo  go  to  Constan- 
tinoiile  and  bring  his  intlueiice  to  bi'ar  in  favor  of 
his  tlncaleiieil  I'oreligionists.  Amigo  went,  and 
succeeded  in  persuading  ihe  sultan  to  send  an  envoy 
extraordinary — the  Jew,  Coronei. — with  an  aulo- 
grai)li  letter  to  the  empress.  By  this  means  she  was 
induced  to  re]ical  the  decree  of  exjiulsion,  Jndah, 
Isaac.  Menaheni.  and  Joseph  ben  Jleir  Amigo.  other 
members  of  this  family,  also  lived  at  Temesvar. 

Biiu.infiRAPHV :  Franco,  Knxni  yur  VHislnirr  do*  IsrarUtex 
ill  VEiiniiic  ()ttiiman.p.l'.il:  A.  von  Zemlinsky,  r»'c«c?i.  tier 
TUrkisai-Ixraelltischeti  Gememde  zu  Wien,  pp.  5  el ««/. 


5  el  neu. 
M.  K. 


521 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


American,  Sadie 
Ammar,  David  b.  Samuel 


AlflLTAI  (probably  identical  with  Amalthea): 
IiiOrcck  iiiytbology,  the  goat,  whose  liorii  (Atrtlow- 
iiig  with  uature's  riches  has  become  the  symbol  of 
])leiitv  (the  cornucopia),  an<l  that  nursed  the  infant 
god  Zeus  with  her  milk.  Thi.s  name  occurs  twice 
in  ancient  .Jewish  legend :  (1)  .Job's  daughter,  ICeren- 
Imppuch  (.Job.  .\lii.  14),  is  translateil  in  the  Septua- 
gint  •■  Amalthea's  Horn,"  wherein  tli<'  Hebrew  words 
"IIEn  \'\p  are  reproduced.  This  daughter  of  Job, 
Amalthea's  Horn.  i)lays  a  iiromineiit  role  as  a  type 
of  saintly  beauty  in  the  "  Testament  of  Job  " — a  Jew- 
ish apocrypha  (see  Kohler.  "Testjinient  of  Job"  in 
"Senutic  Studies  in  .Memory  of  Al.  Kohul."  p.  288); 
her  "uincorn  like  beauty  "  and  her  "smaragd  like  ra- 
diance "  are  dwelt  on  also  in  15.  1!.  Wi.  (-2)  The  name 
of  Abraham's  mother,  called  Edna  (the  (Jraceful  One) 
in  the  Hook  of  Jubilees  (xi.  i:ii.  is  sjiid  liy  l{ab  (B. 
B.  'JbO  to  have  been  Amiltai.  the  daughter  of  Kar- 
neho,  which  seems  to  be  a  eorru|il  re|u-oductiou 
of  AmaltliealCeren-happuch.  the  daughter  of  Job — 
Job'saiiil  Abraham's  histories beingconstantly  inter- 
woven in  ancient  legend.  I'ossibly  the  Zeus  legend 
prompted  the  name,  as  it  is  narrated  that  the  infant 
Abraham  was  miracuiously  nourished  by  milk  and 
honey  in  the  cave  where  lie  was  hidden. 

UiHi.iDiut.vriir:  Beer,  Lehen  Ahrahnmit,  n.  1ft 
Hiilisch,  In  Ben  Chananja,  vl.  T0&-713,  SBl-SSt. 


nid,  p.  IftJ ;  Zl|iser  anil 
II-.'-' 


AMITTAI :  Father  of  the  prophet  Jonah  (II 
King-.  .\iv  i.');  Jonah,  i.  1).  According  to  ralibinical 
•sonn-es  (Yer.  Suk.  v.  Twn  ;  Gen.  H.  xcviii. :  Yalk.. 
Jonah.  S  .ViO)  Amittai  came  from  the  tribe  of  Zebulon 
and  lived  at  Zan>])liath.  Th<-re  isa  tradition  that  the 
willow  who  sustaineil  the  jiropliet  ICIijah  there  (I 
Kings,  xvii.  i)-'24l  was  Andttjil's  wife,  and  that  the 
child  whom  Elijah  revived  was  Jonah  (Pirlje  li.  El. 
xxxiii  )  M.   B. 

AMITTAI  BEN  ABIDA  AHIZADEK.     See 

Cai;o.   |)\\  n>, 

AMITTAI  BEN  SHEPHATIAH :  A  well- 
known  liturgical  i)oet.  who  tlouri.shed  at  Oria.  Italy, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century.  The  time 
of  his  activity  was  until  recently  a  matter  of  <loul)t. 
ISabbenu   Tam   (died    1171)  eitc-s  one  of   his   piyu- 

tim  (n''pnt;'  'arj'X;   Yeb.  k;/-;  Tos.  ».r,   pibs): 

and  .bisepli  ha  Kolien  mentions  him  as  one  of  the 
earlv  poets,  but  without  giving  anv  fuither  details 
(•■  'I^niek  haBaka."ed.  I.elteris,' p.  Ill,  Cracow,  IKil.')). 
According  to  Zunz  and  I,Kindshuth.  he  lived  after  the 
persecutions  of  the  lirst  Crusade  ( Hl'-Hii.  The  only 
reliable  information  in  regard  to  the  personality  of 
Amittai,  howeviM-,  is  to  be  found  in  the  "Chronicle 
of  Ahimaaz,"  which  states  that  hi'  was  the  son  of 
Shephaliah.  who  died  toward  the  end  of  the  ninth 
ci-ntury.  and  the  grandson  of  that  .\nultai  with 
whom  the  "Chronicle  "  commences.  Few  details  of 
Ins  family  life  are  given.  He  had  a  sister  ICas.sia. 
who  married  her  cousin  Ilasadyah  ;  and  it  is  sjiid 
that  .Vmittai  composeil  a  liturgical  piece  in  honor  of 
the  wedding.  He  sometimes  gave-  a  pulilie  re(  italion 
of  liis  eli'gies:  and  once,  while  thus  ollicialing  at  a 
fnneral.  he  took  olTc-nsi'  at  the  action  of  a  lirollier  of 
till'  deceasid.  a  certain  .Moses,  whom  Kaufmann  sup 
poses  to  be  Sloses  of  Pavia.  He  was  sub.se<iuenlly 
placed  under  the  ban  because  of  testimony  which 
111'  had  olTered  tombing  the  monds  of  a  woman. 

Andllai  was  a  most  prolilic  poet.  Zun/.  enumerates 
as  many  as  twenty  four  liturgical  pieces  written  bv 
him,  among  w  hii  h  is  the  .(/lO  /'  for  a  nuptial  .'^abbatli 
conunenein^'  n'lnS  D't'XIO  TJO  flTK      He  makes 

iise  III  the  Midra>h,  and  in •  pivnl  versifies  a  piece 

of  the  .Mekilta.     .\l  other  times  lie  has  references  to 


historical  events;  e.g.,  in  rh'h^  DanN  I'nanN.  where 
he  mentions  the  forced  conversion  of  Jewish  children. 

In  tlie  Mlihilt  pimo  lioyn  "'  no^  the  date  1096 
occurs;  but  for  other  than  chronological  reasons 
Zunz  suspects  that  the  verse  isa  later  insertion.  One 
of  his  selihot  (Dim  ^X  "  ")  still  fonus  iiart  of  the 
Ne'ilah  service  of  the  l)ay  of  Atonement. 

Blnl.lO(iKAPHY  :  Clirimiclr  of  Ahimam.  in  Neulrauer,  Mediw- 
ral  Ji:uuili  Chrimkhs,  U.  VH;  Ivaafriiann,  in  Miiiiatxmhrift, 
xl.  .'illti  1 1  «<;. ;  Bailier.  in  /if  i'.  £(.  jHir(.«.  xxxll.  U7;  Lands- 
liulli,  ■.l»ii/i»'/<  (i<i-".l/)i>i(ii)i.  p.  4<i;  Zunz,  LilcralurfKsili. 
PI).  Pit).  iVi :  idt-m.  Z.  (i.  p.  :iT4  :  lilcni,  .S.  /'.  pp.  IS,  1««  Itrans- 
latiiinof  iH'u  piyutlni)  :  M.  Saolis,  Fc^Ul'lxte  lUr  IxrinUUii, 
1H74,  part  iv.,  416  eil.,  p.  .'lOT.  and  .Nina  Da%is,  Snugs  of  Krik, 
lyill,  p.  liU  (tran-slatlons  of  the  Xe'Uuh  Sdihah). 

G. 

'AMM,  ' AMMI  ( 'oy) :  A  name  applied  to  Semitic 
gods  and  lipund  in  Biblical  names  like  Aninnnadab, 
Ammiel.  .\nunishad(lai.  Thewdrd  'niniu,  'dm.  prop- 
erly "kinsman"  (in  Arabic,  "paternal  uncle"),  was 
used  among  the  Semites  as  an  appellation  of  various 
gods  in  the  sense  of  ])atron.  ])ersoiial  iirotector.  in 
the  same  way  as  nb,  "father."  nh,  "brother,"  hul, 
"maternal  uncle."  Art /»,  "father-in-law."  dad,  "'near 
kinsman."  and  tlie  like.  Traces  of  this  use  of  'nm 
are  found  in  ancient  proper  names  in  many  parts  of 
the  Seiiutic  world;  thus,  in  Babylonia  (Hanunu  labi 
dynasty;  see  "Z.D.M.G."  xlix.".V.;4).  Anuni  zadtiga 
(plV  ■').  Ammi  (litana.  There  is  no  snilicient  reason 
for  doubting  the  B;d)ylonian  oi'igin  of  these  names. 
The  signilication  of  the  ending  i  in  the  Ammi  of 
these  and  the  following  compounds  is  uncertain: 
Ammiba'al.aCan!Uiniterulcr(timeof  .Vshnrnasirpal; 
Honunel.  "Geschichte  Babyloinens  und  Assyiiens." 
D74  et  «€(/.):  Hebrew  '.^mmi-el  (compare  Abi el, 
etc.),  Ammi-nailab  (compare  Abi-nadab.  etc.),  l-^li  am 
(compare  Eli  ab).  etc.,  probably  also  Anuam.  Heho- 
boam(Kahab  -am).  Jeroboam  (Yaroliam) :  .\nunonite 
Ammi  iiadalK  lime  of  .\sliuibanipal;Delitz.scli.  "  Par- 
adies."  -Jilt);  Smith  .\raliian  Ammi-yada',  Animi- 
ani.sa.  Am  karib.  and  others. 

Theie  have  thiis  far  l)een  found  no  certain  indica- 
tions that  'Am  was  at  any  time  or  jdace  used  as  the 
proper  name  of  a  god  (see.  however.  "  Z.D.M.G." 
xlix.  .j'2.")).  That  it  should  have  been  often  and 
widely  used  in  ways  closely  resembling  the  use  of 
proper  names  is  quite  natund.  It  is  intrinsically 
iminobable  that  any  of  the  words  nh,  n/i.  'nm.  iliid, 
etc..  should  have  liicome  true  proper  names,  and 
only  the  most  ilireet  and  unmistakable  evidence 
could  estalilish  the  fact.  It  is  obviously  not  per- 
missible to  conclude,  as  some  have  done,  from  such 
a  i)a.ssage  as  (Jen.  xix.  38.  that  the  Hebrews  believed 
the  ancestor  of  the  .Vmnionites  to  have  borne  the 
name  Ben  .\nuiu.  anil  that  thei'cfore  the  existence  of 
an  .Vmmoiiite  god  .^nuni  is  to  be  assumed,  whose 
name  also  appears  in  the  name  of  the  people  (Bene 
.Vnunon).  (bi  the  contrary,  the  Anunonite  use  of 
■.\m.  '.Vmmi.  in  ])roper  names  can  not  well  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Hebrew  or  .Vraliic  use.  or  from 
the  exactly  parallel  use  of  the  other  words  denoting 
kinship.     See   also   Ammiici..    .Vm.min,M).M!.    Ammi- 

SI1.M)I)M. 

liuii.ioiiR.vpnv  :  (iniv.  Ihlirru-  T'rnjur  .Y(imr.«,  pp.  41  tm.  24.'>, 
iVt  il  ,>ii(.,  ;«t:  K>iii»n7..r.  S<'plenilHT.  IsiC.  pp.  17".I  •!  nfi/J 
Hiilianel.  .liirlViit  llilireir  Ttiulitlini,  pp,  4>i,  Kl  r(  wi/.,  IflO 
ft  «■<;.:  Jensen,  /.ril.  f.  Aivur.  x.  342  cl  tti/.;  Sniltti,  /ftfii/imi 
!>/ (lie  Sciiii/fK,  Icetun- II.  rt    n    T 

AMMAR,  DAVID  B.  SAMUEL:   Anaiilhorof 

I.eudiorn,  who  wri.li  •  Titilah  li-  David"  |  A  Prayer  of 
l)avid)  on  the  liiiiidred  daily  lienedietions  (Salonini, 
1777;  see  Steinsciineider.  "Cat  BodI  "  ml.  8.")7  ; 
"Jew.  Quart.  l{ev."  .\i.  486). 

11    G.  E. 


^nunon 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


523 


AMMI,  AIMI,  orlMMI  :  The  iiiimc  of  several 
nnioniim.  In  llie  ISiiliylimiaii  Taliiuid  the  first  fnriii 
only  is  used:  in  the  I'lilestiniiiii  Tsilnuid  «U  tliree 
forms  niipeai'  proniisciiously,  Iniini  piednniinatin.!;, 
aud  soMietiines  1{.  Ainini  is  conlnietecl  into  "  Hitbini  " 
or  "  Hiililminini "  (Yer.  'Ab.  Zunih,  v.  4'tii.  h).  The 
most  dislinuuished  of  these  is  a  Palestiidan  ninom 
of  the  third  ireneration  (third  eenliiry).  His  native 
country  is  not  named,  but  it  is  {leiieridly  assumed  to 
be  Haliylonia.  It  seems  ])robaliU'  that  tlie  lifeloii!; 
friendship  exislinjr  between  H.  Ammi  and  H.  Assi 
had  its  orijrin  in  lies  of  blood.  1{.  Assi  is  identieal 
with  H.  Assi  (Jose)  b.  Natlian.  and  H.  Ammi's  full 
name,  as  •;iven  by  himself,  is  Ammi  b.  Nathan  (Oil. 
44(/);  both  of  them,  moreover,  wen'of  )iriestlv  de- 
seent    (Mep.   •iin.  Hul.   l(l7/<).  so"  that 

Descent.  they  seem  to  have  been  the  sons  of  the 
same  father;  and  as  ]{.  Assi  is  a  nativ<' 
Babyloidan.  there  is  reason  for  assuminfr  K.  Ammi's 
IJabyloniaii  nativity.  In  his  earlj- aire  Ammi  at- 
tende<l  the  eollejre  at  Ca'.sjirea,  presided  over  by  H. 
Hoshaiah  I.  (Yer,  Shah.  iii.  5(/).  and  later  he  went  to 
Tiberias  and  berame  the  disciple  of  H.  Johanan.  at 
whose  death  he  voluntarily  observed  the  ritual  iieriod 
of  mourniiiir  |ireserilieil  on  the  death  of  neari'st  rela- 
tives only  (.M.  K.  ~'ili).  When  he  once  lieard  that 
his  Habylcinian  contemporary.  K.  Nahman.  had  ex- 
pres.sed  himself  disresp<-(t  fully  of  a  misajijilied  opin- 
ion of  K.  Johanan.  he  indiirnantly  exclaimed.  "Does 
Nahman  think  that  bccatise  he  is  the  son-in-law  of 
the  exilarch.  he  may  speak  dispurai.Mnjrly  of  R.  Jo- 
lianan's  opinions'/"  (Hul.  Ii4(().  In  Tiberias  lie 
becaniethe  ccnierof  a  lafL'!'  circlcof  learned  friends, 
amonii  whom  were  R.  Abliahu.  H.  Hanina  (Hineii.-i) 
b.  Pa]!])!.  K.  Isaac,  and  R.  Samuel  b.  Nahmani  CM. 
K.  17.(,  20.(  ;  Yeb.  4*);  but  the  clo.sest  and  m<ist 
enduring  frieiidslii])  existed  between  liim  ami  K. 
Hiyya  b.  Abba  and  R.  Assi  (I?er.  Ifw,  Yer,  Pes.  iii, 
Wh).  both  of  whom  were  Babylonian  imndirrants. 

Althouirh  H,  Ammi  had  been  in  Palestine  lonu'  bi'- 
fore  1{.  Assi,  they  were  both  orilained  at  the  sametime. 
and  received  a  warm  irreet  inn  from  tliestudents,  who 
.sanir,  "Such  men,  such  men  ordain  for  us!  Ordain  for 
us  not  those  who  use  words  like  'sermis'  and  'sermit, ' 
or  '  iicmis  '  and  '  tremis  '  "  (ICct.  ITr;,  Sanh.  14<(;see 
the  cxjdanation  of  these  expressions  in  Bacher, 
"Ag,  Pal.  Amor,"  ii,  145,  note  1;  Krauss,  "'Lelin- 
wortcr,"ii,  2T();  Jastrow,  "Diet."  p,  477;  idfiii,  " Fu- 
ture of  Talmudic  Texl.s."  p,  ir>).  which 

Tamar's      was  an  allusion  to  the  simple  language 

Lawsuit,  used  by  these  rabbis  as  contrasted  with 
the  ailmixtures  of  foreign  terms  em- 
ployed by  other  teachers.  These  two,  together  with 
R.  Hiyya,  constituted  a  court  of  justice,  the  admin- 
istration of  wliich  at  one  time  endangered  tlu'ir  lib- 
erty, if  not  their  lives.  Fora  certain  offense  they  had 
passed  a  severe  sentence  on  a  woman  named  Tamar, 
whereupon  she  preferred  charges  against  them  before 
the  proconsular  goverimient  for  inlerfering  with  the 
Roman  courts.  Fearing  the  conse(|uences  of  this 
denunciation  they  requested  R,  .\bbahu  to  exert  his 
influence  with  the  govermnent  in  their  belialf;  but 
he  had  anticipated  the  rei|uest,  and  nothing  more  was 
lieard  of  the  ease  (Yer.  Meg.  iii.  74^/).  Among  their 
Babylonian  contemporaries.  Ammi  and  Assi  were 
known  as  "the  Palestinian  judges."  or  as  "the  dis- 
tinguished i)riests  of  Palestine  "  ((Jit.  .WA.  Sanh,  17A), 
On  the  other  hand,  when  R.  .\mmi  (|Uoted  a  doctrine 
of  Rab  or  of  .Samuel,  he  introduced  it  with  the  ex- 
pression, "Our  masters  in  Babylonia  ssiy  "  (Sliebu. 
47a  ;  compare  Sanh.  I.e.).  Eventually  R.  Ammi  suc- 
ceeded to  the  rectorate  of  the  college  at  Tiberias 
(Hul.  134A);  but  that  did  not  prevent  liim  from  at- 
tending to  his  judicial  functions,  in  conjunction  with 


Assi.      Indeed,  it  is  reported  that  they  interrupted 
their  studies  hourly,  and,  rajiping  at  the  college  door, 
aunounccd  their  readiness  to  hear  causes  if  rccpiired 
(Shab,   lO(i),     They  woidd  offer  their 
Rector  at    prayers  in  the  college  building,  pro- 
Tiberias,     ferring  for  that  purjiose  the  spaces  be- 
tween  the   jiillars   to  all    the   thirteea 
.synagogues in  the  city  (Her.  S,(.  ;il)/;).     Besides  tilling 
tliese  ollices,  thi-y.  together  with  R.  Hiyya.  acted  a,s 
inspectors  and,   where  necessary,  as  organizers  of 
schools  for  children  and  for  adidts.     One  of  the  in- 
structions givi'u  by  Anuni  to  the  sclioolmasters  was 
to  accommodate  itinerant  scholars  in  the  schoolrooms 
(Yer.  jMcg.  iii.  74(0-     !'•  connection  with  one  of  the 
tours  of  inspection,  the  following  characteristic  anec- 
dote is  related: 

Tliey  eiinie  to  a  place  where  ttiere  were  nellhi'r  iiriniiiry 
scliiMiIs  fur  cliiltin'n  nor  iidvaiu-ed  sclmols  for  adults,  and  re- 
iiuested  ttiat  tile  jriianlliins  ef  the  ell.v  t)e  HiiniiiiiHiett.  When  the 
r<iuni*ilineii  apiM'ared  liefon'  them,  tile  nibbis  exehihned.  "Are 
these  the  ^'uiirdiaTis  iif  the  city  y  They  are  the  destniyersof  the 
city  I"  When  a.sked  who  were  tlie'  guardians,  ihey  re[>llc<i, 
"The  inslnictors  of  the  yoiintr  ami  the  masters  of  the  old;  for 
thus  the  Scripture  says  (I's.  c.xxvli.  li,  'Except  the  I.ord  keep 
ihi'  city,  the  uatchmun  wuketh  but  in  yaln'"  (Yer.  I.lair.  I.  Tlie, 
Mldr.  Teh.  on  (,c.i. 

Besides  their  familiarity  with  Halakah  and  Ilagga- 
dah,  Ammi  and  Assi  also  possessed  some  knowledge 
of  the  sciences  of  their  time.  They  prescribed  rem- 
edies in  cases  of  sickness  ('.\li,  Zarali,  2H((),  and 
studied  the  habits  of  animals  (Lev,  R.  xix.  \,  Midr. 
Sam,  v.).  Aluchastliey  valued  the  study  of  the  Law. 
Ihey  prized  jiious  deeds  still  higher.  Therefore  they 
and  U.  Iliyya  did  not  scruple  to  absent  themselves 
from  college  and  to  miss  a  lecture  by  R.  Kleazar, 
when  the  interment  of  a  stranger  required  their 
attention  (Yer.  Pes,  iii.  liOA) ;  and  when  once  a  con- 
siderable sum  of  money  was  jircsented  to  the  col- 
lege, Ammi  took  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  tlie 
poor,  among  whom  it  was  subseipiently  distributed 
(Mill,  184/'),  Once  R.  Ammi,  accompanied  by  R, 
Samuel  b.  Nahmani,  undertook  a  journey  to  the 
court  of  Zeiiobia.  (|Ueen  of  I'alniyra  ('Jli7-'J7:!),  to  in- 
tercede for  Zeir  b.  Hi'"'"''-  who  liad  been  seized  by 
her  orders,  Zenobia  refused  to  liberate  him,  remark- 
ing, "Your  God  is  accustomed  to  work  miracles  for 
you,"  when  a  Sanicen,  liearing  a  sword,  entered 
and  reported,  "  With  this  sword  has  Bar  Nazar  killed 
his  brother":  this  inci<lciit  saved  Zeir  b.  Hineiia 
(Yer.  Tcr.  viii.  4(}f>).  On  another  occasion  he  was 
ready  to  ransom  a  man  who  had  repeatedly  sold  him- 
self to  the  Ludi  (lanist;e.  ]irocurers  of  subjects  for 
gladiatorial  contests — Jastrow.  "Diet."  p.  (i'.t'i).  He 
argued  that  although  the  Mishnah  ((!it.  iv.  9)  ex- 
empted a  .lew  from  the  duty  of  ransoming  a  luan 
who  repeatedly  sells  himself  to  non-Israelites,  still  it 
was  his  duty  to  ransom  the  chihlrcn  (to  save  them 
from  sinking  into  idolatryl;  so  much  the  greater  was 
this  oliligation  in  a  case  where  violent  death  was  im- 
minent. .\mmi's  coUi'agues.  however,  convinced 
him  that  the  ap|)licaiit  for  his  jirotection  was  totally 
unworthy  of  his  compassion,  and  he  finally  refused 
to  interfere  (Git.  4(i//  rl  xeq.). 

R.  Ammi  and  R.  Assi  are  very  frequently  cited  in 
both  Talmuds  and  in  the  Midrashim.  and  often  to- 
gether, cither  as  being  of  the  sjime  ojiinion  or  as  op- 
posed  to  each  other.     Owing  to  this 

R.  Ammi  circumstance,  the  same  doctrines  are 
as  (pioted  sometimes  in  the  name  of  one 

Exegete.  and  sometimes  in  that  of  the  other 
(compare Ber.  9/);  Pes.  119rt;  Siik.  Sin; 
Ta'anit,  Sii;  Suk.  44//;  M,  K, :«),  The  same  uncer- 
tainty manifests  itself  even  where  the  reporter  had 
probablv  received  the  tradition  directly  from  one  of 
them  (Hul,  844;  Ber,  20b;  Sotah,  44;  (3it,  7a), 


523 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ammi 
Amiuon 


Following  are  some  spcciinriis  of  R.  Ammi'sfX- 
cgetics:  Commenting  on  Lam.  iii.  41,  "Let  us  lift 
up  our  heart  with  our  hands  unto  Goil  in  the 
heavens,"  he  observes,  "No  man's  prayer  is  heard 
of  heaven,  unle.ss  he  earry  his  soul  in  the  hands 
which  he  rai-ses  in  jirayiT. "  "The  prayer  for  rain  is 
granted  only  for  tlie  sake  of  the  men  of  faith."  In 
support  of  this  remark,  Aninii,  by  means  of  an  ex- 
C'getical  substitution  of  synonymous  Ileljrew  words, 
quotes  the  verse  (Ps.  Ix.x.xv.  11),  "When  Faith 
springeth  forth  from  the  earth.  IJenefieence  looketh 
down  from  heaven  "  (Ta'anit,  H'().  1"  Moses'  desig- 
nation of  Israelas"aslin-neeked  people"  (Ex.  xxxiv. 
9).  Ammi  s<'es  not  so  mueh  a  reproach  as  a  praise  of 
its  lirnuiess  in  religion,  even  in  the  face  of  persecu- 
tion: "The  Jew  woidd  either  live  as  a  Jew  or  die 
on  the  cross"  (Ex.  H.  xlii.).  According  to  H.  Anmn, 
death  is  the  eonsecpienee  of  sin.  and  sulTering  the 
penalty  of  wrongdoing;  the  first  observation  he  de- 
rives from  the  Scriptural  saying  (Hzek.  xviii.  4),"  The 
soul  that  sinnetli,  it  shall  <lie";  lh<'  second  from  Ps. 
Ixxxix.  ■i'.i.  "I  will  visit  their  transgressions  with  the 
rod  (of  chastisement),  and  theiriuiquity  with  stripes" 
(Shab.  .■>.)'(.  Eccl.  H.  on  v.  4). 

Bnu.iiioRAPnv:  Gratz,  (ieKch.  d.  Juden.  'M  eel..  Iv.  ™«t  :inT; 
Kniiiki-I,  Milin.  p.  I%ia ;  Weiss,  Dur,  Ul.  UB ;  Baelier,  An-  Pal. 
.ijiir.)-.  11.  u;t  173.  g    y^ 

AMMIANXJS  MAKCELLINUS  :  Roman  bis 
torian.  horn  at  AntiiK  li.  Syria,  about  :i','il;  dieilaliout 
39.5,  He  wrote  a  history  of  Home,  from  Nerva  to 
Valens.  in  which  the  Jews  are  mentionid  in  Books 
XIV.  ch.  viii.  ;  XXII.  eh.  V.  ;  XXIII.  ch.  i.  ;  XXIV. 
ch.  iv.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  from  the  pas- 
sjige  xxii.  '),  S;^  4.  .").  the  legend  of  the  "  f<etor  judai- 
ous  "  or  evil  smell  of  the  .lews  which  was  so  widely 
believed  in  during  the  Middle  Ag<'s,  took  its  origin, 
Heinach  docs  not  share  the  view  of  Joel  ("Blicke  in 
die  IJeligion.sgeschichte,"  ii.  Kil)  and  Loeb  ("Hev. 
fit.  Juives,"  XX.  53)  that  the  word  "fo'tentium"  is 
a  mistake  of  a  copyist  for  "petentium."  In  xxiii. 
1,  jis;  2.  3.  we  have  the  only  pagan  account  of  the  mi- 
successfid  attempt  of  the  Jews  under  the  cmjieror 
Julian  to  rebuild  the  Temjile;  all  the  other  authori- 
ties biini:  church  fathers  (.M.  Adhf,  in  "Jew.  Quart. 
Rev."  V.  (ilT). 

Bini.KicRAPiiv:  Tt).  Ilelnaih.  Terlrs  il' Antrurn  GircKi-t  lin- 
//enii.«  III  liilifs  loi  Jwlil^mic,  pp.  Kl-^Vi,  Purls,  ISfli). 

II.  K.— O. 

AMMIELi"  Kl  is  My  Kinsman."  or  "My  Kinsman 
is  (tod  ";  compare  Em.\m):  A  iiatneof  the  following 
persons  in  the  Old  Testament:  1.  A  Danitc  (Num. 
xiii.  12).  2.  Father  of  Macliir,  of  Lodebar  (II  Sam. 
ix.  4  rl  »■'/..  -xvii.  27).  3.  Father  of  David's  wife. 
IJalhsheba  ("  liathshua  ")  (I  Cliron.  iii.  .");  compare 
11  Sam,  xi.  lit.  4.  .\  <loorkceper  ( I  Chron.  x\vi.  ,")). 
For  the  meaning  of  the  element  Aninii,  compare 
names  Abi-el,  [AJhi-cI,  Eliam/Ammi-baiil ;  aiul  see 
'Amm.  .\mmi.  C.  C.  T. 

AMMIHTTD  :  1.  Falherof  Elishama.the  chiif  of 
Ephraiiii  in  llie  second  year  after  tile  ivxodus  (Num. 
i.  10,  ii.  IH);  appears  also  in  the  gen<alogical  list  of 
Epiiraim  (I  Chron.  vii.  2li).  2.  Father  of  Shemuel. 
who  was  to  repri'seiit  th<'  tribe  of  Simeon  in  the  di- 
vision of  the  lanil  and  assist  FJea^ar  anil  Joshua  in 
the  work  (Num.  xxxiv.  2(1).  3.  Father  of  I'edahel, 
the  repres<nlative  of  Napbtali  undir  the  same  <  ir- 
nimstances  as  till'  father  of  .slieniuil  (Num.  xxxiv. 
2H).  4.  Falherof  Talmai.  the  king  of  Oeshur,  falluT- 
inlawof  King  David,  with  whom  Abstilom  look  ref- 
uge after  he  had  killed  .\miion  (II  Sam.  xiii  H7).  The 
variant  reading  heri'  is  .\nimihnr.  6.  Son  of  Omri, 
a  Judean  living  in  J<rnsidi-m  (I  Chron.  ix.  4). 

O.  B.  L. 


AMMIHTJB.     See  Ammiiui)  (4). 

AMMINADAB  ("My  Kinsman  Has  Given 
Freely";  compare  the  n:imes  Abi-nadah,  Ahi-nadab, 
Jeho-naclati.  and  Kammush-nadab.  See  also  Schra- 
der,  "Cuneiform  Inscriptions  and  the  Olil  Testa- 
ment," p.  2H1 ;  and  see  'Amm,  ■A.mmi):  1.  The  father 
of  Aaron's  wife  Klisheba  (Ex.  vi.  2;i)  and  of  Nah- 
shon,  the  "head  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  "  (Num.  i.  7,  ii. 
;i).  Al.so  tin-  nanie  of  Certain  Levitcs  (I  Chron.  vi. 
7,  XV.  Kl).  2.  The  name  of  a  king  of  the  Ammonites 
in  the  lime  of  Ashurbauipal  (Delitzsch,  "Wo  Lag 
das  Paradies';"  p.  294).  C.  C.  T. 

AMMISHADDAI  ("Shaddai  is  My  Kinsman"; 
(■(jrnp.uc  Sii.MMi.M.  ami  the  names  Zurishaildai.  She- 
diur.  and  perhaps  Absadai  [I.idzbarski.  "llandbucU 
der  Nordsrni.  Kpigraphik."  ji.  2(Hi|;  akso  A.M.MI-KI,, 
Ammi  liaal.  etc.  See  '.VMM,  'A.MMI):  Name  of  the 
father  of  the  Danite  Ahiezer,  in  Num.  i.  12.  ii.  25, 
etc.  Gray.  "  Hebrew  Proper  Names,"  pp.  1!)4  et  seq., 
24."),  pronounces  the  name  a  late  and  artificial  forma- 
tion. C.  C.  T. 

AMMON,  AMMONITES.— Biblical  Data  :  A 

nation  in  eastern   Palestine.    As  to  their  origin  from 

Lot,  compare  Gen.  xix.  M8.  in  which 

Derivation  "  Uen  ammi"  (son  of  my  iiaternal  uncle; 

and  Rela-    that  is,  of  my  nearest  relative)  is  jiaro- 

tionship.     nomasia.  not  etymology.    It  is  possible 

that  Amnion  is  derived  from  the  name 

of  a  tribal  divinity. 

According  to  the  ]iedigree  given  in  Gen.  xix.  37-38, 
the  .\ninionites  were  nearly  related  to  the  Israelites 
and  still  more  closely  to  their  neighbors  in  thi'  south, 
the  Moaliites.  This  is  fully  confirmed  by  the  fact 
that  all  names  of  Ammonitish  persons  show  a  pure 
Canaanitish  character.  Hut  the  above  passage  indi- 
cates also  the  contemjit  and  hatreil  for  the  Ammonites 
felt  by  the  Hebrews  (Deut.  xxiii.  4).  even  to  thei'X- 
clusion  of  their  progeny  from  the  assembly  of  the 
Lord  (contrast  Deut.  ii.  19.  37.  in  which  the  cou- 
sciousness  of  relationship  seems  to  be  at  the  root  of 
the  regard  shown  to  Amnion). 

The  borders  of  the  Ammonite  territory  are  not 
clearly  delined  in  the  Bible.  In  Judges,  xi.  13,  the 
claimOf  the  king  of  Amnion,  who  <leniands  of  the 
Israelites  the  restoration  of  the  land  "from  Amon 
even  unto  .labbok  and  unto  Jordan."  is  menlioned 
only  as  an  unjust  claim  (xi.  l.'il.  inasmuch  as  the  Is- 
raeiitish  part  of  this  tract  had  been  coinniereil  from 
the  Amoriles  whom  the  Moabiles  hail,  in  part,  pre- 
cedeil;  while  ill  Judges,  xi.  22  it  is  stated  thai  Ihe 
Israelites  lia<l  iios.session  "from  the  wildernes.s  even 
unto  .lordan,"  and  thai  lliey  laid  a  claim  lo  li'rrilory 
lievond  this,  so  as  to  leave  no  room  for  Amnion. 
Num.  xxi.  24  (h'scribes  the  Helirew  coni|uest  (com- 
pare .ludges.  xi.  lit)  as  having  reached  "even  unto 
the  I  bi Id ren  of  Amnion,  for  the  border  ot  the  child ri'n 
of  .\mnion  was  Jazer"  (read  tlu'  last  word,  with 
Septuagint,  as  "Jazer,"  instead  of  "'a/.,"  strong, 
A.  V.  ;  comiiare  Judges,  xi.  32).  Josh.  xiii.  25.  de- 
lines  the  frontier  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  asbeing  "Jazer 
.  .  .  and  half  the  land  of  the  iliildren  of  .\nimon." 
The  latter  stalenn'iil  can  be  ricon<iled  with  Num. 
xxi.  24  (Deut.  ii.  19.  37)  only  by  assuming  that  the 
northern  part  of  Sihon's  Amorile  kingdom  had  for 
mi  riv  been  .\ninionite.  This  exjdains.  in  pari,  the 
claim  mentioned  above  (Judges,  xi.  131.  According 
111  Deiil.  ii.  37,  llie  region  along  the  river  Jalibok  and 
the  cities  of  the  hill  country  formed  the  honler-line 
of  Isniel. 

In  Judges,  xi.  83,  n  portion  of  tlip  land  of  Amnion 
is  menliiined.  It  extended  from  Aroer  to  Minnilh, 
including  twenty  cities,    and    must  have   been   an 


Ammon 

Amnon  of  Mayence 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


524: 


extremely  narrow  strip  of  Inud,  comprising  only  the 
uortheustern  (iimrter  of  the  re<;ion  eiilled.  at  pres- 
ent, El-Helkii.  Aceoriling  to  llie  Moiilnle  stone,  the 
soutlieaslern  i|UiirIer,  attributed  by  many  scholars 
to  Amnion,  could  not  have  belonged  to  it;  and  noth- 
ing is  known  concerning  an  extension  north  of  the 
Jabbok  river.  The  village  of  the  Ammonites  (or  ac- 
cording to  the  Kfi'i,  Ainmonitess).  Josh,  xviii.  24, 
in  ISenjaniin.  does  not  point  to  former  pos.ses.sions 
west  of  Jordan.  On  ilie  aulhorily  of  Dent.  ii.  20. 
their  territory  had  formerly  been  in  the  i)ossession  of 
a  mysterious  nation,  the  Z.wzimmim  (also  called 
Zu/.im).  and  the  war  of  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv.  5) 
with  these  may  be  connected  with  the  history  of 
Ammon.  When  the  Israelites  invade<l  Canaan,  they 
passed  bv  the  frontier  of  the  Ammonites  (Num.  xxi. 
24;  Deuf.  ii.  Ut.  :iT;  Josh.  xiii.  20). 

Sometimes  a  slight  distinction  only  seems  to  be  made 
between  the  Annnonites  and  theirsonthern  brothers, 
the  Moabites.  Deut.  xxiii.  4,  5,  for  instance,  states 
that  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites  liired  Balaam  to 
curse  the  Isi-aelites,  while  in  Num.  xxii.  'Artniq.  Moab 
alone  is  mentioned.  Some  authorities 
Ammonites  overcome  this  discrepancy  by  the  help 
and  of  the  emended  text  of  Num.  xxii.  5, 

moabites.  according  to  whicli  I'alaamcame"  from 
the  land  of  the  cliildren  of  Ammon." 
This  is  the  reading  of  most  ancient  versions;  the 
Septuagint,  however,  has  it  like  the  present  Hebrew 
text:  "the  children  of  his  people"  ("ammo")  (see 
Bai..\am).  In  Judges,  iii.  13,  the  Ammonites  appear 
as  furnishing  assistance  to  Eglon  of  Moab  against 
Israel;  but  in  Judges,  x.  7,  8,  i»,  in  which  not  only 
Gilead  is  oppressed  but  a  victorious  war  is  waged 
also  west  of  the  Jordan,  Anunon  alone  is  mentioned. 
The  speech  of  Jephthah  which  follows,  however, 
is  dearly  addressed  to  the  Moabites  as  well,  for  he 
speaks  of  their  god  Chemosh  (Judges,  xi.  18-24). 
Some  scholars  find  that  these  varying  statements 
conflict  (compare  Deut.  xxiii.  3) ;  others  conclude 
that  the  brother-nations  still  formed  a  unit.  The 
small  nation  of  Anunon  could  face  Israel  only  in  alli- 
ance with  other  non-Israelites  (compare  II  Chron. 
XX.  and  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  7).  The  attack  of  King  Nahash 
upon  the  frontier  city  Jabesh  in  Gilead  was  easily 
repulsed  by  Saul  (I  Sam.  xi.,  xiv.  47).  From  II  Sam. 
X.  2.  it  may  be  concluded  that  Nahash  assisted  David 
out  of  hatred  for  Saul ;  but  his  son  Ilanun  provoked 
David  by  ill-treating  his  amliassadors.  and  brought 
about  thedefeat  of  the  Ammonites,  despite  assistance 
from  their  northern  neighbor  (//;«/.  X.  13).  Theircap- 
ilal  Uabliah  was  captured  {if>i<l.  ■  ii.  2!)),  and  nimier- 
ous  cajitives  were  taken  from  "all  the  cities  of  the 
cliililren  of  Ammon."  David's  treatment  of  the  cap- 
tives((V'/(/.  xii.  31)  was  not  necessarily  barbarous;  the 
description  may  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  he  em- 
ployed them  as  laborers  in  various  p\ibUc  works.  The 
Chronicler,  however,  takes  it  in  the  most  cruel  .sense  (I 
Chron.  xx.  3).  Yet  David  couhl  not  have  exceeded  the 
savagery  cu.stomary  in  ancient  ( )rienlal  warfare;  the 
Ammonites,  themselves,  for  instance,  were  exceed- 
ingly cruel  (I  Sam.  xi.  2 ;  Amos,  i.  13).  The  new  king, 
Shobi,  a  brother  of  Ilanun,  evidently  appointed  by 
David,  kept  peace,  his  attitude  being  even  friendly 
(II  Sam.  xvii.  27).  There  were  Ani- 
Ammonite    monite  warriors  in  David's  army  (ibid. 

■Warriors  23.  27)  and  Solomon's  chief  wife,  the 
in  David's  mother  of  his  heir,  was  Naamah.  the 
Army.  Ammonitess  (I  Kings,  xiv.  21;  com- 
jiare  xi.  1).  probably  a  daughter  of 
Shobi.  After  this,  hostilities  again  broke  o>it.  imder 
Jehoshaphat  (II  Chron.  xx.),  imder  Jeroboam  II. 
(Amos,  i.  13)  and  under  Jotham.  who  subjected  the 
Ammonites  (II  Ciu-on.  xxvii.  .■)). 


According  to  the  As,syrian  inscri])tiims  under  Baa- 
sha  (Hebrew,  Ba'sha),  the  son  of  liukhubi  (Hehob), 
they  had  to  send  auxiliaries  to  the  jiowerfiil  king 
Birhidri  (Benhadad)  of  Damascus  to  aid  him  in  his 
war  against  Shalmane.ser  II.  The  following  kings 
paid  tribute  to  the  Assyrians:  Sanipu  (or  "Sanibu" 
of  Bit-Ammann;  "bit,"  house,  has  either  the  sense 
of  "  reign  "  or  "  kingdom,"  or  is  added  after  the 
analogy  of  "Bit-kl.iumri" — house  of  Oniri — for  Is- 
rael, etc.)  toTiglalh  liileserlll.  ;  I'uduilu  to  Sennach- 
erib and  As,sarliaddon;  Ammi  nadbi  to  Assurban- 
ipal.  An  As.syriau  tribute-list,  showing  that  Anunon 
paid  one-fifth  of  Judah's  tribute,  gives  evidence  of 
the  scanty  extent  anil  resource's  of  thecoimtry  (see 
Schrader.  "  K.  A.T."  ])p.  141 1/  wq. ;  Delitzsch.  "Para- 
dies."  p.  294;  Winckler, "(Jesehichte  Israels, "  p.  215). 
In  the  time  of  Nebuchadnez/.ar,  the  Annnonites 
seem  to  have  been  fickle  in  their  political  altiludc. 
Thev  assisted  the  Babylonian  army  ai;ainsl  I  he  Jews 
(II  kings,  xxiv.  2);  eneroaehed  upon  the  territory' 
of  Gad;  and  occupied  lleshbon  and  Jazer  (Jer.  xlix. 
1;  I  Mace.  v.  6-8;  compare  Zeph.  ii.  »);  but  the  pro- 
phetic threatenings  in  Jer.  ix.  2(i.  xxv.  21,  xxvii.  3, 
and  Ezra.  xxi.  20,  point  to  reljellion  by  them  against 
Babylonian  supremacy.  They  received  Jews  fieeing 
before  the  Babylonians  (Jer.  xl.  II),  and  their  king, 
Baalis.  instigated  the  murder  of  Gedaliah.  the  first 
Babyloiuan  governor  {i/n'il.  xl.  14,  xli.  lo).  At  the 
time  of  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  they  were  hos- 
tile to  the  Jews,  and  Toliiah,  an  Annnonite.  incited 
them  to  hinder  the  work  (Neh.  iii.  3,5).  Bvit  int«'r- 
marriages  between  Jews  and  Annnonites  were  fre- 
quent (Ezra.  ix.  1 ;  I  Esd.  viii.  (i!».  and  elsewhere).  It 
is  stated  (I  Mace.  v.  G)  thai  the  .\nmionites  muh'r 
Timotheus  were  defi'aled  liy  Judas;  but  it  is  prob- 
able that,  after  the  <'xile.  the  term  Anunonile  denoted 
all  Arabs  livingiu  the  former  country  of  .\nimon  and 
Gad.  Ezek.  xxv.  4-.')  seems  to  mark  the  beginning 
of  an  Arab  immigration,  which  is  testified  to  by  Neh. 
ii.  19.  iv.  7.  and  is  described  by  Josephus  as  com- 
pleted ("Ant."  xiii.  9.  t;  1). 

Of  the  customs,  religion,  and  constitution  of  the 
Ammonites,  little  is  known.  The  frequent  assump- 
tion that,  living  on  the  borders  of  the  desert,  they 
remained  more  pastoral  than  the  Moabites  and  Is- 
raelites, is  unfounded  (Ezek.  xxv.  4.  II  Chron.  xxvii. 
5) ;  the  environs  of  H.\iin.\  (later  Piiii,.\nKi.piii.\).  at 
least,  were  fertile  and  were  tilled.     In  regard  to  other 

cities  than  Kabba,  se(^  Judges,  xi.  33; 

Milcom       II    Sam.  xii.   31.      Of  their  gods  the 

Their  Chief  name  of  only  the  chief  deily.  Milcora 

Deity.        — evidently    a    form    of    Moloch — is 

known  (I "Kings,  xi.  5  [LXX.  7].  33; 
I  Kings,  xi.  7;  II  Kings,  xxiii.  13).  In  Jer.  xlix.  1,  3, 
"  ilalcam  "'  is  to  be  translated  by  "  Milcom  "  (the  god) 
and  not  as  in  A.  'V..  "their  king."  W.  M.   >I. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:  The  .\mmonitcs, 

still  numerousin  the  south  of  Pulrstine  in  the  second 
Christian  century  according  to  Justin  ^Martyr  ("  I)ia- 
loguseuin  Tryjiiione."  eh.  cxix),  presented  a  serious 
problem  to  the  Phari.saic  scribes  because  of  the  fact 
that  many  marriages  with  Anunonile  and  Moabite 
wives  had  taken  place  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah  (Xeh. 
xiii.  23).  Still  later,  it  is  not  improbable  that  when 
Judas  ^Maccabeus  had  inflicted  a  crushing  (h-feat  upon 
the   Ammonites.   Jewish   warriors   took  Annnonite 

women  as  wives,  and  their  sons,  sword 

Ammonites  in  hand,  claimed  recognition  as  Jews 

and  Jews     notwithstandingtIielawlDiut.  xxiii. 4) 

Intermarry,  that  "an  Ammonite  or  a  iloabite  shall 

not  enter  into  the  congregation  of  the 
Lord."  Such  a  condition  or  a  similar  incident  is  re- 
flected in  the  story  told  in  the  Talmud  (Yeb.  70A, 
77'( ;  Ruth  Ii.  to  ii."  !>)  that  in  the  days  of  King  .Saul 


525 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ammon 

Aznnon  of  Mayence 


tlif  Icgitiimicy  "f  David's  cluim  t(i  royalty  was  (lis- 
putc'd  on  account  of  his  descent  from  Kutli,  tlie 
Moabitc;  whcniipon  Itlira,  the  Ismelite  (II  Sam. 
xvii.  2i5;  compare  I  Chron,  ii.  17),  girt  witli  liis  sword, 
strode  like  an  Ishmaelite  into  tlie  schoolhouse  of 
Jesse,  declarini;  upon  llie  autliority  of  Samuel,  the 
propliet,  and  his  bet  din  (court  of  justice),  that  the  law 
<'Xcluilinjr  the  Ammonite  and  Moabite  from  tlie  Jew- 
ish  congregation  referred  only  to  the  men — who 
alone  had  sinned  in  not  meeting  Israel  with  bread 
and  water — anil  not  to  the  women.  The  story  re- 
flects actual  conditions  in  pre  Talmuilic  times,  con- 
ditions that  led  to  the  ti.xed  rule  staled  in  the  .Mislinah 


was  accomplished  in  the  course  of  a  shee|)shearing 
feast,  given  by  Absalom  to  all  the  kings  sons  {ih. 
23-29 ('<  wq.)  two  years  after  the  commission  of  Am- 
non's  offense.  J.  F.  McC. 

In   Rabbinical   Liiterattire :    The    sages    of 

the  Mishnah  iioint  out  that  Amnnn's  love  for  Tamar, 
his  half  sister,  did  not  arise  from  true  afTection,  but 
from  passion  and  lust,  on  which  account,  after 
having  attaiueil  his  desire,  he  immediately  "hated 
her  exceedingly."  "AH  love  which  depends  upon 
some  particular  thing  ceases  when  that  thing  ceases; 
thus  was  the  love  of  Amnon  for  Tamar  "  ( Ab.  v.  16). 
Anmon's  love  for  Tamar  was  not,  however,  such  a 


Gknkral  View  or  tbk  Euins 

(From  R  pLotuKTi 

(Yeb.  viii.  3):  "Ammonite  and  Moabite  men  are  ex- 
clud<'d  from  the  Jewish  comnumity  for  all  time;  their 
woTuen  are  admissible." 

The  fact  that  Heholioam.  the  son  of  King  Solo- 
mon, was  born  of  an  Anuiionile  woman  (I  Kings,  xiv. 
21-;tl )  also  made  it  dillicult  to  maintain  the  M(s.sianic 
claims  of  the  house  of  David  ;  but  it  was  ailducedas 
an  illuslnition  of  divine  Providence  which  .selected 
the  "two  doves,"  Hulh.  the  ^loabile.  and  Niuimah. 
the  Ammonitess,  for  lionond)le  distinction  (H.  K. 
yW).  K. 

AMNON  ("Slendfa-st"):  1.  The  eldest  son  of 
David  and  .\hinoam.  Ilic>  Jezreelitess  (II  Sam.  iii.  2). 
As  heir  preswniplive  to  the  throne  he  was  an  object 
of  envy  anil  dislike  to  AnsM.o.M.  The  dishonor  done 
by  Aiinion  to  his  half  sister  Tamar — the  full  sisti'rof 
Absalom  (II  Sam.  xiii.  1  it  «•</.) — inlensitied  these 
feelings  and  gave  the  younger  brother  a  plausible 
justitlcation  for  the  murder  of  the  olleuder,  w  hicb 


OF  THE  Roman  theater  at  Amuon. 

>pll  by  IkinHIi.) 

transgression  as  is  usually  supposed:  for.  although 
she  was  a  daughter  of  David,  her  mother  was  a 
prisoner  of  war,  wiio  had  not  yet  become  a  Jewess; 
ei>nsei|Uently,  Taniaralso  had  not  entered  the  Jewish 
community  (Sanli.  21i().  The  incident  of  Anmonand 
Tamar  was  utilized  by  ihesagesasafTording  ju.stiliea- 
tion  for  their  rule  that  a  man  mu.st  on  no  account  re- 
main alone  in  I  he  company  of  a  woman,  not  even  of  an 
unmarried  one  (Sanh.  I.r.  it  «(/.).  L.   G. 

2.  A  son  of  Shimon,  mentioned  in  I  Chron.  iv.  20. 

J.   F.   McC. 

AMNON  OF  MAYENCE  (MENTZ) :  Subject 
of  a  iMi'dii'val  liL'iiid  llial  b>  raihc  viry  popular.  It 
treats  of  I{.  .\nuion.  a  wealthy  and  respected  Jew  of 
Mayence,  whom  the  archbishop  of  Mayence,  at  vari- 
ous limes,  tried  to  convert  to  Christianity.  On  one 
occasion  .Vmnon  evasively  a.sked  to  be  given  three 
days'  lime  for  consideration.  When  he  failed  to 
appear  ou  the  appointed  day,  the  archbishop  had 


Amolo 
Amora 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


526 


him  hroiiKlit  jruiinled  into  his  presence.  Amnnn. 
rebuked  for  his  hiihirc  lo  keep  his  promise,  pleaded 
guilty,  and  siiid  Hint  his  tomjue  should  be  cut  out, 
beeavise  it  hud  express<Ml  a  doubt  as  to  llie  truth  of 
Judaism.  The  arelibishop.  liowever,  pronounced 
the  sentence  that  Aninon's  feet,  which  had  refused 
to  come,  and  his  hands  should  be  cut  off.  This  was 
accordingly  done. 

Auuion  frave  orders  that  he  he  carried  into  the 
synaiiojiuc.  where  New-year's  day  was  beiiifr  cele- 
brated. Tile  reader  was  about  to  besrin  the  Kedu- 
shah.  when  lie  was  asked  by  Amnou  to  wait.  The 
latter  then  ri'cited  the  pniyer  called,  from  its  initial 
wonls,"U-uetanneh  Tokef."  which  isadcscriplion  of 
the  Day  of  Judgment.  No  80(mer  had  he  finished 
the  prayer  than  he  expired;  and  his  body  imme- 
diately disjipiieared.  Three  days  later  he  ajipeared 
to  R.  kalonymus  in  a  dream.  taui;ht  him  the  prayer, 
and  asked  hiiii  to  spread  it  broadcast  in  Isnirl. 

The  oldest  mention  ot  this  story  seems  to  be  found 
in  the  notes  on  Asheri.  written  by  Israel  of  Krems 
or  Kremsier.  about  1400  (I{.  H.  i.  ^4.  in  theWilna 
edition  of  the  Talmud,  folio  Si'ui).  Israel  of  Krems 
merely  says:  The  "U-netanneh  Toljef  "  was  written 
by  Amiion  of  Mayeiice  with  reference  to  his  own 
history,  lie  scives  Isaac  of  Vienna's  work.  "Or  Za- 
ru'a."  as  his  source.  The  story,  as  given  above,  is 
found  in  the  !Miil.i/orof  the  Koiiian  rite  for  the  New- 
year's  day.  published  l.")41.  From  it  Oedaliah  ibn 
Yahya  took  it ;  and  the  other  historians  followed  him. 
The  .Mahzor  editions  reprinted  it ;  and  so  the  story  be- 
came very  popular.  The  Russian  poet  S.  Fnig  took 
it  as  the  subject  ot  an  epic:  and  Schakschansk}- 
wove  it  into  a  drama  in  Judaii-German. 

The  story  is  a  legend  without  any  historical  value, 
based  on  the  reminiscences  of  the  jiersecutions  dur- 
ing the  Crusades,  and  iusjiired  by  the  veneration  for 
the"  U-netanneh  Tokef."  which,  in  vivid  colors,  pic- 
tures the  divine  judgment  on  New-year's  day. 

The  material  of  the  story  is  taken  partly  from  the 
legend  of  St.  Emmeram  of  Regensburg  (see  Amb.vm 
OF  JI-WenceV  who.  having  been  accused  by  Uta, 
daughter  ofThedo.  Duke  of  Bavaria,  of  being  her  se- 
ducer, was  tied  lo  a  ladder,  where  his  limbs  were  cut 
off,  one  by  one.  He  was  then  brouglit  to  the  castle 
of  Aschhcim.  where  he  expired  praying  and  blessing 
his  murderers  ("  Acta  Sanctorum,"  September  series, 
vi.  474). 

BiBi.iOGRAPHT :  Hellprin,  Seder  Iw-Dornt.  ed.  Masldllejtan,  p. 
21H,  where  okler  soaroes  are  quoted  ;  Fteidentieim's  edition  of 
the  Mohzor^  introfliictiou.  when*  »n  alphat)etieal  index  of  the 
linirpieal  poets  is  jriveri ;  Landshuth,  'Aminude  ha-'Alnidahy 
lS.5r,  i.  4.5.  jy 

AMOLO,  BISHOP  OF  LYONS.     See  A>rrLO. 

AMON  (according  to  Brugsch,  "the  Hidden 
One  ") :  An  Egyptian  god,  whose  name  occurs  in 
Jer,  xlvi.  25  ("  Amon  of  No,"  R.  V.)  and  in  Nahum. 
iii.  8  (No-Amon).  He  was  originally  only  the  local 
divinity  of  Thebes;  but  on  the  accession  of  the 
eighteenth  dyna.sty,  became  the  supreme  ruler  of  the 
Egyptian  pantheon,  and  official  god  of  the  empire. 
In  this  role  the  name  continues  to  appear  even  in  the 
titles  of  some  of  the  Ptolemies.  The  Libj-ans  and 
Ethiopians  accepted  Amon  as  their  highest  divinity  ; 
and  the  Greeks  identified  him  with  Zeu.s.  When  rep- 
resented in  human  form,  he  was  commonly  given  a 
blue  skin  and  a  head-dress  of  feathers,  similar  to  that 
of  Min  of  Coptos.  PYequently,  however,  he  was  por- 
trayed with  the  head  of  his  sacred  animal,  the  ram. 

The  earliest  vocalization  of  his  name — it  does  not 
admit  of  any  certain  etymology — is  found  in  the  El- 
Amarna  tablets,  viz.,  "  Amanu"  (compare  the  Ethi- 
opian pronunciation,  "  Amen  ").  Later  the  name  was 
pronounced  "Amon,"  and  stiU  later  "Amun,"  or, 


without  the  accent  {inihc  ntntiixeoiititriirliiii)."  \\m-n." 
The  Greeks,  following  a  popular  pmnuncialion, 
doubled  the  "  ni "  =  "  Ammon."    Identified  with  the 


Bas-relief  showing  Anion.  Euyptlan  Ood. 

(From  StvlndorS,  *'  BlflUuU  dffl  PhBr«oiieureichw.") 

sun  (Tie'),  like  most  Egyptian  gods,  he  is  also  fre- 
quently called  Amen-re'.  W.  M.  M. 

[Hrugsch's  etymology  of  Amon  (".Egyplische 
Religion."  p.  8T)  compares  with  JIDK.  nD130  pDK 
yjVIO  ("  the  Hidden  Amon  ")  in  Gen.  R.  i.  and  p.seiido- 
Justin.  "Cohort  at  load  Gnecos,"  p.  37: — "  Ammonera 
qui  deum  occultissiraum  vocat."  K.] 

AMOIT  :  1.  Governor  of  Samaria  during  the  reign 
of  .\liab  (I  Kings,  xxii.  iti:  II  Cliron.  xviii.  '2'>).  To 
him  Aliab  handed  over  Micaiah,  the  i)rophet.  on  his 
prophesying  unfavorably  to  the  king.  2.  The 
"children  of  Amon  "  are  mentioned  in  the  long  list 
of  those  who  returned  from  Babylon  under  Zerub- 
babel  (Neh.  vii,  59).  G.  B.  L. 

AMON,  KING  OF  JUDAH.-Biblical  Data: 

The  Bililiial  accounts  of  Anion  ate  foiiiiil  in  11  Kings, 
xxi.  l>i-2>i  and  in  II  Chron.  xxxiii.  20-2'):  and  he  is 
mentioned  in  I  Chron.  iii.  14  among  the  descendants 
of  King  David.  Elsewhere  he  is  spoken  of  merely 
as  the  father  of  Josiali.  He  was  tlieson  of  King  Ma- 
nasseh  and  of  Meshullemeth,  daughter  of  Haruz  of 
Jotbah,  andat  the  age  of  twenty-two  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  Manasseh.  His  short  reign  of 
two  years  (about  640-638  li.c.)  seems  to  have  been 
chiefly  remarkable  for  his  repetition  of  the  idolatrous 
practises  of  his  father.  In  fact,  according  to  the  ac- 
count in  Chronicles,  Amon  was  worse  than  his  father; 
for  Manasseh  repented  of  his  idolatry  (II  Chron. 
xxxiii.  12),  but  Amon  "humbled  not  himself  before 
the  Lord,  as  Manasseh,  his  father,  had  humbled  him- 
self "  (II  Chron.  xxxiii.  23).  but  sacrificed  to  all  the 
graven  images  that  his  father  had  made.     He  was 


527 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amolo 
Amora 


assjissinatfd  in  his  palace  by  a  band  of  conspira- 
tors composed  of  his  own  servants;  but  tlie  peoph' 
avenKcil  his  death  l)y  slayinic  the  conspirators  and 
imttini;  tlie  liinir'sson,  .losiah,  on  the  throne.  Anion 
was  buried  in  the  pirdeii  of  I'/./.a.  wliere  his  father 
liad  been  buried  Itefore  liini  (II  Kings,  xxi.  IH). 

C.  J.  M. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature :  The  fact  tliat  Amon 

was  tlie  most  sinful  of  all  the  wicked  kings  of  .Tudah 
{II  ChroM.  xxxiii.  'i'.i)  is  brought  out  in  the  Talmud 
(Sanh.  lli;W)as  follows: 

Almz  sns)ienii)*tl  the  siuTlllfial  worsliip.  Mannsseli  tore  down 
tlleultnr.  Annul  liiiule  It  il  pliii-e  cif  (lescpliitli)n  |rcivered  It  witll 
cdliwi-lisl  ;  Almz  wiiIihI  up  llii- sctiiIIs  ut  the  I.uw  I  Isa.  vlll.  Hi), 
Manassch  cnl  iiui  ihf  sjirn-d  luiinf.  Anion  linrrit  the  srrn)ls  alt<>- 
(rether  Iniinpare  Si'chT  lllalii.  It.  xxlv.  This  Is  iIitIvciI  (n>in 
the.stiiry  of  the  llmllntf  of  Ihi-  Hook  of  the  Law.  II  Knitrs,  xxll. 
»]  ;  Ahiih  pennillc'il  Incesl.  Mana-ssch  coniiriKIi'il  It  himself. 
Anion  acted  as  Nero  wius  said  to  ha\  e  doni*  toward  his  mother 
A(rripi)lna.  And  vi'l,  ont  of  respect  for  his  son  .losiah.  Anion's 
name  was  not  jilaced  on  the  list  of  the  klnns  excluded  from  the 
world  locome  (Sanli.  UWdl. 

A  niidnisliie  fragment  preserved  in  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions,  ii.  '.ilj,  which  appears  to  follow  an  ac- 
count of  the  repentance  of  5Ianassch  according  to  a 
lost  .Jewish  apocryphal  writing,  reads: 

"No  sin  Is  ni'ire  prli'v<nis  than  Idolatry,  for  It  Is  treason 
atcalnst  (Jod.  Vei  cviMi  this  has  ta'cn  toiirlvcn  uiion  sliici-re  re- 
pentance ;  hilt  he  that  sins  from  a  mere  spliii  i>f  ojiposlUon,  to 
see  whether  (iod  will  punish  the  wicked,  shall  llnd  no  paril<m, 
alihoiiifh  he  .say  In  his  heart,  "  1  shall  have  peace  In  the  end  (hy 
repeiitlnui.  though  I  walk  In  the  stuhltornness  of  my  evil 
heart '  "  (lieiit.  xxlx.  liM.  such  a  one  was  Anion,  the  son  of  Ma- 
niLsseh.  for  the  lApocryiihali  Scripture  says:  "  And  Anion  rea- 
soned an  evil  rea.sonin^r  of  tmnstrresslon  and  .said  :  '  My  father 
from  his  childhood  was  a  i-'real  tntns(.'res.sor.  and  he  lepenled 
in  Ills  old  ai.'e.    So  will  1  nipw  walk  after  the  lust  of  my  soul  and 

afterward  return  to  the  I/ird.'    And  In mmitied  more  I'vil  in 

the  siirlit  •■f  tlie  l.oid  than  all  that  were  hefoie  him;  hut  the 
I.onli.>"l  siieecllly  cMit  him  oiT  from  this  u'ooil  land.  Ami  his 
.servants  conspired  airainst  him  and  slew  Uim  iu  iiLs  own  house, 
and  he  reigned  two  yeai^s  only." 

It  is  noteworthy  tlmt  this  very  midrashic  frag- 
ment casts  light  upon  the  emphatic  teaching  of  the 
Jlishimli  (Voiiui.  viii.  !l):  "  Who.soever  siys,  'I  will 
sin  and  repent  thereafter,'  will  not  be  grunted  the 
lime  for  rejientance."  K. 

Critical  View  :  It  is  nither  unfortunate  that  so 

little  is  known  of  the  reign  of  Anion,  king  of 
.Jiidah;  for  he  lived  evidently  in  a  critical  period. 
The  endeavors  of  the  prophets  to  establish  a  pure 
form  of  YIIWII  worship  had  for  a  short  time  lieen 
triuniplmnl  in  Ilezekiah's  reign;  but  a  reaction 
against  them  set  in  after  the  latt<-r's  (iealh,  and  both 
Manassehand  his  son  Anion  appear  to  have  followetl 
the  popular  trend  in  reestablishing  the  old  Caimiin- 
ilish  form  of  cull,  including  the  .\sliera  and  Moloeh 
worship.  Whether  Maliasseh  "repented,"  as  the 
chronicle  t<lls  us,  is  more  than  doubtful.  There  is 
no  record  of  this  in  the  book  of  Kings,  and  abso- 
lutely no  indication  of  such  a  change  in  the  sulise- 
(pient  course  of  events.  The  people  clearly  were 
not  yet  prepared  for  the  higlier  religions  ideas;  and 
the  eoiistaiil  dread  that  .lerusalcm  would  encounter 
the  same  late  as  Samaria — so  lioldly  proclaimed  by 
the  prophets — instead  of  li'ading  the  people  clo.ser 
to  VIIWH  made  them  fiel  Unit  the  natiiaial  deity 
had  deserted  thiiii.  It  was  in  times  of  popular  un- 
rest that  refuge  wa.s  taken  in  the  old  rites,  which 
appeared  lietler  able  to  stand  the  test  of  distres.sful 
events  and  impending  tlisastir.  In  any  case  it  is 
signitieant  that  .Xmon'sdeatli  was  caused  bya])idace 
inliHgiie.  and  that  the  "  people  of  the  land."  as  the 
account  directly  states  (II  Kings,  xxi.  2:1).  gathered 
to  aveiiL'e  his  death.  Il  is  liiit  fiur  to  conclude  from 
this  that  till'  king  stiaid  high  in  popular  favor,  and 
that  his  death  was  not  only  regretted  by  his  subjects 
at  large,  but  made  so  ilecp  an  impression  as  to  lead 
to  a  poi)ulur  movement  which  succeeded  iu  securitig 


the  succession  for  Anion's  son,  .losiah.  under  whom 
the  party  of  religiotis  reform,  guided  by  pro]ilietical 
teacliings,  was  destined  to  gain  a  permanent  vic- 
tory. For  a  more  detailed  view  of  the  religious  and 
political  conditions  prevailing  before  and  subse- 
(pient  to  Anion's  reign,  see  JL\xasseh  and  Josiah. 

BiBLKKiKAPIIV:  Klltel,  ry(w(i.<(.  Hd.n/ir,  1SKS,1S!I2,  ll.314-.'?30; 
(inthe,  In  flr.sfh.il.  I'n'hcs  Isrnrh  Issl-HK,  pp.  2i«>  LMO;  Stade, 
<it»ch.  (I.  Viilhis  Israel,  pp. ffiJi-tMl ;  C.  F.  Kent,  llchrcu-  llit- 
Uini,  TlielMvidcd  Klnydtim,  pp.  172, 173. 

J.  Ju. 

AMORA  (|ilural.  Amoraim,  D'SION):  A  w-ord 
sigiiilyiiig  "llie  speaker,"  or  "  llir  inlerjireter,"  de- 
rived from  the  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  verb  niiirir  {"  to 
.say,"  or  "  to  speak  ").  It  is  used  in  the  Talmud  in  a 
twofold  sense : 

(1)  In  a  limited  sense,  it  signifies  the  officer  who 

stood  at  I  he  side  of  the  lecturer  or  presiding  teacher  in 

the  academy  and  in  meetings  for  pub- 

Tbe  Amora  lie  instruction,  and  announced  loudly, 

as  Metur-    and  explained  to  the  large  assembly  in 

geman.  an  oratorical  manner,  what  the  teacher 
had  just  expres.sed  briefly  and  in  a 
low  voice.  While  the  lecturer  generally  pronounced 
his  sentences  in  the  academic  language,  which  was 
chiefly  Hebrew,  the  Amora  gave  his  explanations  in 
Aramaic,  the  pojiular  idiom  (see  Haslii  on  Yoma, 
'ZOh).  The  original  term  for  such  an  office  was  me- 
tiiri/iiiian  ("the  translator,''  or  "the  interpreter"), 
which  term,  even  later  on,  was  often  interchanged 
with  that  of  Amora  (M.  K.  2lri,  Sanh.  Ih,  Kid.  31i). 
Some  of  these  officers  are  mentioned  liy  name,  as 
H.  Huziiit.  the  interpreter  at  the  academy  of  Habban 
(ianuiliel  11.  ( Ber.  27//);  Abdon.  the  inter]ireter  ap- 
jioiiileil  by  the  patriarch  K.  .Jiidah  (Ver.  Ber.  iv.  Ic); 
R.  IVdat.'lhe  itilerpieter  of  R.  ,Jose;  Kar  "^'esliita,  the 
interjireter  of  R.  Abbahu  (Yer.  Meg.  iv.  T.5r);  .Tudah 
liar  Nal.imani.  the  interpreter  of  R.  Simeon  b.  Lakish 
(Ket.  Wi).  On  his  return  from  Palestine  the  cele- 
linited  teacher  Rab(  Abba  Areka).  while  still  unknown 
ill  Babylonia,  in  the  absence  of  the  regular  Amora 
acted  on  one  occasion  as  Amora  in  the  academy  of 
R.  Sliilii  (Y'oma,  2(A).  It  having  been  discovered 
that  younger  incumbents  of  this  responsible  office, 
in  their  endeavors  to  shine  as  orators  (Solali.  40((), 
often  failed  to  interpret  the  ideas  of  tlie  presiding 
teaclier  correctly,  R.  Abbahu  established  the  rule  that 
no  one  under  the  age  of  fifty  should  be  appointed  to 
the  position  (Hag.  liti). 

(2|  In  a  wider  sense  the  term  Amora  was  applied, 

in  Palestine  as  well  as  in  Babylonia,  to  all  the  teacli- 

ers  that  lloiirisheil  during  a  period  of 

Amoraim  as  about  three   hundred   years,  from  the 

Expounders  time  of  the  death  of  the  patriarch  R. 

of  the        .ludah  I.  (21!H  to  the  coiii|iletion  of  tlie 

Mishnah.  Babylonian  Talmud  (about  .lOO).  The 
activity  of  the  teachers  during  this 
period  was  devoted  principally  to  expounding  the 
Misliimli— the  compilation  of  the  luitriareh  R.  .ludah 
— which  became  the  authoritative  code  of  the  oral 
law.  This  aelivity  was  developed  as  well  in  the 
academies  of  Tiberias,  Sepphoris,  Casarea.  and 
others  in  Palestine,  as  in  those  of  Ncliardea.  Sum, 
and  later  of  I'umbedita.  and  in  some  other  seats  of 
learning  in  Babylonia.  In  these iicademies  the  main 
object  of  the  lectures  and  discussions  was  to  inter- 
pret till'  often  very  lirief  and  concise  expres.sion  of 
the  Mishnah,  to  investigate  its  reasons  and  ,soiirces, 
to  reconcile  seeming  contradictions,  to  com|iare  its 
cnnonswitli  llios<>  of  Ihe  Harailot.  anil  to  apply  its 
decisions  to.  and  establish  principles  for,  new  ca.scs, 
tiotli  real  and  tictitious.  not  aliiiuly  provided  for  in 
the  Mishnah.  The  t<'acliers  that  were  engaged  in 
this  work — which  tlutilly  beaime  embodied  iu  the 


Amora 
Amorites 


THE  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


528 


Gemam — witc  properly  ciillcil  Aiiioraiin:  i'.  e..  iiitor- 
preters  or  cxpoiiiulcrs  (of  the  .Mislumh),  Tlioy  were 
not  as  iiidepcndciit  in  tlieir  Icpil  opinions  and  de- 
cisions as  tlieir  ]>rede(essors.  tlie  Taniiaini  and  senii- 
Tannaim.  as  they  had  not  thi' uiitliority  to  eontradiet 
decisions  and  principles  unanimously  accepted  in  the 
Jlishuah  itself  or  in  the  Barailol.  The  Palestinian 
Anioraiin.  liavinj;  Ijeen  ordained,  as  a  jreneral  rule,  by 
the  iiuki.  had  the  title  of  "rabbi";  while  the  Baby- 
lonian teachers  of  that  period  had  only  the  title  of 
"rab"  or  of  "mar." 

The  Palestinian  Anioraim  are  distinjruished  by  their 
simple  method  of  teachinirand  cxjioundins;  the  Misli- 
nah.  Tlie  Babylonians  indul>;ed  more  in  dialectical 
discussions.  This  was  especially  the  case  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Pumbedita.  where  the  dialectical  method 
reached  its  hiirlicst  development.  The  hairspliltini; 
dialectic  prevailinij  in  that  academy  is  satirized  in  the 
proverb:  "In  Pumbedita  they  know  how  to  ])ass  an 
elephant  through  a  needle's  "eye";  that  is,  by  their 
dialectical  arjfumentatiou  they  can  |)rove  even  that 
which  is  absolutely  impossible  (B.  M.  38/;). 

The  period  of  the  Babylonian  Amoraim  is  pener- 
ally  divitled  into  si.\  minor  i)eriods  or  jrcnerations, 
which  arc  determined  by  the  bejiinninir  and  the  end 
of  the  activity  of  their  most  j)romineut  teachers. 
The  period  of  the  Palestinian  Amoraim,  beins:  much 
shorter  than  that  of  the  Babylonian,  ends  with  the 
third  generation  of  the  latter.  Krankel,  in  his  "  Mebo 
Yeruslialmi."  treating  especially  of  the  Palestinian 
Amoraim,  divides  them  also  into  si.\  generations. 

The  Chief  Amoraim  :  The  Amoraim  mentioned 
in  the  Talmud  numbermany  hundreds.  The  names 
of  the  most  distinguished  among  them,  especially 
those  that  presided  over  the  great  academies,  are 
given  here  in  chronological  order. 

I  r.  First  generation  of  Palestinian  Amoraim  (from 
the  year  219-279): 

Jannai,  the  Elder;  Jonathan,  the  Elder. 

Oshay'a.  the  Elder;  Levi  bar  Sisi. 

Hanina  bar  Hama;  Ilezekiah. 

Jobauan  bar  Najipaha;  Simon  b.  Lakish. 

Jo.sliua  ben  Levi;  Simlai. 

I  B.  First  generatiouofBabvlonian  Amoraim  (219- 
257): 

Shila.  in  Nehardea. 
Kab  ( Al)ba  Areka),  in  Sura. 
Mar  Samuel,  in  Nehardea. 
Mar  'I'kba,  chief-justice  in  Kafri. 
n  p.  Second  generation  of  Palestinian  Amoraim 
(279-320): 

j;ieazar  ben  Pedat.  in  Tiberias. 
Ammi  and  Assi,  in  Tiberias. 
Hiyya  bar  Abba;  Simeon  bar  Abba. 
Abbahu.  in  Ciesarea. 
Zcra  (or  Zeira). 

II  B.  Second  generation  of  Babylonian  Amoraim 
(257-320): 

Iluna,  in  Sura. 

Judah  lien  Ezekicl,  in  Pumbedita. 

Hisda.  in  Sura. 

Shcshet.  in  Shilhi. 

Nal.iman  ben  Jacob,  in  Nehardea. 
Other   distingtiished   teachers  belonging   to   this 
generation  were  Rabba  bar  Bar-Hana  and  'UUa  ben 
Ishmael. 

III  p.  Third  generation  of  Palestinian  Amoraim 
(320-359): 

Jeremiah,  1 

Jonah,  '-  in  Tiberias, 

Jose  bar  Zabda,  ) 
These  three  Amoraim  were  the  last  authorities  in 
Palestine.     The  compilation  of  the  Palestinian  Tal- 
mud was  probably  accomplished  in  their  time. 


III  II.  Third  generation  of  Babylonian  An<oraim 
(320-375): 

Kabbah  bar  Htma,  in  Sura, 

Kabbah  bar  Nal.imau,  i 

Joseph  bar  I.liyya,       |-  in  Pumbedita. 

Abayc  (Nal.imani),        ) 

I{aba,  son  of  Joseidi  bar  llama,  in  Mahuza. 

Nal.iman  bi'n  Isjiac.  in  Pund)edita. 

Papa  bar  Hanan,  in  Narash. 

IV  It.  Fourth  generation  of  Babylonian  Amoraim 
(375-427): 

Ashi,  in   Sura,  compiler  of  the  Babylonian 

Talmud. 
Amemar.  in  Nehardea. 
Zebid  bar  Oshay'a,     "j 
Dimi  bar  Hineua, 

Kafram  I.,  '-  in  Pumbedita. 

Kaliana  bar  Talilifa, 
Mar  Zutra, 

Judah  Mani  b.  Shalom. 
Eliezer  b.  Jose. 
Jose  b.  Abiu. 
Tanl.iuma. 

V  li.  Fifth  generation  of  Babylonian  Amoraim 
(427-t()H): 

.Mar  Yemar  (contracted  to  Maremar),  in  Sura. 

Idi  bar  Abiu,    i 

Mar  bar  Ashi,  [-  in  Sura, 

Aha  of  Difta,  \ 

Kafram  II.,  in  Pumbedita. 

VI  H.  Si.\th  generation  of  Babylonian  Amoraim 
(468-500): 

Kabbina  bar  Huna,  the  last  Amora  of  Sura. 
Jose,  the  last  Amora  of  Pumbedita  and  the 
first  of  the  Saboraim. 
The  Amoraim  were  followed  by  the  Saboraim, 
who  gave  to  the  Talnuid  its  finishing  touch. 

For  particulars  of  the  life  and  work  of  each  of  the 
above-mentioned  Amoraim  see  articles  under  their 
respective  names. 

BiBi.iOfJR.^PHV  ;  For  the  older  literature  on  the  Amoraim  :  She- 
rira  (iaon.  In  his  /(/(/♦  r* 7  ;  VavwVk  in  his  I'H/i^ijtoj ;  Hellprin, 
in  his  Seder  ha-TJurnl.  Modem  literature:  Furst,  Ktiltur- 
uiid  Ijiteraturijcitch,  tLJiulen  in  Axieii,  which  treats  es(H»- 
cially  of  the  Babylonian  academics  and  t<*achers  durinp  tin*  im»- 
riod  of  the  Amoraim.  I>eipsic.  1S49:  llajioport.  'Krek  Milliti^ 
ls,'i2. article  Amora;  Frankel. 3/('/>o  ha-yenishalini^  Bn*slau, 
1S70;  (rriitz,  iieseh.  d.  Jmlen,  ii..  chaps,  xviii.-xxii. ;  Wei.ss, 
iJor.  iil.;  HainliurpiT.  Realtiictikliii>(ldic.  ii.;  Jlielziner,  liilm- 
duelian  to  the  Tidmud,  chap.  Iv,.  Cincinnati,  1S!>4;  strack, 
KiideititUiiUi  den  Talmud:  Bacher^  Au-Bttb.  Amor.;  idem, 
.4!/.  I'al.  Amor. 

M.  M. 

AMORITES.— Biblical  Data:  The  descend- 
ants of  the  fourth  son  of  Canaan  ((ien.  .\.l(i.  It'hron. 
i.  14).  They  form  jiart  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Palestine  (Gen.  x  v.  21 ;  Ex.  iii.  8, 17.  xxiii.  23 ;  Joshua, 
iii.lO.  xxiv.  11 :  I  Kin,ss,  ix.  20;  Ezck.  xvi.  3,  45:  also 
Isa.  xvii.  9.  where  we  ought  probably  to  follow 
the  Septuagint  reading.  "  the  forsiiken  places  of  the 
Amorites  and  the  llivites"  ).  As  representatives  of 
the  whole  pre  Israelitisli  po])nlation.  they  are  men- 
tioned in  (Jen.  xv.  l(i.  xlviii.  22;  Joshua,  v.  1,  xxiv. 
15,  18:  Judges,  x,  11 ;  I  Sam.  vii.  14;  I  Kings,  xxi.  26; 
II  Kings,  xxi.  11;  Amos,  ii.  9,  etc. 

Some  scholars  claim  that  (I  Sam.  vii.  14)  Philistines 

and  Amorites  are  synonymous,  so  that  the  latter 

expression  would  include  all  uon-Is- 

Geograph-  raclitish  inhabitants  of  Palestine.  I'su- 

ical  Dis-  ally,  however,  the  passage  in  (jucstion 
tribution.  is  interpreted  to  mean  the  isolated  rem- 
nants of  the  Amorites.  who  in  pre  Phi- 
listine and  iirc-lsraclitish  times  had  occupied  a  large 
part  of  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan.  Their  terri- 
tory is  more  exactly  defined  as  follows: 

(it)  In  the  south"  they  inhabit  the  hill-country  of 


529 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amora 
Amorites 


the  Amorites  (Dput.  i.  7,  19)  on  one  side  of  the  Ca- 
naan itcsfi'Airf.  verses  27,  44).  nortli  of  Kadeshbaruea. 
The  Amorites  in  Ha/.ezon-tamar  (Gen.  .viv.  7)  and 
Mamre  (ver.  V.i)  belong  to  tlie  same  region. 

(h)  More  to  the  nortli  Joslnia,  x.  5.  mentions  five 
kings  of  the  Amorites;  namely,  in  Jerusalem,  He- 
bron, Jammth,  Lachish,  and  Eglon.  as  "all  the  kings 
of  the  Amorites  that  dwell  in  the  hill-country  "  ;  com- 
pare ver.  12.  According  to  II  Sam.  xxi.  2,  Uibeon  also 
was  Amoritish  (Josluia,  xi.  19:  Ilivitish),  although 
it  is  more  probable  that  the  name  Amorite  has  there 
the  vague  meaning  discussed  above,  without  precise 
ethnologiciil  signification.  We  find  the"Amoiites 
which  were  beyond  .Ionian,  westward  "  (Joshua,  v.  1, 
xxiv.  8),  distinguished  from  the  "Canaanites  which 
were  by  the  sea"  (ibid.  v.  1);  Joshua,  xi.  3,  appor- 
tions the  hill-country  to  the  Amorites,  together  with 
three  other  nations,  distinguishing  them  from  "the 
Canajjniteson  the  east  and  on  the  west."     According 


"from  the  riverof  Arnon  unto  Mount  Hermon."  So 
the  land  of  the  Amorites.  which  is  in  Gilead  (Judges, 
X.  8),  seems  to  have  embraced  all  the  territory  after- 
ward owned  by  Israel,  east  of  the  Jordan.  Deut. 
iii.  9  informs  us  that  the  name  of  Mount  llermonin 
the  language  of  the  Amorites  was  Shenir. 

W.  y\.  'SI. 
In  Rabbinical  and  Apocryphal  Litera- 
ture :  In  Tosef.,  Shab.  (vii.  [viii.]  23),  and  generally 
in  postliil)lical  litiTature,  the  Canaanites  are  usually 
spoken  of  as  tlie  Amorites  (compare  A.ssumjitio  Mosis, 
xi.  16 ;  B.  M.  25i) ;  and  they  were  characterized  by  R. 
Jose,  the  chronicler,  as  the  most  intractable  of  all 
nations.  To  the  apocryphal  writers  of  the  first  and 
second  pre-Christian  century  they  are  the  main  rep- 
resentatives of  heathen  superstition,  loathed  as  idola- 
ters, in  whose  ordinances  Israelites  may  not  walk 
(Lev.  xviii.  3).  A  special  section  of  the  Talmud 
(Tosef.,  Shab.  vi.-vii.  [vii. -viii. ] ;  Bab.  8hab.  671  et 


Amoritks. 

(From  Uie  pyloo  of  tb«  Raroeaeiim.) 


to  Judges,  i.  34  [A.  V.  35],  however,  at  a  somewhat 
later  period,  the  Amorites  dwelling  "in  Mount  Ileres, 
in  Aijalon,  and  in  Shiwlbim."  whose  l)order  began 
"from  the  ascent  of  Akrabt)im."  did  not  allow  the 
Danites  "  to  come  down  to  the  valley  "  and  "  forced 
them  into  the  hill  country."  although  the  Amorites 
afterward  became  subject  to  Israel.  It  is  (juestion- 
ablo  if  a  remnant  of  the  Amoritish  t<>rritory  prop- 
erly speaking  is  meant;  more  probaldy  the  name 
Amorite  has  again  the  general  meaning.  One  is  even 
tempted  to  \inderstand  it  as  used  of  the  Philistines 
(as  1  Sam.  vii.  14;  see  above). 

(c)  Amorites  dwell  east  of  the  Jonian  (Num.  xxi. 
13):  the  Arnon  is  the  frontier  between  Moab  and 
the  Amorites.  This  land  of  the  Amorites  reaching 
"from  Anion  to  Jabbok,  even  unto  the  children  of 
Amnion  "  (itn'il.  24),  had  been  taken  awav  from  Moab 
by  Sihon  (ihid.  24,  2(1,  29),  who  built  Heshbon  to  be 
Ins  residence  (ibid.  2(1,  27)  directly  before  the  immi- 
gration of  Israel.  Amorites  dwelling  in  Ja/.er  are 
specially  nieiitione<i  (i'u'd.  32).  Tlie.se  Amorites 
"  which  dwelt  beyond  Jordan  "  are  also  referred  to 
(Deut.  i.  1,  4,  iii.  2;  I  Kings,  iv.  19;  Ps.  cxxxv.  11. 
cxxxvi.  19;  Josh.  ii.  10,  ix.  Id).  Og,  king  of  Baslian 
in  Aslitarotli,  is  also  called  an  Amorite  in  Deut.  iii. 
6,  iv.  47,  where  we  learn  that  Og's  territory  extended 
I.-34 


/le/j.)  is  devoted  to  the  various  superstitions  called 
"The  Waysof  theAmorites."  According  to  the  Book 
of  Jubilees  (xxix.[9]  11),  "  the  former  terrible  giants, 
the  Hepliaim,  gave  way  to  the  Amorites,  an  evil  and 
sinful  people  whose  wickedness  surpasses  that  of  any 
other,  and  whose  life  will  Ix'  cut  short  on  earth." 
In  the  Syriae  Apocalypse  of  Barucli  (Ix.)  they  are 
symbolized  by  "black  water"  on  account  of  "their 

black  art,  their  witchcraft  and  impure 
Masters  of  mysteries,  by  which  they  contaminated 
Witchcraft.   Israel  in  the  lime  of  the  Judges. "    This 

refers  to  the  strange  story  of  Kenaz, 
preserved  in  the  "Chronicle  of  Jerahmeel"  (Colin  in 
"Jew.  Quart.  Hev."  1898,  pp.  294  et  »,-</..  and  transla- 
tion of  Oa.ster.  p.  lOfi),  which  relates  how  the  tribes 
of  Israel  learned  all  their  wickedness  from  the  Amor- 
ites. the  masters  of  witchcraft,  whose  books  they 
kepi  hiihlenundrr  Mount  Abariin,  and  whose  wonder- 
working idols — seven  holy  nymphs — they  had  con- 
cealed beneath  Mount  Shechem.  Each  of  thesi'  idols 
was  a<iorned  with  precious  stones,  which  shone  at 
night  like  the  light  of  day,  and  by  their  power  sight 
was  restored  to  the  blind.  Kenaz.  the  .son  of  Caleb 
and  father  of  Othnii'l.  when  hearing  of  this,  forth- 
with destroyed  the  idolatrous  Israelites  by  lire,  but 
tried  in  vain  to  destroy  either  the  magic-books  or  the 


Amorites 
Amos 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


530 


stones.  So  lie  buried  the  books,  but  in  tlic  morning 
fouml  them  triinsformeil  into  twelve  precious  stones, 
with  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Isrjiel  en- 
jrraved  thereon,  and  laliTtliey  were  used  in  Solomon's 
'I'liniile.  Then,  with  the  help  of  the  angel  Gabriel, 
he  smote  the  Amorites  with  blindness  and  destroyed 
them  with  his  sword. 

These  legends  may  be  regarded  as  reflecting  the 
prevalent  belief  of  the  Jewish  people  in  Amoiite 
witchcraft.  But  the  ancient  midrashic  and  apocry- 
phal narratives  of  battles  fought  by  the  sons  of  Ja- 
cob with  the  Amorites  seem  likewise  to  rest  upcm  the 
actual  warfare  which  took  place  between  the  Jews 
and  the  surrounding  nations  during  the  second  Tem- 
ple. According  to  the  Hook  of  Jubilees,  s;  .\x.\iv.  ; 
Testament  of  Patriarch  Judah,  S-T;  Miilrash  Way- 
is'u,  in  Jelliuek.  "15.  II."  iii.  1-5;  "Chrou.  of  Jerah- 
niecl,"  ed.  Ga.ster,  §§  .\.\.\vi.,  .\.\.\vii.,  and  Sefer  lia- 
Yashar,  xxxvii.-.\l.,  the  sons  of  Jacol)  fought  with 
the  sons  of  Esau,  while  the  Amorites  sided  w  itli  the 
latter  and  were  defeated.  The  battlelield  described  in 
the  various  sources  being  almost  identical  with  the 
battle-jilaee  of  the  JIaecabean  heroes,  it  is  much 
more  likely  that  the  story  originated  in  the  time  of 
John  llyrcanus,  when  war  was  successfully  waged 
against  the  Idunieans  and  other  nations,  than  tliat  it 
arose  in  the  time  of  King  Herod,  as  Gaster  thinks 
("Chronicle  of  Jenihmcel,"  preface  and  l.\.\xii. ; 
compare  Book  of  Jubilees  and  Edo.m).  K. 

Critical  View :   The  moniimentjil  evidence  is 

as  follows;  Egyptian  inscriptions  (see  W.  51.  MUl- 
ler,  "Asien  uud  Europa,"  p.  21(S)  call  the  land  east 
of  Phenicia  and  north  of  Palestine  "  the  land  of  the 
A-ma-ra. "  The  Amar,  or  Amor,  of  the  texts  is  diiefly 
the  valley  between  the  Lebanon  and 
In  Menu-  Autilebanou  mountains,  the  modern 
mental  In-  Beka'a.  In  the  El-Aniama  tablets 
scription.  (Winckler.  Nos.  42.  44.  M)).  Aziru.  the 
prince  of  the  same  region,  is  called 
"  Prince  of  Atnurru."  The  latter  name  does  not  seem 
to  be  much  more  comprehensive  than  in  the  Egyp- 
tian texts,  and  certainly  does  not  apply  to  Palestine. 
Only  in  the  later  cuneiform  texts  the  old  expression 
Amiirru  (not  to  be  read"  Aharru'')  is  used  so  vaguely 
that  Phenicia  and  even  neighboring  countries  are 
included  ( I )elit7,sch.  "  Paradies, "  p.  27 1 ).  The  Babj'- 
louian  letter-group  Im-martu,  orMar-tu  for"  West." 
hardly  belongs  here,  but  because  of  the  similar  sound 
in  its  earlier  form  it  was  written  for  Amurru  in  the 
Amarna  t^iblets  and  still  more  frequently  afterward 
in  the  extended  signification  of  Amurru.  At  present 
it  is  not  very  ca.sy  to  show  the  connection  between 
the  monumental  Amorites  and  the  Palestinian  Amor- 
ites of  the  Bible.  Winckler  ("Gesch.  Israels,"  i.  .">2) 
assumes  that  the  Amorites,  somewhere  about  the 
time  of  the  El- Amarna  tablets  (after  1400  n.c),  de- 
scended into  Palestine  from  their  original  northern 
habitations.  He  supports  this  by  the  fact  that  only 
those  of  the  earlier  Biblicsil  traditions,  which  belong 
to  the  northern  kingdom,  contain  the  name  Amorites : 
namely,  the  prophet  Amos  and  those  parts  of  the 
Pentateuch  which  the  critics  assign  to  E. ,  the  Elohis- 
tic  or  Ephraimitic  writer  (followed  by  Deuteron- 
omy). For  this  critical  distinction  in  the  use  of  the 
name  sec  E.  Meyer,  in  Stade's  "Zeit.schrift,"  i.  122. 
Budde,  in  "Richter  and  Samuel,"  xvii.  ascribes 
Judges,  i.  34.  to  the  Judaic  or  Yahwistic  writer,  but 
see  above  on  the  probaljy  indistinct  and  not  very  ar- 
chaic use  of  the  name  in  that  passjige.  Wellhansen 
("Die Composition  des  Hexateuchs,"  ii.  341) assumes 
that  Amorites  and  Canaanites  are  synonymous  ex- 
pressions, only  that  the  former  is  used  of  the  Canaan- 
ites exterminated  by  Israel,  the  latter  to  distinguish 


them  from  those  living  among  the  Israelites  at  tlie 
time  of  the  kings.  These  conclusions  are  suggested 
by  the  eircumstjince  that  the  territory  of  the  Amorites 
as  described  above  leaves  very  little  room  for  tiie  Ca- 
naanites in  the  t<rritory  occupied  by  Israel,  and  that 
both  terms  sometimes  seem  to  be  used  interchange- 
ably (compare  Gen.  xiv.  13  with  Judges,  i.  lU;  Num. 
xiv.  i'i  with  Dent.  i.  44  et  mg.). 

Thus  Amorite  would  be  the  more  ancient  name, 
obscure  even  to  the  earliest  writers.  It  is  not  cer- 
tain that  these  writers  were  intluenced  by  the  ety- 
mology of  the  word.  If  Amoriti's  wereeiiuivalentto 
"higlilanders."  we  should  have  to  compare  the  ap- 
plication of  the  name  to  the  hiirhlaml  of  .ludah  (Num. 
xiii.  29;  Dent.  i.  7,  lit,  20;  Josh.  v.  1,  x.  t>.  xi.  32)  as 
a  secondary  use  or  as  a  mere  inference  from  the  ety- 
mology. At  present,  however,  that  etymology  has 
been  discarded,  as  «»(/';•  means  "summit."  not  "  moun- 
tains "  or  "  highland. "  The  Egyptian  inscriptions,  in- 
deed, seem  to  treat  the  name  of  the  original  country 
Amor  as  a  geographical  term,  always  connecting  it 
with  thearticle.while  Amoriteisin  the  Biblean  ethnic 
name.  How  the  Amorites.  or  at  least  their  name, 
came  to  Palestine,  still  awaits  ])lausible  explanaticm. 

Gen.  X.  16  calls  the  Amorites  a  branch  of  the 
Canaanites.  Amoritish  names  like  Adoni-zedek 
(Josh.  X.  3;  compare  verse  ~>)  seem, 
Race  and  indeed,  to  ))oint  to  full  identity  in  Ian- 
Language,  guage  with  those  tribes.  The  (jvies- 
tion,  why  the  Amorites.  with  the  rest 
of  the  pre-Israelitic  population  of  Palestine,  are 
(Gen.  X.)  clas.sed  among  the  Ilamites,  can  not  be 
discus.sed  here.  Sayce  ("  Paces  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment." pp.  100  et  set/.)  has  tried  to  explain  this  by 
assuming  a  connection  between  the  Amorites  (and 
the  Canaanites  in  general !)  with  the  ancient  Libyans, 
entirely  on  the  ba.sis  of  a  certain  similarity  of  the 
facial  type  in  one  Egyptian  sculpture  of  Hame.ses 
III.  Tlie  inimerous other  Egyptian  picturesof  these 
nations,  however,  do  not  confirm  this,  and  a  linguis- 
tic comparison  of  Caniuinitish  (see  above  on  its  iden- 
tity with  Amoritish)  and  Libyan  is  impossible.  The 
remote  relationship  between  all  Ilamites  and  the 
Proto-Semites  in  race  and  language  does  not  belong 
here. 

BiBi.ioGRApnT  :  Sayce,  RaccD  i>f  the  Old  Tentamcnt,  1891,  pp. 

100  ct  seq. 

A\'.  yi.  M. 

AMOS. — Biblical  Data  :  Jewish  prophet  of  the 
eighth  ( entury  n.r. ;  date  of  birth  and  death  un- 
known. Among  the  minor  prophets  there  is  none 
whose  personality  is  so  familiar  as  that  of  Amos. 
His  name  occurs  not  only  in  the  superscription  of 
the  book,  but  several  limes  (vii.  S,  II)  et  seq..  14; 
viii.  2)  in  the  body  of  it.  His  home  was  in  Tekoa 
in  Judah.  live  miles  to  the  south  of  Bethlehem. 
The  original  title  of  his  book  was  merely  "  The  AVords 
of  Amos  of  Tekoa  " ;  the  rest,  "  who  was  among  the 
herdsmen,"  is  a  later  addition  emphasizing  the  fact 
gleaned  from  vii.  14,  that  Amos  had  been  a  herdsman 
before  he  became  a  prophet.  From  the  margin  this 
notice  appears  to  have  intruded  itself  into  the  text. 
The  attempt  has  been  made  to  discover  a  northern 
Tekoa  for  his  home,  but  there  is  no  need  for  that. 
That  Amos  was  from  Judah  is  the  simplest  interpre- 
tation of  vii.  13.  Amos  himself  tells 
Home  and  us  w:hat  his  profession  was;  he  was  a 
Occupation,  herdsman  anil  one  who  tended  .syca- 
more-tigs (vii.  14).  At  Tekoa  sycamores 
are  not  grown,  but  Amos  could  verj'well  have  been 
the  proprietor  of  a  sycamore-grove  at  some  distance 
from  Tekoa.  in  the  Shefelah,  the  hill  country  lead- 
ing down  to  Philistia,  where  there  were  sycamore- 


631 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amorites 
Amos 


trees  in  "abuuclanee"(I  Kings,x.27).  He  makes  this 
statenieiit  of  his  (iccupatiou  to  Aniaziali.  tlie  chief 
priesl  of  Bethel,  wlio,  startled  by  the  oiiiiiioiis  utter- 
ances of  Amos,  advises  liiin  to  nialie  liis  escape  to 
Judali  and  tlicre  to  earn  liis  liveliliood  l)y  his  pro- 
fessi<jn  of  pnjjiiiet.  Amos  denies  both  premises  iii- 
vcjlved  in  tliis  rebuke.  He  does  not  need  to  take 
fees  for  liis  prophecies,  because  he  is  well-to-do.  and 
he  is  no  prophet  either  by  profession  (jr  e.xiniction, 
liUl  was  (ailed  by  God  from  behind  his  tloek  by  spe- 
cial summons.  Amos'  atlilnde  marks  a  tiirnini;  jioinl 
in  the  development  of  Old  'restaineni  proplieiy.  It 
is  not  mere  chance  that  Hosca.  Isaiah  (eh.  vi.),  Jere- 
uiiah.  Kzekiel,  anil  alm<ist  all  of  the  iiro|iliets  who 
arc  more  than  unknown  i>ersonau;es  to  whom  a  few 
pro|iheIical  speeches  are  ascribeil,  fiive  first  of  all  the 
Story  of  their  special  eallin};.  All  of  them  llicreby 
seek  to  protest  against  the  suspicion  that   they  are 

professional  pro|ih<'ls,  because  the  lat- 

First  to       ter  discredited   themselves  by  llattcr- 

Writedown  ing  national  vanities  and  ignoriiif;'  the 

Prophecy,    mi.sdecdsof  prominent  men.   Hut  Amos 

marks  an  epoch  in  Old  Testament 
pro]iliccy  also  in  another  respect.  He  is  the  lirst 
of  the  prophets  to  write  down  the  mess!ii;es  he  has 
received.  It  is  easy  to  understand  the  reason  for 
this  innovation.  He  feels  himself  ealleil  to  jireach 
in  Beth -el,  where  there  was  a  royal  sanctuary  i  vii.VS), 
and  there  to  aimounce  the  fall  of  the  reijrning  dy- 
nasty and  of  the  northern  kingdom.  15ut  he  is  de- 
nounced by  the  head  priest  Amaziah  to  King  Jero- 
boam H.  (vii.  10  et  acq.),  and  is  advised  to  leave  the 
kingdom  (verses  13  ct  eeq.).  Though  nothing  more 
is  learned  than  the  answer  lie  gave  Ama/iali  (verses 
1-t  (/  .11'/.).  there  is  no  reason  to  iloubl  llial  he  was 
actually  forced  to  leave  the  norlhcrn  kingdom  and 
lo  return  to  his  native  country.  Being  thus  pre- 
vented from  bringing  his  message  to  an  end,  and 
from  reaching  the  carof  tho.se  to  whom  he  was  sent, 
he  had  recourse  to  writing.  If  they  could  not  hear 
his  mes.sages,  they  could  read  them,  and  if  his  con- 
temporaries refused  to  do  .so,  following  generations 
miglit  still  prolit  by  them.  No  earlier  instance  of  a 
liteniry  prophet  is  known,  nor  is  it  likely  that  there 
was  any  ;  but  the  examjile  he  gave  was  followed  by 
others  in  an  almost  unbroken  succession.  It  is  true, 
it  can  not  be  proved  that  Hosca  knew  the  book  of 
Amos,  I  hough  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  he  was 
ac(|iuiiulcd  with  the  hitter's  work  and  experiences. 
It  is  quite  certain,  on  th<'  other  hand,  that  Isjiiah 
knew  his  book,  for  he  follows  and  even  imitates  him 
in  his  early  speeches  (compare  Amos,  v.  31-24,  iv.  (5 
1^  «V  ,  V.  IS  with  Isa.  i.  11-15  ;  Amos,  iv.  7  tt  seq. 
with  Isa. .etc.,  i.\.  ",  itmij..  ii.  Vi).  Cheyne concludes 
with  great  proliability  that  Amos  wrote  the  record 
of  his  prophetical  work  at  Jerusalem,  after  liis  ex- 
pulsion from  the  northern  kingdom,  and  that  he  com- 
niilted  it  to  a  circle  of  faithful  followers  of  YinVH 
residing  thcriv 

Amos  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  grandest  personal- 
ities among  the  ( lid  Testament  l>roi)hcts;  indeed,  the 

most  imposiiifiof  all,  if  the  biet  be  eon- 

Personality  sidered  that  he  is  the  tiistof  the  wri- 

of  Amos.      ting-|iro])liets.     His  lofty  conception 

of  Deity,  his  uncompromisingly  moral 
conception  of  the  order  of  the  universe,  and  his 
superiority  to  all  religious  narrowness,  are  adminible 
indeed.  I.iaving  the  above  Tiienlioncd  "doxologjes" 
aside.  YHWH  is  in  vii.  4,  ix.  2  the  Kuler  of  the  uni- 
verse, and  in  i..  ii.,  and  ix.  7  He  is  the  I.ord  of  all  other 
nations  as  well  as  of  Israel.  The  standard  by  which 
He  measures  peoples  is  morality,  and  inoralily  only. 
It  is  by  His  in.scrutable  will  that  Israel  was  clios«'n 
among  the  peoples,  but  as  u  result  it  follow.stliat  G<k1 


is  doubly  strict  in  His  demands  upon  this  nation,  and 
doubly  severe  in  His  punishment  of  its  transgressions 
(iii.  2).  Hilualistic  zeal  and  the  richest  buriit-oller- 
ings  avail  nothing  in  extenuation;  such  acts  are 
contemptuous  in  the  sight  of  YHWH,  who  may 
be  served  without  any  religious  ceremonies,  but  not 
without  morality  (iii."21-2ri.  iv.  4.  o,  Ki).  Therefore 
let  the  nation  not  comfort  itself  with  the  hope  of  the 
"Day  of  YHWH,"  which  will  be  a  day  of  terror  for 
Israel,  and  not  of  sjilvati(jn  (v.  lS-20).  "  It  is  all  over 
with  Israel ;  the  complete  destruction  is  at  hand  (see 
especially  ii.  3,  v.  1  et  mq.,  ix.  1-4).  Distinct  as  are 
these  fundamental  principles  of  his  discourses.  Amos 
must  by  no  means  be  considered  as  an  uncompromi- 
sing jirophet  of  evil;  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
Israel 'Sliest  ruction  is  brought  about  by  its  sin  fulness, 
and  it  is  only  because  experience  appears  to  show  an 
unwillingness  to  repent,  that  the  hope 

Repent-      of  forgiveness  is  cut  off.     Should  this 
ance   and     experience  prove  false  and  Israel  actu- 

Forgive-  ally  repent,  forgiveness  and  national 
ness.  life  would  be  by  no  means  hopehss; 
and  therefore  utterances  like  v.  4  and 
14,  however  inconspicuous  they  may  be  in  compari- 
.son  with  the  denunciatory  passagcs,"are  by  no  means 
to  be  overlooked,  and  certainly  not  to  be  held  as 
spurious.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  Amos  did  not 
shrink  from  facing  the  possibility  of  the  utter  de- 
struction of  Israel. 

Amos  has  always  been  admired  for  the  purity  of  his 
language,  his  beauty  of  diction,  and  his  poetic  art. 
In  all  these  respects  he  is  Isaiah's  spiritual  progenitor. 
There  is  no  need  for  astonishment  that  a  rustic  should 
have  been  capable  of  such  diction. 

The  period  of  the  projihet's  activity  is  the  reign 
of  .leroboam  II..  king  of  Israel,  whose  dynasty  he 
nienlions  in  one  of  his  prophecies  (>ii.  il).  while  the 
narrator  of  vii.  10,  etc.  (probably  not  identical  with 
Amos),  clearly  states  that  Jeroboam  was  reigning  at 
the  time  when  Amos  preached  at  Beth-el.  The  super- 
scription of  the  book  (i.  1)  mentions  Tzziali,  king  of 
Judah,  before  Jeroboam,  which  is  doubtless  correct, 
inasmuch  as  I'zziah  was  a  contemporary  of  Jero- 
boam ;  but  the  slatemenl  isat  the  same  time  puzzling, 
since  il  is  not  known  that  Amos  was  ever  active  in 
Judah. 

The  superscription  adds  that  he  "saw  "  his  words 
two  years  before  the  earthiiuake.    Now  Amos  doubt- 
less experienced  an  eartliipiake(iv.ll), 
Superscrip-  and  an  earthquake  under  King  Uzziah 

tion  of  is  tcstitied  to  in  Zecli.  xiv.  ."i;  but  un- 
the  Book,  fortunately  this  passage  does  not  help 
us  much,  seeing  that  it  is  of  late  origin, 
and  may  itself  be  taken  from  Amos,  iv.  11,  or  even 
from  the  heading  of  the  book.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  superscription  may  be  ba.sed  on  the  hints  con- 
tained in  the  book  itself,  and  indetfl  G.  HolTinann  in 
.Stade's"Zeitsilirift,"  iii.  12a.  hastiied  toolTer  an  ex- 
planation for  the  phrase  "two  years  before  the  cnrlh- 
ipiake  "  which  would  deprive  the  wordsof  every  real 
signilicance  His  eX|ilaiiation  seems  to  be  somewhat 
arlilicial.  but  has  been  accepted  by  such  scholars  as 
Cheyne  and  Marti.  Still,  since  the  heading  undoubt 
ediy  contains  reliable  and  atithentic  statements,  the 
possibility  that  the  reference  to  the  earlhijuake  is 
also  authentic  must  be  admitted.  The  question, 
however,  remains  whether  all  the  propheeii'S  united 
in  the  Book  of  .Vinos  are  lo  be  undersliKid  as  uttered 
in  this  sime  year.  Their  extent  would  not  make 
tliis  impossilile.  nor  is  it  likely  that  Amos,  rebuking 
the  sins  of  Kphraiin  so  openly,  would  havr  been  tol- 
enitcd  many  years  bifoie  being  denounced  and  ex 
pelled,  as  We  read  in  vii.  10.  In  this  ciuse  the  earlh- 
ijuake in  iv.  11  must  be  luiother  than  that  ineulioDcd 


Amos 
Amram 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


532 


in  i.  1.  iK'Ciiuso  it  could  not  be  referred  to  two  years 
before  it  artunlly  happened.  Moreover,  it  is  unlikely 
that  Amos  should  not  have  added  new  propheeies  to 
those  spoken  durinj;  his  stay  in  the  northern  king- 
dom, when  he  onee  proeecded  to  write  down  his  ut- 
terances (compare  Jer.  x.xxvi.  32).  If  i.  1  be  admitted 
as  authentic,  the  most  probable  conclusion  is  that 
"two  years  before  the  earthquake"  was  originally 
the  dale  for  only  a  part  of  the  book,  perhaps  for  only 
the  introductory  speech  in  i.  2. 

The  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  lasted  forty-one  years, 
according  to  II  Kings,  xiv.  23.  Though  il  can  not 
be  fi.xed  with  certainty,  this  much  may  be  said,  that 
its  termination  must  be  placed  between  7")0  and  740 
B.C.  Marti  ("Ency.  IJibl."  article  "Chronology,"  p. 
797)  fixes  his  reign  between  782  and  7-43  ii.c.  The 
activity  of  Amos  could  hardly  have  coincided  with 
the  close  of  his  reign.  The  fact  alone  that  Isjiiah's 
call  can  not  have  liappened  later  tlaan  740,  while  he 
so  evidently  draws  on  Amos'  prophecies,  is  sutlicienl 
groimd  for  placing  Amos  not  later  than  751). 

The  first  indication  thata  distinction  must  lie  made 
between  the  prophecies  of  Amos  and  the  book  that 

bears  his  name  is  to  be  found  in  the 

The  Pres-    narrative,  vii.  10-17.     This  is  inserted 

ent  Form  of  after  the  third  of  five  visions  which 

the  Book,    form  a  connected  series.    The  insertion 

in  question  is  simply  a  comment  on  vii. 
•  9,  and  contains  the  threat  of  the  overthrow  of  Jero- 
boam and  his  house.  It  is  mentioned  in  vii.  10  that 
Amos'  boldness  resulted  in  his  expulsion  from  the 
northern  kingdom.  It  is  not  likely  that  Amos  him- 
self would  have  interrupted  his  series  of  addresses  in 
this  way.  Moreover,  he  is  not  the  nurrsUor;  another 
writer  speaks  of  him  in  the  third  person.  Hence 
it  is  clear  that  his  book  has  not  come  to  us  exactly 
as  lie  wrote  it.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  vii.  10  et  set/. 
must  have  been  written  soon  after  the  event  by  a 
writer  who  had  thoroughly  trustworthy  accounts  of 
Amos.     This  is  a  fact  of  great  imjiortauce. 

The  book  is  well  arranged  in  its  general  features, 
There  is  in  chaps,  i.  and  ii.  a  coherent  series  of 
judgments  on  sinful  and  unrepentant  peoples,  aimed 
liaiticularly  at  Israel.  In  chaps,  vii. -ix.  are  the  above- 
mentioned  live  visions:  in  chaps,  iii.-vi.  a  series  of 
discourses,  loosely  connected,  whose  beginning  and 
end  can  not  be  fixed  with  certainty.  The  same  prob- 
lem is  presented  in  other  prophetical  books:  the 
prophet  himself  would  .scarcely  lay  great  stress  on  the 
separation  of  the  single  discourses  when  he  wrote  or 
dictated  them.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this 
aiTangement  goes  back  to  the  first  editors,  working 
soon  after  the  prophet's  death  or  even  delegated  by 
liim  for  this  task.  This  does  not  preclude  tlie  pos.si- 
liility  of  later  changes  and  additions.  Since  the  in- 
vestigations of  Stade  and  Wellhausen.  such  changes 

have  been  assumed  in  increasing  pro- 
£ditorial  portions.  The  most  complete  and  dis- 
and  Later  criminating  survey  of  those  passages 
Additions,  whose  originality   hitherto   has  been 

doubted  is  given  by  Cheyne  ("Ency. 
Bibl."  article  "Amos").  They  can  be  grouped  un- 
der the  following  titles:  (1)  Passages  widening  the 
horizon  of  the  book,  so  as  to  include  the  southern 
kingdom  of  Judali.  (2)  Additional  predictions  affirm- 
ing a  Ix-tter  future  than  the  gloomy  auguries  of  the 
old  prophet.  (3)  Additions  .giving  expression  to  the 
loftier  and  more  spiritual  theology  of  a  later  time. 
(4)  Glosses  and  explanations  based  on  an  erroneous 
conception  of  the  texts. 

(1)  The  chief  passage  of  the  first  group  is  ii.  4,  etc., 
the  denunciation  of  Judah  in  the  series  of  judgments 
against  the  nations.  The  same  judgment  against 
Edom  in  i.  11  and  12  is  perhaps  also  an  addition,  and 


the  same  has  been  surmised  of  the  passage  about  Tyre 
in  i.  9.  The  isolated  verse  i.  2.  in  whi<h  Zion  is  spoken 
of  as  the  fixed  seat  of  YIIWII.  is  also  doubtful,  and 
the  sjune  is  true  of  the  address  to  Zion  in  vi.  1,  and 
the  expres.sion  "like  David  "  in  vi.  '>. 

(2)  The  .second  group  is  represented  by  ix.  8-15, 
canceled  by  Stade.  Wellhausen,  Cornill,  Nowack, 
Cheyne,  and  many  others,  as  sjiurious.  These  verses 
do  not  form  a  single  whole,  but  are  composed  of 
different  pas.sages.  Verses  10.  11,  12,  13,  and  14 
seem  to  be  mere  fragments  or  insertions  in  the  con- 
text. The  last  verse,  which,  by  virtue  of  its  inimi- 
table originality,  is  unanimously  ascribed  to  Amo.s, 
can  not  have  formed  the  conciudiiig  verse  of  the 
book,  but  aiipears  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  a 
new  address.  If  the  verses  8-13  are  to  be  taken 
in  their  entirety  as  a  later  addition,  the  original  con- 
tinuation must  either  have  been  lost  through  the 
mutilation  of  the  manuscript,  or  have  intentionally 
been  stricken  otit  on  account  of  the  too  mournful 
survey  of  the  future.  The  latter  suggestion  is  im- 
probable, because  verse  7  would  have  been  rejected 
for  the  Siime  reason,  and  because  in  other  passages 
(see  verses  1-4)  the  most  terrible  iiredictions  have 
been  retained.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  theconclusion 
had  been  lost  in  consequence  of  the  mutilation  and 
then  supplied  at  hazard,  a  more  uniform  continua- 
tion would  have  been  ex])ecte(l  in  i)laceof  such  a  rug- 
ged one,  with  its  disjointed  an<l  disconnected  sen- 
tences. The  possibility  remains  that  verses  8-15  are 
a  repeated  elaboration  of  the  original  conclusion.  It 
is  erroneous  to  consider  verse  11,  concerning  the  res- 
toration of  the  fallen  tabernacle  of  David,  as  a  spe- 
cifically Judaic  prediction;  it  can  only  as,sume  this 
characier  through  the  addition  of  verse  12,  which 
regards  the  subjection  of  the  vassjils  of  Judah  as  an 
essential  feature  of  such  reestablisliment.  The  verse 
refers  to  the  reesta1)lishment  of  the  united  kingdom 
of  Israel,  founded  by  David  and  sundered  after  the 
death  of  Solomon.  Verses  8.  9.  11,  14,  and  15  may 
possibly  contain  an  original  prediction  directed,  like 
vii.  9.  against  the  house  of  .leroboam.  and  iiromising 
for  the  future  the  restoration  of  a  united  Israel,  as 
pleasing  to  Jehovah.  Of  course,  conclusive  proof  of 
this  theory  can  no  longer  be  secured,  nor  can  the 
original  text  of  such  prediction  be  restored  with 
reasonaI)le  certainty. 

(3)  The  tliird  group  of  additions  are  the  doxologies 
iv.  13,  V.  8,  ix,  5ti,  which  invoke  YIIWII  as  the  Crea- 
tor and  Ruler  of  the  world.  While  it  is  not  impos- 
sible that  they  maj-  have  been  written  b\'  Amos, 
the  style  of  these  additions  indicates  a  much  later 
period,  possibly  later  than  Deutero-Isaiah.  Since  all 
three  passages  interrupt  the  context,  and  iv.  13  and 
V.  7  have  inherent  difficulties  of  their  own,  it  may  be 
suggested  that  the  interpolator  designed  these  dox- 
ologies to  fill  up  gaps  or  illegible  sentences  in  the 
manuscripts. 

(4)  To  the  fourth  group,  iii.  14  and  viii.  11,  and  12 
may  be  assigned.  Other  pa.ssages  are  open  to  dis- 
ctission,  particularly  the  enigmatical  verse  v.  26 
(Wellhausen,  Xowack,  Cheyne),  the  difficulty  of 
which  is  hardly  solved  by  the  suggestion  of  its  being 
simply  a  marginal  gloss.  Finally,  there  are  many  in- 
dividual words  of  the  text  of  this  book  which  pre- 
sent numerous  difficulties. 

Concerning  the  i)roblem  which  the  severe  logical 
attitude  of  Amos  presents  in  the  history  of  religion, 
compare  especially  F.  Giescbrecht,  "  Die  Geschiclit- 
lichkeit  des  Sinaibundes."  p.  14;  also  K.  Budde. 
"American  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Keligions," 
vol.  iv.  lecture  iv.  To  ascribe  the  whole  book  to 
another  age,  the  pre-Deuteronomic  period  of  Josiah 
(038-621),  on  account  of  this  and  similar  difficulties. 


533 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amos 

Ami-am 


as  II.  J.  Elhorst,  "De  Hrofetie  van  Amos"  (Leyden, 
1!)()0),  proposes,  is  tntircly  unwarranted  and  inipos- 
siljlc.  8('i!  till'  crilicisin  of  P.  Vol/,  in  SchUrer's 
"Tlieol.  Literatur-zfiluug,"  May  12,  I'JUO. 

Bini.ioi:n.»Piiv:  Spp,  licslili'.s  ihc  monofrrarhs  an<i  articles 
already  referred  Ki,  tin'  rdniiiiiMiIarics  or  (iivlll,  IlitzlK.  Stel- 
ner,  Kell.  Ueus.s.  Nowat-k.  Iloniicitmnnitlnrziiw  A.  T.,  \xVr2, 
elseq.;  Welllmiisen,  />«  Khitirn  I'miilulfii,  IKitt;  J.J.  P. 
Valeton.  Amim  in  llnsra.  IHiH;  Siiiltli.  Tlif  liiaik  of  thi: 
7'»'t7rc  I'riiiiliilK.  ISiKi;  Idnn.  Thr  /■;.rp(«ir<ir'.<  Bi7>(f:  Driver, 
Jnel  ami  Am<>!*^  In  ("ttinhriilij''  Itililr  ftir  St-hixilt*  ami  (Uil- 
leycK,  IsltT;  Hell|irln,  HM'iiudl  l'<ietry  af  the  Ancient  ilc- 
brewe,  ISC,  II. 

K.  B. 

In    Rabbinical    Literature :     Acconlinir  to 

the  raliliis  (Lev.  |{.  .\.,  Ilccl.  iv.  i.  I )  Aiiios  was  iiick- 
numed  "tlic  stutterer"  liy  a  iiopular  etyinoloity. 
'I'he  i)eople,  on  liearlnir  liis  bitter  relmkes,  retorted: 
"Has  the  Lord  cast  aside  all  His  cri'atures  to  let  His 
spirit  dwell  only  on  this  stutteierV  " 

I{e;j;ardinK  the  teaehiniis  of  Amos,  the  following 
ntteriince  of  Simlai,  an  anioni  of  the  beginning  of 
the  third  century,  is  noteworthy: 

Si.\  hundred  and  Ihirleeu  commandments  were 
given  to  Moses;  Kinir  David  reduced  them  to  eleven 
(I's.  .\v.):  Isiiiah  to  si.\  (Is;i.  .x.xxiii.  lo);  .Mic  ah  to  three 
(Micah  vi.  H);  Isjiiah,  a  second  time,  to  two  (Isa.  Ivi. 
1);  but  Amos  to  one:  "Seek  Me  ami  Live!"(  Mak.  24rt). 
Accordinir  to  rabbinical  tradition  (Sid;.  ')'i/i.  I'irke  K. 
ha  Kadosli,  viii..  based  on  Micah  v.  5  [4]),  Amos  is 
one  of  the  "eight  princes  among  men  "  alluded  to  in 
Micah,  V.  5.  K. 

Aceordimr  to  rabbinical  tradition.  .\mos  was  killed 
by  Iviiii;  l'//iali.whoslruek  him  on  the  forelie.'id  with 
a  plowiufT  iron  (Ciedaliuh  ilm  Yaliyah  in  his"Slial- 
.shelet  lia- Kabbalah,"  (|U(>ted  by  Heilpriii  in  "Seder 
lia-Dorot,"  i.  3110.  Venetian  ed.  of  l.'iMT,  does  not 
mention  anything  of  this). 

The  story  of  the  martyrdom  of  Amos,  f<]Uiid  in 
the  pseudo-Epiphanean  writings  ("Vita  Propheta- 
rum  "),  is  somewhat  (lilTerent ;  according  to  this  ver- 
sion, Amos  was  killed  by  a  blow  on  the  temiile  struck 
by  Ama/.iah.  priest  of  IJeth  el.  I..   G. 

AMOS,  BOOK  OF  :  This  Biblical  book,  one  of 
the  twelve  .sii  ( ;illii|  "  Minor  I'rii]iliets,"  opens  with 
the  announcement  of  God's  intention  to  ]iunish  evil- 
doers (i.  2).  Damascus  (i.  ;)-">),  Gaza  (i.  (>-!().  Tyre  (i. 
9,  10),  Edomti.  11,  Vi).  Ammon  (i.  Ki-l.")),  Mo"ab(ii. 
1-3),  and  .Iiidah  are  taken  up  in  turn  until  Israel 
(ii.  6)  is  reached.  The  jiropliet  is  vehement  because 
the  crimes  of  the  people  have  been  committed  in  the 
face  of  the  fact  that  God  re<leemed  His  i)eoi)le  from 
Egypt  (ii.  10),  destroyed  the  Amorites(ii.  0),  aii<l  sent 
jirophets  (ii.  11)  whom,  however,  Israel  would  not 
allow  to  prophesy  (ii.  Vi).  In  the  third  and  fourth 
chapters  the  pniphet  addres.ses  himself  direelly  to  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  The  nations  are  summoned  to  the 
mountains  of  Samaria  to  witness  the  wrongs  there 
practised  (iii.  i)).  The  puidshnient  that  is  impending 
will  be  so  severe  that  only  few  will  escaiie  (iii.  12). 
Because  of  the  women  of  Samaria,  who  were  cruel  to 
the  poor  and  the  needy  (iv.  1),  prosperity  will  cease 
(iv.  2l,  and  not  even  saeritice  will  avail  (iv.  4.  '>).  God 
lm<l  tried  to  teach  Israel  by  allliclion ;  but  neithir 
famine,  drought,  blasting  of  the  cro|is.  attacks  of  in- 
.secls.  pestiliiice.  defeat  in  war(iv.  tl-10).  nor  even 
treatment  like  that  of  Sodom  could  induce  Israel  to 
repent.  Complete  destruction,  therefore,  is  foretold 
(v.  1-3). 

In  vain  docs  the  prophet  ndmonisli  Ismel  to  seek  the 
Lord,  not  Bethel  (v.  4-(l).  Sanniria  persists  iu  being 
wicked  and  un  ju.st  (v.  7,  W).  Once  more  I  hi' prophet 
calls  ujion  Isniil  to  repent  (v.  14):  ami.  as  before, 
Israel  fails  to  ilo  so.  Besides  injustice  and  irr(4ig- 
ion,  Israel  indulges  in  luxiiricnis  and  riotous  living 


(vi,  1-6).  This,  too,  is  a  factor  which  inevitably  leads 
to  captivity  (vi.  7). 

With  dial),  ^'i-  hegins  a  series  of  visions,  which 
continues  to  dial).  '■'^-  "•  '^  plague  of  grasshoppers 
(vii.  1-3)  and  a  lire  (vii.  4-6)  an;  followed  by  a  tliird 
plague;  and  the  plumb-line  is  set  upa.irainst  the  city 
and  against  the  family  of  Jeroboam  (vii.  7-9).  The 
prophet's  audacity  brings  upon  him  the  hostility  of 
the  reigning  house;  and  he  is  ordered  to  confine  his 
prophetical  activity  to  the  laud  of  his  birth,  Ju- 
dali.  Amos  disclaims  being  a  prophet,  or  the  son  of 
a  luopliet.  and  reiterates  the  certainty  of  coming  mis- 
fortuiie(vii.  10-17).  The  last  vision,  representing  God 
Himself  standing  at  the  altar  and  announcing  the  ter- 
ribh;  cataslro])he  (i.\.  1-6),  emphasizes  the  liopclcss- 
ness  of  escape  from  divine  vengeance.  The  book  ends 
(ix.  7-15)  in  words  of  comfort.  The  remnant  shall 
return  and  in  the  future  the  land  will  yield  abun- 
dantly (IH-l.')).  For  critical  view  of  the  Book  of 
Amos,  see  Amos,  G.  B.  L. 

AMOZ :  Father  of  the  prophet  Isaiah.   See  Is.\iaii. 

AMRAM  :  One  of  the  sons  of  Bani  mentioned  in 
Ezra  \.  )!4.  in  the  list  of  those  liaving  foreign  wives 
(I  Esd.  i.\.  31 ;  Omarus:  R.V.,  Ismarus).  In  the  Au- 
thorized Version.  "  Aniram  "  is  given  also  in  I  Chron. 
i.  41  as  the  name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Dishon.  The 
Heviseil  Version,  however,  renders  this  "Hamran." 
which  is  more  in  accordance  with  the  original.  In 
this  connectiim  see  He.md.\.n.  J.   D.  P. 

AMRAM,  FATHER  OF   MOSES.-Biblical 

Data:  .\  sou  of  Kohatli.  and  grandson  iif  Levi.  He 
married  his  own  aunt.  Jodiebed,  Kohath's  sister,  by 
whom  he  became  the  father  of  Jloses,  Aaron,  and 
Miriam  (E.v.  vi.  18-20:  Xuni.  iii.  19.  x.wi.  08;  I 
Chron.  vi.  2.  3.  IS).  From  him  were  descended  the 
Anuamites,  a  Koliathite  branch  of  the  tribe  of  Levi. 
This  family  is  mentioned  in  the  record  of  the  Mosaic 
census  (Xum.  iii.  27)  and  in  I  Chron.  .x.xvi.  23,  where 
is  given  the  account  of  the  organization  of  the  I^c- 
vites  in  David's  time  (see  Moses).  J.  D.  P. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature :  'When  Jochebed, 

dautrlitir  of  Levi — born  on  the  ilav  when  Jacob 
entered  Egyi)t  with  his  family  (B."  B.  120i/,  123/); 
Gen.  K.  c.xiv. ) — was  over  one  hundred  and  twenty 
years  oUl.  Amrain,  her  nephew — born  on  the  same  day 
as  she.  according  to  the  Testament  of  the  Patriarchs 
(Levi,  xii.) — married  her(Ex.  K.  i.):  and  she  bore  him 
a  daughter  called  >Iiriam  (;«///•=: bitterness)  because 
of  theembitterment  of  life  which  had  then  begim  for 
the  Jews,  and  a  son  named  Aaron  (derived  from  Imrnh, 
to  conceive)  because  every  expectant  mother  feared 
for  her  child.  But  whin  l'!iaraoli  issued  the  edict 
that  every  niali'  child  was  to  lie  cast  into  the  river, 
Ammm  separated  him.self  from  his  wife,  saying, 
"Why  should  we  beget  sons  that  are  to  be  killed  '/" 
His  example  as  head  of  the  Jewish  high-court  was 
followed  by  the  others.  TIk'U  his  daughter  Miriam 
reproached  him,  .saving  to  him:  "Thy  cruelly  ex- 
ceeds even  that  of  Pharaoh!"  Whereupon  Aniram 
celebrated  for  a  second  time  his  wedding  with  his 
wife,  who.  though  one  hundred  and  thirty  years  old, 
had  under  the  nuptial  eaiiopv  become  like  a  young 
maiden,  .\aronand  .Miriam  danced  before  her.  while 
angels  sjuig.  "  .V  joyous  mother  of  children  " — Psalm 
cxiii.  9  (So(ali.  12<i).  Aiuram's  example  hail  a  good 
elTeet  upon  idl,  but  upon  >Iiriam  came  the  spirit  of 
propliecv,  and  she  said:  "Mv  mother  will  give  birth 
to  one  will)  will  redeem  Israel  from  bondage!"  And 
when,  at  the  l)irtli  of  Moses,  the  house  was  tilled  with 
liu'ht  as  on  the  lirsl  day  of  Cnuition  when  (tod  spoke, 
"Behold.  It  is  good!"  (Cien.  i.  4,  Ex.  ii.  2),  Amnim 
exclaimed:  "My  daughter,   thy   prophecy  is  being 


Amram,  David  Werner 
Amrain  ben  Sbeshna 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


534 


f  ultilli'«l !  "  But  when  Moses  wsis  placed  by  his  mother 
in  an  iirk  in  Ihc  river.  Aninim  again  cried  out :  "  O  my 
duuirhter.  whiil  lias  become  of  lliy  prophecy?" 
Wliercfore  Miriam  remained  standing  on  tlie  shore 
watcliing  what  "would  be  done  unto  him  in  the  far- 
off  lime  "  (Sojah,  Vi-i). 

The  llaggadah  has  besides  nuich  to  relate  of  Am- 
nim.  the  father  of  Moses,  that  is  not  even  referred  to 
in  the  Biblical  story.  Amram,  like  Jesse  the  father 
of  David  umd  Benjamin  the  son  of  Jacob,  and  Kilab 
the  son  of  David),  died  without  sin;  or,  as  Ihc  ex- 
pression is,  "owing  only  to  the  clTecl  of  the  poisi>n 
of  the  serpent."  t'onseiiuently  he  was  one  of  those 
■whose  bodv  did  not  fall  a  prey  to  worms  or  decay 
(B.  B.  17(/, "Derek  Erez  Zutta,  i.").  He  was,  like  Ahi- 
jahof  Shiloli,  one  of  the  long-lived  saints  whose  life 
extended  over  many  .general  ions  of  Jews,  to  whom  he 
became  a  transmitter  of  ancient  lore.  He  instructed 
even  Ahi,jali.the  iirophet.in  the  doctrines  taught  bv 
the  patriarch  Jacob.  Being  the  son  of  Koliath,  who, 
though  the  second  son  of  Levi,  was  the  one  chosen 
to  "  lead  the  assemblies  of  people  in  worship  "  ( =ke- 
hat  'annnimjand  therefore,  the  real  heir  to  Levi,  the 
tenth  one  (beginning  the  comit  from  the  yoimgest) 
of  the  twelve  tribes  and  for  this  reason  the  conse- 
crated bearer  of  Abraham's  blessings  and  Jacob's 
traditions  (Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs, 
Levi,  xi. :  Book  of  Jubilees,  x.wii. ;  Gen.  R.  l.\x. ),  Am- 
ram was  the  "chief  of  his  generation"  (Sotali.  Viti). 
When  war  broke  out  between  Egy]it  and  Canaan, 
and  the  Israelites  saw  this  to  be  the  (>p|iortuuity  for 
taking  the  bones  of  all  the  sons  of  Jacob  (excejil  Jo- 
seph's) to  the  Holy  Land  and  burying  Ihem  in  the 
cave  of  Machpelali,  Amram  was  one  of  those  who 
took  part  in  the  sacred  task,  and,  while  most  of  the 
people  returned  to  E.ir.vpt,  he  with  a  few  others  re- 
mained for  a  long  time  in  the  city  of  Hebron  (Book 
of  Jubilees,  xlvi.  11). 

Buii.iocKAPnv:  Beer,  Lchcn  ilmes  itraemenl).  In  Jnhrhuch 
fUr  JUilische  (iiKch.  uml  Litt.  1v,;  Baring-Cioiild,  Legends 
itf  the  O.  T.  Patriorchi*^  pp.  2iXl  rt  nen. :  CJirntucte  of  it/'Wfji, 
ih  Jplllnek,  li.  11. 11.  2;  Cfiroiiirle  of  Jerahmecl,  translated 

1)T  (iilsliT.  p.  1(10. 

K. 

AMRAM,  DAVID  'WERNER  :  American  law- 
yer; son  of  Werner  Davi<l  Amram:  born  at  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  in  18G6:  educated  at  the  public  scliools 
and  at  the  Hugby  Academy  in  Philadelphia,  and  in 
the  Collegiate  and  Law  departments  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  frnm  which  he  received  the 
degrees  of  A.>I.  and  LL.B.  He  practises  as  an  at- 
torney at  law  in  Pliiladeli)liia. 

Mr.  Amram  has  held  numerous  positions  in  the  Jew  - 
ish  community,  such  as  president  of  the  Philadelphia 
Young  Men's  Hebrew  Association:  director  of  the 
Hebrew  Education  Society  of  Philadelphia  :  member 
of  the  publicaticm  committee  of  the  Jewish  Publica- 
tion Society  of  America  :  diiTctorof  the  Jewish  Chaii- 
tauipia  Society;  directorof  the  American  Federation 
of  Zionists:  trustee  of  the  Gratz  College.  Jlr.  Am- 
ram is  a  prolific  writer  on  Jewish  topics.  His  princi- 
pal work  is  "The  Jewish  Law  of  Divorce  according 
to  Bible  and  Talmud  "  (Philadelphia.  ISSKi).  He  has 
also  published  a  volume  of  jioems  and  sketches  and 
has  contributed  to  many  of  the  publications  of  the 
day,  most  of  his  themes  having  some  bearing  on  or 
connection  with  Jewish  law.  A. 

AMRAM  5ASIDA  (The  Pious) :  A  Babylo- 
nian aninra  of  llii>  I  bird  ueiination  (fourth  century), 
a  contemporary  of  ]{.  Nahnian  (B.  B.  l")!").  In  ad- 
dition to  hisscruptilousness  in  ritualistic  observances 
(Suk.  llrt).  he  owes  his  surname  to  his  action  at  a 
moment  of  great  temptation,  when,  to  ssive  himself 
from  sin,  he  called  for  help  by  giving  an  alarm  of 


Arc.  When  his  colleagues  complained  that  he  had 
exposed  Ihem  to  shame,  he  replied,  "It  is  better  that 
you  be  put  to  shame  on  my  ilccouni  in  this  worlil  than 
that  you  be  ashamed  of  me  in  the  world  to  ionic.  " 
Legend  adds  thai  Amram  C(jnju red  t  he  lempter within 
him  to  depart;  whereupon  something  like  a  pillar 
of  tire  came  forth,  and  Amram.  glorying  in  his  vic- 
tory, exclaimed.  "  Behold,  thou  art  of  lire,  and  I  am  of 
tlesh.  yet  I  am  stronger  than  thou  art"  (Kid.  81<i). 
His  extreme  piety  made  him  the  tar.sct  of  sport  for 
members  of  tlie  hmisehold  of  the  exilarch  ;  acid  their 
brutal  treatment  made  him  seriously  ill ;  but  Yalta. 
Nahnian's  wife,  herself  a  member  of  the  exilarch's 
family,  cured  him  (Gil.  (iTft),  S.  M. 

AMRAM,  9A"5rYIM  :  Commentator  who  lived 
ill  Palrstiiie  ill  the  liist  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. He  puljlished  "  Korban  Pesah  "  (Pa.s.sover  Of- 
fering), a  commentary  on  the  Passover  Haggadah 
(Legiioru,  183G). 
BiBLio(;RArHY  :  Stelaschneider,  Cat.  Bodt.  ool.  823. 

M.  B. 

AMRAM.   IBN.     See  Joski-k  tun  Amu.oi. 

AMRAM  BEN  ISAAC  IBN  SHALBIB  (or 
SHALIB)  :  Ambassador  of  .\lfoiiso  VI.,  of  Leon 
and  Castile,  in  the  eleventh  century.  The  position 
occupied  by  the  Jews  in  Christian  Spain  toward 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  may  be  gathered 
from  a  statement  made  by  Alfonso  VI.  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  Moslem  adversaries.  "The  Jews,"  he 
said,  "furnish  our  viziers,  chancellors,  and  most  of 
the  ollicers  of  the  army,  and  we  can  not  do  without 
them"("Abd  alWahid  alMairakoshi,"  ed.  Dozy, 
p.  93).  This  statement  is  substantiated  by  tin-  fact 
that  Alfonso  actually  employed  a  Jewish  diploma- 
tist, to  whom  Arab  authors  give  the  name  of  Ibn 
Shalbib  (or  Shalib).  The  records  relating  to  his  his- 
tory are  defective  and  divergeni,  and  agree  on  one 
point  only,  that  in  H)H~>  he  acted  as  Alfonso's  ambas- 
sador to  Almu'tamid,  the  last  Abbasid  calif  who 
resided  in  Seville.  Ibn  Shalbib  is  ])robably  identical 
with  Amram  ben  Isaac,  whom  Leo  Afrieaiius  (Eab- 
ricius.  "Bibliotheca  Gra'ca.'' 2d  ed.,  ITilO-lSll,  xiii. 
295)  connects  with  the  .same  affair.  One  aiith(ir(Ibn 
al-Labbana)  relates  that  Ibn  Shalbib  came  to  Seville, 
accompanied  by  a  numberof  kni.irhts.  lo  demand  the 
tribute  due  to  Alfonso.  Anothi'r  makes  him  the 
bearer  of  a  nies.sage  to  the  priiie<' asking  him  for  a 
residence  for  Alfonso's  wife,  Al  Zalira.  who  was  the 
dau.irliter  of  the  Arab  prince  Amram.  Ilin  Shalbil) 
had  to  ]>ay  with  his  life  for  the  arrogant  mannc-r  in 
wliicii  he  delivered  his  messa.sre.  The  circumstances 
of  his  death  are,  however,  very  uncertain.  While, 
according  to  Ihc  first  report,  he  was  nailed  lo  a 
stake,  the  second  states  that  Almu'tamid  brained  him 
with  a  heavy  inkstand.  Ibn  al-Alhir  ("Chronicoii," 
X.  93  ct  so/.)  also  mentions  the  embassy,  bul  without 
ilisclosing  the  name  of  the  messenger.  Concerning 
lliii  .'^halbili's  diatli  he  gives  a  third  version ;  viz., 
that  the  prince  struck  his  face  till  his  eyes  protruded. 
His  companions  also,  with  the  exception  of  three  who 
escaped,  were  jnit  to  death.  However  uncertain  the 
details  of  the  eniba.ssy.  it  Tindoubtedly  had  far-reac-h- 
ing  consequences:  for  Almu'tamid  sent  to  Yusuf  ibn 
Taslitin.  llie  founder  of  the  Almoravid  dynasty  in 
Africa,  askin.ir  his  assistance  against  Alfon.so.  whoso 
revenge  he  feared.  This  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
Almoravid  eoncinest  of  Spain.  Ibn  Shalbib's  re- 
pute as  a  skilful  physician  can  not  be  substantiated 
from  Arabic  sources,  as  his  name  is  not  to  be  found 
in  Ibn  Abi  Oscibia's  or  similar  works. 

BiBLiOGRAPUT :  (Jratz,  (Jtfch.  d.  Juden.  vl.  421  ct  mg. 

H.  HiR. 


835 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amram,  David  Werner 
Amram  ben  Sheshna 


AMRAM  OF  JERUSALEM  :  Two  splmlars 
an-  known  uuilcr  tliis  iiainc.  1.  A  contcmpomry  of 
Kaslii  (cli'Vciilli  century),  who  inaiiitiiiiicd  a  It'anicd 
corri'SiioiKlcncr  with  Sariiucl  liaKolicn.  2.  A  scholar 
who  lived  a  hundred  years  later  and  was  in  corre- 
spondence with  Alirahani  ben  David  03  SI)- 
BiBLIOiiRAPllv  :  .Ui.mi(sti()iri/(,  xll.  'Jt»>;  Ziinz,  S.  /'.  U12. 

J.   S.    H. 

AMRAM  OF  MAYENCE  (MENTZ):  A  sjiinl 
and  ralihiiil'  wlium  tile  rnlluwinic  le.ixeiMlistold.  After 
liavintr  heen  the  head  of  a  school  at  .Mayeiiee,  his  na- 
tive place,  he  went  to  ('oloi::ne  to  found  a  school.  A.s 
liis  end  drew  near,  he  e.\i)ressed  to  his  ])ii])ils  the  de- 
sire to  be  buried  with  liis  fathers  in  Mayence,  but 
feariiifr  olistaeles,  they  hesitaleil  to  promise  to  fullil 
his  wishes.  Thereupon  he  ordered  them  lo  [ilaee  his 
colIin  ii|)on  a  boat  on  the  Rhine,  and  let  it  go  forth 
alone.  This  they  did.  but  no  sooner  was  the  bodj- 
of  the  .saint  put  iiito  the  l)oat  than,  to  the  .great  aston- 
ishment of  all  the  people,  it  look  its  course  up  the 
Rhine,  and  without  boatmen  or  rudder  made  for  tlie 
city  of  Mayence  and  turned  toward  thi'  shore.  All 
the  inhabitants  came  to  see  the  wondrous  sight,  and 
marveli'd  who  the  saint  might  be  that  ))erformed 
such  miracles  even  when  dead.  At  last  the  Jews 
learned  of  the  death  of  the  master  of  Cologne,  and 
they  took  the  body  ashore,  desiring  to  honor  him  by 
solemn  f)bseindes  in  the  syna.ii"ogue.  15ut  the  Chris- 
tian bislio))  objected,  claiming  him  as  a  s;iint  of  the 
Church  and  giving  orders  to  bury  him  as  a  Chris- 
tian. Another  miracle  followed.  The  body  became 
so  heavy  that  none  could  move  it  from  the  spot. 
Straightway  the  bishop  ordered  that 
Amram's     a  church  should  be  Iniilt  directly  over 

Church.  the  body  of  \\w  saint,  and  set  watch- 
men to  guard  it,  lest  the  Jews  should 
take  it  away  by  .stealth.  Then  the  siiint  appeared 
in  a  vision  to  liis  pupils  in  Cologne,  and  told  them 
to  liave  his  bo<ly  taken  at  midnight  while  the  watch- 
men were  aslee]),  and  to  put  another  corpse  in  its 
place  ;  w  hieh  they  did. 

This  legend  was  still  narrated  at  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century  as  an  a<tual  occurrence;  and 
a  pictorial  representation  on  an  old  house  near  one  of 
the  gatesof  Mayence,  close  to  the  shore  of  tlie  river, 
was  shown  to  iiluslrale  the  fact.  The  name  of  the 
church  was  St.  Kmmeran's  Church.  Teiidlau  ("liuch 
(1.  Sagen  u.  I.egendeii  Ji'idischer  Vor/.eit";  "DieAm- 
nim's  Kirche."  pp.  !)-l."))  refers  in  a  note  (p.  ii'iA)  to 
the  "Shalshelet  iia-Kabbalal.i  "  anil  other  sources, 
■wondering  how  the  s;ime  story  could  have  lieen  told 
of  R.  .\inram  of  Regensburg( instead  of  Cologne)  in 
one  of  the  •■  .Maasebl'ieher"  (books  of  legends),  lie 
certainly  liacl  no  knowledgeof  the  strange  fact  that, 
in  connection  with  St.  I'.mmeran's  Church  near  Re- 
penslinrg,  I  he  same  story  was  toll  I  by  Christians;  vi/. : 
that  Saint  Emmeran  had  died  in  Munich,  and  that  his 
body  had  been  carried  with  wondrous  rapidity  in  a 
boai  willioul  boatmen  from  the  river  Isar  up  the 
Danube  to  Regensburg,  when'  in  honor  of  the  saint 
the  eliapil  was  erected  (see  Panzer,  "  Hairische  Sa- 
gen," i.  ■i'i\).  Sininpely  enough,  the  Jews  were  es- 
pecially held  up  lo  reproach  for  not  liellevhig  this 
miracle  regarding  St.  Kmmeran's  Church  (see  Perl/., 
"  .Monumiiita  (Jirniaida'."  vi.  .'">l!»,  i|Uoteil  by  Cassel. 
arlicle  ".luileii."  in  Krsch  uiid  (iruber.  p.  (>7.  note  .'itil. 
In  all  probability  the  .lew  isli  leL'enil  was  liurroweil 
from  the  Chi isi Ian,  and  Kinmeraii  transformed  into 
Amram;  nothing  else  lieing  known  of  R.  .Vninim, 
either  in  .Mayence,  Cologne,  or  Regensluirg.  Moses 
Sofer  takes  jiiin  for  Amram  (Jaon,  and  says  Ihal  he 
saw  his  grave  ill  Mayence  C  Ilatam  Sofer,  Onil.i  l.lay- 
yim,"  p.  10).     Concerning  Ihe  origin  of  the  old  Ten 


tonic  legend,  see  Liebreclit's  edition  of  Gervasius  of 
Tilbury  •(Jlia  Iniperialia."  p.  149;  Mannhardt,"Ger- 
nianische  Mythen."  p.  360;  compare  also  Uscner's 
"Sinttlutsagen."    See  A.mnon  of  M.wexce.     K. 

AMRAM,  NATHAN  BEN  HAYYIM  :  Pal- 
estinian Mhi'lar  and  author  wlio  lloiirishrd  at  He- 
bron in  the  second  (juarter  of  Ihe  nineteenth  century. 
Amram  was  selected  by  tlie  Sephardic  communilies 
of  Palestine  as  European  a.i;ent  to  collect  moneys 
for  them.  He  wrote:  fjlj  ]'jp  ("  The  Aciiuisilion  of 
Properly"),  containing  notes  on  Caro's  "Shulhaiv 
'Aruk,  lloshen  Mishpat  "  (Leghorn,  183(1) ;  niTS  j'Jp 
("The  Attainment  of  Prints"),  a  ritual  wmk  al- 
phabetically arranged  (Leghorn,  184IJV);  nnm  TV 
("  .Might  and  Joy  "),  a  collection  of  essjiyson  the  kill 
ingof  Abel  by  Cain,  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and 
on  various  litur.irical  questions  (Amsterdam,  1842); 
3nt  niXatitD  ("Ouchesof  CJold  "),  res]>on.sa  on  certain 
aspectsof  ihelawof  iidieritance ( Leghorn,  1S,")1) ;  Qjjj 
nnon  ("The  Ueauly  of  a  Moral  Life"),  a  compila- 
tion of  ethical  views,  aphorisms,  and  sayings,  alpha- 
betically arranged  (Salonica,  1854).  He  al.so  edited 
anil  prefaced  several  works  of  earlier  writers. 

Bibliography:  Zedner.  Cat.  Ihhr.  »»*,<  Brit.  Mm.  p.  47; 
Itoeiit,  Cataloyue  of  Biblical  Lihrani,  1.  65. 

M.  H. 

AMRAM,  RAB  :  A  Babylonian  amora  of  the 
third  griirralioii  iloiirth  century);  contem]iorary  of 
Hisda.  Nahman.  and  Abba  l)arM'emel(I$.  15.  TOif,  Ket. 
itb/.  Ver.  B.  M.  i.  7(/).  Anu'am  is  better  known  in 
the  domain  of  the  llalakah  than  in  the  field  of  the 
Ibm^uadah,  though  even  in  the  former  he  is  but  rarely 
oriyinal  ('Er.  Win:  Pes.  10,>(;  Yoma,  7S</ ;  Git.  264; 
Shebu.  11/-;  H"!-  52'':  Bek.  27i/;  Yer.  ]\Iak.  i.  aii;; 
Y'er.  Shell,  x.  ^iHc).  It  is  related  that  in  the  course  of 
a  controver.sy  between  Rab  Amram  and  Rabbah.  the 
latter  had  advanced  a  legal  ojiinion.  when  the  former 
deftly  inter|iiised  a  number  of  objections.  Rabbah, 
in  his  imiiatience,  called  his  adversary  a  fool;  where- 
uiion  a  cedar  jiillar  in  the  college  buildin.ir  cracked, 
and  <ach  jiarty  to  the  controver.sy  construed  the 
occurrence  as  a  heavenlv  sign  of  his  havinir  been 
wronged  by  the  other  (IS".  M.iOA).  S     M. 

AMRAM  IBN  SALAMEH  IBN  GHAZAL 
HA-KOHEN  HA-LEVI:  .Samaritan  litur.Lncal 
jioel.  .\  niiniliirot  ]irayrrsby  himare  incorporated 
in  a  liturgy,  a  fragment  of  which  is  in  the  Bodleian 
Library  alOxford.  England.  They  consist  of  hymns 
for  the  ten  penilenlial  days,  for  both  Ihe  morning 
and  Ihe  evening  services,  as  well  as  lituriiic  poems 
for  the  seven  days  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
morninir  and  eveiiinff.  Compare  Neiibauer,  "Cat. 
Bodl.  I'lebr.  MSS."  No.  2."i37.  p.  2. 

II    r.    r. 

AMRAM  BEN  SHESHNA  .r  SHUSHNA 
(kiinu  II  a^  Amram  Gaon  oi  Mar-Amram);  lle.-id 
of  the  Sura  .\ra(liiii,\  ;  diiil  about  S7."i.  llr  was  a  pupil 
of  Natronai  11.,  Gaon  of  Sura,  and  wa.s  exception- 
ally honored  with  the  title  of  G.\()N  within  Ihe  life- 
lime  of  liis  leaeiier.  Lpon  Xatronai's  death,  aboiil 
W",  the  full  title  and  dignities  of  Ihe  gaonate  were 
conferred  upon  Amram,  and  he  held  lliein  until  his 
death.  He  is  Ihe  author  of  about  12(1  resimiisa  (llie 
grialer  pari  published  in  Salonica,  17!t2.  in  Ihe  col- 
lection entitled  "Sliaare  Zedik")  loiKliing  almost 
every  deparlineiit  of  Jewish  jurisprudence.  They 
arc  (if  gnat  value  in  alTording  an  insight  into  .\in- 
ram's  pei-sonalily  as  well  as  into  the  religious coiiili- 
lionsiimong  the  Jewsof  llial  period.  The  followiiijr 
deeisiiins  will  serve  in  illustration:  Interest  may  not 
be  exacled  even  from  nmiJews,  nor  even  such  minor 
protils  as  the-  Talmud  designates  as  fl'TT  p3S  ("  t'le 


Amram  ben  Sheshna 
Amsterdam 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


536 


dust  (if  intcn'sl").  Ilii'se  l)oinjr  iiUowed  ouly  when 
custonmry  in  non-Jew isli  business  circles  ("Slin'are 
Zedek."  iv. 2. '^0,4(1).  It  is  clmriieteristicnf  Animm's 
inetliiid  to  avoid  extreme  rigor;  tlnis  lie  deeidis  timt 
n  slave  who  has  enihraced  Judaism,  Init  desires  to 
postpone  the  neeessjiry  eircumeisioii  until  he  feels 
stronj;  enough  for  it. is  not  to  be  hurried  ((V<.  iv.lJ.ll). 
He  combats  superstition,  and  places  himself  almost 
in  opposition  to  the  Talmud,  when  he  protests  that 
there  is  no  sense  in  fasting  on  account  of  bad  dreams, 
since  the  true  nattire  of  dreams  is  not,  known  (Tur, 
Oral.!  l.Iayyini,  ^  oOS).  Auuam's  rules  concerning 
the  met  hodol- 
ogy  of  the  Tal- 
mud are  of  con- 
siderable value 
(Mueller,  "Maf- 
teal.i,"  p.  123). 

But  the  most 
important  work 
of  A  m  r  a  m  . 
which  marks 
him  as  one  of 
the  most  promi- 
nent of  the  geo- 
nim  before  Saa- 
dia,  is  his  "Pray- 
er-book," the 
so-called  "Sid 
dur  Rab  Am- 
ram." Amram 
was  the  lirst  to 
arrange  a  com- 
plete liturgy 
for  use  in  syn- 
agogue and 
liome.  His  book 
forms  the  foun- 
dation both  of 
theSpanish-Por- 
tuguese  and  of 
the  Ge  r  ma  n  - 
Polish  liturgies. 
and  has  exerted 
great  influence 
upon  Jewish  re- 
ligious   practise 

and  ceremonial  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  an 
influence  which  to  some  extent  is  still  felt  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  For  Amniin  did  not  content  himself  with 
giving  the  mere  text  of  the  prayers,  but  in  a  species  of 
running  commentary  added  very  many  Talmudical 
and  gaonic  regulations  relating  to  them  and  theiral- 
lied  ceremonies.  His  "Prayer-book,"  which  was 
made  familiar  by  the  many  extracts  cpioted  from  it 
by  the  liturgical  writers  of  the  .Middle  Ages,  and 
which  served  as  I  he  model  f(M"Saadia'sand  Maimoni- 
des'  own  praj'er  riluals.  was  publisheil  complete  for 
the  first  time  in  Warsjiw,  in  the  year  0185.  by  N.  N. 
Coronel,  under  the  title,  "Seder  jlab  Amram  Gaon." 
The  work  as  jniblished  is  composed  of  two  parts. 
The  second  part  containing  the  selihol  (proi)itiatory 
pniyers)  and  pizmohint  (liturgical  poems)  for  the 
mouth  of  Elul.  for  Xew  Year  and  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, is  certainly  not  the  work  of  Anuam,  but  ap- 
pears to  belong  to  a  nuich  later  period.  Even  the 
lirst  portion,  which  contains  the  prayers  proper,  is 
full  of  interpolations,  some  of  which,  as  the  "Ke- 
dushah"  (Sanctification)  for  private  prayer,  are  evi- 
dently later  additions  in  the  manuscripts.  But  not 
much  weight  can  be  attached  even  to  portions  of 
the  book  which  are  specifically  given  under  the  name 
of  Anuam;  many  of  the  explanations  are  certainly 
not  b}'  him,  but  by  the  academical  copyists  who  ap- 


Sculptured  Slab  Showing  Efllgy  of  Hammurabi  or  Amraphel, 

(From  Hall,  "  Liubt  from  Ihe  East.") 


pended  his  name  to  them,  speaking  of  him  in  the 
third  person.  These  explanations  of  the  prayers 
make  no  reference  to  any  authorities  later  than  tho 
following:  Natronai  II.,  Amram's  teacher  (17  times), 
Shalom.  Natronai's  predecessor  in  the  gaonate  (7 
times).  .luilah.  I'alloi.  Zadok.  and  Moses,  geonim  be- 
fore Amram  (once  each)  Cohen  Zedek  (twice),  Nah- 
shon  and  Zemal.i,  cont<'mporaries  of  Anu'am  (twice 
each),  and  Xatlian  of  ludinown  date.  Thi-  ouly 
authority  mentioned  of  later  dale  than  Amram  is 
Saadia  (p.  4A).  This  indicates  that  the  additions  to 
the  text   of   tho  ju-siyers  nuist   have  originated   in 

Amnim's  time, 
rerlainty  on  this 
head,  however, 
can  only  be  ob- 
tained by  acom- 
jiarison  of  the 
printed  text 
with  the  manu- 
scripts; that  of 
.Vlmanzi. accord- 
ing to  the  speci- 
mens given  by 
Luzzatto.  varies 
cons  id  era  hi y 
from  the  printed 
text.  Israel  bea 
Todros  (1305) 
mentions  .some 
iizltarot  as  hav- 
ing been  com- 
posed by  Am- 
r a m ;  but  no 
I  race  of  these 
can  now  be 
found  (see  Xeu- 
bauer,  in  "Jew. 
(Juart.  Kev."  vi. 
703). 

HiHi.iOfiR.vPHV:  lia- 
iM.|io  rt, Itihkure 
It  n  -'  It  t  i  in,  X . 
(I.s2ft) :)ii.  :t7;  Eiii- 
hitunu  zuin  Ptir- 
chmi,  .\1.  note; 
Iteiriiiatin,  y.um^ 
II.  ltv>;  I.uzzallo, 
In  Liti-raturhl. 
(I.  Orirnt^:  vill.  3!)0-297,  .■ai-ffiS;  Slclnschneiilcr.  Cut.  Jlmll. 
col.  MV.i;  liriitz,  fhneh.  (I.  J«</i», -'<l  I'.l..  v.  x'-tit.  47S ;  Joel 
Mueller.  Maitcalj.  np.  121-129.  ami  llahihul  Pcsulfnt,  p.  4; 
Is.  Halevv,  D'lritt  lnj-Iiishnnim,  pp.  '^i  •St'.i:  I.  H.  Weiss, 
Dor,  iv.  117-122.  ,      „ 

AMRAM  B.  SIMON  B.  ABBA  :  The  son  of  a 

scliolar,  and  the  in  pliew  of  U.  l.Iiyya  ben  Abba;  he 
Seems  to  have  remained  without  distinction  in  tho 
scholarly  world.  His  name  is  fmly  connected  with 
two  homilelic  observations  which  he  quotes  in  the 
name  of  R.  Hanina  (Sanli.  Wa,  Shab.  119i). 

S.  M. 
AMRAPHEL.— Biblical  Data  :  A  king  of  Shi- 
nar  (tien.  \iv.  1.  'Ji,  who  in  vailed  ilie  West  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Chedorlaomer.  king  of  Elam,  and  others, 
and  destroyed  Sodom.  The  identity  of  the  name  has 
long  been  a  subject  of  controversy  among  A.s.syriolo- 
gists,  ami  is  not  even  yet  estal)li.--hed  to  the  Siitisfac- 
tionof  all  scholars.  Sehrader  was  the  first  to  suggest 
("Cuneiforni  Inscriptionsand  the  Old  Testjunent."  ii. 
299  tt  «('/.)  that  Amraphel  was  Hanunurabi,  king  of 
Babylon,  the  sixth  king  in  the  first  dynasty  of  Baby- 
lon. This  is  now  the  prevailing  view  among  both 
.Vssyriologistg  aiul  Old  Testament  scholars.  The 
transformation  of  the  name  Hammurabi  into  the 
Hebrew  form  Amraphel  is  difficult  of  explanation, 
though  a  partial  clue  is  perhaps  furnished  by  the 


537 


THE  JEWISH  EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Amram  ben  Sheshna 
Amsterdam 


explanation  of  llie  name  in  a  cuneiform  letter  as 
equivalent  to  Kimta  rapaslitu  (great  |)e()ple  or  fam- 
ily). On  this  basis  "  'am  "  =  "  Kimta  "  and  "  rapliel " 
=  "  rapaltu  "  =  "  nipashtu." 

Hammurabi  was  the  founder  of  the  centralized 
kinjrdom  of  Babylonia,  with  the  capital  at  the  city 
of  Babylon.  The  lenjjth  of  his  reigu  is  given  in  tlie 
native  list  of  kings  as  tifty-five  3-ears,  but  this  long 
period  is  not  perfectly  certain,  as  a  recently  discov- 
ered chronicle  throws  doubt  upon  some  figures  in 
the  king-list  from  which  the  number  tifty-five  is  ob- 
tained, and  puts  llie  Icngtii  of  his  reign  at  forty-three 
years.  The  period  at  wliich  Hanunurabi  reigned 
is  al.so  the  subject  of  much  dispute.  Sayce  locates 
ins  reign  at  'jyTIi-;!;}  n.c.  ("Early  Israel."  p.  281),  on 
the  basis  of  the  native  sources,  and  counting  the  sec- 
ond dynasty  witli  its  long  reigns  (for  example,  sixty, 
tifty-six,  fifty-live,  fifty  years)  as  of  equal  historical 
character  with  the  first.  Lchmann  ("Zwei  Haupt- 
probleme  der  Altorientalischen  Chronologic  ")  pre- 
fers the  figures  2248-2194,  while  Hommcl  would  still 
further  reduce  them.  The  higher  tlie  figures  the 
more  difficult  is  tlie  i<lenlification  with  Amraphel,  or 
with  the  period  to  wliicli  the  narrative  of  Gen.  xiv. 
is  usually  supposed  to  refer. 

Hammurabi  fiegaii  to  reign  in  Babylon  when  the 
Elamites  were  in  pos.session  of  the  kingdom  of  Sumer 
and  Akkad.  They  were  driven  out  and  the  whole 
country  was  united  under  his  rule.  The  dominion 
thus  set  up  was  strengthened  by  great  works  of 
peace,  the  chief  of  which  were  the  digging  of  a  canal 
at  Babylon  and  the  erection  of  a  great  granary  there ; 
the  building  of  temples  in  Lars;i  and  8ippara,  and 
the  construction  of  the  walls  of  the  latter  city,  "  like 
a  great  mountain."  The  union  of  Babylonia  accom- 
plished by  this  monarch  endure(l  until  the  .scepter 
Iiassed  from  the  Semites  to  the  Persians  in  538  B.C. 
Jlammurabi  himself  was  honored  and  imitated,  even 
to  the  copying  of  his  inscriptions,  by  kings  of  the 
latest  period,  such  as  Nabopolas,sar  and  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (Uogers,  "Outlines  of  History  of  Early  Baby- 
lon," pp.  27-30).  A  eoni|ueror  so  great  as  he  may 
well  have  penetrated  and  conquered  as  far  west  as 
Syria  and  Palestine. 

BiDLiocRAriiv:  Tlelc,  Bahut/yniech-Asgurtsche  Oench.  pp. 
VM).  VM:  WIncklcr,  (iewh.  jfialiuloiwiig  utiil  Atntlrie "k,  pp. 
nn-fti;  liirm,  (ifufh.  IsracU.  I.  1:«).  1:11;  Hi>gers,  JIMnru  nf 
llnbiilonUi  ami  Anxuria.  I.  :i-<s-:fi);) ;  Driver,  In  .liithorilu 
and  Archccobuni,  ed.  by  D.  G.  Hugartli,  pp.  39, 10. 

R.  W.   H. 

In    Babbinical    Literature :     .Veeording  to 

Bab  and  Samuel,  .\mraphi-l  is  identical  with  Nim- 
rod.  Some  sjiy  .Vinraphel  was  his  real  name,  and  he 
was  called  Nimrod.  "thechicf  rebel."  as  leaderof  the 
tiiwer-biillders,  "who  led  the  world  unto  rebellion" 
(oi'ivn  ns  TIOD"')  against  heaven's  Ruler;  others 
again  say  Niiiiroil  was  liis  real  name,  and  he  was 
calle<l  .Vinraphel  as  the  one  who  "(  onniiandrd  tlK'iu 
toeast  .\brahani  into  tin;  lire"  (p'Eni  "lOSI  Ci'-r.  •");!i( 
and  Targ.  Ver.  to  (leii.  xiv.  1).  .\mi>ng  other  fanci- 
ful etymologies  the  name  is  explaineil  as  that  of  one 
whose  "commands  bn night  <larkness  [<lestructioii|  on 
the  world  "  (nisDX  mOS).  or  of  one  who  "provoked 
and  niiKh'  sport  of  tin'  world  "  C^SSl  "lOS)  (s<'e  Gen. 
H.  xlii.  ;  .Midr.  I.eliah  Tub  to  Gen.  xiv.  I.  ed.  Buber. 
i.  (i3.  note  4:  also  B<'er,"  Ix-ben  .Vbrahaiiis."  i)p.  130, 
13h.     See  also  .ViiHMUM.  Nl.Miton.       K. — J.  Sit. 

AMSCHEL.     S.c  Ans-ciiki.. 

AMSTERDAM  (formerly  Amstelredam,  ami 
so  written  in  .lewish  dociinienlsi:  One  cif  thi' capital 
cities  of  the  Nelhirlands  foiindeil  as  a  lishing  village 
in  the  thirteenlli  century.  No  .lews  lived  there  in  the 
early  period  wlii'ii  it  was  under  Spanish  domination. 


The  history  of  its  Jewi*  may  be  best  considered  under 
three  divisions;  (1)  the  Sepbardira.  until  179.5;  (2) 
the  .Vshkenazim,  until  179.T;  (3)  both  congregations, 
from  17y.'5  to  the  present  time  (1901). 

I.  The  Sephardim  Until  1795  :  There  is  no 
actual  proof  of  the  existence  of  Jews  in  Amsterdam 
before  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  though 
the  probability  is  strong  that  some  lived  there  earlier. 
When  Holland  joined  the  Union  of  Utiecht  (1579), 
which,  among  other  provisions,  forbade  persecution 
on  religious  grounds,  the  Slaranos  in  Portugal  fixed 
their  hopes  on  Amsterdam,  and,  according  to  Franco 
Jlendes  and  Graetz,  the  first  Maranos  settled  there  in 
1593.  They  were  ^Manuel  Lopez  Pereira,  his  sister 
Maria  Nunez,  and  her  uncle  Miguel  Lopez.  Their 
voyage  had  not  been  prosperous;  they  were  first  cap- 
tured by  English  pirates  and  taken  to  London.  They 
again  set  sjiil  for  Amsterdam,  only  to  be  flung  by  a 
storm  upon  the  coast  of  East  Friesland  at  Emden. 
Thence  the  Rabbi  Moses  Uri  Levi  (bom  1.544)  helped 
them  on  to  .\msterdam,  and  followed  them  shortly  in 
ortler  to  receive  them  back  into  Judaism.  Soon 
thereafter  other  Jews  came  from  Portugal,  mainly 
relatives  of  these  first  comers. 

(Jn.Vtonemenl  Day,  .5357 (October  2. 1.596). they  met 
together  for  worship — probably  for  the  first  time — 
in  the  house  of  Don  Samuel  Palache,  ambassador  of 
the  emperor  of  Morocco  to  the  Netherlands.  The 
congregation  numbered  sixteen.  Soon  afterward 
a  hall  for  worship  was  secured,  named  "Beth 
Yaakob,"  after  one  of  its  founders,  Jacob  Tirade, 
and  consecrated  on  New-years  Day,  .53.58.  Moses 
I'ri  Levi  was  preacher:  he  spoke  in  German ;  and 
his  son  Aaron   ha-Levi   (born    1578)  translated  his 

sermon  into  Spanish.     The  rabbis  of 

The  First     this    synagojjiie,    called   "l.iakamim," 

Two  Syna-  were  Joseph  Pardo  (in  office  from  1597 

gogues.      to  1619),  and  Moses  ben  Aroyo  (from 

1.597  until  his  departure  for  Constan- 
tinople). In  1616  .Saul  Levi  Mtjrteira  became  rabbi. 
Most  of  these  facts,  as  well  as  many  incidents  of  the 
times,  are  mentioned  by  De  Barrios.  In  the  archives 
of  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  probably  the  oldest  date 
dealing  with  Portuguese  Jews  is  November  28, 
1598,  when  there  was  entered  in  the  "  Puyboek," 
V.  2'2A,  the  announcement  of  the  intt'uded  marriage 
of  Manxiel  Lopez  Home  and  the  above-mentioned 
Maria  Nunez.  The  community  grew  apace  througli 
the  constant  arrival  of  refugees  from  I'ortugal  and 
southern  France;  and  a  second  hall  for  worslii|)  was 
opened  by  Isaac  Franco  Jledeiros  in  1608,  under  the 
name  of  "  Neweh  Shalom."  Its  first  three  rabbis 
were;  Judah  Vega  (in  ollice  from  1608  until  his  de- 
jmrture  for  Constantinople);  Isaac  Uzziel  of  Fez 
(1610-1622);  and  Mana.sseh  ben  Israel  (1(>22). 

.Vmsterdam  could  well  be  satisfied  with  this  acces- 
sion of  Jews.  Holland  was.  in  those  limes,  a  rather 
|>oor  country;  and  the  Portuguese  Jews  brought 
great  wealth  into  the  land.  Thev  took  jiarl  in  trans- 
manne  enterprises  and  fostered  trade.  And  not 
alone  did  the  city's  material  riches  increase  through 

them;  its  intellectual  wealth  increa.sed 

Increased    also.     Mention  is  made  of  Jewish  jdiy- 

Irumi-       sicians  and  poets  of  about  this  time. 

gration.      From  among  the  lall<T,  it  is  nece.s.sary 

to  nuiition  only  Rkiitki.  Ji.sntrN 
(called  also  Pauloile  Piiia).  whose  "  Dialogo  dos  .Mon- 
ies" was  recitid  in  16'24,  in  the  synagogue  "Beth 
Ya'akob."  The  various  eongregatiimal  inslitutions 
wrre  carefully  fostered.  The  Portuguese  community 
securi'il  a  burial-place  first  in  Groede  (North  Hol- 
land) ill  1602.  In  April,  1614,  another  cemetery 
w:is  obtained  in  Ouderkerk,  on  the  .\mstel,  which  is 
still  in  use.     But  after  a  peaceful  existence  of  tea 


Amsterdam 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


538 


years,  the  Nowcli  Slmloni  Ci)njrri'j;ulioii  was  dis- 
tiirbcii  by  discord  ammi);  its  nicmiifrs.  Sharp  re- 
proofs adniiiiistircd  by  the  hakaiii  L'/./.iel  in  his 
serinons,  aii(l<lilTiriii<-(sof  opinioiiconccrniiig  divers 
ritual  matters,  alienated  a  mimber  of  lliem,  who  ae- 
eordingly.  uixler  the  liadersliip  of  David  ih'  Heiito 
Dsorio,  formed  a  third  eoiiirregation.  entitled  "  IJet 
Yisrael  "  (ItilS).  Their  rabbis  were  David  I'arilo  (in- 
stalled ItiltS),  Samuel  Tardiola  (in  ollice  from  1019 
to  his  departure  for  Jerusalem),  uud  Isaac  Aboab  da 
Foiiseea  (installed  1020). 

Thus  far  the  Jewish  services  had  been  tacitly 
rather  than  openly  i)erniitted  by  the  city  authori- 
ties. Durin^rt  lie  contests  between  the  Hemnnslnuits 
and  the  conlralJemonstnints  frequent  allusion  was 
made  to  the  liberty  of  worship  enjoyed  by  the 
Jews.  Accordingly  the  States  General  appointed  a 
commission  to  make  statutes  coneeniini;  the  Jews 
(101.")),  and  a  city  ordinance,  dated  Xovend)erS,  1010, 
prohibited  them  from  s|)eakini;  jiublicly  ajrainst  the 
Christian  religion  or  publishinj;  anythintr  ajrainst 
it,  and  forbade  them  to  intermarry  with  Cliristians. 
At  the  same  time  sjieeial  forms  of  oath  for  Jews 
■were  drawn  uj)  in  Spanish  (see  "  Ilandvesten."  1T4S, 
ii.  47~).     The  result  of  the  coinmissiim  was  a  resc.lu- 


its  supplement  (Iluishoudelyk  Hc.clemenI)  it  plainly 
reveals  the  traditional  autocmcy  of  the  "parnasim" 
(presidents  and  wardens);  in  all  disp\ites  they  aUaie 
coidd  decide.  The  followinir  nibbis  of  the  dilTeri'nt 
synaiioirues  were  reinslali'd  in  the  order  of  priority 
of  ap|>ointnunt  ;  Saul  Levi  Morleira  (died  UiOO), 
David  I'.'irdo  (died  lO.")?),  Manasseh  ben  Israel  (in 
ollice  until  Ki.")."!,  anil  died  in  Middelburjr  lO.'iT.  on  his 
journey  back  from  London),  and  Isiuie  Aboab  da 
Fonseca  (ilicd  109:5).  Theimjiorlanceof  the  Amster- 
dam Jewish  congregation  in  thi' middle  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
incident.  Wliile  Manasseh  ben  Israel  was  in  Lon- 
don, endeavoring  to  secure  from  Cromwrll  the  rc- 
admission  of  Jews  to  England,  Charles  II.  notified 
tlic  Jewish  congregation  in  Amsterdam  (lOoO),  that 
if  they  would  support  him  with  money  and  arms 
in  his  projected  invasion  of  England,  he  woulil  wil- 
lingly grant  them  permission  to  settle  there  when  he 
should  have  coni|uered  the  country.  Though  out- 
wardly tlourishing,  the  tniiled  congregation  was  not 
wil  him  tits  internal  troubles.  Inld4()Unii-;r,  AcosTA, 
and  in  IO.")G  B.Mti  cii  Si'ixoz.\,  were  placed  under  the 
ban  of  excommunication. 

Now  came  a  time  whireinall  Judaism  was  set  in  a 


Sephardic  Syxagoglk  at  Amstkiu>am.  Showixg  Its  Positio.n  o.n  Ca.nal. 

(From  D>'  Caotro,  "  De  Synagoge  der  Portugutfa  Israel.  GemwnU-.") 


tion  (1619),  granting" each  city  authority  to  make  its 
own  re.gtilations  concerning  .Tews. 

The   Portuguese  Jews,   as  above  described,    had 
founded  three  congregations.     AVhen,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourth  decade  of  Iheseven- 
Amalga-     tecuth  century,  numerous  .Jews  from 
mation.      other  countries  came  to  Amslerdam. 
those  from  Spain  and  Portugal  wished 
to  provide  for  a  closer  imion  with  each  other;   after 
long  negoliiilions,  the  three  congrcsations  were  con- 
solidated (1088).      The  synagogue""  Beth  Ya'akob" 
■was  sold;  that  of  "15et  Yisrael  "  was  remodeled  and 
used   as  a   school   (Talmud    Torah).    and   '•Neweh 
Shalom  "  was  retained  as  the  common  place  of  wor- 
ship.     A  constitution  of  forty-two  articles,  which 
had   received  the  sanction  of  the  city  authorities, 
was  proclaimed  in  this  synagogue   (1688).      AVitli 


state  of  ferment,  Shabbethai  Zebi,  the  false  Mes- 
siah, appeared.  The  great  majority  of  the  Portu- 
guese Jews  in  Amsterdam  in  lOtiO  were  infected  with 
the  prevailing  maina.  and  conditions  might  have 
become  serious  had  not  Jacob  Sasportas  (a  member 
of  the  rabbinical  board)  stepped  forward  to  combat 

with  all  his  energy  the  insanitj-  which 
The  Shab-  had  seized  upon  everybody.  It  had 
bethaiZebi  already  gone  far  indeed;  prayers  had 
Movement.    I n  offered  in  the  svnagogue  for  the 

"King  Messiah  Shabbethai  Zebi"; 
prayer-books  had  been  lu'iuted  in  which  the  date 
was  given  as  "the  year  one  of  the  Messiah,"  and 
adorned  with  frontispieces  portraying  Shabbethai 
Zebi.  JIany  of  the  congregation  had  even  jour- 
neyed to  Adrianople  to  .see  the  "  Messiah."  Reac- 
tion, however,  soon  set  in;  Shabbethai  Zebi's  career 


639 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amsterdam 


camo  to  ail  ijrnomiiiious  fnil.  The  results  wo\iUl 
have  been  far  more  serious  for  tlie  Pormiriiese  con- 
gregation in  Amsterdam  had  not  the  "  nuiliamiid  " 
(board  of  wardens)  persuaded  tlie  magistrates  to 
sanction  a  resohition  in  lOTOtliat  no  one  might  sever 
his  connection  with  the  congregation  under  penally 
of  the  severest  excommunicatinii. 

Jleanwliih',  the  financial  resources  of  the  congre- 
gation lieiiig  in  exeelleni  condition,  the  members 
conceived  tlie  idea  of  building  a  svnagogne  worthy 
of  the  continually  increasing  membership.  In  1670 
the  plans  took  detinite  form,  and  in  1671  the  corner- 


Danzig  and  Memel.  thus  abundantly  providing  for 
the  Jews  of  Poland  and  Lithuania."     Besides  tlie 
printing-house  of  Mauasseh  ben  Israel,  there  were 
XT  V,  tho.se  of  David  Tartas,  Imanuel  Ben- 

Meorew       veniste,  and  Joseph  and  Imanuel  Ath- 
iTinung     j,j^    In  theGerman(A.shkenaz)comnlu- 
_   v,r°i,-  nil  V  the  best-known  presses  were  tlKjse 
i-UDUsning.  ^^^  j-,.,  pi„^.i,„^  ha  Levi  and  i^nlonion 

ben  Joseph  Proops.  the  latter  the  founder  of  a 
family  of  printer-publishers  who  have  suiiplied  all 
Europe  wiili  their  products  (see  Steinschneider  and 
Cassel,"  Ji'idische  Typographic  und  Judischer  Buch- 


SEPll.UIIIIC   SVNAl. 


"ilE    .M   .\MMKIU1.VM    AS  SKKX   FKOM   THK   ■' BRKE^TK.^.^T.' 
(From  SI)  eneTU\iag  by  P.  Foutrufl,  Jr.) 


Stone  of  the  new  synagogue  was  laid,  and  four  years 
later  (1075)  the  consecration,  with  imposing  cere- 
monies, took  jilace. 

Jews  and  Chiistians  alike  gloritied  this,  certainly 

the  most  famous  .synagogue  of  Europe,  and  iiuni- 

eroiis    copperplate    engnivings,    .still 

The  Am-     extant,  made  by  the  most  celebrated 

sterdam      Dutch  engravers,  depict  its  imposing 

Portu-        proportions.     At  its  consi'cralion   the 

guese    Syn-  coMgregation  numbered  t<it8male  meni- 

ag'Og'ne.  bers,  of  whom  o.so  were  married  and 
■Mi  single. 

Peace  now  reigned  and  a  |ieriod  of  (piiet  progress 
ensued.  Thecoiigiegalioii  liecami'the  focus towar<l 
which  all  literary  emleavor  in  Judaism  converged. 
Menass<h  ben  Israel  compliMicl  the  printing  of  the 
first  Hebrew  book  in  Amslerdam.  January  1.  1627 
(cninpare  Steins<hneider.  "t'al.  Bodl."  No.  'iVi'J). 
thereby  laying  llie  fiiuiidalion  for  llial  develo])menl 
of  Ileiirew  lypoiinipliy  and  pulilishing  in  which, 
until  the  beginning  of  the  nimlccnlh  ceiilMiy.  Am- 
Rti'rdam  bad  never  been  eipialed  by  any  oilier  cily. 
So  highly  esleemeil  was  ihe  Amslerdam  imprint  that 
even  foreign  reprints  claimed  Ihe  credit  of  being 
printed  "wilh  Amslerdani  typi\"  How  far-reaching 
the  Anistirdam  book  trade  was  may  be  .seen  from  a 
docuiiK'nl,  dalid  Kibriiary  7.  \t>>*'i.  found  in  the  ciiy 
nrchivesof  lireslau  iHninn.iii  "  .Monats.sehrift,"  !*<!•<«. 
p.  ■\~l>),  which  ailvised  airainsl  tlii'  eslnblislimeni  of 
a  Hebrew  pn.ss  in  Silesia,  "because  there  are  three 
very  large  Jewish  prinling  eslablishments  at  Am- 
sterdam in  Holland,  whence  books  are  sent  bv  sea  to 


hanilel."  in  Ersch  anrl  Gruber's  "Encyklopildie."  ii. 
2S,  64-74).  Il  was  therefore  not  strange  that  Jews, 
from  all  jiarts  of  the  world,  were  induced  to  visit 
Amslerdam.  either  to  get  their  books  printed  or  to 
.seek  the  patronage  of  the  inlliiential  men  there. 
Jacob  Sasportas  (born  1610  in  Onin.  Algeria:  died 
16!)S),wliobecamecliief  rabbi  of  the  Portuguese  com- 
munity after  Aboab's  death,  in  his  responsji.  "Ohel 
Yaakob"  (.Amsterdam,  17:17|.  relates  many  things 
about  the  literary  life  of  Amslerdam.  The  Jewish 
school  of  the  Sephardic  conimunily  (see  below)  also 
became  ilistinguished  forsiholarship  (seeShabbethai 
Bass  "Sil'le  Yeshenim,"  preface;  Gl'idemann,"Quel- 
lensehrifleii,"  p.  112.  Berlin.  ISlll). 

The  successor  of  Jacob  Sasixulas  was  Solomon  de 
Oliveyra  (died  1708),  a  .scholar  and  piolilie  writer, 
who  ill  turn  was  followed  by  Solomon  Jiidali  Ayllon 
(born  at  Safed,  1664).  Ayllon,  who  had  formerly 
been  a  zealous  paitiznn  of  Shabbethai  Zebi,  came  to 
Amsliidam  from  London,  ami  was  assoeialed  in  the 
nibbinale  wilh  Solomon  de  Oliveyni  (171)1).  While 
chief  rabbi  in  Amsterdani  he  lieeaiin>  the  centnd 
personage  in  the  contests  that  were  instigated  by 
Neheniiali  Hiyyali  Hayyuii  ll7i:!i,  shortly  after  the 
hitler's  arrival  in  .Vmsterdani.  Besides  him,  Hakam 
/ebi.  then  chief  rabbi  of  the  Ashkeiiaz  community, 
and  Moses  Hages.  an  emissjiry  from  Jerusiilem  (born 
aboul  1660,  ilird  about  1 741 ).  iook  part  in  this  mattiT 
ifor  parlicularssei-Gnltz, "(Resell,  il.  Jiiden,"  x.  note 
6).  AvUon  died  in  172S.  He  was  followed  by  I>ivid 
IsraerAthias(died  17.">;i»and  Isaac  Hayyini  .Vbeiidami 
de  Britto  (died  1700).  wlio  were  chief  "rabbis  together. 


Amsterdain 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


540 


These  two,  like  tlieir  predecessors,  held  honorable 
positions  ns  seholiirs.  In  1037,  under  Ssiul  Levi  >Ior- 
teini.tlie.Iewisli  school  "Kz  lliiyvim"  « us  founded; 
Solomon  de  Olivevm,  in  lOySt. introduced  ii  rule  that 
the  pupils  of  the  highest  class  should 
The  " 'Ef  work  out  legal  decisions  every  month, 
^ayyim  "    When  Abendana  became  president  of 

School.  this  institution,  he  had  these  exercises 
printed  and  published  every  month. 
Through  them  liis  reputation  spread  far  and  wide. 
The  collection  of  his  responsa  was  entitled  "  Peri  'Ez 
Hayyim"  (Amsterdam,  17is-isi  l.l.")  volumes).  After 
Abeudana's  death  the  rabbinate  remained  vacant  for 
a  short  time.  In  1763  Solomon  Salennborn  at  Adri- 
anoplc  1717,  died  1781)  was  called  from  Sofia  to  Am- 
sterdam, lie  presided  in  the  rabbinate  nearly  twenty 
years,  and  became  well  known  as  an  author.  His 
successor  was  David  Acohen  de  Azcvedo  (installed 
1782,  died  179i),who  was  followed  by  his  son  Daniel 
(installed  1790),  during  whose  perioil  of  ollice  the 
eniancipalinn  <if  llir  .lews  in  Ilnlland  took  place. 

II.  The  Ashkenazim  Until  1795  :  Even  less 
is  known  about  the  tirsl  settlements  of  German 
Jews  in  Holland  than  about  tho.se  of  their  Portuguese 
brethren.  In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury a  few  German  .Jews  seem  to  have  dwelt  in  Am- 
sterdam, for  in  the  burial-lists  of  the  Portuguese 
congregation  several  "  Tedcseos"  (Teutons. Germans) 
are  mentioned.  A  congregation  was  not  formed  until 
163o.  Araelander.  in  his  "  Scheerit  Israel,"  relates  that 
in  a  book  about  which  there  exists  no  other  informa- 
tion (perhaps  a  manuscript)  by  JIaharam  Maarsen, 
he  read  that  the  Germans  Iield  divine  worship  for  the 
first  time  on  New  Year,  r>X)G  (September,  1635).  The 
Portuguese  congregation  helped  its  German  sister- 
community  in  every  way.  and  it  grew  rapidly  also. 
Its  first  rabbi  was  Moses  Wahl.  It  soon  (1642)  pur- 
chased in  Muiderberg,  about  twelve  miles  from  Am- 
sterdam, the  burial-ground  still  in  use.  The  sec- 
ond rabbi  was  Lsajtc  ben  Joshua  of  Emmerich,  who 
was  followed  shortly  by  his  brother  Abraham  ben 
Joshua  of  Worms  (died  1678).  Soon  after  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Jews  in  Poland  under  C'hmielnicki,  and 
especially  during  the  massacres  of  1().")4  and  16o5, 
many  Jews  came  by  sea  to  Amsterdam,  and  founded  a 
separate  Polish  congregation.  Their 
Influx  of     rabbi  was  .Judah  Loeb  ben  Solomon  of 

Polish        Wilna.    They  pvirchased(1660)aceme- 

•  Jews.  tery  also  in  Muiderberg.  In  1673,  ow- 
ing to  fiis|)utes  between  the  Polish  and 
German  communities,  the  magistrates  stringently 
forbade  the  former  to  have  separate  communal  insti- 
tutions; they  accordingly  joined  the  Ashkenazim, 
and  Judah  Loeb  went  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  be- 
came chief  rabbi.  The  German  congregation  had 
been  presided  over  since  1667  by  Isiuic  b.  Simeon 
Deckingen  of  Worms.  During  his  term  of  office  the 
great  Synagogue  was  built  and  consecrated  on  the 
first  day  of  Passover,  .'5431  (1671);  its  construction 
cost  33,000  gulden  (S13,200) .  In  spite  of  this  sum  of 
money,  considerable  for  those  days,  the  German 
congregation  was  by  no  means  so  wealthy  as  the 
Portuguese,  and  in  the  ensuing  period  appeals  for 
as-sistance  had  frequently  to  be  made  to  the  city 
authorities. 

In  1672.  the  forces  of  Louis  XIV.  advanced  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Amsterdain.  which  was  rendered  un- 
settled by  the  encampment  of  French  soldiers  nearby. 
The  road  to  the  cemetery  in  iluiderberg  being 
blocked,  the  magistrates  granted  to  the  Jews  an- 
other burial-place  within  the  city  limits,  where,  from 
1672  to  1674,  more  than  ninety  persons  were  interred, 
among  them  Chief  Rabbi  Isjuic  Deckingen  (died 
1672).     In  1677  Meir  Stern  of  Fulda  was  appointed 


to  succeed  him.  Ilis  particii)ation  in  the  preparation 
of  Judieo-German  Bible  translations  is  described  by 
Griltz,  "Gesch.  d.  Juden,"  x.  298.  He  was  a  caba- 
list,  and  gave  instruction  in  the  Cabala  to  Knorr  von 
Rosenroth.  In  1679  he  was  called  to  Cracow,  but 
died  en  route  at  Niederwesel;  his  successor  in  Am- 
sterdam was  David  Lida  (formerly  chief  rabbi  of 
Maj'ence),  who  came  to  .Vmsterdam  in  1680.  In  the 
very  first  years  of  his  rabbinate  Lida  engaged  in  a 
dispute  with  Nisan  b.  .ludah  I>oeb.  the  brother  in- 
law of  R.  Wolf,  then  chief  rabbi  in  Herlin.  whose 
work  he  hiinscir  had  published  in  Amsterdam,  Lida 
left  Amsterdam,  but  the  P<irtugu<se  rabbinate  in- 
terested it.self  in  his  behalf.  Later  he  seems  to 
have  become  suspected  of  Shabbethaism,  and  thus 
arrayed  against  himself  not  only  the  Ashkenazic 
authorities,  but  also  the  Portuguese.  Then  the 
"Four-Lands'  Synod  "  (see  AVa'.vd  Aun-\'  Ak.vzot) 
took  up  his  caus<',  with  the  result  that  he  made  his 
peace  with  the  Amstenhmi  congregation  and  returned 
there.  He  was  appointed,  with  the  approbation  of 
the  magistracy,  as  chief  rabbi,  for  three  years;  but 
at  the  expiration  of  the  term  his  contract  was  not 
renewed.  He  left  Amsterdam,  and  went  to  Lemberg, 
where  he  died,  1696  (David  Lida,  "Beer  Esek," 
1684;  responsa,  "  Ohel  Ya'akob,"  Nos.  74-76;  .Jacob 
Emden's  edition  of  the  "Kizzur  Zizat  Nobel  Zebi," 
p.  r)9'(,  Altona,  1757;  Buber,  "Anshe  Shem,"  p.  .56). 
While  he  was  in  Amsterdam  the  notorious  Eisen- 
menger  visited  him  ("Entdecktes  Judenthimi,"  i. 
843,  KOnigsberg,  1711).  Lida's  successor  was  Moses 
Judah  ben  Kalonymus  Cohen  (died  1705),  or,  as  he 
is  generally  styled,  "Rabbi  Leib  Harif."  During 
his  rabbinate  city  riots  oceurre<l  (1096);  the  mob 
turned  its  attention  to  the  Jew  s,  and  several  houses 
were  plundered.  The  authorities  took  energetic 
and  prompt  steps  to  jtrotect  the  Jews,  and  the  dis- 
turbances soon  sub.sided.  The.se  outbreaks  have 
been  described  in  "  Historic  van  den  Oproer  te  Am- 
sterdam, 31  Januari,  1696."  Amsterdam,  1725,  and  in 
a  similar  work  in  Juda'o-German  by  Joseph  Maarsen; 
see  Steiusehneider.  "Cat,  Bodl."  No.  59.54,  No.  1. 

After  Leib  Harif's  death,  Saul  of  Cracow  was 
called  to  Amsterdam;  while  on  the  way  he  died  in 
Glogau  (1707).  In  the  interim  the  duties  of  the 
office  were  discharged  by  Judah  Loeb  b.  An.schel, 
formerly  rabbi  in  London,  then  chief  rabbi  in  Rot- 
terdam. In  addition,  the  Amsterdam  congregation 
employed  at  this  time  three  rabbinical  as.sociates — 
Josef  ben  Reuben  Judah  Cohen.  Isjiac  ben  Solomon 
of  Zamosc,  and  Pinchas  Selig  ben  Moses  of  Poscn. 
But  soon  thereafter,  about  the  end  of  1708.  there 
was  again  a  chief  rabbi,  Aryeh  Judah  Kalisch.  He 
was  destined,  however,  to  i)reside  over  the  congre- 
gation for  only  a  .short  time ;  .Jacob  Emden  tells  in 
his  autobiography  ("Megillat  Sefer."  p.  28)  that 
quarrels  in  the  congregation  threw  him  upon  a  sick- 
bed, where  he  died  (1709).  His  successor  was  Zebl 
Hirsch  Ashkenazi,  or,  as  he  was  universally  known, 
Hakam  Zebi;  he  was  called  from  Altona.  In  the 
beginning  he  was  regarded  not  alone  by  the  Ashke- 
nazim, but  also  by  the  Scphardim.  as  a  superior 
being;  owing,  however,  to  his  incorruptible  honesty 
and  unselfishness  he  soon  had  many  enemies.  Nehe- 
miah  Hiyya  Hayyun.  already  mentioned,  managed 
to  render  his  position  in  the  congregation  untenable. 
Hakam  Zebi.  by  his  outspoken  opposition  to  this 
unprincipled  man,  had  drawn  upon  himself  the  ill- 
will  of  the  Portuguese  congregation,  and  of  the  au- 
thorities of  his  own  community.  The  latter  brought 
the  matter  before  the  magistrates,  who,  in  order  to 
obtain  full  information  upon  the  subject,  consulted 
not  only  the  theological  professors  of  Amsterdam, 
Utrecht",   Leyden,   and    Harderwyk,    but   also   the 


541 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amsterdam 


Portuguese  parnasim  (wardens)  as  well.  It  was  no 
wonder  then  that,  with  this  array  of  counselors, 
Ilakam  Zehi  was  declared  to  have  forfeited  his  ollice 
(1714).  He  went  by  way  of  Loudon  and  Enulen  to 
Lemberg,  where,  after  otliciatiug  as  rabbi  for  a  short 
time,  he  died  iu  1718. 

His  dei>arture,  however,  did  not  silence  the  dis- 
putes in  the  congregation;  the  magistrates  there- 
fore would  not  grant  permission  for  the 

Internal  election  of  a  successor.  The  duties  of 
Schisms,  the  ottice  were  meanwhile  discharged 
by  the  assistants  (dayyanim),  Moses 
Frankfurt,  Joseph  Dayyan  (both  well  known  as  own- 
ers of  printing-offices),  and  Isaac  of  Zamo.sc.  Ulti- 
mately* the  city  authorities  issued  the  desired  per- 


that  Saul  who  died  in  1707  on  his  way  to  Amsterdam, 
to  enter  ui)on  the  duties  of  the  rabbinate.  Ar3'eli 
Loeb,  or,  to  give  his  full  name,  Levi  Saul  Liiwenstam, 
became  known  principally  throtigh  the  heated  dis- 
cus.sion  between  liis  brotlier-iu-law  Jacob  Emden  and 
Jonathan  Eibenschiltz.  When  Emden  fled  from  Al- 
tona  he  found  refuge  with  Aryeh  Loeb  in  Amster- 
dam. It  was  owing  to  Loeb's  inllucnee  that  it  was 
decided  (174(1)  to  establish  a  btt  luiinkli-dali  (college 
for  Jewish  theology),  provided  with  a  full  library. 
It  was  iu  many  ways  a  prosperous  period  for  the  Am- 
sterdam congregation.  In  1730  the  increase  in  Jewish 
population  necessitated  the  opening  of  another  syna- 
gogue, which  was  further  enlarged  in  1750. 
Owing  to  its  printing  establishments,  libraries,  and 


ASHKE.V'AZIC  SVNAGOGIE  AT  AMSTERDAM. 
{Frum  au  mKravluit  by  J.  dv  Bayer.) 


mission,  and  .Vbndiain  Judidi  licrlin.  formerly  rabbi 
in  Halberstadt,  became  nibbi  (1717).  Peace  seems 
to  have  been  restored  during  the  thirteen  years  of 
his  incumbency,  but  on  his  dialli  (17:50)  disputes 
broke  out  again,  and  another  live  years  ela]>sed  be- 
fore a  successor  was  appointed.  Since  agreement 
in  the  congregation  was  impossible  the  following 
curious  program  was  arranged;  the  magistrates  al- 
lowed each  one  of  the  seven  parnasim  to  nominate  a 
candidate,  and  of  thes<'  the  magistrates  themselves, 
by  a  resolution  dated  Jan.  :il.  17;i.'),  selected  three,  to 
whom  the  rabbinate  was  to  be  otTenil  sU(ces.sively 
in  a  c<rtain  lixnl  order.  The  lirsl  one  on  llu'  list  was 
Eleazar  of  Itroily,  who  aeccpt<d  the  appointnii'iit, 
and  was  received  wiili  gn  at  honor  (17;!.")K  A  medal 
was  struck  in  crlebnitii>n  of  his  arrival,  but  he  diil 
not  stay  long;  for  hr  lift  .\nislerdam  in  1740  lo. settle 
in  Jerusideni,  ami  dii-d  in  Safed  (1741).  This  time  the 
position  was  not  left  viuant ;  the  congregation  had 
become  more  harmonious,  anil  il  appointi'd  Hakam 
y^ebi's  son  in  law  .\rveh  Loeb,  who  was  the  son  of 


scholars'  a.ssociations,  the  Ashkcnazim  community 
of  Amsterdam  soon  acquired  a  reputation  through- 
out Europe  superior  to  that  of  the  Portuguese. 
.\ryeh  Loeb  died  in  17.").j;  his  son  Saul  Loweustam 
(born  in  Hzeszow  1717,  died  17!)0)  became  his  suc- 
cessor. Lowenstams  name  is  distinguished  in  the 
annals  of  Jewish  scholarship;  the  large  number  of 
literary  '■api)robations  "  which  were  sought  of  him 
prove  this. 

During  the  whole  of  this  period  the  power  of  Iho 
]iarnasim  was  almost  absolute.  Considling  only 
those  who  had  already  served  in  the 
ol1iei\  IIh'V  moditied  at  will  the  statutes 
of  till' congregation  and  procured  tho 
approval  of  the  magistrates.  For  Iho 
lay  nirndiersof  the  congregation  there 
rrmaiiiril  nothing  but  implicit  obedi- 

A  petition  presi'uled  by  a  large  majority  of 

the  members  lo  the  inagistmcy  in  17S0,  in  wiueli 
tiiey  j>rotested  against  the  arbitrary  action  of  llieso 
olllcials.  may  be  regarded  as  a  harbinger  of  peace. 


Autocratic 
Power 
of  the 

Parnasim. 


ence. 


Amsterdam 


THE  JEWISH  E^'CYCLOPEDIA 


642 


At  first  it  met  with  no  sui-coss,  but  in  course  of  time 
these  abuses  were  remedied.  During  the  nilibiimte 
of  K.  Saul's  son.  Jacob  Moses  Lowenstani,  who  was 
elected  in  ITSH),  the  emancipation  of  the  Jews  in 
Holland  may  be  sjiid  to  have  commenced.  The  new 
linns  dcinaiided  new  lijrhts. 

III.  The  United  Congregations  from  1795 
to  1900  :  .\lllii'U;;li  I  lie. lews  ill  .ViMslcnlam  I'li  joyed 
full  rellj;ious  freedom,  their  civil  liberliis  were  ma- 
terially restricted  durini;  the  whole  of  the  period 
described.  By  a  decree  of  l(i:}2  every  ordinary  pur- 
suit was  closeil  to  them.  Only  those  actually  per- 
taining to  their  relijrion  were  permitted;  such  as 
dealinj;  in  meat  and  other  provisions,  Hebrew  print- 
ing aiwl  publishing.  They  were  also  allowed  to  dis- 
pense drugs.  The  imiversities  wotild  perhaps  have 
accorded  degrees  to  Jews,  but  the  Huf  van  Holland 
decreed  (16.jt!)  that  no  Jewish  advocate  might  plead 
before  the  courts.  The  ojipressive  ctlect  of  such 
statutes  was  felt  more  and  more.  When,  therefore, 
the  French  took  posses.sion  of  Amsterdam  (179.5) 
many  of  the  Jews  there  became  imbued  with  revo- 
lutionary ideas,  and  founded  an  association  called 
"  Felix  Libertate  "  (179.5).  This  "  People's  Society," 
as  the  e.\i)ression  then  ran,  became  the  soul  of  a 
movement  to  acquire  civil  rights  for  Jews.  The 
first  attempt  was  directed  toward  securing  tlie  right 
to  vote  and  to  serve  in  the  Citizens'  Guard.  The 
chief  movers  in  this  matter  were  Jlo.ses  Solomon 
Asser,  Jacob  Sasportas,  and  H.  de  H.  Lemon,  who 
labored  zealously  in  the  cause,  both  in  speech  and 

in  writing.  The  pamphlets  and  news- 
Civil  Dis-  pa])er  articles,  for  and  against  it,  were 
abilities,     nuraerou.s.    Hut.  strange  to  sjjy,  they 

met  with  opposition  within  the  Jewish 
camp,  as  well  as  outside  of  It ;  in  both  congregations 
the  rabbis  and  parnasim  arrayed  themselves  in  op- 
position more  persistently  than  the  members.  Prob- 
ably the  full  extent  of  the  movr-tnent  was  not  quite 
clear  to  them,  and  the  parnasim,  no  doubt,  feared 
a  diminution  of  their  autocratic  power.  But  the 
"Felix  Libertate."  undismayed,  petitioned  the"Na- 
tionale  V'ergaderiug "  (National  Assembly),  asking 
that  Jews  be  given  equal  rights  with  other  citizens, 
and  a  commission  was  appointed  to  consider  the  mat- 
ter. For  eight  days  it  was  publicly  discus.sed  in  the 
Assembly.  Finally,  a  resolution  was  adopted  declar- 
ing that  Jews  should  possess  equal  rights  with  their 
fellow  citizens  (1795).  These  discussions,  however, 
produced  divisions  in  the  Jewish  congregations  them- 
selves. Jacob  Moses  Lowenstam,  chief  rabbi  of  the 
Ashkenazim  (called  Jacob  Saul  in  official  documents), 
and  Daniel  Acohcn  de  Azevedo  of  the  Portuguese 
community,  proposed  to  expel  members  of  the  "Felix 
Libertate  "  from  their  congregations.  These,  how- 
ever, separated  of  their  own  accord,  and  formed  a 
new  congregation,  " 'Adat  Yeshurim."  with  Isaac 
Graanboom  as  rabbi  (installed  17H7,  died  1807).  They 
erected  a  new  synagogue,  consecrated  Sept.  27,  1799, 
and  also  purchased  a  cemeteiy  in  Overveen,  near 
Haarlem.  The  strife  attained  large  proportions,  and 
every  week  during  the  years  1797  and  179H  both  sides 
published  so-called  "Discourses"  in  .Juda'o-German, 
which  afford  interesting  contributions  to  the  history 
of  the  time  (see  Roest,  "Cat.  Rosenth."  pp.  70  and 
71).  Attempts  at  reconciliation  were  made  from 
many  quarters,  but  for  the  time  remained  unsuc- 
cessful. 

Holland  became  a  kingdom.  Louis  Bonaparte  not 
only  Siinctioned  the  emancipation  of  the  Jews,  but 
showed  himself  in  all  things  their  friend.  Soon  after 
his  coronation  in  18013.  in  order  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation,  he  appointed  a  commissioli  consist- 
ing of  the  Dutch  jurist  Jonas  Daniel  Meyer,  Jonah 


Rintel,  and  Jiidah  Litwack,  the  la.st  two  of  the  new 

congregation.    After  many  meetings  and  resolutions 

a   compromise  was  devised  and  ap- 

The  King-    proved  by  the  king;  at  the  .sjime  time 

dom  of       a   new   royal   statute  for  the    senior 

Holland,     congregations  was  announced.     King 

Louis  interested  himself  not  only  in 

the  Amsterdam  community,  but  also  in  the  attairs 

of  the  .lews  of  all   Holhind.  to  rigidate  which   he 

aiipointed  an  Ober  t'onsistorium.     lie   endeavored 

likewise  to  raise  the  grade  of  instruction  for  Jewish 

children;  he  also  formed  two  regiments,  of  S13  men 

each,  made  up  exclusively  of  Jews;   but  they  were 

disbanded  on  the  incorporation  of  Holland  with  the 

French  empire  (1810),  an<l  the  Jewish  soldiers,  like 

other  Hollanders,  weredistributedamong  the  French 

regiments. 

William  I.,  of  the  House  of  Orange,  who  was 
crowned  king  of  the  >Jellierlands  in  1.S15,  like  other 
members  of  his  house,  was  friendly  to  the  Jews. 
Soon  after  his  coronation  he  ai>pointed  a  committee 
to  regulate  the  relationsof  the  Jews  to  the  slate.  A 
law  was  passed  (1!^14)  concerning  the  "  Israelietiscli 
Kerkgenootschap."  and  asacoiirl  of  the  last  resort  in 
Jewish  matters  a  "  Hoofdeommissie  tot  de  Zaken  der 
Israelieten"  was  instituted.  A  further  dicree  (1817) 
required  the  congregations  to  maintain  Jewish  free 
schools  for  the  |)oor. 

In  literary  matters  likewise  the  congregation  of 
Amsterdam  developed  great  activity.  Similar  to 
the  "  Jleasselim  "  of  Germany,  several  persons  asso- 
ciated themselves  for  the  study  of  Jewish  literature 
underihenameof  "Toelet."  .Many  volumes  of  poems 
and  essjiys  in  Hebrew  were  |iublished  by  the  soci- 
ety. Tlie  school  "Sa'adat  Bahurini,"  established 
in  1708  by  the  chief  rabbi.  ,\ryeli  .ludah  Kalisch.  was 
in  18;i4  made  a  state  school,  under  the  name  "Xe- 
derlandsch  Isnu-lietisch  Semiiiarium,"  for  the  train- 
ing of  rabbis  and  teachers.  Steps  were 
Education-  also  taken  for  tin-  spread  of  culture 
al  'Work,  among  the  Jewish  jiopulation.  The 
principal  workers  were  Moses  Lemans 
(born  at  Naarden  1785.  died  at  Amsterdam  1832), 
Samuel  Mulder  (1792-lS(i2i.  and  the  best  known  of 
them  Gabriel  Polak  (!8o:3-18(i9).  They  exercised 
great  influence  u]ion  the  development  of  the  Jews 
of  Amsterdam,  and  furnished  them  with  Jewish 
school-books  and  translations  of  the  Bible  and  the 
various  prayer-books  into  the  Dutch  language.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  Jacob  Moses  Lowenstam  (isl.5).  his 
son-in-law,  Samuel  Berenstein.  became  chief  rabbi 
of  the  German  congregation.  He.  too,  exerted  him- 
self in  behalf  of  progress.  When  he  died  (1838)  the 
chief  rabbinat(^  was  not  lilled  immediately,  but  a 
rabbinical  collegi'  (bet  din)  was  entrusted  with  the 
.guidance  of  all  religious  affairs.  The  members  were 
A.  J.  Susjin  (died  1S(51).  J.  M.  Content  (died  1898),  B. 
S.  Berenstein  (later  chief  rabbi  at  The  Hague),  J.  S. 
Hirsch  (died  1870),  J.  D.  Wynkoop  (since  January, 
1871).  The  Portuguese  congregation,  upon  the  death 
of  De  Azevedo  in  18"22.  likewise  ajiiiointed  no  chief 
rabbi,  but  a  bet  din.  consisting  of  Jacob  de  Elieser 
Ferares(died  1852),  Solomon  de  Abraham  Acoen  Pc- 
reira  (died  1828).  Raphael  Jlontezinos  (died  18(56), 
Isaac  Mendesde  Sola  (ilied  1849).  Aaron  JlendesChu- 
maceiro  (in  1860  chief  rabbi  of  Cura(;-ao),  and  David 
Lopez  Cardozo  (died  1890),  Aaron  Vas  Diaz  (died 
1885),  .lacob  Lopez  Cardozo  (until  1873),  Jacob  Men- 
des  Chumaccii-o  (died  1900).  I.  Van  J.  Palache(from 
1885),  and  A.  R.  Pereira  (from  Is.So).  In  the  Portu- 
guese community  the  reorganization  of  public  affairs 
was  by  no  means  as  thorough  as  in  the  German; 
moreover,  with  a  few  exceptions,  they  took  less  iiv- 
terest  in  Jewish  literary  matters. 


543 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amsterdam 


In  1848  Holland  rcctived  a  partially  new  consti- 
tution; State  and  ChurcU  were  almost  completely 
separated.     The  minister  of  the  time  was  instrumen- 


gregations,  but  without  anj-  appreciable  success. 
Ten  years  later  a  new  convention  was  called; 
it   framed  a  draft  for  such  a   law,  which,  how- 


tal  in  calling  a  coiivcniicin  at  Tlw  Hague  in  IxM, 
which  coMsisliil  of  Iwenlysix  delegates  from  the 
various  Jewish  congregations  thro\ighoul  Holland 
Many  sessions  were  held  in  the  eiidravor  to  ar 
rive   at  a   geuenil   slate  law    for  the  Jewish   con 


ever,  was  receiveil  with  only  laiut  approval  by 
the  two  congregations  in  Amsterdam,  which  to- 
gether composi'd  more  than  half  of  the  total  Jew- 
ish population  of  tiie  (■o\inlry.  Finally,  after 
twenty  years'  work,  the  "  Nederlandsch  Israelietisch 


Amsterdam 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


644 


Kerkgonootsclmp''  was  nrjrniiiz('<l  (1870).  The  Por- 
tu>iiu-se  si'piirati'd  nnd  fornu'<l  an  iiKicpinitU'iit  "  Ivcrk- 
gonootschnp."  The  foniicr  "  Hoofiicommissic  ''  was 
replaced  liv  the  "Cenlrale  ('iniimissie  tiil  de  Alge- 
iiieeiK''  Zakeii  van  licl  Nedeihmdsch  Isiiielietisch 
Kerkgenootsehap."  which  held  its  first  session  in 
1870.  During  this  period  there  were  several  men  in 
Amsterdam  ilislinguished  for  their  learning,  their 
philanlhropv.  and  tlieir  (■hanil>ionsliip  of  Jewisli  in- 
terests; of  lliese  inav  lie  nieiitinncd  the  tliree  brothers 
IIirseliel(1784-lS,-)3J,  Meir(17ii;^-18r)l),  Akiha  Lehren 
(1795-187(1),  and  Solomon  Hubens  (died  18.")7). 

The  internal  development  of  the  congregation 
progressed  quietly,  and  a  threatened  division  in  1860 
■was   fortunalelv  "averli-d.     Xcw    life    rnmc  to    the 


1899).  and  J.  D.  Wynkoop.  During  his  term  of  office 
Dr.  DDnner  has  reorganized  the  system  of  instruc- 
tion in  thescliools,  banished  the  JudieoGennan,  and 
made  the  vernacuhircompnlsory.  The  social  eleva- 
tion of  the  I'oorer  Anistenhuu  .lews  has  also  received 
his  close  attention.  On  Ids  initiative  in  1875a  loau- 
bank  (  W'lhhiilitjhiidKfoitdn)  was  established,  which 
annually  grants  1.200  loans  of  sums  varying  from 
10  to  ;iOO  Horins,  williout  interest.  A  Jewisli  work- 
ingman's  association,  "Be/.alel,"  was  founded,  to 
wliicli,  however,  imtil  now.  unfortunately,  only 
diamond-workers  belong.  Since  there  are  very  few 
Jewish  mechanics  besi<U's  those  employed  in  the 
diamond  industry  and  in  the  manufacture  of  cigars, 
another  association  was  founded  ("Shemirat  Shab- 


Cemeteuv  of  Sf.phardic  comminitv  at  Amsterdam. 

(From  an  engravint;  by  Riiyft'la^l.) 


Judaism  of  Amsterdam  as  well  as  to  that  of  the 
whole  land,  when,  in  1862,  Dr.  Joseph  Ilirsch  Diln- 
ner  (born  in  Cracow.  1832)  was  elected  rector  of  the 
rabbinical  seminary.  Under  his  guidance  the  insti- 
tution was  reorganized  in  such  fashion  that  both 
secular  and  Jewish  subjects  were  included  in  the 
curriculum  from  the  lowest  classes  tip.  Tlie  result 
was  the  graduation  of  a  number  of  rabbis  and  chief 
rabbis,  who  were  not  only  learned  in  tlie  Law,  but 
whose  general  academic  cull  ure  earned 
for  them  universal  esteem.  The  con- 
tinued absence  of  a  strong  hand  in 
congregational  matters  was,  however, 
frequently  felt ;  accordingly  endeavors 
were  made  for  the  appointment  of  a  chief  rabbi  again. 
In  October,  1874,  Dr.  Dl'inner  was  elected  to  that 
office,  and  associated  witli  liim  was  a  bet  din  of 
three,  consisting  of  T.  Tal  (until  1881),  J.  D.  Wyn- 
koop (smce  .January.  1871),  J.  Content  (died  1898), 
A.  S.  Onderwyzer  (since  1888).  E.  Hamburg  (since 


Internal 
Develop- 
ment. 


bat ")  to  foster  the  study  of  handicrafts  without  sac- 
rificing the  religious  feeling  of  apprentices,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  to  abolish  street-peddling,  which 
was  carried  on  extensively  by  the  poorer  .Jews. 

The  field  of  literature  also  was  not  neglected.  After 
the  appearance,  from  May,  1807,  of  the  "Jondsch- 
Letterkundige  Bydragen,"  edited  by  the  Jewish  bib- 
liographer Meyer  Koest  (died  1889),  the  same  editor 
published  (from  1875  to  his  death)  thirteen  volumes 
of  the  journal  "  Israelictische  Lettcrlxide,"  contribu- 
tors to  which  were,  besides  Jewish  scholars  abroad, 
the  following  in  Amsterdam:  M.  Roest,  Dr.  J.  H. 
Dlinner.  Jacob  Hootien,  L.  Wagenaar,  D.  Ti.  Montezi- 
nos,  and  otlicrs.  Of  .Jewi.sh  weeldies,  there  appeared 
the  "Centraal  Blad  "  and  the  "  Nieuw  Israelietisch 
Week  Blad,"  both  still  in  existence.  The  monthly 
magazine  of  the  Society  of  Jewish  Teachers,  en- 
titled "Aha wall,"  is  also  published  in  Amsterdam. 
Though  this  city  no  longer  holds  that  position  of 
eminence  in  Hebrew  typographic  art  that  it  formerly 


545 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Amsterdam 


oniovfii,  it  is  still  rcprcsonted  in  tlie  Ilclircw  Ixiok- 
world  by  three  larjre  priiitinj:-"ffices.  Notable  eol- 
lectious  of  books  arc  the"  Hibliotheca  Roseiithaliana  " 
(a  portion  of  tlie  University  Library);  the  library  of 
the  Porluj^uese  Rabbinical  Seminary,  with  tlie  divi- 
sion "Livraria  de  Jlontezinos,"  which  is  rieh  in  rare 
works;  the  library  of  the  Xeder.  Isr.  Seminary,  and 
of  the  ■■  Uet  ha  Midrasli  'Ez  Hayyiin."  and  .several 
private  libraries.  In  ])ublic  life.  Jews  are  to  be  met 
with  in  all  )iosilions;  at  the  miiversity  and  in  the 
courts  of  justice;  with  the  annj-,  and  in  the  state 
and  city  i.'overnnieiits. 

IV.  Statistics:  The  number  of  the  Jews  of  Am- 
sterdam in  ITDo  was  20.002,  out  of  a  total  po))ula- 
tiou  of  217.024;  on  November  19,  184!>.  2"), 178,  of 
whom  2,747  were  Portuguese  and  22,42f)  were  Ash- 
kenazim,  out  of  a  total  population  of  221. !t4!).  In 
tlie  census  of  December  31.  18S9,  the  total  \w]n\- 
lation  was  408.061 ;  of  them  49,940  were  Ashkenazim 
and  4."):!3  Portuguese  Jews;  in  all  54,479.  Detailed 
statistics  of  the  Portuguese  congregation  liave  not 
been  printed.  The  report  of  the  Ashkenazic  con- 
gregation for  1899  furnishes  tlie  following;  In  that 
year  there  were  349  weddings,  and  in  the  two  ceme- 
teries (Muiderberg  and  Zeebiirg)  088  interments.  The 
congregational  budget  for  1S9S  was221,021. 12  llorins 
(§88.0(10).  Of  this  4."i.:{.")4. 13  llorins  were  e.\ peiided  for 
Jewish  education,  and  29.077. .■)()  for  charities,  which 
are  financially  and  adniinistnttively  extra-congrega- 
tional. The  German  congregation  had  eight  .syna- 
gogues, sealing  2.008  men  and  "137  women.  There 
are  in  addition  about  2.")  smaller  synagogues.  In 
the  .schools  of  the  coiiirrcgation  were  registered,  in 
1899.  8:!7  childr.'ii.  The  Jewish  free  schools  had 
l.O.ls  pupils,  and  the  Jewish  congregational  kimhr- 
garten  OoO  ebildn  n.       The  .Iruislj   Sriiiiii:iry,  with 


Ilf\  Irr  (if  lltf  .\sllki'lm/lr  ( 'nllk'n'tJuUnU  lit  .\tll^IiTtlulll, 
(Friim  •  blotllim  In  paaiMloa  of  Hon.  M.  SuUbtrgrr.) 

a  complete  high  school  curriculum,  numbered  70  stu- 
dents. Of  benevolent  inslilulions  there  were  in 
1899:  (.1)  Hospital  (built  in  IM.S.-1);  1.09.")  patients,  with 
41.0-U  days  of  treat  nienl  ;  dischargi-il.  870;  diiil.l2<l. 
(b)  Surgical  polyclinic;  fi.07.">  imtiints.  with  l.").!!."! 
consultations.  (<•)  Kye  clinic;  1.303  patients,  with 
li').^*2.">  consultations,  (il)  Dispensary:  .'>(i.ti:i8  pre- 
I.-3.'i 


Seal  of  Portu^e.se  Conffre- 
gallon  at  Ainstenlain. 

(From  the  CoDgr,-gatii>iiai  Arcbivefl.) 


scription.s.  (e)  Insane  asylum ;  151  patients,  with 
45.262  days  of  treatment;"  discharged,  10  cured;  3 
incurable;  11  died.  (/) 
Home  for  aged  men  and 
women. 

[An  idea  of  the  former 
communal  activity  of  the 
Spanisli  and  Portuguese 
Jews  of  Amsterdam  may 
be  gained  from  the  list  nl 
their  various  societies,  Ijotli 
for  the  cultivation  of  letters 
and  the  exercise  of  charity 
mentioned  by  Daniel  Levi 
de  Barrios  in  his  "Trium- 
pho  del  Govierno  Popular." 
To  the  first  or  academic 
class  beloiigeil  the  following 
.(/ V xli  ilxit:  K e  t c r  T o r a 
(min  nn3);  Tora  Hor  OIX  minh  Yesiba  de  los 
Pintos;  Meirat  Henaim  (D'J'V  DI'XD).  also  called 
Yesiba  Anistelodama;  Tipheret  Bajurim  (niSBD 
D'"lin3)  or  Yesiba  Quinta.  Of  cliaritable  organiza- 
tions, the  following  are  mentioned:   Abi   Yetoniim 

(D'OirC  OX):  Geniilut  Jassjidim  (Dncn  DI^DJ): 
Temime  Darex  (-|-)T  'D'OD) :  Jonen  Dalini  ( cH  pin) ; 
Masipiil  el  Dal  i}y-[  (jx  ^OL'T:):  Saliare  Zedek  (nj;:;' 
pnV):  Keter  Sem  Tob  (31D  DC  -\rO):  Resit  Joxnui 

inosn  n'trsi):  Bahaie  Tesuba  (naifn  'isya).    A 

iiuniber  of  similar  societies  have  from  time  to  time 
been  formed  among  the  so-called  German  Jews. 
There  may  be  mentioned  the  Nederlandscli  Israe- 
lieti.sch  Seminarium  for  the  training  of  rabbis,  w  ith 
the  Saildat  Bagurim  (society  for  the  assistance  of  the 
scholars);  a  " Gebroederschap  "  (D'3"iri  'pnVO  p  H 
X'V  nSlM)  for  the  study  of  Hebrew  literature: 
the  "Dr.  Samuel  Isrilel  JIulder-Stichting."  founded 
in  1883  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  worthy  Jewish 
students  of  theology.  There  also  exists  a  Reform 
synagogue  which  was  founded  about  the  middle  of 
tiie  nineteenth  century.  o.] 

Of  benevolent  societies  still  existing,  the  follow- 
ing may  be  mentioned:  In  the  Portuguese  congre- 
gation :  a  boys'  orphan  asylum,  founded  1648, 
having  23  inmates  in  1899;  girls'  orphan  asylum, 
established  17;!4,  remodeled  1839,  14  inmates;  home 
for  aged  men,  founded  1749,  6  inmates;  home  for 
aged  women,  founded  1834,  consolidated  with  the 
Portuguese  Jewisli  IIos])ital.  In  the  Ashkenazic 
congregation;  boys' orphan  asylum,  founded  1738, 
having  82  inmates  in  1899;  girls'  orphan  asylum, 
founiled  1761,  66  inmates;  Lying-in  Society,  estab- 
lished 1822. 

BMU.uxiRAlMlT:  On  section  I.:  Koenen,  ClrKChie<leni»  der  Jo- 
dm  ill  S'literlaiul,  I'liwht,  lS4:t;  Daldstn,  iKnulenile  Vnl. 
hen,  ftifi'hl,  ISTii;  (inltz,  f.Vw/i.  i1.Juiliii,\\.,  x..  .tl. :  Slavs 
en  Ilooiii'ii,  llmittlifnk  vmiriU-  fit-nriiii-ihiiift  lUr  Jmhu,  111. 
Amst«'nluin.  lH7;t;  MoniLtcli,  fli-srhirilriiiK  x'tin  bft  VnJk 
;»rri</.  111..  .\iiist.Tililiii,  lsm;Sclai<lt,  JIMiVhi-  .WiiT).irllr<li|)- 
lii  it'  II,  ITl.'t,  1.  -*T":  I>e  ("Hstni,  7V  Sifwuimir  iliv  /*ortiit/.  hr. 
tiiiiiii  ittt.  The  Httk'Uf.  IST.'i;  Ktiir  i'(i»  tiriifMifiit-n,  Ley- 
Uen.  ls.s:l;  KavsiTliili;.  .s'' ji/nu-ifim.  |ip.  I'lSit  .vi/. 

on  section  II.  Uii  utlilitlon  10  the  alKivei :  .^nielnnder, 
Scliiiiil  Inidtl,  Imtcli  tninshitlon  l>.v  (iomlsnilt,  with  note.n 
l>,v  Polak,  .\insti'nlaMi,  ISiVi;  Mfllikr,  Jdn  nrrr  lic  Hniiiinf- 
liliiiilM  II,  .\in.stiTilniii,  1S.">1 :  l>iil«k,  Ifiil  /ill/  (iiiliin  (Helippw  I, 
Aiiistenlarii.  1S<IT  :  IK'iiilillzer.  Kelilnt  I'ofl  (Helin'Wi,  cnu-ow, 
ISSKiuwl  isitt;  Sci'lltfinnnn.  I^issr  it|/</rii(ii  11  tut  rir  llrKcliir- 
tlfiiiti  itir  Jiittfii  in  AniKti-rittini,  In  the  *  Vii/nioi  Uhiil  rimr 
/yiiKli/iil  ill  .Vri/irliiin/,  .w.  .Sim.  47  i7  nf'i. 

on  swtlon  III.:  Hartoir, /v  .hxlrn  in  li<l  rrnlc  .litnr  <\fr 
JUiliuitHilir  Vrilliriil,  In  the  (.■(<(.■<.  1ST.">:  Italle,  Ix  Kmniirl- 
jHitit-  thrJtMlfii  in  ;:;>»;.  In  the  Anii*fi  iil<iiiisrh<  Jtuirtmrhjf 
I'fwfr  IsUT: /><■  SiH-iflrit  fV/l.r  Lihiiintr  fii  intt  2iJ  ViHinlr 
y.iniinriiHilir  ilrr  Jmlm  lirrfl  urilmin.  In  oiel  lliilliinil, 
IWIS,  svl.  .M  rl  sii/.,  Til,  UT:  Ilir  Jin/.  11  in  .liii.>(i  ri/mii.  In 
Colli  im/e-  y.iiliinu.  .Mini'  iV.  1:1.  3',  ISSil;  ,ll(ii  ■/(  r  Anistrr- 
iliiiiiiinr  (,i  nil  im/.,  lTie-lS12,  In  Jfuhiinin.  IStt.  HI.  Nos. 
*|>-.M,  ISSil,  Iv,  Nu.  il.  S.   St. 


Amsterdam 

Amulet 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


546 


AMSTEKDAM,  N.  Y. :  City  of  JIoiitRonuTy 
county.  Ntw  Vdik.  on  the  .Mohawk  rivpr,  3;i  miles 
northwest  of  Alliiiny;  ]iii|uiliitioii  in  1!MH).  L'(>.!l2il. 

The  earliest  Jewish  residents  were  Harris  Davis. 
Isiuic  Marl;,  ami  a  Mr.  Hotlienlmrf;.  in  tlie  order 
named.  In  lf<(i">  .luliiis  Was.sernian  eanie  to  Amster- 
dam, and  in  ISHU  was  appointed  postmaster;  a  little 
later  he  ereeted  a  broom  I'aetory.  that  of  the  Amster- 
dam Hrooni  Company,  willi  which  .Mr.  Wassernian 
and  his  si>n  aie  now  associated.  Since  then  the  .Jew- 
ish eommmiity  has  jxrown  rapidly,  and  in  l!t(HI  num- 
bered al"iut  '2M.  of  whom  alxiut  I'i'y  weri'  attendants 
at  the  Ueform  Temple  of  Israel,  the  remainder  at- 
tending the  orthodo.x  synafrojfue. 

The  eonjrref;ation  of  the  T<Mnple  of  Lsrael  was  or- 
ganized and  incorporated  in  January,  1874.  with 
Isaac  Wasserman  as  its  i)resident,  and  Joseph 
Grejrar  (now  deceased)  as  its  first  rabbi.  Hev.  I. 
Kline  succe<iled  (ireirar,  and  was  in  turn  followed 
by  Hev.  Samuel  FriedTuan.  The  latter  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Kniil  Friedman.  The  present  minister 
(191)1)  is"S.  Philo,  formerly  of  Allantic  City.  N.  J. 
A  site,  located  in  the  most  desirable  residential  ]>or- 
tion  of  the  city,  was  purchased  in  lilOtl,  and  plans  for 
a  temiile  are  in  th(^  hands  of  the  contractor,  licauti- 
ful  cemetery  f;rounds.  about  three  miles  from  the 
city,  are  amonij  the  jiossessions  of  the  conirrciration. 
The  president  of  the  corii;rei;alion  is  Julius  Wasser- 
man. who  has  acted  in  that  capacity  for  the  last 
lifteen  years;  vice-president,  Moses  Helir;  secretary, 
David  Wasserman;  treasurer.  Samuel  Levi. 

Among  the  Jewish  societies  are;  The  Temple  Aid 
Society;  the  Deborah  Society — a  benevolent  associa- 
tion composed  of  married  ladies — anil  a  literary  so- 
ciety. comi>osed  of  younir  peo])!!'. 

The  Jews  of  Amslerdam  are  engaged  in  the  lead- 
ing trades;  and  the  largest  dry-goods  stores  of  the 
cit)-  are  conducted  by  them.  A.  L.  L. 

AMtr  or  AAMXJ  :  The  ancient  Egyptian  desig- 
nation forthe  Semites,  frequently  (|Uote(i  in  (lopular 
literature.  The  correct  form  in  Hebrew  letters  would 
be  'DXy  for  the  singular,  according  to  the  Copt iecz/fc, 
nearly  equivalent  to  'iinii  (|)lural.  'a' men?).  The 
etymology  seems  to  be  Egyptian;  the  original  word 
meaning  "bearers  of  the  throwingstick."  from  the 
common  weapon  of  the  Bedouin,  rather  than  from 
the  Semitic  '(iiii(iii)=  "nation."  The  word,  met 
with  in  the  inseri])tion  of  "  I'na  "  (si.\th  dynasty), 
while  usually  employed  to  designate  the  Semiles.  is 
also  applied  to  other  Asiatic  and  European  nations 
of  the  Caucasian  type.  (For  the  history  of  the 
word,  see  W.  M.  jNIiiller,  "Asien  imd  Europa,"  pp. 
VH.  8r.l.)  W.  Jl.  .M. 

AMULET  :  The  word  "  Amulet "  used  to  be  eon- 
siderecl  as  rlerived  from  an  imaginary  Arabic  word 
"hamalet  "  (something  hung  on);  but  it  is  in  reality 
an  ancient  Latin  word  of  unknown  etymology.  It 
is  found  .several  times  in  Pliny,  "XatundisIIistoria." 
x.wiii.  38.  x.\.\.   2.  and  elsewhere  (Pauly-Wissowa. 

"RealencykloiKidie    der     Classischen 

Orig-in  of     Altertumswissensebaft."  i.liW).    Am- 

the  Word,    ulets  are  referred  to  in  the  Bible,  but 

without  any  technical  designation.  In 
Talmiidic  literature  the  specific  term  kaid'n  is  found, 
from  a  root  meaning  "  to  bind."  A  kemi'a  is  there- 
fore something  bound  on  or  around,  so  that  the  sup- 
posititious etymology  for  the  word  Amulet  as  "some- 
thing hung  on"  would  be  correct  as  concerns  the 
Jewish  form,  ftut  this  designation  refers  simply 
to  the  Amulet's  external  application,  and  indicates 
nothing  of  its  purpose  or  contents.  Biblical.  Tal- 
mudical,  and  post-Talmudical  passages  supply  in- 
fonnation  on  both  of  these  points. 


Amulets  were  employed  to  protect  man,  or  his  jios- 
sessions.  such  as  houses,  cattle,  etc..  from  the  evil  in- 
lluences  of  wit<hes,  ilenaais,  an<l  other  misihievous 
pow<rs  likely  to  be  encountereil,  or  to  counteract 
misfortune,  illness,  and  damage  of  various  kinds 
already  being  endured.  The  Amulet  is  found  both 
in  the  Orient  ami  in  the  West,  among  wild  trilies  and 
among  civilized  nations  down  to  the  present  day. 
Assyrians  and  Egyjitians,  Creeks  and  Homans,  Jews 
and  Christians,  fostered  this  ancient  superstition, 
and.  in  varying  degrees,  foster  it  to  ilay.  .Vinong 
the  Israelites,  therefore,  the  Amulet  basa  history  ex- 
tending over  several  thousand  years,  and  it  may  ciai- 
vcinenlly  be  considered  under  the  heads  of  the  Bib- 
lical, Talmudical,  and  post  Tabuudical  periods. 

All  ornaments  worn  on  the  person  seem  to  have 
been  originally  amulets.  The  majority  of  them  de- 
rived their  supjiosed  ]iowir  from  the  fact  that  they 
either  bore  the  images  of  idols  or  were  consecrated 
toidols.  The  patriarch  .Jacob  buried  "all  lliestrange 
gods  which  weri'  in  their  [his  household's|  hand,  and 
all  their  earrings  which  were  in  their  ears"  ((Jen. 
.x.xxv.  4).  Seeing  that  the  weak  were  more  likely  to 
suffer  from  the  evil  influence  of  wit<hcraft  and  de- 
mons than  the  strong,  it  was  usually  only  the  women 
and  children  who  wore  such  means  of 

Biblical  protection.  Aaron  said  to  the  men 
Age.  (Kx.  .x.xxii.  2),  "  Break  oil' the  golden 
earrings,  which  are  in  the  ears  of  your 
wives,  of  your  sons,  and  of  jour  daughters,"  wlierc- 
upon  "all  the  people  brake  olf  the  golden  earrings 
which  were  in  their  ears."  The  Midianile  kings  wore 
crescents  and  earrings;  even  their  camels  had  chains 
about  their  necks,  evidently  as  amul<'ls(  Judges,  viii. 
2(i).  Jewelry  was  worn  by  the  women  ami  maidens 
not  onl_v  for  ornament,  but  also  for  iiroii'diDU  and  as 
charms.  Among  the  twenty-four  ornamenls  of  the 
daughters  of  Zion,  referred  to  in  Jsa,  iii.  is,  mention  is 
maiie  of  Ichnshim.  This  word  usually  denoti's  magic, 
but  here  evidently  signifies  an  ornament  intended 
to  counteract  magic  and  at  the  sjune  time  perhaps  to 
exert  magical  inlluence  itself.  The  lover  says  (.Song 
of  Solomon,  iv.  !!),"Thou  hast  ravished  my  heart,  my 
sister,  my  spou.se;  tho\i  hast  ravished  my  heart  with 
(me  of  thine  eyes,  with  one  chain  of  thy  neck."  The 
adulterous  wife  jiuls  on  her  earrings  and  jewels  be- 
fore she  goes  after  her  lovers  (Hosea.  ii.  lli).  In 
Prov.  xvii.  8  a  bribe  is  compared  to  a  favor-giving 
precious  stone,  whose  owner  pros|)eretli  wliilher- 
.soever  he  tunu'th.  That  jn  px  here  denotes  a  mag- 
ical ston<>  is  eviilent ;  anil  so,  loo,  in  Nahum,  iii.  4, 
■something  of  the  same  kind  is  alludeil  to  with  regard 
to  "the  well-favored  harlot,  the  mistress  of  witch- 
crafts," The  Book  of  Proverbs,  which  was  written 
for  the  people,  and  mirrors  iiopular  views  of  life, 
also  makes  reference  to  jircvailing  conceptions  about 
amulets  when  it  says  of  wisdom,  it  "shall  be  an 
ornament  of  grace  unto  thy  head,  and  chains  about 
thy  neck  "  (Prov.  i.  9).  Similarly,  when  it  says  (//<. 
vi,  21).  concerning  the  admonitions  of  father  and 
mother;  "Bind  them  contiiuially  upon  thine  heart, 
and  lie  them  about  thy  neck,  WIk'U  thou  gnest.  It 
shall  lead  thee;  when  thou  sleepest,  it  shall  keep 
thee."  Parental  iirccepts  protect,  like  an  Amulet 
worn  upon  the  heart  and  neck.  In  many  passjiges 
of  Scripture  which  speak  figuratively  of  a  necklace, 
an  ornamental  crown,  or  of  the  protection  alTorded 
by  the  Law.  the  po])ular  conee])tion  of  the  power  f>f 
amulets  is  constantly  referred  to  (Ps.  Ixxiii.  (i.  ciii, 
4,  I'rov.  iii.  22,  iv.  9,  xiii.  .'"i).  Especially  significant 
is  I^rov.  iv.  22.  where  it  is  said  "they  fmy  words] 
are  life  unto  those  that  find  them,  and  health  to 
all  their  flesh."  But  amulets  were  sometimes  hid- 
den, carried  upon  the  body,  that  they  might  not  be 


547 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amsterdam 
Amulet 


exposed  to  tlieeounter-infliienee  of  other  amulets,  ana 
were  thus  supposed  to  be  even  more  potent.  Amu- 
lets were  found  upon  tlie  liodies  of  Jewisli  warriors; 
Uiey  liad  come  from  the  lieatheu  temple  in  Januiia 
I II  JIaee.  xii.  40).  The  signet-ring,  earned  over  the 
heart  or  upon  the  arm  (Song  of  Solomon,  viii.  G,  .ler. 
.\.\ii.  '24,  Hag.  ii.  23),  served  as  an  Amulet,  either 
owing  to  tli(t  material  of  which  it  was  composed  or 
freipiently  from  the  iu.scri|ition  upon  it. 

The  use  of  anuilets  was  very  extensive  in  the 
riililiinical  period;  that  is,  from  about  the  first  cen- 
tury li.c,  until  about  000  of  the  eomiuon  era;  conse- 
i|Uently  there  are  copious  details  coneennng  them 
in  literary  .sources.  The  Mishnah  repeatedly  consid- 
ers kenii'<it  from  its  particular  juridical  standpoint. 
They  were  worn  sometimes  with  covering  and  some- 
times without.  The  Amulet  itself,  it 
Talmudical  api)ears.  might  consist  cither  of  an  ar- 
Age.  tide  inscribed  with  the  nnmr  of  God, 

with  a  Scripture  jiassageor  the  like,  or 
of  the  root  of  some  herb.  Grains  of  wheat  wrapi)ed 
in  leather  sometimes  served  as  amulets.  Particu- 
larly potent  were  chips  or  s]dinlers  of  the  woo<l  of 
an  AsiiKit.^ii,  or  of  anything  olfered  to  an  i<lol ;  and 
therefore  such  things  were  regularly  made  into  kem- 
i'i>t.  The  niiwt  fnipient  form  of  amidets.  how- 
ever, was  u  small  metal  plate  suitably  inscribed. 
Around  the  neck  of  oxen  was  tied  a  pearl  wrapped 
in  leather.  To  protect  a  horse  from  evil  inlluence, 
a  fox's  tail  oru crimson  ])lume  wa.s  fastened  between 
its  eyes.  Children,  owing  to  their  feeble  powers  of 
resistance,  were  held  to  be  much  exposed  to  the 
danger  of  magic  fascination;  they  were,  therefore, 
|iroti'ctcd  by  means  of  knots,  written  parchments, 
elc.  tied  round  Ihi-ir  necks.  Furniture  and  house- 
hold belongings  were  jirotectcd  by  in.scribing  the 
name  of  God  upon  fnot -rests  and  handles.  Usually,  at 
least  among  men.  amulets  were  worn  on  the  arm ;  but 
exceptionally  they  were  carried  in  the  hand.  Women 
and  children  wore  them  especially  on  neck-chains, 
rings,  or  otiH'rarticles  of  jewelry.  An  Anudet  would 
sometimes  be  placed  in  u  hollow  stick,  and  would  be 
all  the  more  ellicacious  because  no  one  would  suspect 
its  presence;  it  was  a  species  of  concealed  weapon. 
Figuratively  the  Torah  is  said  to  be  such  an  Anudet 
for  Isra<-I.  The  priestly  benediction  (Num.  vi.  24-2(i) 
protected  Israel  against  the  evil  eye.  Distinctions 
were  drawn  between  amulets  which  had  cured  once 
and  those  that  had  cured  twice  or  thrice;  between 
those  w  hieh  had  healed  three  dilTcrcnt  ]H'0]de  once 
each  and  those  which  had  healed  one  ])erson  three 
limes.  In  short,  there  were  approved  amulets  and 
amnli-ts  not  approved;  a  ilistinetion  made  likewise 
as  to  .\mulel makers.  Besides  the  conuuon  people 
in  daily  life,  physicians  in  their  jirofessional  practise 
also  used  amulets;  the  Amulet  was  thought  to  ban- 
i.sh  the  demon  causing  the  ailment  if  his  name  were 
written  upon  the  kemi'a. 

Kvery  nation  in  turn  seems  to  have  helil  that  the 
magical  arts  of  other  nations  were  superior  to  its 
own;  and  therefore  it  is  easy  to  \uiderstanil  why  the 
greater  portion  of  the  anudels  described   in  T.'duuiil 
and  .Midnish  are  of  foreign  extraction,  as  eviilenced 
by  their  foreign  appellations  or  by  other  indica- 
tions.     Geninnely    Jewish,    however. 
Foreign      were  those  talismans  whi<h  consisted 
and  Domes-  of   strips  of   parchment  bearing    tin' 
tic  Amu-     name  of  Goil,  or  various  permutations 
lets.  of  its  letters.  Scripture  pas.sagcs,  or  the 

like.  An  important  ijuotatiou  concern- 
ing these  is  found  in  a  iiarailii  (Sliab  1  l"i/'):  "Talis- 
mans and  auudets,  although  containing  in  their 
letters  the  name  of  God  or  sundry  ]ias.sages  out  of 
the   Torah,   inav  not  he  «ived  on  SablMilli  from  a 


contlagration;  let  them  burn  where  they  are."  By 
letters  of  God's  name  are  meant  anagrams  and 
transpositions  of  the  same;  see  Ahkaxas.  Upon  an 
Amulet.  .Siiid  to  be  potent  in  curing  the  bite  of  a  mad 
dog,  was  written  mN3V  nin"  H'  .T  "Yah,  Yah,  Lord 
of  Hosts"  (Yoma,  84</).  As  .stated  above,  medicine 
did  not  disdain  the  use  of  amulets.  Abraham  wore 
a  jew(d  on  his  neck  which  healed  every  sick  iierson 
he  looked  upon.  A  "stone  of  preservation"  (px 
noipn)  was  said  to  protect  women  from  mi.searriage. 
The  egg  of  a  grasshopper  was  .Siiid  to  ju-otect  against 
earache;  the  tooth  of  a  living  fox  again.st  sleei)ine.ss, 
and  of  a  dead  one  against  sleeplessness.  A  nail  from 
a  gallows  iirotected  against  wounds.  The  sjiges  of 
the  Talmud,  however,  forbade  the  use  of  all  such 
riniedies,  as  being  "heathen  practise."  Tcfilliii  (phy- 
lacteries) and  iiieziizot  (iu.scriptions  on  door-posts)  are 
<lesigniited  by  the  Targum  on  Song  of  Solomon  (viii. 
fi),  as  |iermissible  amulets,  preserving  Isra<-I  from  the 
power  of  demons.  Sources  and  citations  concerning 
the  use  of  amulets  in  Talunidical  times  may  be  found 
in  Ulau,  "Das  Altji'idische  Zauberwesen,"  pp.  S6, 
UC;  Strasburg,  18ilH. 

Jewish  thoujflit  and  action  in  the  Middle  Ages 
were  donunated  comidetely  by  the  Talmud.  .Since 
this  aulh  )rity  did  not  forbid  the  use  of  written 
anudets,  the  Jews  were  entirely  exposed  both  to  the 
growth  of  this  sup<'rstilion  among  themselves  and 
to  the  overwhelming  inroads  of  th<'  superstitious 
practises  of  the  nations  among  whom  they  dwelt. 

It   is  therefore    not    sur|uising    that 

Post-         the  .Vmulet   supeiNtition   grew   apace 

Talmudical  among  them.     It  nourished  most  in  the 

Age.  Orient,  the  ancient  homi' of  all  nuigic 

and  su]ierstition.  Hai  Gaon.  the  en- 
lightened head  of  the  Pumbedita  Academy,  wrote 
(about  1000),  "Sorcery  and  anudets  sjirang  fnjm  the 
Sura  .\eademy,  because  that  lies  ncai  to  liabylonia 
and  to  the  house  of  Nebuchadnezzar. "  He  denies  the 
powers  of  amulets,  as.  for  instance,  that  a  papyrus 
or  an  olive-leaf  inscribed  with  the  mystic  name  of 
God  would  put  robbers  to  flight ;  or  if  the  same 
were  written  upon  a  new  tile,  that  it  woidd  calm 
the  sea;  or,  if  tlirown  upon  a  man,  would  kill  him. 
He  admits,  however,  that  anudels  may  be  ell'cctive 
as  means  of  cure  and  protection.  All  deiiendsupon 
the  writer  and  upon  the  moment  of  application  ;  for 
at  certain  times  the  best  are  ineffectual  (Ashkcnazi, 
"Ta'am  Zekeidm."  .W*). 

That  in  the  Aliddle  Ages  the  Jews  were  influ- 
enced by  the  Habyloidan  magic  especially,  and  not 
by  \\\v  Kgyptian — the  latter  distinguishiil  twenty 
dilTereiil  sorts  of  amulets  (see  IJudge,  "Kgyptian 
Magic,"  p.  'J.">,  London,  IS!)!)) — is  shown  by  the  Jew- 
ish .Vnuiiaic  charm-inscriptions  ii|iou  Haliyloinan 
clay  bowls  which  [lossibly  served  as  a  jiroteclion 
for  the  utensils;  that  is,  as  amulets  (Woldsiein, 
"  r)ilm<viicnbeschwi')rungen  aus  Nachtalmudischer 
Zeit,"  Berlin,  1S!)4;  Stnbc,  "Jndiseh  IJabylonische 
Zaubertexte."  Halle.  ISil,');  Schwab,  "  I,es  Coupes 
MaL'iipies."  etc..  in  "Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
Biblical  .\rchcology."  April,  ISitO;  ithm.  "Coupes 
i\  Inscriptions  Jlagicpies,"  ih.  June,  ISitl).  In 
Gasler's  edition  of  "The  Swonl  of  Jloses "  (Lon- 
don, IHllO) — a  work  evidently  written  tnider  Kgvp- 
lian  intlueiue,  but  Oriental  in  its  origin  ami  sind  to 
belong,  according  to  its  editor,  to  Ihi'  fourth  century 
— a  whole  serii's  of  ki  ini'ol  is  given  as  prolectivo 
against  various  ailnunts  and  evils.  These  consist 
of  transpositions  of  the  names  of  God.  (|uile  unin- 
telligible to  till'  modern  uund.  written  upon  paper 
orengniveil  upon  metal  plates,  and  thus  risendiling 
the  magic  papyri  of  the  Greeks.  Kxaelly  as  with 
Egyptian  amulets,  the  rcijuisile  color  anil  material  of 


Amulet 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


648 


these  arc  sometimes  indicated;  thus  one  charm  was 
to  tie  written  on  a  red  plate,  anotheron  a  silver  plate, 
and  so  on.  ]5y  the  enii)lovnient  of  these  aniulels. 
paralysis,  sciatica,  eve  and  ear  ailnienls,  leprosy, 
and  other  evils  were  to  lie  cured.  With  a  certain 
plate  fastened  around  the  tliijrh,  a  man  niiglit  enter 
a  tiery  furnace  and  come  out  unscathed.  Material 
and  inscription  of  the  Amulet  varied  according  to 
its  purpose.  By  its  means  fish  could  be  caught; 
the  love  of  a  woman  .secured  and  retained;  the 
sea  cros.sed  dry-shod;  wild  animals  slain;  terror 
diffused  through  the  world;  coniiniinion  had  with 
the  dead;  a  sword  obtained  which  would  fight 
automatically  for  its  owner;  one's  enemies  set  to 
tearing  each  other  to  pieces;  oneself  rendered  invis- 
ible; springs  of  water  found;  cleverness  attained; 
and  many  similarly  wonderful  things  accom])li.shed. 
In  one  jiassiige  a  device  that  is  frequently  met  with 
in  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  magic  is  mentioned; 
namely,  the  i)re])aration  of  an  image  anil  working 
the  charm  desired  by  its  medium.  The  prescription 
runs; 

"  If  thou  (ieslrest  to  cause  any  one  to  perish,  talse  clay  from 
two  river  Iwuilis  and  mnke  an  image  therpwlili;  write  upon  it 
the  man's  name ;  then  take  seven  stalks  from  sevt-n  iiate-tn*es 
and  make  a  iKiw  [liiTefnllows  the  word  s.-vS'jpDr-i]  with  horse- 
hair (?) :  .st't  up  the  imiicc  in  a  convenient  plaee.  sln-Irh  thy 
bow,  shoot  the  stalks  at  it,  and  Willi  i-very  one  say  the  prescriheil 
words,  which  liegin  with  m."'i"'N  and  end  with  'DiDio,  adding, 
'  Destroyed  be  N.,  son  of  N.l ' " 

Gaster  {l.r.  pp.  13-19)  explains  why  these  means 
were  thought  to  be  effective.  It  appears  that  every 
angel  and  deiiMm  is  l)onnd  to  appeal'  and  obey  when 


he  hears  a  certain  name  uttered  (p.  35.  lims 


-10). 


Even  Hai  Gaon  ("Responsen  der  Geonim,"  ed.  llar- 
kavy,  373,  p.  180)  .says,  "Amulets  are  written,  and 
the  divine  name  is  spoken,  in  order  that  angels  may 
help."  But  a  great  deal  was  made  to  dipeiid  upon 
using  the  riglit  name  at  the  right  time,  a  condition 
likewise  frequently  insisted  on  in  the  Kgyplian  and 
Babylonian  magical  works. 

"Practical  Cabala,"  or  the  art  of  employing  the 
knowled,ge  of  the  hidden  world  in  order  to  attain 
one's  purpose,  is  founded  upon  the  mysticism  devel- 
oped in  the  "Sefer  Yezirah "  (Book  of  Creation). 
According  to  this  work.  God  created  the  world  by 
means  of  the  letters  of  thealphabetand  particularly 
tho.se  of  His  name,  V  n.  \  which  lie  combined  in 
the  most- vaiied  ways.  If  one  learns  these  combina- 
tions and  peniiutations.  and  applies  them  at  the 
right  time  and  in  the  right  place,  one  ma.v  thus 

easily  make  himself  master  of  crea- 
Cabala.       tion.  since  God  Himself  not  only  per- 

mitsbut  dcsii'csthis;  forthese  formuhv 
all  proclaim  monotheism.  The  Egy]itians  held  a 
similar  view  (Budge.  I.e.  xiii.).  Tlie  mystic  book 
"Ra/.iel"  (eleventh  century),  in  so  far  as  it  is  to  be 
considered  here,  is  also  of  Oriental  origin,  and  re- 
flects similar  views.  Instructions  are  given  for  the 
preparation  of  amulets;  and  jiarticular  days  and 
hours  are  indicated  as  suitable  for  the  msmufacture 
(ed,  Amsterdam,  434).  As  sam|iles,  the  two  kem- 
i'ot  in  the  next  column  may  serve. 

In  Europe.  Spain  conies  most  prominently  into 
view  in  the  consideration  of  amulets,  that  country 
being  a  hotbed  of  superstition  and  Cabala.     Xal.i- 

manidesand  Adret  iiermit  the  employ- 
In   Etirope.  ment  of  a  metal  jilate  with  the  image 

of  a  lion  as  a  remedy  against  a  painful 
cough  (Adret.  "Kesponsa."  Ist  ed.,  167,  413).  This 
superstition  was  a  universal  one,  and  is  mentioned 
also  by  ;Manasseh  ben  Isrsiel  of  Amsterdam  (seven- 
teenth century),  who  remarks  that  Leone  Soavio 
recommended  it  to  Paracelsus  as  a  cure  for  stomach- 


pain  ("Nishmat  Hayyim,"  third  treatise,  chap. 
XXV.).  Other  amulets  were  written  upon  iiarchment, 
on  the  skin  of  a  fetus  or  of  a  deer  (Adret.  //<),  but; 
were  of  avail  oidy  when  the  writer  and  the  clioseu 
time  were    propitious.     Adret    also    forbiils    such 


This  Amulet,  on  which  n^x  fnim  Psalm  xlv.  ■'i  Is  permuted, 
craituins  spare  for  a  short  pnivfr  I<>  he  written  in.  f.xpif^sivr  of 

the  particular  rtbject  to  he  i.i.iained.  and  is  recoir ndeil  for 

use  in  funherintr  all  business  enl*'rpnse.s.  It  contains  the  usual 
shield  (if  David  with  >iw*.  It  must  tje  written  u\ma  parchment* 
and  Worn  on  the  left  side. 

charms  as  are  clearly  useless  ("  KovcIIsb"  on  Shab.  07). 
In  Germany,  red  cords  with  corals  were  worn  as 
(irotection  against  the  evil  eye.  Christians  employed 
Jews  to  make  amulets  for  them;  for  these  had  the 
reputation  of  being  "  wi.se  folk."  Strangely  enough, 
in  the  later  Middle  A.sres,  .lews  attached  to  their 
anus,  where  the  phylacleries  were  ajiplied,  amulets 
containing  ilic  natiK'S  of  Christ  and  the  tliree  holy 
kings  (Berliner.  "  .\us  dem  Lcben  der  Deutsehen 
Jucleii  im  .'Mittelaller."  p|).  97,  IDl).  Insanity  or 
eiiileps}'  was  cured  by  hanging  beets  around  the  jia- 
tient's  neck.  People  were  warned,  however,  that  the 
preparation  of  Ihese  amulets  would  irritate  demons. 
A.irainst  misearri.iL.'-e  women  carried  a  stone  arounil 
the  neck,  called  SnjIpJ'N.  a  word  evident  1}'  derived 
from  the  French  <  m;  inh  ;  a  hole  was  pierced  through 
it ;  it  was  as  large  and  as  heavy  as  a  hen's  egg.  These 
stones,  which  had  a  glazed  a]ipcarance,  were  fimnd 
in  the  tields.  and  were  esteemed  of  priceless  value. 
A  similar  iiurjiose  was  served  in  antiijuity  as  well 
as  in  the  jliddle  Ages  by  ai-tites.  For  lightening 
labor,  both  .Jewish  and  Christian  women  wore  a  jiiece 
of  a  man's  vest,  girdle,  or  other  clothing,  Luther 
relates  that  a  Jew  presented  Duke  Albert  of  Siixony 
with  a  button,  cuiioiisly  inscribed,  which  would 
jirotcct  against  cold  steel,  slabbing,  or  shooting. 
The  duke  made  the  experiment  on  the  .Jew,  hang- 
ing the  button  around  his  neck  and  then  slashing 
him  with  a  sword  (Giidemami,  "  (tcscli.  des  Erzie- 
liungswesens  und  derCulturder.Iuden  in  Frank reich 
und' Deutschland,"  pp.  'MT,,  3(17,  314,  •2'2i\.  Vienna, 
ISSO),  The  Italian  coin,  with  its  abracadabra-like 
inscription,  described  by  Gudemann  ("Gescli.  d.  Erz. 
und  der  Cultur  der  Jud.  in  Italien."  ji.  33.i).  was  proli- 
abl.v  of  Jewish,  and  not  of  Christian,  origin.  The 
medallion  bears  on  the  one  side  the  words  below,  the 

mn'  DxnDTSD 
'ro'H  D'jm 
D10  "JvX  'no 

"■n'D 

t3K'3KB 


m 


'W^J^j^^^^^"  ^^-^j^j~^^^jtff-)\'r^yy>:j^^.rryy^'>rf:,j>'j'^A-  >, 


i-?lJ 


"^ »""  mm  DIN 


if 


t  -  *■  ■ '      ■    ^ 


ta^'>\  ffS  n*n»  *o)  3ii» 

( WT!";  :<*^|;  J^  riW? 

\y^^-^x\  SjSx*  liJ'jf^a 


F 


s^s 


•  OO  ^— ^^»  O  <•  ^^^^foV^ 


Si 


"''•''  i-*^  mm  DnK 


-I JO 


1.  Amclet  for  rnoTKCTioN  Against  Lilith. 

(Frcm  the  "  S«fer  Rulcl.") 


2.  Silver  Mf;nAi,LioN  with  -i 


S-    ON  OBVFRSE,  AND  DaTID'S  SniELD  ENri.OSINO  Fi.EPR-DK-LlS  ON 

Retk.rsk.     2H  X  1  ;ii  in. 


3.  Golden  Hamj  \  ~,  ,•  \.  ■:.  i'rotection  against  tmk  "Evil  Eye."  with  — r  in  the  I'alm.  2^x1  Id. 


5.  Parchment  with  Permcta 

TION.^  OF   »"IC*.   nin*.    AND 

n-HN.    !i  \i  ■  1  %  in. 


[Fii;«.  2,  ^,  4,  xnd  h  rfprodm-^d  br  t-4^urt«av 

of  the  I'siTED  States  Natiohal  Mu- 


4.  Parchmext  with  Inverted  Pyramidal  Inscription  after  the  Stvlk  of  abracadabra. 

Diameter  15^  in. 


AMU  LETS 


AMll.KT    WITH     FORMILA     ISSCRIBKD    AROI'XD    THE 

Mknoraii.  and  "Its  Toxfis  axd  Sxiffdisiies" 
(Ex.  XXV.  38). 

(From  the  collcctloo  of  J.  D.  Fluniitfin.) 


"MizRAM"  WITH  THE  67th  Psalm  i.n  the  Shape  of 

THE  MKXORAH  SiRROrxnED  BY  MAGICAL  FORMULAS. 

(From  Kohut,  "  GMcblchU)  der  Juden.") 


J:   'v.-t'-)-j.»    ^■ 


ifiir  II  (itrl.) 


iFiir  (I  IJr>|/.) 


Aui'i.k-ra  Uvsa  Up  at  ('iiii.nniRTii  for  Protkctio.s  aoainst  Lilitii. 

(Fmni  Ih*  «*llM-tl»n  of  ■>«(.  Rk^hjiM  Rolllwll.) 


A  M  II  I    E  TS 


549 


THE   JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amulet 


Hebrew  trauslitcrutiou  of  "Majcstas  YHWH  r<'gis 
doiiiini  niti  aiiiiniim  iHiiiirMiiiii  milii  foviiit  "  (Maj' 
llie  niajisty  nf  YHWH  foster  a  kiiiilly  disposition 
in  my  lord  tlif  king  touanl  ni<).     Ljiou  llie  other 

*"'''  '^  mn>  DxnDn\xo 

\iD  DID  ':x 

IN,  D'jm 

nnj 

"Majcstas  YHWH  animum  mei  regis  ad  me  in- 
fliiiet  "  CSlny  till"  majesty  of  YIIWII  incline  the 
king's  soul  to  me). 

The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain  in  1493 
caused  the  dissemination  of  the  Cabala  far  and  wide 
through  the  East 
and  the  West. 
Their  unexam- 
pled sufferings 
served  to  foster 
theirinyslicbent 
more  tiian  ever. 
The  Holy  Land, 
as  far  as  re- 
peopled  by 
Spanish  exiles 
(notal)ly  Safed), 
became  the  hot- 
bed of  the  most 
abstruse  secret 
lore,  which 
favored,  among 
other  things,  the 
employment  of 
amulets.  From 
Turkey  on  the 
one  side,  and 
from  Italy  on 
the  other,  the 
Cabala  s|)reail  to 
Poland  and 
lands  adjacent; 
Hasidism  arose 
there  and  flour- 
ishes there  t  o- 
day.  This  mys- 
t  i  c  i  s  m  also 
prepared  the 
groiuid  for  amu- 
lets, so  that  there 
are  whole  books 
devoted  exclu- 
sively toljemi'ot 
still  extant 
in  manuNcript 
(compare  IJenja- 
cob,  "O/ar  ha- 
Sefarim,"  p. 
530).      This   so- 


Ttils  Amulet  Is  rlalincd  tot)ewfllupprovofi.  ami  pr«itei*tstti«»h1np-in  motticrand  tier 
olillcl  iimilnsl  Hllilirnitl,  tin-  evil  i-vc,  and  ileiiiuns.  ami  Is  L'iveii  In  "  Kaziel,"  wUli  e.x- 
pllrll  illriM-Ilons  fop  use.  It-s  authorship  is  a.si-rilM'd  to  .\(laln.  The  four  words  out- 
side of  Hit*  eilt-le  are  tllt*  nanies  of  tlu' four  livers  IssuiHjf  out  of  panulise,  tieii.  il.  10. 
In  the  circle  uiv  i'saliu,  xci.  11 ;  the  imiiies  of  A<ia(n  and  Kve;  also  y^^,  which  Is 
etiulvalent  to  nin.  Eve  (la  the  S"3  "'!<  system,  see  AT-IHSII,  l"=^l :  llieii  Pi'"'', 
prolialily  a  misprint  for  P''"'',  the  female  demon  mentioned  In  Isaiah  xxxlv.  U ; 
then  come  •■  tlie  tlrsl  Kve."  and  names  of  ani^els  and  of  liod  0"3  =  hit  ;  tn  ihls  per- 
mutation each  letter  is  n'pn'sented  hv  the  next  succtHMilnpr  letter  of  the  alphati*'t, 
thus  <  =  3,  •1  =  lelcl.  Ilulsiile  of  thesiileld  of  David  slaliil  the  initial  leltei-s  of  the 
well-known  jirayer  hy  Nehunln  h.  Iia-Knna,  ^-^  NJ«<.  also  the  wonis.  ?-*'  Vf,  "May 
Hatjin  U?  torn  a.sunder!"  The  Innermiist  spai-e  tinully  rontjilns  woiils  from  Ex.  xl.  H, 
and  pennututlons  of  IV.  a  myHtlcul  name  of  Uod. 


called  "  pnictical 
Cabala"  neoniiiiended  a  number  of  talismans,  a  de- 
scription  of   which   must    lie   omitted 
The  Eiben-  lure  in  order  to  di'scribe  a  eelcbialed 
schiitz       keniia   contest   of   the    middle  of  the 
Centre-      eighleenth  century.     Jonalhan  Eilien- 
versy.       schnt/.,   rememlMied    by  Jews  to-day 
as  an  eminent  Talmudist,  prepared  a 
number    of    aiiiulcls.      He    issued    them    in    Met/., 
where   hi-  was   rabbi,  and    later  in    Hamburg.   Al- 
tona,   and   Wandsbeek.  over    the    iiniled    communi- 
ties of  which  he  presided  as  chief  rabbi.      He  inaile 
them  for  sick  children,  for  expectant  mothers,  also 
as  remedies  aLrainsl  nose  bleed,  epile|isy.  and  I  he  evil 
eye     \\i'  furni.shed  one  that  would  banish  "croaking 


demons"  from  a  house ;  upon  digging  into  the  fotiuda- 
tions,  the  demons  would  then  lie  found  in  the  sliajie 
of  veritable  croaking  frogs.  To  find  the  body  of  one 
drowned,  he  provided  a  charm  in  the  shape  of  a  writ- 
ten parchment  to  be  laid  on  the  bank  of  the  river  or 
pond.  He  claimed  to  have  been  particularly  suc- 
cessful with  his  amulets  in  helping  wimien  in  vari- 
ous emergencies;  and  statistics  were  said  to  supjiort 
his  statements  that  since  he  had  ofticiated  as  rabbi  in 
Hamburg  scarcely  one  Jewish  woman  had  died  in 
childbirth,  while  in  the  year  preceding  his  arrival 
"God's  wiath  had  raged  widely"  in  such  eases. 
Thecongiegutional //(///v(/(  Kadilix/ia  (burial  society) 
confirmed  this  claim  officially.  All  of  this  became 
matter  of  public   discussion  when   Jacob   Emden, 

then  residing  iu 
Allona.  ami  Ja- 
cob Joshua  Falk, 
chief  nibbi  of 
Frankfort  on- 
the  -  .Main,  both 
learned  and  re- 
spected men, 
openly  charged 
E  i  b  e  n  s  c  h  li  t  z 
with  invoking  as 
Savior  in  his 
amulets  the  false 
Messiah. Shabbe- 
tliui  Zebi.  The 
contest  waged 
fiiriouslj';  the 
scholars  and 
communities  of 
Germany.  Hol- 
land. Italy.  Tur- 
key, the  Holy 
Land,  Poland, 
Lithuania,  Hun- 
gary, and  else- 
where took  ac- 
tive p  a  r  t  i  n  a 
most  vehement 
discussion. 
Even  the  tem- 
poral authorities 
were  appealed 
to  by  E i b e n- 
schlllz's  oppo- 
nents, apjilica- 
tion  being  made 
to  the  City  Coun- 
cil of  Hamburg, 
and  to  the  king 
of  D  e  n  in  a  r  k. 
The  charge  was 
based  jiarticu- 
larly  upon  live 
amulets  i.ssued 
by  Eibens<htttz 
while  olhciating  in  Metz,  and  which  were  cerlitied 
to  by  the  i-ongregational  ofiicials,  as  having  been 
written  by  him. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  in  all  the  voluminous  dis- 
cussion, the  only  point  tit  issue  was  the  employiuent 
of  the  false  Messiah's  name  in  these  amulets;  not  a 
voice  was  raised  against  the  folly  of  amulets  in 
general.  The  common  impression  probably  was  that 
they  could  do  no  harm  and  might  serve  as  spiritual 
stimulants  in  the  way  of  the  wearer's  reassurance 
and  mental  comfort.  This  widespread  dis(Us.sion, 
however,  marks  the  turning-point  in  the  history  of 
the  medieval  failh  in  amulets;  since  Ihen  it  has 
gradually  diminished  and  may  now  be  s:iid  to  be 


Amulo 
Anakim 


THE  .I?:WISII   EXCYCLOPEniA 


650 


pnictinilly  extinct  except  in  the  Orient.    The  "Shul- 
hiui  'Anik  "(h)es  mil  fditiid  amulets  (see  "Omh  Hay- 

vim,  ••  s  •■m.  •,'4-27 ;  S  :«>•"),  1 T :  S  *t4'.  14 ; 

In  Modem    "Yoiili  Dcali."  g  ITit,  l'.').    It  is  im- 

Times.        portuiit  Id  note  the  fad  that  the  Jews, 

the  "people  of  the  Script  lire."  cm- 
ployed  mainly  initliii  |)nrchinents  for  such  p\ir- 
po.ses,  not  hits  of  wood,  bone,  stone,  or  other  natural 
objects. 

Moilcrn  .ludaism  of  course  approves  the  senti- 
lueutsofMaimonides,  who  pronounced  against  them  ; 


This  Amulet  Is  "  for  proteotion  in  childbirth." 
In  five  corners  of  the  sl.x-comered  "  Shield  of  David,"  the  He- 
brew lettere  of  the  verse  (Isa.  Ix.  .'i),  U^  ">^'  1*"  T,  "  For  unto  us 
a  child  is  lK)m."  et<'..  are  scattereii  pronilsruously.  Intersperseii 
with  tho  letters  of  Nehunyah  lien  Ini-Kaiia's  prayer  in^D  n:N). 
The  word  0*":-^J3  in  the  interior  spare'  was  elaiaied  to  lie  equiv- 
alent by  permutation  t«,Shabbethai's name  I'PJr)  wgetherwith 
«he  initials  •:":;  that  is,  n'lr-a  n''C,  "KiUK  Messiah." 

he  denies  them  all  potency  or  virtue  whatever 
i("  >Iorch."iii.  iiT),  and  speaks  of  the  "craziness  of  the 
amulet  writers,  who  hope  to  accomplish  miracles  by 
permutations  of  the  Divine  Name"  {ili.  i.  61,  end). 

Biiii.iocRAPiiv  :  On  the  Eibenschutz  controversy,  sec  the  ool- 
let'ted  pamphlets  n"X  nS2',  Lemberg,  1^7";  Eibensehiitz's 
own  defense,  ^i""?  rni"',  Altona,  IT.'w ;  Gratz,  Gcsch.  d.  Judcn, 
vii.  note  7. 

L.  B. 

AMTJLO      (AMOLON),     THEOBBOLDUS : 

Bishop  of  Lynns  (.S41)  (luriiitc  the  rci,i;ii  ott'liarlcs  the 
Bald;  died  Kyi.  From  his  master  and  predecessor, 
Agohard,  he  learned  to  hate  the  .lews,  and  with  the 
as.sistanco  of  the  Bishop  of  Hheims  and  .Vrchbishop 
of  Sens. who  nourished  the  same  scntimeuts.  he  tried, 
at  th<'  Council  of  Meaux  (^i49),  to  revive  the  old  canon- 
ical laws  and  anti-.Icwish  restrictions.  But  Charles 
voulil  not  yield  to  the  prelate's  injunctions,  and  dis- 
solved the  meetins'.  Aniulo,  however — luiremitlinj; 
in  his  efforts  ajiainst  the  .lews,  like  his  master — wrote 
a  virulent  letter  to  the  spiritual  authorities,  in  which 
he  expotindcd  his  grievances  against  the  .Jews,  for- 
getting no  fact  to  their  discredit,  not  even  the  con- 
version of  the  court-chaplain  Bodo  to  .Judaism.  Al- 
though the  letter  did  not  immediately  produce  the 
•effect  expected  by  its  author,  it  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  clergy,  who  were  at  that  epoch  gencrall.v 
favorable  to  the  .lews,  and  the  calm  eujojed  by  Jews 
in  France  gradimlly  came  to  an  end. 

Bibliography:  Galland,  Yetcrum  I'ntrum  BihJiotheea.vo]. 
xUi.;  Mlgnc,  Patrolattia  iMtina,  exvl.  143  et  acq.;  HMoire 
Ijitteraire  de  la  France,  vlli.  650. 

I.  Bk. 


AlilUSEMENTS.     See  Gamks.  Pastimks. 

ANAB  ("Grape"):  A  city  in  the  hills  of  south- 
ern Jiuiea.  lying  in  the  domain  of  Judali  (Josh.  xv. 
."iO),  from  whicli  Joshua  exterminated  the  Anakim 
(Josh.  xi.  21).  It  is  still  called  .\nab  (Uuhl.  "<ieo- 
graphic  des  Allen  Palestina."  1).  1U4).       (;.   B    I,. 

ANACLETUS  II.  (PIETRO  PIERLEONI) : 

Anti|io|ie   to    li cent    II.  frnni    li;!0    \i<    1  i:!N.      I!y 

reason  of  his  Jewish  dcsccnl.  which  |)rnm|iicd  Voi- 
taire  to  call  him  ironically  "Ihc  Jewish  Pope,"  Ana- 
detiis  had  to  face  a  great  deal  of  opposition  and 
calumny. 

An  ancestor  of  Anacletus,  whose  name  was  proba- 
bly Baruch.  had  grown  rich  in  the  middle  of  theelev- 
ciilb  century  by  lending  money  to  both  sides  in  the 
struggle  between  the  pojiis and  the  Homan  nobilily. 
Ambition  prompted  him  to  cmbiace  Cliristiaiiity, 
on  which  occasion  he  assumed  the  name  of  Bknk- 
DicT.  He  married  a  lady  belonging  to  an  aristocra- 
tic family  of  Home,  and  his  son.  Li:o  dk  Bknkdkto 
CnuisTiAXo.  subse(iueiitly  took  rank  among  the 
champions  of  the  papal  court  in  its  conflict  with  the 
imperial  parly.  Iao's  son,  Pktius  Lkonis,  whose 
name  became  tlie  family  eponym,  resolved  to  devote 
his  own  son,  who  also  bore  his  name,  to  the  priest- 
hood, and  he  lived  to  seelhisson  wearllie  cardintd'.s 
hat.  Pierleoiii  did  not  become  pontiff,  however,  un- 
til after  the  death  of  his  ambitious  father. 

Oni'of  the  group  who  left  Home  with  the  popcGe- 
lasius  n.  when  the  latter  tied  to  France,  Leo  sub- 
seciuenlly  was  a  |)rominent  factor  in  the  election  of 
Calixtus  II.  The  latter  manifested  Iiis  gratitude  to 
Pierleoni.  as  well  as  recognition  of  his  talent,  by  ap- 
pointing him.  toward  the  end  of  I  he  year  H2:i,  hea<l  of 
the  papal  legation  to  Friince.  While  in  that  country, 
Pierleoni  had  the  opportiuiity  of  fullilling  several 
important  ecclesiastical  missions,  as  well  as  of  pre- 
siding at  the  councils  of  Chartres  and  Beauvais. 

Pierleoni    was   elected   pope  as   ,\nacletus  II.  in 
1130  by  one  faction  at  Home,  while  another    fac- 
tion   elected    Iniincent    II.      Pierleoni 
Innocentll.  received   but  little  supjiort  when  ele- 
His  valed   to  the   poiititicate,  while  Inno- 

Opponent.  cent  II.  was  upheld  not  only  by  the 
councils  of  Hheims  and  Pisa,  and  1)3' 
the  greater  portion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
— who,  it  would  seem,  could  not  forgive  Anacletus 
his  reputed  Jewish  physiognomy — but  also  bv  the 
entire  European  royalty,  with  the  exception  of  I^oger 
of  .Sicily, who  was  .Viiaclelus'  brother  in  law,  and  by 
the  duke  of  Aqiiitaiiia.  It  redotmds  to  the  honor, 
liberality,  and  magnanimity  of  the  jiopulation  of 
Home  that  Anacletus  was  able  to  maintain  to  the 
last  his  authority  in  the  capital,  notwithstanding  the 
repeated  attacks  of  the  emperor  Lothaire  II.,  who 
supported  Innocent  II. 

Till'  o])position  to  Anacletus  expressed  itself  in 
the  inveiilioii  and  di.ssemiuationof  the  most  .slander- 
ous reports  concerning  him.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux. 
who  was  the  most  zealous  sujiporter  of  Innocent  in 
France,  (piite  naturally  iiouicd  forth  his  indignation 
in  avehemenl  epistle  to  Lothaire,  to  the  effect  that 
"to  the  shame  of  Christ  a  man  of  .lewish  origin  was 
come  to  occujiy  the  chair  of  St.  Peter." 

But  aside  from  styling  him  "  Juda-o-pontifex,"  the 
antagonists  of  Anacletus  circulated  the  most  igno- 

Accused      '"liiiious  rumors  about  him,  charging 
of  Slalfea      ''""   with   the  systematic    robbery  of 
sance     '    ('"11'"''^  and  churches — in  the  dispo.sal 
of  whicli  spoils  the  .lews  were  desig- 
nated as  his  accessories — and  not  flinching  even  from 
accusing  him  of  being  guilty  of  incest.     In  brief, 


551 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Amulo 
Anakim 


the  ciinsensus  of  opinion  regarding  liim  was  sunimct] 
up  in  till-  ilciision  that  he  was  not  only  as  bail  as,  but 
even  worse  tluin,  a  Jew. 

Though  the  iliarge  of  assisting  the  pope  in  rob- 
liini;  the  ihurihes  and  cliapels  was  undnubteilly  a 
cahiMiiiialioii  of  the  Jews,  it  is  (luile  prohalile  tliut 
tlie  J<-\vs  silled  with  Auaeletus  in  this  jiapal  .scliisni, 
wliieli  lasted  until  his  death,  in  the  year  WiH.  The 
interests  of  their  own  safety  in  Koine,  where  his  sov- 
ereignty was  unquestioned,  nuist  have  urged  them 
to  adopt  tlie  policy  of  obedienie  to  Anaeletus.  In 
fail,  the  cold,  formal  response  with  whiih  Innocent 
II.  greeted  the  Jewish  delegation  upon  his  entry  into 
Home  would  warrant  this  assunii)tion.  There  is  no 
ground,  however,  forsupposing  that  the  opponents 
of  Anaeletus  had  used  their  intluenee  to  arou.se  the 
fanaticism  of  the  masses  against  the  Jews.  Both 
Bernard  of  Clairvau.x,  through  whose  indefatigable 
zeal  and  eloquence  the  rulers  of  France  and  of  Ger- 
many were  won  for  the  cause  of  Innocent,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Home,  though,  as  a  rule,  inimical  to 
the  Jews,  repeatedly  condenuied  their  persecution 
and  oppression.  As  for  Anaeletus,  however,  his  an- 
cestral eonnecticju  with  the  Jews  undoubtedly  served 
to  enhance  his  schismatic  troubles,  inasmuch  as  it 
alToriled  his  antagonists  an  additional  ground  for 
calumniation.  Yet  it  is  quite  probable  that  the 
vague  historic  recollection  of  Anaeletus — his  Jew- 
ish origin,  his  ecclesiastical  struggle,  and.  perchance, 
his  friendly  attitude  toward  thi-  .lews — in  later  days 
fashioned  itself  into  a  semi  mythical  background  for 
the  widespread  medieval  legend  relating  to  the  Jew- 
ish pope  (see  Andreas). 

Bihi.ioi;r.iphv  :  Gudemann.  Gfsrlt.  'If^  Ki'ziehnufjini'csens 
uitii  iltr  t'ttlttir  ilt:r  Juitt-n  in  Ilitlifii.  \nt.  76  et  neii-;  Vogel- 
sl**ln  aud  Rlej^er.  (rcuch.  d.  Jxiihn  in  Itoin,  1.  '^H  rt  neq.^  and 
Index:  Kiinpure  Zi^pftel,  Die  l/niiinhrnlil  (/<•.■<  Jnlinx  usu, 
lioltjntfen.  1S71  ;  (ii'tUiuntr  (idrhrti-  Atutiw'ti,  ls76,  pp. 
2.'>T.  :«M:  iir>-t;iir<>vlU8,  (Jench.d.  Stadt  Hum  iin  Miltelalter, 
Iv.  ;au-4]7. 

n.  G.  E. 

ANAGRAM  (Greek,  ai'd  =  "over  again,"  and 
yimiiiiii  =  ••  letter"):  The  letters  of  a  word  so  trans- 
po.seil  as  to  make  a  different  word  or  jihrase.  The 
use  of  anagrams  by  the  Jews  dates  back  to  the  re- 
motest anti(|Uity.  Several  occur  in  the  Bible;  for  ex- 
ample: ]n  XVO  nJIC'And  Noah  found  grace,"  Gen. 
vi.  S),  w  liiTe  |n  is  [irobably  em|doye(l  because  of  its 

beintr  the  Anagram  of  nj ;  nny  njm  nph  'msa  nx 

'n313  np7  ("He  took  away  my  birthright,  and,  be- 
hold, now  he  hath  lakiii  away  my  blessing."  ihiil. 
x.wii.  ;!(i);  -iaS  nnn  IND  V  \  garland  instead  of 
ashes,"  Is.  Ixi.  9):  VJI  Vl."2'  UL"'  '3'1N  h^  ("Let  nil 
my  enemies  return  and  In- ashamed  suildenly,"  Ps. 

vi.  11);  3VV3  'm!?'  '3  IDS^  y2T  1?3t."  HXtP  10K1 
C  And  his  mother  called  his  name  .labe/..  saying,  15e- 
cause  1  bare  him  with  sorrow."  I  (liron.  iv.  9). 

In  the  Talmudic  and  Midnishic  liteniturc,  ana- 
grams became  a  system  of  Biblical  interpretation, 
called  ")1Dn  (inversions).  Kleazar  of  .Modi'in  in- 
troilueecl  it  in  explaining  the  word  tnS  (Gen.  xlix. 
4)  by  the  transposition  of  its  letters.  But  this  sys- 
tem, applicable  originally  only  to  the  transposition 
of  the  li'lters.  w  iis  grailually  extended  to  simple 
transpositions  of  the  words.  Jewish  literature,  and 
especially  the  Jewish  poetry  of  the  Arabic  epoch, 
imitating  the  Arabic  poets,  who  had  a  iiredileeiion 

for  anairnims.ofTers many  examples:  "pn  ~>)}  tH'D  DK 
"ni>  1^  nCC'K  ("  If  you  mock  my  sickness.  I  will  ten- 
der you  my  cheeks"),  Judah  ha-Levi,  "  Diwan,"  ed. 
Brody,  ii.  149;  mV31  pn  T\vh  ptO  3m  13  "13Vni 
("  And  she  amasses  corn  and  plenty  of  foiMl  for  a  liiue 


oj  scarcity  and  famine"),  Alharizi,"Tahkemoni,"ed. 
Kamiiika,  p.  49). 

The  golden  age  for  anagrams  began  with  the  Cab- 
ala. The  Platonists  had  strange  notions  as  to  the 
intluenee  of  anagrammatic  virtues,  jiarticularly  of 
anagrams  evolved  from  names  of  persons.  It  is  not 
surprising,  therefore,  that  the  cabalists,  like  all  the 
Xeoplatonists,  pretended  to  discover  occult  (piali- 
ties  in  proper  names  aud  in  their  anagrams.  Thus, 
most  amulets  are  based  upon  the  transposition  of 
letters  (compare  "  Raziel  ha-Malak,"  p.  62).  Cab- 
alists explain,  for  instance,  the  custom  of  reciting 
.some  Jlishnah  paragraphs  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
de:ith  of  relatives  (././/(rec(7),  by  pointing  oiit  that 
npL"0  (.Mishnah)  contains  the  letters  of  nDL"J  (soul). 
Nearly  all  the  cabalistic  writings  give  rules  for  com- 
posing anagrams,  which  are  called  temurah  (change). 

I.  Bit. 

ANAH  :  1.  Mother  of  Aholibamah.  one  of  the 
wives  of  Esau  and  daughter  of  Zibeon  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
2,  14,  18.  2.')).  The  Septuagiut.  the  Samaritan  Pen- 
tateuch, and  the  Peshito read  "son,"  identifying  this 
Anah  with  No.  3  (see  below).  2.  Son  of  "Seir.  the 
ilorite.  and  brother  of  Zibeon;  one  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  land  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20.  21:  I  Chron.  i. 
3S).  3.  Son  of  Zibeon.  who  is  specified  in  the  Bible 
as  "that  Anah  that  found  the  hot  springs  [DD'H: 
A.  V.  "  mules."  so  in  Targ.,  Yer.,  and  Gen.  H.  on  the 
pas.sage:  Pes.  .54'/]  in  the  wilderness"  (Gen.  .xxxvi. 
24;   I  C'hrcm.  i.  40.  41). 

G.  B.  L. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:    As  early  as  the 

luiddle  of  the  fourth  century,  the  labbis  iiiseus.sed 
Anah's  combination  of  lla-Yemim  in  the  wilderness. 
In  his  conuuentary  on  Gen.  xx.wi.  24.  Jerome  cili'S 
the  following  definitions  of  the  word,  derived  from 
Jewish  .sources:  (1)  "seas"  as  though  D'D'(.vammim); 
(2)  "hot  springs"  as  though  D'On  (hamniim);  (3)  a 
swift  running  variety  of  the  ass.  called  "yemin,"  ob- 
tained by  Anah  through  a  cro.ss  of  the  domestic  with 
the  wild  a.ss;  and  (4)  "mules."  The  last  interpre- 
tation was.  according  to  Jerome,  the  most  current 
among  the  Jews;  and  it  was  believed  that  Anah  was 
the  first  to  have  bred  the  mule,  thus  bringing  into 
existence  "a  new  animal  bred  contrary  to  natural 
laws."  The  ndibinical  sources  are  familiar  w  ith  this 
fourth  explanation,  and  make  the  additional  ob.serva- 
tion  that  "Anah  was  himself  a  bastard,"  his  mother 
being  also  the  mother  of  his  father.  Asa  punish- 
ment for  this  uimatural  combination  of  Anah,  God 
brought  into  the  world  the  deadly  water  snake, 
through  the  union  of  the  common  viper  (nj'^ni  with 
the  Libyan  lizard  (pTin).  See  Gen.  H.  Ixxxii.  l.'i; 
Yer.  lier.  i.  12/':  Bab.  Pes.  ,54<( ;  Ginzberg,  "Monats- 
sehrifi."  \lii  -kW,  ,539.  L.  G. 

ANAIAH  ("The  Lord  Hat h  Answerp<r' ) :  1.  A 
supporter  of  Ezra  (Neh.  viii.  4).  who  is  called  Ana- 
luas  in  I  Esd.  ix.  43.  2.  .V  prominent  man  who 
sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiali  (Neh.  x.  22). 
These  two  may  be  identical.  G.   B.   L. 

ANAKIM.— Biblical  Data:    A  prc-Canaanitc 

tribe,  duelling  (according  to  Josh.  xi.  21.  22. 
and  Judires.  i.  Hi.  2li)  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
and  in  the  Philistine  plain  (Hebron.  Deiiir.  .\nab, 
Gaza.  (!alh.  Ashdod).  Three  clans  are  meiitioni-d: 
.'^hesliai.  Ahinian.  and  Talmai  (Judges,  i  Id;  Niun. 
xiii.  22).  These  names  seem,  from  their  form,  to  be 
.\ramaic:  but  what  this  fact  signifies  is  not  clear. 
The  .\nakim  are  .said  to  have  Iweii  conquered  by 
Caleb  (Josh.  XV.  14  ;  Judges,  i.  20).  who  received 
their  territory.  In  Deut.  ii.  11,  the  .\nakim  are 
called  a  bninch  of  the  Hki'h.mm.  which  is  perhaps 
a    generic    term.     The    Hebrew    of    Num.    xiii.   33 


Anakim 

Anan  ben  David 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYOLOPEDIA 


552 


classes  them  also  witli  the  Nelilim;  hut  the  clause 
is  not  in  the  Greek,  and  is  probably  a  late  ploss. 
In  Judges,  i.  10,  the  ecuuiucst  is  ascribed  to  Judah. 
How  far  tlie  Aiiakini  had  been  ahsorbe<l  by  C'aiuuiu- 
ites  and  Philistine.s  is  uncertain.  On  the  trencalojiy 
in  Josh.  xiv.  12-1.">  and  xv.  13.  see  lliiuiioN  and 
Kiu.i.\Tii  Aitii.v.  T. 

In  Rabbinical  and  Hellenistic  Literature: 

Accordinj;  to  ralibinical  tradition  (tien.  H.  .\.\vi.),  the 
Anakim  arc  of  the  same  Titanic  race  as  the  Heph- 
aim,  Netilim.  Gibborim,  Zanizummiin,  and  Emini. 
The  name  (as  tlioujrh  lonlaining  the  clement  'dunk- 
=  neck)  is  cxjilained  in  the  Midrasli  (Gen.  U.  x.wi.) 
as  indicating  that  they  wore  "neck -chains  heaped 
upon  neck-chains,"  or,  as  if  from  the  verb  "  to  press," 
"force,"  that  they  seized  the  solar  disk  and  cried, 
"Send  us  rain,"  or  that  "  they  squeezed  their  heads 
into  the  sun  "(Sotah,  34A;  see  Hashi  on  Yoma.  10"). 
Of  the  three  sons  of  Auakwlio  tille<l  the  spies  with 
awe  and  fear  by  their  frigantic  stature,  Ahinian, 
Sheshai,  and  Talmai  (Xum.  .\ii.  2'.i-33),  the  first 
is  represented  in  IS'um.  U.  xvi.  and  Tan.,  Shelah, 
7,  ed.  Buber,  11,  as  challenging  passers-by,  sjvying: 
"  Whose  brother  will  light  with  me?  "  (a  lilay  upon 
"Aliiman"  =  brother  of  whom);  the  second  stood 
there  stolid  as  a  block  of  marble  (a  play  upon 
shei/t  =  marble),  and  the  third  made  tleep  fur- 
rows (a  play  upon  ti/nmiin  =  furrows)  in  the 
soil  witli  every  step.  (Compare  iSotah.  34'';  Yoma, 
10",  which  has  a  .somewliat  different  and  possil)ly 
corrupt  version  ;  see  Buber,  notes  to  Tan.  I.  c.)  And 
when  the  spies  saw  these  men  towering  up  to  the 
sky  and  looking  as  if  piercing  the  sun,  they  were 
afraid  and  said :  "  We  are  not  able  to  go  up  against 
these  people,  for  they  are  stronger  than  Ik  [IJDD]: 
that  is,  stronger  than  even  the  Lord  Himself ! "  (Num. 
xiii.  31). 

Of  the  size  of  the  Anakim,  a  ^Alidrash  fragment — 
found  by  Schechter  in  a  Pentate\ich  commentary  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  published  by  him  in 
"Semitic  Studies  in  llemory  of  Alexander  Kohut," 
p.  492 — gives  tlie  following  description; 

"The  daughter  of  Anak  had  gone  into  her  father's 
garden  and  taken  a  pomegranate,  which  she  ate, 
after  having  peeled  off  the  skin  and  cast  it  aside. 
Then  the  twelve  spies  came  and,  seeing  her  father, 
were  struck  with  fear  and  hid  themselves  under  the 
pomegranate  skin,  believing  it  to  be  a  cave.  The 
daughter  of  Anak  in  the  meantime  came  back  and, 
seeing  the  pomegranate-skin  still  lying  there,  was 
afraid  lest  her  father  might  scold  her  for  lack  of 
neatness.  She  therefore  took  the  pomegranate-skin, 
with  the  twelve  spies  hidden  therein,  and  cast  it  out 
of  the  garden,  noticing  the  weight  added  by  the  men 
no  more  than  if  the  skin  had  been  the  shell  of  an 
egg"  The  legend  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to 
the  .story  of  the  giant's  daughter  reprinted  in  Grimm's 
"Kinder  und  Hausmarchen"  (compare  Chamisso's 
"Riesenfriiulein ").  K. 

— — Critical  View  :  The  origin  of  the  Anakim  is 
unknown,  and  they  have  left  no  trace  in  history. 
On  pos.sible  (but  uncertain)  remains  of  them,  com- 
pare Nowack,  "Hebr.  Arch."  §  16.  The  name 
"  Anak  "  (so  the  Greek),  or  "  the  Anak  "  (Hebrew),  is 
an  etymological  puzzle.  The  meaning  of  "beneha- 
Anak  "  is  uncertain.  It  is  interpreted  by  some  as 
"the  long-necked";  by  other.s,  as  "the  necklace- 
wearers."     It  is  perhaps  non-Semitic. 

Josephus  ("Ant."  iii.  14)  relates  that  the  spies 
found  at  Hebron  the  posterity  of  the  giants;  and 
this  tallies  with  Josh.  xiv.  1.5,  according  to  which 
Hebron  was  the  city  of  Arba,  "  the  greatest  man 
among  the  Anakim '"'("  the  father  of  Anak,"  Josh. 


xxi.  11;  the  Septuagint  has  the  "brother"  of  Anak). 
See  Moore.  "Judges,"  pp.  24  et  geij.  and  Driver, 
"t'ommentary  on  Deuteronomy,"  pji.  23,40  mote); 
the  letter  refers  also  to  Goliath  as  one  of  the  sons  of 
Hala,  the  giant  of  Gatli. 

ANALOGY:  Talnuidic  Rule  of  Interpretation. 
See'lMxil  11    lIlltMI'.NKrTICS  OP. 

ANAMIIVI  :  A  Mi/.numite  people,  unidentified, 
mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  13  and  in  I  C'hron.  i.  11,  who 
dwelt  probably  in  Egypt  or  some  neighboring  re- 
gion in  Afiica.  G.    B.    1. 

ANAMMELECH  (more  properly  ANUME- 
LECH  ;  "  Ann  is  .Melek  "  or  "  Prince  "  ) :  A  goil  wor- 
shiped by  the  Sepharvites  in  Samaria  under  the  As- 
syrian regime,  along  with  the  god  Adnunnielech 
(il  Kings,  xvii.  31).  Ann  was  the  chief  of  tin-  old 
Babylonian  trinity,  Ann.  Bel,  and  Ea;  andifSephar- 
vaim  (compare  ih.  24)  is  Sippara  in  North  Babylonia 
(not  Sepharvaim  in  Syria,  II  Kings,  xix.  13),  as  is 
very  probable,  there  is  no  dilliculty  in  supposing  that 
Anu  was  there  worshiped  under  this  appelhitiou. 
It  is  stated,  however,  in  the  text,  that  children  were 
burned  in  sacrifice  to  Anammelech  in  Samaria;  and 
this  is  perhaps  inconsistent  with  the  fact  that  there 
is  no  evidence  that  such  offerings  were  ever  made 
in  Babylonia. 

BniLiociR.iPHY:  SchriKlpr,  Phrmizii'Che  Sprnchc,  ISO.'),  pp.  124- 
IIH;  I)c  Vntriie,  M/l(iii{ie!<  iVAnhhilnuie  Orienlak.  WiH; 
Gei^Tgm^milh,  Assurinn  hiscnvcrien^  I.<>ndon  and  New  York, 
187.'>,  p.  :tim;  SdiradiT,  Cuin  iform  Ins<-nptum«ttiifl  tJit:  O.  T. 
1.  2711;  lUiwlhisun,  lkr:,duiiu<,  1.  Oil. 

J.  F.  5IcC. 

ANAN  :  Baljylonian  ainora  of  the  third  century, 
disci|>le  of  Mar  Samuel  (Ycb.  H'Mi,  Kid.  ;V,)ii).  and 
contenijiorary  of  Itib  Hima  and  Mar  'Ukba  II.  (Ket, 
09").  Anecdote  and  legend  combine  to  illustrate 
Anan's  renown  for  extreme  conscientiousness  in  his 
capacity  as  judge  in  civil  cases,  as  well  as  for  his 
thi'osophie  speculations.  The  books  "  Seder  Eliyahu 
Rjibbah  "  and  "  Si'der  Eliyahu  Zutta,"  mysterious  in 
more  than  one  sense,  are  Siiid  to  have  been  composed 
during  visitations  Anan  received  from  the  prophet 
Elijah  (Ket.  IOOk).  (See  Tanna  debe  Eliyahu  R. ) 
Anan  was  iirominent  as  a  teacher  of  civil  law  and 
of  ritual;  and  though  R.  Kahman  once  criticized 
one  of  his  arguments — remarking,  "While  attend- 
ing Mar  Samuel,  you  must  have  spent  your  time 
in  playing  at  checkers"  (or  "chess,"  hktindre.  Kid. 
21i) — he  liighlv  respected  him,  and  addressed  him 
with  the  title"  of  Mar  ("Master,"  I.Iul,  .'56"),  R. 
Iluna,  on  his  part,  did  not  consider  Anan  Ins  equal; 
and  when  the  latter  once  addressed  to  him  a  mes- 
sage, headed,  "To  Huna,  our  colleague,  greetings," 
he  felt  himself  depreciated  and  replied  in  a  manner 
that  greatly  embarra.ssed  Anan  (K('t.  fill").  In  the 
field  of  the  Ilaggadah,  Anan  rarely  appear^,  and 
then  only  as  the  transmitter  of  observations  of  his 
predecessors.  But  many  of  his  teachings  were  prob- 
ably incorporated  with  those  of  the  students  of  the 
school  that  bore  his  name,  Debe  Rab  Anan  (Suk. 
49i;  Ber.  .30A;  Shab.  119";  Yer.  Shab.  iii.  ."><;  (com- 
pare Bab.  Shab.  37");  'Er.  74*;  Yeb.  97";  Yer.  Yeb. 
ix.  U)h:  Ket.  79«;  Git.  444;  Shebu'ot,  4(Ji;  IIul.  44, 
38",  .50").  S.  M. 

ANAN,  SON  OF  ANAN :  Born  about  the  be- 
ginning of  Ibc  common  era  (compare  .losephus.  "B. 
J."  iv.  3.  ^^  7  and  10) :  was  aiipojnted  high  piiest  by 
Agrippa  II.,  in  the  year  02.  but  officiated  only  three 
months.  As  president  of  the  Sanhedriu  he  availed 
himself  of  a  vacancy  occurring  in  the  procurator- 
ship  in  .ludea,  to  convene  that  body  and  to  have 
certain  persons  obnoxious  to  him  condemned  and 
stoned  to  ('eath  as  lawbreakers.     (That  among  these 


553 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anakim 

Auau  ben  David 


victims  was  James,  brother  of  Jesus,  is  a  Christian 
interpohition  in  JtJsephiis;  compare  Scbijrer.  i.  486.) 
Alhinus,  the  new  priiciinilor,  relinked  him  for  this 
liij;hhan(l<il  proceeding,  and  Agrippa  deprived  liini 
of  Ins  position  ("  Ant."".\x.  9,  §  !)■ 

At  the  outbreak  of  tlie  war  of  tlie  Jews,  however, 

in  the   year  (56.  he  was  still  a   leading   personage. 

Together  with  Joseph,  son  of  Gorion, 

Opposes      he  prepared  the  defenses  of  Jerusalem 

Zealots,  against  the  Uomans("  15.  J."  ii.  'JlKIja; 
'2-i.  g  1.  ■2).  but  he  inunediatelv  took 
stand  against  the  Zealots  and  tlieir  leader,  Simon 
bar-Oiora.  When,  after  the  conquest  of  Galilee, 
the  fugitive  Zealots  under  John  of  Giseala  entered 
Jerusiilem,  and  the  Judean  Zealots,  having  impris- 
oned all  ]>romineut  men  of  moderate  views  as  being 
friendly  to  Home,  obtaijied  possession  of  the  Tem- 
ple and  control  of  the  higli-prieslly  otiiee,  Anan  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  ix'ople  to  o]ipose  the 
Zealots,  and  eontined  them  in  the  Temple.  But  Jolui, 
who  liitbertohad  supported  him,  now  suspected  him 
of  friendship  for  Koine,  anil  went  over  to  the  Zealots. 
He  sununoned  the  Idnmeans  to  the  city,  and  they 
murdered  Anan.  who  with  other  leaders  had  refused 
them  entrance  ("B.  J."  iv.  .'j,  i^2). 

Anan  is  describeil  as  upright  and  unselfish,  ready 
of  speech.  iuHuential,  democratic,  and  liberty-loving, 
one  who  justly  discerned  that  the  only  hope  for  Jeru- 
salem lay  in  reconciliation  with  Rome  On  the  other 
hand,  when  it  was  suggested  that  Jo.sephus  should  be 
recalled  from  his  post  as  general  in  Galilee.  Anan, 
who  with  Simon  ben  Gamaliel  recommende<l  his  re- 
call (•■  Vita,"  38.  3'J,  -4-4,  60),  is  characterized  by  Jose- 
phus  as  venal.     His  behavior  in  the 

Anan's  Sanhedriu  is  pronounci'd  Sadducean. 
Sadducean  This  reference  to  his  Sadducean  tenden- 
Teudencies.  cies  tinds  nniarkatile  contirmation  in 
the  Talmudie  accotmt  (Grilt/..  "Gesch. 
d.  Jnden."  iv.  747)  of  the  Sadducean  form  of  Temple- 
worship  in  the  decade  before  70,  and  of  the  opposi- 
tion to  it,  fostered  by  tlie  Pharisaic  teachers  of  the 
time.  These  reports  gave  rise  to  the  general  opinion 
that  this  was  a  forcible  effort  to  reestablish  Saddu- 
eeeism,  which  had  long  been  supplanted  by  Pharisji- 
ism,  tlKMigh  the  revival  was  short  lived  (comjiare 
Sehllrer,  3d  ed.,  ii.  40")).  It  has  recently,  however, 
iK'en  suggested  that  the  Sadducean  view  of  the  sacri- 
ficial cult  had  up  to  that  time  predominated,  and  was 
onlv  then  giving  way  to  Pharisiiism  (Chwolson, 
"Diis  L.-lztc'  Pass;dima"hl,"  p.  87;  Blichlir,  "  Priester 
und  CultiKs,"  pp.  54,  10!)).  A.  Bu. 

ANAN,  SON  OF  ANANIAS,  THE  HIGH 
PRIEST:  He  was  stratigus,  or  governor  of  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  (Jo.sephus,  "B.  J."  ii.  12,  §  6; 
"Ant."  x.v.  6,  §  2),  and  while  in  ollico  was  sent  (in 
52)  to  Home  by  L'mmidius  (Juadratus.  governor  of 
Syria,  to  answer  to  Emperor  Claudius  for  participa- 
tion in  disturbances  which  liad  arisen  out  of  the 
struggle  between  the  Judeans  and  the  Samaritans. 
AVith  him  wen?  his  father  and  Jonathan,  a  former 
high  priest.  Through  the  inlluen<-eof  Agrippa  II.  he 
und  all  the  Judeans  underaccusation  wcreaci|uitted, 
and  allowed  to  return  to  Jerusalem  ("Ant."  .\x.  8, 
S  ri,  and  it,  S;  2;  ~  B.  J."  ii.  13).  Anan  probably  owed 
his  irn]iortant  otlice  to  his  father's  position,  as  did 
later  on  his  brother  Eleazar.  who  held  the  saineollice 
from  1)3  to  66  ("Ant."  .\.\.  »,  «5  3:  "  B.  J."  ii.  17.  jj  2; 
compare  Pes.  H'a,  Bet  Hanin  ;  Tosef.,  Men.  xiii.  21, 
Bet  Elhanan).  As  siriilegus,  Anan  probably  had 
charge  of  the  Temple  ami  its  sacrifices. 

Bini.ioc.RAPIIY :  Sehflrer,  Ornch.  d.  Jlht.  VoUset,  3d  iil.,  II.  2111 ; 
BQctiler,  I'rittler  und  CuUw),  pp.  W)  t(  « y. 

A.  Be. 


ANAN  BEN  DAVID,  Founder  of  the  Ka- 
raite Sect  :  In  the  second  half  of  the  s<!Venth  cen- 
tury and  in  the  whole  of  the  eighth,  as  a  result  of 
the  tremendous  intellectual  commotion  produced 
throughout  the  Orient  by  the  swift  con(|Uests  of  the 
Arabs  and  the  collision  of  victorious  Islam  with  the 
older  religions  and  cultures  of  the  world,  there  arose 
a  large  number  of  religious  sects,  especially  in  Persia, 
Babylonia  ( Irak),  and  Syria.  Judaism  did"  not  escape 
this  general  fermentation;  the  weak  remnants  of  the 
early  schisms — the  Sadducees  and  Essenes — picked 
up  new  life  and  liickcred  once  more  before  their  final 
extinction.  But  new  sects  also  arose  in  Juilaism; 
the  most  importjint  of  wliich  were  the  Is.vwiTES 
(called  after  tlieir  founder  Abu  Isa),  the  YuD<iA>;iTES, 
and  the  Sii.\i)(i.\xiTES  (followers  of  Yudgan  and 
Shadgan).  All  these  various  heresies  would  never- 
theless have  f|uickly  disappeared  or  been  assimilated 
by  rabbinical  Jvidaism.  if  the  jiolilieal  conditions  of 
the  Jews  in  the  eastern  califate  had  not  pushed  to 
the  front  a  certain  energetic  and  determined  man, 
ami  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  new  movement. 
So  great  was  his  infiuence.  that  he  succeeded  in  uni- 
ting all  heterogeneous  autirabbinical  elements  under 
his  standard,  and  in  forming  a  powerful  sect  out  of 
them.  This  man.  Anan  ben  David,  liad  been  a  can- 
didate for  the  highest  dignity  existing  among  the 
Jews  at  the  time — the  exilarchate.  When,  about 
the  year  760,  the  exilarch  (probably  Isaac  Iskawi) 
died,  it  ajjpears  that  two  lirotliers  among  his  nearest 
kin,  protiably  ncjdiews  of  his,  Anan  and  Josiah  (Has- 
san), were  next  in  order  of  succession  to  the  exalted 
ofiiee.  The  former  was  older  and  richer  in  theolog- 
ical knowledge  than  the  latter,  and  was  thus  the  bet- 
ter fitted  for  the  position  of  prince  of  the  Exile.  He 
should  have  received  the  jireference  over  the  younger 
and  less  learned  Josiah;  nevertheless  the  nomination 
was  given  to  the  latter:  Josiah  was  elected  exilarch 
by  the  rectors  of  the  Babv Ionian  colleges( the Geonim) 
and  by  the  notables  of' the  chief  Jewish  congrega- 
tions; and  the  choice  was  confirmed  by  the  calif  of 
Bagdad. 

The  following  were  the  reasons  for  this  extraor- 
dinary result,  if  the  accounts  of  the  earliest  authori- 
ties may  be  credited;  In  the  first  place.  Anan  was 
of  a  |iresumptuous  and  imperious  dis])ositioii.  while 
his  brolhir  wasuiia.ssumingand  modest.  Tlien.  it  is 
sjiid.  Anan  had  slK>wn  evidences  of  lukewarmness 
toward  Inulilional  Judaism,  amounting  even  to  dis- 
dain; while  Josiah  was  pious  and  reverence<l  con- 
formity to  the  Law.  Any  disregard  for  rabbinical 
Judaism  on  Anan's  part  may  be  accounted  fi>r  by 
his  long  sojourn  east  of  Bagdad  in  the  Persian-Meso- 
liotaniian  borderlands,  which  were  then  the  chief 
liotbed  of anlirabbiiiical.schisms.  Howeverthat  may 
be,  it  is  certain  that  Anan's  proud  disposition  would 
by  no  means  permit  him  to  submit 
Proclaims    tamely  to  his  defeat,  and  |>lace   him- 

Himself  .self  in  subordination  to  his  younger 
Anti-  brother.  His  political  i^arti/.ans.  who 
Exilarch.  seemeil  to  follow  him  in  religious  mat- 
ters also,  did  not  desert  him.  and  so  it 
came  to  pass  that  .\nan  permitted  himself  to  be  pro- 
claimed  anli<'xilareli.  This  step  was  natunilly  con- 
strued by  the  Mohammedan  authorities  as  rebellion 
against  the  augu.st  authority  of  the  calif,  who  had 
formally  invested  Josiah  w  iih  the  position;  and  such 
an  act  on  the  part  of  a  Dhimmi  (foUowerof  a  re- 
ligion toleniled  by  Islam;  that  is.  a  Jew  or  Christian) 
must  in  a  Mohammedan  stale  ajipear  serious  in  the 
extreme. 

Therefore  when  Anan's  proclamation  of  himself 
asexilaiih  beianie  known.  \\v  was  arrested  by  the 
authorities  one  Sunday  in  the  year  767,  uikI  thrown 


Auan  ben  David 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


554 


into  prison,  to  Ik-  cxfcutcil  on  Die  cnsnins  Friday, 
us  !;iiilly  of  lii.trli  treason.  IJiit  luckily  for  Anim, 
he  met  in  jail  a  very  iironiincnl  anil  shnwil  fellow 
prisoner,  no  oilier  than  the  founder  of  the  ;rreat 
iMohaninieilan  casuist ie  school  of  the  llanitites  (whose 
ritual  is  doniinanl  in  Turkey  at  the  present  day). 
of  the  name  of  al  Nu man  ilin  Tliabit.  surnarned  Aliu 
Hanifah.  lie  j;ave  the  ludiaiijiy  preli'nder  to  the 
e.\ilarchat<'  tlu'  followini;  very  siirewd  advice,  which 
saved  his  life:  The  pretender  should  set  himself  to 
expound  all  and)ij;uous  and  doutitful  precepts  of 
the  Torah  in  a  fashion  exactly  opposed  to  the  tra- 
ditional interpretation,  and  make  this  principle  the 
foundation  of  a  new  relijrious  sect.  He  must  next 
get  his  partizans  to  secure,  hy  means  of  presents 
and  hrilies  to  the  hiirhest  otlicers  of  the  court,  the 
presence  of  the  calif  himself  at  the  trial — his  jjres- 
ence  not  heinj;  an  unusual  Ihin.i;  al  the  more  impor- 
tant prosecutions.  At  the  right  moment.  Anan 
was  to  throw  himself  at  the  feet  of  the  calif  and 

exclaim.  "O  Ruler  of   the   Faithful! 

Line         didst  thou  appoint  my  brother  Josiah 

of  toa  position  of  dignity  in  one  ndigion. 

Defense,     or  in  two?"     I'ndouhtedly  the  calif 

would  answer.  "Only  in  one."  There- 
upon Anan  was  to  declare  that  his  religion  was 
quite  a  dilTereiit  one  from  tliat  nf  his  hrolher  and  of 
the  rabbinical  .lews,  and  that  his  followers  entirely 
coincided  with  him  in  mailers  of  religious  doctrine; 
which  was  an  easy  mailer  for  Anan  to  say.  because 
the  majority  of  them  were  opposed  to  the  rabbis. 
The  prelentler  and  his  friends  complied  with  the 
shrewd  couusc  I  given  by  Abu  Ilanifah.  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  calif  Almaiisur  (754-775)  Anan  de- 
fended himself  most  skilfully.  Moreover,  Anan 
won  for  himself  the  special  favor  of  the  calif  liy  his 
protestations  of  deep  veneration  for  Jlohammed  as 
the  i)ro|)hel  of  the  Arab  nation  and  of  the  world  of 
Islam,  and  by  the  declaration  that  his  new  religion. 
in  many  points,  entirely  coincided  with  the  Moham- 
medan; instancing  the  fact  that  the  setting  of  the 
festiv;Us  was  not  (h'cided  by  the  astronomical  calcu- 
lations of  a  cali'udar — as  with  the  ralibinical  .lews — 
but  by  the  actual  observalion  of  the  new  moon — as 
%vilh  the  followers  of  Islam.  In  this  way  the  pris- 
oner, though  he  had  already  been  condemned  to 
death,  succeeded  in  gaiidng  not  only  his  freedom, 
but  also  in  winning  the  favor  and  the  i)rotection  of 
the  ruler  and  of  ail  the  And)  authorities— a  circum- 
stance which  ])rovedof  the  greatest  assistance  to  this 
new  sect,  so  strangely  founded. 

Anan  was  now  able  to  devole  himself  to  the  de- 
velopment of  his  new  religion  and  its  new  coile. 
But  one  thing  was  essential:  it  must  deviate  fnmi 
traditional  Judaism,  for  thai  was  the  very  raison 
d'etre  of  his  new  sect  and  tlii'  justitioation  for  his  re- 
lease. The  fact  that  the  majority 'of  his  followers 
were  antirabbinical  also  maile  this  course  acivisahle. 
His  "Sefer  liaMizwot  "  (The  Hook  of  the  Precepts), 
which  occupied    him   for  several  years,  and   which 

was  published  about  770.  must  becon- 
His  Book  sidereil  the  basis  of  the  newly  founil 
of  Laws.     Ananite  sect.     Il  betrays  very  clearly 

that  its  author  was  anything  but  an 
original  genius.  He  simply  appropriated  interprc- 
tational  deviations,  already  existing,  and  ancient 
doctrinal  differences.  An  analysis  of  Anan's  code 
exhibits  the  following  aspects: 

(1)  Anan's  relationship  to  the  rabbinical  or  tradi- 
tional legislation  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  trav- 
eler in  an  unknown  region,  who.  though  he  desires  to 
separate  from  his  guide,  realizes  that  he  is  not  able  to 
find  the  w^ay  by  himself,  and  is  thus  compelled  to 
follow  his  leader,  to  keep  his  eyes  riveted  on  his 


footprints,  and  at  the  same  lime  to  selecl  parallel 
paths  and  side  lanes  in  order  to  maintain  the  appear- 
ance of  independence.  Thus  we  tiiid  thai  allliough 
this  schismatic  made  the  total  rejection  of  Iradilion 
his  watchword,  he  availed  himself  of  Ihe  idenlical 
rules  of  iiilerprelalion  framed  in  Ihe  Talnuid — thu 
so-called  ■■  Middol  "  of  H.  Ishmael — for  Ihe  eslab- 
lishmeiit  <if  his  religious  laws.  He  makes  many 
moditicalions  in  Ihi'ni.  il  is  true,  and  forces  many 
exaggerations  upon  them;  and  wilh  his  iini)erfect 
philological  altainmeiits  elicits  sonii-  very  curious 
ideas.  He  draws  freely  n|)on  those  divergent  o])in- 
ions  that  are  set  down  in  Ihe  Talnuid.  but  that  did 
not  attain  recognilion  as  aulhorilative  decisions  for 
religious  practise  ( llalakah).  From  rabbinical  juris- 
prudence he  adopted  some  malerial  wilh  arbilrary 
moditicalions;  other  details  again  heaccepled  bodily 
from  the  Talmud  as  true  and  binding  Iradilions; 
these  latter  the  Karaites  ilesignatc  as 
Its  Essen-  ihe  "iidieriled  burden"  {Ke/jel  ha- 
tial  jieniHliiih).      And  since  Anan  design- 

Features,  edly  imitates  the  language,  .style,  and 
fasiiinii  of  the  Talmu<l  most  accu- 
ralely.  it  is  not  lo  be  wonih-red  at  that  a  gaon  of  the 
ninth  eenluiv  could  say  that  thi'  schismalic  prom- 
ised his  followers  lo  give  them  a  Talmud  all  for 
themselves,  and.  in  point  of  fact,  did  furnish  them 
with  a  most  impious  one. 

(2)  It  has  already  been  indicated  that  Ihe  founder 
of  the  Karaite  sect,  in  order  to  attach  to  himself  all 
who  had  espoused  antirabliinicid  schisms,  adopted 
many  of  their  principles  and  opinions  in  his  new  re- 
ligious code.  As  far  as  is  now  known  he  took  much 
from  the  old  Sadducees  and  Essenes.  whowe  rem- 
nants still  survived,  and  whose  writings — or  at  least 
writings  ascribed  to  them — were  still  in  circulation. 
Thus,  for  example,  these  older  sects  prohibiled  the 
burniugof  any  lightsand  Ihe  leavingof  one'sdwell- 
ing  on  the  Sabbath;  they  also  enjoined  the  actual 
observation  of  the  new  moon  for  the  aiiiiointment  of 
festivals,  and  Ihe  holding  of  Ihe  Penlecost  festival 
always  on  a  Sunday.  From  the  heresies  of  the  Isa- 
wites  and  the  Yudganiles  immediately  |ireceding 
this  epoch,  he  borrowed  the  recognilion  and  jusliti- 
cation  of  .Icsus  as  the  prophet  for  the  followers  of 
Christianity,  and  of  .'Mohammed  for  those  of  Islam; 
in  this  way  ingratiating  himself  wilh  professors  of 
those  creeds.  From  them.  too.  came  his  prohibition 
of  all  meat — with  Ihe  cxceplion  of  the  flesh  of  the 
deer  and  Ihe  dove — in  token  of  mourning  for  the 
deslnicli<in  of  the  Temple  at  .lerusalem. 

CA)  The  Mohammedan  Iheologian.  Abu  Hanifah, 
who  gave  Anan  such  successful  counsel,  seems  also 
to  have  exerted  considerable  inlluence  upon  the  lat- 
ter's  religious  system.  The  following  ulterance  may 
serve  as  charaeleristic  of  Abu  Hanifah: 

"ronremlng  thiwe  things  tlmt  we  have  reeeived  from  God 
and  His  pn)i)het  [Mcilmnniied].  we  accept  Uiein  wiih  uin-niidi- 
liunal  uiHl  lotai  subiiiissinn.  Conceniing  those  tearlilnu's  and 
opinions  that  tieionp  lo  the  as.stn'iates  and  comiianions  of  the 
proplicl.s  [the  Aithali],  \vp  select  from  them  tlie  t»est.  Uutasto 
all  Ihinirs  else,  which  other  teachers  who  followed  them  have 
left  to  lis,  we  regard  them  as  matters  which  came  from  |(er»oii3 
that  were  human  beinjrs  like  ourselves," 

Although  Anan,  in  common  with  older  schismat- 
ics, wasopposed  in  certain  pointsto  traditional  Juda- 
ism, he  evidently  could  not.  as  hmg  as  he  laid  claim 
to  an  oflice  de])endent  upon  the  Babylonian  rabbin- 
ical academies,  have  ])ossibly  devised  so  radical  a  liroj- 
eet  as  that  of  completely  overlurning  the  lliousjind- 
ycar-old  edifice  of  rabbinical  Judaism.  It  could  only 
have  been  such  circumstances  as  those  which  made 
the  creation  of  a  new  sect  a  matter  of  life  or  death 
for  him.  and  that  fateful  meeting  wilh  Abu  Hanifah, 
which  could  have  induced  him  to  apply  to  Judaism 


655 


THE  JEWLSII  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Anan  ben  David 


the  maxim  of  tliccclibratccl  MnlmmnuMliin  tlifolojrian 
just  (luoted.  Anan  imitated  this  Aiub  twulicr  still 
furtlier.  Abu  Ilanifali  was  accustomed  in  certain 
cases  to  take  the  wurdsof  the  Koran,  not  in  their  lit- 
eral, l)ut  in  a  symbolical  sense  (Ta'awil);  and  Anan 
ad<il)ted  the  same  method  with  the  Hebrew  text  of 
the  Bible.  Illuslrations  of  this  method  are  not  in- 
frei|iieMtly,  indeed,  allorded  by  the  Talmud  itself. 
Tlius  he  interpreted  tlie  prohibition  of  plowing  on 
Sabbath  (Ex.  xxxiv.  21)  as  applying  to  marital  in- 
tercourse; the  word  "brothers"  {<i/iiiii,  L)eut.  x.\v. 
5)  in  connection  with  the  h-vinite  marriage  he  inter- 
preted as"  relatives, "  etc.  Hut  Anan's  indebtedness 
to  Abu  Hainfah's  system  was  most 
Built  upon    suggestively  demonstrated  in  the  fol- 

Analogy.  lowing.  Abu  Hanifab's  chief  impor- 
tance in  the  range  of  .Mohainniedan 
theology  consists  mainly  in  that  to  the  three  accepted 
sources  of  law  in  Islam — the  Koran,  the  Sunnah  (tra- 
dition), and  the  Ijma'  (agreement  among  Moslems) — 
headdeda  fourth;  namely,  ltd  (the  speculative,  indi- 
vidual view),  claiming  that  in  cases  not  provided  for 
in  the  first  three  so\irees  of  law,  it  is  permitted  to 
the  teacher  of  religion  and  to  the  .judge  to  make 
his  own  decision  with  his  own  spectilative  reason 
in  accordance  with  analogy  (Ki'iis;  Hebrew  /nkixh 
or  inii/i  itHizinn)  with  the  cases  actually  provided. 
Now  with  Anan,  loo,  it  is  found  that  the  greater 
number  of  his  innovations  are  based  upon  analogy. 
Bill  he  distinginshed  himself  frcpiu  bis  Mohannnedan 
model  in  that  he  built  muiidy,  not  upon  analogy  of 
sulijeet  as  Abu  Hanifah  did,  but  upon  analogy  of  ex- 
pressions, of  words  (the  ralibini<-al  r/czemli  xhnirah), 
indeed  even  upon  analogy  of  single  letters;  a  system 
which  can  hardly  he  considered  a  step  in  advance. 
The  earliest  sources  tell  also  of  another  doctrine  bor- 
rowed by  .Vnan  from  the  Mohammedans;  namely,  the 
belief  in  the  transmigration  of  the  soul  (metempsy- 
chosis). This  doctrine,  represented  in  (!reek  an- 
tiqinty  especially  by  Empedocles  and  the  Pythago- 
reans, had  always  been  wide  spread  in  India,  and  was 
on<'ounlered  thi're  by  a  Mohaiiuni'dan  sect  called  the 
Riiwendites.  adopted  by  them,  and  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighth  century  was  carried  to  Babylonia  (Irak). 
This.  loo.  was  annexed  by  the  Karaite  schismatic, 
and  he  is  said  to  have  written  a  special  work  in  its 
defense. 

In  regard  to  general  cliaractcrislics,  tliis  founder 

of  Karaism,  it  must  l)e  confessed,  was  anything  but 

a  reformer  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 

minute       word;    for  instead   of  lightening    the 

Prescrip-  load  of  tmdilional  law.  he  increased 
tions.  the  sev<'rily  of  nligious  praxis,  as 
will  appear  from  the  following.  Anan 
rejected  all  the  admeasurements  instituted  by  the 
rabbis  (itliinrim);  anil  insti'ad  of  any  permissible 
minimum  for  prohibited  things — which  the  'I'alnnul 
admits,  as  for  iiisiaiice  Kliinhim.  one  part  in  siMy.  or 
ke  ziiit.  "the  size  of  an  olive."  etc. — he  insisted  that 
even  the  smallest  atom  of  anything  prohibited,  min 
gliiiir  with  an  intinilely  large  cpiantity  of  a  thing 
permitli'il.  was  sullicieiil  to  render  the  whole  of  the 
lalliT  prohibited.  In  hislaw-book  he  maintains  that 
as  long  as  Israel  is  in  exile  the  llesli  of  domestic  ani- 
mals, with  the  exception  of  the  deer,  is  prohibited. 
The  Talmud  relates  that  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Second  Temple,  cerlnin  ascetics  ( /i(';'"»//;'h()  sought 
to  |irohibit  meat  and  wine  because  they  lia<l  been 
employed  in  the  Temple  ritual,  anil  that  Habbi 
Joshua  biMi  Hananiah  npres,sed  the  movement.  Thi' 
schismatic  .\bu  Isa,  just  before  Anan's  time,  hail 
succeeded  in  imposing  this  piece  of  asceticism  upon 
his  followers  as  a  law.  Ills  example  was  now 
followed  by  Ainin,  who  in  additiou  prohibited  tho 


flesh  of  poultry  and  of  all  birds  with  the  exception 
of  the  pigeon  and  turlle-dove.  The  additional  abo- 
lition by  him  of  the  injunction  against  eating  meat 
and  milk  together  (/«»«/;■  liehnluli)  was  thus  rendered 
almost  gratuitous.  To  this  limitation  of  the  eating 
of  meat  must  also  he  added  his  regidation  concern- 
ing the  personality  of  the  individual  who  slays  crea- 
tures for  food;  Anan  rejected  the  broad  precept  of 
the  Talmud  that  "slaughtering  is  pennissible  to 
anybody,"  demanded  a  certain  ilignity  for  the  act, 
and  required  from  the  slaughterer  a 
Rules  for  complete  profes,sion  of  faith.  From 
Slaughter-  this  dates  the  Karaite  custom  of  reel- 
ing, ting  the  articles  of  the  creed  prepara- 
tory to  slaughtering.  Finally,  nut  sat- 
isfied with  the  Talmudic  dictum  that  in  the  act  of 
slaughtering  it  is  sullicient  to  cut  through  two  ducts 
— gullet  and  windpipe — Anan  reiiuired  that  in  addi- 
tiou two  more — aiteiies  or  veins^ — should  be  .severed. 
In  addition  to  the  legal  fast-days  appointed  by  the 
Bible,  Anan,  by  means  of  word-analogies  and  pecul- 
iar misinterpretatjon,  instituted  the  following;  The 
seventh  day  of  every  month;  the  14th  and  \hX\\  of 
Adar  instead  of  the  rabbinical  fast  of  the  13th,  in- 
cluding thus  the  Purim  festival;  also  a  seventy-days' 
fast  from  the  13th  of  Nisjin  to  the  23d  of  Siwan:  in- 
cluding Passover  and  Pentecost  as  times  of  fasting 
when  neither  food  nor  drink  coidd  be  partaken  of 
by  day. 

Circumcision  of  children,  according  to  Anan,  must 
be  performed  with  the  scissors  tmly;  any  other  in- 
strument was  strictly  forbidden  under  jienalty  of 
death.  Other  regulations  concerning  the  same  cere- 
mony were  of  a  like  stringent  character,  and  only 
h(-  upon  whom  the  operation  had  been  performed 
accurately  and  with  full  observance  of  all  these  re- 
quirements was  allowed  to  act  in  the  capacity  of 
iiiohel  (circumciser).  The  omission  of  any  single 
detail  rendered  the  operation  iusullicient  and  vain, 
necessitating  its  reperformance.  An  adult  (that  is.  a 
proselyte)  might  be  circumcised  only  on  the  eleventh 
day  of  the  month. 

it  was  forbidden  to  go  outside  of  one's  dwelling 
on  the  Sabbath  except  for  purposes  of  prayer  or 
necessity.  Anything  that  is  ordina- 
Rules  for  rily  carried  on  tiie  shoulders,  owing  to 
Sabbath,  its  size  or  weight,  might  not  be  car- 
ried around  even  in  a  room.  .\ nan's 
law-book  insists  that  the  Sabbath  evening  i  Friday) 
must  be  passed  in  darkness:  lights  kindled  in  the 
ilaytinie  on  Fridav  must  be  extinguished  at  night- 
fall, for  it  is  forbidden  to  pa.ss  the  Sabbath  in  a  place 
artificially  illuminated.  Cooking  and  baking  must 
be  done  on  Friday,  not  only  for  Friday  and  Satur- 
day, but  also  for  Saturday  night,  lo  forestall  any 
iinjialient  longing  for  the  close  of  the  .Sdibalh, 
Viands  already  prepared  must  not  be  kept  warm, 
Jiut  eaten  cold,  rideavened  bread  (.M  \7.7. Ml)  must 
be  made  exclusively  of  barlev meal,  and  he  that  pre- 
pares it  out  of  wheaten  meal  incurs  the  punishment 
appointed  for  those  that  cat  actual  leaven  (Aiinirti). 
Nor  may  this  uideavened  bread  be  baked  in  an  oven, 
but.  like  the  paschal  lamb,  it  must  be  roasted  on  the 
coals.  In  spite  of  his  pretendedly  loliTanI  utter- 
ances coticerning  the  founders  of  Christianity  and 
Islam.  .\nan  amplified  very  considembly  the  tradi- 
tional injtmctionsdesigned  to  keepthe  .lews  distinct 
from  other  nations,  particularly  in  the  matter  of  tho 
ilielary  laws. 

That  till'  foundernf  Karaism  had  small  respect  for 
science  is  often  shown  in  his  law-book.  He  forbids 
the  use  of  medicinesandof  medical  aiil  in  general,  for 
it  is  written, he  says,"  I,<ioil.am  thy  physician  "(Ex. 
.\v.  20);  this  is  held  to  prohibit  drugs  and  doctors. 


Anan  ben  David 
Ananias,  Sou  of  Nebedeus 


111;  .IK WISH    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


556 


Mis  opposilion  to  the  aslrdncmncix!  doteniiination  of 
Itir  ffsliviils.  Ill'  wliii  li  111-  bdiislcd  tii  lliccalif.  lid  liiiii 
to  diclarc  asliDiimny  as  a  lirancli  nf  ilic  astnilogy 
and  diviiialioii  fi>rliiddi'ii  in  tlii'  Hibic,  thus  iiiiilermi- 
niiij;  tli<'  very  lin.ndaliini  of  the  nd)l)iui(al  calfiidar. 
Tlie  hnpellin;.'  reasons  for  this  rigorous  teiidciify 
evinced  by  A:ian  in  his  legislation  can  not  now  be 
aceurately  stated.      Possibly    expert- 
Reasons      ence  witii  the  sects  of  the  Isawitcs, 
for  His       Yudganites,   and  .Shadganites.  which 
Views  and    ininn-dialcly  preceded  him  and  were 
Sletbods.     all  more  or  less  liberal  in  their  views 
— some  of  them  maintaining  that  after 
the  destruction   of  the  Temple  the  whole  Jewish 
ceremonial  law  was  no  longer  obligatory — showed 
liim  that  such   liberality  soon  lost  its  attraction  for 
the  main  body  of  the  people,  and  completely  failed 
to  imjiress  them.     This  seems  to  have  induced  Anan 
to  strike  out  in  the  opposite  <lirection.     He  may  also 
liave  been  inlltieni  iil  in  this  attitude  by  the  preiion- 
derance  in  both  numbers  and  intlucnce  of  the  rem- 
nants of  the  strict  Sadducees  among  his  followers. 
At  all  events,  his  rigorous  restraints  caused  many 
Karaite  writers  to  reckon  him  among  the  ascetics 
(  perusfiiiii)nni\  among  those  "  who  mourned  forZiou" 
(Ahei.f.  Ziox). 

He  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that  the  whole 
Ananite  legislation  was  better  fitted  for  the  world- 
renouncing  ieehi.se  than  for  the  free  citizen  of  the 
world.     Although  the  story  that  Anan  removed  to 
Jerusalem  is  a  later  invention,  it  is  true  that,  some 
lime  after  his  death,   his   devoted   followers,  who 
were  called  Ananites  (the  name  Kara- 
Karaism      ites  appears  later),  could  find  no  bet- 
Succeeds      ter  course  than  to  settle  in  the  holy 
Anauism.    city  and  live  there  a  secluded  life  of  as- 
ceticism. They  gradually  disapiieured; 
the  greater  portion  of  the  antirabbinical  schismatics 
separated  themselves  by  degrees  from  the  Ananites 
and  created  the  much  milder  form,  Karaism,  which 
is  better  fitted  for  sectdar  life. 

During  his  life,  however,  Anan's  political  influ- 
ence was  sufficient  to  group  all  antirabbinical  se- 
ceders  around  him  and  keep  them  together.  The 
general  and  tinlimited  freedom  in  the  investigation 
and  exposition  of  the  religiotis  law  which  he  openly 
jiroclaimed  pos.sessed  a  special  attraction  for  all  op- 
ponents of  traditional  Judaisiu.  His  well-known 
declaration  expresses  this  principle,  "Search  thor- 
oughly in  the  I,aw  and  depend  not  upon  my  opin- 
ion." It  is  therefore  not  to  be  wondered  at  "that  he 
closed  his  life  as  undisputed  head  of  the  new  sect 
(about  790-8HO),  and  transmitted  his  position  to  his 
son  Said,  whose  descendants  were  designated  nemm 
(princes)  by-  the  Karaites. 

BiKi.ioGRAPHV:  All  ancient  sources  and  many  new  ones  from 
inumi.scniit.^  were  collected  by  s.  I^nsker  in  his  epoch-niaking 
worii  (not  free  from  errors).  Likkutr  KitihiKriinint,  Vienna^ 
IStiO.  which,  hefoiv  publiraiion.  \v"a"s  utilized  i>v  ,Iu>i  ladiiitions 

to  the  St tid  volu[UH  of  his  (iisch.  (hs  J(o/(  iilhuins  tnul 

;^ct;i';r  .N"f  A'/cH.  Leipsic.  IKjy,  and  byljifaz,  firsch.d.  Jitikn, 
vol.  v.,  new  ed.,  Lel|)sic.  ISSVi),  and  contains  the  tiest  matter 
available  upim  the  subject.  Anan  has  l)een  tn*ated  by  Fiirst, 
(ia^cli.  (l.  KariU'rI.  Leipsii*.  IS*::,*,  at  irreat  louffth  'hut.  besides 
Pinsber's  data,  iimcli  is  conraint-ti  thiil  is  unfounded  and  fan- 
tjistir).  These  were  followed  by  Haiuburtrer  in  Winter  and 
Wiins<'he's  JUdischc  Litrratur.  The  writer  wiis  fortunate 
enouirh  to  discover  several  new  manuscript  soun*es,  including 
fnipnientsof  .\tinn's  ('ode.\.  published  in  the  Russian  X'tiskhod 
<1K»7-IW):  also  outlined  in  (iemuin  in  the  new  edition  of  Griitz. 
Gexch.  (I.  Juili  n.  ISiCi,  vol.  v..  and  in  the  Jahrh.  f.  JUd. 
Gcich.  II.  Lit.  (Karpeles,  Berlin.  1899). 

A.    II. 

ANAN  BEN  MARINTTS  HA-KOHEN:  Hab- 
binical  authority  in  Siponte;  born  probably  about 
1040.  Conjointly  with  his  somewhat  older  colleague, 
Ealonymus  ben  Shabbcthai,  he  signed  a  rabbinical 


responsum  before  the  latter  ri'inoved  to  Worms,  1070. 
His  colleagues  in  Siponte  were  MelchizediU  lia  Ko- 
hen  and  Elhanan.  Anan  is  known  only  from  a  men- 
tion of  him  made  by  the  Hoinan  nibbis  Metiaheni 
b.  Solomon  (in  am  73L".  and  from  this  in  nn'ni  "llO'K 
j;  1.57)  and  Zcdcuiali  b.  Abraham  'Anaw  (in  "Shib- 
bale  ha-Leket,"  ed.  Huber.  i.  ;i4,  293).  Two  halakic 
decisions  and  a  poem  on  Elijah  are  mentioned  as  be- 
ing by  him  (see  Zuuz,  "Literaturgesch."  \>.  108). 

II.  V. 
ANAN,  SALVATORE:  Italian  writer,  pam- 
phleteer, and  revolutionary  leader;  born  at  Ferrara, 
1807;  died  at  Genoa.  1S74.  In  recognition  of  his 
patriotic  zeal  ami  litcniry  ability,  the  Nalioinil  So- 
ciety, founded  in  \Xi>*.  elecled  him  secretary  and, 
a  few  days  later,  representative  for  Turin.  In  1H49 
he  was  elected,  by  an  overwhelming  majority,  to 
the  Consliluent  Assembly  of  Home.  The  Hciniblic 
of  Rome  sent  him  on  an  important  dipli>matic  mis- 
sion to  Venice.  Toward  the  end  of  lS4!t  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  Pontifical  Slates  and  from  I.onibtiidy 
and  settled  at  Genoa,  where  he  died.  His  ccillcclion 
of  books,  which  was  rich  in  works  on  literature  and 
politics,  he  bequeathed  to  the  library  of  the  city  of 
Genoa. 

Bibi.ioorapht:  Pe.saro.  .Vcmorie  Storiche  sulkt   Comunild 
l!<raclitd  Fcrrari:!*c^  pp.  90,  120, 

M.  K. 

ANAN,  SON   OF   SETH.     See  Axnas. 

ANANEL.     See  H.vnakel. 

ANANEL   (HANANEEL)   DI   FOLIGNO : 

Apostate;  lived  about  the  miilille  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Joseph  ha  Kohen  reports  in  his  "'Emelik 
ha-Baka "  that  Ananel  was  the  leader  of  a  trium- 
virate of  ajiostales.  who,  in  l.VilJ,  appeared  before 
Pope  .Tulius  III.  with  a  sharp  arraignment  of  the 
Talmud.  Joseph  Moro  and  John  Kaptista  Romano 
Eliano,  the  gnind.son  of  Elias  Levita,  were  his 
companions.  The  tradition  is  tlnit  the  apostates 
were  employed  by  two  rival  publishers  of  Jewish 
books  at  Venice,  and  that  in  the  course  of  competi- 
tion they  were  sent  to  Rome.  TIk'V  denounceil  the 
Talmud  as  containing  defiiiiiiitory  statements  re- 
garding Jesus,  the  Church,  and  Christianity  in  gen- 
eral, and  as  constituting  the  sole  impediment  to  the 
wholesale  conversion  of  the  Jews.  Julius  HI.  was 
neilher  a  fanatic  nor  inimical  to  the  Jews:  his  two 
physicians  were  Vital  Alatino  of  Spolcto  and  the 
Marano  Amatus  Lusilanus.  But  the  case  in  (|Ues- 
tion  lay  beyond  the  bounds  of  his  jurisdiction:  it 
belonged  to  the  court  of  the  Inriuisition.  at  the  head 
of  which  .stood  the  extremely  fanatical  advocate  of 
the  universalization  of  the  Spanish  Inrpiisition,  the 
Dominican  Caraffa.  On  Aug.  12,  1.").53.  the  pope 
signed  the  edict  ordering  the  destruction  of  the  Tal- 
mud, submitted  by  Caraffa.  Though  it  is  said  that 
the  Jews  were  given  an  opportunity  of  defense,  all 
copies  of  the  Talmud  at  Rome  were  seized  by  the 
Inquisition  immediately,  and  were  burnt  on  the  Jew- 
ish New  Year  (.Sept.  !))  in  the  Canipo  dei  Fiore. 

Another  conspiracy  in  which  Ananel  di  Foligno 
figured  threatened  to  culminate  not  merely  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  Jewish  books,  but  in  that  of  the  whole 
Jewish  community  of  Rome.  A  ilohaminedan  con- 
vert to  Christianity  had  murdered  his  wealthy 
ward  in  order  to  appropriate  his  possessions,  and  had 
thrown  the  corpse  into  the  Campo  Santo,  the  exclu- 
sively Roman  cemetery.  When  the  body  was  found 
a  number  of  unscrupulous  persons,  led  by  Ananel, 
straightway  raised  the  charge  of  child-murder  against 
the  Jews.  "^laicellus  II.  credited  the  accusation,  and 
was  on  the  point  of  condemning  the  Jews  of  Rome  to 


657 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Anan  ben  David 
Ananias,  Son  of  Nebedeua 


a  sevfTo  punislinifnt.wlirn  tlic  calamity  was  avertpd 
by  f'anliiial  Ak-xaiidcr  Fariiesc,  who  succeeded  in 
disc-overiii'T  the  real  cuiitril  and  ai)|)eased  the  pope 
(April,  l.j.j.5). 

Biblioi;rapiiy  :  Joseph  ha-Kolien.  'Emek  hn-llnlui,  cd.  Let- 
teris.  pp.  V^i-t  HI  If.',  Abraham  (irazlano.'extnici  from  luu'^ri't 
Niimiin.  ed.  Kaufiiiann.  In  /;<i'.  Kl.  Juivii,  Iv.  M  et  «€</.: 
Gwlallah  Ibn  Viihva,  Sliiiiiln hi  ha-Kiililialah.  ed.  Warsaw. 
1889,  p.  l.'>9 :  (iratz.  <li:.iih.  •!.  .hiilnt,  M  pd.,  Ix.  .m  rt  xiq. ;  Pop- 
per, Tlir  Cfiisiirnhiiinf  llilniw  ijuo/w,  pp.  1)0  et  wq..  New 
York,  18il!l;  VoRebtein  and  Hle(ter,  GiM-h.  il.Jmlin  in  Hum. 
11. 14«;  Berliner,  Uctvh.  d.  Juiku  in  Itum.  II.  I.  1119  ct  «</. 

11     C.    E. 

'ANANI,  'INANI,   -INYANI,   'ANANIEL 

B.  SASON  i'j;j;. 'jry.  >J"J'JJI:  A  Palestinian  amora 
of  Ihc  ihinl  erntnry .  cnnteiiiiiorary  of  K.  Ammi.  He 
nirely  (liseiissed  ilalakol,  and  his  diseu.ssions  of  them 
were  not  original  (Shati.  (14//).  Once  he  recited  a 
Hahikah  in  the  patriarch's  mansion,  without  naniins 
its  author,  which  jirovoked  H.  Animi  to  ask:  "Is  it 
his  ownr  It  is  what  R.  Eleazar  had  reported  in  the 
name  of  R.  Oshaiah  "  (-M.  K.  24A).  In  the  Hair.gadah 
he  sonielimes  reported  Die  sayings  of  others,  but 
more  often  he  was  oriijinal.  Thus,  asa  reason  for  the 
jn.xtaposition  of  the  rcfrulalions  re.Lrardinir  the  sac- 
rificial riles  and  the  priestly  vestnients(Ex.  x.wiii.- 
x.xix.l.  he  points  out  that  Ihc  priestly  vestments 
were  to  liave  atoning  cft'ecis  as  well  as  the  .sacrifices. 
He  represents  the  miler  as  atoning  for  haughtiness, 
and  cites  R.  Hanina  as  saying.  "That  which  rests 
higliesi  on  the  priest  atones  for  one's  considering 
himself  high";  and  similarly  with  the  rest  of  the 
priestly  garments  (Zeh.  HH/>:  "Ar.  U)ii:  comi>are  Yer. 
Yonia.  vii.  44/':  Lev.  R,  x.).  Ri-ferring  to  God's 
appearance  in  the  thorn-bush  (Ex.  iii.  2—1)  lie  remarks, 
"The  Holy  One — blessed  be  He! — said  to  .Moses, 
'Whin  I  will  it,  one  of  my  angels  siretcheth  forth 
his  hand  from  heaven  and  rcachetli  to  the  ground.' 
as  the  Scripture  says  [E/.ek.  viii.  :!],  '  He  put  forth 
the  form  of  a  hand,  and  took  me  by  a  lock  of  mine 
head':  and  when  it  so  iileaseth  me.  I  make  three 
angels  sit  under  one  tree  |(!en.  xviii.  4];  when  I 
choose,  my  glory  tills  the  universe,  as  it  is  wrillen 
j.Icr.  xxiii.  24],  '  Do  I  noi  lill  heaven  and  earth'/ sailh 
the  Lord';  'and  when  I  so  willed.  1  spoke  to.Ioh  in  a 
whirlwind,  as  it  is  sjud  [.lob.  xxxviii.  1.  xl.  (i).  "'i"he 
Lord  answered  .lob  out  of  the  w  hirl  wind  "  '  "  (Ex.  R. 
iii.,  where  the  interpretation  is  somewhat  forced). 

The  same  idea,  though  in  ditferent  form,  is  found 
elsewhere  ({Jen.  R.  iv.,  Pesik.  R.  i.  47)  in  the  name  of 
R.  Hanina  I).  Issi  (Sissi);  andasthe  name  of  thc>  sub- 
ji'cl  of  ihis  article  is  sometimes  wrillen  •  Inani  and 
•also  ■  Invani  (compare  "  Dikdnkc  Sofirim"  lo  Shah. 
114/-.  M.  K.  HI..  Zel).  8H/,)— whieii  forms  are  dialectic 
variations  of  Hanina,  though  with  the  initial  Ahpli 
inslead  of  Ayin — the  circumstance  probably  siig- 
gesled  the  ideiitily  of  the  two  names  (com|)are 
liachiT.  "Ag.  Pal.  Amor."  iii.  ."i47.  I-."!).  Rut  this 
idenlilicalion  meels  wilh  insuperable  clironological 
dilliculties,  Hanina  b.  Sissi  being  a  conlemponiry  of 
.bihanan  (Yer.  Sanh.  ii,  20c),  whili-  -Anani  "was 
younger  even  than  .lohanan's  pupils. 

IsiuK-  Reichlin  ("  Ha  Kirim,"  1HM7,  ]t.  2Wt)  aptly 
sugsrcsls  that  'Anain'srcal  nami'  was  '.Vnaniel,  as  it 
is  still  preserved  in  Ex.  I{.  iii.  7.  and  that  its  apoco- 
paled  form  was  adopli'd  to  avoid  the  mention  of  Ihc 
ii:iiie   "  El  "  ilioili  in  common  speech.  S.   M. 

ANANIAS  :  This  name  stamis  in  the  Septmigint 
and  .New  'I'eslamenl  as  the  ci|uivalenl  for  dilTerenl 
Hebrew  names,  one  (I.)  with  initial  n  and  the  other 
(II.  I  with  initial  j; 

I.  1.  Son  of  Emmer  who  put  n.si(Io  his  foreifrn 
wifeil  Esd.  ix.  •.M)=Han»ni(Ezra,  X. 'JO).  2.  In  the 
same  list  asabove(I  Esd.  ix.  -JK)  =  Hananiali  ( Ezra, 


X.  28).     3.  A  Levite  who  taught  the  Law  (I  Esd.  ix. 

48)  =  Hanan  (Xeli.  viii.  7). 

II.  1.  Mentioned  in  I  Esd.  ix.  43  ='ANAi.\n  (Xeh. 
viii.  4).  2.  Father  of  Azarias,  whose  son  Gabriel 
declared  himself  when  he  appeared  to  Tobit  (Tobit, 
V.  !■,'».     3.  An  ancestor  of  .Judith  (.ludith.  viii.  1). 

III.  The  .\nanias  mentioned  in  Acts  v.  as  having 
defrauded  ihe  apostles  and  as  having  been  punished 
by  sudden  dealh.  as  was  also  the  case  with  his  wife, 
.Sapphira.  It  is  uncertain  with  what  initial  his  name 
was  pronounced.  G.  B.  L. 

ANANIAS  OF  ADIABENE  :  A  Jewish  mer- 
chanl,  prolialply  of  llrlleiiic  origin,  who.  in  the  open- 
ing years  of  the  common  era.  was  prominent  at  the 
court  of  Abennerig  (Sj'IJ  ]2),  king  of  Charax  Spasini 
(Charakene,  Jlesene).  He  was  a  zealous  propagan- 
dist of  Judaism  among  the  pagans,  and  was  instru- 
mental in  the  convei-sion  of  numerous  native  and 
foreign  inhabitants  of  Charax.  which,  situated  at  the 
continence  of  the  two  arms  of  the  Tigris,  was  at  the 
time  a  great  mercantiU'  center.  Among  his  most 
prominent  con verls  were  several  women  of  high  posi- 
tion at  Ihe  court,  particularly  the  princess  Symacho, 
the  king's  daughler.  This  princess  liad  been  mar- 
ried to  Izales.  a  young  prince  who  had  been  sent 
to  Abennerig's  court  by  his  imrents,  Monobnz  and 
Helena,  the  rulers  of  .Vdiahe.nk.  Through  his  wife, 
Izates'  attention  was  directed  to  Ananias,  with  whom 
he  formed  an  ac(|uaiiitance  that  eventually  ripened 
into  a  strong  altaehment.  Ere  long  (about  the  vear 
IH),  Ananias  had  won  the  prince  over  to  the  Jewish 
faith.  .Moreover,  Izates  was  named  as  succes.sor  to 
the  throne  by  Monobaz,  who,  in  so  doing,  passed 
over  his  elder  sons.  Upon  his  acees.sion  (about  22), 
Izates,  in  order  to  show  his  genuine  at  lachmcnt  to  the 
new  religion,  declared  his  delermination  to  undergo 
the  riteof  eireumeision.  Helena  opposed  this,  fearing 
that  the  adoption  of  foreign  ceremonies  might  arouse 
against  llie  young  king  llie  indignation  of  his  pagan 
subjects.  Ananias,  w  ho  had  come  to  Adiabene  with 
Izates,  sujjported  Hi  lena's  contention,  arguing  that 
such  a  step  on  Ihe  pari  of  Ihe  king  would  enijanger 
Ihe  life  of  his  .lewish  instructor,  and.  further,  that 
circumcision  was  not  vital  to  Ihe  fullilment  of  the 
Jewish  religion  and  Ihe  worship  of  God. 

Izates  seemed  convinced  by  the  latter  argument, 
until  there  came  lo  his  conn"  another  Jew.  Eleazar, 
who,  in  conlmdistinclion  lo  .\nanias'  Helienic  le- 
niency, was  a  rigorous  legalist  from  Gah'lee.  He  per- 
suaded Izales  lo  undergo  tlie  rile  (Gen.  R.  xlvi.  8). 
.\nanias  and  Helena  were  strongly  a.irilated  when 
Izales  disclosed  his  action,  but  the  troul)le  llicy  pre- 
diclcd  did  not  immediately  ensue.  Whether  .Vnaniaa 
made  further  converts  in  Izales'  country  is  not  .staled 
(see  .VniAiiK.Ni;;  Hki.kna;  Izatks;  Monohaz  II.). 

niHi.iiuunriiv :  Jnsi-phiis,  AnI.  xx.  2  (■(  fcij.:  Brull,  Jalir- 
li}lilii  i:  \su.  I,  .">8  if  niij.;  Delllzsch,  Dim  ATih (yK/imo  roil 
Ailiiilimr,  In  Ihulxihi  Itiviir.  18S.">,  pp.  187  ft  id/.;  Idem,  In 
■s'ii/i(  inif  llnjl iiiniii.  Issr.  pp.  ITS  ,(  nei/.:  (iriiiz.  (liscli.  il. 
Jiiilin.  4ih  ed..  III.  4(M  .  (  «i ./.:  llamliiinfer.  U.  U.  T.  II.  iW  et 
niiM  SilillnT,  llmrli.  'M  iil..  111.  llu.f  ,«,.;. 

H    G.  E. 

ANANIAS,  SON  OF  NEBEDEUS :  High 
priest,  appoinlid  by  Hiroil  of  t'halcis.  He  olticiated 
from  alioni  47  lo  ."ill.  and  was  deprived  of  his  olHcc 
bv  .\grippa  II.  (Josephus.  ".\nt."  xx.  .l,  !;  2.  0,  ^  2). 
When  Ihe  governor  of  Syria,  r.MMiims  (^lAnnATi's, 
was  iuvisliiraling  Ihe  mailer  of  Ihe  lumulls  occa- 
sioncii  by  llic  struggle  between  Ihe  Judeans  and  Ihe 
Samaritans  (.VI-.">2).  he  sent  (.■>2t  .\nanias,  his  son 
.Vnan.  and  other  prominent  persons  lo  Rome  to  an- 
swer lo  Emperor  Claudius  for  parlicipaliiig  in  the 
troubles,  or  for  having  inslivMled  Iheiii  Through  llii- 
intlueiice  of  .\.ouii'i'A  II.  Ananias  was  acquilled  and 


Ananias,  Son  of  Onias  IV. 
Anathema 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


558 


sent  home; and  he  contimird  toofflriato  ns  liicrli  pripst 
("B.  J."  ii.  12.  S?(i  ;  ••  Aiit."  xx.  0.  ^  -').  In  Acts,  xxiii. 
2,  .xxiv.  t.  hi'  is  mi'iilioui'd  a.s  piL-sidiiit  of  Ilic  f>aii- 
hedriii.  mid  as  n'picsfiitutive  of  the  .lews  brfore  the 
procurator,  alioiit  5M.  His  removal  from  ollice  did 
not  rol)  him  of  iiillmiiic;  for  his  wealth  was  daily 
increased  liy  gift.s  and  t)_v  nnseniiiidoiis  and  vioUiit 
appropriation  on  the  tithes,  or  provisions  destined  for 
the  ordinary  priests  (compare  Hall.  I'l's.  571/;  "Ant." 
.XX.  !<.  SS  2.  ;i.  4).  His  relations  to  the  procurator  Al- 
hinus  drew  upon  him  the  hatre<l  of  the  .Siearii;  and 
at  the  outhreak  of  the  jrreat  revolt,  when  he  sided 
withthe  party  of  the  kin.sr,  the  revohitionistsnotordy 
burnt  his  palace  hut  killed  him  and  his  brother  ("B. 
J,"  ii    17.  is  fi.  '.i|.  A.  BC. 

ANANIAS,  SON  OF  ONIAS  IV.:  On  account 
of  the  pcrsi'cutions  under  Antiochus  IV..  Onias  IV. 
fled  from  .lerusjdcm  to  E.sryiJt,  won  the  favor  of 
Ptolemy  VI..  and  built  there  a  temple  (.losephns. 
"Ant."  xiii.  1(1.  ^  4).  Anania.s  and  his  brother  Hel- 
kias  were  held  in  hi.Ldi  esti'ein  by  Cl.lcoi'.^TH.v  III. 
Owiiij;  to  her  rcjrard  for  tlicm,  the  .Judeans  of  the 
|iroviiice  Onion,  between  Pelusiiim  and  Memphis 
(compare  "Ant."  xiv.  8.5^1;  "B.  .I."i.  9.  S  •*)•  re- 
mained true  to  her  when  she  was  abandoned  on  the 
island  of  Cyprus  by  all  her  soldiers  (Strabo  <|Uoted 
by  .losejihus,  "Ant."  xiii.  10.  is  4).  When  she  went  to 
Palestine  to  help  the  kinj;  of  .ludca.  Ai.kx.vxukk 
J.vXN.Kls.  asainst  her  son.  Ptolemy  Lathirus,  and 
sticeecdcd  in  dislodiring  him  (about  1(10).  Ananias 
and  Ilclkias  were  licr  ijcncrals;  and  Ananias  dis- 
suaded lier  from  incorjioriitinf:  .Jndea  as  an  Eiryplian 
province,  at  the  same  time  indueini?  her  to  form  an 
alliance  with  Alexander  Jannieus  (Jo.scphus.  "Ant." 
xiii.  13,  §2;  Schurer,  "Gesch.  d.  JiUl.  Volkes."  i. 
220).  A.  Bt'. 

ANANIAS,  SON  OF  ZADOK :  AcconliniB;  to 
Jose]ibus("  1!.  .1."  ii,  17,^10;  "  Vila."  (i6-(i7).  one  of 
the  del)Uties  (jf  hi,!;b  rank  from  amoni;  the  Pharisees, 
sent  in  the  year  (iC  by  Simon  ben  (iamaliel  and  the 
leading  personages  in  .Jerusidem  to  reprimand  Jo- 
sr.PHis,  the  future  historian.  Entrusted  with  the 
defense  of  Oalilee  in  the  great  war  against  the  Ro- 
mans. .Insephus,  soon  after  his  appointment  as  .gen- 
eral, had  been  suspected  of  corrupt  ])urposes  by  .John 
of  Giscala.  .Josephus,  being  apprised  of  their  ar- 
rival, c.'iiitured  them  and  sent  them  back  to  Jerusa- 
lem ("P..  J  "  ii.  21.  S;  7;  "Vita,"  38-64).       A.  Bu. 

ANANYEV  :  District,  town,  and  village  in  the 
province  of  Kherson.  Russia.  In  1897  the  Jewish 
population  was:  in  the  town  7,6.')0  (.50  per  cent.);  in 
the  viMage  4.408  (34.9  per  cent.);  and  in  the  district 
4..5.5.5  (3.7  per  cent.).  There  are  three  synagogues 
and  three  Hebrew  schools.  H.   R. 

ANAPA :  Town  in  the  province  of  Kuban,  Rus- 
sia, on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  Jews 
are  said  lo  have  lived  here  in  the  first  century,  and 
to  have  had  a  synagogue. 

BniLiOHRAPHY:  Harkavv,  in  VosMwd,  March,  l(<i)4,  p.  .M. 

II.  R. 

ANARCHISSI :  This  term  is  used  so  loosely  in 
the  United  States  by  writers  and  public  speakers 
that  a  scientific  definition  appears  to  be  a  pre- 
requisite to  the  proper  understanding  of  its  difTerent 
phases.  As  it  is  often  .stated  that  Jews  have  been 
intimately  connected  with  this  movement  it  seems 
desirable  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  connection. 

Anarchism  is  defined  in  "The  Encyclopedia  of 
Social  Reform"  (New  York.  1897)  as"  "the  social 
doctrine  of  the  abolition  of  government  of  man  by 
man,  and  the  constitution  of  society  without  govern- 


ment." There  are  two  schools  of  Anarchism:  the 
individualistic  and  the  conunninslic.  Communist 
Anarchism  isof  distinctively  Bussian  growth.  Emm 
the  first.  .lews  in  Bussia  allied  them- 
Its  Origin,  selves  with  this  school  and  |iartieipated 
actively  in  its  propaganda.  It  origi- 
nated with  the  early  Slavophiles  of  the  "forties"  in 
their  mystical  cull  of  the  village  comtnuiuty;  was 
given  a  socialistic  guise  by  Ilerzen  and  Tcherny- 
shevski  at  the  epoch  of  the  peasjuit  reform;  was 
remolded  and  finally  merged  into  I'roudhonism  by 
Biikiinin  in  the  days  of  the  International  Working- 
men's  Association  (18()8-71). 

The  individualistic  Anarchism  of  Proudhon  found 
a  wide  an<l  resixinsive  audience  among  the  Russian 
educated  middle  class,  and  in  the  "sixties  "  was  accli- 
matized in  the  guise  of  nihilism.  Nihilism  soon  gave 
place  to  the  Bakiinin-communist  Anarchism,  which 
held  sway  over  the  nunds  nf  ilu-  young  geiUTation  of 
the  "seventies."  The  anarchist  movement  had  ex- 
hausted itself  in  Russia  by  l.'^Sl,  and  had  given  to 
the  western  world  the  most  noted  apostle  of  modern 
coinmuiustic  -Vnarchism.  Prince  Pet<-r  Krajiolkin. 

The  exodus  of  the  Jews  from  Russia,  following 
the  anti  .lewish  riots  of  1881  and  subsei|Uent  years, 
couided  with  political  persecutions,  brought  to  Eng- 
land and  the  I'nited  States  a  number  of  young  men 
and  women  who  iin]i<irle(l  with  them,  along  with 
their  Russian  eilucatioii,  the  popular  political  and 
social  ideas  of  their  old  country.  Fired  with  the  pros- 
elytizing spirit  of  the  Bussian  social  reformer,  they 
naturally  became  the  teachers  of  the  ignorant  Jewish 
immigrants,  who.  ci-aving  for  knowledge,  were  now 
given  for  the  first  time  in  their  lives 
Clubs  and    an  opportuinty  to  study.     Clubs  and 

Societies      societies  were  soon  formed — the  Berner 

Formed.  Cluli  at  Whiteehapel,  London;  the 
Russian  Progressive  Labor  Associa- 
tion: and.  later,  the  Pioniere  der  Freiheit.  in  New 
York.  The  movement  gave  birth  to  a  weekly 
paper,  "  Der  Arlx-iterfreund,"  ptd)lished  in  London. 
Supported  in  the  beginning  solely  by  the  enthusiasm 
of  its  promoters,  this  jieriodical  succeeded,  after  a 
while,  in  gaiidng  a  small  paid  circulation.  In  New 
York,  owing  to  the  greater  prosjierity  of  llie  Jew- 
i.sh  inunigrants,  as  compared  with  the  Whiteehapel 
standard  of  living,  a  sinnlar  venture  met  with  better 
success.  "  Die  Ereie  Arbeit  erst  imme."  a  weekly  pajier 
founded  in  1890.  mana.geil  to  maintain  itself,  by  the 
aid  of  voluntary  contributions,  for  a  few  years;  its 
main  energies  being  directed  towanl  fighting  its 
socialist  contcm]ioniry,  the  "  .Vrbeilerzeitung." 

Of  coiu'se,  the  leading  spirits  among  the. lewish 
anarchists  kejit  in  loucli  with  their  non  Jewish  co- 
workers in  the  anarchist  movement,  re]iresented  by 
"Freedom"  in  London,  and  Johann  ,Most's  "  Freiheit" 
in  New  York.  But  the  masses  of  Jewish  sympa- 
thizers—secluded in  their  Ghetto  with  tin-  rest  of 
their  countrymen — formed  a  distinct  Yiddish-speak- 
ing branch  of  the  movement.  In  New  York  they 
.soon  became  the  financiers  of  anarchist  propaganda, 
contributing  largely  toward  the  support  of  anarchist 
literaturi'  in  the  English  language. 

The  anarchist  movement  among. Tews  in  the  L^nited 
States  is  now,  however,  decidedly  on  the  wane. 
The  organic  growth  of  the  Jewisii  settlement,  the 
development  of  labor  organizations,  and  the  cm- 
barking  by  social  reformers  in  labor  pfilitics  have 
dealt  a  fatal  blow  to  Anarchism.  It  is  no  longer  a 
movement  of  the  masses,  as  in  former  years — the  fir.st 
enthusiasm  of  youth  having  expended  itself  in  vain 
efforts  to  convert  an  indifferent  world — and  the  few 
remnants  of  the  pioneers  of  1890  confine  their  activ- 
ities to  the  publication  of  a  monthly  magazine,  "  Die 


559 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ananias,  Son  of  Oniaa  IV. 
Anathema 


Freie  Gcscllsfhaft.'"  devotwl  to  a  popular  discussion 
of  tlii'ir  sofiolc))j;i<nl  tlicories. 

Ni'itluT  of  these  schools  of  Anarrhism  is  ncressa- 
rily  other  tlmn  inuitic.  Hut  militant  Anareliism  has 
als'o  been  re|in'seiite<l  ainciuir  the  .lews,  in  the  person 
of  Ali'Xander  Herkiiiaun.  It  w  ill  be  recalled  that  he 
attempted  the  life  <it  II.  ('.  Friek,  mana.irerof  the  Car- 
neixic  Steel  Cnrnpany.  diirinL''  the  Homestead  strike 
in  the  summer  of  lS!)-2.  and  was  sentenced  at  Pitts- 
biirfi.  Pa.,  to  twenty-two  years'  iniiirisonment  iu  the 
penitentiary.  Berkmann's  case  can  not  be  classed, 
however,  wiih  the  deeds  of  the  European  militant 
anarchists,  whose  blows  are  aimed  indiscriminately  at 
any  persun  belonsrinir  to  tlw  rulinj;  classes  or  to  the 
bourireoisie.  The  victim  cjinsen  liy  Uerkmanu  was 
a  man  who  represented  cai)ital  in  an  acute  conflict 
wilh  labor,  which  brin,irs  this  case  into  close  rela- 
tionship with  Russian  terrorism. 

Individualist,  orsociilled  "  philosophical  "  Anarch- 
ism, which  can  as  readily  be  tmced  to  its  Kussian 
source,  has  had  few  .lewishailherents.  Victor  Yarros, 
one  of  tlu^  leadinu;  philosophical  anarchists  of  the 
United  Slates.  isa.Iewish  disciple  of  Pissarev,  the 
lirilliant  aposlle  of  Russian  nihilism  (in  the  Turge- 
niev  scMseof  Ihi' word),  ll  must  be  noted,  however, 
that  thou;;li  individualist  Anarchism  or  nihilism,  as 
a  philosophical  creed,  has  no  distinct  body  of  fol- 
lowers among  the  .Tews,  still  its  influence  has  made 
itself  felt  in  shapins  the  relations  of  everyday  life 
amonii  the  more  cultured  portion  of  the  Russian- 
Jewish  colony  in  America. 

The  nihilism  of  the  "sixties"  has  irradually  jier- 
meated  all  stnita  of  the  Russian  "  intelligeni/.ia  " : 
eveti  the  conservative  have  not  entirely  escajied. 
XundxTS  of  Jews  havr'  lirought  with  them  from 
Russia  the  ways  of  thiid-iing  current  amongcultured 
RusMans.         ■  .1.  A.  H. 

ANATH  (from  the  root  njj;):  The  name  of  an 
ancient  war-froddess  of  the  western  group  of  Sem- 
ites. The  Egyptian  way  of  writing  the  name  of  the 
Phenician  Israelitisli  city  "  Heth-Ar.ath  "  indicates 
Ihal  njy  is  here  a  goddess,  ami  jirobably  also  in  the 
name  of  the  place  "  n<'th-.Vnoth  "  in  .ludahand  jirob- 
ably also  in  .\nalholh(a  plural  like  Q'^ya  f rom  ^^2)- 
the  birthplace  of  Jeremiah.  Tliesi'  names,  however, 
which  may  po'.sjlily  date  from  Canaanile  limes,  point 
to  the  early  worship  of  .\nalh  in  Palesiine  (Judges. 
iii.  HI).  Wellhausen  has  even  sUL'i-'esled  Ihal  the 
verse  (Hosea.  .\iv.  !l)  IJI^CW  'JTJV  'JN  '^  •'>  be  trans 
laled  "I  am  his  Anath  ami  his  Ashera  "  ("Skizzen." 
V.  I;il).  but  this  is  very  improbable.  Tlw  proper 
name  .Vnali  occurs  ujion  one  of  the  Kl  .Vniarna  lab 
lets:  Winekler,  in  "  Keiliiisehriftliche  liibliolhek," 
v.  ■i'M't ;  Klinders  Petrie,  "Syria  and  Kirypl,"  ]).   (il. 

Representations  of  .Vnath(\V.  Max  .Miiller,  "  .Vsien 
und  lOiiropa."  p.  81  :i)  show  her  provided  w  ilh  helmet, 
shield,  and  spear,  and  wilh  a  swiniring  battle-ax  in 
her  left  hand.  A  later  picture  of  .\nalh  (de  Vogue. 
"  .Meliuiges."  p,  47)  shows  her  sitting  upon  a  lion. 
which  also  typifies  her  warlik<'  disposilion. 

niiii.Kxirui'Hv:  Nuidi'ke,  In /.  /).  .V.  (.'.  ISfW.  xill.  4T1I:  w.  Mnx 
Miiller,  Aaiiu  uiiil  Kiiriie.i,  pii.  111'..  :U:i.  :ciii:  Tide,  f,'.»i/ii.. 
ill  iiiM  ran  ilf  (ttnltMiUtui*}.  1  ™4  ;  Morris. JiLstn>\v,  HrU{jutit  nf 
,l!<.«|;n.i  .111.1  iJ(il.|;/..iii<i.l)<ll(l,3deU.  1801,  p.  I.tl.       j^     q 

ANATH.     Seo  Sii.vMfi.Mi. 

ANATHEMA  (Greek  ' AvAftr/im :  Hebrew  Qin; 
.\rainali  KClHi;  -V  term  used  both  in  the  sense  of  con 
secralion  and  of  condemnation.  The  old  (irei'k 
'Aviilh/iKi  signilies  a  volive  olTering,  somelhing  de- 
vot<(l  lo.  or  set  aside  for.  Itie  special  use  of  the  gods; 
in  il.s  ecclesiastical  sense,  specifically  In  a  New  Tes 
fament  signilicance.  "set  a.side  for  evil" — lience, 
cursed,  excommuniculwl.     The  ecclesiastical  use  of 


the  wfird  "Anathema"  in  this  jiarlicular  sense  pre- 
sumably originated  in  Palestine  in  pre-Christian  times 

Derivation  </^''"   ^'"T",.    *'"'•'   nT    '"'^'""'•^ 
J  forms  of  Anathema  will  be  approjin- 


De&nition. 


alelv  treated  here.   For  a  consideration 


of  the  Biblical  forms,  see  B.\x. 
The  Old  Tc-stamenl  Scri|ilures  know  nothing  of  an 
ecclesiastical  Anallienia  or  ban.  unless  the  noiice  in 
Ezra,  X.  H  be  excepted,  w  hicli  may  be  the  starting- 
point  for  a  theory  that  the  progressive  spirit  of  Jew- 
ish legislation  in  the  time  of  the  great  scribe  con- 
demned the  barbarism  of  putting  excluded  persons 
to  death.  According  to  that  pas.sagc,  only  the  prop- 
erly of  the  condemned  person  was  /uirm.  that  is  to 
say,  given  over  to  total  deslruclion:  but  the  culprit 
himself  was  simjily  excluded,  that  islosiiy,  forbidden 
toconimunicate  wilh  the  members  of  the  congregation 
of  the  diaspora.  This  chapter  of  Ezra  warrants  an  in- 
ference, substantiated  by  many  oilier  historical  evi- 
denc<'s,  that  the  conslitulional  conditions  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  llie  returned  exiles  dilferi'd  radically  from 
those  of  the  old  royal  regime.  Wilh  the  disappearance 
of  the  Davidic  dynasty  the  Jewsbeccmiea  theocratic, 
subsequently  a  hierocratic,  congregation,  Ihe  mem- 
bers of  which  are  to  conform  to  certain  spiritual 
regulations  designed  to  forlily  the  newly  established 
comnionweallli.  Reiiiarkalily  eiKnigh, 
The  Land  Ezra  believed  the  territory  itself  to  be 
Itself  Un-  under  a  species  of  ban  (niddn/i):  and 
der  a  Ban.  ils  resloral  ion  to  the  dignity  of  the  jiat- 
rimony  of  YHWII  reiiuinil  Ihal  it  be 
imrged  from  the  impiirilies  with  which  it  had  become 
perniealed  Ihrougli  contact  wilh  Ihe  foreign  inhabit- 
ants and  their  idolatrous  praclises  (Ezra.  ix.  1.  M). 

This  declaralion  of  the  chronic  ini])urily  of  the 
country  itself  gives  the  key  to  Ezra's  twiifold  pro- 
nunciamento:  politically,  an  excommunication  of 
all  foreigners  who  did  not  renounce  their  idolatry, 
and  did  not  conform  to  the  discipline  of  the  religion 
of  VHWH  ;  spiritually,  the  inlroducli<in  of  a  correct- 
ive measure  lo  hold  the  Jewish  tendencies  towaid 
jiaganism  in  ch.-ck.  and  lo  further  the  growth  of  a 
pure  monolbeistii-  system  unliindered  by  either  tlu- 
symbolism  or  the  degrading  praclisesof  jiolylheistic 
religion.  Ezra  is  the  founder  of  the  "congregation 
of  Israel" — a  community  of  w(irshi|iers  of  the  one 
God — to  the  members  of  which,  through  the  opera- 
tion of  a  systematic  discipline,  idolatrous  praclises 
become  abominabh'.  This  upbuilding  of  a  spiritual 
fraternity  rei|uired,  il.iubtless.  the  inauguration  of 
drastic  measures,  among  which  was  the  exclusion  of 
all  iiersons(men  <ir  women)  tainted  with  paganism, 
or  the  closing  of  the  territory  to  all  persons  who 
were  not  ready  to  subscribe  unhesitatingly  to  the 
con<lilions  imposed  by  the  covenant  of  YHWII. 
Only  in  this  way  could  the  ban  be  removed  from  the 
land  itself,  which  again  became  holy  lerritory,  the 
fit  habitation  for  a  holy  and  iindetiled  conununity 
(conii)are  Ezra.  ix.  2).  Whether  lhis"culting  ofT"  of 
Ihe  Jewish  members  of  the  conimunity.  lo  prevent 
Ihe  growth  of  repreheiisibli'  praclises.  wasalriady  in- 
dicaleil  in  the  Bililical  form  of  ban.  calli'd  /."■(/ in"13). 
can  not  now  be  determined  (compare  Winer,  "  B.  R," 
ii.  14,  n.r.  "  I.ebensstnifeli  "). 

The  Biblical  form  of  the  liprem  changes,  tlien-fore, 
from  Ihe  lime  of  Ezra      In  posfexilie 


The  Herem 


times  il  had  been  a  L'rim.  cruel  meas- 


_     .      ...       ureof  slate. bv  whiihall  personsfalling 
Postexihc ,,,„  ,„■    „.„^.,  „„,'  ,,,  ,, , ;, 


Times. 


under  the  ban  were  put   lo  death  and 


their  properly  was  dcslroyed.  In  llie 
early  cenfuriesof  the  second  Jewish  conimonweallh, 
founded  upon  llieocnilii-  lines,  if  becomes  an  ex- 
pri'ssion  of  (tod's  displeasure  wilh  all  persons.  Ji-w 
or  pagan,  ^vilo  do  not  subordinate  Iheir  piTsonal 


Anathema 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


660 


conduct  nml  ti'iidcncics  to  the  discipline  liy  wliicli 
conduct,  iMil)liianil  priviilc,  is  licnccfortli  tobe  rcjiu- 
luted:  it  is  iin  instrument  of  conununiil  puriticalion. 
a  corrective  nieiisure  desiiined  to  puiire  the  com- 
munity fi'oni  ad  persons  wliose  conduct,  moral  or 
politi("al.  is  not  ju  harmony  with  the  constitution  of 
the  tlicocracy. 

But  later  on.  specifically  after  the  community  is 
subdivided  into  conjrresrational  bodies,  \inder  the 
rule  of  their  own  ollieers.  the  hcreni  or  Anathema  is 
de.siirned  to  control  the  moral  deportment  and  obe- 
dience of  their  mendicrs;  actiiiir  as  a  eliick  upon  in- 
subordination, iiriiclaindnir  or  threatrnini;  expulsion 
•from  all  advantages  derived  from  an  inteirral  mem- 
bership in  the  covenant  of  God:  yet  operating 
benelieenlly  in  its  self  declared  reversible  character, 
under  which  the  authorities  niisht  take  cognizance 
of  the  transgressor's  re))entance  and  restore  him  to 
his  former  place  in  the  congregation  and  comnnuiity 
(Mislmah  Ta'anit.  iii.  H).  The  herc-ni.  then,  becomes 
in  the  hands  of  the  authorities  an  instrument  for  the 
proiniitinn  of  personal  conduct  as  well  as  the  enforce- 
ment of  jiublic  morality,  a  constitutional  power  de- 
signed to  operate  bcneticently  upon  the  growth  of  a 
virtuous  community.  Whether  this  power  at  any 
time  might  not  become  a  source  of  danger  or  be  con- 
verted into  an  arbitrary  exercise  of  authority  was 
indeed  a  very  serious  (pu'slion. 

The  rise  of  the  .Tewish  sects  (see  EssKNEs),  the  in- 
fusion of  Hellenistic  cidture — which  threatened  to 
imdermiue  Ezra's  si)lendid  work — the  Maceabean 
revolt,  and  the  subsequent  unhappy  political  feuds 
which  represent  the  struggle  between  theocrats 
(Pharisees)  and  hierocrats  (Sadducees).  or  between  the 
chamiiions  of  a  spirit ualconunon wealth  and  the  vota- 
ries of  a  royally  not  represented  by  the  old  dynasty 
■ — all  these  inciilenis  helped,  jn'oliably.  to  render  the 
l.ierem  an  instrument  of  ecclesiastical  discipline. 

While  there  exists  no  exact  historical  basis  fortius 
gradual  development  of  the  institution  of  Anathema. 
it  may  fairly  be  assumed  that  it  was  introduceil  at 
the  Sivme  time  as  the  pseof  the  Synagogue.  Much, 
of  course,  depends  on  the  period  to 
A  Measure  which  this  rise  is  assigned.  If.  as  Zunz 
of  Syna-  implies,  the  rise  of  the  Synagogue  is 
gogal  ciiUlcmporaneous  with  the  Maccabean 
Discipline,  jieriod  (Zunz.  "  Gottesdienstliche  Vor- 
trilgc."  p.  3,  lierlin,  1n:^2: compare  also 
Schurer,  "Gesch."  American  ed.,  ii.  54),  it  nuglil  be 
safely  assumed  that,  in  its  main  features,  the  Anath- 
ema of  the  first  and  later  centuries  of  the  present 
era  resembles  the  herein  of  earlier,  s))eeitically  the 
pre-Maccabe!Ui.  times,  in  its  general  tendency  to  for- 
tify the  found;itions  of  the  covenant  by  imposing 
penalties  upon  heresy  as  well  as  upon  defections  from 
the  ethics  of  private  life.  Heresy,  in  particular,  was 
the  great  offense  during  the  dominancy  of  the  sects. 

Herem  has  already  been  (h'tined. 

NiDDii,  'nj.  Aramaic  Knot :  Nij  =  Hebrew-  mj  = 
nij.  Isaiah  Ixvi.  ."i  D3njD  in  Pu'el  form,  to  cut  off. 
cast  (Hit,  put  under  ban.  anathematize;  compare 
Buxtorf.  "Lexi<'on  Chaldaicum."  under  'Hi:  Levy. 
" Chaldilisches  Wi'irterliueh."  under  Uli:  .lastrow, 
"Diet."  under  nj ;  Kohut,  "'Arueh  (.'ompletum." 
under  mj  C^). 

Ki;ziF.\n.  Aramaic  nezifutha  XDIS'TJ.  Root:  P|TJ.  to 
warn,  to  rebuke,  hence  to  pronounce  ])unishment 
or  ban  (r|1TJ.  one  who  has  been  excluded  from  the 
congregation:  compare  Shab.  ll'w.  compare  Levy, 
"Chakhlisches  Wiirterbuch,"  .i.r.  C]T:).  The  Syna- 
gogvie  of  old  was  conducted  by  oflicials  to  whom, 
among  other  things,  was  entrusted  the  enforcement 
of  religious  and  ethical  discipline,  to  the  end  that  the 
community  miglit  not  lose  the  character  and  identity 


of  "a  congregation  of  the  Lord."  Doubtless,  one  of 
the  instruminlsby  which  this  discipline  was  in  forced 
was  the  herem  or  Anathema.  Of  this  thre<'  forinsare 
known:  Hkke.m.  N'iddi  i,  and  Nkzikaii  or  Xkzi- 
FlTA  :  the  last  named  h;iving  been,  inall  ]>robability, 
introduced  only  in  the  second  century  of  the  com- 
mon era  as  a  disciplinary  measure  airainst  the  grow- 
ing disrc'spect  in  the  pop\dar  altitude  toward  the 
rabbis  (M.  K.  ltV/-17((;  compare  Ihunburger,  "K.  B. 
T."  vol.  ii.,  ti.r.  "Bann"). 

For  the  further  trrm  S/mmta,  i)roperly  Sham- 
nwttii,  Anunaic  ^5n^3!;^  the  meaning  is  obscure.  In 
all  probability  it  represents  a  general  designation 
for  every  form  of  ecclesiastical  excommunication. 
Levy's  derivation  ("Chaldilisches  Worterbuch,"  un- 
der xnOL")  from  xmOL".  with  assimilation  of  (/  and 
t,  is  acceptable.  Ellas  Le vita 's  as,sert ion  ("Tishbi," 
under  'nj)  that  shanunatta  was  the  highest  form  of 
excomnuinication  has  often  been  declared  groun<lless 
(comiiare. however.  Winer. "  Biblische  Healencyelop." 
i.  i;i(),  K. /'.  ••  Hann '■).  For  shainmatta  as  a  general  form 
of  Anathema,  compare,  for  instance,  >1.  K.  IT'/. 

Of  the  three  forms  or  degrees  known,  niddui  and 
nezifah  were  corrective  in  character,  involving  a 
temporary  expulsion  for  a  fixed  period,  at  the  cx- 
piraticm  of  wliich  the  culprit,  upon  exhibition  of 
proper  repentance,  was  restored  to  communication 
with  the  congregation  and  to  his  wonted  jirivileges. 
The  first  degree,  herein,  the  Anathein;i  i>i"oper,  wasan 
expulsion  for  an  indefinite  term  and  represented  the 
final  iiunishnient  of  anofTendcr  who  had  been  repeat- 
edly warned  and  corrected.  The  person  so  exjielled 
Wiismii/inini  (com|iare  Aiint/ii  mil  iiiiin/ii  nt/iii in  I  Cor. 
xvi.  22.  According  to  Graetz  inaranatha  is  a  corrupt 
transcription  of  nnX  D"iniD.''Thou  art  anathema"; 
compare  Iloltzinanii,  "  llandkoinmentar  zum  Neuen 
TestainenI,"  pji.  17:1.  174.  note). 

Doubtless,  the  catalogue  of  olTcnses  for  which  these 
three  degrees  were  aiiplied  was  well  defined  (compare 
the  classification  in  Shull.iau '  Aruk  Yoreh  De'ah,  A'id- 
ihii  ire-IIeirm.  J;  834.  43). 

The  modus  operandi  was  to  pronounce  niddui  upon 
an  olTcnder  for  the  jieriod  of  thirty  days,  when,  hav- 
ing repented  his  conduct,  the  ban  termiiwitcd.  Per- 
sistence in  the  oll'cnse  was  punished  with  an  extension 
of  the  lian  foranother  thirty  days, after  which  the  sin- 
ner's contumacious  conduct  was  finally 
The  Modus  ininishcd  with  herein,  or  exeominiini- 
Operandi.  cation,  which,  though  indefinite,  was 
revocable  at  the  option  of  the  authori- 
ties. The  lesser  ban.  nezifah.  was  imjiosed  for  a 
period  of  seven  days  (ih.  §  334,  2).  In  Babylonia  there 
IS  an  important  modification — namely,  that  nezifah 
is  im])osed  for  one  day  only:  niddui  for  seven  days 
(compare  M.K.  ](!<',  17A).  The  character  of  the  of- 
fenses for  which  niddui  and  herein  were  imposed  per- 
mits a  fair  insight  into  the  thomugh  discipline  of  rab- 
binical Judaism  as  it  developed  after  the  rise  of  the 
Synagogue,  but  more  particularly  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple  and  the  dis])ersi(m  of  the  Jews. 
Then  the  necessity  for  preserving  Judaism  became 
paramount.  Thereupon  was  developed  a  rigid,  un- 
comiminiising  censorship  of  communal  and  domestic 
life,  of  public  and  private  conduct,  which,  in  its  gov- 
ernment of  monds.  became  of  the  most  far-reaching 
consequence.  The  doctrine  of  holiness  was  again 
urged  as  fundamental ;  and .  next  to  obedience  to  God, 
implicit  respect  was  to  be  shown  to  His  law  and  to  the 
authorities  that  had  been  appointed  to  administer  it. 
AVhile  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Anathema  was  gov- 
erned by  fixed  legal  principles:  while,  in  fact,  the 
authorities  could  impose  it  without  a  determination 
of  the  verdict  by  unimpeachable  testimony  (ih.  t;  334, 
43  gloss),  this  "very  latitude  exhibits  the  spiritual 


561 


THE  .JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anathema 


authoritiesasbeingposscssfd  of  hirgt-  powers,  wliich 
were  exercised  for  the  eonservation  of  the  ethics  of 
conduct.  This  niakisthe  Aimtheiim  not  only  u  puni 
live  measure,  1ml  a  protection  a,i;ainst  personal  in  jus 
lice  or  against  immorality,  whether  of  conduct  or  of 
])rofession. 

The  offenses  for  which  iiiddui  and  herein  were  pro- 
nounced comprise,  freiierally.  those  committed.  (1) 
a.U'ainst  the  authorities;  (i)a,L,'ainst  morality  and  pub- 
lic decency:  and,  (lilairainst  religion  itself  (crini|iaic 
llamburirer.  /.<•.).  A  few  of  these  offi'uses  may  be 
enumerated  here.  Xiddui  was  pronnunced  upon  a 
perscjii  who  did  not  respect  the  diirnity  and  authiir 
ity  of  the  bet  din  or  of  an  individual  rabbi.  Even 
after  his  death  a  scholar's  name  and  reputation  should 
not  be  criticized  (compare  Yer.  M.  K.  iii.  Ml",  //:  Ber. 
19n).  A  messenger  or  representative  of  the  bet  din 
shoidd  always  be  re<'cived  with  htaior;  to  treat  him 
with  conlem|il  was  an  offense  for  which  niililui  was 
pidiiounced  (Kid.  7(l/'l.  A  person  wlm  applieil  an  in- 
sulting epithet  to  allot  her,  noticeably  that  of  "slave," 
was  |)ut  under  ban  (/'/.).  Niddiu  was  also  ])roniiunced 
iipDii  the  following:  a  person  who  publicly  despised 
the  teachings  of  the  rabbis  (Mishnah  'Ediiy.  v.  0); 
or  who  was  summoned  to  atteial  cotirt  and  showed 
disrespect  by  appearing  late,  or  liy  non-attendance 
(15.  K.  \\~/');  whixlid  Udt  obey  an  order  of,  ordid  not 

comply  with  the  terms  of  a  verdict  pr<i- 

Niddui,  on   noinued  by,  the  bet  din  (/'<.  li:!('i;  who 

Whom  Pro-  contumaciously  refused  to  pay  dam- 

nounced.     agesasscssed  against  him  (/4.  l.V;);  who 

gave  title  of  real  estate  to  an  idolater 
(ih.  114«);  who  desecrated  the  festal  seasons  liy  labor. 
even  the  seccaid  days,  though  the  latter  were  found<(l 
on  custom  f)nly  (Pes.  52"  l;  who  pronounced  (toil's 
name  in  vain.  <ir  wIki.  in  taking  an  oath,  made  exag- 
gerated proleslations  ('{{3n  JIL'v;  Xed.  7''),  or  whose 
misconduct  cri'ated  hilhil  Im-Shi  m  (desecration  of  the 
Holy  Xaine),  that  is  to  say,  any  misconduct  or  scan- 
dal that  rellected  upon  or  endangered  the  morality 
and  religious  character  of  the  commiinity(  Yer.  M.  K. 
/.'".).  Niililui  was  also  pronounced  uiion  one  who 
was  guilty  of  "  put  ting  a  stnmbling-block  bi'l'ore  the 
blind  " — that  is  to  say.  one  who  dealt  unlairly  with 
another,  i>r  sought  undue  advantage  in  business 
(compan-  Hashi  on  Lev.  .\i.\.  II.  .^L  Iv.  IT"):  who  in- 
terfered with  the  ]nd)lic  exercise  of  religious  duty 
(Yer.  M.  K.  I.e. ):  who  was  guilty  of  the  distribution 
of  uni  lean  food  (Sanh.  'Z'vi):  upon  a  Klmhil  (slaugh- 
terer) w  ho  rc'fused  to  submit  his  knife  to  e.\ainiiaition 
(IIul.  IH");  uiion  a  divorced  couple  in  collusion  to 
vitiate  tlw  consi(|iiences  of  the  divorce  (Kel.  'JS"); 
upon  a  rabbi  who  had  fallen  inln  e\  il  repute  (.\L  K. 
If. ):  and  upon  any  one  w  ho  had  luijustly  pronounced 
niddui  upim  an  innocent  person  (///.).  These  fore 
going  examples  prove  conclusively  that  Anathema, 
from  the  rabbinical  standpoint,  was  designed  to 
purify  conduct  and  to  preserve  harmonious  relations 
bctwien  the  various  members  of  the  community — a 
dis(iplinc  doubtless  of  the  utmost  importance  ifom 
till'  time  that  the  .lewisli  communities  began  to  live 
the  diltirull  life  of  I  lie  dia-pora. 

It  may  be  concluded,  theretore,  that  the  rabbinical 
Anatliema,  in  itsdevelopments,  was  designed  to  con- 
serve the  morality  of  the  community.  In  the  hands 
of  the  leHeiiersof  the  Ijiw  it  was  applied,  with  scrii 

pulouscnre,  to  protect  the  community 
ethical       against  offenders.     It  was  not  hastily 
Aim  of       pronounced.   The  transgressor  was  re- 
Anathema,   peiitedly  warned  to  mend  his  ways,  to 

repent,  or  to  make  restitution.     Il  was 
only  after  every  mode  of  remonslnince  had  been  ex- 
hausted, and   the  offender's  pertinacity  had   beconie 
evident,  that  the  corrective  powersof  the  herein  were 
T  — !l(i 


invoked.  Three  stieecssive  times — on  >Ionday,  on 
Thursday,  and  on  the  following  Monday — the  culprit 
was  publicly  exhorted.  Only  when  his  obduracy 
continued  was  the  ban  pronounced,  in  the  offender's 
liresence,  with  the  formula:  "3'.  j\',  is  excnmniiini- 
nited,"  or,  in  his  absence,  in  the  words:  "  Ix't  A',  A*,  be 
i.rm)/iiiiiiiiiriiti(/"  (Maimoniiles,  "Yad  lia-Hazakah: 
Hilkot  Talnuiil  Torali,"  vii.),  without  any  statement 
of  the  reasons  for  which  the  Anathema  was  pro- 
nounced. In  extreme  cases,  however,  the  reasons 
were  jiiiblicly  given:  and  then  the  ban  was  preceded 
by  blowing  tlic  x/i'ifiir.  The  ban  coiilil  be  removed  by 
a  rabbi  ora  college  of  three  laymen  (>Iaimoniiles.  ih.]. 

A  jierson  on  whom  nezifah  was  pronounced  was 
rei|iiired,  for  the  duration  of  the  ban — seven  days  in 
Palestine,  one  in  Babylonia — to  remain  at  home, 
and  to  abstain  from  all  business  and  entertainment 
(comjiare  Yoieli  De'ali,  /.<:).  Any  jierson  on  whom 
niddui  was  |iroiioiinceil  was  treated  with  far  greater 
severity.  He  was  forbidden  contact  with  every  per- 
son excepting  his  wife  and  children;  and  it  was  for- 
bidden to  sit  at  meals  with  him.  or  to  count  him  in 
the  ritual  number  (/«/;<(/"/()  requisite  for  prayers.  He 
was  iiermitted,  however,  to  attend  service,  to  study 
the  Torah.  or  to  attend  the  public  leeturesof  the  rab- 
bis, A  person  over  whom  niddui  was  pronounced 
was  required  to  don  the  habiliments  of  mourning. 
He  was.  moreover,  forbidden  to  bathe, 
Niddui  and  to  cut  his  hair,  and  to  wear  footgear 
Hereni  (the  details  of  the  discipline  are  given 
Discipline,  in  Shulhaii  Ariik  Yoreh  Dealt,  S;334). 
The  person  who  was  punished  with 
lierem  was  visiied  still  more  severely.  In  addition 
to  the  niddui  regulations  he  was  required  to  abstain 
from  teaching,  though  he  was  permitted  to  study 
alone.  He  was  forbidihn  to  partake  of  any  food  ex- 
cept that  necessary  for  sustenance.  If  he  died  while 
under  the  ban  his  tomb  was  marked  with  a  stone, 
and  all  tokens  of  moiirning  were  forbidden. 

Whether  Anathema  o|ierated  as  benelieently  upon 
the  excomniimieated  as  was  originally  contemidated 
may  well  be  questioned.  With  the  growth  of  rab- 
binisiii  ils  discipline  became  more  concrete:  and,  so 
far  as  the  lieieni  is  concerned,  it  often  put  humilia- 
tion upon  condeinncil  persons  out  of  proportion  to 
their  offenses.  But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  necessity  of  ]ireserviiig  the  morals  of  the  com- 
munity was  paramounl.  and  thus  may  often  have  led 
to  harsher  measures  than  each  offense  jiistitied. 

As  Israel  grew  older  in  the  diaspom,  and  as  it 
came  to  look  iqioii  the  (Jentile  peol>lesand  their  cul- 
ture with  iniliffeieiice,  not  to  say  contempt,  offenses 
ag.'iinst  rigid  rabbinical  discipline  were  condemned 
mole  harshly  than  ever,  and  the  right  of  excluding 
olfenders  was  more  frequently  applied.  Already  in 
the  times  of  I  he  Mishnali  there  was  rigid  eondeiuna- 
tion  of  teachers  for  their  advancement  of  doctrines 
deeined  heretical,  and  this  rigorous  enforcement  of 
a  consensus  of  opinion  and  leaching  continued  until 
recent  times;  though  the  herein  itself  may  not  be  |iro- 
noiinced  wherever  the  .li wish  communily  is  subject 
to  the  civil  and  criminal  codes  of  the  n:itioiisof  w  hieh 
they  now  conslitiite  integral  elemenls.  See  Exio.M- 
MfNli  ATtox. 

Iliiu.iiiiut.vriiv  ;  oiillie  llen'in  In  .Ii'wlsli  Jiirispniilenee  see 
SiuilMliiliz.  .In/ic7..|.i;(.  i/ri-  lliliidii:  K.'ma.'slMTK.  t^Vl: 
Kelt,  Itililiriil  .l)r/i(../.i(iH,  III  (lurk's  Kun-iirii  riiiHili.i.'Inil 
l.llinir>',  ni'W  HTles,  .v.\.vil..  Killnhiin.'li.  IssT:  Kwalil.  Tlir 
Anti<fuitiit*  I  if  Isritii,  Kiiif,  irun:).,  Leiiiloii.  l.sTii;  HaiNliiinrcr, 
It.  II.  T.  s.v.  Iliuin :  J.  WliwiH'r,  Ihi-  Ilium  in  Si-iini- f!i-- 
:ii-hirhllirllr  II  t^iitu'trhhom  illtf  ili  til  Ituili  II  ilii*  Jllihti' 
thunin,  l,i'll»>li\  11^,  J      y 

Some  light  on  the  origin  and  degrees  of  excom- 
munication is  en.st  by  the  aceoiiiit  given  in  .loseplius 
("B.  J."  ii.  B,  j;  S)  of  the  Kvslein  of  the  Esseiios: 


Anathoth 
Auatolio 


TllK  JEUIMI   ENCVCLUl'KUlA 


562 


"Those  tlial  arc  oauirht  in  any  liciiioiis  sins  tlicy  cast 
out  of  tlicir  society,  ami  he  who  is  thus  scpa- 
riiteil  from  them  (h>es  often  die  after  a  iniseralile 
niiinner:  for  as  lie  is  liound  liy  tlie  oatli  lie  liatli 
taken,  and  hy  the  customs  lie  hath  eiiiraireil  in.  he  is 
not  at  liberty  to  iiartake  of  tliat  food  that  he  meets 
with  elsewhere,  but  is  forced  to  eat  grass,  and  to 
imnish  his  body  with  hunger  till  he  jierish;  for 
which   reason   thcv  receive   many  of   them   again. 


ANATOLI    BEN    DAVID     CASANI.     See 

{'as  \M. 

ANATOLIO  (ANATOLI,  ANTOLI,  .  i  BEN 
ANATOLIO).  JACOB  BEN  ABBA  MARI 
BEN  SIMSON  (SIMEON;  -...m.tiiMe,  eoinipied 
intii  Abtalion)  :  Ililmw  Inmslator  of  Araliic  sei- 
entil.ic  lilcralurc;  llmirislH'd  about  ll'Jl-l'J.jG  (see 
■■Journal  Asiati(|ue."  xiv.  34).  Anatolio,  as  be 
is   freiiuently   brietly  designated,  certainly  was  of 


UK.NERAI.    VlKW    OK   MollKRN    A.NATHOTH. 
(From  a  photriKTji)>h  by  thv  AmerJLan  Colony,  Jvnuwlein.) 


when  tlicy  are  at  their  last  gasp,  out  of  compassion 
to  them,  as  thinking  the  miseries  they  have  endured 
till  they  came  to  the  very  brink  of  death  to  be  suffi- 
cient punishment  for  tin;  sins  they  had  been  guilty 
of."  Compare  with  this  I  Cor.  v.  5:  "To  deliver 
such  a  one  unto  Satan  for  the  destruction  of  the  Hesh. 
that  the  spirit  may  be  sjived  in  the  day  of  the  Lord 
.Jesus,  "and  I  Cor.  .\vi.  22:  "  Anathema.  Ma  ran  atha." 
The  older  generations  anathematized  with  the  In- 
eflable  Name,  and  therefore  the  curse  was  elTcctive: 
but  later  generations  have  forgotten  the  name,  and 
the  Anathema  is  of  no  effect  (according  to  "Sefcr 
I.Iasidim,"S;  f.>!)l).  K. 

ANATHOTH:  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Ben- 
jamin ill  Palestine,  included  among  the  original  Le- 
vitieal  cities  (.losli.  .\\i.  IS  ;  compare  I  Chron.  vi.  00). 
It  has  been  identified  by  Hobiiison  with  the  modern 
village  'Anata.  about  two  and  one-half  miles  north- 
east of  .Jerusalem.  It  was  the  liome  of  Abiathar 
(I  Kings,  ii.  20)  and  of  .leremiali.  the  proi)het  (.ler. 
J.  1).  It  was  also  i>robably  one  of  the  towns  occu- 
pied by  the  exiles  who  nlurned  from  captivity.  Its 
importance  was  due  largely  to  its  su|)eiior  command- 
ing elevated  location.     Se(!  An.vtii.  I.  51.  P. 


southern  French  extraction,   though  the  theory  of 
Sleinselineider.  following  Zun/.  that  Marseilles  was 
his  native  place,  has  been  contested.     Anatolio's  lit- 
erary activity  was  early  stimulated  by  his  learned 
as.soeiates  and  relations  at  Narbonne  and  Beziers.    In 
fact,  he  distinguished  himself  so  no- 
Invited  to    tably  that    the  emperor  Frederick  II., 
Naples        the  most  genial  and  enlightened  mon- 
by    Freder-  arch  of  the  time,  invited  him  to  come  to 
ick  II.        Naples,  and,  under  the  emperor's  aus- 
pices, to  devote  himself  to  his  studies, 
particularly  to  the  rendition  of  scientific  Arabic  lit- 
erature into  the  more  acci'ssilile  Hebrew  language. 
Thus  it  was  at  Xai)les  that  Anatolio  passed  his  most 
fertile  period  of  literary  iiroduction,  and  from  that 
city  were  issued  the  nunieroiis  translations  bearing 
his  name, 

Anatolio  was  the  son-in-law — ])ossibly  also  the 
brother-in-law — of  Samuel  ilm  Tibbon.  the  well- 
known  translator  of  .Miiiinonide.s.  Moses  b.  Samuel 
ibn  Tibbm  fre(|uently  refers  to  Anatolio  as  his  un- 
cle, which  makes  it  likely  that  Samuel  married 
Anatolio's  sister,  while  Anatolio  afterward  married 
the  dauirliterof  the  former.     Owing  to  this  intimate 


663 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anathoth 
Anatolio 


connection  with  the  Ibu  Tibbons,  Anatolio  was  intro- 
duced to  the  iihiloso|)hy  of  -Mainionides.  the  study 
of  whieli  was  such  a  frnat  revelation  to  him  that  he, 
in  after  days,  referred  to  it  as  the  beiriiiiiinir  of  his 
intelligent  and  true  coinpreheiision  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, while  he  frequently  alluded  to  ]l)n  Tilihon  as 
one  of  the  two  masters  who  had  instriieled  and  in- 
spired him.  His  esteem  for  .Mainionides  knew  no 
lK)Unds:  he  placed  him  ne.\t  to  the  Prophets,  and 
with  -Maimonides'  critics  and  ilelnictors  he  exhibited 
little  patieme.  He  accordingly  interprets  the  Hible 
and  the  Ha.iigadah  in  a  truly  Mainionistic  siiirit,  ra- 
tionalizing the  nnraclesand  investing  every  possible 
l)as:iage  in  the  ancient  literature  with  ])bilosoi)hic 
and  alleiroric  significance.  As  an  allcgorist  who 
{■ould  read  into  the  ancient  documents  the  particular 
I)hilosopliical  idiosyncrasies  of  his  day,  Anatolio  ile- 
ser\es  a  i>lace  beside  other  allegoric  and  ]ihilosoph- 
ical  commentators,  from  Philo  down ;  indeed,  he  may 
be  regarded  as  a  iiionecr  in  the  application  of  the 
Maimonistic  manner  to  purposes  of  popidar  instruc- 
tion. This  work  he  began  while  still  in  his  native 
land,  on  occasions  of  private  and  jiublic  festivities, 
such  as  weddings  and  other  assemblies.  Afterward 
he  delivered  Sabbath-afterno<iii  sermons,  in  which 

he  advocated  tin-  allegoric  and  philo- 

Opposed  by  sophic  method  of  .Scriptural  exegesis. 

Anti-Mai-    This    evokecl   the   o]i|)osition   of   the 

monists.       antiMaimonisis.  whose  niunber  was 

large  in  scnilhern  France;  and  jiroba- 
bly  Anatolio's  departure  for  Sicily  was  hastened  by 
the  antagonism  he  encountered.  Hut  even  at  Na- 
ples Anatolio's  views  aroused  the  fipjiosilion  of  his 
Orthodox  coreli,i;ionists.  This  treatment,  together 
with  several  other  unpleasant  exi>eriences  at  the 
royal  court,  seems  to  have  caused  liim  to  entertain 
thoughts  of  suicide.  H<-  soon,  however,  recovered 
and  wrote,  for  the  benetit  of  his  two  sons,  his  "Mal- 
mad  ha-Talmidim."  a  name  which,  involving  a  play 
on  words,  was  intended  to  be  both  a  "Teacher  of  the 
Disciples  "  and  a  "(Joad  to  the  Students." 

The  ".Malniad."  which  was  (iimpleted  when  its 
author  was  tiftv-live  years  old.  but  was  first  pub- 
lished by  the  ^lekize  Nirdamim  Society  at  Lyck 
in  the  year  lHO(i.  is  reallv  nothing  but  a  volume  of 
sermons,  by  which  the  author  intended  to  stinudate 
study  and  to  dispel  intellectual  blindness.  As  a 
curious  specimen  of  his  method,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  he  regards  the  three  stories  of  Noah's  ark  as 
symbolic  of  the  thrc-e  sciences  mathematics,  physics, 
ami  metaphysics.  As  such,  the  work  is  of  some  im 
portancc  in  the  history  of  Jewish  cidture.  Anatolio's 
ethiial  adinoidtions  anil  spiritual  meditations  havi' 
value  as  portraying  both  the  circumstances  of  the 
age  and  thecharacterirf  the  reforms  aimed  at  by  him. 
Anatolio  is  ipiite  plain  spoken  in  the  manner  in 
which  he  states  and  defends  his  views,  as  well  as  in 
liis  criticisms  of  contemporary  failings.  For  in- 
alanee,  he  d<H'S  not  hesitate'  to  reproach  the  nibbis 
of  his  day  for  their  giiienil  neglect  not  only  of  the 

thorough  study,  but  even  of  the  ohli- 
Moral  .i:atorv  perusal,  of  the  liible.  charging 
Fervor.       them  with  a  preference  for  Talinudic 

dialectics.  He,  likewise,  deplores  the 
contemponiry  dei;enerai'v  in  the  home  life  and  the 
religious  practises  of  his  people,  a  circumstance 
which  he  Ihiidvs  due  largely  to  the  imitation  of 
surrounding  nuumers.  Scientific  investigation  he 
insists  upiin  us  an  absolute  ne<cssity  for  the  Inn' 
roiaprehension  of  leliirion.  despite  I  hi'  fact  that  his 
contemporaries  regarded  all  the  hours  wlii<h  he  was 
aieuslomed  to  spend  with  his  father  in  law.  Samuel 
ibn  Tibbon.  in  malliiinatical  and  philosophic  study 
as  nii-ie  waste  of  time. 


The  "Malmad  "  is  divided  into  brief  chapters,  ac- 
cording to  the  weekly  Scriptural  portions.  In  it 
Anatolio  manifests  a  wide  aciiuaiutance  not  only 
with  the  classic  Jewish  e.xcgetes.  but  also  with 
Plato,  Aristotle,  Averroes.  and  the  Vulgate,  as  well 
as  with  a  large  number  of  Chri.stian  in- 
The  stitutions,  some  ot  which  he  ventures 

"Malmad."  to  criticize,  such  as  celibacy  and  mo- 
nastic castigation,  as  well  as  certain 
heretics  (compare  lUii,  ilXn,  ll.w);  and  lie  repeatedly 
appeals  to  his  readers  fora  broader  cultivation  of  the 
classic  languages  and  the  ])rofane  branches  of  learn- 
ing, lie  indignantly  repudiates  the  fanatical  view 
of  somecoreli.gionistslhatall  non-Jews  have  no  souls 
— a  belief  reciprocated  by  the  Gentiles  of  the  time. 
To  Anatolio  all  men  are,  in  truth,  formed  in  the 
image  of  God.  though  the  Jews  stand  under  a  par- 
ticular oliligation  to  further  the  true  cognition  of 
God  simply  by  reason  of  their  election — "the  Greeks 
had  chosen  wisdom  as  their  pursuit;  the  Romans, 
power;  and  the  Jews,  religiousness"  (/.c.  1()3A).  If, 
however,  a  non-Jew  devotes  himself  to  serious  search 
after  divine  truth,  his  merit  is  so  much  the  more  sig- 
nal; and  whatever  suggestion  he  may  have  to  oiler, 
no  Jew  dares  refuse  with  levity. 

An  example  of  such  intellectual  catholicity  was 
.set  by  Anatolio  himself;  for.  in  the  course  of  his 
"Malmad."  he  not  only  cites  incidentally  allegoric 
suggestions  made  to  him  by  Frederick  II.,  but  sev- 
eral times — Gi'idemann  has  counted  .seventeen — he 
offers  the  excgetic  remarks  of  a  certain  Christian  sa- 
vantof  whose  association  he  s|ieaksinost  reverently, 
and  whom,  furthermore,  he  names  as 

Anatolio  his  second  master  besides  Samuel  ibn 
and  Michael  Tibbou.  This  Christian  savant  was 
Scot.  identitied  by  Senior  Sachs  as  Michael 

Scot,  who,  like  Anatolio,  devoted  him- 
self to  scientific  work  at  the  court  of  Frederick. 
(Jraetz  even  goes  to  the  length  of  re.garding  Anato- 
lio as  identical  with  the  Jew  .Viidrcas.  who.  according 
to  Roger  Haeon.  assisted  >Iiehael  Scot  iu  his  philo- 
sophi('  translations  from  the  Arabic,  seeing  that 
Andreas  might  be  a  corruption  of  Anatolio.  But 
Steinschneider  wi'A  not  admit  the  possibility  of  this 
conjecture,  while  Renan  scarcely  strengthens  it  by 
regarding  "Andreas"  as  a  po.ssible  northern  corrup- 
tion of  "  Kn  Diiran."  which,  he  says,  may  have 
been  the  Provencal  surname  of  Anatolio.  since  Ana- 
tolio. in  reality,  was  but  the  name  of  his  great- 
grandfather. 

Anatolio's  example  of  broad-minded  study  of 
Christian  literature  and  intercourse  with  Christian 
scholars  fouml  many  fidlowers,  as.  for  example, 
Jloses  ben  Solomon  of  Salerno;  and  his  work  was 
an  important  factor  in  bringing  the  Jews  of 
Italy  into  close  contact  with  their  Christian  fellow 
students. 

The  "  Malmad."  owing  to  its  deep  ethical  vein,  be- 
came, despite  its  Maimonistic  heresies,  a  very  pop- 
idar book.  It  is  rather  as  a  translator 
Anatolio  that  Anatolio  deserves  a  distin,!:uished 
a  Tranala-  pla<e  in  the  scientific  realm;  for  it  is 
tor.  lie  and    Michael  Scot    who  together, 

under  the  inlluence  of  Frederick  II., 
opened  to  the  western  world  the  treasure-house  of 
Andiic  learning,  .\natidio,  in  fact,  was  the  first 
man  to  lianslale  the  commentaries  of  .VvernHS  into 
Hebrew,  thus  opening  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
.\ristolelian  philosophy.  Prior  to  translating  .Vver- 
roes'  commentaries.  Anatolio  had  occupieil  himself 
with  the  translation  of  astronomical  treatises  liy  the 
same  writer  and  others;  but  at  the  instance  of 
friends  In-  turned  his  attention  to  logic  and  the 
speculative  works,  nalizing  and  reccuitmcnding  tlio 


Anatolio 
Anatomy 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


564 


iiiiportniu-o  of  liifric.  in  piirlicular.  in  view  of  tlic 
coiitempiirary  religious  coiilrovtrsii'S.  Tlionccfortli, 
liis  profrnim "was  twofold,  as  In-  devoted  liiniself  to 
liis  work  in  astronomy  in  the  mornings,  and  to  logic 
in  the  eveninjis- 

His  principal  translation  embraced  the  first  five 
books  of  Avcrroes'  "intermediate"  cotiitiientary  on 
Aristotle's  Logic,  consisting  of  the  IntiodiKiion  of 
Porphyry  and  the  four  books  of  Aristotle  on  the 
Categories,  Interpretation,  fSyllogism.  and  Demon- 
stration. Anatolio  probably  commenced  his  work 
on  the  cnnnneiitary  while  in  Provence,  though  he 
must  have  tinished "the  lifth  book  at  Naples  about 
1231  or  1232.  The  conclusion  of  the  comnieiilary 
was  never  reached.  Upon  the  ending  of  the  tirsi 
division  he  desired  to  go  over  the  ground  again, 
to  acipiire  greater  |>rolicifncy,  and.  for  some  tea 
son  unknown,  he  never  resumed  his  task,  which 
was  completed  by  another  after  a  lapse  of  eighty 
years. 

Besides  this,  Anatolio  translated,  between  the 
years  1231  and  Vi'A't.  the  following  works:  (1)  The 
"Almagest  of  Ptolemy,"  from  the  Araliic,  though 
probably  the  Greek  or  Lat in  tit  Ic  of  this  t real  ise  was 
also  faniiliarlohini.  Its  Hebrew  title  is"  Ilihbiir  lia- 
Gadol  ha-Nikra  al-Magesti  "  (The  Gn^at  Comiiosi- 
lion  Called  Almagest).''  (2)  A  "Compendium  of  As- 
tronomy," by  Avcrroes,  a  book  which  was  unknown 
to  the  Christians  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  of  which 
neither  a  manuscript  of  the  original  nor  a  Latin 
translation  has  come  down.  Its  Hebrew  title  is  "  Kiz 
zur  al-Magesti  "  (Compendium  of  the  Almagest).  (3) 
"The  Elements  of  Aslronoiuy,"  by  Al-Fargani 
(Alfraganus);  possibly  translated  from  a  Latin  ver- 
sion. It  was  allerward  rendered  into  Latin  by  Ja 
cob  Christmann  (Frankfort,  l.")'JO)  under  the  title  of 
"Elementa  Astronomica,"  which,  in  its  turn,  may 
have  given  rise  to  the  Hebrew  title  of  the  treatise 
"Yesodot  ha-Tekunah,"  which  is  tindotibtedly  rr- 
cent.  (4)  A  treatise  on  the  Syllogisni,  by  Al-Farabi, 
from  the  Arabic.  Its  Hebrew  title  is  "Sefer  Hekesh 
5azar"  (A  Brief  Treatise  on  tln>  t^yllogism). 

Graetz  also  suggests  the  possibility  of  Anatolio, 
in  conjunction  with'  ^liehael  Scot,  having  translat('d 
into  Latin  Jlaimonides'  "Guide  of  the  Perplexed"; 
but  this  suggestion  has  not  yet  been  sulliciently 
proved  (compare  Steinschneider,  "Hebr.  L'ebers."i. 
433).  Similarly,  the  anonymotis  commentary  on  the 
"Guide,"  called  "  Uuah  Hen,"  though  sometimes  at - 
tiibuted  to  Anatolio,  can  not  detinitely  bcestalilishcd 
as  his.  Still,  it  is  on  jin  alhision  in  this  work  that 
Zunz,  followed  by  Stein.selmeider,  partly  bases  the 
hypothesis  of  Marseilles  having  been" Anatolio's 
original  home  (compare  Zunz,  "Zur  Gesch."  p.  482; 
Reiian-Neubauer.  "  Les  lijibbins  Fran(,'ais,"  p.  588; 
Steinschneider.  "Cat.  Bodl."  col.  1180,  and  "Hebr. 
Bibl."  xvii.  124). 

BiBi.ioRRAPHV:  The  JIalmaiJ  ha-Talmitlim  yieldsa  (Treat  deal 
of  infomiiillon  ccmreniinp  tlie  life  ami  the  time  of  its  autlKir. 
Consult  partii-ularlv  the  prefare,  which  is  freely  ilniwn  up"ii 
in  this  arti<le.  Fiirther,  Alilia  Mart.  Miitlidl  Kiiiiuit,  jA-t- 
ter  tvs;  Aziilai,  Sdim  ha-(ieilnUm,  ii.  U9;  7Miy/.,  Xiir  (ieyili. 
umlLit.  Berlin,  lst.'>.  p.  4S2;  Senior  Sachs,  in  lln-Y'iiuili, 
18.51.  viil.  :)1.  note;  iNeiiballpr.  in  (;elKer's  Jlhl.  Ziitirhrill. 
X.  2i'>:  Biirt..I.ic<-i.  Ilihiinf  hi  III  .V.ii)iiri  Hiihliiiuiii.  I. -j.  iii. 
867;  I)e  Rossi.  Diziniiiirin  Stiniin.  (HTrnan  tniris..  p.  44;  (iriitz. 
Gcw/i.<(. ,/ie/rii,Sleil.,vii.i).i;  lienan-.Wiihaiier.  !,..•< /{<i)i(iiii.< 
Fraiit;aiii.  In  HMniri:  Littiniirc  iti  (<i  Fnimr,  x.\vil,  ,iSO-.'iS!l, 
and  L(-'  Ecrivains  Jiiifi  Friiiiiriix.  r(i.,  xxxi..  in(le.\  :  Gilde- 
inann,  Geficli.  (lea  Krjit (iioiiMcici  ii»  iinil  tirr  Ciiltur  ilrr 
AheiicUamlisclKn  Juilin,  ii.  Ittl,  2;iii  ct  so;.:  Vogelstein  and 
Hiegfr.Genrh.d.Juilrn  ill  Itiim.i.  '■W:  Perles,  R.  Salnmn 
h.  Aliraham  li.  Atlcreth.  pp.  ti8  it  sn/.;  Berliner.  Pctv/inUchc 
Bfzii  hnitfji  n  zwiHctn^n  JitiJcn  iiiul  Christnt^  p.  Id;  Stein- 
sollncidir.  llrlir.  Ililil.  vil.  twl,  xvii.  124 ;  OtI.  BmU.  col.  ll.so 
Ct'iij.:  nil  Hilir.  IVdrrs.  <(«'.s  .VitN7'l»(  in,  pp.  47.  .il.  .V*.  .W!, 
547,  .>V),  and  ifor  a  complete  hibliogniiibv  of  the  siihjecti  SHKI. 

H.  G.  E. 


ANATOMY:  The  science  dealing  with  the  strnc- 
tunoi  HI  L:aiiisms,  especially  that  <if  the  luiman  body. 
The  information  given  in  the  Bible  concerning  the 
parts  of  the  human  body  is  merely  popular  in  char- 
acter. Thus  a  point  of  human  Anatomy  seems  to  be 
given  in  the  narrative  of  Jacob  wrestling  with  the 
angel.  There  it  is  said  that  theang<l  touched  .lacob's 
TT  5)3  (hollow  of  the  thigh  ).  and  put  it  out  of  joint. 
.  .  .  Therefore  the  children  of  Israel 

Earliest  eat  not  of  nt'jn  TJ  ("the  sinew  that 
Mention  in  shrank")  (Gen.  .\.\.\ii.  2.V33).  The 
Bible.  Hebrew  word  r/iil,  which  is  tnmslati'd 
in  the  A.V.  "sinew."  meansalso  nerve. 
The  circumstances  clearly  indicate  the  sinew  of  the 
nervus  ischiadieus.  the  nerve  extending  through  the 
thigh  and  leg  to  the  ankle. 

Several  members  of  the  human  body  and  of  ani- 
mals are  meiition<(l  in  Ex.  xxviii.,  xxix.;  for  exam- 
ple: 3^  (heart),  nSO  (brow).  t|n3  (shotilder),  ntn 
(breast).  |tN  "jUn  (lobe  of  the  ear).  T  (liandl.  V3VX 
(finger),  and  jn3  (thumb).  In  Ex.  xxix.  17  the  He- 
brew term  for  dis.secting  is  for  the  first  time  men- 
tioned: "And  thou  shall  cut  [dissect]  the  ram  into 
sections."  The  word  is  nnj.  from  which  is  derived 
the  modern  Hebrew  name  for  the  science  of  Anatomy 
(mn'jn  n03ni-  some  of  the  visceral  portions  of  the 
sacrifices  are  also  given,  such  as  3ip  (inwards),  miT 

(caul),  133  (liver),  3^n  (fat).  nvi?3  (kidneys).  piC 
(shoulder)  and  1iy  (skin)  also  occur. 

A  eonsidenilile  luimher  of  jiarts  of  beasts  and  of 
birds  are  named  in  Liv.  i.  There  the  priests  are 
commanded  to  cut  uj)  the  sjicriflces;  to  "flay  the 
burnt  otfering  and  cut  it  in  pieces  .  .  .  the  head  and 
the  fat "  ( the  word  -ng  means  the  fat  that  covers  the 
intestines  under  the  omentum).     Hut  if  the  sjicrifice 

is  a  bird  the  priest  is  in  pinch  olT(p^DI)  the  neck,  and 
remove  its  crop  (nS"l!3)  with  its  feathers(Lev,  i,  14- 
1();  V.  8).  These  anatomical  parts,  however,  are  only 
of  the  main  organs,  or  those  |)ortions  that  the  |iriest 
in  sacrificing  would  naturally  notice.  There  is  no 
allusion  to  arteries,  veins,  or  nerves. 

"  The  apple  of  the  eye"  (iris)  is  mentioned  in  Dcut. 
xxxii.  10.  Lids,  nilbc  (keepers  or  preservers  of 
the  eye),  are  erroneously  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  (P.s. 
Ixx  vii.  ."i). "  Thou  holdestmine  eyes  waking. "  D'SVSV 
(eyelids)  occurs  in  Jer.  ix.  IT.  rl  jinxiim. 

The  laconic  ilesiriptinn  of  Job,  X.  i)-ll  points  to  a 
tuerely  rudimentary  knowledge  of  embryology  and 
the  components  of  tlie  human  body.  "  Kemember, 
I  beseech  thee,  that  thou  hast  made  lue  as  the  clay. 
.  .  .  Hast  thou  not  poured  me  out  as  milk,  and 
curilled  me  like  cheese?  Thou  hast  clothed  me  with 
skin  and  tlesh,  anil  hast  fenced  me  [H.  V.,"aud  knit 
me  together"]  with  bones  and  sinews  [D'TJ]." 

The  allegorical  pieluriug  of  the  human  body  in 
decrepit  old  age  as  desiribed  in  Keel,  xii.  2-6  alludes 
only  to  the  out  ward  members  of  man.  However,  the 
alU'gorical  name  nuniD  (grinders r=  luolars)  for  D'JC 
(teeth)  seems  to  indicate  that  the  writer  possessed 
some  knowledge  of  the  classification  and  function  of 
the  various  teeth.  In  the  poetical  description  of  the 
respective  forms  of  the  lovers  in  the  Song  of  Solomon 
a  few  more  names  of  organs  of  the  human  body  oc- 
cur, which  are  also  referred  to  in  other  |)oeticaI  or 
jirophefic  books  of  the  Bible;  for  example,  ■]n  (pal- 
ate) and  npn  (temple)  (Cant.  ii.  3,  vi.  7). 

After  Ezra's  time  the  Hebrew  sages 
In  took  a  step  forward  in  the  field  of  Anat- 

Talmudic   omy.     The  Greco-Egyptian  .school  at 
Times.      Alexandria,  under theauspices of  Ptol- 
emv    I.   and    his  successor.   Ptolemy 
Philadeliihus.  greatly  influenced  the  Hebrew  acad- 
emies, and  the'  medical   knowledge  of   the  Greeks 


565 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anatolio 
Anatomy 


L'Tiulually  bfcame  the  propiity  of  the  Jewisli  phy- 
sicians. The  latter,  juilgiiig  fioiii  the  discussions  in 
various  treatises,  were  well  aei|uainte(l  with  most 
of  the  parts  of  the  human  body  and  even  jiractised 

np'^C — 'hat  is.  dis.seetion  of  the  same. 

The  rahliis  declared  that  there  were  248  members 
(bones)  in  the  human  bo(ly ;  namely,  40  in  the  tar.sal 
rejriou  and  the  foot  (;i(J+"lO  =  40):'  2  in  the  lejj;  (the 
tibia  and  libula);  ti  in  tlie  knee  (inelu<lini:  the  head  of 
llie  f<'mur.  ami  the  epiphyses  of  the  tibia  and  libula) ; 
:i  in  the  pelvis  (ilium,  ischium,  and  ]iidies);  11  ribs 
(the  lw<lfili  rib.  owing  to  its  diminutive  si/e,  was 
not  eounled);  ;i()  in  the  liand  (the  carpall)onesand  tlie 
phalanges):  2  in  the  forearm  (radius  and  ulna):  2  at 
the  elbow  (the  olecrauou  and  the  head  of  the  radius);  1 
in  I  he  arm  (humerus);  4  in  the  shoulder  (clavicle,  scaji- 
ula,  eoracoid  jjrocess,  and  acromion) — wliich  makes 
mi  for  each  side  of  the  liody,  or  2ll2  for  both— IS 
Vertebra':  9  in  the  head  (cniiiiiun  and  face).  S  in  the 
neck  (T  vertebral  and  the  os  liyoides),  ')  around  the 
(■jienings  [sic]  of  the  body  (cartilaginous  bones),  and 
(■)  in  the  key  of  the  heart  (the  sternum)  (Oh.  i.  8). 
Hergel  ("Stiidien."  p.  7)  lias  shown,  however,  that 
the  true  ninnber  would  be  208.  But  the  fact  that  the 
rabbis  liail  a<lvance<l  far  enough  to  enumerate 
till'  bones  at  all  shows  a  certain  aciiuaiutaucc  with 
osti'ology. 

An  inciih'Ut  is  related  which  shows  that  tlic  disci- 
pies  of  1!.  Ishmael  engaged  in  jiraetical  Anatomy: 

■■  The  di.sciples  of  Hablii  Ishmael  once  dis.sected  the 
corpse  of  a  harlot  who  had  been  eondenmed  by  the 
king  to  l)e  burned.  On  close  examination  they  dis- 
covered that  the  body  had  2-V2  members  instead  of 
•-4S.  ISabbi  Ishmael  explained  the  di.screi>ancy.  and 
supported  his  reasonings  with  citations  from  i^eri])- 
ture.  In  Jiddition  to  the  ordinary  number  of  248 
members  found  in  the  male  liody,  that  of  the  female 
has  "two  hinges  an<l  two  doors,"  making  four  more 
parts  (Bek.  45"  )■ 

However  near  the  truth  the  Jewish  sages  were  in 
thiirspeeilieationof  the  human  bones,  they  were  nev- 
ertheless in  the  dark  in  matters  concerning  lyniphan- 
^'ciology.  splanchnology,  etc.  For  insiance.  under 
the  name  of  D"T3  they  often  include<I  sinews,  nerves, 
and  even  blood-vessels.  Further,  their 
Limitations  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  the 
of  Knowl-  urinary  and  generative  organs  was  c.x- 
edge.  ceedingly  faulty.  They  were,  how- 
ever, acquainted  with  the  science  of 
-Vnatoniy  as  it  was  tauirht  in  those  davs.  Many  trea- 
tises— especially  Hullin.  Bekorot.  Ohoiot.  an<l  Niddah 
—contain  iliscussions  upon  the  Anatomy  and  physi- 
ology of  man  and  beast.  The  theories  of  the  .sages 
in  matters  of  gynecology  are  interesting:  even  fads 
concerning  the  XvC  (placenta)  and  DX  (matri.x)  are 
discussed.  The  njp  (trachea),  and  CL"1  (esophagus) 
are  often  miiitioneil.  as  well  as  the  nX'1  (lungs), 
ni:iaDD  (bronchi),  mO  (gall).  mO  Sl"  nnp  (cover- 
ing of  the  bniin:  meninges),  rmj,"  (spinal  cord), 
^inc  (spleen),  and  many  other  internal  i)arts.  See 
I.ewysohn,  "Zoologie  des  Talmud,"  pp.  |M-5."). 

The  numerous  discussions  in  connection  with  sac- 
ritiiial  precepts,  uiuleanliness,  and  purilicalion.  re- 
corded in  .several  treatises,  deinonstmte  that  the  Tal- 
iMUilieal  sages  Were  not  behind  theficntile  physicians 
in  the  lield  of  medical  science. 

From  llie  time  when  the  Talmud  was  complete<I 
until  after  the  death  of  .Mohammed,  little  or  no  prog- 
rivs  was  maile  by  the  Jews  in  the  various  sciences. 
Hut  with  Iheailvenl  of  the  califati\  art  and  science 
nviviil  and  in  w  sealsof  learning  were  opened.  The 
studeiitsdf  the  Ji'wisli  academii'S  joinni  the  Arabian 
and  Moorish  .schools.    The  works  of  Hippocniles,  Ua- 


len,  and  others  were  translated  into  Arabic,  and  not 
a  few  into  Hebrew. 

From  these  schools  proceeded  a  large  number  of 
Hebrew  savants  who  became  distinguished  in  letters, 
philosophy,  and  science;  but  very  little  is  known  of 
their  labors  in  Anatomy,  possibly  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  Arabs  themselves  had  objections  to  Anat- 
omy (Hiiiiilioldt."  Cosmos,  "ii.  2')4).  There  must  have 
been  some  experts  in  that  branch  of  medical  science; 
for  the  names  of  several  skilled  Jewish  surgeons  have 
been  recorded,  as.  for  instance,  Samuel  ibn  W'akkar. 

The  foremost  of  all  the  Jiidao-Arabian  surgeons  of 

that  [leriod  (900)  was  Isaac  Israeli  of  Kairwan.     He 

was  court  physician  to  Abu  Moham- 

Israell       med  al  Malidi;  yet  among  his  works, 

and  Mai-     which  have  been  translated  from  the 

monides.      .Vrabic  into  Latin  (published  in  Lej'- 

den.l.'il.")),  there  is  not  a  single  treatise 

on  Anatomy  and  only  a  few  references  to  it. 

The  most  emiiii-nt  of  all  Jewish  philosophers  and 
plij'sicians  was  Moses  b.  !Maiinon  (.Maimonides.  1135- 
1204).  But  even  he.  notwithstanding  his  many  works, 
only  touched  on  Anatomy,  merely  translating  a  few 
extracts  from  Galen,  whom  he  considers  his  great  au- 
thoritv  (see  Preface  to  Maimonides'  "  Pirke  Mosheli  " 
or  "Sefcr  ba-Hefuot,"  ed.  AVilna.  1888,  p.  v.): 

"  TlH'st'  <-l(a)iiri-s  wiiii-t)  I  tiave  cnniposeii  I  do  not  altribiite  to 
myself,  but  I  liavwsflccU'il  anil  r<.||i'<-ttMi  iheni  frem  the  \vi  irks  of 
(ialeii,  ami  from  liis  sji\  in^rs  n'm-crniiit'  the  wriiinesof  Hipi>uc- 
nites.  I  have  iRtt  qiuited  him  verbatim,  lis  I  have  ditne  in  my 
I>n'Vious  epuscula,  Itavlii^  taliea  speciaj  care  l<)  elucidate  thtise 
ot)seure  passutfes  in  (ialen,  where.  In  his  attempt  to  e\|i|ain  tile 
theiirlesi>t  HIpjxM  rates,  the  tatter's  words  seem  to  be  coiilounded 
Willi  hisiiWB." 

That  M.iimonides  studied  Anatomy  and  was  an  e.v- 
]UMl  in  it,  is  evident  from  his  own  words.  In  speak- 
ing of  the  nerves,  etc.,  he  says: 

"Those  that  are  not  acquaiiitait  with  Anatomy  think  that 
iierve,s.  arteries,  ete.,  are  the  same;  and  were  It  not  for  the 
stuily  "f  .Viiainmy  in  which  we  were  busily  engaged,  we  also 
shoukl  net  know  the  Ulllerence." 

In  the  folk-medicine  of  the  .Tows  there  was  a  rough 
enumeialion  of  twelve  members  or  parts  of  the  body, 
with  which  were  a.ssociated  certain  qualities  of  the 
mind  or  character,  anger  with  the  liver,  hearing  with 
the  left  nerve,  and  the  like.  These  are  found  enu- 
meraled  in  the  "Sefer  "i'e/.inih,"  and  led  in  later 
cabalistic  writings  to  the  jiictorial  conception  of 
Adam  Kadmou  (see  Zuuz,  "Literaturgeschichte," 
p.  009).  ' 

The  only  other  striking  .statement  worthy  of  no- 
tices concerning  the  old  jewi.sh  .system  of  Anatomy 
is  that  in  the  Zohar(cxxxvii.  33).  The  author  (sup- 
posed to  be  -Moses  de  Leon,  about  the  end  of  the 
thirl eenlh  century)  says: 

"  Then-  an-  UMS  memlMTs  [t"'>3't*l  In  the  human  body,  corre- 
siKiiKlliiir  to  the  LM.s  |iniepi.<  of  the  law, anil  to  the  24N  anirels 
liivf.stiiiir  tile  SlK*klnal).  whose  names  an-  tin*  sjime  as  ttielr  mai- 
ler's. .\inl  there  are  alw>  in  the  human  lM»ily  '.ii't  sinews  [1^"^*^; 
under  which  vayue  term  are  iiicliidi-d,  its  stated  alnive.  ar- 
teries, nerves,  etc.],  corn-sindullnjr  to  the  :ttl.'»  neiiallve  laws,  and 
repivsi-ntinK  the  ;til.'i  days  of  the  year.  Thes4' an- iroveriutl  by 
:iiL>  aiiK^els,  one  of  whom  is  Siimael  liiiiiM'If.  who  n-pn-.v-nts  the 
ninth  day  of  llie  iiioiiih  I'f  .\b  |ihe  fast  commemonuini;  the  ile- 
structloii  of  Jerusalem  by  tin' Itomans].  The  n'iis«iii  why  the 
sliiew  of  the  ihlifli  ueni"  I ^•'i''  ""MJ  wu.s  forbidden  was  becaiiiM- 
It  renn-seiits  Sainael  (Sauinl.  who  b  one  of  the  3i&  augeb  whose 
day  Is  the  .Miilli  of  .VI)." 

Sevend  attiinpts  have  been  ma<le  by  niiMliTn  He- 
brew writers  lo  reconcile  the  "248  members"  theory 
of  the  ancients  with  iiKKlern  science.  The  most  re- 
cent ari'  "Ma.sekel  Xiltual.i."  by  Schereschewski, 
and  "HcMaH  Kbarim  "  (the  248  iiiembers),  by  Kulz- 
uellsoti. 

Iluii.icnin.vpiiv:  Itenn't.  Mnlirin  ilrr  Tnhnuilixlrn,  IS-Vi;  Idem, 
SUiilitii  I)/m  f  (lir  yiitiiririivi-u/tcli(lftUch)-n  Krntttnittur  tier 
7'>i'iiMi<lij<(iii,|ip.il  Ui.liiiiloiiiu  I.  Lelialr.  ISM;  .Maimonides. 


Anav 
Ana\7 


TUK  JEWISH   ENCYCLdl'KIilA 


566 


PIrhe  Mmhrh.  Wllna,  li«W ;  Mflnz.  MnimiinUlrii  alu  .Vrrficiii- 
wli'e  Atitiirililt.  Ucrliii,  If.i'i:  lili'ni,  J'l'xi'  I'lV  JItiliwIicn 
Afrzte  I'm  Mitlclnlln:  llcrlln.  l.ssT ;  iJinUim.  tirwli.  iler 
JIUIiKchiii  Atrzlr.  ItiTllii,  IX'X):  KnhlilnowUz,  Ln  Miilicliic, 
ilu  TlialiiiU'l.  Paris.  l.S"*(i;  Rnsi-nzwolK,  Dax  Auw-  i»  Biliel 
UDtl  Tnlmwl.  |i|i.  11.  1-".  Berlin,  IS'Ji;  Mien'schewskl. -Ud- 
nc/tcf  A'iHiKi/j.  l.vi;  SU'lnsohiu'kler,  7J< /ir.  (V/xix  II.:  Hynl, 
Daa  HebrUiische  mid  Arabigchc  in  ilcr  Anatnmic,  1870. 

S.  A.  B. 

ANAV,  SALVATORE.     Sie  M.\rri. 

ANAVIM,  THE  :  Thu  uaine  nf  a  sect  or  party. 
8(1-  IIasidi.m. 

ANAWdJJJ  =  moflcst,  meek;  rendered  in  Italian: 
<lij;li  Miiiisi,  Piatelli.  Pietosi.  Uinani):  The  nameofa 
Jewish  fiiniily  that  settled  in  Italy,  and  which  was 
(irlijinally  resident  at  Home.  Aeeordini;  to  a  taniily 
tradition,  it  was  one  of  the  four  prominent  Jewish 
families  deported  by  Titus  to  Home  upou  the  de- 
struction of  tlie  Temple  of  Jerusalem. 

Traces  of  this  family,  wliieh  is  still  a  flourishing 
one,  may  be  found  as  far  back  iis  the  middle  of  the 
tenth  century:  and  between  the  eleventh  and  the 
fourteenth  centuries  some  of  its  members  were  par- 
ticularly iirominent.  One  branch  of  the  Anaws  was 
the  family  of  Bethel  or  T)e  Syna.sroga  (pX  n'3  or  p 
riDJDn).  prominent  in  Home  and  its  vicinity  durin.LC 
the  fourteenth  century.  They  derived  their  name 
probably  from  Casadio  ( =  Ilcnise  of  God),  their  place 
of  origin.  By  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century 
tins  name  hatl  almost  disjippeared,  and  became  in- 
corporated anew  with  that  of  Anaw.  The  Bozecco 
family  seems  to  have  been  an  otTshoot  of  the  Bethel 
family.  The  following  table  gives  the  two  im|)ortant 
branches  of  the  Anaws,  and  enumerates  those  among 
them  who  attained  any  importance.  For  fuller  de- 
tails see  Vogelstein  and  Kieger,  "Gesch.  d.  Juden  in 
Kom,"  i.  4o6.  See  also  Bozecci  and  Betiielides  in 
this  Encyclopedia. 

Genealogical  Tuees  ok  the  Anaw  Family. 
I. 

Joab 

I 
Abraham  (1) 


Jehlel  (2)- 


Danlel  (3) 


Daniel  (4) 


Jehlel   Ben-  Shabbethai 
Jamin 


I  I 

Nathan  (S)    Abraham  (9) 

I  I 

I  I  Solomon  (10) 

Joab  (U) 


Daniel  (5) 

I 
Jehlel  (6) 

I 

Daniel  of  Mon- 

talcino  ("; 


Benjamin  (12) 


Solomon 

(13) 

I 


Shabbethai 

I 

1 

Matlatbiah    Joab 
(16) 


Sbabb«tbal  (14) 


Benjamin    Shabbethai     Abra- 
(17;  ham 

I  (IH) 


Joab      DauRh-  Solo-  Paola 
(15)  ter      moil      (28) 

Joab 

Menahem  (18) 


II. 
Abraham " 

I 
Jehlel 

I 


Benjamin  Rofe  (21) 


Aliniham  Uofe  (22) 
I 


I    I    \    \     I    [  r" I     I 

Jeku-  Jiidnh  Zede-  Ahra-  Mena-  Jehlel  Ben-  Moses  Zede- 

iliiel     C2,'ij  klHh     ham    hem      j  jamin    (.32;    klub 

1                (28)    Jacob     (3!*)  (3U)               Cfl) 


Jehlel  (23) 


Menahem 
Ziinah  (27) 


I   I — 1  r~n 

Solo- Moses    Ju- Solo- Jehlel  ? 
nion    Rofe    dab  mon    (35) 
(2l»)     (31)  (34)      I 

?  (38) 


Jckii-  ■     J(tah  + 

thli'l 

(24) 

1.  Abraham  ben  Joab  Anaw :  ^lember  of  the 
Rabbinical  B.unl  in  Home.  1007. 

2.  Jehiel  Anaw:  Son  of  No.  1:  rabbi  and  prin- 
cipal (if  till-  Talmudic  lliirh  School  in  Rome;  died 
before  1070. 

3.  Daniel  Anaw:  Eldest  son  of  the  preceding; 
died  before  11(11,  lie  was  teacher  at  the  Kabbiidcal 
High  School,  was  in  friendly  intercourse  with  Chris- 
tian scholars,  iind  ajipears  to  have  written  acominen- 
tary  u]ion  the  Order  Zeraimof  the  Mishnah,  Together 
with  his  brothers,  he  issued  rabbinical  decisions. 

4.  Daniel  Anaw  :  Probably  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding. .\ccoiiling  to  Benjamin  of  Tudela.  he  was 
warden  of  the  Jewish  congregation  in  Home  together 
with  .lehicl  and  Joiib  (No.  11)  in  the  year  ll(!(i. 

5.  Daniel  Anaw  :  Piobably  grandson  of  the  last; 
Talinndisi  in  Konie^dioiit  Vi'iO.  His  teacher  was  Beji- 
jamin  b.  Moses:  and  Benjamin  b.  Alaidiam  was  his 
pupil. 

6.  Jehiel  Anaw  :  Son  of  No.  o;  scribe  in  Rome, 
12(!.-.. 

7.  Daniel  Anaw  :  .Son  of  No.  6;  synagogal  poet 
in  Montalciiio  ahmn  i:!i)(). 

8.  Nathan  Anaw:  Second  son  of  Jehiel  (No.  2): 
author  of  the  '.\nik. 

9.  Abraham  Anaw:  Third  son  of  Jehiel  (No. 
2):  teacher  at  the  Talmudic  High  School  in  Home; 
issued  rabbinical  decisions  conjointly  with  his  broth- 
ers, and  with  his  brother  Nathan  established  a  syna- 
gogue ill  Hoiiic.  1  ml. 

10.  Solomon  Anaw:  SonofNo.  9:  president  of 
the  Talmudic  High  School  and  of  the  Habl)inie;d 
Board  in  Home  aliout  1K!().  Some  of  his  rabbinical 
decisions  have  lieen  ]>reservcd. 

11.  Joab  Anaw:  Son  of  No.  10.  In  HOG.  to- 
gether with  Jehiel  and  Daniel  (No.  4),  he  was.  ac- 
cording to  Benjamin  of  Tudela.  warden  of  the  Jewish 
congregation.  He  was  the  friend  and  a  patron  of 
.\bialiiim  ilin  Ezra. 

12.  Benjamin  Anaw:  Son  of  No.ll ;  died  young, 
before  114.") ;  a  pupil  of  Ibn  Ezra  in  Rome.  To  him 
the  latter  dedicated  his  commentary  upon  the  Song  of 
Solonion  and  .lob. 

13.  Solomon  b.  Shabbethai  Anaw:  Great- 
grandson  of  Joab  (No.  11).  learned  Talimidist  in  the 
second  i|uarter  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  I  he 
first  Roman  Jew  of  the  thirteenth  century  who  ac- 
tively engaged  in  literary  work.  He  was  the  teacher 
of  Judah  b.  Benjamin  (No.  2.5)  and  of  Benjamin  b. 
Abraham  (No.  30).     He  wrote  a  commentary  upon 

•This  Abraham  Is  possibly  a  prand.vm  of  Nathan  b.  Jeblel's 
younpest  brother  Abraham,  so  that  these  two  tables  would  be 
rontinnous. 

+  Joab's  desrendants  are  a  hninrb  of  the  Bethelldes. 


567 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anav 
Ana\r 


Ahai's  ■'Sliciltot."  wliicli  w;is  ((vmplcU-d  by  .Tiidiili 
1).   Bc'iijaiiiiii   and  to  which  Ik-njainiu  b.  Abraham 

14.  Shabbethai  Anaw  :  Son  of  No.  13 ;  rabbi  in 
Home  toward  the  end  of  the  thirtecntli  centnry.  He 
delivt-rwl  ijliilosophical  Icttures.  and  was  the  intimiitu 
friend  of  Zeraliiali  1).  Isiiac  b.  Slitalticl  of  Barcelona, 
who  translated  philos(]|)hical  works  for  him  in  Home. 
In  tliedis])iile  between  Zerahiahand  llillel  b.  Samuel, 
lie  took  tlie  p.irt  of  the  former. 

15.  Joab  b.  Benjamin  Anaw:  Grandson  of 
Solomon  (No.  13),  jrrammaiian  and  Bible-e.\egcte 
in  Home.  He  was  active  in  IS.'^O.  and  is  mentioned, 
in  1304,  as  a  teacher.  Among  his  pupils  were  .leku- 
thiel  b,  .lehiel  Anaw  (No.  24)  and  lienjamin  b.  Judah 
IJoz<(co 

16.  Mattathiahb.  Shabbethai  Anaw:  Brother 
of  Snliimoii  I  .No.  i:ii,  Talmiidist  in  Home  al)out  1240. 

17.  Shabbethai  Anaw:  Son  of  No.  10,  father- 
in-law  (if  .b«di  I  No.  l.")L 

18.  Menahem  b.  Joab  b.  Solomon  b.  Shab- 
bethai Anaw:  (Jreal  irmnd^iMi  nf  ihe  pri'ceclinL'.  a 
scrilie  ill  loTMfZuiiz,"  (osUHiiielic  >chriflen,"iii.  Hi!)). 

19.  Abraham  b.  Joab  Anaw  :  Scribe  and  syna 
jroL'al  pnet  in  HuMie  in  the  seeund  half  of  tlie  thir- 
teenth ceMlury,  a  descendanl  of  .Jehiel  (No.  2). 

20.  Paola  Anaw  :  Uaughlerof  No.  19,  scribe  in 
Home,  128H-y2.  i^he  married  tirst  Solomon  I).  Closes 
de  l{os.si,  and  after  his  death,  about  12.S">,  Jehiel 
b.  Solomon.  There  were  three  sons  by  her  tirst  mar- 
ria!r<'.  Innnanuel,  Jekiithiel,  and  Solomon;  the  last, 
born  poslhumously,  died  hcfcjre  1330. 

21.  Benjamin  and  (22)  Abraham  Anaw: 
Sons  of  .lehiel ;  physicians  and  Talnuidisis  in  Home 
at  the  beginninir  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Abra- 
ham wasalso  ralihi  there.  See  also  ASAW,  Anit.\ll.\.\I 
i:.  Ji:iiiKi. 

23.  Jehiel  b.  Jekuthiel  Anaw:  Grandson  of 
Benjamin  (.\o.  21).  synagosral  pwt  and  scribe  in 
Home.  r>GO-Si):  author  of  a  book  on  morals,  entitled 
■■  .Maali.i  ha  .Middot  "  (K.xeellencies  of  Virtue). 

24.  Jekuthiel  Anaw:  Son  of  No.  23,  scribe  in 
IJome,  1-,'so,  Mnd  pupil  nf  .loali  li.  B<'njatnin  (No.  1.1). 

25.  Judah  Anaw:  Son  of  Benjamin  (No.  21). 

26.  Zedekiah  b.  Benjamin  Anaw:  Brother  of 
No.  2.''i,  learned  'I'almudisl  in  Home.  He  died  at  a 
very  old  age.  some  time  after  12.S0.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  .Meir  b.  .Moses  in  Home  and  of  Alii.irdor  Cohen 
in  Vienna.  He  was  probably  a  parli/.an  of  Abraham 
Abulatia. 

27.  Menahem  ^ema^  b.  Abraham  Jacob 
Anaw:  tirand-nn  of  lienjamin  (Nn.  21),  scribe  in 
Home  imhI  l-"ni-iati.  I:i22-2U. 

28.  Menahem  Anaw  (the  Pious):  Son  of 
Benjamin  (No.  21),  alioul  12!tO;  |ihysician  in  Home. 
He  occupied  himself  also  with  I'almudic  studies  anil 
gave  instruction. 

29.  Solomon  b.  Jehiel  Anaw:  Gmndson  of 
Alioiham  (No   22i.  ic.pyisi  in  Home,  12".l2-il7. 

30.  Benjamin  Anaw  :  See' .Vn.wv.  BKN.r.vMtx. 

31.  Moses  Kofe  Anaw:  Son  of  No.  30,  Jiliy- 
sii  Ian  .'Mid  'l.tlniuilist  in  Home.  I2!l2. 

32.  Moses  Anaw:  Sunuf  Abi-ahain(No.  22),  Tal- 
nuidist  and  syniigogal  poel  in  Home  in  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century. 

33.  Zedekiah  b.  Abraham  Anaw:  Sec  An.\w, 

Zt'.DI'.KI  VH    11     .\l'.l:  Ml  VM 

34.  Solomon  Anaw:  Smi  nf  No.  33,  scribe  in 
Home,  ij-i  i:;ir, 

35.  Jehiel  Anaw:   Brnllur  of  No,  S4.  12JI4. 

36.  Grandson  of  Zedekiah  Anaw  (No.  83): 
Name  nnknnwn:  wmie  a  halakie  work. 

(  Mher  miniliers  nf  the  fanulv  are: 

37.  Judah  Anaw  :  About"  1 14."). 


38.  Jehiel  b.  Solomon  Anaw :  Second  husband 

nf  I'aola  (.No,  2oi.  in  Hnme,  12XK. 

39.  Jehiel  b.  Joab  Anaw  :  Pupil  of  Shabbethai 
li.  .''^nlomnn  (Nn.   14  i,  in  Home. 

40.  Jehiel  b.  Nathan  Anaw:  12.M9  (sec  Stein- 
selmiiiler.  "  Kat;Uog  di  r  llibraisehen  Handschriften 
in  Berlin."  i.   11). 

41.  Abraham  b.  Solomon  Anaw  :  In  Sulmona. 
Mill. 

42.  Joshua  b.  Solomon  Anaw  :  Fifteenth  cen- 
tury (Sieinsrlineiiler.  ".liid.   I.ileralur,''  p.  443). 

43.  Abraham  Anaw:  Secretary  of  the  Jewish 
eommuiiily  in  Home.  14'.l!l. 

44.  Moses  b.  Samuel  Anaw  of  Rome  :  Scribe 
in  Riir.Lnn.  l-'io;!. 

45.  Abraham  b.  Jacob  Anaw  :  Halibi  in  Koine, 
i."i3(;. 

46.  Judah  b.  Shabbethai  Anaw:  Habbi  and 
secretary  of  the  congregation  in  Home.  I.'i3(l-.i4.  He 
took  part  in  the  rabbinical  conference  at  Fenara  in 
l.j.".4;  (lied  befnie  l.")74. 

47.  Isaac  Anaw  :  Son  of  No.  40,  rabbi  and  sec- 
retary of  tlir  congregation  in  Rome,  l.i3()-82. 

48.  Baruch  b.  Mordecai  Anaw  :  (n:iDt3>  "  Fat- 
tnre  del  (ilietto,"  or  "Sindaco."  Steward  of  the 
(.Jllettn,   ill   Home.   l.")liS. 

49.  Baruch  Anaw :  Member  of  the  governing 
board  of  the  Jewish  congregation  in  Rome,  1558 
(possibly  identical  with  the  jireceding). 

50.  $ayyun  Anaw:  .Aleinber  of  the  governing 
body  at   Hoiiir.  l.""!.")"^, 

51.  Rafael  b.  Isaac  Anaw:  In  Fermra  and 
Cremona.  >iMrintli  iiiitiu\\"  (see  Mortara.  "Indice"). 

52.  Isaiah  Anaw  :  Talmudist  in  Giinzburg, 
1()()S  (Q'-j  <3^2  fii  -J- 1. 

53.  Joab  (Dattilo)  b.  Baruch  Anaw:  Mem- 
ber of  •he  Haliliiiiical  I'.nard  in  Home  alioiit  ITdO. 

54.  Phinehas  ^Jai  b.  Menahem  Anaw:  Ital- 
ian author  of  the  eighteenth  century:  head  of  the 
Talmudie  college  at  Ferrara.  He  wrote  "Gibc'at 
Pihhas"  (Hill  of  Phinehas),  containing  responsji  on 
various  halakic  sidijects.  The  work,  consisting  of 
eight  volumes,  is  still  e.xtant  in  manuscript  in  the 
.VImunxi  collection. 

Bim.lOGR,»PliY:   Mertara.  Inilice  Alftihcticn,  s.v.;    Luz7.aito, 
Hthr.  mill.  Iv.  TA. 

I.  B. 

55.  Judah  b.  Mordecai  Anaw  :  1714  (Mortara, 
"  Indice."  p.  4!li. 

56.  Abraham  b.  Jacob  Anaw:  Rabbi  and 
]irimarv  icaclier  in  Hnme;  wrote  a  dnima  and  a 
weddin'g  ode;  died  17.><2. 

57.  Jacob  Anaw:  Eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
ccniuries  (Fi)rsi.  "  Bibl   Jiid  "  iii.  lOo). 

58.  Servadio  b.  Elijah  Umano  Anaw:  Born 
isi.");  died  June  12.  l.'*44.  11c  was  a  teacher  and 
wrote  rabbinical  works  and  decisions  in  Italian 
(••  Mose  "  (periodical),  v.  30.1). 

59.  Isaac  b.  Eliiah  Anaw  :  Brother  of  No.  58, 
in  Ferrani,  l^'^v.'  i">rose."  //(.). 

60.  Salvatore  Anaw :  Was  employed  in  the 
liiiaiice  ilipaiiiiiiiit  of  the  Roman  republic  in  1S40. 

61.  Flaminio  Anaw:  Member  of  the  eonunis- 
sion  to  prepare  a  new  constitution  for  the  congrega- 
tion in  Home  in  l^so  ^••Vessillo  Isnielitieo,"  lt<SO, 
p.  01). 

62.  Abraham  Anaw  :  Owner  of  RiHllcian  innnu- 
M-ripl  No   lOtl!l(.\eubaiiir."tal    Boill.  Hebr.  .MSS."). 

63.  Jekuthiel  b.  Judah  Anaw:  Scribe  (Luz- 

zatio.  ynrnnjx.  "iiii'i 

64.  Judah  b.  Benjamin  ha-Rofe  (AnawP) 
and  (65)  Samuel,  his  son;  In  Viterbo  in  .Mav.  13U2 
(Muniili  .MS.  No.  2i)S).  H.  V. 


Ana'w,  Abraham 
Aucestor  Woisliip 


Tin;  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


568 


ANAW,   ABRAHAM   BEN   JKHIEL   HA- 
ROFE  :    I'liy^iriaii  Mini  lulilii  in  Kn[iii-  at  llic  lii  j,nii 
uiiii;  of  the  tliiilcHlitli  (Tlitiirv.     lie  was  llic  I'ullicT 
111  Zeilekiali,  autlKir  of  "Sliibbole  Im-LeHet,"  and  of 
15(11  jiimiu,  11  liluigicul  poet. 

Bibliography:  VoRolsteln  and  RIeger,  ff'cw/i.  <l.  Jinlni  in 
linm.  I.  2ill,  ;tr4  (■(  mq. 

ANAW,    BENJAMIN   B.   ABRAHAM:    A 

liliiiuirul  pint,  'ralrim(li>l,  anil  coiiMiHiUalnr  of  the 
thiiicrnlh  ({iitui'v;  older  brother  of  Zetlekiiih  b. 
Aliraliani.  Perhaps  the  most  gifted  and  learned  of 
his  Honian  eouteiiiporaries.  Although  chieliy  a 
lioet.  Auaw  ])ossesse<i  a  thoioujih  mastery  of  halakie 
literature,  and  diligently  sludiid  philology,  niathe- 
malies,  and  astronomy,  ile  wielded  a  keen,  satiri- 
eal  pen.  Jlis  poetical  aetivily  began  in  V^'i'.K  when 
the  apostate  Nicholas  Douin  assjuled  the  Talmud 
and  appealed  to  Pope  Gregory  IX.  to  order  its  de- 
struction and  the  iierseeution  of  its  students.  Po- 
nin'sa.gitalioii  tilled  the  HoniiUi  Jews  with  terror,  and 
they  seem  to  have  appointed  a  day  for  fasting  and 
prayer.  At  that  time — and  possibly  for  that  fast- 
day — Anaw  composed  the  penitential  hymn  'O  px 
mTj6  nOUN.  "To  whom  shall  I  tlee  for  help" — an 
acrostic  of  twelve  stanzas  (published  bv  tlu'  Society 
Jlekize  Nirdandm  in  "  Kobe/,  'al  Yad."  1SH8).  Do- 
nin's  endeavors  met  meanwhile  with  great  success. 
In  .Tune.  l',3:i!l.  several  wagon-loads  of  Talmudic 
manuscripts  were  burned  in  Paris  and  Konw:  at  the 
latter  place  the  Jewish  cemetery  was  destroyed. 
These  events  stirred  the  poet  to  a  bitter  elegy 
'lb  mi-p  n^'mx.  "My  heart  is  convidsed"  (ib.). 
in  which  he  di'e]ilv  laments  the  fate  of  Israel  ami 
]iassionately  appeals  to  God  to  avenge  the  desecra- 
tion of  the  dead. 

Anaw  wrote  numerous  poems  for  the  liturgy  .which 
arc  embodied  in  ]iarl  in  the  Komaii  .Mal.i/.or.  partly 
still  e.xtant  in  manuseripl,  lie  is  the  author  of  the 
following  works:  (I)  JVtn  N'J  XL"D  (The  Burden  of 
the  Valley  of  Vision),  a  satirical  ))oem  directed 
against  the  arrogance  of  the  wealthy  and  the  nobility 
(Hiva  di  Trento,  l.JGO;  reprinted,  Lemberg,  IH.jO,  by 
31.  AVolf,  in  his  Hebrew  chreslomalhy.  ^XTC"  HIT'DT 
(Israel's  Praises).  (3)  I'D'as^X  "'S  (Al|ilialictieal 
C'onnnentary).  on  the  Aramaic  pieces  of  the  Pente- 
cost liturgy.  In  this  treatise  he  exhibits  a  knowled.u'e 
of  Italian, 'ijiltin.  Greek,  and  Araliic.  C.i)  ".SeferVedi- 
dut  "  (Hook  of  Friendship),  a  ritualistic  work,  which 
has  disappeared.  It  is  mentioned  by  Anaw  in  the 
preface  to  his  abridgment  of  ICIiczer  ben  Samtiel's 
"Sefer  Yereim,"  (4)  "  Sha-are  'Ez  llayyim  "  (The 
Gates  Conducting  to  the  Tree  of  Life),  a  work  on  prac- 
tical ethics,  in  the  form  of  moral  sayings.  The  poem 
contains  sixty-three  strophes,  arranged  according  to 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  Each  chapter  deals  with 
one  virtue  or  one  vice.  .Vmong  the  sulj  jects  treated 
are  love,  hospitality,  faithfidness,  cheating,  thank- 
fulness, shame,  pride,  charity.  It  was  i»rinlcd  in 
PraiTue,  151W  (Zunz.  "Z.  G,"  ji,  280),  and  reprinted  in 
"Kobez  'al  Yad"  (ed,  Mekiz<'  Xiniamini.  1884,  i.  71 
et  «('/.).  (o)  Glosses  to  Kashi's  commentary  on  the 
Bible  and  to  Solomon  b.  Shabbethai's  commentary 
on  the  "Shel'ltot."  (0)  "Rules  for  Making  a  Calen- 
dar," in  which  he  utilizes  his  matheniatical  and  as 
tronomieal  knowledge.  This  manuscript  served  .sev- 
end  later  writers  on  the  sam<^  subject,  Auaw  was  in 
corri'spondence  with  iVBionoit  Cohen,  to  whom  he 
addressed  numerous  halakic  questions.  He  himself 
gave  many  halakin  decisions,  which  are  referred  to 
in  his  brother's  work,  "Shibbole  ha-Leket." 

Despite  his  wide  learning.  Auaw  remained  a  child 
of  his  age.      He  shared  many  of  its  superstitions, 


vigorously  defended  haggadie  interpretations,  and 
was  strictly  opposed  to  all  changes  in  the  liturgy. 
He  even  discu.ssed  with  his  brother  Zedekiah  the  lan- 
guage of  the  angels. 

BiBLIOfiRAPIIY:  VoRplsteln  and  R|p(rer.  Ormh.  ilcr  Judrn  in 
/{i.Hi,  1.  :r9  ( ( « I/.;  SH'liischiieldcr,  ( Vi(.  nnrll.  No.  4JH ;  Ziiiiz, 
Litrrnliiriimrli,  pp.  XiS  il  «■(;.;  I.uiidshiilli,  'Ammuilr  lin- 
'.*l/wM*<i/j,  p.  .'il ;  (iudcinann.  tii'nrh.  iU-m  Hrzirhnuystrrxnin 
iler  Jmlcn  in  Italiin,  p.  -IH  ;  Mleliai'l,  Or  lia-Hai/yiin,  No. 
.57(1. 

M.  H 

ANA-W,  ZEDEKIAH  B.  ABRAHAM:   Au 

thor  of  ritualistic  works:  younger  brother  of  Ben- 
iandn  b,  Abndiam  Anaw:  lived  at  I{ome  in  the 
thirteenth  century:  received  his  Talmudic  training 
not  oidy  in  Home,  but  also  in  Germany,  w  here  he  was 
the  pupil  of  K.  Jaeobof  Wiuzburg,  anil  possibly  also 
of  Abigdor  Cohen  of  Vienna.  He  owes  bis  great  repti- 
latioii  not  to  any  original  re.'^earch.  but  to  a  compila- 
tion on  the  ritual  lo  which  he  gave  the  title  "Shibbole 
ha-ljcket  "  (Ears  of  Gleaning).  It  is  divided  into  three 
hundred  and  seventy-two  paragrai)hs.  included  in  the 
following  twelve  sections,  treating  of  the  laws,  regu- 
lations, and  ceremonies  relating  to  prayers.  ,>^abbalh. 
Iienedictions.  new  moon,  feast  of  dediealion.  Piirim. 
Passover,  semi  holy  days,  fasts.  Xew-ycar.  I)ay  of 
Atonement,  and  'I'abcniaclcs,  Appeuilcil  to  the  work 
iire  several  treatises  :inil  lesponsji  on  miscclliuieous 
religious  and  le.iral  matters,  such  as  circumcision, 
mourning  riles,  fringes,  slaughtering, inheritanee.and 
interest.  As  the  title  indicates,  and  as  the  author  never 
fails  to  point  out,  the  work  was  culled  from  many 
older  authorities,  such  as  "Ihilakot  (Jcilolot,"  "  Par- 
des,"  All'asi.  Isaac  b,  Abba  M:iri,  Zerahiah  ha-Levi, 
Isaiah  di  Train,  etc.  To  tlii'se  extracts  from  other 
iiuthiirities  the  work  owes  its  vogue.  The  preface, 
written  in  a  pureanil  vigorous  Hebrew,  is  introduced 
by  a  short  acrostic. 

But  Zedekiah  did  not  restrict  himself  to  the  mere 
work  of  a  com|)iler.  He  systematized  his  material 
skilfully,gaveitaconciseas  well  as  popular  form,  and 
judiciously  iliscrimin:iled  between  eonllicting  opin- 
ions ;iud  decisions,  giving  ]iieferencc  to  those  that 
seemed  to  him  true.  For  this  procciluie  he  apolo- 
gized modest ly  ill  his  )ireface  with  an  aiiceilote,  in 
substantially  the  following  Icrms:  A  pliilo.sii|ilier, 
when  asked  how  he  dared  to  ojipose  the  great  men 
of  the  past,  answered,  "We  fully  acknowleilge  the 
greatness  of  our  old  authorities  and  the  insigniticance 
of  ourselves.  But  we  are  in  the  jiositioii  of  iiygmies 
that  ride  on  the  shoulders  of  giants.  Pygmies  though 
we  are.  wc  sec  farther  than  the  giants  when  we  u.se 
their  Unowlcdge  and  experience," 

Ailililions  to  the  "Shibbole  ha-Leket"  were  made 
by  Zedekiah  himself,  in  a  work  the  title  of  which  is 
no  longer  known:  these  ailditionsalso  contain  a  large 
number  of  responsa.  It  is  usually  cited,  howi'ver,  as 
"Issurwa-I  letter  "(Things  Eorbidden  and  Allowed), 
and  has  not  yet  been  printed. 

A  eomiilete  edition  of  the  "Shibbole  ha-Lekel  " 
was  imblisheil  by  Solomnn  Bubcr  in  1M8()  at  Wilna. 
The  editor  wiole  a  couiiuchensive  introduction  to  it, 
containing  an  analysis  of  the  work.  Abridgments 
of  it  were  jniblished  much  earlier:  Venice  (Daniel 
Bomberg),  1.54."i;  Dubiiov.  17!)8;  Salonica,!?!!"),  Fur- 
thermore, it  was  plagiarized  and  published  in  a  con- 
densed form  uiidei-  the  title  "  Tanya."  or"  Tanya  I?ah- 
bati."  which  went  throiiirh  four  editions:  Mantua, 
1514:  Cremona,  l."".fi.");Zolkicy.  18(10:  .Szydlikov,  18:5(5. 
A  third  abridgment,  entitled  "Ma'a.sch  ha-Geonim" 
(The  AVork  of  Old  Authorities!,  circulated  in  manu- 
script and  is  extant  in  the  Bodleian  Library.  Oxford. 

Anaw  was  in  eorres]ioiidence  with  Abigdor  Cohen, 
Meir  of  Rothenburg,  and  Abraham  ben  Joseph  of 


569 


THE  JEWLSII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anaw,  Abraham 
Ancestor  Worship 


IVsaro.  Very  often  he  nicnlions  his  st'iiior  coiiliiu 
|iiirnry,  Isjiiuh  ili  Tmiii  itht-  Elder),  ti)  whoso  Uible 
<ommcntaiy  Auaw  in  Vi'J'i  wrote  glosses. 

lijiiLKiiiKAiMIV  :  Bulicr's  IntnKiuiIkin  to  Shihluile  ha-LehcU 
Wiliiii,  1K«U;  St-tiiirr.  ill  '/Ann.  1.  Hi  r.l  xr<i.;  Vogelstcln  anil 
Kit'tfcr,  fii-srh.  <l.  Jinliit  in  lintn.  i.  :W;  rt  sat,;  Berliner, 
liifvh.  it.  Juilin  ill  lliiiii.  il.  V);  SteinschneUler,  Cat.  ISmll. 
No.  7149;  MIrhael.  i )r  lia-}f»imiin,  iitt.  11119;  GiitU'iimnn. 
tiatch.  dot  Erzieliuimswe^cnii  it.  Juden  in  Italicii.  pp.  192. 


I!«. 


Af.    R. 


ANBAL,  (AMBAL)  THE  JASSIN  (OS- 
SETE)  :  Anionj;  llii:  many  foreii,'ni-rs  who  held  po- 
siiicpiis  al  the  court  of  Prince  Andrei  Boi^olyubski, 
in  ICiev.  toward  the  end  nf  the  twelfth  century, were 
t  woof  Jewish  ori?:in:  ( 1)  Epliraim  .Moisicli,  or  iloisie- 
vicli,  who  had  gained  the  prince's  confidence;  (2) 
Anhal  the  .lassin  (the  0.s.sete,  from  the  Caucasus), 
his  all-powerful  "  key-waleli  "  (ehamherlain).  These 
: -vo  and  Anilrei's  relative  Kuclikov  were  tlie  insti- 
L^ators  and  rim^leaders  of  a  conspiracy  against  the 
prince.  They  killed  him  in  the  night  of  June  29, 
1 174,  and  when  his  naked  body  lay  exposed  in  the 
palace  garden,  a  faithful  servant  imjilored  Anlial  to 
pcrniil  him  tocover  it,  reminding  him  thai  lie(Anbal) 
liad  come  into  the  .service  of  his  master  clothed  in 
rags,  and  that  it  was  by  tlie  hitter's  bounty  that  he 
was  now  wearing  velvet.  To  this  remonstrance  An- 
bal  lent  a  ready  ear.  Besides  its  historic  interest,  the 
incident  is  of  importance  as  proving  the  existence  of 
•lews  from  the  Caucasus  in  Great  Russia  in  the 
twelfth  century. 

ItiHi.iocR.vi'UY:  S.  M.S<ili>vycv,  Mnriiia  lio^iii.i s  Drcvncinhilili 
Vrcniinn.  2(1  ed.,  1.  ."il2  ct  sni. ;  s.  WeisseiilH'n?.  Dii'  .s'tjf/nw- 
siscticn  Jmtcii.  Brunswick,  jsiri;  Rcuciitu  i  .Y«'/i«Vi.  .\os. 
it;..  174.  ,j     j^ 

ANCESTOR  'WORSHIP:    The  same  homage 

:imI  adnniii.iii  p.nd  h.  ilr(  i:isid  parents  and  more  re- 
mote ancestors  as  usually  given  to  deities.  -Many 
anthropologists  are  of  opinion  that  this  was  the 
original  form  of  religifm  i  II.  .Spencer,  Lippert);  the 
school  represented  by  Sta<li,'  and  F.  Schwally  ;irgues 
that  il  was  the  original  religion  of  Israel  before 
.lahvism  was  intrtxluced  by  Moses  and  the  Prophets. 
.Vieording  to  them,  much  of  the  jiriestly  legislation 
was  directed  against  the  rites  connecle<l  witli  Ances- 
tor Worship.  At  present  the  view  that  the  original 
religion  of  the  Israelites  was  some  form  of  Ancestor 
Worship  is  the  only  one  that  has  bei'ii  put  forward 
seientitieally  or  systematically,  tog<lher  with  an  ex- 
planation of  the  <-hanges  ma(ie  by  the  later  and  true 
religion  of  Israel.  Nevertheless  arguments  of  some 
weight  hav('  been  brought  forward  toshowthat  this 
view  of  the  original  Israelitish  religion  is  only  slen- 
derly based  U]ion  fads,  and  it  .seems  desirable  there- 
tcin-  to  give  a  suimnary  of  the  argumenis  for  and 
airainst  regarding  Ancestor  Worship  us  the  original 
reliirioM  of  Israel. 

The  school  of  Slade  ba.ses  its  belief  a.s  to  the  for- 
luc-r  existence  of  this  worship  in  Israel  on  the  follow- 
in:.'  arguments: 

I.  Hebrew  'Views  of  the  Nature  of  the  Soul : 
.Vrciinliriir  to  Stade  and  his  followers,  these  were 
idintical  with  the  animistic  llieory  of  savages,  which 
o  iiarils  the  soul  as  a  .sort  of  immaterial  breath  or 
-liadow  in  which  the  life  of  Ihe  liody  exists,  but 
uhiehian  leave  il  foralimeand  inhabit  other  bodies 
of  men  or  animals.  The  iiij'mli  (genenilly  niidereil 
"soul")  and  nmli  (lilemlly  "wind."  generally  ren- 
dered "spirit  ")of  Ihe  Hebrews  are  of  this  kind,  either 
"f  which  leaves  a  man  when  he  (Iic>s((}en.  xxxv.  IM; 
I's.  <-xlvi.  4).  The  ruah  can  go  back  to  the  bixlv 
(Judges,  XV.  11);  I  Sam.  xxx.  12),  jusi  as  in  the  an! 
niislic  belief  of  .savages.     Ilut  Ihe  nnil.i  represents  a 


more  exalted  state  of  the  soul  or  spirit  than  the  ne- 
fe.sh,  and  according  to  Stade  was  originally  the  spiiil 
of  the  dead,  which  might  be  eitlier  good  or  bad,  and 
could  arouse  men  to  exalted  or  to  base  pa.ssions. 
Jahvisin  transformed  this  view  bv  restricting  the 
ruah  to  that  of  YIIWII  (e.jr.,  I  Sani.  x.  C;  Judges, 
ix.  2:!). 

II.  Hebrew  'Views  of  the  Life  After  Death : 
Several  of  the  I'siilms  ixxx.  o.  xli\.  Hi.  Ix.xxvi.  i;5, 
cxvi.  3)  speak  of  the  nefesh  being  saved  from  Sheol; 
while  other  pas,sages  (Num.  vi.  6,  Lev.  .xxi.  11) 
speak  of  the  nefesh  of  the  ilead.  Sheol  appeal's  to 
l)e  a  place  of  assembly  for  all  departed  spirits  (Job, 
xxx.  2:5),  which  are  i)n.ssibly  to  be  identified  with 
the  rifiiiiii  (often  rendered  "tlie  shades").  The  use 
of  the  expression,  "to  be  gathered  to  one's  fathers" 
(compare  Gen.  .xv.  1.5,  xxv.  S)  would  imply  that 
these  departed  spirits  were  regarded  chielly  as  those 
of  ancestors. 

III.  Mourning' Customs  :  Several  of  these  seem 
to  be  the  same  as  those  usetl  in  divine  worship.  Thus, 
to  tear  the  clothes  and  to  put  ashes  upon  the  head 
(H  Sam.  i.  1 1)  are  customs  also  employed  in  worship 
(Josh.  vii.  (i;  compare  Joel,  ii.  12).  The  wearing  of 
the  silk  or  sackcloth  (II  .Sam.  iii.  31,  xiv.  2)  is  like- 
wise a  usual  accompaniment  of  fasting (Isji.  Iviii.  5). 
Cutting  or  shaving  the  hair  is  both  a  mark  of  mourn- 
ing (Jer.  xvi.  6)  and  a  solemn  sign  of  the  end  of 
the  Nazarite's  vow  (Num.  vi.  l.S).  To  go  barefoot 
(.Micah,  i.  8)  is  a  sign  both  of  mourning  and  of  rec- 
ognition of  the  divine  presence  (Ex.  iii.  ."i);  fa.sting 
both  a  manifestation  of  mourning  (II  Sam.  i.  12.  iii. 
3.'))  and  an  a<l  of  divine  worship.  The  assumptiou 
of  the  school  of  Stade  is  that  these  customs,  origi- 
nally signs  of  woiship  of  ancestors,  were  afterward, 
by  the  Jalivistic  reformation,  transferred  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Ihe  Deity.  Further,  contact  with  the  dead 
makes  things  tabu  or  "holv,"  just  as  consecration  to 
Ihe  Deily  does. 

I'V.  Burial  Customs  :  Israelites  in  historic  times 
appear  lo  have  usually  Ijuried  their  dead.  Hut  traces 
are  found  of  burning  them  (thus  I  Sam.  xxxi.  12; 
Amos,  vi.  10;  Josh.  vii.  2'));  and  it  is  suggested  that 
this  was  because  in  the  primitive  religion  of  Israel 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  regarded  as  especially 
holy,  and  were  therefore  burneil  like  the  renmauts 
of  the  olTcrings  (Lev.  iv.  12.  21).  The  later  cus- 
tom of  burying  the  corp.se  was  connected  with  the 
aniinislic  belief  that  only  thus  could  the  spirit  of 
the  departed  lind  rest.  In  early  days  Ihe  dead  were 
buried  in  their  own  houses  (I  Sam.  xxv.  1 ;  compare 
I  Sam.  .xxviii.  4;  I  Kings,  ii.  34;  II  Chron.  xxxiii.  20). 
This  is  held  to  have  been  for  the  purpose  of  wor- 
shiping their  spirit.s.  and  was  repudiated  by  the  later 
Jalivistic  legislation  (Num.  xix.  Hi).  From  Gen. 
xxxv.  20  and  II  Kings,  xxiii.  17  it  is  concluded  that 
it  was  (uslonKirv  to  i>lace  monuments  on  the  graves 
of  Ihe  dead  for  purposes  of  wo|-ship. 

'V.  Offerings  to  the  Dead:  In  Jer.  xvi.  (>.  7  it 
seems  to  be  impli(d  thai  the  mourning  customs  (In- 
menling,  making  incisions,  shaving  the  hair,  and 
tearing  the  garments)  were  observed  for  the  .sake 
of  the  dead,  and  that  "the  cup  of  consolation  "  of- 
fiTed  to  Ihe  mournir  wasotTc-red  "  for  his  father  or  for 
his  mother. "  Similarlv  in  Dent.  xxvi.  14.  it  seems  to 
be  implied  Ihal  the  Jahvislic  legislalion  opposed 
doing  certain  Ihings  ami  giving  <'erlain  things  in 
honor  of  the  di'ad.  The  same  seems  lo  b<'  implied 
ill  llosea,  ix.  4;  while  gifts  ari'  brought  directly  to 
Ihe  ilead  ii.s  lateas  Tobit,  iv.  17;  Kcdus.  (Sinich)  vii. 
32  (/  »f/.  (compare  .\bot.  iii.  !i).  The  mouriung  cus- 
toms of  shaving  the  hair  and  sprinkling  bliMwl  aro 
also  regard<-d  nsolTerings  of  hair  and  blood  to  the 
nianos  of  Ihe  dead 


Ancestor  Worship 
Ancient  of  Days 


TIIK  .IKWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


570 


VI.  Oracles  and  Incantations :  In  various  pius- 
Siigcs  of  till' Old  Testament  (Dent,  xviii.  11,  I  Sam. 
xxviii.  11.  Isii.  viii.  l!t|  mention  is  made  of  im|Uii'y 
of  the  dead  as  to  liii'  fiitiiie,  thus  treating  lliem  as 
onielos  and  divine  personas^es.  On  twooeeasions  llie 
dead  are  termed  "(loliim  "  (I  Sam.  .\xviii.  18.  l.sji.  viii. 
IS).  //(■/'.);  tile  latter  pussa.iie,  "Should  not  a  people 
seek  unto  tlieir  eloliiin.  for  the  jiviiii;  to  the  tleadV" 
is  espc'cially  siiinilieant.  In  the  iiiemitatioM  seen<' 
with  the  witcliof  En-dor.  as  soon  as  "Saul  perceived 
thai  it  was  Samuel  [I  Sam.  xxviii.  14).  he  .stoo])ed 
with  liis  face  to  the  jrround,  and  bowed  himself,"  a 
reL'ular  lUrm  of  divine  lioniau'e  (see  Alxill.M'iox). 

VII.  Honor  to  Parents  :  It  is  contended  that  in 
ancient  Isnul  mournini;  was  only  for  parents;  and 
II  Sam.  xii.  !•")  tl  "n/.  is  ipioteil  in  illustration.  .Men 
thus  became  remembered  by  the  honor  paid  Ihem  by 
their  descendants;  hence  Absalom  dejilored  that  lie 
bad  no  son  to  call  upon  his  name  (II  Sam.  xviii.  IS). 

VIII.  Household  Worship :  There  are  signs 
tluil  in  early  days  iIk  rr  uas  a  special  worship  of 
liouselioid  gods  which  could  not  have  been  devoted  to 
YinVII.  the  God  of  the  nation,  according  to  mod- 
ern theories.  They  are  supposed  to  be  referred 
to  as  "elohim"  in  the  jiassage  (Ex.  xxi.  4-())  when 
the  .servant  who  desired  to  remain  in  the  household 
of  his  master  forever  must  appear  before  the  elohim 
(translated  "judges"  in  A.  V.),  and  liave  his  ear 
bored  through.  It  is  contended  that  the  Feast  of 
Purim  is  a  relic  of  household  worship.  The  house- 
hold gods  thus  worshiped  are  known  as  teraiihim, 
which  were  Laban's  elohim  ((Jen.  xxxi.  IJO),  and 
were  heathen  gods  I  E/.ek.  xxi.  '211,  Oeii.  xx.w.  2). 

IX.  Family  Worship  :  Fusiel  de  Coulanges  has 
shown,  in  "La  C'ile  Aiilii[Ue,"  that  the  social  insti- 
tutions of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  founded  upon 
Ancestor  Worship,  the  essence  of  whicli  was  to  keep 
alive  the  holy  tire  on  the  household  liearth  on  w'hieli 
to  otTer  food  for  the  de|)arled  spirits  of  ancestors. 
Membership  of  a  family  im|)lied  the  right  and  duly 
of  making  such  olfering.  (.)iily  males  could  olfer; 
and,  therefore,  inlieritance  was  solely  through  the  ag- 
nates. Num.  xxvii.  shows  that  this  was  the  custom 
with  regard  to  inheritance  in  ancient  Israel.  The 
importance  of  lieirs  consisted  in  the  jiosthumous 
nntirishment  to  be  ollered  by  them  alone,  and  this  im- 
portance is  shown  to  have  existed  in  Israel  by  the 
custom  of  the  Iji':vin.\Tii.  The  piitn'ii  pot  est  na  of 
the  father  of  the  family  was  due  to  the  fact  that  he 
was  the  household  priest  as  well  as  the  father.  The 
Israelites,  like  the  Greeks  anil  Komans,  had  their 
family  graves. 

X."  Ancestor  Worship  and  the  Tribes: 
Graves  of  the  ancestors  of  the  tribes,  like  that  of 
Abraham  at  Hebron.  an<l  that  of  Joseph  at  Shechem, 
are  found  associated  with  worshi])  which  probalily 
was  originally  Ancestor  Worshij).  Simieof  the  tribes 
seem  named  after  Semitic  gods;  thus  "Aslier,"  the 
masculine  form  of  "Asliera."  Dan  and  Gad  (the 
latter  of  which  occurs  in  local  names  as  "  IJaal  Gad  " 
and  "  Migdal  Gad  "  ).  There  are  some  indications 
that  the  l^atriarchs  were  the  subject  of  local  wor- 
ship; for  instance,  .lacob  at  Beth-el,  Israel  at  Pen- 
iel,  and  Isaac  at  Heer  sheba.  Hence  the  importance 
attached  in  the  Old  Testament  to  the  jilaces  wlierc 
the  Patriarchs  and  heroes  were  Iniiied  ;  known  graves 
being  those  of  Abrahain,  Sarah.  Uacliel,  .loseph, 
Aaron.  jMiriam,  .loshua,  Ibzan,  Elou,  Abdon,  Tola, 
Jair,  tiephthah,  and  Samson.  In  this  connection 
it  is  a  signilieant  fact  that  the  grave  of  Moses,  the 
founder  of  Jahvism,  was  not  known:  this  indicates 
that  the  Jahvistic  legislation  was  against  Ancestor 
Worship.  Many  of  the  patriarchal  names  were  orig- 
inally  combinations  with    "El";   thus   .lacob    and 


Josepli  are  foinid  in  Egyptian  lists  under  tin-  form 
"  .Jacobel."  "  Joseplicl  "  (compare  Islimai-1,  .lerahmeel, 
anil  .leplitahel).  All  these  points  seem  to  imply  that 
clans  and  tribes  were  originally  unilied  by  a  worship 
of  ancestors,  which  worship  was  broken  down  by 
the  national  worship  of  VHWII. 

To  these  arguments  of  Slade  and  his  school  the 
following  replies  have  been  recently  given  by  Carl 
Gri'llieiseii : 

1.  Nature  of  the  Soul :  The  nefessh  is  regarded 
as  being  ill  the  blood  (Lev.  xvii.  11.  14;  Gen.  ix.  4), 
and  disappears  entirely  with  it ;  and  while  the  man 
lives,  the  nefesh  is  wiili  liim(Il  Sam.  i.  i);  Job.  xxvii. 
S).     It  isonly  the  ruali  which  can  i<-main  after  death. 

2.  Life  After  Death  :  The  passages  which  s]ieak 
fif  the  ill  le^li  being  saved  from  Slieol  really  mean 
that  tlie  pcrsou's  life  is  .safe,  and,  therefore,  that  lit- 
is still  alive;  while  the  cxinession  "nefesh  met" 
(Num.  vi.  fi.  Lev.  xxi.  11)  merely  means  "any 
corpse"  (compare  Num.  xix.  U  with  xix.  i:i).  The 
shadows  that  inhabit  Sheol  are  altogether  dilTerent 
from  the  nefesh  in  the  living  body.  Such  shadow- 
less beiims  are  inconsistent  with  the  idea  of  any  stl- 
peinatural  power.  The  expression  "  to  be  gathered 
lo  one's  fathers"  is  never  used  of  burial,  and  could 
not  be  ])rimitive.  sinci'  it  is  iniip]ilicable  to  a  nomad 
tribe. 

3.  Mourning  Customs  :  Some  of  these  customs 
are  not  oul)-  used  in  mourning  or  divine  worship, 
but  in  slavery,  captivity  in  war,  leprosy,  etc.  The 
customs  are  not  so  much  holy  as  tabu.  Both  con- 
tact with  divine  things  and  tninsgression  of  the  talm 
make  a  person  "unclean."  The  real  explanation  of 
mourning  customs  is  that  man  thereby  changes  his 
ordinary  appearance  so  as  not  to  be  reeogni/ed  by 
the  ghost  of  the  departed  (Frazer,  "On  Certain 
Burial  Customs,"  in  '•Journal  Anthropol.  Inst."  xv. 
yy  et  sef/.).  This  is  connected  with  the  custom  of 
burning  a  lam))  after  a  death  to  keep  the  ghost 
away,  a  custom  which  ]uobably  goes  back  to  the 
tents  of  nomads,  in  which  the  duly  ol  keeping  alamp 
eontinuallv  burning  passed  over  from  father  to  son 
(Jer.  XXV."  10;  Prov.  xiii.  9,  xx.  20,  xxiv.  20;  Job, 
xviii.  (i.  xxi.  17). 

4.  Burial  Customs  :  The  instanses  of  cremation 
in  the  liilile  are  exceptional;  and  the  burials  in 
hou.ses  mainly  refer  to  royal  palaces,  seemingly  to 
special  mausoleums.  The  notion  conceived  of  the 
shadowy  dead  is  not  likely  to  have  led  to  divine 
worship  of  such  liriiiL's. 

5.  Offerings  to  the  Dead:  The  offerings  re- 
ferred to  in  Jer.  xvi.  7  are  for  the  sake  of  the 
mourners  and  not  of  the  mourned.  The  "cup  of 
Consolation  "  obviously  consoles  the  mourners,  and 
was  lirought  into  the  house  of  mourning  because 
everything  there  was  "unclean  "  and  could  not  be 
u.sed  by  the  mourners.  The  "bread  of  monrners" 
mentioned  in  Hosea,  ix.  4.  and  Deul.  xxvi.  14  is  not 
used  in  any  saeriliriiil  niriil   In  Hie  dead. 

6.  Oracles  and  Incantations  :  These  do  not 
imply  the  worshi])  of  the  dead,  but  merely  the  l)clief 
in  the  existence  of  their  .shadows  beyond  the  grave, 
and  that  they  were  consulted  as  oracles.  The  fact 
that  .Samuel's  ghost  was  regarded  by  the  witch  of 
En-dor  as  elohim  merely  implies  that  she  looked 
upon  Samuel  as  something  divine;  the  act  of  ad.ira- 
tion  is  merely  one  of  respect  and  honor — not  neces- 
sarily of  worship  in  the  technical  sense — and  is  given, 
not  to  the  ghost  as  such,  but  to  the  personality  of 
Samuel  as  soon  as  .Saul  recognizes  who  is  speaking. 
Against  the  .saying  of  Isa.  viii.  I'J,  it  may  be  re- 
marked that  the  ancestral  ghost  can  not  be  the  elo- 
him of  the  people,  but  only  of  a  family;  liesidi'S 
"elohim  "  here  should   be  translated  "Goil"  and  the 


571 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLUPEDIA 


Ancestor  Worship 
Ancient  of  Days 


contriist  miuk-  with  the  di'ail:  "  A  pcoiilc  slinuM  ccm- 
suit  its  Giiil  and  not  its  dciiil." 

7.  Honor  to  Parents  :  Tliiicari-inany  inslancis 
of  gdiii!,'  into  inoiiriiiiii;  (nv  dead  persons  olliiM'  than 
parents  (Jacob  loi- Joseph  when  lie  thought  he  had 
lost  him,  Oeu.  xx.wii.  84;  eonipaie  I  Kings,  xiv. 
i:J);  widows  numining  for  their  husbands  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  14):  tlw  bride  for  her  bridegroom  (Joel,  i. 
H).  Absalom  did  not  wish  a  sou  to  "call  upon  "  his 
name,  l)ut  to  "keep  it  alive"  in  men's  memory;  and 
for  that  reason  he  raised  a  monument  to  himself. 
(Jbvionsly  this  monument  eouM  not  "'eall  upon'' 
his  name. 

8.  Household 'Worship  :  The  elohim  mentioned 
in  Ex,  xxi.  eould  easily  liavc'  lieeii  images  of  YHWH 
in  Judges,  xvii,  ""i'lIWH"  became  at  an  early 
period  t!ie  Godof  the  Israelitish  family,  as  is  shown 
by  [MMsonal  names  like  Jonathan,  Joshua,  and  Abi- 
jali.  Purim  is  far  from  being  an  early  feast,  being 
probably  derived  from  Persia,  and  can  not  therefore 
be  the  .survival  of  a  family  Avorship  of  the  dead. 
The  teraphim  are  only  mentioned  as  strange  gods  in 
Gen.  xxxi.  and  Ezek.  xxi.,  and  are  els.where  not  di- 
viue  or  used  in  divine  worship,  but  fur  the  purpose 
of  divination. 

9.  Family  'Worship  :  Tint  Israelite  family  does 
not  show  so  much  au,ilii;:y  with  that  of  ancient  Rome 
as  to  oblige  us  to  transfer  the  arguments  of  Fustel 
de  Coulanges  to  ancient  Israel.  So  far  from  the 
jtittriii  p/tix/iis  bi'ing  all-important,  there  are  late 
traces  of  matriarcliate,  as.  for  instance,  where  the 
mother  gives  the  name  to  the  children,  as  so  fre- 
(|uently  occurs  in  Genesis.    Laban  regards  Jacob,  his 

'sister's  sou,  as  his  "brother,"  and  as  being  "of  his 
own  tlesliaud  blood."  Adoption  was  fri'ipieut  among 
Greeks  and  Homans  in  order  to  keep  up  the  family 
worship;  but  it  is  practically  unknown  among  the 
Jews.  The  paterfamilias  alone  could  worship  in 
classical  lands;  whereas  Gideon  could  bringan  otter- 
ing to  the  angel  (Judges,  vi.  bS  it  «iij.).  though  he 
was  still  in  the  house  of  his  father.  There  are  no 
signsof  the  reception  of  the  wileintothe  family  cult 
in  ancient  Israel,  though  irdiiMitanee  is  only  through 
nudes  as  in  Rome.  {Succession  only  through  agnates 
does  not  always  occur  where  Ancestor  Worship  ex- 
ists, as,  for  examjile,  in  Egypt,  where  a  daughter 
has  the  right  to  succeed.  The  need  of  descendants 
in  Israel  is  not  for  the  purposeof  obtaining  olTerings 
toonesi'If.  but  to  have  as  large  a  family  as  pos.si- 
bli'.  jirobably  for  purposes  of  proleetion. 

10.  Ancestor 'Worship  and  the  Tribes  :  If  (he 
tribe  grew  out  of  Ancestor  Worship  it  nuist  \m\f 
come  tirsi  as  a  family;  whereas  in  nomad  tribes, 
like  the  ancient  Israelites,  the  clan  comes  lirst.  In 
the  family  sacrilice  of  the  Homans,  there  is  no  indi- 
•  atioii  that  the  eponyiiKnis  heroes  of  the  elan  were 
worshiped;  so  that  the  analogies  from  the  graves  of 
heroes  are  not  an  (•xact  parallel.  If  ancestors  had 
been  worshiped,  many  proper  names  would  have 
been  found  expressing  such  Wf)rship;  but  I  hey  do 
not  occur.  The  local  worship  at  Shechem,  Hebron, 
etc.,  it  it  existed,  must  have  been  Canaam'tisli  in 
nature,  and  could  not  have  been  <lerivid  from  the 
notmidic  period  of  the  Israelites. 

These  objections  of  firUneisen  differ  greatly  in 
force.  While  he  has  deprived  some  of  Stade's 
argtiments.  notably  those  relating  to  mourning  and 
burial  customs,  of  some  of  their  weiirlil,  hi'  leaves 
much  unexplained  with  regard  to  olTerings  to  the 
■  lead,  oracles  anil  incaulalions,  and  family  worship. 
The  amount  of  eviden<-e  otTered  by  the  ()ld  Testa- 
ment itself  is  not  sulllcicMit  to  alTorii  a  solution  of  the 
i|Uestion,  thus  leaving  it  lo  be  solved  on  gein'nil  an- 
thropological   principles.      At   present  the   general 


trend  of  anthropological  opinion  on  this  subject  is 
rather  against  than  for  Ancestor  Worship  as  tlic 
primitive  form  of  religion. 

BiBi.ioiUi.ipnv  :  For  Stade's  views  see  his  Gesch.  i/cs  V<illtc» 
IsfaiU  t.  4(Hi  et  xci/.',  for  Schwally's,  his  Dwi  Lclnu  uach  ilcm 
Tiiile,  IKStt.  see  also  L.  Andre,  Le  Ciilte  dtx  Mitiis  ihcz  lot 
HihreHj;  1893 :  J.  Frey,  Tiid,  Scclen-Glauhe  utiil  Sa:li:)i-Kult 
im  AUcu  l}trat'l,  Wi'}.  The  above  uceount  is  biLsed  upon  C. 
Cirilneisen,  Dir  Alni()iliuUu.i  xtml  ilia  I'rrcliiiiiiii  Ixraeta, 
Halle,  I'Jon,  which  eonuilns  a  full  bibliosrraphy  (pp.  ix.-xv.). 

J. 

ANCHIAS  (  wrongly  Anchisas),  JUAN  DE  : 
Associate  and  tirst  private  secretary  of  the  liii|Uisi- 
tioii  in  Spain  (M.Si-llO).  He  was  understood  to  be 
especially  familiar  with  the  forms  of  wills  and  mar- 
riage contracts  used  by  Jlarauos  accused  of  Juda- 
ism. In  1.5U7  he  wrote,  in  Belchitc,  "  Libro  Verde  de 
Aragon  "  (The  Green  Book  of  Aragon),  a  genealogy 
of  the  richest  and  most  respected  baptized  Jews  at 
the  time  of  Vick.ntic  Fbukku.  In  id'i'i  Philip  IV.  of 
Spain  commissioned  the  in(|idsitor-general.  Andreas 
Paeheco.  who,  descended  from  -Maranos  himself,  hail 
collected  and  .secreted  all  available  copies  of  the 
"Libro  Verde,"  to  destroy  them.  A  single  copy, 
dating  from  the  sixteenth  century,  is  preserved  in 
the  IJiblioteca  C'olombiua,  Seville.  The  manuscript 
was  copied  by  Demelrio  dc  los  Uios  for  his  brother, 
the  historian  Jose  Amador  de  los  Rios.  who  had 
discovered  it;  and  in  188.1  it  wa's  published  in  the 
"  Revista  de  Esjiana."  vol.  xviii.,  which  issue  was 
forthwith  contiscated  and  has  remained  proscribed 
until  today.  From  this  "Green  Book  "  Francisco 
Meniloza  y  Bovadilla  drew  his  material  for  the  me- 
morial that  he  presented  to  King  Phili|)  II.,  under 
the  title  "El  Tizon  de  la  Xobleza  Espanola  "  (The 
Stain  of  the  Spanish  Xobility),  and  which  has  been 
often  reprinted  (Madrid,  Barcelona,  etc), 

I!iBLiO(iii.vPiiv:  J.  Amador  de  Ins  RIos.  Histnria  <te  Jng  Jutlios 
rn  Ksimmi,  111.  »l  ot  wi;.;  and,  based  thereon,  (irStz,  O'csch. 
(I.  Judiii.  M  ed.,  vill.  l.")0;  KcvUita  dc  Ksixxna,  I.e. 

31.    K. 

ANCIENT  OF  DAYS.— Biblical  Data  :  A  po- 
etical epithet  for  God.  It  is  an  incorrect  rendering 
of  the  Aramaic  'iittik  yomhi  (Dan.  vii.  !))  or  'uttik 
jiomuya  {ih.  vii.  13.  22),  which  should  be  translated 
"an  aged  one."  "the  aged  one  "  (com|)are  Dalman. 
"  Die  Worte  Jesu,"  i.  194).  "Ancient  of  Days"  is  used 
either  to  emphasize  the  contni.st  between  the  true 
God  and  the  idols,  the  new  gods  (Judges,  v.  8; 
Dent,  xxxii.  17).  or  merely  to  express  tlie  venerable 
character  of  the  being  whose  name  the  author  hesi- 
tates lo  mention.  From  the  above-cited  pa.s.sjige  in 
Daniel  is  borrowed  the  expres.sion  "re'esha  mawa'el" 
(head  of  days)  in  the  Book  of  Enoch  xlvi.  1,  and  llie 
description  of  the  Son  of  Man  iii  Rev.  i.  14. 

C.   L. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:  This  name  of  God, 

used  only  in  Dan.  \  ii.'.l.  13.  22,  in  which  He  is  describetl 
as  having  "the  hair  of  his  head  [while]  like  pure 
wool,"  denotes  the  (tne  who  is  from  of  old;  that  is, 
old  compared  with  all  irealed  thiiiirs,  that  areof  yes- 
terday. Asslaled  by  PseudoSaadia  and  other  Jewish 
commentators,  God  is  often  depicted  by  the  nibbis 
as  the  venerable  sage  (Ziihii)  invested  with  judicial 
authority,  whose  sternness  is  lempeied  by  uuldness 
of  judgment.  To  the  devotei'sof  mystic  lore,  w  it  hill 
wliosi'  circle  the  Book  of  Daniel  and  the  eiilire  Bjioc- 
alyptic  literature  originated,  the  name  naturally  sng- 
gesleil  itsi'lf  as  an  attribute  of  majesty  combined 
with  tendernes.s.  since  they  regarded  the  title  "Za- 
ken"  (the  aged  one)  lo  mean  the  one  invested  with 
the  highest  dignity.  Accordingly  "  .\iicienl  of  Davs" 
remained  witii  these  a  favorite  name  of  GimI  (f'es. 


Ancona 

Ancona,  Alessandro  d' 


TllK  .lEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


572 


ll'Ji/,  B.  B.  91*).   It  becimic.  moreover,  the  standing 

ii:mu' f(ir(i(Ml  ill  the  oldest  ))orli(>iis  of  IlicZolmr,  the 
NniJJ'Ji"!  S1DD  (liookof  Mystic  Lore),  in  wliicli  the 
wliite.  woiil-like  hiiir  of  the  lieiul  liecaiiie  a  jironii- 
neiit  feature  of  the  anthidpoinorphisiu  of  the  C'al)ala. 
The  foUowiiii;  i-,itioiial  exiihinalion  of  this  aiithropo- 
morpliie  deseriplioii  of  the  Deity  is  fr'^''ii  in  Mek.. 
Itesliallah  Shirah  (E.\.  .\v.  3).  aiui  Hair.  1*':  "When 
represented  as  a  warrior  triumiihaiit  in  Imttle.  God 
appears  as  a  fiery  young  hero;  and  in  an  assembly  of 
the  wise  who  seek  truth  and  justice.  He  is  depicted  as 
a  veneralile  sajre.  calm  and  majestic."  K. 

ANCONA :  Ancient  citj-  of  Italj',  capital  of  a 
province  liearinjr  its  name,  situated  on  the  Adriatic; 
sjiid  to  have  been  founded  l)y  Syracusiin  refugi'i's 
and  to  have  been  one  of  tlie  tirst  Italian  cities  to 
shelter  a  Jewi.sh  c(mimunity.  the  records  of  which, 
however,  bejjin  only  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Prom  e.vist- 
ins  chronicles  it  apjxars  that  some 
First  Set-  were  there  durinir  the  fourteenth 
tlement  century,  when  the  city  was  undi'ra  re- 
of  Jews.  publican  jroverinnent.  and  a  few  moie 
came  from  Ciennauy  in  IJUS.  Here  they 
dwelt  in  [leaee.  cnjoyinfr  perfect  equality  with  the 
Christian  inhabitants,  and  owning  several  schools, 
synagogues,  and  a  cemetery.  Somewhat  later  the 
authorities  restricted  the  Jews  to  their  ghetto  and 
compelled  the  men'  to  wear  a  yellow  badge  on  their 
caps,  and  the  women  to  wear  corresjiondiug  to- 
kens when  they  walked  abroad,  .\fter  .Vncoiia  had 
fallen  under  pajiiil  sway.  .Martin  V..  in  14'-'!(.  with  a 
view  to  increa.sing  the  commerce  of  thi^  city  and  of 
tiie  state,  accorded  many  ]u-ivilcges  to  the  Jews;  and 
in  14'J4  they  received  permission  to  establish  banks 
and  to  lend  money  at  interest.  It  was  at  Ancona  in 
1329  that  the  pseudo-Messiah  Molcho  made  his  tirst 
appearance  in  EiU'o|ie.  In  \')'i',)  many  Jews  exiled 
from  Xajdes.  where  they  had  three  synagogues,  sel- 
tleil  in  Ancona,  and  when  Pojie  Paul  HI.  (l.")34-49) 
olfered  tliem  the  freedom  of  the  port,  many  others, 
liarticularly  a  number  e.\iled  from  Spain,  and  desig- 
nated as  ■■  Portuguese,"  came  to  live  there.  These  im- 
migrants. W'ho  had  their  own  synagogue,  entered 
into  certain  agreements  with  the  magistrate  of  the 
city. which  were  approved  by  Pope  Julius  HI.  (looO- 
.").■));  but,  nevertheless,  tliey  were  subjected  to  ojipres- 
sive  taxation  and  all  sorts  of  iinposi- 
Persecution  tions.  Under  Pa\il  IV.  ( 1  .■").■)")-.")!) )  the 
under  Pope  Jews  were  subjected  to  further  oppres- 
Paul  IV.  si(m.  By  his  direction  they  were  de- 
prived of  valuable  franchises,  enclosed 
within  the  ghetto,  subjected  to  further  taxation,  lim- 
ited in  their  commerce  to  old  clothing,  ]irohibi ted  from 
practising  any  art  other  than  inedi<ine.  and  this  not 
among  the  Christians,  and  forbidden  the  use  of  their 
calendar.  .Vs  a  means  of  satisfying  his  feeling  of 
hatred  against  the  Spaniards.  Paul  IV.  jiracti.sed 
cruelty  toward  the  Por1iigue.sc  Jews;  he  sent  an 
iidinman  commissioner,  a  certain  Cesare  Galuaba,  to 
Ancona  with  orders  to  incarcerate  all  who  did  not 
accept  baptism  and  to  condenm  them  to  the  stake. 
Thus  terrorized,  sixty-three  renounced  their  faith. 
Twenty-three  men  and  one  woman,  whose  names 
have  been  hand<'d  down  in  chronick's.  preferred 
death  to  ajiostasy,  and  these  were  all  hanged  to- 
gether and  afterward  liiu'iit  on  the  Piazza  della  -Mos- 
tra  (•' Shalshelet  ha-Kabbalah  "  of  Gedaliah  ibn  Yah- 
ya.  and  local  records).  (Compare  D.  Kaufmann, 
"■  f-esVingt-quatres Martyrs d' Ancona,"  in  "  Kev.  fit. 
Jinves,"  xxxi.  222-280.)  Thoroughly  alarmed,  many 
of  the  Jews  tied.  Prayers  for  the  dead  are  still  said, 
and  the  elegy  composed  by  Jacob  de  Zano  is  still 
recited  annually  in  the  synagogues  for  tliese  martjrs. 


Tlic  Jews  of  the  Levant  planned  n  novel  mode  of 
vengeance  against  Ancona  for  its  iniipiitous  treat- 
mentof  the  Jews,  and  well  nigh  executed  it.  Many 
of  the  ^laranos,  during  the  reign  of  Pope  Paul  IV.. 
had  tied  to  Pesaro.  and  from  there,  probably  upon 
the  advice  and  |U'ouiises  of  protection 
Mercantile  of  (iuido  Ibaldo.  duke  of  If  bino.  had 

Reprisal,  sent  an  envoy.  .luda  Faragi.  with  let- 
ters addressed  to  the  Jews  of  the  Le- 
vant, entreating  the  latter,  in  whose  hands  lay  nearly 
all  commerce  with  the  Italian  jiorls.  lo  send  all  their 
nu-rchandise  to  Pesaro.  instead  of  directing  it.  as  they 
had  previously  done,  to  .Vneoua.  The  weifarcof  this 
city  would  uiidoubtedly  have  been  greatly  impaired, 
if  the  Levantine  Jews  had  kept  the  jiromise  lliey  at 
tirst  gave  in  aiisw<'r  to  the  messages  of  the  Maranos 
of  Pesaro;  but  the  Jews  of  Ancona  themselves  iin- 
|)lored  that  no  such  action  be  taken.  They  shrewdly 
pointed  out  that  the  jiopc  wotdd  wreak  vengeance 
on  all  Jews  in  his  slate,  as  well  as  on  the  Maranos, 
therefore  the  ban  juonounced  on  Paid  IV.  by  most 
of  the  rabbis  of  Turkey  was  not  stringently  enforced, 
(iuido  Ubaldo.  disii|ii)(iiiited  in  his  hopes  of  seeing 
Pes;iro  super.sede  Ancona  in  eoiuniereial  importance, 
very  soon  after  this  expelled  the  Maranos  from  Pe- 
saro (JIarch,  l.^oH).  It  is  noteworthy  that  among 
tho.se  who  had  tied  from  Ancona  during  the  activity 
of  the  Inciuisition  was  .Viiialo  Liisitano.  the  famous 
physician.  When  Paul  IV.  had  caused  the  arrest  of 
all  the  MaraiKis  of  Ancona.  Sultan  Sulaiman  II..  upon 
the  repealed  entreaties  of  Dona  Graeia  Nasi  and  Don 
Joseph  Xasi,  sent  a  IctU'r  to  him,  March  !t.  }'>'>C>.  rc- 
(luesting  him  to  release  such  as  were  Tuikish  sub- 
jects, and  iutimaliiig  that  a  failure  to  comply  with 
the  request  would  bring  rejirisals  of  all  sorts  upon 
the  Christians  living  in  Turkey.  Pins  IV.  saw  him- 
self accordingly  obliged  to  ndea.se  the  Turkish  Jews. 
Those  Maranos  of  Ancona  who  could  claim  no  jiro- 
leclor  other  than  the  |io]ie  himself — about  101)  in 
number — laiiguislied  in  dungeons.  See  "  Kev.  6t. 
Jiiives."  xvi.  (Ui-71,  xxxi.  2:il-2:i'J. 

Pope  Pius  IV.,  who  succeeded  Paul  in  1559,  pun- 
ished the  pcriMtrators  of  this  infamy,  abolished  the 
provisions  of  his  predecessor,  and  in  general  amelio- 
rated the  condition  of  the  Jews.  But  his  successor 
rein.stituted  a  period  of  severe  oppression.  In  a 
bull  issued  by  Pius  V..  however,  and  dated  Feb.  26, 
lli.">9.  the  Jews  of  Ancona  and  of  Uome  are  espe- 
cially excepted  from  the^ general  banishment  from 
the  Papal  States  C'Rev.  Et.  Juives."  X.  199).  In  or- 
der lo  defray  the  expense  of  the  public  games,  he 
imposed  heavy  taxes  upon  the  Jews, 

Varying  to  be  paid  both  lo  the  city  and  to  the 
Fortunes —  state;  and,  as  a  result  of  his  action, 
Emancipa-  about  I.OOO  families  abaniloncd  An- 
tion.  cona.  The  succeeding  jiopes  ri'duced 
the  ta.xes,  anil  .soon  afterward  some  of 
the  Jews  began  to  return.  In  order  to  improve  the 
commercial  condition  of  the  Papal  Stales,  Clement 
VIII.  showed  extreme  benevolence  toward  its  Jew- 
ish inhabitants,  but  this  altitude  was  not  imitated 
by  Ale.xandir  VHI.  and  Pius  VI. 

Under  the  French  doiiiiiiation.  in  1797.  Xapoleon 
substituted  for  the  jiaiial  governorof  Ancona  a  mu- 
nicipal council,  which  ineludeil  among  its  members 
three  Jews,  Samson  Costantini,  David  Morpurgo.and 
Ezeehia  J\Ior])Uigo.  Then  the  gates  of  the  ghetto 
were  destroyed,  and  the  children  of  the  Jews  were 
taught  side  by  side  with  those  of  Christians.  The 
clergy,  however,  excited  the  Christian  poinilacc  to 
such  a  degree  that  on  Jan.  10, 1798,  they  endeavored 
to  set  fire  to  the  ghetto  and  sack  it;  the  rioters  were 
dis])ersed  by  the  troops.  But  on  their  side  two  of 
the  Jewish  aldermen  prevented  the  casting  of  the 


573 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ancona 

Ancona,  Aleseandro  d' 


Ciitlii'dral  biOls  inli)  ciinnun.  The  papal  gnvornmcut 
was  ui>  sooner  icistablishcd  than  tlic  Jews  were 
ajraiii  liciTC'ly  assailed:  even  tlie  wounded  who  had 
fouglit  tor  llieir  country  were  driven  from  the  hos- 
pitals. In  \Si(>  Pope  Leo  XII.  caused  the  pitc  of 
the  ghetto  to  he  rei)laeed,  and  the  old-time  persecu- 
tions were  resumed,  so  that  many  of  the  Jews  emi- 
grated. On  the  niglit  of  April  ".Jdiif  Ihal  year,  Anna 
Costantini.  a  young  girl,  was  torn  from  her  family 
and  forced  into  liaptism.  During  the  revolution  of 
IHIil  the  gates  of  llic  ghetto  were  torn  down,  but  in 
184:i  (June  24).  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Jews 
of  the  city  had  contributed  f.J.!l()()  seudi  to  do  lionor 
to  the  pope  during  his  visit  in  1  Ml.  an  old  decree  was 
revived  by  Fra  Vin<-enzo  Solivu.  Impiisitor  of  An- 
cona and  other  districts.  forlii<lding  Ji-ws  to  reside  or 
do  business  in  any  jilace  where  there  was  no  ghetto, 
to  employ  Christian  journeymen,  to  hire  Christian 
servants,  wet-nurses,  or  apprentices,  to  deal  in  books 
of  any  sort  or  in  ecclesiastical  robes,  etc.  Hut  the 
public  sentiment,  in  Italy,  as  well  as  in  Kurope  gen- 
erally, was  so  strongly  against  any  rehabilitation 
of  ini|uisitional  restrictions  against  the  Jews,  that 
very  soon  after  its  |)romulgation  the  decree  was  sus- 
pended. It  is  believed  that  the  imme(liale  cause  of 
the  revival  of  these  old  restrictive  measun'S  was  an 
entirely  accidental  occurrenci>:  thi'  Impiisitor.  while 
passing  through  the  streets  of  Ancona  in  a  cariole 
driven  by  a  Jew.  was  nearly  hurled  to  the  groimd  by 
the  horse,  which  suddeidy  took  fright.  The  Jew  was 
accused  of  having  intended  to  overturn  the  ju'elate. 
and  imprison<'d.  and  the  agitation  against  the  Jews 
soon  became  serious.  Haron  Charles  Hothscbihl,  of 
Naples,  was  among  those  who  exerted  their  inlluence 
for  the  revocation  of  the  decree. 

The  revolution  of  1S4H  brought  freedom  to  tlie 
Jews.  Among  the  martyrs  of  Ancona  in  lS4fl. 
Giuseppe  Camilla,  a  Jew,  is  mentioiud.  Theopiires- 
sions  uniler  the  clerical  g<iverninent  that  followed 
were  less  rigorous,  anil  in  IHlit),  in  the  name  of  Vic- 
tor Emanuel,  the  Jews  again  obtained  complete  re- 
ligious frc'edom.  and  the  Jewish  conununity  of  An- 
cona was  constituted  after  the  same  manner  as  those 
of  Piedmont.  Since  that  dale  the  history  of  tlie 
community  has  been  uneventful. 

Ancona  contains,  to-day,  about  l,Tl)l)  Jews  in  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  liO.dOO.     They  possess  two  jiiaces  of 
worship  forthe  Italian  liturgy  an<l  one  fortlie  Levant- 
ine; an  asylum   for  Jewish  children, 
Present      and  a  Talmud  Torali.  with  an  annex 

Statistics,  for  girls,  where  instruction  is  given  in 
the  Jewish  reliirion  and  in  the  nebrew 
language.  During  ISlMl-'.lit,  4'.l-2  birlhsand  309dealhs 
have  taken  place  in  the  community.  The  greater 
number  of  the  Jews  in  the  city  follow  commercial 
l>iirsuils,  but  many  also  have  devoted  themselves  to 
ilie  study  of  medicine,  law.  liteniture,  and  the  arts 
and  scii'nces.  The  following  eleemosynary  institu- 
tions nourish  in  Ancona  :  Ma'aseh  lia-Zedekah. 
(iemiliit  Ilasadim.  and  ISikkur  l.lolim  ii-Malbisli 
'Arumini. 

The  rabbinical  chair  of  Ancona  was  always  ini 
portant  in  Italy,  and  several  distinguished  rabbis 
liave  occupied  it.  The  first  of  these,  whose  name  is 
recorded,  was  E/.ckiel  Provenzali,  who  otllcialed  in 
the  year  HiTll.  Some  of  his  decisions  are  found  in 
■■  Pal.iad  Yizl.iak."  others  in  the  unpublished  work 
of  Hablii  Nathaniel  ben  Aaron  Segre.  " '.Vfar  Yaa- 
kob  "  Mis  successor  was  Menaheiii  Shulhani.  who 
exercised  his  functions  in  IliT.'i.  lie  was  followed 
by  (Jiosii^'  HalTaele  Kermi.  who  11ourishe<l  toward 
the  end  of  the  sevent<'cnlli  century  ami  in  the  begin 
ning  of  the  eighteenth,  and  compiled  a  collection  of 
318  nibbinical  responses,  now  in  the  possession  of 


Zadok  Kalin,  chief  rabbi  of  Fnince  (described  bv 
M.  G.  Montctiore,  "Kev.  fit.  Juives,"  x.  \><S  d  .mj.). 
Giuseppe  Fiammetta.  a  distinguished  e.xegcte.  poet, 
and  theologian,  published  a  volume  of  praj'crs  and 
hymns,  entitled  "Or  Boker,"  and  wrote  two  vfilunics 

of  responsa,  which  ai<'  still  unpiib- 
Rabbis  of  lish<ul:  he  died  in  1730.  His  son-iii- 
Ancona.      law,  Samson  Morpurgo,  filticiated  for 

a  lime  with  Fiammetta.  and  afterward 
alone.  Morpurgo  was  a  celebrated  physician,  phi- 
losopher, and  casuist,  and  ]iublislied  a  work  of  theo- 
logical res|)onses;  he  died  in  1740.  Isaac  Fiano 
of  Koine  (1752-1770);  Hayyiiu  Abraham  Israel  of 
Kliodes  (1774-17S.')).  author  of  "  Het  Abraham  "  and 
"Ainarot  Tehorot";  Raphael  Isaiah  Azulai  (1787- 
1S2()),  who  wrote  many  of  the  rabbinical  responsa 
found  in  a  work  by  bis  father,  the  well-known  Hay- 
yim  Joseph  .Vzulai — followed  in  succession.  Aeon- 
temporary  of  the  last  was  the  titulary  rablii,  Jacob 
Samson  Seiiigaglia,  authorof  "  Abir  Ya'akob."  "  Jlnf- 
tat  Elohim,"  and  "  Xezir  Shimshon  "  (unpublished). 
After  Azulai  came  David  Vivanti  (lS2!l-bH7()).  who 
left  several  manuscripts  iiertaining  to  literature  and 
theology.  His  successor  is  Isaac  KalTaello  Tcdesclii. 
The  notables  of  modern  Ancona  are  Leone  Levi — a 
well-known  lawyer,  economist,  and  statistician,  who 
wrote  works  w  hicli  have  been  uw  aided  prizes  in  Ber- 
lin and  liondon — and  Eugeuio  Camerini.  a  commen- 
tator on  Dante. 

BIBI.IOGUAPIIV:  (iriltz,  Ocsch.  drr  Jiitlrii,\\.iiasKim;  Knuf- 
inann.  Lis  MartjirH  irAncnna,  fn  Hi  v.  Kt.  Juirrs^  xl.  149 
ttseq.;  idvm.  Les  l'i»(/t-oiiatn'«  .Vnrfj/rs  (/'.4»coiifl,  ibid. 
x.\xl.  -ms  ft  M-q. :  Vdice  nf  Jacnli.  I.  a>i,  il.  ^Xi. 

ANCONA,  ALESSANDRO  D' :  Historian  of 
Italian  literal ure  and  philologisi  ;  lioru  at  Pisa  (Tus- 
cany). Feb.  20.  183o.  He  is  the  youngest  of  five 
brothers,  all  of  whom  have  achieved  fame  in  the 
careers  they  have  chosen.  Alessandro  received  his 
tir.st  education  at  a  private  school  of  Florence  known 
asthe  "Istitutodei  Padridi  Famiglia.'' where  he  had 
as  masters  Nicolo  Giorgetii  and  Cesare  Scortabelli. 
Especial  attention  was  there  jiaid  to  literary  disiniisi- 
tioiis,  and  to  Italian  rhetoric  an<l  prosody,  and  the 
young  D'.Vncoua  devoted  most  of  his  energies  to  these 
latter  subjects.  At  the  age  of  tifleen  he  composed 
two  short  jiocms,  elegies  ou  the  death  of  his  teacher 
Giorgctti,  which,  although  they  bear  many  traces  of 
youthful  extravagance,  are  nevertheless  excellent 
imitations  of  classical  verse,  both  in  form  and  meter. 
Three  years  later  he  demonstrated  bis  knowledge  of 
medieval  Italian  litcr.iry  sources,  his  critical  sense, 
and  his  scientilic  methods  of  investigation  by  wri- 
ting an  essjiy  on  (Jiovanni  Donienico,  or — as  he  is 
better  known— Tommaso  Campanella,  the  meta]ihy- 
sician  and  political  ref(U-incr.  a  contemporary  of 
Galileo. 

The  learning,  and  especially  the  political  tenden- 
cies, expnssed  in  this  work  ilrew  upon  the  author 
the  attention  of  the  Libenil  party  in 
His  Polit-    Tuscany,  and  w  hen.  after  the  suppres- 

ical  and  sion  of  the  "  Xazionale."  Celeslino  Bi- 
Jour-         anchi  founiled  the  "(Jeiiio,"  D'.\iicona 

nalistic  was  invited  by  Bianchi  and  his  co- 
Activity,  editor  Arcangeli  to  collabonile  on  this 
paper.  Hi'  joined  the  stalT,  also,  of 
that  other  propagandist  journal,  the  "  Spetlatore  llnl- 
iano."  In  lH.'i.">  he  went  to  Turin,  ostensibly  to  study 
law  at  the  university,  luit  in  reality  to  act  as  secret 
agent  between  the  two  LibemI  parties  of  Tuscany 
and  Pii'dmont.  and  also  between  these  and  Count 
Cavoiir.  He  remained  in  Turin  for  three  years,  and 
D'.Vncona's  name  .siHin  became  known  in  the  ad- 
vanced political  circles  of  Italy.     He  was  in  dose 


Aiicona,  Alessaudio  cl' 
Anctulusia 


Tin:   .IKWISII   ENCYCLOl'KDIA 


574 


Alessaudri'  d'Anconu. 


relations  of  friendship  witli  Carlo  Luigi  Fariiii,  and  In 

the  Soeietii  Nsizionale  (Xiilioiial  Society)  he  re)>re- 
seiiteil  Tuseaiiy.  When  C'avnur's  eonipatriots  de- 
eided  toolTer  this  statesman  liis  Imst  by  the  sculptor 
Velo,  it  was  Alessandro  d'Ancona  who  was  selected 
to  make  the  presentation  speech.  \  similar  honor 
was  conferred  upon  him  at  the  close  of  the  Crimean 

war.  when  the  i)a- 
I  riots  of  Tuscany 
jircscnted  General 
l,a  JIarmora  with  a 
sword.  On  the  fall 
of  the  government 
of  Leojjold  II.  in 
Tuscany  (April  27, 
18o9),  D'Ancona  set 
out  for  Florence — 
his  former  home — 
and  arrivini;  there 
assumed  the  liiiin- 
lili-  post  of  secretary 
of  the  Second  Army 
Corps  of  central  It- 
aly. But  his  friends 
soon  found  more 
suitable  oeeuiiation 
for  him;  immediate- 
ly after  tlie  treaty 
of  Vilhifranca  he  was  given  the  editorship  of  the 
advanced  Liberal  journal  "  La  Xazione."  which  had 
been  founded  by  Ricasoli  and  Salvaguuoli. 

In  spite  of  all  his  political  activity.  D'Ancona  still 
f(]und  time  to  pursue  his  philological  studies,  and, 
thr<iughthe  ellortsof  his  friend  Salvagnuoli,  he  was, 
in  ISlio.  iippoinled  deputy-professor  of  Italian  litera- 
ture at  the  university  of  his  native  town,  Pisa.  The 
othcial  oci'upant  of  this  chair,  though  he  never  ac- 
tually lectured,  was  the  celebrated  critic  De  Sanctis, 
whose  full  successor  D'Ancona  became  the  year  fol- 
lowing. His  entire  work,  after  IJ^lil.  lay  in  the  field 
of  jihilology,  his  researches  being  directed  to  the 
origin  and  gradual  development  of  Italian  liteniture. 
I)'An<'oiia's  position  among  the  ])liilologists  of 
Italy  is  a  most  pronnnent  one,  and  is  to  be  meas- 
ured not  only  by  the  actual  importance  of  Ins  works, 
but  aliove  all  by  the  new  standard,  in  scope  and 
method,  set  by  him  and  a  few  of  his  contemporaries, 
suchas  Carducci,  Comparctti,  and  JIussatia.  Before 
the  advent  of  these  men  the  study  of  the  medieval 
Italian  te.\ts  was,  it  is  true,  zealously  pursued;  but 
the  criterion  in  the  treatment  of  these  texts  was  the 
individual  eclecticism,  the  esthetic  taste,  or  the  pri- 
vate ends  of  the  conunentator.  The  seientitic  meth- 
ods of  philological  investigation  recently  inaugu- 
rated in  Germany  were  as  yet  unknown  in  Italy 
(Ihongh  an  exception  must  be  made  in  the  case  of 
Kmiliani-tJiudici),  and  the  "historical  point  of  view  " 
was  entirely  neglected  by  men  of  such  erudition  even 
as  FanfaiH  and  the  poet  Giacomo  Leojiardi.  Espe- 
cially was  this  the  case  with  the  most  absorbing 
of  topics  in  Italian  literature,  that  of  Dante.  All 
those  who  had  literary,  |>olitieal.  or  reli,gious  theories 
to  defend  or  refute  sought  in  Dante  (and  invariably 
found  there)  corroborative  arguments  (see  especially 
Gabriele  Uossetti,  "  Lo  Spirito  Antipapale  "), 

Ali'ssandro  d'Ancona  was  in  every  way  prepared 
to  join   the   small   circle   of   literary   historians   to 
whom  this  revolution  in  the  methods 
As  a  Phi-    of  investigation   was  due.     His  first 
lologist.     work,    the    study    of    the    life    and 
works  of  Campanella,  already  men- 
tioned, tliongh  written  when  he  was  a  mere  youth, 
was  a  thorough,  impartial   disquisition   upon   the 
literary  value,  the  political  and  religious  ideas  of 


the  unfortunate  Dominican.  The  cs,say  paved  the 
way  for  the  work  which  D'Ancona  pui)lished  soon 
afterward,  "Opeie  di  Tomnuiso  Campanella"  (2 
vols,,  Turin,  ls,')4),  the  ba.sis  of  all  subseipient  re- 
searches concerning  Campanella.  \Vhen.  therefore, 
under  the  direction  of  F.  Zandirini,  the  two  serial 
ind)lications  of  Old  Italian  texts  were  begun,  the 
"Collezioiie  di  Antichc  S<fitlure  Ineilite  o  Uare " 
(Collection  of  Old  Works,  either  Cnpublished  or 
Hare;  indilished  by  ><islri,  at  I'isa),  and  the  "  Seelta 
di  Ciiriosita"  (Collection  of  Curious  Works;  pub- 
lished at  Bologna,  by  Homagnolii.  D'Ancona  was 
among  the  tirst  contributors.  In  the  formerof  these 
two  collections  there  appeared  his  edition  of  Agos- 
tino  Velletri's  "Storia  di  (Jinevm  degli  Almieri" 
(IHOii).  a  study  of  the  Latin  work.  "Atlila  Flagellum 
Dei"  (l^'()4).  and  an  essay  on  the  Seven  Wise  Men 
("II  Libro  del  Sette  Savi""  1H()4);  and  in  the  latter 
he  published  several  medieval  legends,  among  which 
may  be  here  mentioned  those  of  .Iinias  Isearlot  ("  La 
Leggenda  di  Vcrgogna.  c  Quella  di  Giuda  I.seariotc," 
lHt)9)and  of  Adam  and  Eve  ("La  Leggenda  d'Adamo 
ed  Eva."  1870). 

The  iihilcilogical  researches  pursued  by  D'Ancona 
com|)rise  the  wholi'  field  of  early  Italian  literature. 
He  entered  into  disipMsitions  on  the  various  classes 
of  the  folk-lore  material  it.self  and  itsappearanceand 
further  development  in  Italy,  as  well  as  upon  the 
form,  ])opular  or  "learned,"  which  the  malc'rial 
finally  assumed;  but  he  studied,  too.  the  individual 
works  of  the  more  cultured  medieval  writers.  lu 
187o  he  imlilished  a  work  on  the  early  popular 
jioetry  of  Italy.  "Le  Antiche  Kiine  Volgari.  Secondo 
la  Lczione  del  Codicc  Vaticano  Mli);!"  lAiicient  I'op- 
tdar  Poems,  from  the  Vatican  Manuscript  Xo.  81i):i; 
published  at  Bologna);  in  1878  appeared  another, 
"La  Poesia  Popolare  Itidiana"  (Popular  Italian 
Poetry;  published  at  Leghorn);  in  1881  he  wrote 
his  book  on  the  popular  songs  of  the  ]irovince  of 
Reggio  ("  Canti  del  Pojiolo  Keggino."  published  at 
X'aples);  and  finally,  in  1889,  he  pidilished  still  an- 
other work  on  the  ])opular  ]ioetry  of  Italy  ("  Poeinetti 
Popolari  llaliani,"  pulilislied  at  Bologna),  the  vari- 
ous introductions  to  which  "are  written" — to  use 
tiie  words  of  another  eminent  ))hilologist — "with  as 
much  science  as  taste  "  (see  Gaston  Paris,  in  "  Ro- 
mania," xviii,  .508).  An  essay  on  a  popular  spiritual 
drama  of  Tuscany,  a  .sort  of  "May-festival,''  which 
D'Ancona  had  written  in  1869,  gave  rise  to  a  more 
elaborate  work  concerning  religious  di-amatie  ]ier- 
formances,  or,  as  they  are  more  popularly  called, 
"mysteries,"  of  Italy:  "Sacre  Hapiiresontazioni  del 
Secoli  XIV..  XV.,  e  XVI."  (Sacred  Performances  of 
the  Fourteenth,  Fifteenth,  and  Sixteenth  Centuries; 
3  vols.,  Florence,  1872);  and  this  was  followed,  in 
1877,  by  his  work  on  the  origin  of  Italian  dmniatic 
literature,  which  the  author  ascribes  to  these  very 
religious  plays  ("Origiiu'  del  Teatro  in  Italia,"  jiid)- 
lislie(l  lit  Florence).  Ill  this  field  of  research  may 
be  classed  also  D'Aneona's  work  on  the  original 
.sources  of  the  "  Novellino, "  where  the  atithor  reviews 
all  the  "  novella  material  "  to  \u:  found  in  the  ancient 
literaturesof  the  world  ("Fonti  del  Xovellino,"  ))ub- 
lished  in  1873) ;  also  his  "  Due  Farse  del  Secolo  XVI." 
(Two  Farces  of  the  Sixteenth  Century;  Bologna, 
1882),  a  noteworthy  addition  to  the  history  of  Italian 
literature. 

In  the  fielil  of  what  is  termed  the  "higher  liter- 
ary history" — in  thi-  study  of  belles-lettres — too, 
D'Aneona's  work  occupies  a  very  important  posi- 
tion. His  contribution  to  the  Dante  literature,  be- 
sides a  ftfw  articles  of  minor  length,  consists  of  only 
two  volumes,  his  edition  of  "Vita  Xuova "  (The 
Xcw  Life),  Pisa,  1872  (2d  ed..  1884),  and  his  study  of 


675 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ancona,  Alessaudro  d' 
Andalusia 


till-  |iiiDaiitis(Hic  vision  literature,  "I  Prctursori  di 
Dilute"  (Tlic  KDrcrumicrs  of  Dante),  Florcncf,  1874; 
hut  liotli  of  these  works  marked  a  new  em  in  the 
treatment  of  the  suhjeet,  and  hoth  are 
As  Iiiter-  indispensahle  even  at  the  present  day 
ary  Clitic,  for  their  wealtli  of  information  and 
their  thoroiiiihness  of  discussion.  To 
Ihi-  "Vita  Nnova  "  D'Aneona  apju'iided  liissludy  of 
Beatrice,  wliich  he  liad  lirst  made  known  at  Florence 
in  the  form  of  a  lecture,  and  in  this  "essiiy  "  tlie  au- 
thor presents  the  first  lofrieal  conce|)lion  of  Dante's 
famous  personage,  inakin.i;  of  lier  an  actual  living 
lieing  and  not  a  mere  phantom.  From  among  the 
many  studies  liy  DAiicona  on  single  topics  or  indi 
vidual  writers  of  medieval  Italy  tin'  most  iinjiortant 
are  the  following:  "11  'Contraslo'  di  Ciullo  d'Al- 
camo  "  (The  "Contrast  "  of  (  Vizeii]  Ciidlo  d'Alcamo; 
Bologna,  18T4),  which  was  inspired  by  the  healed 
di.scussion  among  literary  historians  as  to  the  e.vact 
form  of  this  poet's  name  and  that  of  the  .single  poem 
lie  hail  composed.  He  resumed  this  subject  on  sev- 
eral occasions,  and  in  1HS4  published  an  cssiiy  the  title 
of  wliich  sultices  to  indicate  the  change  of  opinion 
that  had  taken  place  in  D'Aiiconas  views:  "11  Con- 
traslo di  C'ielo  dal  Camo"  (The  CoiilrasI  of  Heaven 
IjyCamo;  in  "Stiidj  sulla  Letteralura  Ilaliana  de' 
Primi  Secoli,"  Aiu'ona.  1>*S4;  this  work  contains  also 
a  stuily  on  .laeopone  di  Todi):  "  Le  Odi  di  Giuseppe 
Parini  "  (The  Odes  of  Giuseppe  Parini:  Florence, 
is.-<4i;  "II  Tesoro  di  Hrnnetio  Latino"  (The  Treas- 
ure, by  ISrunello  Lalini;   Rome,  188!)). 

Ales-andro  d'An<-ona  coiilribulc<l  to  numerous 
learned  periodic.ils.  and  much  of  his  best  work  on 
medieval  Italian  lilerature  is  coiilained  in  shorter 
articles.  Thus  in  the  philological  journal  "  Uo- 
mania"  (edited  in  Paris  by  Gaston  Paris  and  Paul 
Meyer)  he  published  a  study  on  Ceccod'Angioglieri, 
ami  in  the  "I{ivista  Italiana"  (published  at  .'\iilan). 
an  elaborate  essjiy  on  Convenevolc  da  Plato,  the 
teacher  of  Petrarch — a  theme  that  ten  years  later  he 
resumed  in  the  ".Stiiilj  sulla  Letteralura  Italiana  dc' 
Primi  Secoli."  alreaily  mentioned.  He  collaborated 
als<j  on  the  "  Hivista  di  Filologia  Homanza  "  and  its 
sequel,  the  "Giornaledi  Filologia  Homanza"  (edited 
at  Home  by  Monaei),  the  "Giornale  Storico  della 
Letteratura  Italiana,"  the  "  Propugnatore  "  of  Bo- 
logna, the"Nuova  Antologia,"  the  "  Hiissegna  Set- 
teiiianale."  etc.  Several  other  interesting  contribu- 
tions of  his  to  the  study  of  medieval  Italian  lore 
appeared  in  occasional  minor  publications,  as,  for 
insiaiice,  in  "per  iiozzc  "  (or  festive  writings  on  the 
event  of  a  friend's  marriage). 

Though  DAncona's  fame  is  due  entirely  to  the 
part  he  took  in  the  creation,  in  Italy,  of  a  scientific 
school  of  literary  history,  and  to  the  jiosition  he  held 
as  a  student  of  romance  philology,  h<'  by  no  means 
limit  ed  his  studies  to  the  literature  of  the  Aliddle  .\ges, 
nor  dill  he  sever  his  conneilions  with  the  political 
and  social  movements  of  the  day.  Not  only  ilo  oc- 
casional pa.s.sages  in  his  philological  works,  by  the 
(lirictness  of  the  remarks  and  the  radical  tenclency 
of  the  ideas  i'.vpres.m'd,  recall  the  former  journalist 
of  the  "  Nazionale  "  period,  but  upon  several  occa- 
sions as  univei-sity  profes.sor  lie  showed  both  the 
vivid  interest  he  t<H>k  in  all  national  and  local 
(lUcstions.  and  his  earnest  zeal  in  their  solution. 
In  a  discourse  at  the  opening  of  the  I'niversity 
of  Pisa  for  the  year  1S7."),  he  chose  as  a  theme  the 
"Conception  of  Political  I'nily  Throughout  Italy" 
(II  Concetto  di'ir  I'liilA  Politiea  iiei  Paesi  Ilaliani: 
Pisa,  IHT.*!).  In  the  collection,  too.  of  essays  on  vari- 
ous topics,  published  in  two  series  under  the  title 
"Varieta  Storiche  i'  Lettcnirie"  (Milan,  IMHa-AT), 
tlieii'  are  several  discussions  of  a  politi<iil  ehanicter. 


notably  one  on  Charles  Albert,  and  anotluT  entithd 
"Unity and  Federation,"  on  the  Italian  "liberation" 
literature  of  1792-1S14.  In  the  .same  collection  an 
essay,  "  Ugo  Foscolo  Judged  by  an  Alienist,"  though 
intended  as  a  luotest  against  the  grouping  together 
of  the  "  heroes  of  the  assize  courts  and  the  gallows  " 
with  the  sublime  poet  of  the  "Grazie,"  is  in  reality 
a  criticism  of  the  favorite  theories  of  D'Ancona's 
friend  Cesare  Lombroso. 

The  work  of  D'Aneona  in  the  field  of  modern  lit- 
erature is  of  wide  scojie.  Worthy  of  special  mention 
are  his  es.sjiys  on  "  A  Secretary  of  Altieri  "  and  "  Al- 
fred de  Musset  on  Italy,"  both  in  the  "  Varieta  Sto- 
riche e  Letteiarie"  (2(1  series,  jip.  147  ct  Kit/.,  185  et 
xir/.).  and  the  article  in  the  "Nuova  Antologia"  for 
1878  on  the  "  Family  of  (Jiacomo  I.eopardi." 

Ales.sandro  d'Ancona  still  tills  the  chair  of  Italian 
literature  at  the  I'liiversity  of  Pisa,  and  occupies 
besides  the  position  of  vice-president  and  director  of 
the  Regia  Scuola  Xormale  Su|)eriore  of  Pisa.  He  is 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  (class 
of  moral  sciences).  Among  his  numerous  pupils 
the  two  that  have  achieved  the  greatest  distinc- 
tion as  iihilologisls  arePio  Rajna  and  Francesco 
d'Ovidio. 

BinuoGRAPiiY:  A.  de  Gubenxalis,  Dictionnaire  International 
(le»  Eerimmn  ilu  Jmir.  s.v.  D'^^lHcoim ;  G.  Boccardo,  Xuova 
Enciclitjmlia  Italiana  (Turin),  suppl.  1.,  s.v. ;  La  Grande 
Eneychiphlic^  s.v. 

W.  M. 

ANCONA,  JACOB  BEN  ELIA  D' :  Copyist; 
lived  at  the  end  of  the  tifteenlh  century.  Stein- 
schneider  states  ("Ilcbr.  Bibl."xx.  12fi)  that  Ancona 
copied  some  anonymous  commentaries  on  the 
"Iva'arat  Kesef"  of  Ezobi  and  on  the  "  Hel.iinat 
'Dlam."  The  latter  work  bears  the  date  of  the  2d 
Adar,  .ji.").-)  (U'J.'i).  The  Hebrew  code.\  containing 
these  commentaries  is  found  in  the  Royal  Library 
of  Turin,  and  consists  of  fortvsi.x  folios. 


Itini.iocR.vPiiv:  R.  I'eyron,  Cat.  Turin.  1S,S0. 


V.  c. 


ANDALUSIA:  The'  largest  of  the  ancient  divi- 
sions ol  soiitliirn  Spain,  comprising  the  Moorish 
kingdomsof  Seville,  Cordova,  and  Granada,  with  the 
towns  of  Mala.iia,  Lucena  (.\licena),  and  several 
others.  This  m<ist  beautiful  portion  of  the  IlRTian 
peninsula  early  attracted  Jew  s,  as  it  had  earlier  ut- 
tracled  the  Phenicians.  Jews,  both  those  who  were 
already  settlc<l  there  and  those  who  served  in  their 
army,  gave  essential  as.sistance  to  the  followers  of 
Islam  w  hen  they  coiKiiuTcd  Spain.  Afric-jin  Jews, 
under  K.\fl..v  .\i,-Y.Mlfl)t.  took  part  in  the  decisive 
battle  nearXerez  de  la  Fronlera,  711.  The  captured 
cities  of  Cordova  and  Seville  were  entrusted  by  the 
eomiuerors  to  the  care  of  Jews;  and  the  latt<'r,  ow- 
ing to  its  large  Jewish  population,  liecame  known 
as"  Villa  di- Judfos  "  (Jews'  City  I.  The  Jews,  so  long 
oppressed,  were  now  allowed  the  fullest  religious 
fii'idom  by  their  new  rulers.  They  lived  under  no 
civil  disabilities  whatever;  ami  a  poll  ta.x  (rf/ii"HiHi((/i) 
was  the  only  tiscal  burden  laid  upon  them. 

Xotw  ithslanding  this,  scarcely  a  decade  later, 
many  faithful  Jews  followed  the  psciido- Messiah 
SKltKXK;  abaniloning  their  goods  and  homes,  which 
were  conliscated  to  the  public  tieasury.  But  w  hen 
the  wise  and  powerful  Abdcr  Rahman  HI.  (!ll-- 
lltil) — to  w  honi,  it  is  .said,  a  Jew  had  foretold  his  fii- 
tiir<'  fame  and  glory — established  a  strong  .Moorish 
kingdom  in  Spain,  many  ,Iews  that  hiul  Ikhh  suller- 
iiig  uniler  the  oppression  of  the  Fntimite  califs  si-t- 
lied  in  Andalusia.  I'ndiT  Abdcr- Rahman  the  city  of 
Cordova   became  the  chief  seal  of  learning  in    the 


Andalusia 
Audernach 


Tlir.   .IKWISII    I;N(  YCI.OI'KDIA 


576 


AVcst.  lie  showed  himself  well  disposed  toward  liis 
Jewish  subjei-ls.    Their  inide,  in  silk  es|)eciKlly,  and 

lluirvHiioiis  iiuluslrics contributed  not 
Good-Will  a  little  In  the  |>r(is])eril y  of  the  kiiifr- 
of  Abd-er-  doni;  while  their  varied  knowledjre 
Hal^man.     ami  eiillivation  of  the  Arabic  lonirue 

were  of  ftreat  assistance  in  the  (leva 
tion  and  s|)rea<l  of  science.  Jews  (list in;_'uished  for 
culture  and  wealth  were  especially  i)referre(l  by  the 
califs  as  counselors  and  aslroloiiers,  and  were  aj)- 
pointed  to  such  important  posts  as  judges  and  sec- 
retaries of  stale  (kiiili.  hiijlh.  kiitib). 

Abd-erKahman's  own  jihysician  was  IIasdai  iun" 
SuAi'iii'T.  wlio,  knowing  Latin,  beeaiue  also  conli- 
dential  secretary — a  jxist  hitherto  held  by  the  aliliol 
Samson — and  rose  to  be  his  master's  trusted  coun- 
selor and  a  distinguished  statesman.  He  conducted 
the  calif's  negotiations  with  the  Greek  and  German 
empires,  and  also  with  several  Christian  Spanish  ru- 
lers. IIasdai  urged  the  establishment  of  a  ralibinical 
college  in  the  Ihjinishing  Jewish  eoinininiity  of  Cor- 
dova, with  the  fugitive  scholar  .Mosks  iti.N  Ha.vok 
(Enoch)  at  its  head,  which  eiuililed  the  Spanish  Jews 
to  be  independent  of  the  liabylonian  gaonate  in  mat- 
ters of  Jewish  law.  A  dispute  which  arose  upon  the 
death  of  Jloses  ben  llanok  as  to  the  ajipointmcnt  of 
a  successor  to  the  office  of  rabbi  was  (ieeided  by  the 
calif  Al-l.Iakim  II.  in  favor  of  Closes'  .son  Hanok, 
and  against  Josejih  ibn  Abitur,  a  jiroteg^of  the  silk- 
nicrcliant  Ilia  Jau.  This  Aliitur  had  translated  the 
!Mishnah  into  Arabic  at  Al  Hakim's  re(|uest.  After 
Al  Hakim's  death  all  jiowcr  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
great  hnji^'  (chamljerlain)  Al-Mansur.  who  was  very 
friendly  to  the  Jews.  Among  other  things,  he  ai>- 
pointed  the  wealthy  Ibn  Jau,  who  lived  in  princely 
style,  as  laisi  (prince)  and  supreme  .iudge  over  all 
the  Jewish  communities  in  the  Aiidalusian  califate. 
In  true  Oriental  fashion,  however,  he  very  S(Jon  de- 
jiosed  him  and  threw  him  into  prison. 

The  lirst  disputed  s\ic('essiiiM  to  the  califate  was  the 
occasion  of  the  first  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Anda- 
hjsia.  When  Al  Hakim's  son  was  opposed  by  Sulai- 
man.Al-.Mansur's  successor,  he  sent  an  embassy,  com- 
]K)Scd  mainly  of  Cordovan  Jews,  to  Count  Raymond 
of  Barcelona,  asking  for  help.     The  angry  Sniaiman 

swore  revenge  on  tlu!  Jews,  and  many 

First  Per-  were  slain  in  a  massacre  at  Cordova; 

secution     butinariy  escajied  to  Saragossa,  Seville, 

and         and -Malaga.    Among  the  fugitiveswas 

Massacre,    the  learned   i)hilol()gist  Samiki,   iia- 

LkVI  II!N  XA(;DEI,A(()rXAOREl,AVwho 

settled  in  Malaga.  His  linguistic  attainments  and 
liis  calli.irraiihy  secured  for  him  the  inlluential  jiostof 
])rivate  secretary  and  minister  to  Ilabus,  the  regent 
of  the  newly  formed  kingdom  of  (Jranada,  which 
position  he  held  for  thirty  years.  On  the  death  of 
Habus  in  KKiT.  his  younger  son  Balkin.  supported 
by  many  inlluential  Jews,  was  to  have  succeeded 
to  the  tlirone;  but  he  declined  in  favor  of  his  elder 
brother  Badis.  The  Jews  who  .sided  with  Balkin 
(who  was  soon  efl'eclually  put  out  of  the  way)  had 
to  flee,  among  them  Josi'.rii  iisx  JlKiAsir. 

Samuel,  who  was  loyal  to  Badis,  rclaineil  his  posi- 
tion and  was  made  nasi  and  chief  rabbi  of  the  Jews  in 
Granada,  for  which  his  profound  Talniudic  erudition 
especially  (|ualitied  him.  This  was  the  golden  age 
of  the  Jews  of  Granada;  they  were  in  all  respects 
placed  on  the  same  footing  as  their  Moorish  fellow 
citizens,  Samuel  died  in  10,").").  at  a  ripe  age.  and 
deeply  venerated.  His  son  Jose])h.  who  succeeded 
him,  was  not  so  fortunate.  Beared  in  lu.xury.  he 
lacked  all  his  father's  modesty ;  his  arrogance  earned 
for  him  the  hatred  of  the  -Moorish  grandees;  and  on 
December  :ii),  lOlifi,  a  terrible  massaen'  of  the  Jews  in 


Granada  was  organized,  from  which  but  few  escaped. 
Jo.seph  was  among  the  slain.  This  was  the  lirst 
massacre  of  Jews  on  Spanish  soil  resulting  from  re- 
ligious hatred.  The  em  of  Mohammedan  supremacy 
in  Si)ain  had  been  of  comparatively  short  duration. 
Small  principalities  were  established  from  time  to 
time,  always  with  special  provision  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  .lews,  who,  as  luretofore,  devoted  theni- 
.selves  to  the  service  of  the  state,  and  to  .science  and 
art.  A  Jewish  musician.  Mansur.  was  held  in  high 
esteem  by  King  Hakim.  In  Aragon  there  were  Jew- 
ish lion  tamers;  in  Andalusia.  Jewish  foot-racers. 

The  bat  lie  of  Zalaca  (  HMi).  in  which  Jews  were  nu- 
merously reprevenled  in  both  Christian  and  .Moham- 
medan armies,  and  which  was  won  by  the  Almoravide 
Yusuf  ibuTashtin.  had  the  most  disastrous  results  for 
the  Jews  in  Andalusia,  Yusuf  sought  to  compel  the 
Jews  of  Lucena — one  of  the  richest,  oldest,  and  most 
respected  communities  of  the  califate  of  Cordova  and 
possessing  nd)binical  colleges  directed  by  Kabbjs 
Isaac  ihn  GAYVAT(GiAT)and  Isaac  Ai.fasi — to  em- 
l)race  ^lohainmedanism.  Calling  a  meeting  of  the 
representatives  of  the  congregation,  he 

Conver-       .annoimced  that  he  had  read  in  the  book 

sion  of  the  Cordovan  writer  ^luserra  that 

to  Mohatn-    the  Jews  had  promised  toacknowledgc 

medanism    Mohammed  as  prophet,  and  become 

Averted.  .Moslems,  if  their  expected  Messiah 
should  not  have  arrived  before  the 
j"ear  .WO  of  the  Hegira.  This  year  had  long  goiu> 
by;  and  '\'usuf  insisted  that  they  should  now 
make  good  their  promise.  It  took  considerable  exer- 
tion and  an  enormous  sum  of  money  to  induce  the  ru- 
ler's vizier  to  secure  the  postponement  of  the  decree. 

Yusuf's  son  and  successor.  Ali.  employed  Jews 
again  as  tanners  of  the  taxes,  and  m.iny  of  them, 
such  as  the  i)hysicians  Solomon  ibn  Alnniallem  and 
Abraham  b,  Meir  ilm  Kanmial,  also  Abu  Isaac  ibu 
.Muliajar,  became  his  prime  ministers,  Cordova, 
Seville,  and  Granada  became  anew  centers  of  Jew- 
ish learning,  under  such  rabbis  as  Baruch  ibn  Allia- 
lia,  Joseph  ibn  Zaddik.  and  Joseph  ibu  .Migash.  but 
only  for  a  short  time. 

Andalusia  was  severely  scour.sed  by  African  inva- 
ders. Abdalla  il)nTumart.a  politico-religious  fanatic 
in  Morocco,  was  the  founder  of  a  sect  tliat  preached 
the  absolute  unity  of  God,  without  any  conception  of 
ciirporeality  —  calleil  hence  Ai..moua- 
'Under  the  dks  (jr  Almuwahids — and  i)reaclied  it 
Almohades.  with  tire  and  sword.  After  his  death, 
Abd-al-Mu'min, another  great  fanatic, 
took  the  leaderslii])  and  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  con(|Uereil  Cordova,  with  the  greater  |)art  of 
Andalusia,  consigning  both  Jews  and  Christians  to 
the  flames  and  to  the  spear.  Beautiful  synagogues 
were  demolished,  and  the  colleges  at  Lucena  and 
Seville  were  closed,  Abd  al-Mu'min's  persecution 
lasted  ten  years  (1 146-1 1.")()),  Many  Jews  were 
strijiped  of  their  possessions  and  sold  as  slaves; 
many  others  tied  to  Castile  and  Aragon:  still  otliere 
pretended  to  become  Aloslenis,  But  there  were  not 
lacking  brave  Jews,  like  Aben  Huiz  aben  I)ahn,wh() 
successfully  resisted  force  with  force,  and  liberated 
many  of  their  coreligionists. 

The  battle  of  Muradal.  or  Xavas  de  Tolosa,  in 
1212,  broke  the  powerof  the  Almohades.  Cordova, 
Lucena.  and  a  large  portion  of  Andalusia  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  king  of  Castile.  When  Ferdinand 
III.  captured  Seville,  the  .Tews of  the  city  delivered  to 
him  a  costly  silver  key,  engraved  with  Hebrew  and 
Arabic  inscriptions,  which  is  still  preserved  among 
the  relics  of  the  Seville  Cathedral,  -'\loors  thencefor- 
ward ridcd  over  only  the  kingdom  of  (Jranada.  The 
Jews  lived  among  them,  undisturbed  and  in  perfect 


677 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Andalusia 
Andemach 


C(nmlit_v  and  s<'curity.  Molmiimicd  of  Giauada  l)uilt 
a  r'dstly  batli-lidiise  in  liis  capital  witli  the  irvcnui'S 
dcrivcil  fnini  liis  Jewisli  and  Cliiistian  sidjjocts.  Is- 
mail, in  IHIO.  laid  a  special  tax  upon  the  houses  of 
Jews. 

But  in  the  year  13i)l  there  began  on  Andalusian 
soil  that  general  inassjiore  of  Jews  which  was  to 
spread  over  all  Spain  ;  and  it  was  in  Seville  that  the 
Imiuisition  beiran  its  activity.  In  14TS,  before  the 
<iutbreaU  of  the  great  war  which  was  to  put  an  end 
to  the  -Moorish  ijower  in  Spain,  Jews  were  forbid- 
den to  dwell  in  Cordova,  Seville,  and  other  cities  of 
Andalusia.    After  the  cajiture  of  Mal- 

The  In-  aga  ( 1487).  the  Jews  of  that  city  witli 
quisition.  drew:  and  on  the  fall  of  Granada,  in 
1402,  Jews  were  allowed  to  depart  un- 
scathed from  all  towns  and  .settlements  of  that  king- 
dom. Andalusia,  however,  remained  full  of  .secret 
Jews  after  tln'  edict  <if  e.vpulsion,  and  against  these 
the  liKpiisition  strove  until  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century, 

BinLiOfiitAPiiY:  f'onde,  HlHtnria  tie  la  DominacUm  tie  Inn 
Araliis,  II  Ksi„ifi,i.  isav-21,  3  vols.,  translat»-il  lnt<i  German 
t)yvnii  KiitlriiMiiiii,  Ih:."4-1I«K  I.,  II. ;  Almakkiirl,  Hiatimi  nf  the 
MohatntncdtiH  Kiiiijire  in  Simiu,  ed,  (iuyan^os,  I-ondon, 
1843 ;  Erscli aud  Unilwr,  Encyklupfliiic, 2 sec. xxvll.  am i ( sieii. 

M.  K. 

ANDERNACH  :  An  ancient  city  in  the  Prussian 
governmental  district  of  Coblenz.  From  very  early 
times  a  Jewish  community  was  sheltered  within  its 


Entninee  to  tlie  Jewlsli  Uutli  iit  Aiideniucli. 

(From  •  |iholn|[Ta)<li.) 

Walls      .\bnut   125r.-n()  a  certain  Co.lelif,  his  wife 
ISeia.and  their  son  Moses,  all  of  .Vndernach,  are  men- 
tioned in  the  '■  Judi'iischreinsbueh"  (Jewisiuirchives) 
I.— 37 


of  Cologne,     In  1386  Andemach  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed,  its  hoiises  and  svnago<rues  were  demol- 


luluriur  u{  Itiu  Jewisli  UuUi  ut  Aiideruucti. 

(From  a  [>hoto^Ki>h.) 

ished,  and  the  Jews,  who  had  taken  refuge  iu  the 

castle  of  the  archbishop  of  Cologne,  were  expelled 
from  the  town.  The  archbishop,  Siegfried  von  Wes- 
U'rluirg,  took  jiity  on  them,  and  for  their  protection 
issue<l  (August  3,  1287)  an  award  against  the  town 
and  its  burghers.  As  early  as  12,")3  a  Jew  from  An- 
dernach  accpiired  possession  of  a  piece  of  ground  in 
Cologne.  From  the  following  buildingsand  districts 
to  which  Jewish  names  are  attachi'd  an  idea  can  be 
gained  of  the  size  of  the  former  conununily  of  An- 
demach: the  synagogue,  the  Jewish  cemetery  on  the 
lienn,  the  "  .ludeMgasse  "  (Jews'  (|uarler)at  the  castle- 
gale,  the  "Judenlhurm"  (Jews'  tower)  between  the 
sheep-gate  and  the  church  gate,  and  the  "Jiulen- 
berg."  Therewasa  " Juilenl)l\chel."  Thewealthof 
the  community  is  indicated  by  the  large  number  of 
commercinl  prtpei"s  that  have  been  ]>rescrveil. 

The  most  important  building  was  the  Jewish 
bath — Iheoldesi  of  its  kind  now  existing.  The  bath 
isalmost  entirely  un<lergrounil.  and  has  the  form  of  a 
four  cornered  tower.  It  is  covereil  by  an  arched  roof, 
which  extends  4  J  feet  atiove  the  courtyard,  ami  upon 
which  I  here  is  a  suiierstruelure.  The  well  built  walls 
are  of  slate  lilli'd  in  with  mortar.  .Vlongoneof  thi-m 
;i  lolenibly  broad  stairway  leads  o\itward  from  the 
side  of  the  bath.  The  steps  are  of  stone  from  Men- 
dig  Till'  interior  of  the  building  is  divided  into 
tlirii' se<t  ions  by  arcings.  Thc>  llrst  of  the-ie  divisions 
is  7  feet  and  the  other  two  10;  feel  from  the  Moor. 
Lending  from  the  stairway  into  the  two  upper  rooms 
arc  two  inconvenient   entrances,  which  still  show 


Andi 
Andreas 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


578 


where  (loipis  fi)nmily  stnoil.  The  lowest  arched 
room  orisrinally  hud  fairly  wi<k'  apertures  for  the 
admission  of  liirht.  The  walls  are  built  on  oaken 
piles;  and  the  depth  of  tlie  hall  is  36  feet.  The  de- 
scent to  the  l)asin  is  by  wide  steps;  and  the  depth  of 
the  water,  which  lluctiiates  with  the  rising  or  fallina; 
of  the  Rhine,  is  never  less  than  2  feet. 

In  1337  and  1349  the  Jews  of  Andernach  s\iffered 
from  persecutions;  hut  the  date  of  their  expulsion  is 
not  certain.  In  loTS  they  made  a  successful  atteni))t 
at  resettling  in  the  town;  hut  their  commercial  privi- 
leges were  restricted.  Ahout  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  in  consequence  of  fighting  in  the  sur- 
rounding villages,  a  great  many  Jews  sought  safety 
in  the  citv.  hut  were  driven  out  in  lo97.  Again,  at 
the  time  of  thcTlnrty  Years'  war  (1618-48),  the  Jews 
took  refuge  in  Andernach.  From  1655  to  1860  no 
Jews  livecl  in  the  city;  but  in  1!)00  there  were  22 
Jews  in  a  total  population  of  6,853. 

Bibliography:  Hcioniger,  Das  Juiicrufchrrinxhuch  iter  Lan- 
renzpfarre  zu  Kiiln,  No.  'A,  p.!):  Salfeld.  Dax  Martuniln- 
giunnit'S  yUrnln-rwr  Mrinurhurtit s,  p]^.  ZiiK  2S.'>:  Urhttn- 
den  zur  Gettch.  d.  Jtulen  im  Mittthillt  r.  in  '>rkHf,  iv.  ;jt><i: 
Zur  Ge«ch.  il.  Jwlcii  in  Aiiilirniuli.   in  JIM.  LU.-ItlatI, 

18S7,  Nos.  '.H-Xi.    on  tin-  JwUnlmd inpiiiv  Xkderrhein- 

iecher  Gcschichtiffrcund,  l(*«i,  Nos.  9.  10.  12,  Hi. 

A.  F. 

ANDI  (ANDIES  ;  Kussian,  Andltzy)  :  One  of 
the  wild  Lesgliian  tribes  of  the  province  of  Tersk 
(Terek)  and  northern  Daghestau.  Like  the  Tabas- 
Siiruns  and  other  Caucasian  tribes,  tlie  Andi  claim  to 
be  of  Israeliti.sh  oiigin.  They  number  about  20,000, 
and  were  conquered  by  Russia  in  June,  1845.  The 
Andi  language  has  not  yet  been  fully  investigated. 
It  does  not  belong  to  the  eastern  group  of  the  moun- 
tain languages  of  Caucasia,  nor  can  it  be  classed  as 
Semitic. 

BIBMOGRAPIIV  :  I.  Berchin.  in  Vnxl.hnd.  NnvemloT.  IlwfmliiT. 
18Si,  p.  l-t-'i;  fslar,  \iirhitl,,  (7in>i'i^iii.-(i-iT.  i-ic.  in  Slmniil. 
Svil€djii.ni  n  Kavk(tz.'<LUih  (iortzahlt.  iMJVt.  ii.  i:{ ;  .Nadi.zhilin. 
Kavkazski  Krai,  IsiB,  p.  If'J. 

n.  R. 

ANDRADA,  SALVADOR  D' :  One  of  the  ear 
liest  Jewish  settlers  in  New  Ymk,  his  name  being 
first  encountered  in  16-55.  He  appears  to  have  been 
more  wealthy  than  most  of  his  associates,  was  act- 
ively engaged  in  commerce,  and  was  one  of  the 
leailers  in  the  measures  adopted  to  enforce  the  civil 
and  political  rights  of  the  Jews  during  the  Dutch 
period.  He  asserted  the  rights  of  the  Jews  to  own 
real  estate,  and  demanded  the  recognition  of  their 
privileges  as  Dutch  citizens,  of  their  right  to  equal 
ity  in  taxation,  and  to  trade  throughout  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  New  Xetherlands.  His  family  name 
occurs  in  various  connections  in  the  seventeenth 
century  among  the  Maranos  settled  in  Brazil,  Mex- 
ico, and  the  West  Indies. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY:  Publications  of  the  American  Jcicish  i/i.«- 
torical  Sucietu,  lU.  76.  vi.  88. 

M.  J.   K. 

ANDRADE,  ABRAHAM :  French  rabbi :  born 
in  till-  last  qiiarlerot  the  ciLdilceiitli  cenliirv;  died  at 
Bordeaux,  1836.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror  (179:i- 
94)  his  energy  and  eloquence  prevented  the  erection 
of  a  guillotine  in  the  market-place  of  St.  Esprit  (near 
Bayonne),  and  instead  of  the  guillotine  the  town  was 
adorned  with  a  statue  of  Jean  Jaciiues  Rousseau. 
He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Great  .Smhedrin 
which  met  at  Paris  in  1807.  While  rabbi  at  St.  Esjirit 
he  was  elected  "deputy  of  the  Jewish  nation"  to  the 
assembly  of  notables  convoked  by  Jsapoleon  I.  in 
1806.  He  wason  the  committeeof  nine  charged  with 
the  organization  of  the  Sanhedrin.  and  devoted  him- 
self in  a  serious  and  broad  minded  spirit  to  the  work 


of  that  body.  In  1H09  he  was  elevated  to  the  office 
of  chief  nibbi  of  Bordeaux,  in  which  position  he  re- 
mained till  his  death,  maintaining  friendly  relations 
with  the  authorities  of  the  Catholic  Ciiurcli. 

I.  L. 

ANDRADE.  VELOSINO  JACOB  DE:  Physi- 

ciiin ;  born  in  l'iriKiinliiiii>  1057,  n{  Portuguese  par- 
ents, who  had,  like  many  other  >hininos,  tied  loIBra- 
zil  after  it  had  become  a  Dutch  colony.  When  the 
Portuguese  again  took  possession  of  Brazil,  Andrjulc 
went  lo  Holland,  and  became  a  successful  inedicid 
])niclilioiier  at  The  Hague.  He  subse(|Ueiilly  re- 
moved lo  .Vntwerp.  He  wrote  a  ]>i>lemical  work 
against  Spinoza's  i)hilosophy  entillid  "Theologo  Ke- 
ligioso  Contra  el  Theologo  Politico  de  B.  de  Espi- 
nosa.  "and  translated  Saul  Morteira's"Torat.Moslieh" 
into  Portuguese  under  the  title  "  Epitome  de  la  Ver- 
dad  de  la  Ley  de  Moyses. "  When  Isaac  Jaquelot, 
a  minister  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  The 
Hague,  published  his  work  on  the  Messianic  jirophc- 
cics  of  the  Old  Testiiment.  "Dissertations  sur  le 
Messie,  ofi  Ton  Piouvciiux  .luifs,  ([lie  Jesus  Christ 
est  le  Messie  Promis  et  Predit  dans  I'Ancien  Testa- 
ment "  (The  Hagiu',  1699),  Andrade  wrote  a  defense 
of  Judaism  in  six  volumes  under  the  title  "Mes- 
sias  Restaurado  Contm  el  Libro  de  M.  Jaquelot.  Inti- 
tulado:  Di.ssertaciones  Sobre  el  Mes.sias  "  (The  Re- 
stored Jlessiah,  Against  M.  .Jaquelot's  Book,  En- 
titled; A  Dissertation  Concerning  the  Messiah),  It 
has  remained  in  manuscript. 

Biiii.ioiiRArnv:  Kavsi-rlinB.  in  Hehr.   Blbl.  1860,  ill.  .W.  59; 
idi-Ui,  Bilil.  E.''ij.-i''iii.Jud.  pp.  12,  13. 

D. 

ANDREA  DE  MONTI.    See  Joseph  ?ahfati. 

ANDREAS  II.     See  Hungary. 

ANDREAS:  A  legendary  Jewish  pope.  Accord- 
iiig  to  an  old  Spanish  document  <liscovered  among 
some  penitential  liturgies  by  Eliezer  Ashkenazi,  the 
editor  of  "Ta'am  Zekenim  "  (Frankfort-on-the-.Main, 
1854),  Andreas  was  a  .Jew  who,  upon  becoming  a 
Christian,  distinguished  himself  so  markedly  as  to 
become  successively  cardinal  sind  pope.  During  his 
pontificate,  it  is  alleged,  a  calumny  was  lodged 
against  the  Jews,  as  the  result  of  which  an  outbreak 
of  the  popidace  was  imminent.  At  the  critical  mo- 
ment, however,  the  pope  aiipeared  on  the  scene  and, 
by  delivering  a  sjieech  in  favor  of  the  .Jews,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  sul)duing  the  po]iular  passion.  The  .Jews 
thereupon  sent  a  delegation  of  their  most  prominent 
and  learned  men  to  bear  to  the  pontiff  the  expression 
of  their  gratitude.  In  response  the  pope  handed  to 
the  delegates  a  eeli?ffifi.  or  penitential  prayer,  which 
he  had  composed  in  the  sacred  tongiie,  and  which  he 
now  requested  them  to  spread  broadcast  among  all 
Jewish  comnuinities,  and  to  have  incorporated  in 
their  I)ooks  of  prayer.  This  they  did.  The  prayer 
bore  the  pope's  signature  "  Andreas,"  though  in  lu-int 
one  letter  was  Inverted  (compare  "  Ta'am  Zekenim," 
p.  11,  note,  and  Landshuth,"'Ammude  ha-'Abodah," 
pp.  46  et  "eq.). 

The  legend  of  Andreas,  which,  in  point  of  the 
liturgic  authorship,  is  based  \ipon  the  legends  of 
Ei.i.iAii  and  St.  Pkter,  must  be  regarded  as  a  va- 
riant of  that  peculiar  story  concerning  a  .Jewish 
pope  which  fouii<l  a  wide  circulation  in  the  .Je\vries 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  That  .Vndreas  is  in  this  case  the 
name  of  the  pope,  while  in  other  versions  only  his 
former  .Jewish  name  Elhanan  appears,  is  no  proof 
against  the  essential  unity  of  the  legend.  Dating 
its  origin  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, as  is  most  iirobable.  the  legend  went  through 
many  phases  of  adaptation.     It  appeared,  in  almost 


579 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Audi 
Andreas 


complete  inj'thical  dress,  in  a  Passover  poem  supposed 
to  be  composed  t)y  one  of  t  lie  oldest  Gvnmm  piiitii iiim , 
Simeon  hen  Is;i;ie  ben  Abun  the  (ireatior  the  Elder), 
who  lived  at  .Mayc-iiee  about  the  year  1000.  In  the 
poem  Simeon,  wliom  i)opular  irenealosry  was  already 
eager  to  regard  as  a  lineal  descendant  of  King  I)a\i(I, 
alludes  (|uite  incidentally  to  his  son  Elhanan.  El- 
lianau — the  legend  runs — as  a  child  is  kidnaped 
by  a  Christian,  who  causes  him  to  be 
The         baptized  and  to  be  given  a  good  ednca- 

Xiegend.  tion.  Owing  to  liisenergy  and  endow- 
ments, Ellmnan  rises  very  rapidly  until 
he  attains  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal  and,  at  length,  to 
that  of  the  papal  chair.  The  new  pope  becomes  the 
woniler  of  the  world;  and  many  jirinces  and  kings 
.seek  his  counsel.  The  J'lipe.  however,  grows  sorely 
peri]le.\ed  C(jncerning  his  origin,  seeing  that,  among 
the  iiudtitndeof  his  distinguished  visitors,  there  is 
none  will)  would  name  himself  as  of  his  kin.  This 
per|)lexity  is  aggravated  by  the  dmilits  concerning 
the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion  which  suddenly 
begin  to  assjiil  the  lonely  pontilT.  rilimately  he 
threatens  his  attendants  witli  death  unless  they  dis- 
clo.se  to  him  the  secret  of  his  birth  and  descent.  Ilis 
subordinales  then  confess  the  truth,  designating, 
however,  his  kidnaping  as  the  will  of  Ood,  who 
Iiad  chosen  him  that  he  might  become  the  lord  of  all 
princes.  The  pope  thereupon  gives  onlers  that 
Simeon,  his  father,  be  at  once  conveyed  to  him  from 
.Mayence.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  latter  he  is  mi- 
nutely interrogated  by  the  pope,  who,  in  thecourseof 
the  conversation,  causes  him  to  enumerate  liis  chil- 
dren. ( )nly  after  persistent  pressure,  however,  is  Sim- 
eon induced  to  tell  the  story  of  his  lost  child,  I^lhanan, 
and  to  mi'iition  several  birthmarks  cm  him.  These 
serve  to  determine  beyond  doubt  the  self  identitica- 
tion  of  the  pope.  He  discloses  himself  to  his  won- 
<ler  stricken  parent,  and  expresses  great  anxiety  to 
return  to  the  faith  of  his  fathers — a  wish  in  which, 
of  course,  he  is  encouraged  by  Simeon.  His  con- 
version is  told  in  tragic,  if  not  sonu'wliat  melodra- 
matic stvle.  A  convocation  of  the  cardinals  is  or- 
dered; tlic  people  are  summoned  to  attend,  and  the 
pope  addresses  all  from  the  tup  of  a  tower.  In  his 
aildress  he  denies  the  supernatural  origin  of  .lesus 
and  the  truth  of  the  Christian  doctrines.  The  as- 
tounded bishops  suppose  that  their  lord  has  become 
insane;  but  he  retorts  that  it  is  they  who  are  insane 
ill  their  beliefs.  Thereupon  he  throws  himself  from 
the  top  of  the  tower  and  dies;  and  Simeon  writes 
the  Passover  poem  in  his  memory. 

Of  somewhat  later  origin  is  another  version  of 
this  legi-nd,  wliiili  is  extant  in  a  Hebnw  translation 
of  a  .luda'o  (ierman  original,  anil  which  has  the 
••  Ma'asebuch"  (The  Hook  of  Tales)  as  its 
The  Ver-  source.  Acionling  to  this  account  El- 
sion  of  the  lianan  is  stolen  on  a  Sabbath  by  a  Cliris- 
"  Ma'ase-    tian  maidservant. or. aecordiiigloothers. 

buch."  by  his  teacher,  a  priest,  while  his  parents 
are  at  the  synagogue.  lie  rici^ives  an 
ecelesiiistical  educalionand  rises  rapidly  in  hierarchic 
circles,  until  he  becomes  pope.  All  Ihi'  while,  how- 
ever, he  is  perfectly  coi:ni/ant  of  his  urigiri  and  con- 
sanguinity, though  the  splendor  and  the  majesty  of 
his  position  keep  him  from  disclosing  Ids  identity. 
Kinally  he  isovercoiiie  by  a  eniviiig  to  see  his  father, 
to  which  end  he  promulgates  an  edict  of  persecution 
against  the  .Ii'ws  of  Miiyeme,  being  certain  that  the 
latter  would  send  delegates  to  him  to  plead  for  its 
revocation,  and  that  then  Simeon,  as  one  of  the  most 
prominent  men  of  his  community,  would  doubtless 
In'  round.  The  pope  does  not  miscalculate.  In  due 
lime  the  delegates  of  tile  .lews  of  Mayence.  headed  by 
Simeon   the  (ireal   (or  the  Elder),  arrive  at  Home. 


At  first  they  impart  the  purpose  of  their  pilgrimage 
to  the  .Tews  of  Home,  who  are  fairly  astounded  at 
the  contents  of  the  edict,  seeing  that  the  ]iope  has 
been  renowned  as  the  most  generous  ])oiiti)T  within 
human  memory,  as  well  as  a  genuine  friend  of  the 
.lews,  whose  counsel  and  society  he  is  in  the  habit 
of  .seeking,  playing  chess  regularly  with  some  of 
them.  Simi'on  then  marvels  at  the  cause  of  the 
cruel  edict;  but  his  astonishment  is  increased  when, 
upon  being  given  audience,  he  detects  in  the  pope 
a  quite  r.ire  degree  of  .lewisli  scholarship  and  acu- 
men, manifested  in  the  course  of  a  religious  discus- 
sion. The  ])ope.  moreover,  invites  Simeon  to  call  in 
the  evening  for  the  purpose  of  ]daying  chess  with 
him.  Then,  again,  Simeon,  a  noted  chess-player,  has 
great  cause  for  wonderment  at  the  pontilfs  display 
of  shrewdness  and  familiarity  with  the  game.  Grad- 
ually the  religious  discussion  is  resumed,  as  Simeon 
does  not  lose  sight  of  his  real  purpose;  and  the  pope, 
unable  to  contain  himself  longer,  puts  the  mask  aside. 
Of  course  he  is  an.xious  to  return  to  the  religion  of 
his  fathers;  and  his  resolve  is  strengthened  as  his 
father  points  out  to  him  the  .Jewish  doctrine  con- 
cerning the  regenerative  power  of  repentance.  Sim- 
eon then  returns  to  ilayence.  bearing  with  him  a  re- 
jieal  of  the  edict,  while  the  pope  stays  at  Home  long 
enoiiLrh  to  comjiose  an  anti-Christian  dissertation, 
which  he  charges  all  his  successors  to  peruse.  I  let  hen 
tiees  to  Mayence  too.  where  he  lives  as  a  pious  .lew, 
while  in  Home  his  fate  remains  forever  unknown. 

Even  this  version  of  the  legend — which,  as  Stein- 
Schneider  has  pointed  out.  dates  from  a  period  when 
chess  was  a  popular  game  among  the  .lews  of  Ger- 
many— is  found  with  several  variations.  In  one  of 
these  Simeon  recognizes  the  pope  as  a  .Jew  by  a 
certain  move  (which  would  jioint  at  the  recognized 
skill  of  the  medieval  .lews  in  the  game);  in  an- 
other account  the  telltale  move  reveals  the  |iope 
to  Simeon  as  his  son.  for  it  is  a  trick  he  had  taught 
him  as  a  child;  while  in  still  another  the  pope  is 
recognized  by  birthmarks  on  his  hand  and  back. 

Nor  do  the  German  versions  exhaust  the  material 
of  this  legend.  There  is  not  only  a  Spanish  modifi- 
cation of  it.  but  also  one  in  Ambic.  in 

Spanish     the   latter  of   wliiili   Simeon    Kayara 

Version,  takes  the  |)lace  of  Simeon  the  Great  as 
parent  of  tliepo])e.  The  Spanish  legend 
lays  the  scene  at  narcelona.  and  makes  Solomon 
ben  Adret.  the  great  rabbi,  the  father  of  the  kid- 
naped child,  who,  being  stolen  by  a  l)ricvst,  is  edu- 
cated in  a  monastery  and  in  later  years  is  elevated 
to  the  apostolic  throne.  On  a  certain  occasion  Sol- 
omon b.  Adret  heads  a  delegation  to  the  papal  court, 
when  a  birthmark  on  the  pope's  face  reminds  him 
of  his  lost  sou  and  causes  lii;;i  to  burst  out  weepiiii:. 
The  )iope  insists  upon  being  told  the  cause  of  this 
sudden  emotion,  which,  when  refusal  becomes  impos- 
sible, Solomon  discloses.  Somewhat  agitated  by 
this,  the  poiililT  at  once  examines  the  monk  who 
had  reared  him  in  the  belief  that  he  was  the  sciiai  of 
a  noble  family  exterminated  in  a  family  feud,  and  at 
length  extorts  the  truth  from  him.  The  monk  is 
imprisoned,  or  even  executed,  for  his  pains;  while 
the  last  doubts  of  the  pope  as  to  his  identity  are  si't 
aside  when  Solomon,  at  his  rec|Uest.  visits  him  again 
in  the  evening.  Ilis  father  Convinces  him  without 
dinicully  of  the  truth  of  the  .lewish  religion,  and  the 
|)ope  determines  to  renounce  Christianity.  In  order 
to  avert  suspicion,  however,  he  wails  six  months, 
whereupon  he  bids  his  si'rvanis  liuilil  a  pyre  in  the 
niarkel  place,  dclivei-s  to  a  concourse  of  peopli'  a 
tirade iiLrainsl  Christianily,  and  h'aps  into  (he  fiames. 
And,  as  the  li-gcnd  adiU.  even  to  this  day  tlicy  call 
him  "the  in.satie  and  heretical  pope." 


Andreas 
Aner 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


580 


In  tlif  poiistruction  of  this  legend  there  arc  iiU<'r- 
wovcii  scvcrul  liistoric  occiirrciiccs.  Despite  the 
aimehroiiism  iiieideiital  to  the  eoiipling  of  the  name 
of  Simeon  ben  Isaac,  who  lived  in  the  bej^inninir  of 
the  eleventh  eeiitury.  with  that  of  Anaclktus  II.. 
who  sat  on  the  papal  throne  from  lUiO  to  113W.  it 
is  still  ipiite  prohalile  that  the  lej;end.  which  origi- 
nated some  time  in  the  fourteenth  century,  used 
the  vattue  remembrance  of  Anacletus  II..  the  pope 
of  Jewish  descent,  intentionally,  tlioujjh  GUdeniann 
suggests  the  name  of  Alc.va'nder  111.  (ILIiJ-Wl), 
who  was  kindly  disposed  toward  the  Jews,  as  the 
prototype  of  tiie  pope  in  this  legend.  It  is  also 
liistorically  contirmed  that  Simeon  the  Elder  was 
instrumental  in  averting  some  great  catastrophe. 
In  tine,  the  numerous  forced  conversions,  of  which 
the  sons  of  |iious  rabbis  were  frequent  victims, 
doubtless  olfercd  material  for  the  legend.  The  son 
of  K.  Ciershom.  the  celebrated  contemiiorary  of  K. 
Simeon  the  Great,  was  such  a  convert,  which,  in- 
.deed,  caused  him  to  be  regarded  by  some  as  the 
Jewish  i)ope.  and  which  may  have  been  one  of  the 
causes  of  K.  Gcrshom's  ordinance,  that  a.forced  con- 
vert who  has  returned  to  Judaism  be  not  rebuked 
for  his  transgression.  15<'sides.  the  resendilance  must 
be  noted  which  this  legend  bears  in  .several  ])oints 
to  the  legend  of  St.  Peter,  who  also  remains  a  Jew 
at  heart  desjiite  his  conversion,  anil  who  before  his 
death  composes  two  litiugical  pieces  which  arc  cm 
bodied  in  tlie  Jewish  prayer-book. 

BiHLIOGUAiMiv:  Halberstamm,  in  Kolmk's  Gi}izt'  Xixtamt,  111. 
1  *■(  »e<i.;  Kolmk's  Jf.sc/oo'jo).  IstiS.  Hel)iv\v  part,  vi,  122;  lift- 

Mamii'i,  isTi,  XV.  at :  Ji-niupk.  ihi  ii,i-.\riiiiii.'<ii.  i.sr:t,  v.  ut*- 

l.')3  anil  11.  .xxxviii.:  1.S77,  vl.  1;1T-1:W  ami  p.  xxxill.:  Steln- 
sotineUler.  in  Ikv.  Lt:1l€rhinli\  vil.  170  cf  stq.;  idem,  in  A.  van 
derLinde,  flesch,  uutl  Lit.  ih  s  Sih'irtisititjs^  i.  I.s7ft  .sf<y., Ber- 
lin, 1S74;  i_ititlfn\ami,  Erzi'hti ufisiri  SI  It  u.Cullnr  d.Jmlen 
ill  Italicn,  pp.  71WiJ,  Vienna,  lss4;  (iriitz.  Gi'srft.  il.Juitt-u^ 
3d  ed..  v.,  note 33;  Vogelstein  and  Hicger,  (ief<ch.  li.  Jiuh-n  in 
Rom,  I.  3ilB-31)8,  Berlin,  18911. 

II.    G.    E. 

ANDREAS    BELTRAN.     See  Bki.trax. 

ANDREAS,  JOHANNES  :  Of  Xativa:  a  con 
vert  to  Christianity  in  the  sixteenth  century;  his 
Jewish  name  is  unknown.  In  his  conversionist  zeal 
he  addre.s.sed  a  letter  to  the  Jewish  congregations  of 
southern  France,  .summoning  them  to  accept  Chris- 
tianity (Paris,  15.52).  His  works,  originally  written 
in  Spanish,  were  translated  into  Italian  by  Douk'H- 
ico  dc  Gaztela  (Seville,  1587),  and  frequentlv  re- 
printed (Leipsic,  1")95;  Venice,  1.597;  Utrecht.  Ifi4(i). 
(Stcinschneidei-.  "Cat.  Bodl."  4120).  M.   K. 

ANDREAS   LUCTJAS.     See  Cyuene. 

ANDREE,  RICHARD  :  Gennan  ethnographer 
and  g(  iigiaplier;  sinrr  IN'.IO  editor  of  "  Globus  " ;  liorn 
18;J5  at  15i-unswick.  In  is.'sj  he  pi-odueed  "Zur  Volks- 
kundo  dcr  Judeu."  with  a  map  <if  the  distribution 
of  the  Jews  thi'Oughout  cential  Kuro])e.  Though 
written  with  something  of  an  anti  Jewish  liias.  the 
book  was  the  tii"st  attempt  at  a  seientitic  account  of 
the  anthropometric  and  biostatic  peculiarities  of  the 
Jews,  regarded  as  a  special  race.  It  also  gives  an 
account  of  tlicircustomsand  folk-lore  as  described  in 
the  works  of  travelers  and  ethnograjihers.  In  many 
respects  it  has  not  yet  been  superseded. 

Andree's  two  series  of  " Ethnogniphischc  Paral- 
lelen  "  (Stuttgait,  1878.  1^89)  contain  several  parallels 
with  Jewish  customs,  while  liis  "  Flutsageu  "  (Bruns- 
wick, 1891)  has  a  tolerably  com|)lete  collection  of  the 
"  flood  "  legends  current  among  savages. 
BuiLiocn.vpnv:  Mever.  Konrcriiatiimii-Lcxikou,  s.v. 

J. 

ANDREW:  1.  Commonly  known  as  Saint 
Andrew;    one   of   the   twelve  apostles  of  Jesus; 


brother  of  ^imon  Peter.  IJoth  Andnw  and  Peter 
were  tishennen  and  natives  of  Hethsaida.  on  the 
Lake  of  Gennesiieth  (John.  i.  44).  Aeeoriling  to 
the  Gospel  of  John.  Andrew  was  a  di.seiple  of  .lolin 
the  Baptist  and  was  i)resent  at  the  baptism  of  Jesus. 
He  and  Peter  were  the  lirst  to  be  summoned  as 
apostles  in  the  well-known  expression.  "Follow  me, 
and  I  will  make  youlishersof  men  "(Matt.  iv.  IS-lil). 
Andrew  ajipears  to  have  been  in  the  inner  ciicle  of 
the  diseiplrs  (Mark,  xiii.  3;  John.  vi.  8.  xil.  22). 
Chrislian  tradition  i-e)ireseuts  him  to  have  been  mar- 
ly retl  at  Patra'  in  Greece;  and  his  arm  was  allegeil 
to  have  been  brought  as  a  relic  to  Scotland  bv  St. 
Regidus.  It  is  owing  to  this  fact  that  Andrew  has 
become  the  patron  .saint  of  Scotland,  and  that  the 
British  tlag  contains  a  representation  of  the  saltire 
cross,  on  which  he  is  reported  to  have  been  crucified. 
2.  A  Jew  of  Cicte  who  revolted  against  Borne  in 
the  time  of  Trajan  ("  Dio  Ca.ssius."  l.xviii.  32). 

J. 

ANDROGYNOS   (Hermaphrodite):     Uabbin- 

ical  lileraluic  knows  lioth  the  inylhical  and  llie  real 
hermaphrodite:  the-  former  in  the  Haggadah.  the  lat- 
ter in  the  Halakah.  The  notion  of  bisexuality 
must  have  been  derived  from  Hellenic  sources,  as 
the  Greek  form  of  IIk;  word  proves.  The  other  form, 
"  herma|ihi-odite."  never  occurs  in  raliliinical  wri- 
tings. The  principle  of  the  se.xual  generation  of  the 
world  is  not  of  Greek  origin:  its  ]ihallic  character 
pointing  to  Indiaasitsbirthplacc.  Plato,  who  shows 
much  more  intimate  aciiuaintance  with  the  Orient 
than  is  sujiiiosed.  speaks  in  his  "Symjiosion"  (190 
B)  of  three  generations:  the  masculine,  the  feminine, 
and  the  androgynous,  which  had  been  created  by 
"sun,  earth,  and  moon  res])ectively." 

Transmitted  and  develo])ed  through  dualistic 
Gnosticism  in  the  East,  the  notion  of  an  androgy- 
nous ci'eat  ion  was  adopted  by  thi'  llaggadists  in  order 
to  reconcile  the  a|iparently  ci>nllicling  statements 
of  the  Bible.  In  Gen.  ii.  7  and  18  it  mq.,  the  sepa- 
rate creations  of  niiin  and  of  woman  are  described, 
while  in  chap.  i.  27.  "God  created  man  in  his  own 
ima,2e,  in  the  image  of  God  created  he  him;  male 
and  female  crcati'd  he  them."  their  creation  is  de- 
scribed as  coincident.     In  connection 

In  the  with  the  latter  vei-sc  the  Midrash  states 
Hagg'adah.  (Gen.  K.  viii.):  "Jei'cmiah.  son  of 
Eleazar.  .sivs  :  God  creale<lAdam  an- 
drogynous, but  Sammd,  son  of  Nal.iman,  says,  He 
cieated  him  'double-faced,'  then  cutting  him  in 
twainand  forming  two  backs,  one  totheoneand  the 
other  to  the  second  "  (see  Baeher,  "  Ag.  Pid.  Amor." 
i.  547.  iii.  585).  The  same  statement  is  given  in 
.Moses ha- Darshan'sBercshit  Habliati("PugioFidei," 
p.  440.  Paris,  IKol).  The  dilTerence  in  the  interpreta- 
tion is  that,  according  to  Jei'emiah's  opinion,  Adam 
had  both  sexes,  and  was  thus  a  real  hermaphrodite 
in  the  old  mythical  sense,  identical  with  that  con- 
ception of  Hermes  in  which  he  isimdei'stood  to  be  the 
"logos  alethinos."  the  son  of  Maya,  the  bisexual  i)ri- 
mcval  man  of  the  East.  The  Gicek  Ilermaphroditus 
— represented  by  statues  and  on  olil  gems,  in  which 
i-epresenlations,  Iniwever,  bisexualily  is  scarcely 
inilieati-d— has  remained  sti-ange  to  the  East  and 
totally  unknown  to  tlii^  Jews.  In  all  the  jiarallel  jias- 
sages  in  the  Talmvid.  the  oiiinion  of  Samuel  b.  Nal.i- 
man  alone  prevails,  for  we  find  regularly  Adam 
PSIVIS  n  (hifroiw.  double-fronted),  sis,  for  exam- 
ple: 'Er.  18«,  Ber.  61rt,  etc.  (Jastrow,  "  Dict."s.  ?'.,  p. 
304,  1). 

The  opinion  express^^d  by  Jeremiah  Is.  however,  very  old  and 
wide-spread,  for  we  tlnd  the  fatht^rs  of  the  <'hristian  Church  at 
pains  to  i-efute  this  "Jewish  fable"  ;  Augustine  writes  against 
it  in  his  commentary  on  Genesis,  ad   luc.  oh.  23.    Strabos, 


581 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Andreas 
Aner 


agretlnK  with  Aumistliie.  ilcilares  this  opinion  to  1*  one  of  the 
"diiiiinatie  Juiia-oruin  fabulir."  othere  ivvivc  the  question, 
anil  SIxtiis  Scnensls  in  his  "  Hlhllothwa  Sacra  "  devotes  U)  it  a 
spe<-ial  liiaiitvr  (eil.  Colon,  l.imi,  fol.  344,  M'».  An  alchemic-  In- 
terjiretation  has  been  given  to  "Adam  andixjpvnus,"  by  Uull. 
Menens,  "Aiirel  VelleiTs  Ubil  tres,  Theatram  ohemicuin,"  vol. 
v.,  p.  iT.i,  AlTfent.,  llKiO. 

In  the  halakic  writings  only  "  Androgynos  "  is 
iisc<l,  never  "liudprosopin"  (bifrons),  anrl  always  in 
the  iiliysiological  sen.se  of  "bisexual."  In  the  Mish- 
nah  Bikkiirim,  the  whole  of  section  iv.  is  devoted 
to  the  niMuito  de.scription  of  the  legal  position  and 
abnormities  of  the  Androgyuos.  In  some  particu- 
lars he  is  to  be  treated  as  a  man,  in 
In  the  others  as  a  woman,  as  lie  partakes  of 
Halakah.  both  natures;  nut  so  the  "tum-tum," 
an  individual  whose  se.\  can  not  be  de- 
termined. This  Androgyiios  is  a  i(jmnion  figure  in 
clas.sical  tradition.  Pliny  mentions  him  ("  llistoria 
Naturalis,"  vii.  '.'A),  and  Gellius("Noctes Attica', "i.x. 
4,  16).  Special  attention  was  paid  to  the  Androgy- 
nes in  the  old  writers  on  physiognomy.  Compare 
"Scriptores  Physiognomonici  Gneci  et  Latini,"  ed. 
Foerster,  L<'ipsi"e,  1893,  under  "  Androgyno.s,"  in  In- 
dex Gnecus  (ii.  3()S).  For  the  further  legal  treat- 
ment of  the  Androgynos  in  Hebrew  law,  see  Isaac 
Lampronli  in  his  "Pal.iad  Yizhalj,"  s.i:.  and  Low, 
"Lebensaller."  M.  Ga. 

ANDRONICUS  COMNENTJS :  Byzantine  em- 
peror: bnru  iji  III:;;  a>s;is>iii;Ued  at  Constantinople 
in  1185;  reigne<l  in  118::!-,S").  He  wrote  a  book  against 
the  Jews  and  their  religion,  witli  the  object  of  con- 
verting them  to  Christianity. 

BIBLIOCRAPIIV:  Le  Beau,  i/fafoirf  du  Bnit-Empirc.  book  Iv. 
eh.  2J-2.J:  Hertzbenr,  (lefch.  de»  Byzanlinuichen  und  (Jumii- 
iiuivheii  /fct(7it'/<,  pp.  31S-;JU8. 

H.  K. 

ANDRONICUS,  SON  OF  MESHULLAM  or 
MESSALAM  :  Lived  in  the  second  eeiilury  n.C. 
Aceiirdiiig  ti)  Jo.sephus  ("Ant."  .xiii.  3.  ^  4),  lie  was 
the  representative  of  the  Jews  in  their  religious  dis- 
pute with  the  Samaritans,  which  was  held  before 
King  Ptolemy  VI.  Philometor,  about  the  year  l.")0 
B.C.  Andidniciis  proved  from  the  Scriptures  the 
historic  continuity  of  the  Jewish  high  priests;  and 
from  the  great  respect  which  was  accordetl  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem  even  by  the  heathen  kings  of 
Asia,  he  demonstrated  how  utterly  uiij list ilied Was 
the  claim  of  the  Samaritans  that  Mount  Geiizim  was 
the  sacred  jilace  of  worship  for  the  Jews.  Androni- 
cus  is  siiid  to  have  argued  his  case  so  successfully 
that  the  king  ordered  the  execution  of  Sabbeus  anil 
Theodosius.  the  two  champions  of  the  Samaritans, 
this  being  the  penalty  agreed  upon  beforehand  for 
the  losing  party.  TJiis  latter  point  in  the  story, 
however,  is  .so  incredible  that  it  casts  a  doubt  upon 
the  vali<lily  of  the  whole  account. 

BlBi.lOfiR.»piiv  :  Grillz,  (lifrh.  drr  JwUn.  3d  ed.,  II.  44, 45. 440 ; 
F.wald,  IlinUini  III  Im-acl,  v.  ;r>4 :  fur  the  spelllnK  Meshullam, 
see  the  codex  quoted  by  NIese  in  hia  edition  of  Josephus. 

L.   G. 

ANECDOTES  :  One  of  Ihe  many  links  that  help 
In  IiIfkI  .Iiws  together  thi-oughoul  the  world  is  the 
number  of  Anecilotes  dealing  with  Jewish  life  and  ap- 
pealing to  Jewish  sentiment,  and  known  in  one  form 
or  another  throughout  Jewry.  For  the  most  jiait 
they  are  transmitted  by  wonl  of  mouth,  and  thus 
they  form  part  of  Jewish  folk  lore.  Few  have  been 
written  (low  II.  though  several  of  the  best  known  hav<' 
iM'en  utilized  by  .(ewisli  novelists  like  Franzos  and 
Zangwill.  uid  others  are  adaptations  or  traditional 
renderings  of  Talmudic  or  niidrashie  legends.  Still 
others  give  a  Jewish  turn  to  the  mass  of  medieval 
folk-lore  thai  spread  throughout  Europe  (see  lilDl'Al 


and  Si.NDiBAD).  These  longer  stories  are  generally 
known  as  Mirnxiyot.  and  liave  been  collected  in  the 
various" Ma 'aseblicher."  The  moie  modern  form  of 
Jewi.shanecd()t<'  rarely  extends  toany  great  length  or 
pretends  to  deal  with  romantic  or  legendary  evcnt-s. 
It  is  usually  short  and  witty,  with  "a  stiiig  in  its 
tail." 

Most  Jewish  Anecdotes  are  steeped  in  expressions 
that  rentier  the  .stories  pointless  to  all  but  those  ac- 
((uainted  with  Jewish  technical  terms.  Addressed 
to  a  special  audience,  these  Anecdotes cmbodv  terms 
known  only  in  that  particular  sphere.  Their  sub- 
ject-matter is  mainly  the  foililes  of  the  Jewish  char- 
acter, in  much  the  same  way  that  the  weaknesses 
of  common  friends  form  so  frequently  a  topic  of 
conversjition. 

Jewish  Anecdotes,  when  they  deal  with  the  Jew  in 
his  .social  aspect,  naturally  treat  him  almost  exclu- 
sively in  his  mercantile  dealings,  and  often  give 
jiroof  of  the  self  criticism  exercised  by  the  Jew  in  re- 
gard to  his  faults  and  foibles.  Some  of  these  stories 
give  rise  to  proverbial  .sayings,  the  origin  of  which  is 
often  unknown  to  those  "using  them. 

Many  Jcw^ish  Anecdotes,  however,  refer  to  certain 
typical  figures  of  the  Ghetto,  most  of  whom  are  de- 
scribed at  greater  length  in  these  pages.  There  is 
the  SciixoitKKit.  the  profcssif)nal  beggar,  whose  dif- 
ferentia it  is  that  he  considers  he  is  doini:  you  a 
favor  in  allowing  you  to  lend  to  the  Lord  thi-ough 
his  personality.  Another  freijuent  hero  in  Ghetto 
anecdotage  is  the  SirADii.vN-,  or  professional  marriaL'e- 
broker,  who  for  a  commission  will  tinda  suitable/)<((7t 
for  a  marriageable  daughter  of  a  rich  man,  or  a  wife 
for  the  merchant  who  desires  to  increase  his  capital 
by  marriage. 

The  above  examples  from  the  various  subjects  of 
Jewish  Anecdotes  will  perhaps  sulliciently  indicate 
Ihe  typical  scojie  and  intimate  character  that  render 
Ihe.m  comprehciisible  only  to  hearers  fully  acquainted 
with  Jewish  life  and  customs.  Other  forms,  liecause 
turning  ujion  an  application  of  some  Biblical  or  Tal- 
mudic i)hrasein  the  original,  would  require  an  elab- 
orate commentary  to  convey  their  point  to  an  un- 
learned hearer.  It  is  lemarkable  how  wide-spread 
these  stories  arc.  The  sjime  anecdote,  with  merely 
local  variations,  maybe  heard  in  Wilna.  Berlin,  Lon- 
don, and  Xew  York.  Jews,  when  meeting  for  the 
first  time,  often  find  one  of  these  stories  the  readiest 
means  of  starting  a  conversation.  Even  if  it  be  well 
known,  it  will  lead  to  other  Anecdotes  perhaiis  not 
.so  familiar;  and  a  friendliness  toward  both  the  anec- 
dote and  its  narrator  is  at  once  aroused.  It  is  clear, 
froiu  the  works  of  Alharizi  and  Immanuel  Pomi.  that 
similar  Anecdotis  were  current  among  Jews  in  the 
Middle  Ages;and  the  early  Yiddish  liteniture  evinces 
that  the  custom  was  prevalent  in  the  German  "  Juth'U- 
gassen."  At  family  gatherings  it  became  usual  for 
a  certain  licensed  ji'ster,  known  as  the  hiHlhun  or  nuir- 
ulidUik,  to  enliven  the  proceedings  by  narrating  Anec- 
dotes.    See  SciiNOUUElt,  SiiADi.iAsi  and  Siia.mks. 

BlULtociRAPiiv:  Zanewlll's  Cliildrni  „f  tin-  <;h,lln  and  Kino 
iif  Siliiiiiin)!'  aiT  full  i't  Aniidotes  cunrnt  in  Ihe  I/>n>lon 
(ihello;  Tendlau's  Siiiim  und  I.i{irndin  <ltr  JUdiithin 
Viirz'it  ■'■.ntaliis  s-mie  of  tlie  l»»<t-khn«n  Talmudic  stories; 
while  otilcp*  aivrn  III  Sipinirhn,  anil  llie  mi-tlle\a]  .V<r(I.<t|/of 
an>iMnt«llie<l  In  the  Ma'a.si'liiii  li.  Colll^'tlonsof  Alietxioteaexist 
In  M.  KiiklNteln.  .Iiirt.l.it,  ,i./t,i,/i,  f.»i  .sh.iiic  Witzru  (Yid- 
dlshi,  Wllna,  isti;);  llenzluii  s.hl.-i,  .SiVi<i(  IluUiii  s/irt  2iil- 
iio./<  lliihlntini.  M  iii.,  Warsaw,  1S(*). 

J. 

ANEB.— Biblical  Data:  Oneof  the  three  Amor- 
ite  lordsof  the  hillcountry  of  western  Palestine  con- 
federate w  ith  .Vbnim  (Gen',  xiv.  1H>.  When  a  fugitive 
announced  Ihe  plunder  of  .Sodom  and  Gomorrah  by 
the  kings  of  the  east,  Abrain  with  Ihe  confederate 


An^el,  Abraham 
Angelolo87 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


58a 


lords.  Mamrc,  Eslicol.  mid  Anor.  imrsucd  and  nvvr- 
took  till-  victorious  iirriiv,  and  l>r<iu.^lit  liatk  tlu'  liooty 
iind  till'  captives,  anions;  wlioni  were  Lot  and  liis 
family  (Gcu.  .\iv.  10).  It  is  uotcwortliy  that  Mamre 
is  an  early  name  for  Hebron  (Gen.  xxiii.  19).  that 
Eslicol  was  at  a  later  time  the  name  of  a  valley  near 
Hebron  (Num.  .\iii.  23.  24:  Dent.  i.  24).  and  that  the 
orijiinal  leadiiii;  for  Auer  (Seplwairint  Auur)  may 
have  lieeii.  asC'lieyne  suggests.  Kiniu,  a  name  which 
iiiav  refer  to  one  of  the  si.\  spring.s  near  Hebron. 

1.  M.  P. 

In    Kabbinical    Literature :     The  5Iidrash, 

when  tn-aliiig  of  Arier  ((Ji'ii.  xviii.  1).  states  that, 
although  an  ally  of  Abraham  and  therefore  a  worthy 
man.  yet  he  advised  the  latter  against  undergoing 
circumcision,  .saying:  "Wilt  thou,  an  old  man  of  a 
hundred  years,  expose  thyself  to  such  pain  ?  "  There- 
fore, the  angels,  when  visiting  Abraham,  avoided  the 
domain  of  Aner,  and  sought  Abraham  while  he  was 
dwelling  in  the  territory  of  Mamre.  because  the  lat 
ter,  unlike  his  elder  brother,  Aner.  had  said  to  Abra- 
ham: "It  would  be  wrong  to  disobey  the  God  who 
hath  saved  tliee  from  the  furnace  [into  which  Nimrod 
had  thrown  him  (see  Ann.Mi.vM.  in  midrashic  litera- 
ture)], from  the  kings,  and  from  famine"  (Gen.  R. 
xlii.  8).  L.  G. 

ANGEL,  ABRAHAM  (surnamed  TSHEL- 
EBI):  A  'i'urkish  Talniudisl  and  aullior  who  nour- 
ished at  the  brginniiig  of  the  niiulecutli  century. 
He  published  "  I'll  tube  lint  am"  (Engraving  of  a  Seal). 
Salonica,  188!),  dealing  with  all  (juestions  left  unde- 
cided ill  the  Talmud,  and  which  are  marked  by  the 
word  ip'n  (let  it  standi  ),  and  with  those  jiasssiges 
in  the  Pentateuch  which  contain  the  conjunction 
"also"  (03). 

BiBLioiiinPiiv:  Zedner,  Cat.  Hehi:  Boohs  Brit.  Mus.  p.  .tO; 
Heujacob,  (Jzar  ha-Sefarim,  p,  SOI, 

D. 

ANGEL,  BARUCH :  A  Talmudic  author  and 
princijial  of  the  'ralnuulic  colleges  of  Salonica  and 
Smyrna  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  a  pupil  of  Asher  lia-Kohen  ben  Ardut, 
and  became  one  of  the  foremost  teachers  in  Turkey. 
The  best  known  of  his  pupils  is  David  Conforte, 
author  of  the  historical  work,  "  Kore  ha-Dorot." 
Angel  wrote  novella;  to  .lo.scph  Caro's  civil  code 
"  Hoshen  Mishpat,"  which  were  published  together 
with  Solomon  Florentin's  "  Dorcsh  Mishpat"  (Salo- 
nica, le.l.-));  also  novellic  to  the  treatises  Baba 
Kamma,  Baba  ilezi'a.  Ketubot,  Gittin,  Shebu'ot, 
and  Hullin  (Salonica.  1717):  and  responsa,  contain- 
ing a  correspondence  on  leligious  law  between  him 
and  the  greatest  of  his  contemporaries  (Salonica. 
1717). 

BiBLincnArnv:  Fiirst,  BiW.  Ji«(.  p.  45;  Conforte,  Isore  ha- 
IJuriit,  p.  Mb;  Azulai,  Shem  ha-Gedolim,  s.v.:  Micliael,  Or 
honlfayuiin.  No.  620. 

ANGEL  BEN  ^AYYIM  :  A  Turkish  commen 
tator  on  the  Bilile.  livi-d  at  Salonica  in  the  last  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  wrote  " 'Ez  Hay- 
yim"  (Tree  of  Life),  containing  disquisitions  on 
Genesis.  It  was  printed  together  with  M.  Algazi's 
"Sefat  Emet"  and  H.  .1.  Varshano's  "Ya'aljobHe- 
bel"  at  Salonica,  in  1772. 

Bibliography  :  Zedner,  Cat.  Behr.  Bouhs  Brit.  Mm.  p,  50, 

D 

ANGEL,  HAYYIM  VIDAL  BEN  SHAB- 
BETHAI:  Turkish  niblii  and  preacher,  who  nour- 
ished at  Salonica  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.    He  wrote:  "Sippur  ha-Hayyim  "  (Tale  of 


Life),  containing  several  funeral  orations  and  miscel- 
laneous homilies  tm  the  Pentateuch  (Salonica,  1760). 

DIBLIOORAPIIV:  Z<!dm'r.  Cat.  llcltr.  Bnukt  Brit.  Miik.  p.  JM; 
Benjatwb,  o?<ir  haSe/arim,  p,  423. 

ANGEL,  MEIR  BEN  ABRAHAM,  of  Bel- 
grade :  .\  rciinwiiiil  prearhir  u  lio  Hm-.  I  in  I  In-  six- 
teenth and  seventeentli  centuries,  and  died  in  Sated 
(Palestine)  after  having  traveled  through  Poland, 
Italy,  and  Greece.  He  wrote  "  Masorei  ha  IJerit  " 
(Tradition  of  the  Covenant).  701)  Immiliis  on  texts 
strung  together  according  to  eerlaiii  .Masoreiic  lists. 
|>ublislie(l  at  Cracow,  in  lOlil.  His  "Masorel  ha- 
Beril  ha  Gadol,"  containing  l.O.'iO  homilies  of  the 
same  character,  was  imblished  at  Mantua,  in  1022. 
He  also  wrote  an  ethical  work.  "  Kesliet  Xeliushah  " 
(Bow  of  Bronze),  in  verse  alternating  with  rimed 
prose.  He  pictures  a  sort  of  moral  combat  in  which 
the  tendency  to  do  ill  is  |)ersonilieil.  This  was  pub- 
lished, about  the  year  l.">'.i;i.  at  Bdyedere.  near  Con- 
stautinople,  by  Heyna.  Ihv  widow  of  Jo.seph  Na.si. 
He  speaks  of  a  commentary  on  Abot,  which,  how- 
ever, seems  not  to  have  been  published. 

BiBi.ioiiRAPiiv:  Conforte,  Ifnre  ha-D'irnl,  p.  .">!/);  ranimlT, 
Itliihaircsilf  la  Tare  Saiiitc,  p.  19S;  StclnsilineliliT,  ( <i(, 
Bmll.  .Nu,  (CSO. 

M.  L.  M. 

ANGEL,  MOSES  :  Headmaster  of  the  London 
.Jews'  Knc  Sclionl;  born  April  20.  1S19.  and  died  at 
London,  in  INOS.  He  received  his  early  training  at 
H.  X.  Solomon's  boarding-sehonl  at  Hammersmith 
and  entered  L'niversity  College  School  at  the  age  of 
fourteen;  he  compl<'te<l  his  education  at  University 
College,  London,  with  a  brilliant  academical  record. 
After  working  some  time  as  a  bank-clerk,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  teaching,  and  in  1840,  on  the  retire- 
ment from  the  Jews'  Free  School  of  the  headmaster 
(the  Hev.  H.  A.  Henry).  Angel  was  appointed  master 
of  the  Talmud  Torali.  the  ujijier  division  of  the 
school.  There  he  aimed  to  secure  a  higher  (|uality 
of  education,  and  shortly  afterwanl  the  management 
of  the  entire  school  was  entrusted  to  him. 

In  this  capacity  his  great  administrative  and  ped- 
agogic gifts  soon  wrought  change  in  the  entire  mo- 
rale of  the  institution,  so  that  the  Jews'  Free  School 
rapidlj'  became  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  and 
best-managed  elementary  institutions  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  In  18.");i  it  was  i)laced  under  govern- 
ment inspection,  and.  at  the  yearly  examinations 
which  followed,  the  school  never  failed  to  elicit  the 
warmest  encomiums  from  the  government  inspector, 
while  many  tributes  of  appreciation  were  paid  to 
Angel's  great  administrative  and  educational  tal- 
ents. Not  content  with  jiromoting  the  welfare  of 
the  youthful  .scholars  contided  to  his  care.  Angel,  in 
1853,  undertook  the  training  of  the  teachers  in  both 
departments  of  the  school,  organizing  a  system  of 
university  teaching  for  the  school  staff,  whose  repu- 
tation for  skill  and  etticiency  became  so  wide-spread 
that  for  more  than  a  generation  nearly  every  Jewish 
elementary  teacher  in  the  country  owed  his  training, 
directly  or  indirect  1}',  to  Angel. 

In  1883,  when  the  school  was  enlarged  and  recon- 
structed, an  assistant  became  necessary,  and  a  vice- 
master  was  apiioiiited.  L,  15.  Abrahams.  Until  1807 
Angel  occupied  the  post  of  headmaster,  but  re- 
signed in  that  year  for  th<'  less  onerous  position  of 
principal,  being  succeeded  in  the  headinastcrshij) 
by  Abrahams. 

Angel's  remarkable  personality  left  its  imprint 
upon  the  progress  of  both  the  secular  and  reli.gions 
educational  development  of  the  Anglo-.Jewish  com- 
mimity.      At  the  time  when,  for  want  of   proper 


583 


THE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Angel,  Abraham 
AugelologT- 


Moses  Anv'fi. 

(From  a  |thotograph.) 


methods  and  organization,  the  Jewish  public  edura 
tionul  system  in  England  was  of  the  erudest.  Angel 
came  loVward  as  the  neeiled  administrator,  and  wTtli 
untiring  energy  rem 
edied  this  wantof  sys 
tern  in  siieh  degree, 
t  hat  Ills  advice  was  sub 
seiiuently  sought  even 
by  the  National  Edu 
cational      Department 

itself. 

He  published.  (1)  A 
book  entitled  "The 
1-aw  of  8inai  and  Its 
Appointed  Times" 
(1858),  being  a  com 
mentar}-  on  the  Penta 
teneh.  (2)  A  series  of 
articles  entitled  "The 
Pentateuch, "  written 
fur  the  "Jewish  Rec- 
ord." Angel  was  one  of  the  first  editors  of  the 
"Jewish  ( 'hnniide"  in  1841,  having  been  associated  in 
that  position  with  the  Rev.  David  Meldola,  haham  of 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  congregation.  Subse 
qucntly,  he  occasionally  contributed  articles  and 
letters  to  the  "Jewish  Chronicle." 

Bini.inc.RAPHY:    T'ning  I»rnfl.   Lomion.  June,   1898;    Jtu'. 
ilirim.  uniljiu'.  Warld.  SepteintxT.  1SU8. 

G.  L. 

ANGEL,  SHEMAIAH  :  Banker  and  philan- 
thropist of  Damascus:  died  in  1KT4.  He  was  a 
great  benefactor  to  his  l)rethrcn  in  Syria  and  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Damascus.  After  the  su|>i)ression  of 
the  Druse  outbreak  in  18(i(l  he  distributed  among  the 
jioor  of  all  denominations  in  Damascus  IJ.uoo  Turk- 
ish pounils.  At  his  own  expense  he  provisioned 
for  a  time  the  Imperial  troops  in  Damascus.  In 
recognition  of  his  services,  the  sultan  Abdul-Aziz 
conferred  upon  him  the  Order  of  the  ^Medjidie  of 
the  first  class.  His  son.  Eleazar  Angel,  who  lives 
at  ('onstantino|)le,  follows  tlir  i-.\am|ilr  set  bv  his 
father  M.   k. 

ANGELO  DI  MANUELE.     See  Mani  ki.k. 

ANGELOLOGY.— Biblical,  Talmudical,  and 
Post-Talmudical :  Angelology  is  that  branch  of 
theology  which  t realsot  angels.  Angels  (from  u;}f/j)f 
=  nies,senger,  Greek  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  "^N^O) 
are  according  to  the  usual  conception  suiierhuiiian 
beings  dwelling  in  lieaven,  wlio,  on  occasion,  reveal 
to  man  God's  will  an<l  execute  His  commands.  In 
one  form  or  another,  the  belief  in  angels  appears  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  Jewish  history,  and  continues 
to  live  in  the  spiritual  world  of  lhc"jcws  anil  those 
professing  the  nligions  that  sprang  from  Judaism: 
namely,  Christianity  and  Mohanunedanism.  It  can 
not  be  denied  that  the  belief  in  such  beings  was  also 
held  by  other  i)eoples  and  other  religions;  but  here 
the  concern  is  only  with  Jewish  Angelology,  which 
can  hardly  be  .said  to  have  ever  been  reduced  to  a 
complete  system,  such  as  is  maintained  bv  the  Cath- 
olic Church  (Oswald,  "  Angelologie.  dicLehre  von 
<len  Guten  unci  H<')sen  Engelii  im  Simie  der  Katho- 
lischen  Kirche,"  Paderborn,  \XK\).  To  admit  of  a 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  historical  ilevelopment 
of  Angelology,  the  subject  mav  best  bi-  treatid  ae 
cording  to  three  i)iTiods:  (I)  the  Biblical.  (-')  the 
Talmudical  and  .Midrashic.  and  i:i)  the  Medieval. 

1.  The  Biblical  Period:  The  Biblical  name  for 
angel.  1S?0.  meaning,  acionliiig  to  derivation,  sim 
l)ly  "messenger,"  obtained  tln>  further  siu'iiilicalion 
of  "angel  "  only  through  the  addition  of  GimI's  name. 


as  mn'  INfjO.  D'nkx  IsSo  ("angel  of  the  Lord."  or 

"angel  of  God.'  Z<(h.   .\ii    8).     Other  appellations 

are  U^rh^  'J3.  or  D'^X  'J3  ("Sons  of 

Denomi       God."  Gen.  vi.  4;  Job.  i.  (J  [R,  y.  v. 

nation.       1];  Ps.  x.\i.\.  1  [11.  V,  margin]);  and 

D'trnp  C'the   Holy   Ones"   [perhaps 

equivalent  to  "tiery  ones,"  "unapiiroachable";  see 

Hoi.iNEss.     IC],  Ps.  Ixxxix.  6,  8  [R.  V.  5,  7]). 

Angels  appear  to  man  in  the  shape  of  human 
beings  of  extraordinary  beautv.  anil  are  not  at  once 
recognized  as  angels  (Gen.  xv'iii.  2,  xix.  r>:  Judges, 
vi.  17,  xiii.  (i;  I  Sam.  xxix.  U);  they  lly  throui;h  the 
air;  they  become  iuvisiiile;  sacritices  touched  by 
them  are  consumed  by  fire;  they  disjippear  in  Siicri- 
ficial  tire,  like  Elijah,  who  rode"  to  heaven  in  a  liery 
chariot;  and  they  appear  in  the  flames  of  the  thoin- 
bush  (Gen.  xvi.  13;  Judges,  vi.  21,  22;  II  Kings,  ii. 
11:  Ex.  iii.  2).  They  are  pure  and  bright  as  heaven  ; 
consccjuently  they  are  fonned  of  fire  and  are  eucom- 
pas.se<l  by  light  (Job,  xv.  l.j).  as  the  Psalmist  s;ivs 
(P.S.  civ.  4,  R.  "V.):  "Who  maketh  winds  his  messen- 
gers; his  inini.sters  a  tiaming  fire."  Although  they 
have  intercourse  with  the  daughters  of  men  (Gen. 
vi.),  and  eat  heavenly  bread  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  2.")),  they 
are  inunaterial,  not  being  subject  to  the  limitations 
of  time  and  space. 

Though  sujieihuman.  they  assume  human  form. 
This  is  the  earliest  conception.     Graduallv.  and  es- 
pecially in  post  Biblical  limes,  they  come  to"be  bodied 
forth  in  a  form  corresponding  to  the  nature  of  the 
mission  to  be  fulfilled— generally,  however,  the  hu- 
man form.     They  bear  di-awn  swords  or  destroving 
weapons  in  their  hands— one  carries  an  ink-horii  by 
his  side— and  ride  on  horses  (Num,  xxii,  23,  Josli, 
V,   13,  Ezek.   ix.  2,    Zech.   i.  8  H  neq.).     A  terrible 
angel  is  the  one  mentioned  in  I  Chron. 
Appear-      xxi.  Ki.  ;i().  as  standing  "between  the 
ance  of      earth  and  the  heaven,  having  a  drawn 
Angels.      sword  in  his  hand."     In  the  Book  of 
Daniel,  probably  written  IGf)  n.c,  ref- 
erence is  made  to  an  angel  "clothed  in  linen,  whose 
loins  were  .girded  with  fine  gold  of  I'pliaz:  his  body 
also  was  like  the  beryl,  and  his  face  as  the  appear- 
ance of  lightning,  and  his  eyes  as  lamjis  of  fire,  and 
his  arms  and  his  feet  like  in"  color  to  polished  brass, 
and  the  voice  of  his  words  like  the  voice  of  a  multi- 
tude "  (Dan.  X.  5,  (i).     It  is  an  open  question  whether 
at  that  time  angels  were  imagined  to  possess  wines 
(Dan.  ix.  21).  o  ■  6 

Angels  are  powerful  and  dreadful,  endowed  with 
wisdom  and  with  knowledge  of  all  earthly  events, 
correct  in  their  judgment,  holy,  but  not  infallible; 
for  they  strive  with  each  other,  and  God  has  to  make 
peace  between  them.  When  their  duties  are  not 
punitive,  angi'ls  are  beneficent  to  man  (Ps.  ciii.  20, 
Ixxviii.  2.">;  II  Sam.  xiv.  17,  20,  xix.  28;  Zech.  xiv! 
.j;  Job,  iv.  18.  XXV.  2). 

The  number  of  angels  is  enormous.  Jacob  meets 
a  host  of  angels;  Joshua  sees  the  "captain  of  the 
host  of  the  Lord";  God  sits  on  His  throne,  "all  the 
host  of  heaven  standing  by  him  on  his  right  hand 
and  on  his  left  "  ;  the  sons  of  God  come  "  lo  present 
themselves  before  the  Lord  "  (Gen.  xxxii.  2;  Josh.  v. 
14.  lo:  I  Kings,  xxii.  19;  Job.  i.  (i,  ii.  1  ;  Ps.  Ixxxix. 
0;  Job,  xxxiii.  23).  The  general  conception  is  the 
one  of  Job  (.\xv.  3):  "Is  there  any  number  of  his 
armies? " 

Though  the  older  writings  usually  mention  one 
angc'l  of  the  Lord,  embassies  to  men'as  a  nih'  com- 
prised several  messengers.  The  infirence.  however, 
is  not  to  be  drawn  that  by  rnrv  ^X^^^  <ioil  Him- 
self or  one  )mrlicular  angel  was  designated;  the 
expression   was  given   simply  to  God's  power   to 


An^elolog-y 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


584 


accomplish  through  but  one  augel  any  deed,  however 
wonderful. 

Angels  are  referred  to  in  connection  with  their 
spicial  missions;  ns,  for  instance,  the  "imgcl  which 
liiilli  ivilieined,"  "an  interpreter."  "the  unjrel  that 
destroyed,"  "incssenf^er  of  the  covenant,"  "angel  of 
his  presence,"  and  "a  band  of  angels  of  evil  "  ((ien. 
xlviii.  16;  Job.  x.\.\iil.  2'i;  II  Sum.  .\xiv.  16;  Mai. 
iii.  1;  Isa.  l.xiii.  i);  P.s.  Ixxviii.  49.  U.  V.).  When, 
however,  the  heavenly  host  is  regarded  in  its  most 
comprehensive  aspect,  a  distinction  may  be  made 
between  cho'itbim,  seraphim,  }i<i>iyot  ("  living  crea- 
tures"), i'fiinim("  wheels  "),  and  nir/iin  (the  meaning 
of  which  term  is  imkiiown).  God  is  deseribed  as 
riding  on  the  cherubim  and  us  "the  I^ord  of  hosts, 
who  dwelleth  between  the  cheridjim  ";  while  the 
latter  guard  the  way  of  the  tree  of  life  (I  Sam. 
iv.  4,  Ps.  Ixxx.  2,  Gen.  iii.  34).  The  seraphim  are 
described  by  Isaiah  (vi.  2)  as  having  six  wings;  and 
Ezekiel  describes  the  hayyot  (Ezek.  i.  5  el  ney.)  aniX 
ofanim  as  heavenly  beings  who  carry  God's  throne. 

Ill  post-Bililical  times  the  heavenly  hosts  became 
more  highly  organizeil  (possibly  as  early  as  Zeelia- 
riah  [iii.  9,  iv.  10];  certainly  in  Daniel),  and  there 
came  to  be  various  kinds  of  angels,  some  even  being 
provided  with  names,  us  will  be  shown  below. 

Angels  ajipear  to  man  as  the  medium  of  God's 
power  and  will  and  to  execute  His  dispensations. 
Angels  reveal  them.selves  to  individuals  as  well  as 
to  the  whole  nation,  in  oriler  to  announce  events, 
either  good  or  bad,  alfecting  them.  Angels  fore- 
tell to  Abraham  the  birth  of  Isaac,  to  ^Manoah  the 
birth  of  Samson,  and  to  Abraliuni  tlie  destruction  of 
Sodom.  Guardian  angels  arc  mentioned,  but  not, 
as  was  later  the  case,  as  guardian  spirits  of  individ- 
uals and  nations.  God  sends  an  augel  to  protect  the 
people  after  their  exodus  from  Egypt,  to  lead  them 
to  the  promised  land,  and  to  destroy  the  hostile 
tribes  in  their  way  (Ex.  xxiii.  20,  Num.  xx.  16).  In 
Judges  (ii.  1)  an  angel  of  the  Lord — unless  here  and 
in  the  preceding  instances  (compare  Isa.  xlii.  19,  Hag. 
i.  13,  Mai.  iii.  1)  a  human  messenger  of  God  is  meant 
— addresses  the  whole  people,  swearing  to  bring  them 
to  the  promised  land.  An  angel  brings  Elijah  meat 
and  drink  (I  Kings,  xix.  .'));  and  as  God  watched 
over  Jacob,  so  is  every  pious  person  protected  by  an 
angel  that  cares  for  him  in  all  his  ways  (Ps.  xxxiv. 
7,  xci.  11).  There  are  angels  militant,  one  of  wlumi 
smites  in  one  night  the  whole  Assyrian  army  of  1S.5,- 
000  men  (II  Kings,  xix.  3.5);  messengers  go  forth 
from  God  "in  ships  to  make  the  careless  Ethiopians 
afraid"  (Ezck.  xxx.  91;  the  enemy  is  scattered  be- 
fore the  angel  like  chaff  (Ps.  xxxv.  .'),  6).  Aven- 
ging angels  are  mentioned,  such  as  the  one  in  II  Sam. 
xxiv.  1,5,  who  annihilates  thousands.  It  would  seem 
that  the  pestilence  was  personified,  and  that  the 
"evil  angels"  mentioned  in  Ps.  Ixxviii.  49  are  to  be 
regarded  as  personifications  of  this  kind.  "  Evil  "  is 
here  to  be  taken  in  the  causative  sense,  as  "produ- 
cing evil  "  ;  for,  as  stated  above,  angels  are  generally 
considered  to  be  by  nature  beneficent  toman.  They 
glorify  God,  -whence  the  term  "glorifying  angels" 
(Ps.  xxix.  1.  ciii.  20,  cxlviii.  2;  compare  Isa.  vi^  2  et 
stq.).  They  constitute  God's  court,  sitting  in  coun- 
cil with  him  (I  Kings,  xxii.  19;  Job,  i.  6,  ii.  1);  hence 
they  are  cidled  His^" council  of  the  holy  ones"  (Ps. 
Ix.xxix.  7,  R.  v.;  A.  V.  "as,sembly  of  the  saints"). 
They  accompany  God  as  His  attendants  when  He 
appears  to  man  (Deut.  xxxiii.  2;  Jot),  xxxviii.  7). 
This  conception  was  developed  after  the  Exile;  and 
in  Zechariah  angels  of  various  shapes  are  delegated 
"to  walk  to  and  fro  through  the  earth  "  in  order  to 
find  out  and  report  what  happens  (Zech.  vi.  7).  In 
the  prophetic  books  angels  also  appear  as  represent- 


atives of  the  prophetic  spirit,  and  bring  to  the 
prophets  God's  word.  Thus  the  prophet  Haggai 
was  called  God's  messenger  (angel);  and  il  is  known 
that  "  Jlalachi"  is  not  a  nal  name,  but  means  "mes- 
senger" or  "angel."  It  is  luiteworthy  that  in  I 
Kings,  xiii.  18,  an  angel  brings  the  divine  word  to 
the  prophet. 

Upon  the  important  problem  of  the  origin  of 
angels  Biblical  writers  do  not  touch;  but  it  is  in- 
ferredthat  angels  exLsted  before  the  Creation  (Gen.  i. 
20;  Job,  xxxviii,  7).  The  earlier  Biblical  writings 
did  not  speculate  about  them;  simply  regarding 
them,  in  their  relations  to  man,  as  Gods  agents. 
('onse(|ueiitly,  they  did  not  indivi<luali/.e  or  denom- 
inate them;  and  in  Judges,  xiii.  18.  and  Gen.  xxxii. 
30,  the  angels,  when  questioned,  refuse  to  give 
their  names.  In  Daniel,  however,  there  already 
occur  the  names  Michael  and  Gabriel.  Jliehael  is 
Israel's  representative  in  heaven,  where  other  na- 
tion.s — the  Persians,  for  instance — were  also  repre- 
sented by  angelic  princes.  More  than  three  hundred 
years  before  the  Book  of  Daniel  was  written,  Zecha- 
riah graded  the  angels  according  to  their  rank,  but 
ilid  not  name  them.  The  notion  of  the  .seven  eyes 
(Zech.  iii.  9,  iv.  10)  may  have  been  affected  by  the 
representation  of  the  seven  archangels  and  also  pos- 
siblv  bv  the  Parsee  seven  amshaspands  (compare 
Ezek.  i.\.  2). 

2.  Talmudical  and  Midrasliic  Literature : 
The  writer  nf  tlic  Bock  of  Dmilel  was  the  liist  by 
whom  angels  were  individualized  and  endtiwed  with 
names  and  titles.  Not  long  after  that  time  Essenism 
came  into  existence.  It  jiossessed  a  highly  developed 
Angelology ;  but  knowledge  of  the  system  was  con- 
fined tf)  Essenes.  The  Sadducees,  on  the  contrary, 
disputed  the  very  existence  of  angels. 

Upon  the  foundations  of  Scripture  a  gigantic 
structure  was  reared  at  the  time  of  the  completion 
of  the  Talmud.  Post-Talmudie  mystieism  extrava- 
gantly enlarged  this  structure,  until  it  reached  from 
earth  to  heaven  ;  and  the  fanciful  ideas  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha and  pseudcpigrapha.  of  the  Talmudic  and 
^lidmsliie  works,  and  of  the  mystic  ami  cabalistic 
literature  ru.sh  along  like  a  wild  stream  that  over- 
flows its  banks.  From  this  wealth  of  material  the 
assumption  may  be  drawn  thai  the  Angelology  was 
nut    systematically   organized.      The 

Develop  .Iinlair  intellect  is  "little  inclined  to  sys- 
mentofAn-  tciuatization;  and  a  systematic  Angel- 
gelology.  ology  was  a  matter  of  imjiossibility 
with  the  vast  number  of  haggadi.sts, 
who  lived  and  taught  at  different  times  anil  places, 
and  under  a  manifold  variety  of  circumstances.  In 
this  regard  it  is  ditlieiilt  to  distinguish  between  Pal- 
estinians and  Babylonians,  between  th(^  Tamiaim 
and  the  Amoniim;  for  descriptions  of  heaven  varied 
according  to  the  cxegctic  needs  of  the  homily  and 
the  social  condition  of  the  audience. 

Following  the  Bible  as  a  model,  the  Maccabean 
warriors  invoked  the  angel  that  smote  Sennacherib's 
army  (I  JIacc.  vii.  41 ;  II  Mace.  xv.  22 ;  Syriae  Baiuch 
Apocalypse,  Ixiii.  7;  Book  of  Jubilees,  xvii.  11, 
XX vii.  21  et  see/.).  But  the  scholars  handled  the  ma- 
terial aftertheir  individual  inclinations.  It  isimpos- 
sible,  in  conseinience,  to  fix  the  boundaries  between 
the  speculations  of  scholars  and  popular  notions, 
between  individual  anil  general  views,  between  tran- 
sient and  permanent  ideas.  On  the  whole,  however, 
the  dominant  beliefs  concerning  Angelology  may  be 
gathered  from  the  traditions  that  continued  even 
after  the  extinction  of  the  Essenes.  If  these  tradi- 
tions did  not  originate  with  the  people,  they  were 
transiiiitted  to  them  by  the  scholars,  who  were  held 
in  undisputed  popular  esteem ;  and  they  thus  came 


585 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


An^elolo^y 


to  fiirm  part  of  the  popular  belief.  Since  the  Bible 
was  interpreted  only  in  the  light  of  tradition,  hag- 
gadie  teachingsare  iiiiitc  as  important  for  the  under- 
standing of  the  religion  and  its  forms  as  is  the  Bible 
itself. 

Not  infi-e(|uently  the  ministration  of  angels  is  in- 
ferred in  Bililical  narnilives  when  no  mention  is  made 
of  them.  For  instance,  when  God  wislus  to  create 
man,  the  angels  ask,  "  Wherefore  dost  Thou  create 
him?"  (Gen.  K.  viii.  it);  Sarah  is  protected  from 
I'haraoh  by  an  angel  holding  a  whip  u|ilifted  in  his 
hand  and  making  it  dependent  on  Sarah  whether  lie 
should  use  it  or  not  (Gen.  xii.  1-f  ft  wr/. );  five  angels 
appear  to  Ilagar;  an  angel  leads  Hebekah  to  the 
well  (Gen.  I{.  .\li.,  near  beginning,  .\lv.,  li.\.);  when 
Abraham  is  about  to  sacrifice  Isaiic,  the  angels  inter- 
cede, protesting  to  the  Lord  that  the  intended  act  is 
unnatural  (Hacher.  "Ag.  Pal.  Amor." iii.  29);  angels 
transfer  the  animals  of  Laban's  flock  to  that  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  H.  l.\.\iii.,  near  end);  in  (Jen.  .\.\xi.  San  angel 
speaks  to  Jacob  (Tan.  cd.  HiilK-r.  Wayeze,  24);  Jacob 
employs  some  of  the  angels  who  meet  him  as  mes- 
sengers to  Esiiu  (Gen.  .\.\.\ii.  4.  Gen.  R.  l.xxv.); 
when  Joseph  seeks  his  brethren  (Gen. 
Embellish-  .xxxvii.  \'>  et  w/.)  three  angels  meet 
ment  him  ((}en.  R.  Ixxv.);  angels  gather  to- 
of  Biblical  gether  the  sons  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xlix.  3; 
Accounts.  Gen.  R.  xcviii..  near  beginning);  an 
angel  speaks  out  of  the  mouth  of  Ba- 
laam and  compels  him  to  pronounce  a  blessing 
(Sanh.  llJ.ji);  the  ministering  angi'ls  wait  on  Eliuil 
(Judges,  iii.  2!))  in  order  to  as.sist  him  (Gen.  R. 
xcviii.):  and  an  angel  causes  weapons  to  be  found 
for  Saul  and  Jonathan  (I  Sam.  xiii.  22). 

The  rabbis  most  frequently  give  angelological 
enibellishraeuts  to  the  story  of  Esther;  thus  trans- 
forming the  plain,  straightforward  account  into  a 
miraculous  tale.  Gabriel  drastically  jirevents  Queen 
V'ashti  from  ajipearing  before  Ahasucrus  and  his 
guests,  in  order  to  liriiig  about  llie  election  of  Esther 
in  her  place;  and  when  Esther  ap|)ears  in  the  court 
of  the  king's  house  (Esth,  v.  1).  three  ministering 
angels  hurry  to  her  help:  one  raises  her  head;  the 
second  invests  her  with  grace;  and  the  tliinl  holds 
out  to  her  the  king's  scepter.  When  Ahasucrus  has 
the  "book  of  records  of  thi>  chronicles  "  read  to  him, 
it  is  found  that  Sliimshai,  the  scribe  (see  Ezra,  iv.  8), 
has  stricken  out  the  ])assage  recording  Mordecai's 
rescue  of  the  king;  but  the  angel  (Jabriel  rewrites 
it.  On  Esther's  complaint  to  Ahasucrus  that  .she 
and  her  pef)ple  have  lieen  sold,  the  king  asks  who 
has  done  this  thing.  Esther  is  about  to  point  Iier 
linger  to  Ahasucrus,  to  designate  liini  as  the  wrong- 
doer, when  an  angel  turns  her  hand  in  the  direction 
of  Hainan.  Ahasucrus  then  goes  out  in  wrath  to 
the  garden,  and.  seeing  there  men  tearing  up  the 
trees,  asks  the  reason  for  their  action;  they  reply 
that  llaman  has  eomiiiiuided  it.  The  men  were 
angels,  ofeour.se.  Angels,  too,  throw  Ilaman  upon 
Kslher's  couch.  Ahasucrus' statement  that  the  Jews 
had  "slain  and  destroyed  live  hundre<l  mvu"  (ihiil. 
ix.  12)  .sounds  like  a  reproach  against  the  queen; 
but  an  angel,  touching  the  king's  mouth,  causes  his 
sp<>ech  to  (iiil  kindly  (Meg.  1">'',  Ifi.i,  lfi//».  In  two 
cases  an  angel  strikes  Xebuchadnezzaron  the  mouth  : 
when  he  begins  to  praise  (Sod  (Dan.  iii.  I!:!  |A.  V.  iv. 
;i|i.  so  that  he  may  not  cast  Davids  psalms  into  the 
background,  and  when  he  says  of  the  form  of  one  of 
the  four  men  "walking  in  the  mid.st  of  the  lire" 
(i/ii(l.  iii.  2.'>)  that  it  is  like  the  Son  of  God,  the  angel 
thereupon  thunders,  "Has  God  a  Son?"  (Sanh.  92A, 
below;  \vT.  Sliab.  vi..  end). 

There  arc  many  such  examples  in  the  Talmud  of 
the  addition  of  angels  to  the  Biblical  narrative  which 


give  the  impression  that  angels  are  merely  to  voice 
men's  opinions.  Where  there  are  possible  objections 
to  the  act  of  divine  justice,  these  are  put  into  the 
mouth  of  the  angels  who  represent  God's  council; 
and  His  reply  to  them  is  the  justitication  of  His 
doings.  Many  other  haggadot  in  which  God  antl 
angels  converse  are  to  be  siniilarl)-  construed  as  the 
figurative  representation  of  differing  opinions;  and 
quite  as  often  such  intercourse  between  God  and 
angels  serves  to  present  in  a  vivid  and  impressive 
form  certain  ethical  doctrines — a  fact  which  has  been 
misunderstood  and  misconstrued  by  Weber  ("Jii- 
dische  Theologie,"  2d  ed.,  pp,  176  et  seg.,  Leipsic, 
1S!)7). 

Jewish  tradition  frequently  gives  distinct  and  un- 
mistakable expression  to  God's  sublime  superiority 
over  the  angels.  When,  in  order  to  remove  the  an- 
thropomorphism from  the  Biblical  passage,  Ex. 
xxxiii.  20.  "There  shall  no  man  see  me  and  live" 
('ni),  Akiba  interprets  it,  "Xoteven  the  holy  hayyot 
who  carry  the  throne  of  glory,  see  the  glory  itself," 
Simon  improves  upon  this;  saying,  "Not  even  the 
ever-living  ones,  the  angels  "  (Sifra,  Lev.  i.  1).  God's 
dwelling-place  is  in  tiie  seventh  heaven,  next  to 
which  is  tlieabode  of  the  pious;  and  the  angels  rank 
after  the  latter  (Hag.  12A;  Midr.  Teh.  on  Ps.  xxi. 
7;  Weber,  ihid.  ])p.  \G2  et  scq.). 

The  dignity  of  the  pious  is  greater  than  that  of 
the  angels  (Sanh.  93((,  top).  "God  is  first  praised 
by  Ezekiel;  then  by  the  angels"  (Gen.  R.  Ixv.). 
Adam  reclined  in  paradise;  and  the  ministering  an- 
gels roasted  meat  for  him  (Sanh.  59/().  When  Israel 
recited  the  Sliema',  the  angels  were  silent  till  the  end, 
and  then  sang  their  song  of  praise  (Gen.  R.  Ixv.). 
The  angelic  hosts  praise  God  during  the  night:  for 
during  the  day,  when  Israel's  praise  is  heard,  they 
are  silent  (Hag.  12A).  The  pious  command  the 
angels  (Baehcr,  "Ag.  Pal.  Amor."  ii.  2(i2.  note  6); 
angels  are  not  allowed  to  condone  sins  (Midr.  Teh. 
xvii.  2).  When  Rabbi  Joshua  discourses  concerning 
the  throne  of  God,  the  angels  gather  about  him  in 
curiosity  (Hag.  14/;).  In  the  laudation  of  God,  Israel 
is  given  precedence.  Israel  iiniis<'S  every  day ;  angels 
liraise  but  once  (Midr.  Teh.  ciii.,  beginning;  Hul.  916, 
below). 

Every  man  that  does  not  practise  magic  enters  a 
department  of  heaven  to  which  even  the  ministering 
angels  are  not  allowed  access  (Xed.  .32</). 

In  addition  to  the  Biblical  name  ikI'D  ("angel")  the 
term  D'JV^yn  i "  Ihe  upper  ones  ")  often  occurs  in  con- 
trast with  D'Jinnnn  ("the  lower  ones").  The  for- 
mer name  desiuiiates  them  as  inhabitants  of  heaven 
(Sanh.  2(J/-,  Ket.  l(l-(</,  Midr.  Teh.  xxv.  14.  etc.). 
By  the  creation  of  mankind  God  established  peace 
between  the  upper  ones  and  the  lower  ones  (Lev.  R. 

ix.).  The  upper  household  (n^yo  h'C  S'^DS)— from 
fdmiliii,  servants,  meaning  the  angels  forming  the 
heavenly  court — is  often  contrasted  with  Israel  as 

God's  servants  on  earth  below  (DDD  bii'  N'f?OS) 
(Bcr.  17r(:  Sifre.  Num.  42;  Sanh.  9.s/i,  H!)/-;  Hag.  136, 
lielow).  The  angelic  host  iseven  called  "excrcitus" 
and  "strateia  ";  and  angels  ol  the  lowest  rank  are 
called  "galearii"  (army  siTvants;  Cant.  R.  viii.  13; 
Num.  R.  xii.  H:  Pesik!  R.  xv.  ti9./ ;  Pesik.  v.  4.V.). 

The  essence  of  the  angels  is  liri':    they  sustain 

themselves  in  lire;  their  liery  breath  consumes  men; 

anil  no  man  can  endure  the  sound  of 

Nomen-  their  voices  (Cant.  R.  v.  10;  Pesilj.  v. 
clature  and  57i/ ;  Hag.  14A,  above ;  Shab.  S,S6,  be- 

Essence.      low;  'Tan.,  '\'itro.  xvi.).     "The  angel 

of  the  Lord  "  in  Judges,  ii.  1,  was  Phin- 

elms,    whose   countenance,    when    the    Holy    Spirit 

rested   upon   it,  glowed   like  a  torch  (Lev.   R.   i.. 


Angelolo^y 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


586 


lipginning).  To  Josliiin  b.  Ilnimniali  tlie  emperor  Ma- 
•liiiin  siiiil:  "You  sjiy  tlmt  no  portion  of  the  lieiiv- 
enlv  hosts  sinjis  praise  to  tlic  Lord  twiee.  but  that 
Goil  daily  hears  uiw  aiiirels  wlio  siiii:  his  praise 
[based  oil  Ijini.  iii,  ',':!|  and  then  ro.  ^Vhi1lll•^  do  they 
goV"  Whereupon  .loshna  replied:  "To  the  stream 
of  fire  whence  tliey  emanated"  (Dan.  vii.  10).  II.: 
"  What  is  tlie  eliaraeter  of  this  stream?  "  J. :  "  It  is 
like  the  .Ionian,  whieli  ceases  not  to  flow  by  day  or 
by  niuht."  H.  :  "  And  whence  comes  the  stream  of 
lire'/  "  J. :  "  From  the  sweat  of  the  livin;.'  creatures 
of  God's  chariot,  which  didjis  from  them  under  the 
burden  of  God's  throne"  ((ien.  H.  l.wviii..  bejriu- 
ning.  and  iiarallel  passaires;  compare  IJaeher.  "Ag. 
Tan."  i.  178).  Another  theory  is.  that  angels  are 
lialf  fire,  half  water,  and  that  (!od  makes  peace  be- 
tween the  opposing  elements  {Ver.  H.  II.  ii.  liSa). 
They  feed  on  the  rays  of  God's  majesty,  for  "in 
the  light  of  the  king's  countenance  is  life  "  (Prov. 
xvi.  l.j.  Pesik,  vi,  57"). 

A  characteristic  and  well  known  passage  is  the 
following: 

*' III  tliree  respects  demons  re.seiiitile  anpels;  In  three  others, 
niaiikintl.  I.ike  the  impels  ttiey  have  wiiifcrs,  tliey  iiinve  from 
one  end  of  Hit'  earth  tn  the  other,  and  are  presi'liMit.  IJke  men 
tliey  eat  and  drink,  jtiopa^rate  themselves,  and  die.  In  tlin-r  rc- 
speet.s  men  resemtjle  the  angels;  In  three  others,  the  animals. 
Like  animals  they  eat  ami  drink,  propapate  themselves,  and  dis- 
ehar^re  waste  iimtter"  ^Hiitz.  Iti'i  and  panillel  pas.saj?esi. 

In  order  that  Moses  might  become  like  the  angels, 
all  I'ooil  and  drink  had  to  be  consumed  in  his  entrails 
(Voma,4/').  The  angels  that  appeared  to  Abraham 
only  pretended  to  eat  (Targ.  Yer.  Gen.  xviii.  8, 
and  in  the  Midrash). 

The  angels  are  generally  represented  as  good,  and 
as  not  subject  to  evil  impulses  (Gen.  K.  xlviii.  11). 
Hence  the  Ten  Commandments  are  not  apiilicable 
to  them  (Shab.  MSA);  they  are  called  "holy."  while 
men  reijuire  a  twofold  sanctification  to  merit  the 
epithet  (Lev.  H.  .\.\iv.  8).  Having  this  character, 
they  show  neither  hatred  nor  envy:  nor  does  dis- 
cord or  ill  will  exist  among  them  "(Sifre.  ]S'iim.  42). 
Nevertheless,  they  stand  in  need  of  mutual  benefi- 
cence (Lev.  ]{.  xxi.,  beginning).  Although  there 
is  nothing  hidden  from  the  superior  beings  (Jlidr. 
Tell.  XXV.  14),  yet  they  do  not  know  the  day  of 
Israel's  redemption  (S;inli.  'M<i):  see  also  Matt.  xxiv. 
3(),  "of  that  day  and  hour  knowelh  no  man,  no, 
not  the  angels  of  heaven,  but  my  Father  only." 
Though  the  Israelites,  emerging  from  the  .sea,  knew 
where  God's  glory  resided,  the  angels  were  in  igno- 
rance of  it  (F^x.  H.  x.\iii.,  end).  Adam's  knowledge 
exceeded  that  of  the  an,ffels  (Bacher.  "Ag.  Pal. 
Amor."  iii.  1'35,  note  1):  not  Adam  alone,  however, 
but  all  the  pious  rank  above  the  ministering  angels 
(Gen.  R.  xxi.,  Yer.  Shab.  vi..  endi. 

Although  they  renderGod  unfailing  obedience,  and 
are  ready  to  serve  Him  before  they  hear  His  com- 
mands— in  which  regard  they  are  imitated  by  Israel — 
they  are  nevertheless  fallible.  There  are  fallen  an- 
gels. Two  were  exjiellcd  from  heaven  for  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-eight  years  on  account  of  ]irenia- 
turely  disclosing  the  decree  of  Sodom's  destruction, 
or  for  presumption  (Gen.  H.  1..  I.wiii.). 

The  angels  apjiear  at  times  standing:  now  in  the 
shape  of  a  man  or  of  a  woman,  and  now  as  wind  or 
as  tire  (Ex.  IL  xxv.,  beginning).  Of  the  three  angels 
that  appeared  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xviii.  2).  one  was 
like  a  Saracen,  one  like  a  Nabatean.  and  the  third 
like  an  Arab  (Gen.  H.  xlviii.  9).  To  Jacob  (Gen. 
x.\xii.  2o)the  angel  appeared  as  a  shepherd  (Gen.  K. 
l.xxvii.),  as  a  heathen,  and  as  a  learned  man  (I.Iul. 
9 1<( ).  An  angel  assumed  1  he  shape  of  .Moses  in  order 
to  be  captured  by  Pharaoh  in  Moses' place:  another, 
taking  S(/lomon's  form,  dethroned  liiiu  (Yer.  Ber. 


ix.  13<(;  compare  Lev.  R.  vi.,  Yer.  Sanli.  ii.  20r). 
Angels  come  from  heaven  on  horses,  with  gleaming 
weapons  (IV  Mace.  iv.  10):  (Jabriel  smites  Sennach- 
erib's host  (II  Kings,  xix.  -i-))  with  a  sharpenetl 
scythe  whiili  had  been  ready  since  the  Creation 
(Sanh.  !).">//).  The  stone  mentioneil  in  Dan.  vi.  IH  was 
a  stone  lion  into  which  an  angel  had  entered  (Cant. 
H.,  l)eginning).  A  high  priest  was  killed  by  an 
angel  in  the  Holy  of  Holies;  and  the  impress  of 
a  calf's  foot  (eomjiare  K/ek.  i.  7;  Ta'anit,  256; 
Yoma.  21")  was  found  bet  wicn  his  shoulders  (Yoma, 
\i>li).  Angels  being  generally  conceived  as  endowed 
with  wings,  Akiba  took  the  expression  "fowls  of 
the  heaven"  (Ps.  civ.  12)  to  mean  angels;  but  R. 
Ishmael  refuted  him  (Bacher,  "  Ag.  Tan."  i.  S24: 
comjiare  Gen.  R.  Ixv.  21;  Pesik.  H.  viii..  lieginning; 
Yer.  Ber.  vii.,  end). 

Their  bodies  were  suppo.sed  to  be  like  the  figure 
<lescribed  in  Dan.  X.  (i.  Their  size  is  variously 
given.  One  angel  exleiuls  from  earth  to  heaven, 
where  the  hayyot  stand:  Sandalfon  is  taller  than  his 
fellows  by  the  length  of  a  journey  of  live  hundred 
years  (Hag.  13'<).  According  to  one  tradition,  each 
angel  was  one-third  of  a  world;  according  to  another, 
two  thous;ind  parasjings  (a  parasang  =  IJ.ss  miles), 
his  hand  reaching  I  mm  heaven  to  earth  (Bacher,"  Ag. 
Pal.  Amor."  iii.  :i71.  547).  The  angels  do  not,  of 
course,  always  disclose  themselves  in  all  their  size; 
they  are  visible  to  those  only  whom  their  message 
concerns;  and  their  message  is  heard  by  none  but 
those  for  whom  it  is  intended  (Ta'anit,  21"). 

Their  number  was  considered,  even  by  the  oldest 

Talmudists,  to  be  infinite.     Rabbi  Joshua  .said  that 

the  sun  is  onlv  one  of  the  nianv  tlion- 

■Variety  sands  that  serve  God  (Yalk.,  Ex.  :!9G). 
of  Angelic    (Jod  caused  to  ]iass  before  Moses  the 

Forms.  hosts  of  angels  thai  lived  in  His  |)res- 
euce  and  served  Him  (Targ.  Yer.  to 
Ex.  xxxiii.  23).  God  combats  evil  by  Himself;  but 
in  beneficent  works  myriads  of  angels  assist  Him 
(Num.  R.  xi.  7).  Every  angelic  host  consists  of  a 
thousiind  times  a  thousand ;  but,  to  judge  from  Dan. 
vii.  10.  and  Job.  xxv.  2,  3.  the  hosts  themselves  were 
innumerable. 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  their 
own  conn  try  the  number  of  the  angelic  hosts  was  de- 
crea.sed  (Sifre,  Num.  42).  When  Jacob  left  Laban's 
house,  sixty  times  ten  thousand  angels  danced  be- 
fore him  (Cant.  R.  vii.  1;  compare  Gen.  R.  Ixxiv., 
end).  When  at  the  revelation  Israel  first  said  "  We 
will  do  it."  and  then  "We  will  hear  it,"  the  same 
number  descended  and  bound  two  crowns  about  the 
head  of  each  Israelite;  but  when  the  Israelites  sinned, 
one  hundred  and  twenty  thousiind  angels  came  to 
remove  (hem  (Shab.  88").  On  Sinai  (Jod  appeared 
with  twenty-two  thousand  angelic  hosts;  though 
another  authority  holds  that  the  number  of  hosts 
could  not  be  c(miputed  by  any  mathematician 
(Pesik.  xii.  \(}~/t  and  parallel  jiassages).  A  thousand 
angels  constitute  the  following  of  every  Israelite; 
one  angel  preceding  him.  to  bid  the  demons  make 
way.  This  angel's  left  hand,  which  executes  but 
one  command — the  command  of  the  ti\1tUiii  (Dent. 
vi.  4-8) — holds  a  thousand  angels:  and  the  right 
hand,  which  executes  a  number  .of  commands,  holds 
ten  thottsand  angels  (Bacher,  "Ag.  Pal.  Amor."  ii. 
130,  219). 

Though  the  Bible  makes  no  statement  concerning 
the  origin  of  angels,  tradition  emphatically  declares 
them  to  have  been  created  by  God.  but  not  until  the 
second  day  of  the  Creation,  in  order  that  it  should 
not  be  .said  that  God  had  received  assistance  in  His 
work,  and  that  Michael  .sustained  the  firmament  in 
the  south,  Gabriel  supjiorted  it  in  the  north,  and  God 


587 


THE  jp:wisii  encyclopedia 


Angelolo^y 


strengllioneil  it  in  tlio  middle.  Tliis  is  one  view: 
another  is  that  ttie  tinffels  \ver<'  not  cieated  until  the 
fifth  <l!iy.  They  were  not  anion<r  the  six  tliinjrs 
whose  creation  was  decided  upon  before  the  world 
was  made  (Geu.  R.  i.  3).  God  indeed  lield  council 
Willi  aii^'els  at  the  creation  of  man.  without,  how- 
ever, allowinj;  them  to  decide  against  His  decree  in 
favor  of  his  creation  (^SaIlh.  iiHh.  Gen.  R.  viii.  ot. 
These  sayings  of  the  rabbis  show  u  desire  to  pre- 
serve intact  the  idea  nf  monotheism. 

Angels  also  sit  in  council  at  the  judgment  of  man. 
to  decide  his  guilt  or  inriocence.  If  nine  hundred 
and  ninety-nine  vote  for  conviction  and  only  one  for 
acc|uittal.  God  deci<les  in  favor  of  man.  The  soul 
announces  the  affairs  of  man  to  the  angel,  the  angel 
to  lh<'  cherubim,  the  cherubim  to  God  (Cant.  R.  i.  9; 
Yer.  Kid.  i.  61*/;  Pesik  R.  viii.,  beginning). 

As  zealous  servants  of  the  I.,ord,  angels  act  in  ac- 
cordance Willi  Ilis  spirit;  but  not  infrer|Uently  they 
mistake  Ilis  intentions.  They  dispute 
Functions  as  to  who  shall  rescue  Abraham  from 
of  Angels,  the  furnace:  but  God  reserves  the  de- 
cision to  Himself.  When  God  strove 
with  the  Egyptians  at  the  Red  sea.  angels  wanted 
to  take  part  in  the  contest:  when  Phinehas  inter- 
ceded with  God  to  Siive  Israel  from  the  plague,  they 
wanted  to  strike  him  down.  .Micah,  the  idolater 
(Judges,  xvii.),  they  wanted  to  destroy  utterly:  but 
God,  remembering  Micah's  hospitality,  had  com- 
pa.ssion  on  him  (Tan.,  Tezawweh.  xii.  :  Midr.  Teh. 
xviii.  13:  Sanh.  1034).  Goil  liarkened,  however,  to 
their  representations  concerning  the  extent  of  Jer- 
tisjilem.  which  they  wished  to  be  unlimited,  since 
God  did  not  limit  heathen  cities;  and  He  yielded 
to  their  reipiest.  They  pleaded  for  Moses,  when 
he  was  exposed  on  the  river,  that  he  should  not 
be  allowed  to  perish:  it  being  the  si.vtli  day  of  Sivaii. 
the  day  destined  for  the  revelation  (.Sotah.  I'ili). 
Angels  interest  themselves  deeply  in  the  destiny  of 
Isniel  and  of  the  pious.  They  take  Israel's  part 
when  God  proposes  to  punish  him;  they  lament  over 
the  decreed  destruction:  they  plead  for  Israel  with 
the  heathen;  they  accuse  Ishmael's  descendants  for 
Israel's  sake.  Tliey  jirotect  Israel,  and  come  ti^  his 
assistance  at  the  revelation.  After  Moses'  death  an 
angel  takes  God's  place  in  the  guidance  of  Israel. 
Angels  help  at  the  construction  of  Solomon's  Tem- 
ple; they  weep  over  its  destruction  :  but  their  con- 
solation is  rejected  bv  God  ((tit.  T'/ :  Bcr.  204;  Esther 
R.  iii.  9,  i.  14;  Gen.  \i.  liii.  14:'  Kx.  R.  xviii.  r,,  near 
beginning:  xxxii.,  beginning;  Ex.  R.  xxxii.3:  Cant. 
R.,  introduction,  near  beginning;  Hag.  oi;  .Sanh.  9(54; 
Gen.  R.  xix.  K). 

Angels  ])rotect  the  pious  and  help  them  in  their 
transactions.  An  angel  nullities  the  conse<iuences 
of  Esau's  hunting.  When  Jacob  tremliles  in  ap- 
proaching Isaac,  two  angels  siip|>ort  him  lest  he 
fall.  Wlien  Amrani  takes  his  wife  again,  the  angels 
rejoiceover  the  fact  that  Moses  will  l>e  born:  and  at 
Moses'  death  they  chaiil  a  funeral  .song.  Thev  la- 
ment over  the  martyred  Akiba:  exclaiming,  "'This 
is  the  F.aw,  and  this  is  its  reward  "  (Sotah,  Vi'i;  I5er. 
()14;  Shall.  ^)'>li).  They  mourn  the  death  of  Adam; 
they  carry  olT  the  bodies  of  Nadab  and  Abiliu. 
Every  man  has  a  special  guardian  angel,  according 
loTarg.  Yer.  (Jen.  xxxiii.  10:  "I  have  seen  thy  face 
as  though  I  had  seen  the  face  of  thy  angel  "  (coni- 
|)are  Levi  in  .Sotah.  414).  These  guardian  spirits  are 
identical  with  the  two  angels  accompanying  man 
(Hag.  KWi).  When  going  into  an  unclean  place,  one 
begs  these  accompanying  angels  to  wail,  until  he 
comes  out  again  (Iter.  l!04).  (Juardian  spirits  are 
mentioned  |iarlieiilarly  in  .Matt,  xviii.  lU,  and  in 
Acts,  xii.  l."i.     They  resoluble  the  Persian /raru*//!*. 


and  were  probably  modeled  after  them.  The  spiril.s 
of  the  elements,  like  the  prince  of  the  tire,  etc.,  also 
had  their  oriL'in  in  Persia,  as  is  shown  by  their  names. 
The  accompanying  angels  are  probably  not  identical 
with  the  guardian  spirits:  for  certain  angels  accom- 
pany Jacob  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  others  attend  him 
in  foreign  lands  (Gen.  R.  Ixviii.  12). 

Accompanying  angels  are  not  permanent,  but  tem- 
porary, companions.  Every  angel  wears  on  his  breast 
a  tablet  in.scribed  with  the  name  of  God  (Pesik.  xii. 
1084;  conip.  Kaclier.  "Ag.  Pal.  Amor.'"  i.  412,  note 
1 ).  Two  angels — one  good  and  one  evil — accompany 
man  ;is  he  returns  from  the  synagogue  to  his  home 
on  Sabbath  eve.  Thesoulsof  the  piousare  received 
by  three  good  angels;  those  of  the  wicked,  by  three 
evil  angels,  who  accompanv  them  and  testifv  for 
them  (Tosef.,  Shab.  xvii.  2;"  Shab.  1194;  Ket.  104(/; 
Hag.  16rt).  The  angels  associate  with  the  pious  and 
instruct  them  in  certain  matters.  Ishinael  b.  Elislia 
says;  "Three  things  did  the  angel  of  His  presence 
impart  to  me. "  To  Johanan  ben  Dahabai  minister- 
ing angels  gave  four  teachings.  They  frightened 
Shesliet.  Three  angels  appeared  to  a  maid  serving 
in  the  house  of  Sitnon  b.  Yoliai's  father.  If  some 
one  forsiikes  the  community  in  its  need,  his  two 
guardian  angels  lay  their  hands  on  his  head  saying, 
"May  he  have  no  share  in  the  salvation  of  the  com- 
munity." Man  before  his  birth,  being  pure  spirit, 
knows  everything;  but  at  the  moment  that  he  sees 
the  light  of  day.  an  angel  strikes  him  on  the  mouth, 
and  he  forgetsthe  whole  Torali  (Ber.  ,ilrt;  Ned.  20a; 
Meg.  29rt:  Mcilah,  174;  Ta'anit.  lb/;  Nid.  304). 

In  Hag.  I'if/  it  is  stated  ihat  there  is  in  heaven  a 
Jeru.salem.  containing  a  Siinctuary  in  which  Michael, 
the  great  iirince,  stands  like  the  high  i)riest  on 
earth,  offering  up  sacrifice.  Angels  chant  the  "Holy, 
holy,  holy"  of  Isa.  vi,  3  (Hul.  914  and  elsewhere); 
and  their  voices  sound  soft  and  low  (Sifre,  i.  .58). 
Angels  in  heaven,  repre.senting  the  peoples  of  the 
earth,  are  mentioned  as  early  as  Ren  .Sira  (Ecclus. 
xvii.  17;  Deut.  xxxii.  8,  LXX.).  the  number  of  the 
peoples  being  seventy,  according  to  the  reckoning 
of  Gen.  X.  Rut  while  Ben  Sira  speaks  of  God  as 
the  ruler  of  Israel,  as  does  also  the  Book  of  Jubilees 
(XV.  32).  later  sources  unanimously  designate  Mi- 
chael as  the  inince  of  Israel.  It  was  to  these  angels 
that  God  sjiid  at  the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel, 
"Let  us  confound  their  language"  (Targ,  Yer.  to 
Gen.  xi.  7,  Pirke  R.  El.  x.viv).  They  were  the 
s/iinaii,  distinguished  angels  who  came  down  with 
the  myriads  of  angels  at  the  revelation  on  Sinai 
(Pesik.  R.  xxi..  with  reference  to  Ps.  Ixviii.  18 
[compare  (ial.  iii.  19]). 

The  destiny  of  the  nations  and  of  their  heavenly 
princes  is  closely  interwoven.  God  punishes  no 
nation;  norwill  He, even  in  the  time  of  the  Messiah, 
punish  any,  until  He  shall  have  punished  its  guard- 
ian angel  (Cant.  R.  viii.  14;  Mek..  Resliallal.i.  Sliirah, 
ii.).  The  hostility  of  the  ancient  nations  against  Is- 
rael is  rellected  in  Iheli'gend  that  the  seventy  princes 
of  the  nations  bring  charges  against  Isnii'l.wliose  part 
God  takes.  The  same  angels  favorid  Egypt.  (lod 
enjoined  obediiiice  on  Israel  in  ordi'r  thai  he  might 
ward  olT  the  hostility  of  tho.se  angels.  Jacob  .saw 
them  in  a  dream  ascending  and  ih'scending  a  ladder 
reaching  lo  heaven,  and  feared  Ihi'y  would  always 
oppress  Israel  {  Ruth  R..  introduclion  :  Targ.  Yer.  on 
Ex.  xxiv.  10  and  Midrash  Abkir;  Pesil>.  xxiii.  l.")0/i). 
No  individual  names  of  lliese  are  given,  with  the 
except  ion  of  .Michaid  and  Samael ;  the  following,  how- 
ever, are  mentioned;  namely,  the  princes  of  Egypt. 
Babylon.  Media.  Yavan  ( =  (ireece.  hence  also  Syria), 
Edoiu  (Rome).  The  last  occurs  most  frequently, 
since  any  great  world-power  easily  suggested  "to 


Angelology 


Tin:  .n;wisii  kncyclopedia 


588 


the  minils  of  tin-  Imggiidisls  the  powi-r  of  Home 
(Ex.  K.  xv.  ITcPcsik.  l.'.ix;  Mak.  12</.  c-tc).  Siiiniu-1, 
Edom's  putroii.  wmitcd  to  kill  Jacob;  also  to  <le- 
prive  Tainar  of  lior  pKilgi'S  (Gen.  xxxviii.  25). 
wlK'icin  tJaliriel  prcvciitiil  liiin,  and  lie  complained 
against  Israel  on  the  hitter's  departure  from  Egypt 
(Gen.  H.  Ixxvii. ;  Cant.  1{.  iii.  «;  Tan.,  Wayishlah, 
viii  ;  Sotah,  10*;  Ex.  R.  xxi.,  near  cud;  Bachcr, 
"  Ag.  Pal.  Amor."  i.  !ii),  473).  An  interesting  angel, 
mentioned  in  15.  15.  2.5,;,  is  Ben  Nez,  the  ruler  of  the 
winds,  to  whom  is  referred  Job,  xxxix.  20:  "Doth 
the  III!  [A.  V.  "hawk"!  fly  by  thy  wisdom  and 
stretch  his  wings  towards  the  south"  (to  ward  off 
the  .scorching  heat).  The  "prince  of  the  world" 
(Ycb.  lt!/()  is  possibly  identical  with  Michael. 

Mention  is  also  niade  of  the  following;  Dumali, 
princeof  the  realm  of  the  dead,  prince  of  liell,  prince 
of  tire;  Ualiab.  prince  of  the  sea;  Ridia.  jiriiice  of 
the  rain  ;  Yurkcini.  prince  of  the  hail  (the  etymology 
of  the  last-nu'iitioned  name  is  unknown);  Gabriel, 
prince  of  the  ripening  of  the  fruil,  the  prince  of 
lust;  Lailah  ("night"),  prince  of  coiicci>tion  ;  Af  and 
Hemah  ("anger"  and  "wrath");  Abaddon  and  Ma 
wet  ("de.struction "  and  "death");  the  angels  of 
prayer,  of  beuelicence,  and  of  dreams  (Shab.  1524; 
compare  San h.  y4(/;  'Ar.  1.5(/;  Pes.  118,(;  Sauh.  95i; 
B.  B.  25«;  Gcu.  U.  Ixxxv. ;  Niddah,  16//;  Ned.  :i2,/ ; 
Shao.  89,/;  Ex.  R.  xxi.  ;  Jlidr.  Teh.  Ixxxviii.  4;  Ber. 
lOi).  Frequently  angels  of  peace  or  wrath,  good  and 
bad  angels,  are  referred  to;  and  more  frequently  de- 
stroying angels  (n^nfOH  os^o  =  nSan  'on^o.  ii 

Sam",  xxiv.  10.  I  C'linm.  xxi.  15).  whose  unlimited 
number  liguralivcly  represents  the  infinite  nunil)er 
of  ills  and  mislia]is  to  which  flesh  is  heir  (Shab.  88,/; 
Enoch,  liii.  :i,  Ixvi.  1).  Besides  these,  Jewish  tradition 
has  the  namcsof  Metatuon,  S.\nd.\lfon.  and(ouce) 
Se.malion  (Sanh.  384;  Hag.  134;  Sotah,  13A). 

According  to  the  Talmud,  the  three  angels  tliat 
visited  Al)raham  (Gen.  xviii.  2)  were  Jlichacl.  (la- 
briel,  and  Itaphael  (Yoma,  37n;  B.  M.  8W<).  The 
Suriel,  jirince  of  his  presence,  of  Ber.  51a  may  have 
been  identical  with  Sariel. 

3.  In  the  Medieval  Period :  The  system  of  the 
Essenes  reapjuars  in  the  mvstical  writers  at  the 
time  of  the  Geonim  (600-1000).  It 
The  was  given  a  still  more  mystical  char- 
Cabala,  acter  by  the  cabalists.  who.  beginning 
iu  the  thirteenth  century,  gained  more 
and  more  grotuiil.  and  finally  obtained  overwhelm 
ing  intlueiice.  In  the  Talmud,  angels  were  tho 
instruments  of  God;  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  in- 
struments of  man,  who,  by  calling  their  names,  or 
by  other  means,  rendered  "them  visible.  The  Tal 
mud  knew  of  angelic  apparitions,  but  not  of  the 
conjuration  of  angels,  which  must  be  distinguished 
from  the  conjuration  of  demons.  Even  gaonic  mys 
ticism  was  reserved  on  this  point;  but  the  Book  of 
Raziel,  composed  of  variotis  elements,  gives  at  its 
very  beginning  directions  for  invoking  the  angels, 
that  change  according  to  the  month,  day,  and  hour, 
and  for  using  them  for  a  peculiar  purpose,  such  as 
prophecy.  After  this  the  Cabala  knew  no  limits  as 
to  the  iiumber  of  the  angels.  Like  the  Egyptian 
magic,  it  was  dominated  by  the  belief  that  no  angel 
could  resist  the  invocation  of  his  name  when  it  took 
place  after  certain  |)ri|)arations,  in  the  proper  places, 
and  at  the  riglit  time. 

Accordingly,  post-Talmudic  Angelology,  while 
serving  practical  ends,  had  increased  the  munber  of 
angels.  Besides  those  that  did  duty  in  heaven, 
a  whole  host  was  placed  over  the  specific  activities 
of  man's  world;  and  naincs  were  given  to  the  in- 
dividuals composing  this  host.  When  the  mysticism 
that  ascribed  peculiar  properties  to  letters  and  num- 


bers, and  devoted  itself  at  first  to  cosmic  speculation, 
turned  its  attention  to  the  world  of  angels — consid- 
ering it  a  jiortiou  of  the  cosmos — numerous  names 
arose  that  wcie  exclusively  the  conccjitions  of  mys- 
tical speculators,  having  no  rational  etymology.  Such 
names  exist  by  the  thousand,  occurring  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  in  the  Book  of  Raziel,  which  pretends 
to  be  a  revelation  by  the  angel  Raziel  to  Adam,  and 
which  [lasscd  from  Adam  to  Abniham,  Moses,  and 
the  Prophets  in  direct  succession  from  father  to  son. 

Disreganling  these  fictitious  names,  which,  though 
genuine  to  the  Cabala,  arc  not  In  be  regarded  as  com- 
ponent purtsof  tradilional  belief,  the  names  of  angels 
and  oilier  angelological  elements  are  older  than  the 
litcraturi^  concerning  them,  csiu'cially  the  cabalistic 
works  Hekalot,  Otiol  de-R.  Akiba,  l{aziel,  and  the 
Zohar.  It  is  a  commonly  observed  feature  of  .se- 
cret arts  that  they  flourish  in  concealed  and  non- 
literary  forms  before  venturing  into  the  light  of  day 
and  becoming  literature.  Since  angelic  names  ecm- 
stituted  the  most  Siicred  element  in  mysticism,  they 
were  often  not  written,  much  les.s  prinle<l;  and,  in 
consequence,  a  number  of  them  remain  imknown, 
and  could  not  be  given  in  Schwab's  "  V'ocabulairede 
I'Angelologie,"  Paris,  1897,  a  work  numbering  three 
humlred  and  sixty-eight  pages.  Curiously  enough, 
Greek  names  were  smuggled  in  and  w  ere  later  ex- 
plained by  Biblical  names.  Naturally,  there  were 
some  authors  even  in  the  Middle  Ages  who  con- 
demned as  foolishness  these  fanciful  names  along 
with  ,/,',/»(/;•,■„«  ("numerical  values  of  the  letters"), 
by  means  of  which  they  were  created.  "Neither 
the  older  Jewish  mysticism  nor  the  Spanish  Cabala 
produced  so  full  an  Angelology,  or  so  rich  a  demon- 
ological  literature,  as  did  the  mysti- 

Mystic-  cism  of  the  German  Ji'ws  of  the  thir- 
al  Angel-     teeuth   century.      Nor    did    either   of 

ology.  them  elaborate  the  angelic  character 
in  such  detail,  or  adapt  it  so  skilfully 
to  all  the  needs  of  daily  life.  Conseciucntly,  Ger- 
man Jewish  mysticism  was  from  this  point  of  view 
more  closely  allied  to  contemporary  Christian  mys- 
ticism than  to  its  predecessors.  According  to  the 
'  Book  of  the  Angels, '  by  Eleazar  of  \\'orms.  one  of 
the  most  pronnnent  ]iupils  of  .Tudali  Ilasid,  the 
whole  world  is  peopled  with  angels  and  <lemons;  no 
nook  or  cranny  is  unprotected  by  guardian  angels; 
and  God  determines  on  everything,  and  then  sends 
an  angel  to  execute  His  will.  Every  man  has  his 
angel  of  destiny  [pIO  1X?D]  or  'appointed  one' 
[njIDD],  w'ho  brings  about  all  the  good  and  evil  that 
he  experiences"  \GUdemann,  "Gcsch.  des  Erzie- 
himgswcsens  und  der  Cultur  der  Judcn,"  i.  162; 
compare  ii.  165.  180). 

After  the  victorious  advance  of  the  Cabala,  oppo- 
sition to  the  highly  fanciful  belief  in  angels  was  no 
longer  made;  and  mystical  Angelology  lured  the 
Occident  as  well  as  tlie  Orient  into  its  charmed  cir- 
cle, from  which  a  portion  of  Judaism  has  not  yet 
liberated  itself.  Angels  still  play  a  part  in  usages 
connected  with  the  home  among  the  Hasidim,  who 
design  their  amulets  with  reganl  to  the  particular 
angel  dominant  at  the  time  they  arc  made.  Ac- 
cording to  one  source,  all  angels  i)laced  over  the 
months  and  days  are  said  to  serve  this  iniri)0sc.  In 
this  way  Angelology  is  brought  into  the  closest  con- 
nection with  astrology  anti  into  agreement  with 
monotheism. 

BIBI.IOGRAPHT:  A.  Dillmann.  IJniulhurh  der  AUt(.'<tament- 
IMu-ti  nniliigir,  ed.  Ii.  Kilti-1,  ISft'i;  R.  Smend,  Lclirlmch 
der  Alltei^tameillUehe II  Ht  ItiiiiinsuryehieliU.  'M  f-d.,  ISilfl;  K. 
Stave,  l^eber  den  Einttli.^  des  I'nrsismvs  ruif  das  Judetl- 
lliuin,  1898;  G.  Brw'her,  Dax  Tr<i>iyeriiilenliih.  Mmiie  und 
Maaifehe  HeUiirten  im  Talmud,  l«i;  A.  K"1ini.  Veher  die, 
JUcl.  Anaetulogic  und  DaemimiAoyie  inllirerAhhUngnjhcit 


589 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Angelolog7 


tvmi  PiirKinnum,  IS*>) ;  o.  H.  St'imiT.  in  Ih-Ualuz.  vll.;  F. 
F.  Weber.  J\UI.  'DicitUmk  aitf  firtttnl  *'««  Tndiiml  luifl  IVr- 
wamllir  Schriflin.  M  ihI.,  \S'.)';  M  .  Siliwab,  ViicahuUiirc  ile 
l\ltniihili>iiii  lYnprii*  Ux  MaintsrrilA  lU'brtux  de  la  liilitiO' 
tlu'iiiu  yuluiuaU,  ISUT,  suppleiiieul,  ISSW. 

L.  B. 

General  Historical  Development :     In  the 

earlier  Biblical  wrilinjrs  the  tinn  ".Malak  YIIWII" 
(mi'ssciigcrof  the  Lonl)(iccurs  chicliy  in  tlic-sinjjulur. 
and  signifies  a  special  selt-niuuifestaliun  of  God  (see 
Gen.  xxxi.  1  l-i;i.  where  the  angel  of  God  Siiys,  "  I  am 
tlie  God  of  Bethel  "  ;  Ex.  iii.  2-(),  where  the  angel  of 
the  Lord  who  appeared  to  Jloses  in  the  flame  of  tire 
says,  "I  am  the  God  of  thy  father";  compare  Gen. 
xxii.  11;  Judges,  vi.  11-22).  At  times  the  angel 
clearly  distinguishes  himself  from  the  Lord  who 
semis  him  (see  Gen.  xvi  11,  xxi.  17;  Num.  xxii.  81 ; 
Judges,  xiii.  Hi).  Though  ajipearing  in  human  form 
(.see  Gen.  xviii.  2  (t  kh/.,  xxxii.  2.5;  compare  llosea, 
xii.  5),  the  angel  of  the  Lord  has  no  individuality. 
Being  only  a  lemiiorary  manifestation  of  God.  he  can 
never  rephice  His  presence;  wherefore  Jloses,  not 
satislied  with  the  Lord's  saying  "  I  will  send  an  angel 
before  thee"  (Ex.  xxxiii.  2),  replies:  "If  thy  pres- 
ence [face]  go  not  with  me,  carry  us  not  up  hence  " 
(Ex.  xxxiii.  15). 

Tlure  prevailed  no  uniform  conceittion  of  the.se 
angelic  beings.  In  Jacob's  dream  they  ascend  and 
descend  the  ladder  (Gen.  xxviii.  12);  in  the  vision  of 
Isaiah  (vi.  2)  they  are  .six -winged  seraphim;  in  Eze- 
kiel  the  cherubim  and  living  creatures  (hayyot) have 
the  liken<'ss  of  a  man,  are  winged,  and  have  feet 
(Ezik.  i.  5-7,  X.  l'J-21).  As  guests  of  Abraham,  they 
eat  (Gen.  xviii.  8);  in  the  house  of  Manoali  theangel 
refuses  to  eat  (Judges,  xiii.  Hi).  Whether  in  the 
popular  mind  these  angels  took  the  place  of  the 
powers  of  nature  dcilied  by  the  heathen  nationselse- 
where,  or  whether  the  psychological  jirocess  was  a 
dilTerent  one,  the  monotheism  of  Isniel  necessitated 
the  assumption  of  beings  representing  a  heavenly 
hierarchy  readv  to  mediate  between  man  and  God. 

The  .story  of  Creation  makes  no  mention  of  the 
creati(m  of  angels,  while  from  Job.  xxxviii.  7.  if 
not  from  Gen.  i.  2I>.  il  rather  appears  that  they 
looked  on,  approving  and  jiraising  God's  creative 
work.  According  to  Job,  iv.  IH,  xv.  15,  the  angels 
are  endowed  with  moral  sense,  though  they  fall 
short  of  God's  own  ideal  of  jiurity  and  perfection. 
According  to  P.s.  Ixxviii.  25,  manna  is  "angels' 
food"  ("bread  of  the  mighty,"  H.  V.  ;  compare  Ps. 
ciii.  20).  Similarly,  the  tree  in  iianidise,  who.se  fruit 
makes  man  like  godly  beings  "  knowing  good  and 
evil  "  (Gen.  iii.  5),  as  well  as  the  tree  of  life,  bears 
food  for  angels,  as  may  be  learne(l  from  the  word  of 
the  Lord  spoken  obviously  to  the  angelic  sons  of 
God;  "Behold  the  man  is  become  as  one  of  us,  to 
know  g(H)d  and  evil ;  and  now,  lest  he  i)Ut  forth  his 
hand,  and  take  al.so  of  the  tree  of  life,  and  eat.  and 
live  forevir;  therefore,  the  Lord  (ioil  sent  him  forth 
from  the  Garden  of  Eden"  ((ien.  iii.  22,  2;i).  Else- 
where the  angels  are  referred  to  as  partaking  of 
(iod's  wisdom  (see  II  Sam.  xiv.  17,  2(1.  xix.  2S). 
Some  such  view  underlies  the  verse:  "Thou  madest 
him  a  Utile  lower  than  the  angels  [godly  beings)  " 
(Ps.  viii.  5);  man,  though  mortal,  being  endowed 
with  inlilleel. 

Postexilic  Period  :  During  and  after  the  Exile, 
under  the  inllucnce  of  Baliylonian  and  Persian  sys- 
tems of  bilief,  a  great  ihange  becomes  noticeable  in 
th<>  angelic  lore  of  the  Jews.  The  mon-  the  mono 
theislic  idea  took  hold  of  the  people — permitting  no 
being  to  intirfiTe  with  the  absolute  supremacy  of 
YllWII — the  greater  became  the  nei'd  of  personify- 
ing the  working  forces  of  life,  am  I  of  grouping  them  in 
ntnks  around  the  throne  of  God  lu  form  His  roval 


court.  His  tianscemlent  natui-e  demanded  a  more 
detinite  system  of  heavenly  func'ionaries  attending 
Him  and  awaiting  His  commands.  Gradually  the 
celestial  government  was  formed  after  the  pattern 
of  the  earthly  one,  as  it  presented  itself,  imposing 
and  well  organized,  at  the  Persian  C(mrt. 

But  it  is  chiefly  from  a  closiT  contact  with  Baby- 
lonia and  her  system  of  u]iper  and  lower  spirits  that 
the  influx  of  now  elements  into  Jewish  Augelology 
can  be  traced;  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  rabbin- 
ical tradition.  "The  names  of  the  an- 
Angelol-  gels  were  brought  by  the  Jews  from 
ogy  Sys-  Babylonia"  (Yer.  R.H.  i.  2,  Gen.  R. 
tematized.  xlviii.).  Ezekiel  (ix.  2)  already  .sees 
seven  angels  of  God  in  human  form 
(see  Toy's  notes.  "S.  B.  O.  T."  xii.):  six  to  do  the 
work  of  destruction,  and  the  seventh  the  heavenly 
scribe  sent  toward  the  Holy  City.  While  all  the 
revelations  he  receives  come  directly  from  the  Lord, 
in  one  instance  an  angel  in  the  form  of  a  man  acts 
as  a  divine  interpreter,  when  the  plan  of  a  new  city 
is  mapped  out  for  the  prophet  (Ezek.  xl.  3).  The 
prophet  Zechariah,  on  the  other  hand,  receives  all 
his  divine  instructions  no  longer  from  God  directly, 
Vmt  through  "the  angel  of  the  Lord  who  talks  with 
him"  (Zccli.  i.  9;  M,  ii.  2;  iv.  1,  ;5;  v.  10:  compare 
also  I  Kings,  xiii.  IS).  Instead  of  the  Lord  there  ap- 
pears to  him  "a  man  riding  upon  a  red  horse"  as 
chief  among  those  who  "  walk  to  and  fro  through 
the  earth"  (('*.  i.  8-10).  The  four  smiths  (it>.  ii.  3, 
Ueb.  [R.  V.  i.  20];  compare  Ezek.  xxi.  36)  as  well 
as  "the  man  with  a  measuring  line"  (Zech.  ii.  5, 
]/t/i.  [A.  V.  1])  arc  angels;  and  the  .scene  of  the  ac- 
cu.sjition  by  S;itan  of  the  high  ]iriest  Joshua  while 
"standing  before  the  angel  of  the  Lord  "  (rt.  iii.  1) 
must  be  placed  in  heaven.  ])arallel  to  the  scene  in 
Job,  i.  ii-Vi.  ii.  1-G.  However,  "the  seven  eyes  of  the 
Lord  which  run  to  and  fro  through  the  whole  earth" 
(Zech.  iv.  10),  while  betraying  Babylonian  influence, 
are  only  the  symbolical  repn'sentation  of  Divine 
Providence,  and  are  not  identical  with  the  seven  arch- 
angels or  watchers,  as  Herzfeld  ("Gescli.  d.  Volkes 
Isniel,"  iii.  287)  an<l  Kohut  ("JlUl.  Angelologie,"  p. 
0.  note  17)  believe. 

It  is  in  the  Book  of  Daniel  that  a  systematic  clas- 
sification of  angels  is  first  presented.  In  Josh.  v. 
15  reference  is  made  to  "the  captain  of  the  Lord's 
host  "  (mrr  N3V  IC*.  still  without  nameand  individ- 
uality, and  miller  a  mere  manifestation  of  the  Lord, 
as  is  seen  from  .losh.  vi.  2.  In  Dan.  x.  i;i,  mention 
is  made  of  "captains  of  the  first  rank,"  A.  V.  "chief 
princes"  (compare  I'/i.  xii.  1,  "sar  ha  gadol."  "the 
great  captain."  A.  V.  "prince")  ami  "captains" 
(princes)  of  a  lower  rank,  these  being  tutelary  spirits 
of  the  nations,  "the  prince  of  Persia  and  the  prince 
of  Grecia"  (ih.  x.  20).  Obviously,  the  underly- 
ing idea  is  the  one  expressed,  if  not  already  in 
Deut.  xxxii.  8,  at  least  in  the  Sepluaginl  reading, 
"according  to  the  ninnberof  the  .sons  of  G(Kr'  (com- 
pare Targ.  ^  er.  to  the  verse  an<l  to  (Jen.  xi.  7,  Ec- 
clus.  [Sii-.ichl  xvii.  17,  Pirke  R.  El.  xxiv.,  Isa  xxiv, 
21).  that  the  seventy  nations  of  Gen.  x.  each  had 
their  guardian  angel  in  heaven;  and  that  Michael, 
the  guardian  angel  of  Israel,  ranks  above  the  rest. 
He  is  one  of  the  chii'f  princes,  his  name  signifying, 
"Who  is  like  God?"  being  expressive  of  Gods 
greatness.  The  angel  who  interprets  the  visions' 
to  Zechariah  appears  in  Dan.  viii.  1(5.  ix  21.  under 
the  name  of  Gabriel  ("the  mighty  man  of  God"). 
Above  the.se  two  ranks  a  man-like  being  "clothed 
in  linen."  whose  fiery  appearance  overawes  Daniel 
(viii.  ir»-17,  X.  5-10,  1(1-18),  and  who  swears  "by 
liim  that  liveth  forever"  (xii.  7).  He  is  probably 
identical  with  the  angel  who  stands  before  the  Lord,  ■ 


Angelology 


THE  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


590 


llie  iiKihik  juiiKne  (Isn.  Ixiii.  9).  acconiiiig  to  tlie 
Miisorctii-  ti-xt — not  to  be  eoiifoiiiKliMl.  however,  as 
is  done  by  Oililcr  (p.  440)  with  "the  son  of  man" 
nientioneii  in  Dan.  vii.  13,  who  is  only  a  personifica- 
tion of  Israel. 

Of  partieular  interest  is  the  name  TJ?  for  anjicl 
(Dan.  iv.  10.  14  [A.  V.  13,  17]),  wliieli  is  tal<en  by 
some  (rereutly  l$elirmann)  to  be  the  Araniean  word 
for"l'V(t>ba<l."l."mes.senger";  Is;i.  l.wii.!*.  "angel"). 
but  which  most  commentators  in  accordance  with 
tradition  (Aipiila,  Symmaclni.s.  Jerome)  explain  by 
the  term  "watcher."  The  'ir  trekmldinh  ("watcher 
and  lioly  one"),  who  comes  down  from  heaven  to 
announce  the  destiny  decided  "by  tlie  decree  of  the 
watchers  and  by  tlie  word  of  the  lioly  ones."  evi- 
dently represents  a  high  class  of  an.irels  forming 
Gods  "council  of  the  holy  ones"  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  7.  H. 
v.);  while  "thousiinds  and  ten  Ihousiiud  limes  thou 
sands  of  angels  stand  before  Him"  to  minister  to  Him 
(Dan.  vii.  10,  //<*.).  Whether  the  name  'ir  (from 
t/r,  "being  awake")  is  to  be  derived  (sec  Hcrzfeld 
iii.  201,  note  342,  and  Koliut.  "  Jiid.  Angelologie,"  p. 
6)  from  the  seven  amsliaspands.  tlie  Persian  arcli- 
angels — according  to  Bopp.  "the  sleepless  ones"; 
accordingto  Spiegel  and  Darmesteter,  "Ihe  undying 
holy  ones" — or  nol,  the  watchers  certaiidy  occupy 
a  high  rank  in  the  liook  of  Enoch. 

luthe  Book  of  Tobit  the  name  of  a  third  angel  ap 
pears — namely,  Raphael  ("God  healeth,"  Tobit,  iii. 
17) — called  thus  after  his  mission.  "God  liath  sent 
nic,"  lie  says,  "to  heal  thee  and  Sarah,  thy  daughter- 
in-law.  I  am  Haphael,  one  of  the  seven  holy  an.gels, 
which  present  the  i>rayers  of  the  saints,  and  which  go 
ill  and  out  before  the  glory  of  the  Holy  One  "  (Tobit, 
xii.  14-1.">|.  "He  presented  Tobit's  prayer  on  ac- 
count of  the  hitter's  blindness,  and  the  prayer 
of  Sarah  on  account  of  the  humiliation  of  her  par- 
ents," and  was  sent  to  heal  them  both  {Hi.  iii.  17), 
to  remove  the  blindness  of  the  one  and  bind  the  evil 
spirit  Asmodeus,  in  order  to  give  a  husband  to  the 
other.  He  presented  liimself  to  Tobias  as  an  ordi- 
nary man  to  accompany  liim  {ib.  v.  4),  and  ate  with 
him  iib.  vi.  ,'5.  viii.  1 ). 

The  process  begun  in  Daniel,  and  continued  in 

the  entire  apocalyptic  literature,  tinally  led  to  the 

assumption   of  a  heavenly  hierarchy  of  stupendous 

proportions.     The  mystic  lore,  intended  only  for  the 

initiated  few,  dwelt  on  the  prophetic 

A  Heav-  theophanies  (Mn'aseh  Merkabnh,  "the 
enly  Hier-  heavenly  throne  chariot,"  Ezek.  i.-iii., 
archy.  viii.,  x. ;  Isa.  vi.  1-3;  see  Hag.  ii.  1); 
turning  the  imagery  of  the  seer  into 
gross  realities,  and  greatly  amplifying  il  in  accord- 
ance with  an  expanded  view  of  the  universe  and  of 
its  cosmic  forces.  Yet  this  angelic  lore,  the  knowl- 
edge of  wliicli  was  the  special  property  of  the  Es- 
senes  or  Hasiilim  (Joseplius,  "B.  J."ii.  y.  §7),  while 
the  Sadducees  rejected  it  (Acts,  xxiii.  ><),  was  not 
merely  a  theoretical  speculation,  hut  was  also  prac- 
tical in  so  far  as  it  enabled  its  possessor  to  control 
the  si)iritual  forces  by  use  of  the  specific  names  of 
the  angels  in  incantations  and  conjurations.  It  was 
the  application  of  this  principle,  derived  from  the 
Babylonian  ma.ei  and  .Mazdaism.  that  brought  about 
a  well-developed  system  of  Angelology  such  as  is 
.  found  already  in  the  writings  preserved  under  the 
name  of  Enoch.  The  strange  story  of  the  "sons  of 
God  "  (in  Gen.  vi.  1—1),  which,  combimil  with  Isa. 
xiv,  12-15,  gave  rise  to  the  slory  of  the  fall  of  the 
angels,  offered  the  means  of  establishing  a  relation- 
ship between  the  good  and  the  bad  angels  and. 
through  that,  between  legitimate  and  illegitimate 
magic.  These  two  ideas  then — the  celestial  throne 
with  its  ministering  angels,  and  the  cosmos  with  its 


evil  forces  to  be  subduetl  by  superior  angelic  forces 
— are  the  determining  factors  of  Angelology. 

According  to  Enoch,  xxi.,  as  the  text  has  now 
been  crilically  fixed  (see  Charles,  "Book  of  Enoch," 
p.  357),  there  are  seven  archangels  ('irin  ittkuddi- 
shin,  "holy  ones  who  watch"): 

(n  friel  ["God  l.sLlclit".  conipiirc  II  Esd.  Iv.  1],  «'t  over 
the  worldV  liiininariwi  »tnU)Vt'r  Slieol  [cnnipare  En<M'h,  xxl.  h, 
x.xvll.  2,  xxxlil.  :t,  4] ;  iL'i  Kaplmel.  set  iivcr  llie  spirils  of  men 
[i-oiri|iart^  Kii<N*ti,  x.  4,  when*  lie  is  loM  tt>  bliul  .\za/el  and  to  heal 
the  earth  with  Ti.tiil-ill.  IT);  i:!i  liajriu-l  [Itii'uel.  "  ihc  torrl- 
Ilcr"],  who  rha>tiselh  iheworhl  of  lln-  liiniinarifs ;  141  Michael, 
set  over  Ilic  hest  pari  of  iiiaiikliul,  over  lln'  iM-opIe  of  isniel :  (.'») 
.Sariel  [.i:ih..  Siiml.iel.  Snrirl.  "(iod  tiimi'th  "  ?),  set  over  the 
splrlis  who  si-diice  ilie  spirits  lo  sin  :  iHi  (iahrlel,  set  over  para- 
dise, thiseriK'nts  [seraphlinl'J,  and  tlierhenililm  ;  (7l  Jemhniecl 
["  (iod  is  niiniful "],  whom  (iod  set  over  the  ri-surreetioii  (eom- 
pare  1 1  Esd.  iv.  ao :  i>yriac  Aihh-.  Banieh,  iv.  3 ;  Stelndorf,  "  EUag 
Apoc."  p.  m:]. 

■Whether  corresponding  with  the  seven  am.shas- 
pands  of  Persia  or  with  the  seven  planetary  spirits 
of  Babylonia  (see  Her/.feld,  Koliut,  and  Beer,  in 
Kautzschs  "  Apokryplien  u.  Pseiidepig.  d.  A.  T."  p. 
251),  these  seven  archangels  recur  in  Enoch,  xc.  21- 
22  (compare  Pirke  K.  El.  iv.  and  Hekalot,  iv. ;  the 
Revelation  of  John,  v.  0,  and  Hernias  Sim.  ix.  31; 
6,  2;  Vis.  iii.  4,  1 ;  see  Spitta.  "Zur  Gesch.  u.  Lit.  d. 
Urchristeiilhums."  ii.  3(>1).  Michael,  named  as  the 
fourth,  is  probably  meant  to  stand  in  the  middle  as 
chief  (Luecken.  "  Michael."  p.  37).  He  is  the  leader 
of  the  seven  (Enoch,  xc.  21.  22). 

On  the  other  hand,  Michael,  Gabriel,  Uriel,  and 

Fanuel  (Penuel)  are  introduced  as  "the  four  angels 

of  the  face   of  the  Lord."     After  the 

Four  An-     watcliers("  those  that  sleep  not  ")  have 

gels  of  the  been  described  (i/iid.  xxxix.  12.  13)  as 

Throne.  chanting  the  "Holy,  holy,  holy  I  "  and 
mutually  responding,  "Blessed  be  the 
name  of  the  Lord!"  the  following  i)a.ssage  occurs 
(ibid.  xt.  2): 

"  I  saw  on  the  four  sides  of  the  Lord  of  spirits  four  presences 
[faces]  tlifferent  frum  tho;.i'  that  sleeijnot.  and  I  heiinl  (tie  voice 
of  those  four  prvseiircs  ji.-.  they  pave  glr>ry  hefore  tiie  Ixird  of 
Klory :  The  Ilrst  [as  tlic  auircl  of  peace  explained  it  afterward], 
Michael  [^ND^r  =  "who  is  lllie  God?"),  nien-lfiil  and  long- 
suITering,  blesses  the  I-ord  of  spirils  for  ever  and  ever;  the  sec- 
ond. Haiihael,  set  over  the  diseases  <  'f  the  children  <  'f  int-n.  Messes 
the  F.lect  oni'  (the  Messl;ili]  and  the  elect  ones  wh'>  cleave  lo  the 
Lord  of  spirits  [the  pious niiesl  ;  the  third,  i.ahrlel  [  "the  mi&rhty 
one  of  (iiKi").  set  over  alt  the  powers,  intercedes  in  behalf  of 
the  Inhabitants  of  the  earth  (see  Enoch,  x.  iHII,  12-14] :  and  Ihe 
fourth,  Fanuel  f  Penuel  =  "  tuminp  to  God"],  set  over  repent- 
ance and  hope  of  eternal  life,  prevents  the  i>atans  from  accusing 
men." 

In  Enoch.  Ixxi.  7-13,  these  four  stand  near  the 
crystal  thione  of  God,  which,  encircled  by  fire,  is 
surrounded  liy  the  seraphim,  cherubim,  and  ofanim 
("wheels,"  Ezek.  i.  15).  "tlKJse  that  sleep  not,  and 
guard  the  throne  of  His  glory"  amidst  a  thousimd 
times  thousiind  and  ten  thousand  times  ten  thou- 
sand, the  Head  (Ancient)  of  Days  being  with  the 
four.  Four  angels  standing  before  the  face  of  God 
as  leaders  of  four  troops  of  angels  glorifying  the 
Most  Hi.irh.  who  is  seated  in  tlie  midst  of  tliem,  are 
mentioned  also  in  Pirke  R.  EI.  iv.  and  Hekalid.  vi. ; 
but  their  names  are  given  as  Michael.  Uriel,  Gabriel, 
and  Raphael  (Sibylline  Books,  ii.  215).  Compare 
tlie  four  archangels.  Michael,  Gabriel.  Raphael,  and 
Uriel,  in  Enoch,  ix.  1,  xl.  2.  Tlie.v  correspond  with 
the  four  tutelary  spirits  or  rulers  of  the  four  parts  of 
the  earth  in  the  IJiibylonian  mythology  (Beer,  fol- 
lowing Jensen.  "  Cosmologie  d.  Babvlonier."  p.  1(50). 
(For  the  twenty-four  elders  seated  around  the  throne 
of  God  in  heaven  next  to  the  four  beasts  and 
the  seven  spirits.  Apoc.  John.  iv.  4,  sec  Gunkel, 
"Schijpfung  und  Chaos,"  p.  308.) 

Then  again  mention  is  made  of  seven  classes 
of  angels  (Enoch,  Ixi.  10  ttKerj.):  (1)  the  cherubim. 


591 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Angelology 


(2)  scrapliiin.  (li)  ofiiiiiin.  (4)  all  the  an]j;els  (if  power, 
('))  jinncipalilifs,  (G)t)ic  KIcct  One  (Messiali),  and  (7) 
th(!  (cli'meiitaiy)  powers  of  tlie  earth  anil  the  water. 
They  are  endowed  with  seven  aiiL'elic  virtues — one 
more  than  is  as(ril)ed  to  tlie  Messiah  (ilii(/.  Ixi. ;  after 
Isa.  xi.  2):  "In  the  spirit  of  faith,  of  wisdom,  of 
patienee,  of  nierey,  of  jiidiiinent,  of  peaee.  and  of 
goodness  they  jrlorify,  sayin;;:  '  Blessed  is  He,  and 
may  the  name  of  the  Lord  of  spirits  he  ble.ssed  for 
ever  and  ever.' " 

A  parallel  to  tliis  is  offered  by  the  Testaments  of 
the  I'atriarehs  in  Test.  Levi,  iii.,  where  this  de.serip- 
lion  of  the  seven  heavens  is  given: 

■•  In  the  hiche.st  (if  wlili-li  clwi'llcth  the  treat  (iiory  In  the  Holy 
of  Hiilles.  luid  tM-neiilh  it  are  ttie  unirels  nf  the  presence  of  tlie 
l^>r<l,  who  utjiil^ier  and  inake  propitiation  to  the  I,orfl  forall  the 
lunomnee  of  the  rltrhteoiis.  .  .  .  And  In  the  heaven  tielow  this 
are  the  anjrels  who  hear  the  answers  to  the  antrels  uf  ihe  pres- 
ence of  the  Loril.  ami  in  the  lieaven  ne.xt  to  iliis  are  thrones  and 
dominions  in  which  hymns  are  offered  to  (Jod  ;  in  the  third 
heaven  there  are  hosts  of  the  annles  ordainerl  for  the  day  <if 
Judirment,  to  w^irk  venfreanc-e  on  the  spirits  (.»f  deceit  and  of"  Be- 
lial ;  the  second  lias  lire,  snow,  and  ice  ready,  all  the  spirits  of 
retrllmllfpn  for  the  day  of  jndirment :  and  the  lowest  is  gloomy 
because  it  is  near  the  iniquities  of  men." 

In  another  vi.sion  (il/id.  viii.)  Levi  sees  seven  men  in 
•white  raiment,  the  seven  archangels,  each  consecra- 
ting liiin  and  iincsting  him  with  some  insignia  of 
llic  priesthood;  while  .Slichael,  '"  the  angel  who  inter- 
eedeth  for  the  nice  of  Israel,"  opens  the  gales  of 
heaven  for  him.  where  he  sees  the  holy  Teni])le  and 
the  .Most  High  upon  a  throne  of  glory  {ihiil.  v.). 

In   the  Slavonic  Book  of  Enoch,  wi-ilten  a  little 

before  the  beginning  of  the  coinmon  era.  Ihe  lieav- 

enly    hierarchy     is    still    more    fully 

The  developed.      Enoch,  laken   up  by  two 

Slavonic     angels  of    liery  apiiearance   (Sliemiel 

Enoch.  and  Ha/.iel,  .\.\.viii.  (i).  sees  in  Ihe  third 
heaven  the  sun  and  the  stars  (i.  5).  the 
former  surrounded  by  phenixes  and  other  winged 
creatures  and  attended  by  400  (Version  B.  lo.OOO) 
angels,  who  take  olf  his  crown  each  evening  to  bring 
it  to  the  Lord,  and  set  it  upon  his  head  again  each 
morning  (xiv.  2,  ;i;  compare  I'irkc  H.  El.  vi.);  in 
Ihe  fourth  heaven  he  sees  hosts  of  angels  armed  (for 
judgment),  while  serving  God  with  cymbals  and 
singing.  In  the  tifih  he  sees  the  watchers,  four  or- 
ders, in  grief  over  their  fall<-n  fellow  angels,  but  still 
singing,  at  his  monition,  and  sounding  four  trum- 
jiets  in  praise  of  the  Lord.  In  the  sixth  heaven 
legions  of  angels  more  resplendent  than  the  sun,  Ihe 
archangels  set  over  the  siin,  Ihe  stars,  Ihe  seasons, 
the  rivers,  the  vegetation,  the  living  things,  and  the 
.souls  of  men.  with  seven  phenixes  (seinphiinV), 
seven  cherubim,  and  seven  six  wiiige<l  creatures 
(hayyot?)  in  the  miilsl  of  them,  sing  with  one  voice, 
indescriliably  bi'autifiil,  while  rejoicing  before  the 
Lord.     And  linally,  in  the  seventh  heaven; 

"  I  saw  a  very  en*al  liff  hi,  and  all  lite  llt*ry  hosts  of  jrreat  an-li- 
antrel.s,  and  lncor]Min*al  ixiwers,  and  lonlships.  an<l  principal- 
ities, and  dominions,  chernlilm  and  s«'niphlni,  thn»n4>s.  and  Ihe 
watclifuln«->s  of  nianv  eyes  (ofanirn).  Ii'U  troops  ac4-onlln(f  to 
their  ntnk.  Day  and  nlirht  wllhont  ceasing  they  ttluu :  'Holy, 
holy,  holy,  I^trd  (ohI  of  Sjihaoth,  heaven  and  earth  are  full  tif 
Thy  irloiy  ! '  |s<ime  versions  have  hen-  lnler|iolali'd  Ihi'  eli;lilli 
heaven,  lna//jdot,  with  Ihe  twelve  sl^ns  of  the  zodiac;  the 
ninth  hea\i-n,  kokabiin,  the  heavenly  homes  of  ihi-  twelve  sltrns 
of  Ihe  zodlai-;  and  the  tenth  heaven.)  'I'hls  Is  'antliol-,  where  I 
saw  Ihe  face  of  the  l.onl  like  Iron  liurni  in  llii'  lire  I'mlltlnu 
sparks— wontlerfnl  heyond  words  and  the  ^n-at  throne  of  (la- 
l.oni  not  made  liy  liunds,  and  hosts  of  chinililin  ami  seniphlm 
anuind  lllm." 

(For  Ihe  thrones,  principalities,  dominions,  and 
powers,  compare  Col.  i.  1(1;  i;ph.  i.  21;  Uom.  viii. 
!5S;  1  I'eter,  iii.  22;  and  the  "  I'rieres  des  Falaslms." 
ed.  Halevy,  p.  20,  Pari.s,  1N7T), 

With  this  corresponds  Ihe  n\bbinicn1  Iradilion 
as  given  by  Hablii  Mcir  of  the  second  century  in 


Hag.  12i,  AV  n.  X.,  A.  37  (see  Bacher,  "Ag.  Tau." 
ii.  ().5). 

"There  are  seven  tieavcns  one  aliove  the  other:   111  Velon 
[Latin,  vctuin,  "curtain  "1,  which  is  nlled  up  and  down  to  en- 
able the  sun  to  po  in  and  out :  ai-conlini;  to 
TViB  Rotran     I^-  ^'-  --■  "He  stietched  out  the  heavens  as 
iuB  oBveu    acurtain':  (2i  Itakfa.  Iheptacewhere  ihe.sun, 
xleavens      moon,  and  stars  are  ll.xed  [(ien.  i.  17] :  (;ii  She- 
in  the         Imklm,   in  which  are  the  millstones  to  (jrind 
TnlTniiH         [••<'iii/i<i/i  I  manna  for  Ihe  rlRhteous  [I's.  Ixxvlii. 
xttiiuuu.       u:i;comp.  Mi,lr.Teh.toI>.s.  xlx.TJ:(4IZebul,the 
upper  .Icnisjilem,  with  Its  Temple,  In  which  Mi- 
chael offers  the  Sioiillce  al  the  altar  [Isa.  Ixlii.  l.">;  I  Kln|.'s.  vlll. 
i;i( ;  (.5t  Ma'on.  in  which  dwell  the  classes  of  ininisterini;  antrela 
who  slnir  by  nlirht  and  are  silent  by  day.  for  the  honor  of  Israel 
who  serve  the  Uinl  In  dayliine  [Deiit.  xxvl.  l.'i.  I's.  xlli.il]:  IB) 
Makon.  In  which  are  the  treasuries  of  snow  and  hail,  the  cham- 
bers of  dew,  rain,  and  mist  behind  dt.nrs  of  lire  [1  Kiri^rs,  vil,  ;jll; 
Dcut,  xxvlli.  V~] :  i7)  'AnilMd.  where  jiisiice  and  ritrhteousness, 
the  tivjisures  of  life  and  of  blessing,  the  souls  of  ihe  righteous 
and  the  <lew  ctf  resurrection  are  to  lie  founil.    There  are  the 
ofaiilm.  the  .sentphim.  and  the  hayyot  of  holiness,  the  minisler- 
inir  anifels  and  the  thnme  of  (.'lory ;'  and  over  them  is  enthroned 
the  ^fl'eat  Kintr"  'see  Ps.  Ixviii.  5). 

Maimonide.s,  in  his  "  Yad  ha-Hazal>ah,  Yesode  ha- 
Torah,"  ii.,  counts  ten  ranks  of  angels,  beginning 
from  the  highest : 

(1)  Hayyot ;  I2|  ofaniin :  CO  arelim  [=>''N1(<  from  d'^!*"^?',  Isa. 
xxxill.  7]:  (4)  ha.shmalllm  [Ezek.  1.4],  explained  in' itiic.  V.H) 
as  hayyot,  who  are  siuiietlmes  silent  [Ita^li]^  and  who  so'metlriies 
s|H'ak  [/mi/M|  -  Uiey  are  sili-nt  when  Ihe  word  emanates  from 
the  Holy  one,  bli-s-ed  be  He  I  they  speak  when  he  has  cea.sed 
siM'akiiiK:  (•">)  seniphim  :  Oli  malaklm,  "anijels":  (71  elohlin 
orKodlv  belncs;  (Si  liene  Klohim.  "  .sons  of  IokI"  ;  (9)  cheru- 
bim, "like  hi nine  youth."  Karabla  [Hair,  l.ll,]:  (10)  Ishliu, 

"manlike  beliiL's"  [Dan.  x.  .'i].  See  Kapoport  on  Maimonides* 
"Maiiiiiar  lia-Viluid."  cd.  Stelnschneliler,  p.  Hi;  .lelllnek,  "Bcl- 
Iriik'e  /iir  Kaiiba'la,"  p,  01,  note;  Baeber.  " Bibclexefiese  Mo-ses 
Malmuui's."  p.  til). 

The  cabalists  (Zohar,  E.xodus,  43)  Iiave  a  different 
list: 

(1)  Arelim,  with  Michael  as  chief;  12)  ishlm,  with  Zephaniah 
as  chief:  Wi  bene  Klohim.  with  Hotnlel  as  chief ;  (4)  malaklm, 
with  I'rlel  as  chief:  i.'ii  Imshmalliin.  wllli  Haslimal  as  chief :  Itf) 
larshishlm.  with  Tarshlsli  as  chief  [after  Dan.  x.ti;  see  Hul.ill/i]; 
(7)  shlnannim.  with  Zadkiel  as  chief  [after  Ps.  Ixvlll'.  Is];  (») 
cherubim,  with  Cheriib  as  i-lilef :  d*)  ofanim,  with  Itapbael  as 
chief :  (10)  sentphim,  with  Jehoel  as  chief. 

Still  more  elaborate  is  the  description  of  the  seven 
heavens  with  their  angelic  chiefs,  and  of  the  twelve 
degrees  of  angels  instead  of  ten,  in  "Sodc  I{aza," 
(luoted  in  Yalk.  Heiibeni  to  Gen.  i.  1. 

In  ".Maseket  -Vziliit"  the  ten  ranks  of  angels  are 
given  in  the  following  order: 

(ll  Seniphlin,  wilh  Shemuel  [  Kemuell  or  Jehoel  as  chief;  (2) 
ofanim.  with  Uaphael  and  (tfaniel  as  chiefs  :  Cli  cherubim,  with 
Chi-rublel  as  chief;  Mi  shlnannim.  with  Zedektel  and  Cabrlel  as 
chiefs:  i.'ii  tarslilslilm.  with  Tarshish  and  Sabriel  as  chiefs;  (Ii) 
ishlm.  with  Zephanlel  as  chief:  (7l  IliLshmalllin.  w-|llt  Hashlnal 
asi-hlef;  tsi  iii;iUiklm.  wilh  Tzzlel  as  chief:  dM  bene 'Klohim, 
w  nil  l.lofniel  as  chief ;  I  lOi  arelim,  wllh  .Michael  as  chief, 

The.se  tti-e  the  ten  archanirels  that  wen-createil  llrst ;  and  over 
them  Is  set  Meta1n>n-Kn(K-h,  tntusfornttsl  from  llesli  and  blood 
into  IhtmliiK  lire! 

Of  the  vaslness  of  the  armies  of  heaven  the  fol- 
lowing description  is  given  by  K,  Simon  b.  Lakish: 

"  There  an-  twelve  maxzalot  ["  signs  of  the  zodiac  "],  each  hav- 
ing thirty  armies;  eiu-lt  ai-my,  thirty  camps  [N"^:23J  =  casinth 
each  camp,  thirty  h'lrions  (compare  Malt.  xxvl.  .>!) :  each  letrion, 
thirty  cohorts:  each  coliorU  lltlrlv  corps  [i-oiin>are  Kntuss, 
"  Lelinworter."  s.r.  I>-''"^1:  anil  each  corps  has  :{(fc>,000  utyrlads 
of  stars  eninisted  to  It"  (Ilenich,  :C.*/ii, 

"When  Moses  went  up  In  the  cloud  to  heaven,  Keniuel.  the 
Janitor  of  the  ilrsi  mite,  with  12.1)00  anirelsof  deslructlon  tinder 
lilm.  went  lo  sirlke  him.  but  succuntlH'd.  .\s  he  arrived  al  the 
stH-ond  tfale.  Iliulraniel,  who  exceeded  Ihe  fonner  tiOO,ooo  para- 
samrs  In  lenirth,  came  with  his  ilarls  of  lire  to  smite  him.  bui  (kmI 
liiterfereil.  Kliially.  ItecaiiK'  to  the  pn'i'Incis  of  Sitndalfon,  the 
anuel  who  low-ers  alMive  the  n-st  by  the  leiarih  of  .'it"!  years'  jonr- 
ni'V.  and  who  when  standint;  on  eai-|h  niiches  with  ills  heati  up 
to  Ihe  ha  wot  siandlmr  lN>hlnil  Ihe  heavenly  chariot,  he  weaves 
cn'wusfor  Ihe  Most  lll(tli.  While  all  ihi'  laisis  of  heaven  slitir, 
'  lllexsed  Ik' ilieirlorvof  Ihe  l>onl  fnuii  lllsplao'.'  Befon'hls  llr\i 
even  llailninlel  tn'inbletl ;  but  Mosi-s  |ni.s.sisI  hint  also,  the  I/ml 
sitleldlim  hint  Then  Most's  came  to  the  stream  of  lln>  w  Itlch 
ctiitsumes  even  Ihe  atmels;  and  (oMlcattsisI  hint  lo  iMuss  Ihrotiffh 
linscalhisl.  Nexl  latiie  llnllzur  |"  ItevealiT  of  the  l(ivk"|.  also 
calleil  Ita/lel  ("The  Secn'l  of  liixl  "1,  or  Aknizlel  V^n  =  «iipf{ 
"lite  herald  of  lio«r'),llie  anirel  who  spreads  his  wliiKsuver  (ho 


AuRelolo^y 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


592 


hayyot,  lest  their  Oery  tm-atli  TOnsiime  the  niliilsti'riiiK  nnsrcls. 
Fluiilly.  till'  inKip  of  111.-  uiltrhly  iinKi-ls  sUiiiilliiK  iinnincl  llif 
throne  "f  iflnry  thri'iiU'iusl  I'l  loiisuine  Mii«-s  l>y  ilii'  hri'iith  nf 
tliflr  iiiiiiith  :  iiiii  Mcsi'ssi-lzeil  the  ilmiiu'iit  Kli)r>' :  iiml  ihi-  I-'inl 
spn-ud  His  iliiuil  "ViT  hlrii  liu-iiinlliiK  to  Job,  xxvl.  »].  uiiil  hv 
nri'ivol  tin-  Law  ilfspui'  the  p[-c>t<-sllnK  uiiKcIs  "  (I'fsllj.  K.  XX., 
eil.  KrlfUiiiuiiii,  pp.  Uti/i, 'J!yi :  s<h-  editor's  notes). 

Tliis  asrcusioii  of  SInscs  is  (les(  libcil  mori'  elalio- 
ratoly  iu  the  Shir  liii  Sliirim  Hiililm  fniixmcnt,  ej. 
WerthciiiuT,  "  IJiitc  Midnishot."  iv.  .Iiriisalem.  lMi)7 
(compare  witli  tliislhc  Ilikalut  in  .IcUimk."  \i.  H."ii. 
41^0,  lii.  y4/'.  V.  170-liHI,  yi.  110-111;  also  MerUabah 
(leK.  Yishiiiael  in  Wcrtliiiiiicr,  "Hate  .Midiashot," 
i.,  Jerusalem,  18!):!;  ami  Jellinek's  iutrojuctiou  to 
each  of  the  treatises). 

Hebrew  theolojiy  knows  of  no  ])rinciple  of  evil 

such  as  is  the  Persian  Ahrimau.     Satau  is  one  of  the 

sons  of  Goii   (Job,  i.  0.  ii.   I).     This 

Fall  of  the  makes  llie  problem  of  evil  all  the  more 

Angels.  (lilliciilt.  The  Hiblical  story  of  the 
sous  of  God  marryiiif;  the  daughters 
of  men  (Gen.  vi.  1-4).  implyinf;  the  ixwsiliilily  of 
angels  lusting  and  sinning,  suggested  the  idea  of  a 
fall,  not  only  of  man,  Init'of  pure  heaveidy  beings 
as  well.  Taken  together  with  the  (Babylonian?) 
mythology  of  Lucifer  (Isa.  xiv.  13),  it  seemed  to  take 
for  granu'd  the  existence  of  evil  siiirits  working  an- 
tagonist ically  to  God  through  the  evil  practises  of 
witchcraft,  astrology,  and  the  like.  Fallen  angels 
became  progenitors  of  hosts  of  evil  spirits  and 
seducers  of  men  to  crime  and  vice.  Still,  they  were 
finally  sulijiigated  by  the  power  of  heaven,  and 
punished  by  the  arciiangels  Haphael  and  Gabriel, 
and  conseiiuently  a  knowledge  of  their  names  woidd 
enalile  on<'  to  control  them.  This  is  the  idea  perva- 
ding the  Enoch  story  of  the  fall  of  the  angels,  which 
rests  on  two  ditferent  sources,  now  incorjiorated.  in 
a  fragmentary  form,  into  one  (Enoch,  vi.-xv.).  Ac- 
cording to  the  one.  Azazel  (Lev.  .\vi.  HI;  Targ.  Yer. 
Is'ahmanides ;  also  a  Mandican  god.  Brandt,  "Man- 
diiisclie  Ueligion,"  p.  19S)  was  the  leader  of  the 
rebellion,  and  the  chief  debaucher  of  women;  and 
his  place  of  punishment  \vas  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Jerusiilem,  by  the  rocks  of  Bet  Haduda  (see 
Charles,  "Enoch,"  p,  72),  where  the  scapegoat  was 
cast  down:  this  shows  the  legend  to  be  of  ancient 
Judean  origin  (compare  with  this  the  reading  of  the 
chapter  on  incestuous  marriages  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  and  the  song  of  the  maiden  in  Ta'anit. 
iv.  8).  According  to  the  other,  Samiaza,  or  Sambazai 
(Enoch,  vi.  3-8.  viii.  1-3,  i.x.  7.  .\.  11 :  compare  Targ. 
Yer.  Gen.  vi.  4:  Midr.  Abkir  in  Yalk,.  Gen.  44;  He- 
brew Enoch  in  Jellinek,  "B.  H."  ii).  is  the  chief  se- 
ducer. He  forms  the  center  of  rabliinical  groujis  of 
legends(see  (Jriinhaum.  "Z.  D.  JI.  G."  .xxi.  22.5-248). 
As  the  story  is  presented  in  Enoch,  the  two  rebel 
leaders,  when  they  take  the  oath  on  Mount  Ilermon 
to  subvert  the  rule  of  heaven,  have  each  ten  chieftains 
and  one  hundreil  angelsat  theircommand.  But  the 
punishment  they  receive  at  the  hands  of  Jlichael. 
Gabriel,  Haphaej.  and  Uriel  (Enoch,  ix.  1;  compare 
xl.  2)  does  not  altogether  annihilate  them.  Uzza 
(Sanihazai)and  Azael  (Azazel)still  betray  the  secrets 
of  heaven  to  King  Solomon  as  they  did  in  Enoch's 
time  (.see  Jellinek.  "  B.  II."  ii.  Sl>";  com]iare  with 
"B.  II."  V.  178).  Some  angels  were  afterward  guilty 
of  betraying  divine  secrets  heard  from  behind  the 
curtain  ninD.  Ber.  18//).  and  were,  therefore,  ex- 
pelled from  their  positions  (sec  Gen.  K.  1..  Ixviii). 

Book  of  Jubilees,  ii.  2,  reads: 

'■  The  angels  of  the  faee  and  of  jrlorifleation,  the  anpi'ls  of  the 
elements  (ff  lire,  wind,  and  darkne>s.  of  hail 
Creation      and  hour  fn)sl,  tlinmler  and  Mirhtnini;,  of  oold 
of  Angels,     and  heat,  of  winter  and  spring,  summer  and 
fall,  of  the  aby!«  and  night,  of  light  and  morn- 
ing, were  created  on  the  llrst  liav." 


Pirljc  R.  El.  iv.  says  that  the  angels  were  created 
on  the  second  day."  In  (Jen.  H.  iii.  H.  Jolianan 
places  the  creation  of  the  angels  on  the  second  day, 
referring  to  Ps.  civ.  4.  "Me  maketh  his  angels  of 
winds"  ("who  maketh  winds  his  inesseiigers."  R. 
v.);  H.  Hanina.  on  the  tifth  day,  classilied  them 
among  the  winged  creatures  (Isa,  vi.  2). 

According  to  the  Slavonic  Book  of  Enoch,  God 
created  them  on  the  second  day  out  of  fire.  The 
bodies  of  angels  are  radiant,  their  faces  like  light- 
ning, their  eyes  as  fiaming  torches  (Prayer  of  As<' 
neth,  xiv.;  compare  Pesik.  I.  3<( ;  Cant.  K.  iii.  11; 
Matt.  XX viii.  3;  Luke,  ii.  9;  Acts,  xii.  7).  The  food 
of  angels  is  miuina,  of  which  Adam  and  Eve  ate  be- 
fore Uicv  sinned  (Vita  Athe  ct  Evic,  4;  compare 
Akiba,  Yoma,  75/)  on  Ps.  Ixxviii.  25,  and  Yoma,  44 
with  regiird  to  Moses). 

Angels  worship  God  at  certain  hours  of  the  day 
(Apoc.  Mosis,  17;  Testament  of  Abraham,  Ji,  iv,; 
see  James's  notes,  p.  121;  compare  Sifre.  Dent.  306; 
Gen.  K.  Ixxviii.;  Targ.  Yer.  Gen.  xxxii.  27  and  Ex. 
xiv.  '24).     There  are  490,000  myriads  of  ang<ls  (the 

numerical  value  of  the  Hebrew  word  DiaPD  sover- 
eignty, or  499,000,  the  ciiuivident  of  nK3S  hosts) 
glorifying  God  from  sunrise  to  sunrise  (Tunna  debe 
Elivahu  R.  xvii.,  xxxi. ;  Zu^ta,  xii.;  see  cd.  Fried- 
man, pp.  32,  34,  193). 

A  guardian  angel  of  Israel  is  mentioned  in  liie 
apocryphal  Epistle  of  Jeremy,  7.  An  angel  carries 
Ilabakkuk  by  the  hair  of  his  head  from  Judea  to 
Babylon  to  bring  the  pottage  he  has  prepared  for 
Daniel  in  the  lions'  den  (apocryphal  additions  to 
Dan.  V.  30). 

Angels  endowed  with  divine  knowledge  (Hag. 
16(0  appear  in  the  apocalyptic  and  rabbinic  litera- 
ture as  the- teachers  of  men.  This  is  the  so-called 
"whisper  of  the  angels"  (mt'n  "3X^0  nn't')  re- 
feiTcd  to  in  Zuiiz.  "G.V."  2d  ed.  173;  com|]aie  p.  363 

(mU'n  'SK^D 'is  IDD).  Michael  initiated  Adam  and 
Seth  into  the  seciets  of  creation  (Apoc.  Jlosis,  iii.  13) 
and  tavighl  Adjim  agriculture  (Vita  Adie  ct  Evx, 
22).  Tlie  angels  Michael.  Uriel,  and  Uaziel  initi- 
ated Enoch  into  the  mysteries  of  the  world  (Book 
of  Jubilees,  iv.  21 ;  the  Ethiopian  Enoch,  xl.  4,  .'),  xix, 
1,  Ixxii.  1;  and  Slavonic  Enoch,  xxii.  11,  xxxiii,  6), 
Raphael  imparted  to  Noah  the  .secret  of  lieaiing  herbs 
("Sefer  Noah,"  Jellinek.  "B.  II."  iii.  I'l.'i:  compare 
Book  of  Jubilees,  x,  9-10).  Jlichael  initiated  Abra- 
ham into  the  secret  lore  (Tcstaineut  of  Abiaham,  xi,- 
xiv).     The  angel  of  the  face  instructed  Abraham  in 

Hebrew,  the  language  of  creation;  rcve- 

Angels      lalion  thus  enabling  him  to  sttidy  the 

as  In-        holy  writings  of  the  fiisl  fathers  (Book 

structors.    of  .jubilees,  xii.  2.")).    The  angels  under- 

stJind  only  Hebrew  (Hag.  Wm;  Sotah, 
3.3f().  but  the  angel  Gabriel  knows  seventy  languages, 
all  of  which  he  taught  to  Joseph  (Sotah,  36'* ;  comjiare 
Shir  ha  Shirim  Rabbah  fragment  in  Wertheimer, 
"Bate  Midra.shot."  iv.  2.'),  where  Zagzagael  is  men- 
tioned as  instructor  in  the  seventy  languages).  Moses, 
who  received  all  his  knowledge  from  the  angel  of 
the  face  (Book  of  Jubilees,  i.,  ii.,  etc.),  was  taught 
the  art  of  he:ding  bv  the  angels  when  on  Mount 
Sinai  (Pirke  U.  El.  xlvi. ;  .lellinek,  "15.  II."  i.  61), 
Vefehfiah  ("  Divine  Beautv  "),  the  angel  of  the  Law, 
and  Metatron  ("  the  Prince"  of  the  Face  ")  taught  him 
the  mvsterv  of  the  practical  Cabala  (Jellinek.  "B. 
II."  i.  (51).  The  angel  ZagzagacK"  Divine  Splendor") 
instructed  .Moses  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Inefl'able 
Name  (Dent.  R.  xi).  Uriel  disclosed  to  Ezra  the 
mysteries  of  life  {II  Esd.  iv.  1).  Suriel,  the  angel 
ofthe  face,  instructed  R.  Ishmael  b.  Elisha  in  laws 
of  hygiene  (Ber.  01(( ;  compare  also  Xed.  20n).    Occa- 


593 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ang:elolog7 


sionally  tlie  augcls  tlicmselvcs  jratlii-r  amid  joy  and 
singing  lo  lisU'n  to  the  siige  initiated  into  tin;  sacred 
lore  oi  heaven  (see  Hag.  144).  But  at  times  tliej' 
also  betray  jealousy  and  fear,  begrudging  man  his 
knowledge  of  hidden  things.  Thus,  tluy  sought  to 
<lis,suade  the  Most  High  from  giving  the  Law  to 
jMoses  (Pesik.  U.  .\.\.,  Slmb.  SH/>) ;  but  Moses  pacified 
them  by  his  arguments.  In  like  manner  they  sought 
to  drive  Akiba  ovit  of  the  realm  of  paradise,  as  they 
did  his  colleagues  Ben  'Azzai  and  Ben  Zoma;  but 
God  Himself  interceded,  .saying,  "Leave  this  vener- 
able sage  unscathed ;  for  he  is  worthy  to  make  use 
of  My  glory  "  (Hag.  15i). 

The  angels  mediate  between  God  and  man.  They 
carry  the  prayers  up  to  the  throne  of  God  (Tobit, 
xii.  12,  l.j;  Barucli  Ajioc.  Greek,  xi.).  According 
to  Ex.  I{.  xxi.,  an  angel  set  over  the  prayers  weaves 
them  into  crowns  for  the  .Most  High.  Angels  inter- 
cede for  those  who  dwell  on  earth  (Knoch.  xl.  6; 
compare  Job,  xxxiii.  23,  which  is  to  be  translated: 
"If  there  be  on  his  side  one  single  messenger  among 
a  thousand  pleading  for  him ").  They  pray  for 
Adam's  jjardon  (Apoc.  Mosis,  33),  and  offer  praise 
to  God  after  the  same  has  been  granted  {ibid.  37). 
But  in  the  Siime  manner  in  which  tluy  place  the 
praj'ers  and  good  deeds  of  the  righteous  before 
God,  they  also  bring  the  sins  of  the 
Mediate  be-  evil-doers  before  Him  (Enoch,  xcix. 
tweenGod  3).  They  "  write  down  all  the  deeds 
and  Men.  and  lives  before  the  face  of  the  Lord  " 
(Slavonic  Book  of  Knoch,  xix.  '>). 
These  records,  in  the  Testament  of  Abraham,  B,  x., 
are  called  the  "  Books  of  the  Cherubim  "  because  they 
are  kept  by  the  cherubim.  From  these  they  read 
oir  in  the  great  Judgment  Hall  of  the  netherworld 
the  regi.ster  of  the  sins  or  the  righteous  deeds  of  the 
soul. 

Angels  minister  to  Adam  (Sanh.  59i;  Pirlje  R.  El. 
xii.:  compare  Matt.  iv.  11;  Luke,  xxii.  43;  Heb.  i. 
i:i-l  1)  and  bring  him  to  his  last  resting-place  (Apoc. 
Mosis.  3M).  attend  the  funeral  of  Abraham  (Testa- 
ment of  Abraham,  .1,  xx.),  and  bury  Moses  (Dent. 
K.  xi.,  Targ.  Yer.  Deut.  xxxiv.  (i).  Angels  bring 
the  souls  of  the  righteous  to  heaven  (Testament  of 
.Vbniham,  ,1,  xx. ;  Targ.  Yer.  Song  of  Solomon,  iv. 
12;  compare  Luke,  xvi.  23). 

Angels  accompany  the  dead  on  their  departure 
from  this  world.  "Three  bands  of  angels  of  the 
<livine  miinstry  [tiinl'ahe  linshitret],  or  peace  Vut- 
*/i<f/wm],  accompany  the  righteous:  the  first  singmg. 
'He  shall  enter  in  peace';  the  second.  '  They  shall 
rest  on  their  couches  ' ;  and  the  third,  '  The  one  who 
walkclh  in  ui)rightness  '  "  (Isii.  Ivii.  2).  Hut  when  a 
wicked  man  deiiarts,  three  bands  of  angels  of  de- 
struction {.iiiitViike  li<iM/it/ii/i)  are  described  as  accom- 
panving  him  singing,  "There  is  no  peace,  Siiith  my 
(ioff,  to  the  wicked"  (Isa.  Ivii.  21,  Ket.  104a,  Nuni. 
IS.  xi.). 

The  angels  that  execute  God's  judgment  are  railed 
"the  angels  of  punishment  "  (PInoch,  hi.  1,  Ixx.  11, 
Ixiii.  1),  Sitiiiiim  (Enoch,  xl.  7),  mal'ake  habbalah 
(Sliab.  Srwi;  Yer.  Shebu.  vi,  37/( ;  compare  Apoc. 
John,  vii.  2,  xii.  7).  "angels  of  the  dragon  "  =  .Satan  ; 
Malt.  XXV.  41.  Thi'ir  fierceness  and  their  mode 
of  punislunent  are  desciibed  in  the  Testament  of 
Abraham.  .1,  xii.,  /?,  xi.  They  "sling  the  souls  of 
the  wicked  from  one  end  of  the  world  to  the  other" 
(Shab.  l.")2A.  after  I  .Sim.  xxv.  2il).  These  are  under 
the  leadership  of  six  or  seven  archangels:  Ke?ef, 
.\f,  H('t"it''  (Deut.  ix.  HI).  Mashhit,  .Meshiibber, 
Mekallch  (compare  Ps.  Ixxviii.  4it:  'i/int/i.  Z'i'iim, 
znra/i):  and  above  tlu.<e  is  thcangil  of  death  (Shab. 
H!)(i;  Ex.  U.  xii.;  Testament  of  Abndiam.  .1,  xviii.- 
XX.).  Af  and  Hemali  threatened  to  lU-vour  Mosi« 
I,  -8S 


because  of  his  neglect  to  circumcise  his  sou  (Xed. 
3"2a).  God  keeps  these  angels  of  destruction  far  from 
Himself,  lest  they  strike  at  once,  thus  affording  the 
jieople  no  opportunity  for  repenting  (Yer.  Taanit, 
ii.  6.%). 

According  to    John's  Apocalypse  (Rev.   ix.  11) 

Abaddon  (Job,  xxxi.  12;   Shab.  8'Jii)  is  the  angel  of 

the  abyss.     In  the  Talmud,   Dumali, 

Angels  of    the  angel  of  silence  (after  Ps.  cxv.  17), 

the  Nether  is  the  prince  of  the  nether  world  in 

■World.  whosecliargearethespirits(Sanh.  94a. 
Shab.  lii'i/)).  He  announces  the  arrival 
of  newcomers  in  Sheol  (Ber.  186).  According  to  the 
Midrash  Ivonen,  there  are  three  princes  placed  at  the 
three  upper  gates:  (1)  Kipod  (the  Persian  A-r//«)rf  = 
"  wolf"  ;  see  "  Zenda vesta,"  tr.  by  Darmesteter.  in  "  Sa- 
cred Booksof  the  East."  xxiii.  29.'5);  (2)  Nagrasagiel, 
or  Xasnigiel,  the  prince  of  Gehiimom.  who  shows 
Moses  th(!  nether  world  and  the  sulTerings  of  the 
wicked  (Shir  ha  Sliirim  fragment  in  Wertheimer's 
"Bate  Midrashot,"  iv.  a4;  Jellinek.  "  B.  H."  iii.  03, 
V.  130);  the  mes.senger  of  Ahuramazda,  X.viuvo 
S.\siiii.\.  to  whose  care  the  soulsof  the  righteous  are 
entrusted ("Vendidad,"  xix.  34;  Darmesteter,  "Zend- 
avesta,"  i.  214.  and  elsewhere).  In  Testament  of 
Abraham.  ^1.  xiii.,  two  archangels  are  mentioned  as 
assisting  at  the  judgment  of  the  souls:  Dokiel  ("the 
weigher,"  fromrfi/t.,  Isji.  xl.  l.'i)  and  Puruel("the 
fiery  and  pitiless  angel,"  probably  from  para',  "pay- 
ing"; ]iin-'<nitil.  "punishment").  In  the  Midrash 
Konen  and  Maseket  Gan  Eden  and  Gehinnom  (.Jelli- 
nek, "B.  II."  V.  44)  the  following  angels  of  pimish- 
ment  are  mentioned  for  the  seven  dei)artments;  (1) 
Kushicl  ("the  rigid  oneof  God  ");  (2)  Ijihatiel  ("  the 
Ihuuing  one");  (3)  Shoftiel  ("the  judge  of  God  "):  (4) 
Makatiel  ("the  i)lague  of  God"):  (.5)  Hutriel("the 
rod  of  God");  (G)  Pusiel  (Puriel) — certainlv  not 
Hadriel  (Jellinek.  "B.  H."  ii.  31)— and  (7)  Kogziel 
("  wrath  of  God  "). 

The  tendency  to  individualize  and  to  give  each 
angel  a  distinct  name  and  assign  to  him  a  particular 
charge  or  position  grew  among  the  haggadists  and 
devotees  of  secret  lore : — 

"Each  angel  has  a  tablet  on  his  heart  on  which  his 
name,  (ombined  with  the  name  of  God  [El},  is  in- 
scribed," says  Simon  b.  Ijikish  (Pesil>.  xii.  10S/(). 
In  Ex.  H.  xxix.  this  doctrine  is  based  upon  Ps. 
Ixviii.  18:  "The  Lord  dwells  in  them."  wlierefore 
they  are  called  Miehac/,  Gabrii/,  Ra|>ha('/.  They 
receive  their  name  in  accorilanee  with  tlieir  messjigc, 
wherefore  they  can  not  till  their  names  (Num.  H.  x., 
commenting  upon  Judges,  xiii.  l.'i).  "  Xo  single 
angel  can  carry  out  two  messages,  nor  can  two 
angels  fulfil  oidy  one  ntessage.  Of  the  three  angels 
that  came  to  Abrahau\.  Michael,  the  guardian  angel 
of  Israel,  brought  the  tidings  of  Isaac's  birth:  Ga- 
briel, the  angel  of  heaveidy  vengeance  and  of  fire, 
had  to  overthrow  Sodom  ;  and  Raphael  resciu^d  I.<)t  " 
(B.  M.  M(V<,  Gen,  R.  1.,  Targ.  Yer.  (ien.  xviii.  2). 
Michael  lo  the  right,  I'rielto  the  left.  Gabriel  in 
front,  ami  Raphael  in  the  rear  of  the  throne  (Num. 
R.  ii).  are  stationed  on  the  four  sides  of  heaven 
(Midrash  Konen,  at  end;  compare  Ilekalol,  vi). 
Padail  is  the  name  given  lo  the  ang<l  who  appiared 
lo  Samson's  parents  in  the  apoervphal  historv  of 
Philo  ("Jew.  tjuart.  Rev,"  ISll.s,' p.  a24).  Zeroel 
(i'X  jntf  =  "  .\rni  of  (!od  ")  was  one  of  the  angels  who 
supported  Keuaz  in  his  battle  against  the  Am- 
oriles;  Nathaniel  (Nurii'lr  =  "  Fire  of  G<k1  ").  the 
angel  who  sjived  the  men  cast  into  ihe  fire  by  Jair, 
the  judge,  for  refusing  lo  worship  his  idols  (ibiit.). 
Over  each  force  and  eliineiil  of  life  an  angel  is 
pla<'ed :  one  over  the  winds  (Rev.  vii.  1);  one  over 
tire  (ibiil.  xiv.  18);  and  one  over  water  (ibid.  xvi.  5). 


AnKelologT 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


S94 


In  the  lU'brew  Enoch  (Ji-llinck,  "B.  H."  v.  176)  the 
following  iiugi'l- princes  are  named: 

lljiraiUfl,  fniin  Imriiil.     set  over  the  hall. 

Bu^lel,  „  riid/i wind. 

Baraklel,  „  havak lUrhtnlnK. 

Za'ainael,  „  za'ain storm. 

Zlklel,  „  zik.  gliiw  wind  (orconiet). 

Za'va'el,  ..  zvit'ol whirlwind. 

Za'allel,  „  za'af,        hurricane. 

Ra'amlel.  .,  ra'am thunder. 

Ru'ashiel.   ,.  rn'tmh earthquake. 

Shalglel,  „  ohckg snow. 

Matarlel.  ,.  motnr rain. 

Shamslel,  „  nhrmegh liKht  of  day. 

Lallabel.  ,.  lailali nlirlit. 

GalKallel.  „  galgal,       wheel  of  the  sun. 

Ofanlel.  ,.  o/aii,         wheel  nf  the  UHKin. 

Kokblel.  „  knkab stars. 

Rehatlel,  „  r<iJi(i(  ("runner '">,  set  over  the  planets. 

A  few  of  these  names  recur  in  Enoch,  viii.  and  Ixix. 
The  angel  of  hail  is  introduced  under  the  obscure 
name  of  Yurkemo  (Pes.  118(i).  The  angel  of  night 
is  called  Lailah  (Saiih.  16<M.  The  one  set  over  the  sea. 
Sar  shel  yam  (Gen.  R.  x),  is  called  HahulxH.  R.  74/-, 
after  Job.  xxvi.  12).  lie  was  slain  by  God  at  the 
Creation,  because  he  refused  to  swallow  the  water 
for  the  ilrying  of  the  land:  and  liis  body  is  covered 
by  water  "lest  all  creatures  should  iieiisli  from  liis 
stench  (compare  also  Pes.  1 184).  The  angel  set  over 
the  rain  is  Ridya.  S'Tl  ("llie  Irrigator");  according 
to  Kohut.  "Jild.  Angelologie,"p.  4.5,  Rediyao  (Per- 
sian, Areihii/iD).  Anhii):  Ta'anit,  '2V>;  Yoma.  21(/ 
(liiishi):  "lie  resembles  a  calf,  and  is  stationed  be- 
tween the  upper  and  the  lower  abyss,  sjiying  to  the 
one,  ■  Let  your  waters  run  down  ';  and  to  the  other, 
'  Let  your  waters  spring  up. '  "  Of  the  seven  names 
of  the  earth  (Ab.  R.  N.  ^1,  xxxvii.;  Pesik.  R.  K.  15.5rt) 
.seven  angel  names  were  formed:  (1)  Arziel.  (2)  Ad- 
mael,  (I^)  Harabael,(4)  Yabbashael.  (.5)  'Arkiel  (com- 
pare 'Arkas.  Slavonic  Book  of  Enoch,  xxiv.  2),  (6) 
Haldiel.  and(7)Tebliel.  They  were  stationed  in  the 
second  heaven  (see  "  Merkabali  de-Rabbi  Ishmael "  in 
Wertheimcr's  "Bate  Midrashot,"  i.  22. 

An  angel  set  over  the  beasts  is  mentioned  in  Her- 
mas'  "  Visions,"  iv.  2;  his  name  isThegri  (see  Hckalot. 
vi.)  (Turiel  =  "bull-god."  Jerome  on  Hab.  i.  14). 
In  Abraham  of  Granada's  "  Berit  Menuhah,"  p.  37. 
are  mentioned  the  angel  Jel.iiel  (HayyelV),  set  over 
the  wild  beasts;  'Anpiel,  over  the  birds;  Hariel 
(Behemiel),  over  the  tame  beasts:  Shakziel,  over  the 
water-insects;  Dagiel,  over  the  fish;  Ilaniel,  over 
the  fruit-bearing  trees;  Serakel,  over  the  trees  not 
bearing  fruit. 

"There  is  not  a  stalk  on  earth  that  has  not  its 
angelic  star  [nidUdl]  in  heaven  "  (Gen.  R.  x. ) — a  gen- 
uinely Persian  notion.  "  Every  single  flower  is  ap- 
propriate to  an  angel"  ("Bundahisli."  xxvii.  24). 

AJready  in  Dan"  x.  20-21.  the  idea  prevails  that 

each  nation  has  a  heavenly  guardian  angel  or  prince. 

In  Enoch,  Ixxxix.  .59,  the  seventy  shepherds  are  the 

guardian  angels  of  the  seventy  nations  over  whom 

Michael,  as  Israel's  angel-prince,    is  set  as  ruler. 

With  these  seventy -one  angel-princes 

Guardians   of  the  world  God  sits  in  council  when 

of  the        liolding    judgment    over    the    world 

Nations.  (Hebrew  Enoch;  Jellinek,  "B.  H."  v. 
181);  each  pleading  the  cause  of  his 
nation  before  God  (Targ.  Yer.  Gen.  xi.  7-8.  Pirke 
R.  El.  xxiv.).  At  times  they  accuse  Israel  (Pesik. 
xxvii.  \76fi);  at  times  they  tind  especial  merit  in  him 
(Suk.  29a).  They  are  the  "gods"  whom  the  Lord 
crushes  before  He  executes  His  punishment  upon  the 
nations  in  their  charge  (Suk.  29(/.  according  to  Ex.  xii. 
12;  Sotah.  9(/).  These  angel-princes  of  the  nations — 
of  Babel,  Jledia,  Greece,  Syria,  and  Rome — Jacob  saw 
in  his  dream  ascending  and  descending  the  ladder 
(Gen.  R.  Ixviii.,  Pesik.    xxiii.    ISla).     The    angel 


with  whom  Jacob  wrestled  was  the  angel-prince  of 
Edom(Gen.  R.  Ixxvii.).  Samael,  thehead  of  all  8atans 
(Tan..  Wayishlah.  ii.  25).  The  name  of  the  angel 
of  Egvi'l  is  Mizraim  (Ex.  R.  xxi.)  or  Uz/.a  (Midr. 
Wayosha- ;  Jellinek,  "B.  H."  i.  39;  Hekalot,  v.  172); 
that  of  Persia's  angel-prince  is  Dubbiel  (=  Bear- 
god;  Yoma,  77(1,  after  l)an.  vii.  5).  But  Michael, 
the  angel-prince  of  Jerusalem  (Zion,  Targ,  Ps. 
cxxxvii.  7-8),  is  set  over  all  the  seventy  angels 
(.Midr.  Abkir:  Yalk.,  Gen.  S  132). 

There  is.  however,  a  special  angel-prince  set  over 
the  worid.  Stir  ha-'olam  (Yeb.  166,  Hul.  60.(,  Sanh, 
94<()-  He  composed  the  verses,  Ps.  xxxvii.  2.5.  civ. 
31.  and.  partly.  Isjj.  xxiv.  Hi.  An  angel  of  mankind 
is  mentioned  also  (Apoc.  Mosis.  32).  He  has  been 
identified,  whether  correctly  or  incorrectly  (see 
Tos.  Yeb.  W>:  Wiener,  "Bin  Chananja,"  ix.  600; 
Kohut,  "Jild.  Angelologie,"  p,  42),  with  Metatron. 
In  order  fully  to  resemble  the  court  of  the  Persian 
King  of  Kings,  the  heavenly  court  is  put  in  chariic 
of  a  vice-regent,  the*";'  hn-l'mtimV  prince  of  the  di- 
vine face").  According  to  the  Testament  of  Job 
(lii.),  this  vice-regent  "sitteth  upon  the  great  char- 
iot "  (see  Kohler,  "  Semitic  Studies,"p.  299) ;  he  is,  ac- 
cording to  Philo  "On  Dreams"  (i.  2.5),  "the  driver  of 
the  chariot "  (l/vmxn^  apuarof).  His  "  name  is  like  the 
name  of  his  Master"  (Sanh.  38A.  according  to  Ex. 
xxiii.  21),  known  under  the  name  of  "Metatron" 
(Mithra:  see  Dio  Chry.sostomus.  "Oratio,"  xxxvi. 
Windischmann,  "Zoroastrische  Studien."  pp.  309- 
312;  frequently  explained  as  "Metator."  "Metathro- 
nos,"and  "  Jletatyranos."  See  Sachs,  "Beitriige,"  i, 
108:  Frank,"  Kal'ibala,"  p.  43;  Jellinek,"  B.  II. "ii.  30; 
Levy,  "Chal.  WOrterb. "  «. r. ;  Kohut,  "Aruch,"«.r.). 

This  vice-regent  is  probably  identical  with  the 
archangel  Jehoel  mentioned  in  Apoc.  Abraham,  x.. 
as  mediator  of  the  ineffable  name  of  God;  also  with 
Yehadriel  ("  Hekalot "  in  Jellinek,  "  B.  H. "  ii.  47) :  and 
IH-rhaps  also  with  Akathriel,  the  occupant  of  God's 
throne  (Ber.  7(i). 

But  alongside  of  Jletatnm  is  mentioned  in  "Ma- 
seket  Azilut "  (based  on  job.  xli.  9).  as  "  brother  "  and 
above  him,  Sandalfon,  explained  as  Synadelphon 
("  twin-brother  ")  and  as  "  Sardonyx  "  (see  Jellinek,  in 
"Ben  Chananja,"  iv.  182.  329,  36.5;  compare  Slavonic 
Book  of  Enocii,  xxv.).  The  hiterCabala  places  Aka- 
thriel above  the  twin-brothers  Metatron  (=  Enoch) 
and  Sandalfon  (=  Elijah)  (see  Yalk.  Hadash,  s.r. 
"Malakim,"  jip.  3.8-39).  Of  well-nigh' equal  rank 
with  Metatron  are  Sandalfon  and  Akathriel  ("the 
crown  of  God  ";  Ber.  7<0. 

Beneath  the.se  are  the  seven  heavens  with  Michael, 
Gabriel,  Shateiel  ("angel  of  silence"),  Shahakiel, 
("angel  of  shahakim"),  Baradiel,  Barakiel,  and  Sa- 
driel  ("angel  of  order")  as  chiefs:  and  beneath  them 
in  the  Velon,  Galgaliel,  and  Ofaniel,  Relmticl,  and 
Kokbiel  as  the  angels  of  sun-wheel,  moon-wheel, 
planets,  and  the  other  stars  with  all  their  hosts:  the 
seventy-two  angel-princes  of  the  nations  being  sta- 
tioned above  these  (Hekalot,  published  by  Jellinek, 
"Kontros  ha-Maggid,"  pp.  81  it  nft/.). 

Besides  these,  sixty-three  angels  are  mentioned  as 
janitors  of  the  seven  heavens  ("  Hekalot,"  xv, ;  Jelli- 
nek, "  B.  H."  iii.  et  seq.),  and  others  stationed  at  each 
of  the  seven  heavens  as  seal-bearers  ( ihid.  x  vii.-xxii. ) ; 
and  above  all  these,  as  head  and  chief,  Anfiel,  whose 
crown  "branches  out"  to  "cover  the  heaven  with 
the  divine  majesty"  (Hab.  iii.  3).  Jlention  is  made 
also  of  Ofaniel.  Seraphiel,  Cherubiel,  as  chiefs  of  the 
ofanim,  seraphim,  and  cherubim;  of  Rikbiel  and 
Hailael  (Hayael?)  as  chiefs  of  the  divine  chariot  and 
the  hayyot';  Sofriel  as  "  bookkeeper " ;  Dabriel  as 
interpreter  of  the  "word'';  Kafziel  ("speed  of 
God");  Hadriel,  or  Hadraniel  ("majesty  of  God"); 


696 


THE  JEWISH  E>X-YCLOPEDIA 


Angelology 


Adiririon  (Adiryah?  "might  of  God";  see  .lellinek, 
"B.  H."  V.  178-180.  aiul  "  lli-kalot "  fracment  in 
"Kontros  Iia-Mafrgid,"  pp  34-36;  idem,  "15.  II."  i. 
uH).  Zuiiz  counts  forty  angi'ls  mentioned  in  tlic  lit- 
urgy ("S.  P."  |).  476),  These  are  increased  to  the 
extent  of  thousands,  witli  names  far  beyond  intel- 
ligibility or  recognition,  but  scarcely.  asZuuz  thinks 
("G.  V.""  p.  177).  altogetlier  invented. 

The  names  of  angels  formed  a  favorite  study  of 
the  Es.senes  or  Hasidim  in  view  of  the  magical  cures 
effected  by  means  of  these  names;  for  upon  the  ac- 
curate knowledge  of  the  name  and  spliere  of  each 
angel,  and  of  the  power  exerted  by  him  im  certain 
evil  spirits,  dcpcn(led  the  efficacy  of  the  conjurers. 
In  the  Testament  of  Solomon  {translated  by  C'ony- 
beare.  ".lew.  (Juart,  H<v."  1S!),S,  pp.  1-4.')) — anapoc- 
ryphal  book  belonging  probably  to  the  first  century 
— King  Solomon  is  introduced  as  giving  his  cxjie- 

riences  on  meeting  the  various  demons, 
Conjuring  of  each  of  whom  he  asks  his  name  as 
by  Names  well  a.s  the  name  of  the  angel  that  can 
of  Angels,    overpower   him,      Asnio<leus  answers 

that  he  is  frustrated  by  Haidiael.  the 
archangel  ;  another  demon  answers  Paltiel  is  his  an- 
tagimist;  a  third.  Uriel,  etc.  (see  jip.  24.  38.  4(1), 
The  magic  book  "Tlu^  Sword  of  Moses."  pidjlishcd 
and  translated  by  M.  Gaster  (London.  1896),  is  based 
upon  the  same  principli',  as  are  parts  of  the  Hook 
of  Kaziel  ascribe<l  to  Kleazar  of  Worms.  In  P.seu- 
do-Sirach  (ed,  Steinschneider.  |i.  23(0  the  three  an- 
gels. Saiiuy.  Sansjiiiuy.  and  Samangaluf  are  siud  to 
have  brought  l.ilith  back  to  Adam,  and  when  she 
turned  child-murderess  like  l.aniia,  they  were  set  in 
control  over  her:  see  Brueck,  "  Habbinische  Ccre- 
monialbriluche,"  pp.  .')0-55;  see  also  Amui.kt. 

A  strange  story  is  told  in  Yalk..  Lam,  1001:  "At 
the  siege  of  .Terustdem  by  Nebuchadne/.zar.  after  the 
mighty  hero  Abika  ben  Gafteri  had  fallen.  Haiia- 
neel,  the  uncle  of  .leremiah,  conjured  up  angels  who 
.struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  Chaldeans,  thus 
setting  them  to  lliglit.  But  Ood.  having  decreed 
the  fall  of  the  city,  had  clianged  the  names  of  the 
angels  when  Ilananeel  summoned  up  the  prince  of  the 
worlil  by  using  the  Ineffable  Name,  and  he  lifted 
.Jerusalem  into  the  air.  but  God  cast  it  down  again. 
To  this  the  verse  I^m,  ii,  1  refers."  According  to 
another  story  (iliiil.  1012),  the  hwiing  men  of  the 
city  had  conjured  up  the  angels  of  water  and  of  fire 
to  surround  the  city  with  walls  of  fire  and  water; 
but  God  changed  the  names  of  the  angels. 

The  charge  of  angel-worship  raised  against  the 
Jews,  based  upon  ("ol.  ii.  18.  is  decidedly  unfounded. 
Paul  had  probably  the  sjiine  Gnostic  sect  in  nnnd  that 
C'elsus  refers  to  when  he  repeats  the  charge  of  Aris- 
tides  ("  Apoli>gy."  xiv.  4;  see  Origen.  book  i,  26.  v. 
6-34.  41 1,  telling  us  (Origen,  vi.  30)  of  magical  figures 
on  which  he  found  the  seven  angils  inscribed:  (1) 
Michael,  with  the  figure  of  a  lion;   (2)  Suricl.  as  a 

bull  {.i/ikc  or   turn  =  T\iT\v\:    see  Je- 

Angel        romi'  on  Ilab.  i,  14);   (3)  Raphael  in  a 

Worship,     serpi'ntine   form;     (4)   Gabriel   as  an 

cngle;  (."))  Yalda  Baliut  with  the  coun- 
tenance of  a  bear;  (0)  Erathaol  as  a  liog;  and  (7) 
Onoel  in  the  shape  of  an  ass  ( If  these  seven  arehons 
(Celsus.  vi.  27)  i'aid  speaks  eoMtiiiuallv  in  bis  lel- 
Uts  (I  Gor,  ii,  (i-8;  (',)1.  ii.  s,  20),  But  this  Ophite 
sect  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  Jews.  On  the  con- 
trary. I{,  Ishmael.  in  Mek,.  Yithro.  x,,  expressly  ap- 
plii'stlie  prohibition  of  idolatry  to  the  likeness  of  an- 
gels of  theoranimand  cherubim  (compare  Targ,  Yer, 
to  Ex.  XX,  20),  "lie  who  slaughters  an  animal  in 
th<'  name  of  sun.  moon,  stars,  ami  planits,  or  in  the 
uunie  of  Michael,  the  great  captain  of  thi>  heaveidv 
hosts,  renders  the  same  an  ottering  to  dead  idols^' 


(IIul.  40«;  'Ab,  Zarah.  424).  "Not  as  one  who 
would  first  send  his  servant  to  a  friend  to  ask  for 
aid  in  his  hour  of  need  should  man  apply  to  Mi- 
chael, or  Gabriel,  to  intercede  for  him;  but  he  should 
turn  inunediately  to  God  Himself;  for  '  whosoever 
shall  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall  be  delivered  '  " 
(Joel,  iii,  5  [A.  V.  ii.  32];  Yer,  Ber,  ix,  13«;  com- 
pare Rev,  xix.  10,  xxii.  8-9).  "Four  keys  are  in  the 
keeping  of  God  exclusively  and  not  in  that  of  the 
angels:  the  keys  of  niin.  of  nourishment,  of  birth, 
and  of  resurrection"  (Targ,  Yer.  to  Gen.  xxx.  22; 
Dcut.  xxviii.  12  ;  compare  Ta'anit.  2((.  where  only 
three  keys  arc  mentioned).  This  is  rightly  inter- 
preted by  GfriJrer.  ".Jahrlnmdert  dcs  Heils.''  i,  377, 
as  meant  to  exclude  jirayer  to  the  angels.  The  in- 
vocations of  angels  occurring  in  the  liturgy  were 
addressed  to  them  as  mediators,  not  as  helpers.  Still 
many  rabbinical  authorities  disapproved  of  such  in- 
vocations (see  the  literature  in  Zunz.  "S.  P."  p.  148). 

However  great  the  tendency  to  enlarge  the  num- 
ber and  the  infiuenee  of  the  angels  over  life,  there 
is,  on  the  other  hand,  great  stress  laid 

Inferior      upon  the  fact  that  the  angels  are  in 

to  Man.  many  respects  inferior  to  man.  Al- 
ready Enoch  (XV.  2)  intercedes  on  be- 
half of  the  angels,  instead  of  having  them  intercede 
for  him;  and  none  of  the  angels  coidd  see  what  he 
saw  of  God's  glory  {ihiil.  xiv.  21).  or  learn  the  secrets 
of  God  as  he  knew  them  (Slavonic  Book  of  Enoch, 
xxiv.  3;  compare  Sifra,  2/<;  Ascensio,  Isa,  ix.  27-38), 
.Vdam  was  to  be  worshiped  by  the  angels  as  the 
image  of  God  (Vita  Adic  et  Evic,  p.  14;  Gen.  R. 
viii,).  Before  his  fall  his  place  was  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  God's  own  majesty,  where  the  angels  can 
not  stay  (Gen.  R.  xxi,);  and  so  in  the  future  will  the 
righteotis  aeain  be  placed  nearer  to  God  than  the 
angels  (Deu't.  R.  1,  Yer.  Shab.  vi.  8rf,  Ned.  32<(). 
Indeed.  "  they  were  inferi<ir  in  intelligence  to  Adam, 
when  names  were  given  to  all  things"  (Pirlje  R.  El. 
xiii,),  "Thi'  righteous  rank  above  the  angels" 
(Sanh.  93((;  Midr.  Teh,.  Ps.  ciii.  18;  compare  I  Cor. 
vi.  3;  Heb.  ii.  .I).  "When  Aaron  in  his  vestments 
as  high  priest  entered  the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  minis- 
tering angels  tied  in  awe  before  him "  (Pesi^.  R. 
47;  com])are  Ex.  R.  xxxviii,).  "Israel  is  dearer  to 
God  than  the  angels;  for  Israel's  jiraise  is  not  con- 
fined to  stated  hours  as  that  of  the  angels.  Israel 
pronounces  the  name  of  God  after  two  words:  "  Hear, 
Israel  ';  the  angelsafter three:  '  Holy.  Holy.  Holy! ' 
Israel  begins  the  song  of  praise  on  earth  and  the 
angels  in  heaven  chime  in"(Hul.  91/;:  Midr,  Teh., 
Ps.  civ.  1).  "Angels  minister  to  the  saints"  (Heb. 
i.  13-14). 

Philo  was  inclined  to  accept  the  existence  of  an- 
gels as  a  fact  far  more  than  his  allegorical  system 
would  lead  one  to  surmise.  He  was 
Philo  prompted  to  do  so  through  the  exam- 
on  Angels,  jile  of  the  Stoics:  "  Beings  whom  other 
philosophers  called  demons.  Moses 
usually  called  angels";  they  are  "souls  hovering  in 
the  air";  "some  have  descended  into  binlies;  otliers 
have  not  thought  fit  to  approach  any  part  of  the 
earth;  and  these,  hallowed  and  surrounded  by  the 
ministrations  of  the  Father,  the  t'reator  employs 
as  a.ssistants  ami  ministers  for  the  care  of  the  mor- 
tals," "They  report  the  injunctions  of  the  Father  to 
His  children,  and  the  nec<-.ssities  of  tile  children  to  the 
Father  And.  with  refen-ncc  to  this.  Holy  Scripture 
represents  them  as  ■  a.scending  and  descending, '  ,  ,  , 
Not  G<«i.  but  we  mortals  are  in  need  of  a  mediator 
and  inlerccs,sor"  (iV/<iH.  "On  nrrams."i,  22),  "Souls, 
demons,  and  angels  are  things  ditTiring  in  name,  but 
identical  in  reality.  Yet.  a.s  men  speak  of  God  and 
of  evil  demons  ami  of  goo«i  and  evil  souls,  so  they 


Anfrelologry 
Anger 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


696 


speak  of  angels,  calling  tlicni  ambassadors  of  man  to 

God  uikI  i)f  God  to  nmu;  and  I  hey  are  holy  because 
of  this  blameless  and  hononiblc  olliee.  Others,  on 
the  eoiitrary.  arc  profane  and  unworUij',  as  is  seen 
in  Ps.  Ixxviii.  49"  [iileiii.  "On  Giants."  pp.  3^). 

But  Philo  also  calls  them  Itigoi.  "words,"  or  "in- 
tellects" (iili'iii.  "On  Confusion  of  Language,"  p.  S; 
"On  Dreams."!.  12.19;  "Allegory."  iii.  (i2;  com- 
pare Hag.  \4ii.  based  on  Ps.  xx.xiii.  (i).  They  are 
also  called  "God's  own  powers  with  whom 'the 
Father  of  the  Universe  consulted  when  saying:  '  Let 
us  make  man.'  To  them  He  .gave  the  mortal  part 
of  our  soul  to  form  by  imitating  His  art  when  He 
shaped  the  rational  principle  in  us  "  (iclem,  "  On  Fugi- 
tives," p.  13).  Angels  are  the  priests  in  the  heav- 
enly temple  ((rf«m,  "  Monarchy,"  ii.  1).  And  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  rabbis  speak  of  Michael  (.Meta- 
tron)as  the  captain  of  the  heavenly  Imst.  as  the  high 
priest  that  offers  sacrifice  in  the  upper  temple,  and 
as  the  charioteer  of  God,  Philo  says: 

"The  rather,  the  Crpntor  of  the  unlverso.  cave  to  the  areh- 
nnpt'l  anil  inn^i  anrifiit  /*<!/.  i.s  ["word  "J  lla-  |irivilt't:)'nf  siaiidliiK 
on  tln'  rttnlliu'.-i.  scpanUiiiK  I  tie  (-feature  from  Iliet  reatnr,  and  uf 
liiterci'iihi^r  l)el\\een  tile  iiiiriiortul  (iod  and  the  mnrtal.  a.s  aln- 
bju4.sador  sent  bv  the  ruler  to  the  subjeet.  lieji.ieirik'  in  this  pl^- 
sitlun.  he  says  fpeut.  v.  .t]  :  'I  st'md  between  tlie  Lord  and  ynu.' 
Itelnjf  neither  uiu-reated  imr  erealed.  tmt  between  the  twu.  pledj^e 
uud  seeurity  to  the  i'reator  and  to  the  erealui-e.  a  llope  that  the 
niert'iful  God  would  nut  de.spise  His  work"  ("On  Wlio  is  the 
lieir."  p. -fci :  ooiupaie  "*)u  Dreams.'' 1.  :i'>;  "On  Fugitives,"  p. 
1!»,  where  he  is  called  "  the  ehariolt'er  of  the  powers  "  ;  and"On 
Confusion  of  Languages,"  p.  :JH,  whei'e,  like  Metatron  with  liis 
seventy-two  names,  he  is  called  "  the  great  archangel  of  many 
names"). 

The  medieval  philosophers  treated  the  belief  in 
angels  in  a  ftir  iiinre  ralionalislie  spirit  thttii  did 
Philo.  Saailia,  tintling  man  to  be  Iheubjcet  of  Crea- 
tion, and  tliefeforc  in  the  center  of  the  world,  claims 
for  him  a  rank  higher  than  that  of  the  angels  ("Em- 
unot  we-De'ol,"  iv.  1).  They  are  to  him  cical tires 
of  light,  ethereal  beings,  created  for  special  purposes 
(ii.  b),  visions  of  the  prophet  rather  than  realities. 
So  is  the  tiery  angel  of  death  (iv.  (i). 
Saadia,  Satan  to  him  is  a  human  licing  (see 
Ha-Levi,  Ibn  Ezra  to  Num.  xxii.  'i'i),  Judtdt 
Ibn  Daud,  ha-Levi  also  sees  in  the  angels  beings 
Mai-  created  of  ethereal  matter;  some  for 
monides.  a  certain  time,  and  those  of  the  upper 
world  for  eternity  ("Cuzaii,"  iv.  13; 
see  Cassel's  note).  Concerning  Gabirol's  angels 
formed  of  fire,  see  Katifmaiiti.  "  Attributeiilchre,"  pp. 
184,  iiOo.  To  Ibn  Diiud  angels  iire  itilrlligenees, 
created,  yet  eternal  and  s])irilual ;  the  molors  of  the 
soul;  the  highest  of  these  intelligences  being  the 
active  intellect  of  the  Tenth  Sphere,  identified  by 
the  Jlohammedan  thinkers  (according  to"Cuzari," 
i.  87)  with  the  angel  Gabriel  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
but  mentioned  already  in  Job.  xxxii.  8  as  "the  spirit 
in  man;  and  the  breath  [A.V.  "inspiration"]  of  the 
Almighty  that  giveth  them  undeistanding."  Mai- 
monides,  taking  as  his  guide  Aristotle,  who  places 
the  "Intelligences"  as  intermediate  beings  between 
the  Prime  Cause  and  existing  things— by  the  agency 
of  which  is  produced  the  motion  of  the  spheres  on 
which  all  existence  depends — dechires  the  Biblical 
angels  to  be  the  beings  with  whom  God  consults 
before  taking  action  (Gen.  R.  viii.).  Differing, 
however,  from  Aristotle,  whose  "Intelligences"  are 
coexistent  with  the  First  Cause,  he  a.sserts  that  the 
angels  are  created  by  God,  and  endowed  with  the 
power  of  governing  the  spheres;  that  they  are  con- 
scious beingspossessedof  a  free  will,  but  that,  unlike 
human  beings,  they  are  in  constant  action  and  with- 
out evil  ("Morehi"  ii.  6-7).  Far  from  accepting 
Scripture  in  its  literal  meaning,  when  angels  are  in- 
troduced, he  finds  the  term  "angel"  applied  to  men. 


to  elements,  and  to  animals,  as  well  as  to  ideals  per- 
ceived by  the  Prophets.  "Xaltiral  forces  and  angels 
are  identical.  AVIien  the  rabbis  (Midr.  Ecd.  x.  7) 
say:  '  When  man  sleeps,  his  soul  speaks  to  the  angel, 
and  the  angel  to  the  cherub,'  man's  imaginative 
faculty  is  called  angel,  and  his  intellectual  faculty 
is  called  cherub.  The  form  in  which  angels  appear 
characterizes  the  mental  vision  of  the  .seer."  He  thus 
distinguishes  between  angels  endowed  with  eternal 
life — such  as  the  Spheric  Intelligences — and  the 
perishable  phenomensi.  But  then  these  spheres  and 
angels  were  not  created  for  our  sake,  says  Mai- 
monides  ("Moreli,"  iii.  13)  in  opposition  to  .Saadia, 
who  says:  "Man  is  superior  to  everything  formed 
of  earllily  matter,  but  exceedingly  inferior  to  the 
spheres  anil  intelligences."  Of  such  spheres,  Aris- 
totle counted  fifty,  numbering  as  many  ideals. 
Maimonides,  with  later  philosophers,  a.ssumcs  these 
to  l)e  ten,  the  Tenth  Intelligence  being  the  Active 
Intellect.  For  this  reason,  JIaimonides  follows  the 
Cabala  in  counting  ten  classes  of  angels  ("  Yesode 
ha-Torah,"  ii.  7). 

In  the  Cabala  two  currents  run  in  parallel  lines. 
The  luiietieal  Ciibala.  bent  upon  overruling,  through 

ineaiitiitioiis,   Ilie  destinies  of  earthly 

Cabalistic     life  by  the  higher  powers,  is  ever  busy 

■yiew.         finding  new  names  of  angels  able  to 

control  the  lower  forces.  Such  at- 
tempts are  made  in  "Sefer  ha-Riiziiu."  which  is  a 
list  of  angels  for  the  months  of  the  vear,  in  the 
"Sefer  Itizicl,"  and  the  like.  On  the  "other  hand, 
the  Ni'Oi)latonic  view  of  Emanation,  and  the  idea 
of  the  macrocosm,  or  the  world  in  its  totality, 
being  the  evolution  of  the  imtige  of  God,  the  type 
of  which  is  man  as  microcosm,  neci-ss;irily  made 
man  the  object  of  Creation,  .so  that  in  this  view  he 
ranks  above  the  angels  (Zohar,  iii.  08);  while  they 
(the  angels)  belong  to  the  lower  realm,  to  the  world 
of  formation  (i/ezirn/i).  and  not  to  that  of  Creation 
(hcriii/i),  to  which  the  hitrher  spirits  belong.  The 
angels  are  intellecttiiil,  spiritual  beings,  yet  invested 
with  a  shining  etirb  to  make  them  visible  to  man 
(Frank  and  Jelliuek.  "Cal)ala."p.  101:  Joel.  "  Reli- 
gions|)liilosophie  d.  Zohar,"  pp.  278-279). 

How  far  Jewish  Angelology  Wiis  infiuenced  by 
Babylonian  and  Persian  mythology,  and  what  its 

relations  are    to    Manda-an    lore   and 

Relation     to  Egyptian-Hellenistic  gnosticism,  is 

to  non-       still  ii  matter  of  dispute  among  stu- 

Jewish  Re-  dents(see  Kohut.  "  Ji\d.  Aiigelologie"; 

ligions.       Schorr,  "  He  Haluz."  viii.  1-121);  Gun- 

kel.  "Schi')pfung  und  Chaos";  Die- 
tcricli,  "Abraxas";  Kcssler.  "Mamheans"  in  .Schaaf 
and  Herzog's  "Encyclopedia  of  Heligious  Knowl- 
edge." The  ^Manda'ans  also  speak  of  angels  of  light 
(not  kings,  Brandt.  "  Mandilische  Sehrifteii,"  p.  14) 
surrounding  the  king  of  liglit  (Brandt."  Mandilische 
Religion,"  p.  42;  "  Mandiliselie  Sehrifteii,"  p  14).  ami 
of  angels  of  wrath  surrounding  the  evil  s]iiril  Ruah 
(Brandt,  "Mandilische  Religion,"  p.  l'2;i);  of  tit  lee  an- 
gels, or  guardian  spirits,  accompanying  Adam  (ibid. 
pp.  44.  122):  of  the  angel  Yofim  (Yofafin)  (ihid.  pp. 
26.  198) ;  of  Ptahil  (Gabriel),  the  a,ssistant  of  the  Lord 
of  Life  at  the  world'screatiou  (ibid.  pp.  34,  3'),  44,  50- 
.55) ;  of  the  great  sardonyx  (p.  221 )  as  well  as  of  Azti- 
zel  (p.  198);  of  the  seven  nether  worlds  with  their 
archdcmons  as  rulers  ("  ilandilische  Sehriflen."  pp. 
137-183).  But  Persian  mythology  is  throughout  in- 
terwoven with  Angelology  (see  Brandt.  "  Mandilische 
Religion."  pp.  194-198)."  Coptic  gnosticism,  also, 
has  Ariel  as  king  of  the  nether  world,  coiTcsponding 
with  Ur  of  the  Mand.-eans  (see  Schmidt,  "Gnostische 
Schriften  in  Koptischer  Sprache,"  p.  413). 

That  the  archons.  the  seventv-two  rulers  of  the 


597 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Angelolo^V 
Anger 


•world  {Schmidt,  ibid.  p.  194),  are  alluded  to  in  I  Cor. 
ii.  6-8;  Gal.  iv.  :!,  9;  and  elsewluMV.  by  Paul,  bas 
brcn  shown  by  Evcrling,  "Die  Paulinisohe  Angelo- 
logie  und  Damonologie,"  pp.  13,  75.  The  "angel 
worship"  (Col.  ii.  18)  is  of  the  Gnostics,  not  of  the 
Jews.  For  Christian  Angelology  in  general.  Zunz 
("S.  P."  p.  148)  may  be  quoted:"  "The  Coiuic.  the 
Abyssinian,  the  Greek,  and  the  Homan  ehurehes 
a<lopted  the  invocation  of  angels  in  their  liturgy; 
and  since  the  tenth  century  the  whole  earlli  has  been 
divided  among  the  various  tutelary  angels  and 
Siiints." 

In  the  Koran,  Jewish  and  Gnostic  angelologies 
seem  to  be  intermingled.  In  Mohammed's  time  the 
old  Arabian  goddesses — Al  Lat,  Al-L'zza.  and  Maiiat 
— were  spoken  of  as  angels  and  daughters  of  (Jod 
(Koran,  sura  x.xxvii.  t;  l.'iO,  liii.  ^  20).  The  chief  of 
all  the  archangels  is  Gabriel  (Jibril);  Michael  comes 
ne.\t:  Isnifil  (Sanitiel)  sounds  the  tnnnpet  of  the 
resuirection;  and  A/.niel  is  the  angel  of  death  (the 
etymology  of  the  la.st  name  is  obscure).      Instead 

of  four,   there  are  eight  angels  that 

Iffoham-      supi)ort  the  throne  of  God  (sura  xli.x. 

medan  An-  ^  17).     Some  angels  have  two,  .some 

gelology.     three,  others  four  wings  (sura  xxxv. 

s;  2).  "They  celebrate  the  jiraise  of 
their  Lord  and  a.sk  forgivi^ness  for  those  that  are  on 
earth  "  (sura  xlii.  g  2).  "  Each  man  hath  a  succession 
of  angels  before  and  behind  him'"  (sura  xiii.  g  12). 
The  chief  angel,  who  has  charge  of  hell,  is  Slalik 
(etj'mology  unknown).  Hell  has  .seven  doors  (sura 
XV.  S;  44).  Nineteen  angels  are  set  f)ver  the  tire  (sura 
Ixxiv.  ^^  30-31).  Munkar  and  Nakir  are  the  angels 
that  interrogate  thedead  ;  and  anolherangel.  Human, 
makes  each  man  write  down  his  deeds  (  WollV.  "  Mu- 
hammediinische  Eschatol(>gi<'."  pp.  09,  10(i).  Re- 
garding the  names  of  other  angels,  used  for  invoca- 
tions and  exorcism,  see  Hughes,  "Diet,  of  Islam," 
under  "  Da'wah  "  (incantation). 

Biiu.iOGRAPUY  :  C.  Breclier,  i>i»  Trnn»cenikntiile,  Mayic  toid 
Miiili'*t'lt''  IlfUiirtcn  itn  Tttlmwl^  pp.  1,  IW,  Vienna.  IHTtd; 
Haintirnv'T.  Ii.  It.  T.  1. :  WetxT.  S}istfm(l.  Altsjimtnnwtii  ii 
l'tiUh<li)iu<vlieii  riu-fhiiiU.  IKSO.  pp.  I.ir-1T4:  J.  M.  Fuller. 
Atmcltit'tnii  awi  iJtniintiilotrU'  Kxcui^iw  to  TiihU^  lii  Waee's 
Aiiiieruiihd,  I.  I71-17.">;  A.  Kohiit,  r,li,rilir  Jllil.  Aniid-'l"- 
{jU- utut  [>tttni)n<iti>ifii:  in  Ihnr  Ahliihulitjhrit  vom  I*arsi.t- 
mtiK.  I.el|wlc,  INki:  .\.  stiinli-ill,  Slwli-  II  Ulin-  Jttil.  JMi- 
ffiiiiinpliiln^iiilihif.  Vienna,  IsiiU;  n.  (iunkel,  Si'hnjifuiiu  uiul 
C/iiiiw.  !.•<!»■>,  pp.  ■:s»-:<ir.i :  W.  I.uiken,  Mirliad.  UiitUiigen. 
1W«;  KI.'wnmeni^T.  KiiUlcUlfi  Jinliiithuiii.  il.  vll.  a70- 
407,  KOnlffsliers.  1711:  (Jfrorer,  Jn/ir/iiini/crl  da>  HciUi.  I. 
;t.'H-;t78:  J.  H.  WelKi,  I>i>r  l»<r  u;-T)i<rthiiii:  I.  23,  II.  17; 
»•«  espwlully  R.  S!iiel»e,  Jllili»rh-Iinii\ihii\isc}ier  'Aauh€i\ 
etc.,  Halle,  \S3n,  a  work  of  sjiei'lal  Interest  to  the  student. 

K. 

ANGELUS  :  A  Jewish  mcrcliant  in  Rome  in  the 

IhiitccMili  ceniurv.  who.  with  other  merchants — ■ 
Sabbatinus.  Mu.seus.  Salamon.  and  Consiliiilus — held 
conimerelal  relations  with  the  papal  court.  They 
were  associated  in  business  with  Christians  who 
posses.s«'d  the  rights  of  Honian  citizenship;  but  they 
thimselves  were  not  enrolled  in  the  merchants'  gilil 
anil  did  not  have  those  rights.  A  bull  of  Pupe  Al- 
exander IV.,  dated  Naples.  F<bruary  1,  1255,  ex- 
empte'd  them  from  lln'  traveling-tax. 

niRl.ioiinAI'MV:  ltniiiitrii>  li'AhTiiiiiIrr  71'.  No.  ini  ;  IliKlen- 
U'ttf.  Kpifilolir  wi<*.  .rid.  Hilri'lii-,  111.  No.  ;t70:  Vi4fel.*itelli  anil 
Itletrer.  iffxi-/i.  if.  Jmkn  in  lOmi,  1.  'SRf. 

H    V 

ANOER :  A  violent  pa.ssion  nroused  by  some 
w  rung  i\  peril  need  ;  vengeance  is  sought  upon  the  one 
who  I'limmitled  or  caused  il.  Il  includes  every  de 
grie,  friim  displeasure  and  iniligiialion  at  unwnrlhy 
ails  111  wnilli  and  fury.  The  Hebrew  terms  are 
liiiroii  iif.  lilenilly.  "llie  burning  of  the  nos«^ " — that 
is,"  the  kindling  of  anger  ";  'ebnih,  "tt  boiling  over  ", 


ri/yez,  "anger";  ka'nx,  "chagrin";  kezef,  "provoca- 
tion " ;  liemah,  "  wrath  " ;  Z'l'nf,  "  rage  " ;  while  la'/im, 
though  translated  in  theA.V.  "indignation."  implies 
nither  an  outpouring  of  fury.  Anger,  therefore,  is 
au  element  of  jmnitive  or  vindictive  justice  in  man, 
which,  anlhiopopathically,  is  applied  also  to  God. 

Anger  of  God. — Biblical   View:    Cue  of  the 

most  esseiilial  diiclrines  of  llie  Bible,  and  hence  also 
of  Judaism,  is  God's  holiness.  God  is  not  an  intel- 
lectual abstraction,  nor  is  He  conceived  as  a  being 
iuditlereut  to  the  doings  of  man;  and  His  pure  and 
lofty  nature  resents  most  energetically  anything 
wrong  and  impure  in  the  moral  world:  "O  Lord, 
my  God,  mine  Holy  One  .  .  .  Thou  art  of  eyes  too 
I)uio  to  behold  evil,  and  canst  not  look  on  iniijuity  " 
(Hab.  i.  12,  13  J/ih.).  "The  man  of  unclean  lips 
can  not  bear  the  sight  of  His  holiness  (see  Isji.  vi. 
5).  "The  sinners  in  Zion  are  afniid  .  .  .  Who 
among  us  shall  dwell  w  ith  the  devouring  tire?  "  (Isa. 
xxxiii.  14).  "Evil  shall  not  dwell  with  thee:  scoffers 
[A.  V.  "the  foolish")  .shall  not  stand  in  thy  sight" 
(Ps.  v.  4,  5).  "He  that  tellelh  lies  shall  not  tarry- 
in  my  sight "  (Ps.  ci.  7).  An  evil  tongue  and  evil 
actions  "  provoke  the  eyes  of  his  glory  "  (Isa.  iii.  8). 
"For  the  Lord  thy  God  is  a  consuming  fire,  even  a 
jealous  God ''  (I)eut.  iv.  24).  His  anger  is  kindled 
not  only  by  idolatry  (Deut.  vi.  15.  ix.  19.  xxix.  17; 
II  Kings,  xvii.  18.  and  elsewhere),  by  rebellion  (Num. 
xi.  1),  ingratitude  (Num.  xi.  10),  disregard  of  things 
holy  (Num.  xvii.  13.  xvi.  4,  7;  Lev.  x.  6;  Num.  xxv. 
3;  il  Sam.  vi.  7;  Isa.  v.  25).  and  disol)edience  (Ex. 
iv.  14),  but  also  by  the  oppression  of  the  poor  (Ex. 
xxii.  23;  Isa.  ix.  l(i.  X.  4). 

The  divine  Anger  kindled  becomes  "a  fire  which 
shall  burn  unto  the  lowest  netherworld  and  con- 
sume the  earth  with  her  increase  and  set  on  fire  ihe 
foundations  of  the  mountains"  (Deut.  xxxii.  22; 
compare  Jer.  xv.  14.  xvii.  4;  Ps.  xxi.  10,  Ixxviii. 
21).  "Wherefore  my  fury  and  mine  anger  was 
poured  forth  and  blazed  up  [A.  V.  "was  kindled"] 
in  Ihe  cities  of  Judah  and  the  streets  of  Jerusalem; 
so  that  they  became  waste  and  desolate  as  they  are 
at  this  day"  iJer.  xliv.  6;  conipare  also  I.sa.  xlii. 
25.  and  Ps.  Ixxix.  5).  Especially  forcible  is  the  de- 
scriptiiin  of  Goil's  avenging  wnilli  in  Nahum,  i.  6, 
while  the  physical  and  monil  forces  combine  to 
make  the  prophet  exclaim:  "  Who  can  stand  before 
his  wralh  [A.V.  "indignation  "]'!  and  who  can  abide 
in  the  fierceness  of  his  anger ':■  His  fury  is  poured 
out  like  tire,  and  Ihe  rocks  are  thrown  down  by 
him."  At  limes  the  divine  Anger  is  sent  forth  as  an 
elementary  force  to  work  destruelion  on  individuals 
or  iialions(Kx.  xv.  7;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  49;  Job,  xx.  23; 
Isa.  XXX.  30);  or  God  (like  Ihe  godde.ss  of  destiny) 
offers  a  wine-cup  of  foaming  wrath  to  the  nations 
to  drink  of  and  become  mad  (Jer.  xxv.  \rt  il  mr/.). 
"  God  as  a  righteous  judge  is  wroth  every  day  "  (Ps. 
vii.  12.  IJili.;  \.\.  tnmslates  this  differently);  and 
He  has  cerlaiii  si>t  days  for  Ihe  outbursts  of  His 
Anger  (Isji.  xiii.  13;  Zeph  i.  15.  18.  ii.  2.  3,;  Ezek.  vii. 
19;  Lam.  i.  12,  ii.  1.  21.  22;  Prov.  xi.  4;  Job.  xx.  28). 
Hence  Ihe  day  of  wralh  corresponds  to  Ihe  Day  of 
Judgment  or  doomsday  (Zepli.  i.  13,  ii.  2,  iii.  8  and 
elsiwhere). 

Hut  whether  directed  against  nntumi  powers  (Ps. 
xviii.  9,  Ki;   compare,  however,  Hab.  iii.  8),  a.gainst 
individuals  (II    Sam.    vi.    7),  against 
Principles   Isniel  (Deut.   xxix.  27,  Jer.  xxv.  37 
of  Ap        it  mi/),  or  Ihe  nalinns  (Isa.  Ixiii.  3.  6; 
plication.    Jer.  x.  25;   E/.ek.  xxxvi.  5);   whether 
il   iiitlicis  immediale  death  (Num.  xi. 
33,   Ps.  Ixxviii.  38).  or  uses  the  fiK-  as  a  rml  ("()  As- 
syrian, llie  rod  of  mine  anger."  Isa   x.  5).  GiHl'sanger 
is  never  the  outburst  of  a  mere  lapricious  passion, 


Ang'er 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


698 


but  is  n  necessary  clement  of  His  moral  order.  "  Fury 
is  not  in  me"  (Isa.  xxvii.  4).  It  is  restmined  and 
controlled  by  divine  mercy,  the  correlate  attribute 
of  justice.  As  Ilosea.  .\i.  8.  9  says;  "Mine  heart  is 
turned  within  me,  my  repentings  are  kindled  to- 
gether; I  will  not  execute  the  fierceness  of  mine 
anger."  "Full  of  compassion  .  .  .  he  many  a  time 
turned  away  his  anger  and  did  not  stir  up  all  his 
wrath"  (P.s!  Ixxviii.  3H).  God  is  also  "  long-sulTcr- 
ing"  {enkappin/im)  ani\  "slow  toanger"  (Ex.xxxiv. 
6;  Nahnm,  i.  ii).  "Though  lliou  wast  angry  with 
me,  thine  anger  is  turned  away,  an<l  thou  comfortest 
nie"  (Isa.  xii.  1).  "In  wrath  thou  rememberest 
mercy"  (Hab.  iii.  2,  //<*.).  "I  will  not  contend  for- 
ever,"neitlier  will  I  always  be  wroth  "  (Isa.  Ivii.  16). 
"In  my  wrath  I  smote  thee  but  in  my  favor  have  I 
had  nurey  on  thee"  (Isa.  Ix.  10). 

Anger  at  sin  (the  outflow  of  middat  Juidin  =  jus- 
tice) and  compassion  upon  tlie  sinner  (the  outflow 
of  miilditt  hii-rntinmim  =  mercy),  wliile  tliey  are 
merely  human  conceptions  of  God.  are  insejianible 
from  God's  manifestations  as  the  rigliteous  ruler  of  t  he 
world.  Witliout  the  former  there  would  be  no  fear 
of  God  or  obedience  to  His  law  (p>x.  xx.  20;  Deut. 
xi.  16,  IT;  Josh.  xxiv.  19.  20);  without  the  latter,  no 
repentance  or  return  of  the  sinner  to  the  \ya\\\  of  life 
(>Iicab,  vii.  IS;  Jonah,  iii.  9;  Kzek.  xviii.  'J3).  Great 
calamities  that  befell  the  laud  under  Ilerod  were 
ascrilx'd  to  the  "  anger  of  God  "  (Josephus,  "  Ant. " 
XV.  9,  S  \). 

In  Rabbinical  Literature:    God's  Anger  is 

often  niaile  the  sulijeet  of  discussion.  God  sjiid  to 
Sloses:  "Let  my  face  of  wrath  jia.ss  by  and  I  will 
give  thee  ease  "  (Ex.  xxxiii.  14,  Uih.).  Isthere  wratli 
before  God?  Yes,  "God  is  angry  every  day"  (Ps. 
vii.  12,  Ileh.) — that  is.  for  a  brief  moment  impercep- 
tible to  an}' creature:  "For  his  anger  endureth  b\it  a 
moment ;  in  his  favor  is  life  "  (Ps.  xxx.  6),  or,  again, 
"Hide  thyself  for  a  little  moment  until  the  wrath 
[A.V.  "indignation"]  is  passed  "(Isa.  xxvi.  20).  Ba- 
laam alone  was  able  to  select  the  ri.slit  moment  for 
his  curses;  anil  he  would  have  annihilated  the  peo- 
ple of  Israel,  had  not  God  withheld  Ilis  anger  at  the 
critical  moment-  "How  shall  I  curse  if  (Vod  doth 
not  curst:?  or  how  shall  I  pour  out  wrath  if  tlie 
Lord  doth  not  pour  out  wrath?"  (Xum.  xxiii.  8, 
Ileh.).  This  withholding  of  wrath  by  God  is  the 
"  rigliteousness  "  or  mercies  spoken  of  in  Micah.  vi. 

5.  Joshua  b.  Levi,  knowing  the  time  most  favorable 
to  cursing  to  be  the  early  morning,  wanted  to  use  it 
against  some  troublesome  heretic  in  his  neighbor- 
hood. But  as  he  slejit  on  Ijeyond  the  appointed  hour, 
he  took  this  as  a  hint  tliat  heaven  was  against  such 
jiractises  (Ber.  "ki  :  'Ab.  Zarah.  44).  Rabbi  Jleir  says; 
"AVhen  the  heathen  kings  rise  in  the  morning  and 
prostrate  themselves  before  the  sun.  this  is  the  time 
when  God  is  angry"  (Ber.  7rt).  "As  long  as  there 
are  wicked  men  in  the  world,  so  lr)n.ff  is  there  wrath 
in  the  world"   (Sanh.  xi.,  last  Mishnah.   pp.   llli, 

113i).    "  Every  hypocrite  brings  wrath 

Kabbinical  intotheworld"(Sotah.41i/;J(ili.  xxxvi. 

Sayings.     13,  "  The  hypocrites  in  heart  hea|i  uji 

wrath").  "God's  indignation  is  roused 
when  the  Shekinah  in  the  house  of  worship  has  to 
■wait  for  the  number  of  ten  to  begin  the  regular  ser- 
vice "  (R.  Johanan.  Ber.  (Hi).  If  one  verse  reads."  God 
is  wrathful  every  day"  (Ps.  vii.  12,  lieh.)  and  an- 
other." Who  can  tarry  before  his  wrath  "  (Xahum.  i. 

6,  Jlih.).  the  one  refers  to  the  judgment  of  the 
community,  the  other  to  that  of  the  individual  ('Ab 
Zarah,  An).  If  one  Biblical  passage  reads,  "  Fury  is 
not  in  me"  (Isa.  xxvii.  4),  and  another,  "The  Lord 
revengeth  and  is  furious  "  (Xahum,  i.  2),  the  one  re- 
fers to  Israel,  the  other  to  the  heathen  nations.    This 


is  explained  later  with  reference  to  Amos,  iii  2,  Ileli. 
The  tniusgressions  of  Israel  are  i>nnished  in  this 
world,  while  those  of  the  heathen  accumulate  and 
are  punished  in  the  next  ('Ab.  Zarah,  4<(;  compare 
Shab.  30//).  Similariy  (Ps.  Ixxvi.  11,  ll,h.,  A.  V.  10), 
"The  wrath  of  man  shall  praise  thee,  the  remainder 
of  thy  wratli  shall  thou  restrain,"  is  thus  explained 
in  Yer.  Maas.  iii.  !i\ii:  "The  divine  wrath  expended 
upon  the  rigliteous  in  this  world  cnnduci's  to  praise; 
while  the  wrath  is  all  reserved  for  the  wicked  in  the 
next."  In  Midi-.  Teh.  the  wrath  is  referred  to  Israel 
in  this  world  and  to  the  heathen  nations  f>n  the  Day 
of  Judgment  in  the  next  (.Midr.  Teh.,  ed.  Buber.  342). 
"Thedav  of  wrath  "  (Zeph.  i.  15)  is  understood  by 
thcrabbis(B.  B.  10f(,116<;;.Shab.  118.(;Ab.  Zarah, 18i) 

to  refer  to  the  Judgment  of  Gehenna; 
The  Day  likewise,  "  the  day  that  shall  burn  as  an 
of  'Wrath,    oven  "  (Mai.  iii.  9";  see  Sanh.  111)/.;  'Ab. 

Zarah,  4((;  Gen.  R.  vi.,  xxi.,  xxvi., 
xlviii.,  and  elsewhere).  So  is  the  "day  of  vengeance" 
(Dent,  xxxii.  3.5,  Samaritan  text) understood  tobethe 
great  Judgment  Day  in  Targ.  Yer.  and  Sifre  Deut. 
325  (see  Geiger,  "Urschrift,"  p.  247;"Jiid.  Zeit."ix. 
92;  Driver's"  Commentjiry  on  Deuteronomy,"  pp  374 
itneq.).  Thisideaof  a  day  of  wralh  reserved  for  the 
wicked  (referred  tofrerpientlv  in  the  "Sibvllines,"  ii. 
170  anil  Fragment,  ii.  3s.  iii."  ,55l)-.561,  sio",  iv.  1,59  f< 
««/.,  V.  35S;  in  Book  of  Enoch,  cd.  Dillmann,  xcl. 
7-9;  and  also  in  the  Hasidic,  II.  Mace.  vii.  30-38, 
but  not  in  Eccius.  [Sirach],  v.  7)  finds  its  emphatic 
utterance  in  the  New  Testament;  "O  g<iieration  of 
hypocrites  [A.V.,  "vipers  "],  who  hath  warned  you 
to  tiee  from  the  wrath  to  come?  "  (John  the  Baptisi,  in 
Matt.  iii.  7) ;  Paul,  in  Rom.  ii.  5:  "Thou  treasure.st  up 
wrath  again.st  the  day  of  wrath"  (compare  ih.  i.  IS, 
V.  9) ;  xii.  19 :  "  Avenge  not  yourselves,  liut  give  place 
unto  the  [divine]  wrath;  as  it  is  written.  To  me  be- 
longeth  vengeance  "  (Deut.  xxxii.  3.5) ;  "  The  wrath  of 
God  Cometh  upon  the  sons  of  disobedience  "  (Eph, 
V.  6;  compare  I  Thess.  i.  10;  Col.  iii.  6;  Rev.  vi.  17, 
xix.  15;  John,  iii.  36;  Sanday,  "Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans." p.  41;  and  Hastings,  "Diet.  Bible,"  «.r. 
"Anger"). 

Still,  God's  anger  is  ever  tempered  with  mere}',  as 
is  evident  from  Hosea,  i.  6:  "I  will  not  have  mercy 

and  yet  I  will  forgive  them"  (Pes. 
Tempered  HVi;  A.  V.,  differently).  "The  great 
by  Mercy,    powerof  God  consists  in  his con.strain- 

ing  his  anger  and  being  longsnifering 
even  toward  the  wicked  "  (Yoma.  69//).  "He  is  long- 
suffering  inasmuch  as  he  sends  his  anger  and  wrath 
far  away  from  his  presence,  so  as  to  grant  the  peo- 
ple time  for  rei)entance;  like  a  king  who  has  two 
harsh  and  fiery  legions,  which  he  sends  into  differ- 
ent cr)untries  lest  their  zeal  and  eagerness  to  |)unish 
might  interfere  with  the  pacification  of  his  subjects  " 
(Yer.  Ta'anit,  ii.  6.5//.).  "  What  is  the  meaning  of '  the 
Lord  spake  unto  Moses  face  to  face  ":' "  (Ex.  xxxiii. 
11).  Hesaidtohim;  "  When  thy  face  shows  anger, 
I  shall  ajijieai^e  thee,  and  if  I  show  a  face  of  anger, 
thou  niayest  a|>pease  me"  (Ex.  R.  xlv.).  "Sodj^I 
Ishmael  lien  Elislia  pray  upon  entering  the  Holy  of 
Holies  with  the  holy  incense,  and,  seeing  Akatriel, 
the  head  of  the  archangels,  seated  upon  the  throne 
of  the  Most  High — who  addressed  him  in  the  name  of 
God,  '  Bless  me.  my  son  I  ' — '  3Iay  it  be  thy  will  that 
thy  mercy  prevail  over  thine  anger  and  "thy  mercy 
be  uppermost  among  thy  attriliutes.  so  that  thou 
mayest  deal  with  thy  children  after  the  measure  of 
loving-kindness  and  go  beyond  that  of  strict  jus- 
ticel'"  Another  version  is:  God  Himself  prays; 
"Jlay  my  mercy  prevail  upon  mine  anger  and  my 
mercy  be  uppermost  among  mine  attributes,  so  that 
I  may  deal  with  mv  children  after  the  measure  of 


599 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


An^er 


loviii!;  kindness  and  go  beyond  that  of  strict  jus- 
tici'!  "  (Her.  'ill). 

A  "pliilosophcr"  (D1ED17S)  asked  R.  Gamaliel: 
"Since  your  God  is  'a  consuinini.'  tire.'  why  does  he 
take  vengeance  upon  the  idolaters  and  not  ujjdu  the 
idols  themselves?"  And  he  answered.  "Suppose  a 
kiiijr  has  a  disrespectful  son,  who  jrave  his  dojj  the 
naiiii'  of  his  father  and  swore  by  that  name,  shall 
tli<'  fatlicr  vent  his  anger  upon  the  dog  or  upon  his 
irreverent  son?"  It  is  the  idolater,  nf)t  the  irre- 
s[)onsil)le  idol,  that  excites  God's  anger  (Ab.  Zarali, 
54/'). 

-Maimonidcs,  in  "Moreh,"i.  36,  declares  that  wher- 
ever Anger  is  applied  to  God  in  the  Bible,  it  has  ref- 
erence to  idolatrous  practises,  the  idolater  being  the 
liater  of  the  Lord.  (As  to  the  inaccuracy  of  this 
statement,  see  the  commentaries;  but  as  to  its  gen- 
eral meaning,  compare  Al).  R.  N.  xvi. :  "  Love  all 
fellow  creatures,  but  hate  those  that  are  haters  of 
God":  also  Pes.  USk) 

Anger  in  Man:  If  this  be  the  outburst  of  a  holy 
indigruition  at  the  sight  of  wrong  done,  it  is  Zeal 
{kiiiiih).  and  coiulueive  to  godliness  (.see  Num.  xxv. 
11!;  I  Kings,  xix.  10.  14:  P's.  Ixix.  9).  Anger  kindled 
into  jiassion,  however,  is  conducive  to  strife  (Prov. 
XXX.  3U).  ■•  lie  that  is  slow  to  wrath  is  of  great  un- 
derstanding, but  he  that  is  hasty  of  temper  [A.  V. 
"spirit"]  exalteth  folly"  (Prov.  xiv.  '29;  compare 
Prov.  xii.  If),  xiv.  17;  Job,  v.  2;  Ecclus.  xxvii. 
30).  "A  wrathful  man  stirretli  up  strife:  he  that  is 
slow  to  anger  appeaseth  strife"  (Prov.  xv.  IS).  "He 
that  is  slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty" 
(Prov.  xvi.  3'2).  "He  not  hasty  in  thy  spirit  tobe 
angry;  for  anger  resteth  in  tjie  liosom  of  fools" 
(F>cl.  vii.  9).  Jacob  already  condemned  Anger  in 
liis  sons  Simon  and  Levi,  although  it  was  the  out- 
flow of  righteous  indignation:  "Cursed  lie  their  an- 
ger, for  it  was  tierce;  and  their  wrath,  for  it  was 
cruel  "  (Gen.  xlix.  T). 

Anger  is  condeiuned  in  stronger  tenns  in  apocry- 

I>hal  and   rabbinical   literature  (Ecclus.  i.  2'2):   "A 

furious    man    can    not    be   justified; 

In  Apoc-      for  the  sway  of  his  fury  shall  be  his 

ryphal  destruction."  In  the  Testaments  of  the 
and  Rab-     Patriarchsalmost  the  whole  Testament 

binical       of  Dun  (chaps,  i.-vi.)  dwells  on  anger 
Literature,    (l).in  having  been  one  of  those  reported 
to  his  father  by  Joseph  as  having  eaten 
forbidden  meat ;  see  Geiger,""J»d.  Zeit."  vii.  131): 

"  One  iif  the  spirits  of  nellal  wroiistit  with  me,  saylni;  :  Tiike 
this  Hwonl  unit  with  It  sIhv  J<«w'p)i.  .  .  .  This  Is  the  spirit  of  uii- 
gvx  that  I'ltiiii.seltHl  me  that  even  as  a  leopanl  reiHleth  u  kht.  so 
should  I  n-nd  J«iseph,  .  .  .  There  Is  hllmlness  In  tuiifer.  my  elill- 
dren,  and  no  wmttiful  man  n*irantelh  any  person  with  trnlti,  for 
tliouirh  It  Is-  a  father  or  n  mother,  he  treats  thirii  us  enemies; 
thoiiKh  lie  iH'  a  hnitlier,  lie  knoueth  him  not ;  ihoij);h  he  Im>  a 
pn>phet.  he  dIsolH'yeih  him:  Ihouch  a  rli'hteons  man,  he  n-- 
Kunleth  lilm  licit ;  n  friemi  lie  iloth  not  arknowledk'e.  For  the 
Miilrit  of  aiii^er  eni-oriipiLss4'tli  lilm  with  tlie  nets  ipf  deei'll,  ami 
Ihniiitfh  lyliik'  darkeneih  tils  mind  and  viveth  lilm  a  vision  tif 
his  own  maklni;:  li  alTisieth  his  eve  with  lialnsl  of  the  heart 
and  irlveih  him  another  lieait  ai;alnst  Ills  hmtlier.  Mvrhlldnn, 
nilsi'hlevons  Is  anirer:  It  ihanxilh  IhelwHly  of  the  anirrv  man 
Into  another,  iiml  over  his  soul  It  ReUetii  the  miLstiTV.  .  .  . 
He  who  Is  «  nitlifnl.  It  he  !»•  a  inlKlily  man,  hath  a  tnhle  |>ower 
In  his  antfei:  vea.  even  though  he  lie  weak,  yet  hath  he  two. 
fotil  of  tliat  wlilrli  Is  hlshynutun':  for  wnitii  aldeth  mneli  In 
nilM-hlef.  .  .  .  'rtierefon*  when  anv  man  H|M-aki-th  atnilnst  you. 
be  not  moved  tnilo  uniftT.  .  .  .  Detmn  from  wrath.  .  .  .  Ciusi 
away  wnith  and  lyUiK,  ami  love  truth  and  lonusullerlnc." 

"Re  not  prone  to  anger,  for  anger  leadeth  to  mur 
ili'r;  nor  a  zealcd  (,";/'' ijrr/f).  nor  contetilious.  nor 
i|uiek  tempereil ;  for  murder  also  is  the  outcome  of 
these  "  (Didaclie,  iii.  2);  compare  "Whosoever  is 
angry  with  his  lirother  without  a  cause  shall  be  in 
ilangerof  the  judjinient "  (Matt.  v.  22).  "Ik'  slow 
to  wrath  (  i(«jii;c  'ic   o/';';>),  for  the  wrath  of  man 


worketli  not  the  righteousness  of  God  "  (James,  i.  19. 
'2(1).  A  very  similar  expres.sion  occurs  in  Ab.  v.  II 
[Kiishch  lik-'os):  "There  are  four  dispositions  (1)  lie 
who  is  ea.sily  provoked  and  easily  ])acitied — his  gain 
is  cancelled "liy  his  loss;  (2)  He  who  is  hard  to  pro- 
voke and  hard  to  pacify — his  loss  is  canceled  by  his 
gain;  (;i)  The  one  who  is  hard  to  provoke  (VlK'p 
D1J?37)  and  easily  pacified  is  a  Hasid ;  (4)  lie  who  is 
easily  provoked  and  hard  to  pacify  is  wicked." 

One  of  the  especial  virtues  practised  by  the  Ilasi 
dim  ( Essenes)  was  to  rest  rain  anger  and  to  show  a  mild 
temper  (.see  Josephus,  "B.  J."  ii.  8,  t;  6;  Philo,  "On 
the  Virtuous  Being  Free,"  xii.).  ThusEliezerb.  Ilyr 
canus  taught.  Ab.  ii.  14:  "Be  not  easily  provoked 
(compare  Ilillel's  saying.  "The  irritable  man  can  not 
teach."  Ab.  ii.  4).  Likewise,  the  moral  teachings  at 
the  end  of  Paul's  epistles:  "  Now  ye  also  put  off 
all  these:  anger,  wr.ith,  malice."  etc.  (Col.  iii.  S; 
compare  Gal.  v.  26,  Eph.  vi.  4).  Especially  signifi- 
cant is  Ejih.  iv.  2():  "  Be  j'caugry  and  sin  not;  let  not 
the  sun  go  down  on  voiir  wrath  " — a  teaching  shown 
by  Resell  ("Agraplia."  pp.  110,  210),  to  be  taken 
from  some  "Scripture"  liased  upon  Ps.  iv.  4  (com- 
pare Ber.  19(0:  "If  one  of  the  wise  have  committed  a 
sin  at  night,  be  sure  that  he  has  repented  (upon  his 
bed)  and  bear  him  no  grudge  the  following  day  " 
(Baraita  cle  R.  Ishmael;  comjiare  Ber.  19iO.  "God 
loves  him  who  never  gets  angry  "  (Pes.  1134).  "The 
mysterious  name  of  '  Forty -two '  is  entrusted  only 
to  him  who  is  retiringly  chaste  (JflJSI  and  who  never 
gets  angry"  (Kid.  71<"/).  To  H.  Judah.  brother  of 
Selathe  Hasid.  Elijah  the  prophet  said;  "Do  not  get 
angry  and  you  will  not  .siu  "  (Ber.  '294).  A  man  who 
gets  angry,  if  he  be  one  of  the  wise,  his  wisdom  de- 
parts from  him  :  for  Moses  iu  his  anger  forgot  the  law  ; 
and  Eleazar.  his  iiejihew.  had  to  declare  it  (Num. 
xxxi.  21).  If  he  be  a  prophet,  the  spirit  of  )irophecy 
forsiikes  him;  for  Elisha  in  his  anger  had  to  invoke 
the  musician's  aid  to  call  back  the  spirit  that  had  left 
him  (II  Kings,  iii.  14.  ir>).  Nay.  if  heaven  assigned 
a  high  rank  to  him,  it  will  be  taken  away;  for 
of  Eliab.  the  brother  of  D.'ivid.  God  said."  I  have  re- 
fused him  "  (I  Sam.  xvi.  7) — the  rea.son  for  which  is 
afterward  given  in  I  Sam.  xvii.  28:  "Eliab's  auger 
was  kindled  against  David  "  (Pes.  6(54). 

"A  man  who  gets  angry  will  be  overcome  by  the 
powers  of  (Jehenna.  anil  his  body  by  ailments  of  the 
lielly,"  according  to  Ecd.  xi.  10.  and  Dent,  xxviii. 
<")■).  "He  despi.s<'th  the  Shekinah  as  it  is  written: 
'  The  wicked  in  the  height  of  his  wrath  will  not  seek 
God;  God  is  not  in  his  thoughts '  (I's.  x.  4.  7/(4.) 
"He  forgets  his  learning  and  grows  foolish;  nay, 
his  sins  will  lie  more  numerous  than  his  meritorious 
acts"  (Ned.  2'2((.  4).  "He  wlio  in  his  wrath  teai-s 
his  goods  or  garments  is  like  a  worshiper  of  idols, 
for  it  is  written:  '  There  shall  no  strange  god  be  in 
thee  '  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  10  |A.  V.  9]):  this  is  tlie  evil  spirit 
that  enters  man  through  anger"  (Sliab.  10.V(). 

"In  three  things  a  man  is  tested:  in  his  cup 
(4,X<w().  his  purse  {luk-isn).  luid  his  luiger  (/«A(i'(/.«()" 
(Kr.  «.V().  The  verse.  "All  the  days  of  thi'  atllicted 
are  evil  "  (Prov.  xv.  15),  refers  to  the  (|uicktempered 
(B.  B.  14.V<).  "His  life  is  no  life"  (Pes.  1134);  ••  his 
anger  is  the  only  profit  he  has"  (Kid.  41((.  Eccl.  R. 
to  vii.  9).  "By  what  virtue  didst  thou  merit  a  long 
life'?"  was  the  i|Uestion  put  to  Zeini  or  to  Adila  b. 
Aliabah;  ami  the  answer  was:  "I  never  excited  luiger 
in  mv  hotiseliolil  "  (Ta'anit.  204);  "everv  irritable  man 
is  a  fool"  (Koh.  R.  to  xi.  10). 

Still  then-  is  also  a  righteous  Anger.     The  verso, 
"Better  is  anger  than   laughter"  (Eecl.   vii.  3).  is 
explained  in  Koh.  R.  ml Iih-.-.  bettiT  would  have  been 
the  Anger  which   David  should  have  displaved  to 
ward  Amuou  and  Adonijah  than   the  laugliler  of 


Anglo-Israelism 
An^lo-Jewish  Association 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


600 


justice  over  their  fall  as  described  in  II  Sam.  xiii.  33, 
1  Kings,  i.  C.  If  the  Kiiriied  man  becomes  angry, 
it  is  the  zeal  fur  the  Law  that  makes 
Righteous  liim  so ;  for  "  Is  not  my  word  like  a  tire. 
Auger.  stxilh  the  Lord,  and  likea  hammer  thai 
breaketh  the  rock  in  pieces'.'"  (.Jcr. 
x.xiii.  29.  Iltli.).  Nevertheless  the  .scholar  sh(nil(l  also 
necnstoni  himself  to  mildness  of  temper  (Ta'anit.  4<'). 
In  a  public  address  Habbi  .lose  once  siud:  "l-'athcr 
Elijah  was  quick  tempered"  ;  whereupon  the  prophet 
failed  to  appear  to  him  for  three  days.  On  the  fol- 
lowing day,  Habbi  .lose  imiuircd  of  Elijah  why  he 
•was  absent.  "Because  you  called  me  quick-tem- 
pered," was  the  answer.  "Thou  hast  only  cor- 
roborated my  opinion  of  thee,"  sidd  H.  Jose  (Sanh. 
113a,  b).        '  K. 

ANGLO-ISRAELISM  :  A  theory  i\hicli  iden- 
tith-s  tlic  .\m;;I(i  SLi.\on  race  with  the  Lost  Ten 
Tribes.  Its  adherents,  who  <  laim  that  the  promises 
given  to  Israel  will  be  fulfilled  with  regard  to  Eng- 
land and  America,  are  said  to  nund)cr  2,Olll),{l(IO  in 
England  and  the  United  States;  and  at  one  time 
tliey  included  in  their  ranks  a  member  of  ilie  Eng- 
lisli  House  of  Lords  and  a  colonial  bishop  of  tlie 
Church  of  England.  They  have  issued  several 
weeklies  in  defense  of  their  views;  and  there  is  one 
publisher  in  London  whose  p\iblications  are  devoted 
entirely  to  the  cause.  Strictly  speaking,  the  t)eliev- 
ers  in  Anglo-Israelism  do  not  form  a  sect,  as  most 
of  its  members  retain  communion  with  the  Church  of 
England,  and  they  only  hold  their  views  as  a  supple- 
mentary pious  opinion. 

The  first  person  who  seems  to  have  broached  these 
views  was  the  eccentric  Hicii.Min  Buothkus  (1757- 
1824).  who  styled  himself  "Nephew  of 
History  of  the  Almighty."  and,  in  his  "Revealed 
Movement.  Knowledge"  (1794).  claimed  to  be  de- 
scended from  David  and  pro]ihesied 
that  he  woidd  be  revealed  as  prince  of  the  Hebrews 
on  Nov.  1!»,  179.5.  In  l.s->->  Brothers  published  his 
"Correct  Account  of  the  Invasion  of  England  by 
the  Saxons,  Showing  the  English  Nation  to  be  De- 
scendants of  the  Lost  Ten  Tribes,"  which  may  be 
regarded  as  the  foundation  of  the  movement.  He 
was  followed  by  J.  Wilson  ("  Our  Israelitisli  ( )rigin, " 
1845),  who  placed  the  theorj'  upon  its  present  basis; 
by  W.  Carpenter  ("Israelites  Found  ").  and  by  F.  K. 
A.  Glover  ("England  the  Remnant  of  Judah  ");  and 
the  movement  obtained  a  somewhat  distinguished 
adherent  in  C.  Piaz/.i  Smith,  astronomer  royal  for 
Scotland,  who  in  his  bizarre  work.  "  Our  Inheritance 
in  the  Great  Pyramid,"  attempted  to  prop  up  the 
cause  by  showing  the  identity  of  British  weights  and 
measures  with  those  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  He- 
brews. The  chief  representative,  however,  in  Eng- 
land was  EiJW.VKi)  liixE.  of  whose  "Identitication 
of  the  British  Nation  with  Lost  Israel,"  London, 
1S71,  a  quarter  million  copies  are  said  to  have  been 
sold.  He  also  published  for  several  years  a  weekly 
journal,  "The  Nation's  Leader,"  and  a  monthly 
magazine,  "Life  from  the  Dead."  In  America  the 
chief  leaders  of  the  movement  appear  to  have  been 
G.  W.  Greenwood,  who  published  a  monthlv  jour- 
nal. "Heir  of  the  World."  New  York,  iss'd,  and 
Rev.  W.  H.  Poole,  of  Detroit.  Mich.  The  theory 
has  even  extended  to  Germany,  though  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  attracted  much  notice  there.  A 
work  by  S.  Backhaus,  "Die  Germancn  cin  Semi- 
tischer  Volksstamm,''  appeared  in  Berlin  in  1878. 

The  theory  of  Ajiglo-Israelism  is  based  upon  an 
extremely  literal  interpretation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  represented  by  King  James's  version  and  by 
an  application  of  te.\ts  brought  together  from  the 


prophecies  about  Israel ;  and  its  advocates  attempt  to 
bring  their  readere  into  the  dilemma  that  England 

and  its  colonies  must  be  the  Israel  to 
Chief  Ar-  whom  the  promises  were  made  in  the 
guments.     Bible,  or  that  tliest'  promises  have  been 

unfullllled.  At  the  start,  distinction 
is  made  between  the  ultimate  fates  of  Israel  and 
Judah.  For  the  former  all  the  bUssings  of  the 
Bible  are  reserved;  whereas  the  latter,  represented 
in  modern  limes  by  the  Jews,  are  to  e.vperience 
all  the  curses  threatened  to  the  backsliding  people  in 
the  prophecies.  It  is  itoiuted  out  that  wiiile  in  the 
proplK'cies  Israel  will  change  his  name  (Hosea,  i.  9), 
be  numberless  {i/u'd.  ii.  1),  dwell  in  islands  (Isa. 
x.xiv.  15)  with  colonies  and  be  the  chief  of  the  na- 
tions (Jlicali,  v.  8).  Judah  will  be  a  byworil  (Jer. 
XV.  4).  The  "isles"  (Isa.  xli.  1,  xlii.  4).  to  which  Is- 
rael was  banished,  were  to  be  north  (Jer.  iii.  12)  and 
west  (Isa.  x.\iv.  15)  of  Palestine,  and  to  be  in  a 
cold  <limate,  since  it  is  said:  "Heat  nor  sun  will 
smite  I  hem"  (Isa.  xlix.  10).  It  was  further  prophe- 
sied that  the  isles  would  become  too  small  for  Israel 
(Isa.  xlix.  19)  an<l  that  Israel  should  be  a  nation 
and  company  of  nations  (Gen.  x.\xv.  11).  It  woidd, 
tlierefore,  have  colonies  (Lsii.  xlix.  20.  liv.  3|.  so 
that  it  might  surround  the  nations  (Dent,  xxxii.  7-9) 
and  be  above  them  all  (Deut.  vii.  (i,  xiv.  2,  xxviii. 
1).     The  children  of  Israel  will  always  know  and 

recognize  the  Lord  (I.sa.  lix.  21,  xlix. 
Biblical  3),  which  of  course  is  interpreted  to 
Texts.        mean,  "will  be  members  of  the  true 

Church  of  England."  The  Anglo- 
Israelites  triumphantly  ask.  "  What  nation  save  Eng- 
land corresponds  to  all  these  prophetic  signs'!'"  In 
further  contirmation  it  is  iiointed  out  that  one  of 
the  tribes  of  JIanasseh  was  to  become  an  indepemlent 
nation  (Gen.  xlviii.  19):  the  United  States  obviously 
represents  JIanasseh.  Both  Ejihraim  and  Mnnasseh 
shall  e.Ntenninate  the  aborigines  ("  push  the  jieople 
together")in  the  countries  into  which  lliey  spread 
(Deut.  xxxiii.  17|.  The  lion  and  tin-  unicorn  are  re- 
ferred to  in  Num.  xxiv.  8,  9;  while  the  American 
eagle  is  intended  in  the  prophecy  in  Ezek.  xvii.  S. 
Th(!  jiromise  that  Israel  ".shall  j)Osse.ss  the  gates  of 
his  enemies"  (Gen.  xxii.  17.  xxiv.  60)  is  taken  to  be 
fulfilled  in  the  possession  by  England  of  Giliraltar, 
Malta.  Heligoland.  Aden,  and  Singapore.  Finally, 
it  was  projihesicd  that  Israel  should  bear  another 
name  (Isa.  Ixv.  15)  and  s|ieak  another  tongue  (Isa. 
xxviii.  II).  All  Ihise  characteristics  of  Israel,  asdis- 
tinguished  from  .ludah,  arc  fullilled.  it  is  contended, 
in  England,  its  colonies,  and  the  United  States. 

The  historical  connection  of  the  ancestors  of  the 
English  with  the  Lost  Ten  Tribes  is  deduced  as 
follows:  The  Ten  Tribes  were  transferred  to  Baby- 
lon about  720  n.c. :  and  simultaneously,  according  to 
Herodotus,  the  Scythians,  including  the  tribe  of 
the  Sacca'.  ajijieared  in  the  same  district;  the  pro- 
genitors of  the  Saxons  afterwanl  pas.sed  over  into 
Denmark — the  "mark"  or  country  of  Ihe  tribe  of 
Dan — and  thence  to  England.     Another  branch  of 

the  tribe  of  Dan  which  remained  "in 
Historic      .ships"  (Judges,  v.  17)  madeitsappcar- 
Connection.  ance   in    Ireland   under    the    title  of 

"Tuatlia-da-Danan."  Tephi.  a  de- 
scendant of  the  royal  house  of  David,  arrived  in 
Ireland,  according  to  the  native  annals,  in  580  n.c. 
From  her  was  descended  Feargus  >Iore,  king  of 
Argyll,  an  ancestor  of  Queen  Victoria,  who  thus 
fullilled  the  prophecy  that  "the  line  of  David  shall 
rule  for  ever  and  ever"  (II  Chron.  xiii.  5,  xxi.  7). 
The  Irish  branch  of  the  Danites  brought  with  them 
Jacob's  stone,  which  has  always  been  used  as  the 
coronation -stone   of    the   kings    of    Scotland    and 


601 


THE  JEWISH  E^■CYCLOPEDIA 


Anglo-Israelism 
An^lo-Jewish  Association 


England,  nnil  is  now  pri-SLTvcd  in  \Vistniiusttr  Ab- 
bey. Somewhat  inconsistently, llie  juoiiliecy  that  the 
<  anaanites  shoukl  tiouble  Israel  (Num.  .\.\.\iii.  55, 
.losh.  x.xiii.  VJ}  is  aii|)lieil  to  the  Irish.  The  land  of 
Arzareth,  to  which  the  Israelites  were  transplanted 
(II  Esd.  .xiii.  4"i),  is  identitied  with  Ireland  by  di- 
viding the  former  name  into  two  |)arls,  the  former 
of  which  is  iivz,  or  "  laud  "  ;  the  latter,  Ar.  or  "  Ire." 

Philology,  of  a  somewhat  primitive  kind,  is  also 

brought  in  to  support  the  theory:  the  many  Biblical 

and  (|uasi-.Iewish  names  borne  by  Kng- 

Philolog-     lishmen  are  held  to  prove  their  Israel- 

ical  Ar-  itish  origin  (H.  K.  Nicholls,  "Surnames 
guments.  of  the  English  People  ").  An  attempt 
has  been  made  to  derive  the  English 
language  itself  from  Hebrew  (K.  Govell.  "English 
Derived  from  Hebrew  ").  Thus,  "  Iniiru  "  is  derived 
from  bur  ("  son  "),  "  berry"  from  jicri  ("  fruit  "),  "  gar- 
den "  from  r/edtii;  "kid"  from  r/eili,  "scale"  from 
flifk-tl,  and  "kitten"  from  f/iiiUm  (katou  =" little"). 
The  termination  "  ish  "  is  identitied  with  the  Hebrew 
tW(("man");  "Spanish"  means  ".Spain-man";  while 
"British"  is  identitied  with  Beril -hh  ("nM\n  of  the 
covenant  ").  I'erhaps  the  most  euriousof  these  [iliil- 
ological  identitiealions  is  that  of  "jig"  with  chi'j 
{htif/  ="  festival "). 

Altogether,  l)y  the  application  of  wild  guesswork 
aiMiut  historical  origins  and  philological  analogies, 
and  by  a  slavishly  literal  interpretation  of  selected 
l)hra.ses  of  pro|)hecy,  a  case  was  made  out  for  the 
ideiititication  of  the  British  race  with  the  Lost  Ten 
Tribes  of  Israel  sutlicient  to  satisfy  uncritical  ))er- 
sons  desirous  of  finding  their  pride  of  race  confirmed 
by  Holy  Scripture.  The  whole  theory  rests  upon 
an  identification  of  the  word  "isles"  in  the  Eng- 
lish version  of  the  Bible  unjtistified  by  modern 
philology,  which  identifies  the  original  word  with 
"coasts"  or  "distant  lands"  without  any  implica- 
tion of  their  being  surrounded  liy  the  .sea.  Jlodern 
ethnogniphy  does  not  confirm  in  any  way  the  iden- 
tification of  the  Irish  with  a  Semitic  people;  while 
the  English  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Scandinavians, 
of  whom  there  is  no  traci-  in  Mesopotiimia  at  any 
period  of  history.  English  isa  branch  of  the  .\ryan 
stock  of  languages,  and  has  no  connection  with  He- 
brew. The  whole  movement  is  chiefiy  interesting 
as  a  reil'irlio  ml  itlmirdiim  of  too  literal  an  interpre- 
tation of  the  prophecies. 

The  Anglo-Israelite  theory  has  of  recent  _vears 
been  coimected  with  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews, 
in  which  the  Anglo-Israelites  see  further  confirma- 
tion of  their  position  by  thi'  carrying  out  of  the 
threats  prophesied  against  Judah.  This  .side  of  the 
s\ibject  has  l>e(n  dealt  with  bv  T.  H.  Howlett  in 
"  \n  Anirlo-Israel  Jewish  Problem,"  Philadelphia, 
Wvi;  supplement,  1804. 

BIIU.IOOIIAI'MV  :  llcslUes  llii*  works  mpntlnniHl  atxivp,  the  rhlcf 
wiiirees  fmin  wlilrli  llils  iirtlrlc  has  lieen  ciniwn  iirt'  E.  Mine, 
Thr  lirilMi  yttfinu  htfutiUfil  with  Lttst  Irtrort^  l.i)ti(lon. 
IsTl,  anil  W.  II.  Pciole.  Atiiiti>-IsrfU-l,  <»r  th*'  Sarnti  Uart- 
rriiviil  In  /<-  Ihf  Li«l  Trilux  n/  hrml.  IxMriilU  !««•.  s-e 
itl*»  I*,  f'luvscl.  t'lhtrilii-  Aluttnmtnutui  ili'r  Knotittrtirit  yn- 
tt'»ji.  IttTlln.  ls.sn,  iiiKl  s.  Iteniiittii,  liritiinuia-lsnul  iw/in 
llli  Klirii  iji  Kri  QuiKliiiiie  irorirnli.  Itnme.  IHSO.  Murli 
lliforniation  Is  iilso  eontjilniil  111  the  JoiirniilH  Amilit-ltfrnil 
Hlid  lliinnrr  ut  /wrfir/,  Ixitli  |)uMl.<<hi><l  In  I.<>ndnii.  an<I  llfir 
ff  Ihf  ll'orM.  pul>Ilslii'<l  In  New  Vnrk.  The  Aniflii-I.inicllte 
Ihtitn.'  hns  iiNo  Iwcn  i-rlllflzeil  In  the  lirilMt  ami  Knn-it/ii 
Ki'iin(«li<-(i/  llf  vim:  xxxv.  iV>  t(  wi;.,  anJ  the  Church  Quiir- 
Irrltt  lii'Vit  tl\  xvll.  'M  fl  .•**■(;. 

J. 

ANGLO- JEWISH  ASSOCIATION  :    An  or 

gani/.ation  formed  by  Jews  of  the  British  empire 
having  for  it.sobjects  the)iromotioii  of  social,  moral, 
and  intelleclunl  progress  among  the  Jews;  and  tlie 
obtaining  of  iirotectiou  for  those  who  may  suller  in 


consequence  of  being  Jews.  Some  far  seeing  and 
large-minded  men,  among  them  the  late  Dr.  Beuisch 
anil  the  Kev.  Dr.  A.  Lowy  (late  secretary  of  the 
as.sociatioii),  had  many  years  before  its  establish- 
ment conceived  the  idea  of  forming  a  society  on 
lines  similar  to  those  of  the  Alliance  Israelite  Uni- 
verselle  in  Paris;  but  it  was  not  until  after  the 
Franco-(}ermun  war  of  1ST(»-71  that  an  oii]iortunitj' 
presented  it.self  for  the  realization  of  their  idea. 
Grave  apprehensions  were  entertained  that  the  work 
of  the  Alliance,  interrupted  by  the  war,  wouhl  suller 
through  want  of  means;  that  the  unhappy  feud, 
which  had  estranged  the  two  i)owerful  nations  of 
France  and  Germany,  would,  for  some  time  to  come 
at  least,  prevent  the  Jews  in  both  countries  from  co- 
operating even  in  works  of  philanthropy,  and  that 
unless  help  came  from  witliont.  disorganization,  if 
not  dis.solution,  must  be  the  inevitable  result.  It  was 
thought  also  that  it  was  time  a  body  so  prosperous, 
infiuential,  and  .sympathetic  as  the  English  Jews 
should  tjike  its  stand  by  the  side  of  the  other  sec- 
tions of  Jewry,  and  share  in  a  movement  full  of 
promise  for  the  welfare  of  the  Jewish  race:  and  at 
tlie  sjime  time  should  give  the  best  conceivable 
evidence  of  their  .sympathy  with  their  brethren 
in  France.  These  were  the  objects  which  guided 
the  iiromot^TS  of  the  Anglo  Jewish  Association;  but 
taking  into  consideration  the  position  occupied  by 
Great  Britain,  it  was  from  the  outset  thought  de- 
sirable that  the  right  of  inde])endent  action  should 
be  reserved  to  the  new  society.  While  it  works  in 
tlie  utmost  harmony  with  the  Alliance  Israelite  Uni- 
vcrselle,  this  right  has  ever  since  been  maintained. 

A  large  number  of   prominent   members  of   the 

Jewish  community  in  Loudon  gave  their  adhesion 

to    the    movement,    and    the   Anglo- 

Founda-  Jewish  Association  was  formally  con- 
tion.  stitut<'d  at  a  jiublic  meeting  held  on 
July  2.  1871.  ElTorts  were  made  at 
once  to  obtain  members  throughout  tlie  United 
Kingdom  and  in  the  Britisli  colonies,  and  within 
the  first  year  branches  were  formed  in  Manchester, 
Liverpool,  and  Birmingham,  and  promises  of  sup- 
port were  received  from  Cape  Colimyand  .some  of 
the  Australian  colonies.  That  these  promises  were 
kept,  and  that  the  work  of  the  Anglo-Jewish  Associ- 
ation has  since  then  enlisted  thir  sympathy  of  Jews  in 
many  (juarlers  of  the  globe,  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  in  1000  the  society  had  3(i  branches; 
viz..  21  in  the  I'niled  Kingdom,  14  in  the  Colonies, 
British  selllenienls.  and  foreign  countries,  and  1  in 
India.  In  this  respect  the  Anglo-Jewish  Association 
forms  a  powerful  link  between  the  Jews  in  all  parts 
of  the  British  dominions,  for  there  is  no  other  Jew- 
ish body  in  the  rniled  Kingdom  with  such  exten- 
sive ramifications.  The  late  Pr()fes.sor  Jacob  Waley 
was  elected  the  first  i)residcnt  of  the  association; 
the  vice-presidents  were  Dr.  Benisch.  Sir  Francis 
II.  Goldsmid.  Mr.  (afterward  Sir)  Julian  (Joldsmid, 
Sir  George  Jessel  (then  .soliciinr-gciicnilK  Sir  David 
Salomons,  Mr.  Heiiben  D.  Sa.ssoon.  and  Sir  John 
(then  Mr.  Serjeant)  Simon.  Df  these  gentlemen 
(five  of  whom  were  at  the  time  members  of  Parlia- 
ment) only  .Mr.  Sas,soon  survives,  and  his  name  still 
appears  in  the  list  of  vice-presidents.  After  the  first 
year  Profes.sor  Wah'V  was  compelled  by  ill  health 
to  resign  the  ofiice  of  presidenl.  The  vacancv  was 
filled  by  the  election  of  Baron  Henry  di'  \Vonns 
(now  Lord  Pirbrii.'ht>.  who  held  tin'  ofiice  for  four- 
teen years.  On  his  resignation  in  188ti.  Sir  Julian 
(ioldsmid  was  electi-d  pnsideiit  and  continued  in 
ofiice  until  tlie  latter  part  of  180."i.  when  the  state 
of  his  health  necessitateil  his  n'signation.  and  Mr. 
Claude  G.  Montefiore  was  then  electiil  his  successor. 


Anfrlo-Jewish  Association 
Angyal,  David 


THE  JEWISH   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


602 


The  present  vice-presidents  nre  the  chief  rabbi. 
Dr.  H.  Aillcr:  Jlr.  Ellis  A.  Friiniilin  (who  is  iilso 
treasurer),  Mr.  Alfred  G.  IlenriL|iies.  .Mr.  Ikiijaniiu 
Kisch,  Sir  Philip  JIajrnus.  Mr.  F.  I^.  Moeatta,  Sir 
George  FaudelPliillips,  Lord  Kotlischikl.  Mr.  Leo- 
pold de  Hothsehild,  Sir  Edward  Snssoon,  MP. :  Mr. 
Heubeu  D.  Sassoon,  and  Mr.  Leopold  Sehloss.  These 
names,  as  well  as  the  list  of  members  of  the  Council, 
show  that  the  govcrniiij:  body  of  the  Au^lo-.Iewish 
Association  contains  within  its  ranks  representatives 
of  every  section  of  religious  thought  in  the  Jewish 
communities  of  England. 

On  two  important  occasions  the  association  has 
not  acted  independently.  In  the  very  first  year  of 
its  existence  it  was  called  upon  to  lake  up  the  cause 
of  the  persecuted  Ji'ws  in  Rumania.  Hut  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  it  had  not  then  secured  all  the  support, 
{•itlicr  personal  or  tinaueiiil.  that  it  re(iuircd.  the 
Council  thought  it  desirable  to  assist  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  special  "  Uumanian  Committee."  consisting 
mainly  of  its  own  members,  and  with 
The  Sir  Francis  Goldsmid.  a  vice-president 

Rumanian  of  the  association,  as  its  chairman, 
and  Russo-  As  a  consequence  of  the  appointment 

Jewish  of  this  committee,  a  great  meeting 
Committees,  was  held  at  the  Mansion  House  early 
in  1^72,  when  Lord  Shaftesbury,  the 
bishop  of  London,  many  members  of  Parliament. 
and  representatives  of  almost  all  the  great  city  houses 
concurred  in  a  cry  f)f  righteous  indignation  against 
the  oppression  of  the  Rumanian  Jews.  About  four 
years  later  the  association,  at  the  request  of  the  Ru- 
manian Committee,  resumed  charge  of  the  duties 
jireviously  undertaken  by  that  cominittee.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  down  to  the  present 
time  the  condition  of  the  Rumanian  Jews  has  never 
ceased  to  occupy  the  attention  of  the  as.sociation. 
Again  in  1882.  when  the  persecution  of  the  Jews  in 
Russia  attained  such  dimensions  as  to  arouse  general 
indignation,  the  association  assisted  in  the  formation 
of  a  special  Russo-Jewish  Com.mittee.  representing 
all  sections  of  the  community. 

A]iart  from  these  two  great  occasions,  in  which, 
for  the  reasons  alreadj-  stated,  the  association  did 
not,  as  a  body,  take  an  active  part,  there  have 
been,  during  the  past  twenty-nine  years,  innumerable 
cases  in  which  it  has  interposed,  usually  with  suc- 
cess, on  behalf  of  victims  of  oppression  or  persecu- 
tion. These  cases  have  been  of  the  most  varied 
character.  Sometimes  it  has  been  to  quell  au  act- 
ual rising  of  a  fanatical  populace  against  the  Jews, 
sometimes  to  nip  in  the  bud  an  anticipated  emeute; 
at  one  time  to  rescue  from  jirison,  or  to  procure  a 
fair  trial  for  Jews  falsely  accused  or  the  victims  of 
a  vindictive  or  fanatical  official;  at  another  toobtain 
redress  for  a  man  unjustly  punished,  or  compensa- 
tion for  a  family  de|irived  of  its  head  in  some  relig- 
iotis  broil;  to  procure  the  revocation  or  miti,iratiou 
of  degrading  regulations  affecting  Jews,  or  the  re- 
moval of  a  hostile  governor  or  other  ollicial. 

Not  a  single  year  has  passed  without  the  associ- 
ation being  called  upon  to  take  action  in  one  or 
more  matters  arising  out  of  injustice,  oppression, 
or  persecution;  but  it  is  some  satisfaction  to  find 
that,  apart  from  the  standing  grievances  in  Rus.sia 
and  Rumania,  cases  of  official  persecution  in  which 
government  connivance  may  be  suspected  tend  to 
become  more  and  more  rare. 

In  this  department  of  its  work,  the  association 
lias  at  all  times  received  the  most  ready  and  cordial 
cooperation  from  the  Foreign  Office,  quite  irrespec- 
tive of  the  party  politics  of  the  government  in  office 
for  the  time  being.  In  many  instances,  indeed, 
communications  from  the  Foreign  Office  have  been 


the  means  of  calling  attention  to  cases  upon  which 
action  has  been  subsequently  taken. 

In  adililion  to  this,  the  educational  field  of  the 
Anglo-Jewish    As.sociation    has    been    largely    ex- 
tended, and  only  awaits  increiLsed  resources  for  its 
further  develoiiment,      With  the  ex- 
Edu-         ception  of  schools  under  its  own  con- 

cational  trol  at  Bombay,  Jerusalem(the  Evelina 
Work.  de  Hothseliild  School  for  Girls),  and 
Mogador  (Morocco)  the  Council  em- 
ploys its  energies  in  the  direction  of  education  by 
lielping  to  maintain  schools  of  the  Alliance  Israelite 
Universelle  in  various  parts  of  the  East.  Striking 
testimony  to  the  efficiency  of  several  of  these  schools 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  Moslem  and  Christian 
parents  of  high  standing  have  sent  their  children  as 
paying  jiupils.  It  may  be  roughly  estimated  that 
the  association  has  assisted  in  the  education  of  no 
less  than  40,OUt>  children.  In  the  year  1899,  the  num- 
ber of  children  receiving  education  in  schools  sub- 
veutioned  by  the  association  was  9,418;  viz.,  5,666 
boys,  3,497  girls,  and  355  infants  of  both  sexes. 
The  total  of  the  subventions  amounted  to  £3,848 
($14,340). 

Before  the  association  had  been  many  years  in 
existence  an  arrangement  was  made  with  tlie  Lon- 
don Committee  of  Deputies  of  British  Jews  with  the 
view  of  jireventing  the  po.ssibilily  of  the  two  bod- 
ies acting  independently  of  each  other  in  matters 
involving  applications  to  the  British  government. 
Tlie  importance  of  some  such  arrangement  was  at 
once  recognized,  and  a  formal  compact  was  entered 
into  in  1878,  which  has  ever  since  been  adhered  to, 
and  has  resulted  in  luiiformly  harmonious  action. 
Tills  compact  has  indeed  been  cariied  out  beyond 
the  mere  letter,  for  the  two  bodies  have  on  several 
occasions  acted  jointly  in  presenting  addresses  to 
foreign  potentates. 

In  the  year  1893.  the  late  Baron  de  Hirsch  pre- 
sented   the    Anglo-Jewish    Association   with    3,600 
fully  paid-up  shares  of  £100  each  in  the  Jewish  Col- 
onization Association,  which   he  had  then  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  iiermaneut  ly  the  work 
he  had  initiated   for   removing  Jews 
Jewish  Col-  from  countries  where  they  were  per.se- 
onization     cuted  and  settling  them  in  lands  where 
Asso-        they  could  live  under  haiipier  auspices. 

elation.  Shortly  before  his  death  in  1896,  the 
baron  (who  had  in  the  meanwhile  be- 
come a  vice-president  of  the  as.sociation)  gave  this 
body  another  proof  of  his  confidence  by  reipiesting 
it  to  accept  a  further  number  of  shares  to  be  held  in 
trust  for  the  Alliance  Israelite  Universelle,  which  is 
not  competent  by  French  law  to  hold  shares  in  a  pub- 
lic company.  A  few  weeks  later  the  baron  increased 
the  holding  of  each  institution  in  the  Jewish  Coloni- 
zation As.sociation  by  995  shares,  making  a  total  for 
each  body  of  4,595  shares,  from  which,  however,  no 
pecuniary  lienefits  accrue  to  the  holders.  The  Anglo- 
Jewish  Association  is  entitled  to  one  representative 
on  the  Council  of  Administration  of  the  Jewish  Col- 
onization Association,  and  this  position  was  held  in 
19(10  bv  the  president,  Mr.  Claude  G.  Montefiore. 

M.  D. 

ANGLO-JEWISH  HISTORICAL,  EXHI- 
BITION: An  exposition  held  at  the  Royal  Albert 
Hall.  London.  England,  during  April.  May.  and 
June,  1887,  in  which  were  collected  and  shown  most 
of  the  antiquarian  remains  illustrating  the  history 
of  the  .lews  in  England,  together  with  a  collection  of 
objects  of  ecclesiastical  art  and  miscellaneous  Jewish 
antiquities.  The  idea  of  the  exhibition  originated 
with  Isidore  Sinelman.  who  enlisted  the  cooperation 


603 


THE  JE^VlSII  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


An^Io-Jewish  Association 
An^yal,  David 


of  ft  largemimbiTof  Eiiglisli  ftiiliqiiaries.  The  presi- 
dent of  tlie  cxliibitiou  was  F.  1).  Mocatta. 

The  e.xliibils  iueludcii  a  larfie  nuiiiber  of  s/iet/irol, 
or  Hebrew  (h'eds,  rchiting  to  the  transactions  of  tlie 
early  En^rlish  Jews;  numerous  portraits  of  Anglo- 
Jewish  worthies,  with  engravings  and  earieatures 
bearing  upon  their  lives:  a  eolk-etion  of  exhibits  from 
the  Belli  Israel  eoinmunit_v  of  India,  and  numerous 
specimens  of  ancient  Jewish  coins.  Two  collections 
of  objects  of  Ji'wish  ecclesiastical  art — one  by  M. 
Strauss  of  Paris,  the  other  by  H.  D.  Sassoon  of  Lon- 
don— attracted  considerable  attentifin.  The  various 
objects  were  arranged  as  indicated  on  the  accom- 
panying ]ilan. 

During  the  exhibition  a  number  of  lectures  were 
given  on  the  various  phases  of  Jewish  history  lUus- 


ANGOULEME:  Town  in  the  department  of  Cha- 
rente.  Fiance,  where,  about  1240.  a  controversy  took 
place  between  Xatlian  ben  Joseph  OHicial,  and  the 
bishop  of  AngoulOme.  In  a  letter  to  the  bishops  of 
Angouleme.  Pope  Gregory  IX.  (1227-41)  expressed 
his  deep  <lissjitisfaction  at  the  persecutious  of  the 
Jews  of  that  jilace  by  the  Crusaders. 

BlBLioiiR.irnv  :  dross.  fluUia  Juilnica,  p.  63. 

M.  B. 
ANGRO-MAINYUSH.     See  AnRiM.\x. 

ANGYAL  (ENGEL),  ANNA:  Hungarian  au- 
thor; born  at  Veszprim.  184^.  died  1874;  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  teacher  in  the  town  of  Ilod-Mezij-Vusarhely. 
Versed  iu  the  literature  of  Hungary.   France,   aiid 


1,  '1, .'),  7,  0.  SynaKoKue  Puraptierniilia. 

-'.  4.  H.  8.  Cciltis. 

11-l.i.  Ecclesiastical  Art. 


23.  34.  Tapestries.  HangluiM. 
3J-2S.  31.  Artleles  useil  in  Worship. 
37.  Benl  Israel  Collection. 


trateil  by  it;  and  these  papers  were  sub.se(|U(ntly 
published  ill  book  form.  They  included  an  address 
by  the  eminent  historian  GriU'tz.  who  visited  London 
expressly  to  deliver  it.  I'nder  the  auspices  of  the 
cxiiibitioii  the  slictaiot  were  edited  and  published; 
while  an  edition  de  luxe  of  the  catalogue  of  the  exhi- 
bition, with  2»  full  page  illustrations,  put  on  per- 
manent record  nmny  of  the  most  intensliiig  objects 
shown.  A  distinct  revival  of  interest  in  the  liistory 
of  the  Jews  in  England  can  be  IiiiccmI  to  the  exhibi- 
tion, as  well  as  a  reni'wed  taste  for  beautiful  objects 
of  Jewish  ecclesiastical  art. 

BlIu.ioriR.vPMV:  /{i-|)<>r(  n(  llii-  Errrullrr  Cnmmillrr  trlvcn 
imlv  In  111!'  iilHli.n  ile  luxe  of  the  ('<iM/<>i;m<  tif  Ihr  .ini;l"- 
Ji  icWi  IliKliirleiil  tUhiliilinn.  pp.  ar7-iU.  London.  IssT. 
wbere  full  detullH  an'  trlveii. 

J. 

ANGLO-JEWISH  MAGAZINE,  THE.     See 

ri.ltlnliUAl-^. 


Germany,  from  a  very  early  age.  she  began  her 
literary  career  in  her  sixteenth  year.  Her  first  novel. 
"Adventures  of  a  Hungarian  Family,"  was  published 
in  the  "S/eL'edi  IIirad('>."  a  Hungarian  magazii*'.  In 
lH(i.")she  publislieil  in  the  "Magyar  Izsnielita  "a short 
novel  entitled  "Prejudices."  in  which  she  described 
the  coiKlition  of  the  Jews  in  Hungary.  Her  histor- 
ical novel."  Jlonka  esElenier."  was  published  in  1863. 
niiii.iunRAi-iiV:  KayserllDK,  Jlldfucfic  Kraiitii,  3lX),a)l. 

ANGYAL  (ENGEL).  DAVID:  Hnngnrian 
wriur.  lioiM  No\eiiilMr  :tii.  1^<.'p7.  .\fter  gmdualing 
from  the  Iniversity  of  Budapest  he  was  appoinled 
high  school  lea<-hcr  in  that  cily  and  in  spile  of  ab- 
sorbing duties  distinguished  hims<lf  as  a  writer  on 
history  and  lileiivluri>.  Among  his  nion'  important 
Works  are:  "Ber/s.iiyi  Daniel"  (1S71I).  "  Kesmiirk 
TOkiMy  Imre.  lli.')7-17(l'"i  "  (18,'<2),  and  "  Magyarorsziig 


Anhalt 

Animal  Worship 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


604 


Tftrtenotc  II.  Miitvusti'il  III.  Ferdinaiul  Ilali'iliiip" 
(Till'  llistorv  of  ifii  israrv  from  Matthias  II.  to  the 
I  Valh  of  Kcrdiniiml  lit. )  ("iHSO).  Tlie  hist  work  forms 
the  sixth  vohime  of  S/.ilairvi's  "Hunn-arinn  National 
History."  which  was  puhlislieil  on  the  occasion  of 
the  millennial  celebration  of  the  existence  of  the 
llunsarian  realm.  He  has  translated  several  works 
1)V  Macaiday,  Paul  Janet,  etc..  into  Ilunj.'arian.  con- 
tributed several  historical  es.says  to  the  periodical 
press,  and  edited  the  works  of  the  )ioets  KOlcsey  and 
Kisfaludy.  Angyal  has  been  bajitized. 
Bibliography  :  Pallus,  Lrxikim.  1. Ctki :  S/lnnyel,  JUwiiar  /' TA 

ru™,vo..i.  ^j  ^^. 

ANHALT  :  An  ancient  principality  of  Germany, 
now  a  state  111  the  German  empire:  formerly  divided 
into  I'ourdtichics:  Aidialt-Heridiurg,  Anhalt-Dessau, 
Anhalt-KiJthen,  and  Aidialt  Zerbst.  Its  former  cap- 
ital was  Zerbst,  a  town  on  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe, 
situated  about  leu  miles  northwest  of  Dessjiu.  Jews 
are  known  to  have  been  permitted  to  live  here  before 
the  year  1440.  an<l  it  is  said  that  the  "  Ji'idenstrasse" 
(Jews'  Street) dates  from  the  lifteenth  century.  Ac- 
cordin;ar  to  an  airreement  made  in  1400  and  a  docu- 
ment drawn  up  in  14.SS.  the  revenue  derived  from 
tlie  Jews  was  to  be  divided  between  the  prince  of 
Anhalt  and  the  town  of  Zerbst.  The  Jews  owned 
no  real  estate  there,  and  seem  to  have  lived  in  the 
town  at  irrejridar  intervals,  and  then  only  in  small 
numbers.  In  1TT4  several  families  from  IJessjiu  set- 
tled at  Zerbst.  Hut  the  settlement  of  Jews  in  oth<-r 
towns  of  the  duchy  is  even  more  recent  than  this. 

At  Bernbiirir.  also  the  capital  of  the  dueliy  of  An- 
halt with  which  its  name  is  linked,  a  city  situated  on 
the  Saale,  there  was  a  synajrogue  in  14.i4;  and  here, 
in  140'.J.  Bernhard  VI..  prince  of  Bernburg.  sold  to 
Tile  Goldschmidt  ahouse  nearthe  "  Jndilenschulcn." 

In  l)ess!iu.  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Aidialt- 
Dessau.  a  city  about  eighty  miles  southwest  of  Berlin, 
a  small  number  of  Jews  lived  in  1(V21.  Here  Prince 
George  II.  permitted  them  to  build  a  .synagogue,  and 
he  gave  them  the  use  of  a  cemetery  as  well  as  a  piece 
of  land  for  a  hospital  {/lekdcs/i).  In  the  villages  of 
Anhalt-Dessau  the  Jews  lived  in  large  numbers. 

In  1764  Prince  Leopold  granted  the  Jews  a  consti- 
tution and  issued  regulations  for  the  maintenance  of 
their  credit.  He  abolished  the  poll-tax  in  1S04.  and 
permitte<l  the  Jews  uf  Woerlitz  to  build  a  .synagogue. 
In  the  same  year  Leopold  recognized  the  Franzschulc 
as  a  Jewish  jniblic  school. 

Important  Hebrew  printing-houses  existed  at  Ki)- 
then  from  1(>2'3  to  1717,  and  at  Jessnitz  from  1719 
to  1726.  The  Jews  of  the  principality  w<Te  com- 
pelled to  take  family  names  at  Bernburg  in  1810.  at 
Kothen  in  1811.  and^at  Dessau  in  1822.  In  1810  civil 
rights  were  granted  in  Bernburg,  and  in  1811  in 
Kiithen.     In  184S  all  restrictions  were  abolished. 

Anhalt  is  remarkable  for  the  great  number  of  Jew- 
ish scholars  it  has  produced.  Moses  Mendelssohn  and 
Ludwig  Pliilippson  came  from  Dessau;  the  historian 
Jost.  from  Bernburg:  the  mathematician  Unger. from 
Coswig:  the  philosopher  Steinthal.  from  Grijbzig;  and 
the  preacher  Salomon,  from  Sandersleben. 

Bibliography:   Die  Jwkn  ntiter  il.  AnhnUhchrn  Marls- 

?rafcn  von  Bratulcnhttrg,  in  AUg.  Zeit.  d.Jmi.  1840.  No, 
3;  D.  Calm,  Die  Slctluntl  dir  Juttcii  in  AnhaU.  ib..  lsti«. 
Nos.  40  and  41 ;  Anhaltiwhe  Jwlen  In  Jildisches  VrAksblatt, 
e<l.  h.  PhUlppson,  WM,  .\i.  Nos.  12  and  13. 

A.   F. 

ANI,  ANIDA,  or  ADAFINA :  Among  Spanish 
Jews,  a  dish  composed  of  beans,  peas,  fat  meat,  and 
eggs,  placed  in  an  oven  over  Friday  night,  and  eaten 
at  the  Sabbath  meal.    The  Ani,  called  by  the  German 


Jews  Sc/uiM,  was  regarded  by  the  Iiupiisition  as  con- 
clusive evidence  of  Jewish  practises  against  Maranos. 
Bibliography:  Ilcv.  tt.  Jnins,  xvlll.  ;f74, xxxvll.  3U7. 

M.  K. 
ANILAI  and  ASINAI  :  Kobbir  ehieftain.s. 
Two  Jewi.sh  boys  of  Nehardea  in  Babylonia  were 
apprenticed  by  their  widowed  mother  to  a  weaver. 
Having  been  punished  for  laziness  by  their  ina.ster, 
they  ran  away  and  became  freebooters  in  the  marsh- 
lands of  the  Euphrates.  There  they  gatheieil  about 
them  a  large  number  of  discontenied  Jews,  organ- 
izing troops,  and  levying  forced  contributions  on 
the  shepherds,  and  finally  established  a  little  robber- 
state  at  the  forks  of  the  Euphrates,  One  Sabbath 
they  were  surprised  by  tlu>  Piirthiau  ruler  of  Baby- 
lonia, but  they  determined  to  fight  regardless  of 
the  day  of  vest",  and  defeated  their  assailant  so  <-om- 
pletely  that  the  Piirthian  king  Artabiin  HI.  (about 
10-40).  who  was  just  then  eng;iged  in  putting  down 
a  rebellion,  resolved  to  make  use  of  such  brave  Jews 
to  keep  the  satraps  in  check.  He  concluded  an  alli- 
ance with  them,  entrusting  them  with  ihe  control  of 
that  portion  of  Babylonia  which  they  already  occu- 
pied. They  then  built  fortifications,  and  the  little 
state  lasted  for  tif teen  years  (about  18-:33).  Its  down- 
fall was  brought  about  by  the  marriage  of  Anilai 
with  the  widow  of  a  Piirthian  general,  whom  he  had 
attacked  and  killed  in  battle.  He  tolerated  the  idola- 
trj-  of  his  foreign  wife,  and  met  the  religious  objec- 
tions of  his  people  with  violence,  thus  estranging  his 
followers  and  sowing  dissension  among  them.  After 
Asinai  had  been  poisoned  by  his  brothers  wife  for 
his  too  frank  titterances.  Aiiihii  assumed  the  leader- 
ship of  his  troops.  He  sought  to  divert  them  with 
wars,  and  succeeded  in  ca|ituring  Mithridates.  gov- 
ernor of  Parthyene.  and  si>n  in  law  of  the  king.  He 
soon,  however,  released  Mithridates.  fe;iriug  that  Ar- 
taban  might  take  vengeance  on  the  Babylonian  Jews 
for  his  death.  Beingsignally  defeated  by  Mithridates 
in  a  subsequent  engagement,  he  was  forced  to  with- 
draw to  the  forests,  where  he  lived  by  plundering 
the  Babylonian  villages  about  Nehardea.  until  his 
resources  were  exhausted  and  the  little  robber-state 
disappeared.  Babylonian  hiitred  of  the  Jews,  long 
restrained  from  fear  i  if  Anihii,  now  broke  forth  afresh, 
and  the  Jews  tied  from  the  persectitions  to  Seleucia 
without  finding  there  the  desired  peace, 

[The  name  Anilai  is  identical  with  "Hanilai"  in 
Talmudic  literature.  This  was.  for  example,  the 
name  of  the  father  of  the  well-known  haggadist 
Tanhum  b.  Hamilas  (Bacher,  ''Ag.  Pal.  Amor."  iii. 
627).  w.  B.] 

Bibliographt  :  Jnsepliiis,  Ant  imitates,  xviii.  9. 

A.  Bt). 

ANIMAL  FABLES  IN  TALMUD  AND 
MIDRASH.      Sec  .Kmii-'s  F.vbles,  also  F.\ble8. 

ANIMAL  OFFERINGS.     See  Sacrifice. 

ANIMAL  WORSHIP  :  This  is  an  expression 
which  needs  (areful  delinition,  since  it  is  understood 
and  exiihuued  in  various  ways.  A  distinction  has 
to  be  made  between  a  strict  and  a  loose erajdoynient 
of  the  expression.  On  the  one  hand,  a  difference 
must  be  noted  between  actual  devotion  to.  or  serv- 
ice of.  an  object  and  the  mere  recognition  of  such 
an  object  as  divine  or  .supernatural.  On  the  other 
hand,  care  mtist  be  taken  to  avoid  confounding  the 
direct  worship  of  an  animal  with  the  use  of  the  ani- 
mal as  a  symbol  of  the  real  object  of  worship. 

In  the  strictest  sense  of  the  words,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  Animal  'Worship  ever  exi.sted  in  any  large 
portion  of  the  Hebrew  community  :  but.  in  a  wider 
sense,  there  were  instances  which  are  worthy  of  close 


605 


THE  JKWISII   E>X'YC'L01'EDIA 


Anhalt 

Animal  Worship 


atteution.  Ociifrally  spcakiiij;.  tlicre  were  three  dis- 
tinct occasions  on  which  religious  sentiment  toward 
animals  resulted  in  superstitious  awe  or  actual  cere- 
monial service. 

The  first  or  lowest  mode  of  Animal  Worship  is  that 
form  of  deference  or  veneration  wliicli  arises  licuu  the 
persuasion  thul  certain  animals  are  in- 
First  Form  vested  with  (lenioniacal  powers.  Such 
of  Wor-  a  notion  is  universal  among  savage  and 
ship  :  Be-  semicivili/.ed  peoples,  and  still  sur- 
lief  in  vives  to  a  great  extent  among  mem- 
Demons,  hers  of  the  most  cultivate<l  of  mod- 
ern communities.  Tlie  whole  ancient 
Semitic  population  of  western  Asia  was  infected  with 
this  superstition,  which  munircsted  itself  in  many 
dilTerent  ways.  In  Haljyloiiia  it  was  especially  rife. 
Hundreds  of  spirits  are  referred  to  in  the  religious 
cuneiform  texts.  Every  condition  and  activity  of  hu- 
man life  was  subject  to  their  iulluence;  and  their 
forms  and  characteristics  were  as  various  as  their 
occujiations.  Among  the  ancient  Arabs  demons  of 
all  sorts  and  grades,  generally  representing  the  deni- 
zens of  the  desert,  wen'  known  as  "jinn  "  (genii):  and 
this  well-known  term  may  be  here  used  to  include 
the  demoidzed  animals  with  whicli  the  Hebrewsand 
their  neigliliors  were  most  familiar.  ISolh  the  Haby- 
liinianand  the  Arabian  systems  of  belief  are  of  prime 
importance  in  the  elucidation  of  the  Bible.  The  latter 
system,  having  been  longer  known  and  studied,  is  for 
the  present  the  more  available.  The 
Character-  "jimi"  were  related  to  ordinary  ani- 
isticsof  the  mals,  somewhat  as  the  gods  were  re- 
"  Jinn."  lated  to  man.  That  is  to  .say,  certain 
animals  were  invested  with  superhu- 
man, orat  least  e.Mrahuman,  attributes.  Theirqual- 
iiies  were  not,  however,  of  a  high  or  spiritual  char- 
acter, and  for  th<'  most  part  they  remained  animals 
socially  and  morally.  Their  chief  attribute  was  the 
]io\ver  to  assume  various  shaiies.  iiiclu<ling  that  of 
man  ;  and  occasionally  they  aihjpteil  the  human  form 
permanently.  Yet  as  a  class  they  stood  aloof  from 
men  ;  so  that  they  coidd  ncit  be  really  worshiped,  but 
were  feared  as  foes  or  priz<'d  as  allies.  They  were 
usually  malelicent.  but  occasionally  beneficent.  The 
generic  Hebrew  designation  seems  to  have  been 
g/ii'ilim,  a  word  which  was  also  used  by  the  Baby- 
lonians for  a  very  large  class  of  animal  demons. 
Their  animal  characler  is  indicated  by  several  names 
applied  to  them,  wljicji  names  mean  primarily 
"hairy."  In  .Moslem  legend  lialkis,  the  queen  of 
Slielia  wedded  to  Solomon,  had  hair  on  her  ankles, 
and  was  thus  shown  to  be  by  descent  a  "jinnee." 
Of  this  race  may  be  the  «c '('/•(';«,  or  liairv  creatures, 
of  the  Hebrews!  The  LiliHi  (.Vssyrian  V<7(7|  of  Isa. 
xxxiv.  14  is  a  species  of  nightniare.  Other  de- 
moniacal creatun'S  are  mentioned  in  Isji,  xiii.  21.  It 
is  probable  that  most,  if  not  all,  of  such  allusions  to 
classes  or  types  of  dinions  are  exilic  or  postexilie; 
and  but  .scanty  information  is  available  as  to  the  aid- 
malcultsof earliertimcsin  Israel.  The  statement  of 
I>eut.  xxxii.  17  (compare  I's.  cvi.  I?T)  is,  however,  a 
general  indication. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  demons,  the 
serpent,  was  raised  to  exceptional  distinction  among 
the   Itabylonians.   the   .\rabs,  and   the 
The  R61e     Hebnws.     .Many  (pialities   muted   in 
of  the        the  .sirpent   to  make   it   an   object  of 
Serpent,      superstitious  regard,  as  it  still  is.  more 
or  less,  to  pmctii  ally  the  whole  human 
nice.     .Vmong  these  attributes  were  its  faculty  of 
sudden  apiiearancc  aiul  disappeaninee,  its  llexibil- 
ity,    its    rapid   changes   of    posture   and   shape,   its 
haunting  of  obscure  and  uiicamiy  places,  its  subter- 
ranean abode,  its  ubii|uily  on  land  or  water,  it.s  ap- 


parent kinship  with  inany  sort.s  of  elusive  beings, 
great  and  small,  marine,  terrestrial,  and  aerial.  It 
seemed  to  have  kinship  even  with  the  Hying  cloud 
and  the  forked  lightning,  the  celestial  "taiuiin  "  (Isa. 
xxvii.  i.  I  .lob.  vii.  12),  Oie  leviathan  (.Job,  iii.  8;  Isii. 
xxvii.  1),  the  Babylonian  tounnt.  or  the  dragon. 
The  highest  function  at  tributed  to  the  serpent  is  that 
of  the  primal  t<rnpterof  maiuGen.  iii.) — a  conception 
which  is  both  Hebrew  and  Babylonian.  But  it  had 
many  roles  of  a  less  exci'i)tional  kind.  Serpents 
wer('  often  maleficent,  but  often  aLso  beneficent. 
From  their  watchfulness  they  were  held  to  l)e  the 
natural  .iruardians  of  groves,  rocky  recesses,  and  other 
animal  retreats;  and  when  such  abodes  of  lower  life 
were  converle<l  to  the  uses  of  man,  they  still  re- 
mained as  sentinels,  and  were  naturally  iiromoted  to 
be  the  protectors  of  gardens  and  estates,  fountains 
and  streams,  and  became  the  familiar  demons  of  homes 
and  sanctuaries.  Thus,  boundary -stones  in  Baby- 
lonia were  decorated  with  images  of  serpents  and 
scorpions  as  terrors  to  the  trespasser  or  the  invader 
(compare  the  Bh.xzhn  Sehpent  of  the  Hebrews). 

Even  in  Israel  .some  form  of  demoniacal  supersti- 
tions nnist  have  been  more  or  less  secretly  ]ira<'tised 
for  centuries,  since  we  find  that  in  the  giooiny  time 
just  before  the  captivity  of  .Judah,  images  of  noxious 
creatures  were  portrayed  or  carved  on  aniimer  wall 
of  the  Temi)le  (Ezek."viii.  10).  F,vi<lently  a  desper- 
ate resort  was  hail  to  the  baser  animal  spirits  during 
the  utter  lapse  of  faith  and  hope  among  the  leaders 
of  tlu' nation.  Strange  to  say,  this  nearest  approach 
to  direct  .Vniinal  Worship  recorded  in  the  Bible  was 
made  just  at  the  closi'  of  the  national  existence. 
Robertson  Sniilh  has  suggested  that  this  was  a  revi- 
val of  a  totemic  ritual. 

A  second  source  of  the  religious  veneration  of  ani- 
mals is  found  in  the  primitive  notion  of  the  kinship 
and  tdlimali'  identity  of  all  forms  of  life,  vegetable 
and  animal,  human  and  celestial.  This  notion  ex- 
plains, in  part  at  least,  the  existence  of  sjicred  trees 
among  so  many  ancient  jieoples.  To  a  large  extent 
also  this  sense  of  kinship  was  the  basis  of  religious 
devotion  in  many  forms.  It  was.  for  example,  both 
the  cause  and  the  elVect  of  ancestor  worship.  The 
kinship  between  national  or  tribal  gods  and  their 
worshipers  is  a  familiar  belief.  But  it  is  also  a  sig- 
nificant fact  that  certain  animals,  usmilly  jios-sessed 
of  demoniacal  or  superhuman  jiowers,  were  sjicred 
to  many  tribes  and  families  of  primitive  men  by 
virttU'of  a  laiuic'd  kinshii)  between  them.  Such  a  be- 
lief has  been  ascribed  by  recent  authoritative  writers 
to  th<>  earliest  society  of  ancient  Israel,  as  well  as 
to  the  original  Semites  from  whom  they  were  de- 
scended. .\nd  it  has  been  plausibly  maintained  that 
the  distinction  between  clean  ami  un<lean  animals 
was  due  to  the  circumstance  that  the  latter  were 
sacred  and,  therefore,  forbidden  as  food  on  ordinary 
occasions.  The  sjicredness  depended  upon  a  sup- 
posed kinship  between  the  tribesmen  and  the  ani- 
mals in  (pnslion,  such  as  is  the  basis  of  totemism  in 
many  savage  conunimilies.  ancient  and  modern. 
It  happened,  however,  that  at  special 
Clean  and    seasons  such  iniclean  animals  were  ac- 

Tlnclean  linillyeali'n,nii(i  that.  loo.  at  sacrificial 
Animals  fea.sls.  The  meaningof  thisceremony 
Contrasted,  is  appan^ntly  twofold:  Tin-  tribi'  or 
clan  ratifiis  its  union  or  covenant  with 
itsanimal  kindred;  and.  by  |iartaking  of  the  th'sli, 
its  membi'rs  derive  somecommimiim  w  ith  the  super- 
natural life,  whicli  is  an  attribute  of  the  sacred  ani- 
mal. Now,  it  would  111' expicted  that  if  llwre  had 
been  any  lime  in  the  history  of  Ismel  when  such  core- 
monies  were  observed,  it  would  have  been  when  de- 
generate members  of  the  community  were  mixed 


Animal  Worship 
Anisimov 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


600 


with  a  hentlien  population.  Such  a  time  occurred 
toward  tliv  iiid  of  the  Exile,  descrilud  in  Isa.  l.w. 
nixl  Ixvi..  wlieii  swine  and  dogs  and  mice,  tlie  most 
unclean  of  animals,  were  eaten  by  certain  Helirews 
living  among  the  Babylonians.  It  is  more  than  a 
coincidence  tliat  in  th'e  Bible  ami  elsewhere  these 
very  animals  have  specially  demoniacal  ((Ualities  or 
associations. 

The  thinl  cause  of  the  religious  veneration  of  ani- 
mals is  the  desire  to  have  acknowledged  deities,  as 
distinguished  from  mere  demons,  rep- 
Third  or      resented  by  some  visible,  tangible  ob- 
Bymbolic     ject  or  image,  which  may  impress  the 
Type  of     imagination  and  excite  faith  and  de- 
Worship,     votion.     This  d<us   not   refer  to   the 
deities  that  may  liave  been  develoiieil 
out  of  the  "jinn."  or  animal  demons,  and  which  thus 
continue<l  to  image  forth,  in  the  form  in  which  they 
were  adored,  the  original  animal  whose  supposed 
spiritual  essence  swayed  the  credulous  fancy  of  an 
earlier  peoide.  but   rather  to  those  prominent   in- 
stances of  animal  ctdls  in  which  the  (lualities  of  great 
national  or  tribal  gods  are  symboli<-ally  expressed  by 
tlie  characteristics  of  certain  animals  chosen  as  their 
visible  representatives.    The  tyiiical  Biblical  instance 
is  that  of  the  so-called  bull-  or  calf-worship  of  north- 
ern Israel,  with  which  may  be  included  the  worship 
of  the  golden  calf  made"  by  Aaron  before  Mouiit 
Sinai.     This  latter  is  of  importance  in  so  far  as  it 
shows  the  traditional  and  inveterate  character  of  the 
cidt.  .since  Ex.  xxxii.  was  probably  intended  for  il- 
lustrative purposes  and  as  a  projilietic  object-lesson. 
The  explanation  of  this  influential  cult 
Explana-     is  wide   and   comiireheiisive.      Israel 
tionofBuU-  was  heir  to  many  forms  of  Semitic  be- 
er Calf-       lief;  and  religious  symbolism  had  be- 
Worship.     gun  in  early  ages  among  peoples  to 
which,  both  through  racial  descent  and 
historic  association.  Israel  owed  much  of  its  culture. 
That  bull-worship  was  borrowed  from  Egypt  is  still 
perhaps  the  popular  belief ;  but  it  has  been  given 
tip  by  scholars,  partly  on  the  general  ground  that 
Israe"l  was  scarcely  atfected  in  any  essential  religious 
matter  by  the  Egyptians,  and  partly  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  Egyptian  worship  was  that  of  living 
animals.     The  cliief  direct  cause  of  the  cult  in  Israel 
was  no  doubt  the  intiuence  of  the  Canaanites,  not 
merely  of  the  iiredecessors  of  the  Hebrews  in  Canaan, 
but  also  of  their  contemporaries  in  central  Palestine 
and  in  Phenicia.     Many  characteristics  of  the  bull 
doubtless  contributed  to  the  prevalent  symbolism. 
In  the  popular  mind  YHWH  was  largely  confounded 
with  the  Canaanitic  Baal ;  and  the  image  of  the  Baal 
was  a  bull,  as  that  of  his  consort  Astarte  was  a  cow. 
To  an  agricultural  people  the  choice  of  such  a  symbol 
for  the  chief  deity  was  almost  inevitable,  as  an  image 
of  strength,  endurance,  animal  reproductiveness,  and 
service  to  mankind.     ThiTc  was  another  cardinal  fea- 
ture in  the  representation.     The  Baal  was  also  the 
great  Canaanitic  sun-god.  symbolizing  thus  the  chief 
source  of  agricultural  prosperity.     The  horns  of  the 
steer  were  the  familiar  emblem  of  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
even  embodied  in  current  Hebrew  speech  to  describe 
the  gleaming  face  of  Moses  (Ex.  xxxiv.  29).     A  fa- 
vorite ideograph  for  the  Babylonian  Merodach-Bel 
signifies  "  the  bullock  of  the  siin. "  This  view  accords 
with  the  fact  that  bull-worship  was  unknown  to  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  where  Canaanitic  influences  were 
slight  during  the  formative  period  of  the  later  pop- 
idar  religion.    The  Brazen  Serpent  and  Azazel  were 
in  great  part  symbolic  (see  Azazel;  Bk.^zex  Seu- 
PENT ;  and  Totemism). 

BiBi.mGBAPHT :  I'seful  Illustrations  oj  early  forms  of  Hebrew 
and  Semitic  worsbip  may  be  gained  from  well-known  anthro- 


Doloirteal  works.  For  the  special  siib]wt,  refer  to  W.  U. 
Siiiltli,  In  Jmirnal  uf  PhW'litlU.  !•';■ "  ' '  »<!■  ■  Itrliui'm ../  (he 
Seiiiilai  (Index,  under  Aiiinuil.^.  Ihiifiis.  uiul  Joini:  Well- 
bausfn.IiiKtf  Amliixchcn  Ih  i<>i  iif/iio/is.  pp.  i;i)i  (m  ■).,litlct 
»c(/  •  ItaudKiln.  SluMrn  zur  Si  initiwlu  ii  liiUuiitiimiii'ch.  1. 
128i  (  «  •/  .i'tSil  w  i;.  Kur  Hal>vl"nlan  liellcfi<,ser  Jastrow.  Re- 
Uui>'iiijfUtili,il"iiiii  mill  -liwwnii,  pp.  IW) .  (  «i;..3U(li(  wi^ 

.1    F.  McC. 

ANIMALS,  CLEAN  AND  UNCLEAN.    See 

DiKT.Mtv   Laws 

ANIMALS  OF  THE  BIBLE  :  To  contrast  them 
with  plants  and  minerals,  animals  are  called  in  He- 
brew- rrn  t'EJ  (living  soul):  usedalwayscolleclively 
in  Gen.  i.  •-'0.  24;  ix.  10;  or  simply  An  ,y.vij/(  (living):  as 
a  rulecoilectivelv(Gen.ix.  2i/«9.);  rarely  as  a  singu- 
lar (Gen.  XXX vii.  20);  or  in  the  plural  hayvot,  as  in 
Ps.  civ.  2.i.  Etymologically  speaking,  this  latter  He- 
brew word  corresponds  we'll  enough  with  the  Latin 
((HiHiK^ and  still  better  with  theGreek  Cuov;  it  might, 
therefore,  have  been  used  of  man  as  well  as  of  brutes. 
It  is,  however,  never  so  used  in  Hebrew,  nor  in  cer- 
tain'other  languages,  retlecting  the  popular  rather 
than  the.scienlilicmind.  Popular.Iewish  philosophy 
accords  willuigly  to  animals  all  the  characteristics 
man  has  incoMuiion  with  them,  inclusive  of  life.  The 
Biblical  writers,  when  speaking  of  animals,  gener- 
ally look  at  them  either  from  the  standpoint  of 
man's  superiority— and  thus  avoid  lessening  the 
distance  betweenlhe  animals  and  their  godlike  and 
God  appointed  ruler  by  uniting  the  two  under  a 
conunon  nami — or  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
Creator  of  all.  and  then  merge  man  and  brutes,  to- 
gether with  inanimate  beings,  and  angels  as  well, 
into  the  universal  ai)iHllativeof  "creature."  When 
exceptionally— as  in  the  narrative  of  the  Deluge- 
man  and  bn"ites  are  recorded  together,  it  is  done  by 
means  of  a  circumlocution  or  descriptive  clause, 
like  "all  flesh"  (Gen.  vi.  12.13;  ix.  11,  17),  some- 
times with  the  addition,  "in  which  there  is  breath 
of  life"  (Gen.  vi.  IT),  or  "all  [beings]  in  whose  nos- 
trils was  the  breath  of  life  "  (Gen.  vii.  22). 

It  is  generally  considereed  that   the  Bible  divides 

animals  into  four  groups,  according  to  their  mode 

of  moving;  (1)  qtiadrupeds.  or  walk- 

Classifica-    ers;  (2)  birds,  or  fliers;  (3)  reptiles,  or 

tion  into     creepers;  (4)  fishes,  or  swimmers.     In 
Four  fact,  we  find  the.se  four  groups  enu- 

Groups.  nierated,  side  by  side,  throughout  the 
Biblical  books;  for  instance,  in  Gen. 
i  2G.  2.H;  vi.  7.  20;  vii.  8;  ix.  2;  Lev.  xi.  46;  Dent, 
iv.  17.  18;  I  Kings,  v.  13;  Ezek.  xxxviii.  20.  This 
division,  however,  is  but  a  later  and  abridged  form 
of  a  more  cimiplete  classification,  consisting  of  six 
distinct  groups  as  recorded  in  Gen.  i.  20-2.5.  More- 
over, the  mode  of  living  seems  to  be  absolutely  for- 
eign to  either  the  primitive  classification  or  its  sim- 
pler substitute.  Birds  in  the  Bible  are  said  to  fly.  but 
reptiles  are  nowhere  said  to  creep,  nor  fish  to  swim. 
Man  and  ipiadrupeds  are  said  "to  go"  rather  than 
"to  walk."  but  the  same  is  also  said  of  the  serpent 
(Gen.  iii.  14).  In  fact,  the  grouping  of  Gen.  i.  2.")  is 
the  complex  outcome  of  no  less  than  four  different 
factors. 

First  in  order  comes  the  origin  or  element  from 
which  the  animals  were  produced.  The  creation 
of  animals  is  divided  into  two  distinct  acts:  the  one 
for  the  fishes  and  birds  tjiken  from  the  water  (Gen. 
i  20-23)  the  other  for  the  terrestrial  animals  taken 
from  the  earth  (Gen.  i.  24,  25).  The  air  evidently 
was  not  yet  recognized  as  an  element.  Such,  at 
least,  is  the  interpretation  that  both  the  Septuagmt 
and  the  Vulgate  have  given  to  tin-  original  text. 

The  habitat  of  animals  is  introduced  as  a  sicond 
factor.  Fishes  are  the  "living  things"  of  the  waters, 
of  the  sea,  of  the  rivers.     Birds,  created  to  "  fly  in  the 


1   i:„„  IP,/,.  I,„\       r>    <;»™»„  <;\,nor,  IOi/c«,-/,.i-,/n//W/;/m  I       1    Addax  f  *««•«<«»""""'"""'        ■■■■   "jex   ( Cn/zm /,„/,;,  |.        5.  Leopard  (y^/M/ra//n/W>/.iJ,         0.  Syiiail  Goat  irA/r/o  OT«mA»Vn<  1. 
7  1         ^   0>1^^  W„-,i  1^    ft  f  V,  r(  ;^,™ir^t,t«H  Wild  Ass   W^^W/.WW'"'  >      ">  Pf'-'"*  G«=«lle    f  «■'"-""  *'«■'«  t      11.  Bubale  USuLs  b,.,l.,„n,u.  I  the  r.L.o«  .ee»  ...c-».s,  or  ™e  ol.  test.««t. 

18  Porcupine  l//r.s/r/.vr/7,s. 


13.   Ox  t  ^o.«  ?rt«™j ).        14.  Arabian  Horse  (iV«M.?  "•'-;"■:■     ^.^,        •,(.     p.      ,.        „  ,,        -  „,     -  ,„  ,..     \ 

■istaUiy      19.  Dog,  GREYHOUND    iConis  futtuluins  gr^I«^J^_ji^-    tS>-plian  Hure  K  Lepus  4rftyj,tiarus  1,        21.  Myaeiin  UVi/mrt  5/;-»«/fl  I. 


pRepARED  BY    Will 


ANIMALS    OF  THK   BIBLE. 

r  Frani^undck  the  a'Ki':^'"'' or  Prof.  Theodore  Gill.  MOLL  D.. 
SmMsonM>ili'''"""""OMi.M,„nil,m.DC 


607 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Animal  Worship 
Anisimov 


expanseoflicavpn,"  are  called  the  "birds  of  heaven"; 
that  is,  of  the  air.  Hence,  a  new  group  otrtaiued  by 
the  subdivision  of  the  tirst  group  into  animals  of  the 
air  and  animals  of  the  water. 

A  third  factor  was  the  mode  of  propagation. 
Just  as  we  are  in  the  habit  of  grouping  together  all 
useless  and  all  troublesome  small  vegetation — or.  to 
be  more  accurate,  as  in  the  Linneau  system  all  plants 
having  an  obscure  mode  of  fertilization  were  thrown 
into  one  large  family,  in  contrast  with  flowering 
plants — so  in  the  Bible  all  inferior  animals  whose 
way  of  propagating  escapes  the  popular  attention 
were  designated  by  a  common  name  |'"it;>  (s/wnz); 
that  is.  "fast  breeding  [animals]."  or  its  practical 
ecjuivalent  C'OT  ireiiifx).  "that  which  moves  in  large 
musses."  This  factor  creates  two  new  groups,  inas- 
much as  it  involves  the  subdivision  of  the  terrestrial 
animals  into  (a)  higlier  quadrupeds  or  "animals  of 
the  earth  "  proper,  and  (A)  lower  ijuadrupeds  and  rep- 
tiles, or  sherez  and  rentes  (see.  for  the  rendering  of 
these  two  appellatives,  Fisn  and  Heptii.es).  The 
same  subdivision  was  made  for  the  aquatic  animals 
thus  divided  into  («)  tniininim  galoliiii,  or  cetaceous 
animals,  and  (I/)  nherez,  renies. 

Finally,  the  fourth  factor — which  gave  the  last 
and  finishing  touch  to  the  division  of  animals  as  we 
find  it  in  Gen.  i.  20-2.1 — is  the  relation  of  animals  to 
man  from  a  practical  ])oint  of  view;  that  is,  their 
possible  utility,  as  food  or  helpers.  The  animals 
that  were  of  special  usefulness  to  man,  whether  do- 
mesticated or  not,  received  the  common  appellative 
of  nDn3 — that  is.  .iccording  to  current  etymology. 
"  dumli  animals  " — while  the  others  retained  the  more 
general  name  of  "animals  of  the  earth."  This  last 
line  of  division  is  not  well  marked  in  all  the  books 
of  the  Bible.  The  name  f»/iiiiinh  is  sometimes 
extended  to  all  large  (luadrupeds,  whether  u.seful 
to  man  or  not,  just  as  the  ht/uiimt  are  frequently 
thrown  in  with  the  other  quadrujieds.  or  "animals 
of  the  earth  " ;  but  we  lind  also  the  two  grotips  reg- 
istered side  by  side,  for  instance  (besides  Gen.  i. 
20-25),  in  Gen,  i.  26  (according  to  the  Septuagint 
and  Syriac,  Gen.  vii.  14.  ix.  10). 

To  sum  up.  in  accordance  with  the  four  factors 
mentioned — origin,  habitat,  propagation,  usefulness 
— the  Animals  of  the  Bible  are  classitied  as  follows: 
First  group,  "animals  of  the  earth  "  proper;  second 
group,  bchemot ;  third  group,  rcmes,  or  reptiles; 
fourth  group,  birds;  fifth  grou)).  sherez  proper,  or 
fishes;  sixth  group,  cetaceans.  Besides  this  classiti- 
catioii  into  six  groupsand  the  one  into  foiir,  we  lind 
in  the  Bible  another  division  into  five  groups;  tliat 
is:  (1)"  animals  of  the  earth";  (2)  bchemot;  (3)  birds; 
(4)  reptiles;  {'>)  fish  (Gen.  i.  24.  26),  accorciing  to 
Septuagint  and  Syriac,  Gen.  vii.  14,  ix.  10.  If  we 
now  observe  that  in  the  division  into  four  groups  the 
f|uadru|)eds  are  called  indilTerently  "animals  of  the 
earth,"  or  "bchemot,"  it  becomes  jilain  that  both  the 
division  into  five  and  the  one  into  four  were  ob- 
tained from  the  more  comi)lete  cla.ssificalion  by 
eliminating  sucli  groups  of  animals  as  cotdd  be  dis- 
pensed with  without  creating  confusion.  Thus,  the 
division  into  five  was  obtained  from  the  one  into  six 
by  suppressing  the  cetaceans,  in  which  man.  the  He- 
brews cs])ecially.  had  but  little  interest.  Thus.  also, 
thedivision  iiUo  four  was  obtaini'd  from  the  one  into 
five  liy  selecting  at  one  time  tb<'  liehemot  and  at 
an<ilher  the  "animals  of  the  earth"  to  riprescnl  all 
the  (luadrupeds:  the  former  because  more  interest- 
ing to  man;  the  lallir,  very  likely,  on  account  of 
greater  comprehensiveness. 

This  classification  marks  by  no  means  the  last 
stage  of  action  of  the  four  factors  we  liave  just  de- 
8cril>ed.     Thus,  we  find  that  the  third  factor  brought 


about  the  adoption  of  a  subgroup  in  tiie  group  of 
birds;  that  is,  the  insects  called  e)iyn  pti*  (flying 
sherez),  from  their  obscure  and  rapid  mode  of  propa- 
gating. Again,  the  fourth  factor  created  a  new  sec- 
tion in  the  group  of  the  behemot,  the  domesticated 
animals  being  distinguished  from  the  others  by  the 
appellation  of  njpD  "  possession,  property  "  (com- 
pare Latin  "  pecunia,  peculium,"  from  "pecus"; 
English  "chattel  "  from  "cattle  ").  Further,  appar- 
ently under  the  influence  of  the  same  factor,  the 
iiiikiit'h  was  sulxlivided  into  (a)  I'ya  lie'ir,  the  beasts 
of  iiurden ;  (i)  "ipa  Ixikar,  plow-animals;  and  (c)  [SV 
"small  animals" — sheep  and  goats,  which  furnish 
merely  food  and  clothing.  It  was  also  the  .same  fac- 
tor of  usefulness  that  caused  the  D'"I3"13  hdi-biniin, 
ff)wls,  to  be  detached  from  the  group  of  birds  (I 
Kings,  v.  3).  It  may  be  fortuitous  that  the  classi- 
fication adopted  by  the  author  of  Gen.  i.  20-25  stops, 
so  to  speak,  halfway,  recording  only  six  groups 
of  animals,  when  the  factors  that  underlie  it  sug- 
gested a  good  many  more  groups.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, that  it  was  with  a  view  of  obtaining,  when 
added  to  the  creation  of  man,  the  same  number  seven 
as  that  which  suggested  the  division  of  the  whole 
creation  int<i  six  days,  completing  a  week  with  the 
seventh  day.  Further  subdivisions  of  some  of  the 
groups  above  mentioned  betray  the  action  of  another 
factor.  This,  however,  contrasts  entirely  with  the 
others,  in  so  far  as  it  originated  from  an  observation 
of  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  animal  itself  and 
its  mode  of  feeding.  Thus,  the  birds  of  prey  were 
detached  from  the  group  of  birds,  taking  the  specific 
name  of  O'Jf  ■nit.  The  b<'hemot  were  divided  into 
hoofed  animals  and  clawed  animals;  the  former  into 
cloven-hoofed  and  non-cloven-hoofed  animals;  and, 
in  their  turn,  each  of  these  categories  into  "  cud-chew- 
ing "  and  "  n(ni-cud-chewing."  etc.  This  attempt  at 
a  somewhat  scientific  classification  seems,  however, 
to  have  been  the  outcome  of  ritualism,  not  of  popu- 
lar observation  like  the  more  primitive  and  general 
grouping  of  which  the  above  is  a  logical,  not  chrono- 
logical, analysis.  See  for  further  di.scus.sion  of  these 
classes  and  subdivisions  the  article  Clean  .\xd  Un- 
clean Asi.MALs;  also  Birds,  Cattle,  Fish,  Rep- 
tiles; Dietary  Laws. 

Bibliography:  Tristram,  Faunn  and  Flora  nf  PaleMine;  L. 
Chii'liester  Hart, -tiii/iinf.s  (i/Z/ic  BiWc.  jj     jj 

AN'IM  ZEMIROT  (ni"l"OT  D'V3N^:  A  mystical 
hymn,  known  as  the  "Shir  ha  Kabod"  (Hynm  of 
Glory),  ascribed  to  R.  Judah.  the  saint  of  Speyer 
(Landshuth.  "  HegyonLeb,"  pp.  265  el  neq.).  which  is 
lionored  by  many  congregations  with  a  jirominent 
place  at  the  close  of  the  morning  service  in  associa- 
tion with  the  Psalm  of  the  Day  [Trmplk  Skuvice]. 
It  is  likewise  read  on  the  Eve  of  Atonement,  and  in 
English  congregations  is  then  as.sociated  with  a  sim- 
ple iiulody.  condng.  like  the  hymn,  from  the  Rhine- 
land,  but  iiot  dating  back  further  than  the  early  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  (.see  Zunz.  "Literatur- 
geseh."  p.  'SOU).     For  music  see  next  pase. 

F.  L.  C. 

ANISE.      See  Dll  I,. 

ANISIMOV,  ILIA  SHARBATOVICH:  Rus- 
sian civil  engineer;  born  in  Dagln  staii.  ls."i:!;  re<-eived 
his  tirst  eil  Ileal  ion  in  the  house  of  his  father.  Dr.  Shar- 
bat  ben  Nisim.  ralibi  anil  president  of  llie  Daghestan 
community.  He  was  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Moscow,  and  held  the  position  of  assistant  mana- 
ger of  the  Rothschild  Naphtha  Company  in  the  Cau- 
cn.sus.  He  was  the  author  of  two  Hebrew  pam- 
phlets on  the  .Iewislici>mmunity  of  Daghestan  which 
were  publishid  in  JerusiiUin  in  18!)4.  In  1S88  the 
Elhnognii>hical   Branch  of  the  Moscow  Si>ciety  of 


607 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Animal  Worship 
AnisitDOV 


expanse  of  heaven, "  are  railed  the  "  birds  of  heaven"  ; 
that  is,  of  the  air.  Hence,  a  new  group  obtained  by 
the  subdivision  of  th<' first  group  into  animals  of  the 
air  and  animals  (jf  the  water. 

A  third  factt)r  was  the  mode  of  propagation. 
Just  as  we  are  in  the  habit  of  grouping  together  all 
useless  and  all  troublesome  small  vegetation — or,  to 
lie  more  accurate,  as  in  the  Linneau  system  all  plants 
having  an  obscure  mode  of  fertilization  were  thrown 
into  one  large  family,  in  contrast  with  flowering 
plants — .so  in  the  Bible  all  inferior  animals  whose 
way  of  jiropagating  escajies  the  popular  attention 
were  designated  by  a  eonunon  name  y)^>  {.s/icrcz); 
that  is,  "fast  breeding  [animals],"  or  its  practical 
equivalent  jyoi  (reiiien),  "that  which  moves  in  large 
masses."  This  factor  creates  two  new  groups,  inas- 
much as  it  involves  the  subdivision  of  the  terrestrial 
animals  into  {n)  higher  ([uadrupeds  or  "animals  of 
the  earth"  proper,  and  (h)  lower  quadrupeds  and  rep- 
tiles, or  sherez  and  remes  (see,  for  the  rendering  of 
these  two  appellatives.  Fish  and  Reptii.es).  The 
same  sulidivision  was  made  for  the  aquatic  animals 
thus  divided  into  ((0  tduniniin  (/edoliiit,  or  cetaceous 
animals,  and  (h)  shcrcz,  vetiies. 

Finally,  the  fourth  factor — which  gave  the  last 
and  finishing  touch  to  the  division  of  animals  as  we 
tind  it  in  Gen.  i.  20-2J) — is  the  relation  of  animals  to 
man  from  a  practical  point  of  view;  that  is,  their 
possible  utility,  as  food  or  helpers.  The  animals 
that  were  of  special  usefulness  to  man,  whether  do- 
mesticated or  ncpt,  received  the  common  appellative 
of  noni — that  is,  iiiT'ording  to  current  etymology, 
"  dundi  animals  " — while  the  others  retained  the  more 
general  name  of  "animals  of  the  earth."  This  last 
line  of  division  is  not  well  marked  in  all  the  books 
of  the  Bible.  The  name  liehnnah.  is  .s(mietimes 
extended  to  all  large  quadrupeds,  whether  usefid 
to  man  or  not,  just  as  the  Inlinnot  are  frequently 
thrown  in  with  the  other  iiuadrupeds,  or  "animals 
of  the  earth  " ;  but  we  lind  also  the  two  groups  reg- 
istered side  by  side,  for  instance  (besides  Gen.  i. 
20-25),  in  Gen.  i.  26  (according  to  the  Septuagint 
and  Syriac,  Gen.  vii.  14,  ix.  10). 

To  sum  up.  in  accordance  with  the  four  factors 
mentioned — origin,  habitat,  ]>ropagation,  tisefulness 
— the  Animals  of  the  Bible  are  classitied  as  follows: 
First  group,  "animals  of  the  earth  "  proper;  second 
group,  behemot ;  third  grouj),  remes,  or  reptiles; 
fourth  group,  birds;  tifth  group,  sherez  proper,  or 
tislies;  sixth  griiuji,  cetaceans.  Besides  this  classiti- 
cation  into  six  groupsand  the  one  into  four,  we  lind 
in  the  Bible  another  division  into  five  groups;  that 
is:  (1)"  animals  of  the  earth  ";  (2)  behemot;  (Ji)  birds; 
(4)  rei)tiles;  (.">)  lish  (Gen.  i.  24.  2(>l,  according  to 
Septuagint  and  Syriac,  Gen.  vii.  14.  ix.  10.  If  we 
now  observe  thai  in  thedivision  into  four  groupsthe 
quadrup<'ds  an>  called  inditferently  "animals  of  the 
earth,"  or  "behemot,"  it  becomes  plain  (bat  both  the 
division  into  five  and  the  one  into  four  were  ob- 
taineil  from  the  more  comi>lete  classification  bj' 
eliminating  such  groups  of  animals  as  could  be  dis- 
pensed with  without  creating  confusion.  Thus,  the 
division  into  fiv<'  was  obtaine<l  from  the  one  into  six 
by  suppressing  the  cetaceans,  in  which  man.  the  He- 
brews especially,  had  but  little  interi'sl.  'I'lius.  also, 
thedivision  into  four  was  oblained  from  the  one  into 
five  by  selecting  at  one  lime  the  behemot  and  al 
another  the  "animals  of  the  earth"  to  represent  all 
the  quadrupeds:  the  former  because  more  interest- 
ing to  man;  the  latter,  very  likely,  on  account  of 
greater  comprehensiveness. 

This  classification  marks  by  no  moans  the  last 
stage  of  a<lion  of  the  four  fa<'t<irs  we  have  just  de- 
scribeil.     Thus,  wefindtluit  the  third  factor  brouglit 


about  the  adoption  of  a  subgroup  in  tiie  group  of 
birds;  that  is,  the  insects  called  e^iyn  pU'  (flying 
sherez),  from  their  obscure  and  rapid  mode  of  propa- 
gating. Again,  the  fourth  factor  created  a  new  sec- 
tion in  the  group  of  the  behemot,  the  domesticated 
animals  being  distingiushed  from  the  others  by  the 
apijellation  of  njpD  "  possession,  property  "  (com- 
pare Latin  "  pecunia,  peculium,"  from  "pecus"; 
English  "  chattel "  from  "  cattle  ").  Further,  appar- 
ently under  the  influence  of  the  same  factor,  the 
iiiikiieh  was  subdivided  into  (<0  "l'V3  ^<''*''.  tlie  beasts 
of  liurden ;  (//)  ipa  hiikdv,  plow-animals;  and  (c)  [SV 
"small  animals" — sheep  and  goats,  which  furnish 
merely  food  and  clothing.  It  was  also  the  .same  fac- 
tor of  usefulness  that  caused  the  D'laiD  barhurim, 
fowls,  to  be  detached  from  the  group  of  birds  (I 
Kings,  V.  3).  It  may  be  fortuitous  that  the  cla.ssi- 
fication  adopted  by  the  author  of  Gen.  i.  20-25  stops, 
so  to  speak,  half-way,  recording  only  six  groups 
of  animals,  when  the  factors  that  underlie  it  sug- 
gested a  good  many  more  groups.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, that  it  was  with  a  view  of  obtaining,  when 
added  to  the  creation  of  man,  the  same  nimibcr  seven 
as  that  which  suggested  the  division  of  the  whole 
creation  into  six  days,  completing  a  week  with  the 
seventh  day.  Further  subdivisions  of  some  of  the 
groups  above  mentioned  betray  the  action  of  another 
factor.  This,  however,  contra.sts  entirely  with  the 
others,  in  so  far  as  it  originated  from  an  observation 
of  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  animal  itself  and 
its  mode  of  feeding.  Thus,  the  birds  of  prey  were 
detacheil  from  the  groupof  birds,  taking  tlie  specific 
name  of  tl'J?  '■''?•  The  behemot  were  flivided  into 
hoofed  animals  and  clawed  animals;  the  former  into 
cloven-hoofed  and  non-cloven-hoofed  animals;  and, 
in  their  turn,  each  of  these  categories  into  "  cud -chew- 
ing" and  "non-eud-chewing,"  etc.  This  attempt  at 
a  somewhat  scientific  classification  seems,  however, 
to  have  lieen  the  outcome  of  ritualism,  not  of  popu- 
lar observation  like  llie  more  jirimitive  and  general 
grouping  of  which  the  above  is  a  logical,  not  chrono- 
logical, analysis.  See  for  further  discussion  of  these 
classes  and  subdivisions  the  article  t'i.K.\N  .\nd  Un- 
ci.?;.\N  Animals;  also  Biuds,  Cattle,  Fish,  Rep- 
tiles; Dietary  Laws. 

Bnii.i(K;UAPnY :  Tri.stram.  Fnuna  and  FUira  nf  Pahi'litie  ;  L. 
CUU-hrsWr  tian>  Anitnals  tif  tilt:  liihlc.  ii     ji 

AN'IM  ZEMIROT  (niTet  DT3S^:  -^  mystical 
hvnui.  known  as  llie  "Sliir  ha  Ivabod  "  (Hynm  of 
Glory),  ascribed  to  R.  .ludah,  the  saint  of  Speyer 
(Landshuth,  "  Hegyon  Leb,"  (ip.  205  if  wq.),  which  is 
honored  by  many  congregations  with  a  pronunent 
place  at  the  close  of  the  morning  service  in  associa- 
tion with  the  I'salinof  the  Day  ITemtlk  SkuviceJ. 
It  is  likewise  ri'ad  on  the  Eve  of  Atonement,  and  in 
Knglish  congrigations  is  then  associated  with  a  sim- 
ple melody,  conung,  like  the  hymn,  from  the  Rhine- 
land,  but  not  dating  back  further  than  the  early  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  (see  Zunz,  "Literatur- 
gcsch."  p.  300).     For  music  see  next  page. 

F.  L.  C. 

ANISE.     See  Dil.l.. 

ANISIMOV.  ILIA  SHARBATOVICH:  Rus- 
sian civil  engiiii'er  .  bnrn  in  I  )aglieslaii.  1>^53:  received 
his  lirst  education  in  the  liDuse  of  iiis  father.  Dr.Shar- 
bat  ben  Nisim.  rabbi  and  president  of  the  Da.irliestan 
cominnnily.  He  was  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Moscow,  and  held  the  position  of  a.ssistani  mana- 
ger of  the  Rothschild  Naiihtha  Company  in  the  Cau- 
casus, lie  was  the  author  of  twiv  Hebrew  pam- 
phlets on  the  .lewish  eonunnidly  of  Daghestan  which 
were  ]>ublished  in  .lerusidiin  in  181)4.  In  l.HNS  the 
Ethnographical  Branch  of  the  Moscow  Society  of 


Anjou 

Anna  Ivanovna 


Tin:  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


608 


Natural  Science  published  his  work:  "Kavkazskie 
Ycvrci,"  a  study  of  tliu  life,  customs,  and  history  of 
the  Jews  inlmhitiu.L;  the  regiou  of  the  Caucasus. 

BlBI.iooRAPiiY:  liiizKViiet.  IHSl.  Nos.  IS, 34;   Klirmtilsa  1'iw- 
khiiila.  1SV>.  Ncs.  -to. 47:  Vogldiiiil.  \m).  Ni«.  1,  L':  i?i(wk<i)/<i 

MlM.  St-pt.,  ISS'X 

ANJOIT:  Ancient  province  of  France,  bounded  by 
Poitou.  Brittany,  JIaine.  and  Touraine.  It  now  in- 
cliules  the  whole  of  the  depart inent  Maine-et -Loire  as 
well  as  parts  of  Mayenne,  of  Sarthe,  and  of  Indn-cl- 
Lciire.  This  province,  at  one  time  a  dueliy ,  like  all  the 
neiirhborinj;  resrion  seems  to  have  been  settleil  by 
Jews  at  an  early  date.  One  of  tlie  earliest  rabbis 
known,  Joseph  TobElem  (about  ltl.">0),  bore  the  title 
of  chief  of  the  community  of  Linvousin  and  of  Anjou. 
The  rabbis  of  the  province  took  part  in  the  synods 


quarter,  and  were  subjected  to  vexatious  regulations, 
little  inducement  beiiiir  jriven  them  to ren\ain.  From 
this  period  all  traceof  tliemislost.  Inmodern  times 
not  a  siniric  Jewisliconununity  lias  been  reestalilislied 
in  tlie  province.  Some  localities,  sncli  as  Samnur, 
Segre.  and  Hauge — one  of  wlio.se  rabbis,  MoVse.  was 
acontemporaryof  K.Tam — have  preserved  the  names 
of  streets  or  quarters  wliicli  attest  the  presi'uce  of 
Jews  in  tliesc  places  in  the  .Middle  A.ires. 
BiDLiocRAPiiv:  Griis.s,  (l<illi<i  Jiiiliiiiii,  ])]iJH  cigcq.;  Brunscli- 

vicif,  J^xJnifs  iVAxiicn  cl  (/i<  /'<>)/»  Angevin,  lu  Bcv.  it. 

Jiiiris,  .\xlx.  229  i(  scii. 

I.  L. 

ANKAVA   (ANKOA).      See  ALNAqr.\,    Epii- 

KAI.M     lll.N     IsKAl:!,. 

ANKAVA,  ABRAHAM  BEN  MORDECAI : 

North  African Talmudi.sl. am lior. and  litiirfrical  poet; 


Maestoso. 


AN'IM   ZEMIROT 


P 


tzzC 


3ts: 


-t- 


presided  over  by  Ralibenu  Tam  previous  to  tlie  year 
117L  One  Samuel  of  Anjou  was  a  pupil  of  the  cele- 
brated Tosafist  R.  Isaac,  abbreviated  "  RI "  of  Dam- 
pierre.  But  almost  nothing  is  known  of  the  history 
of  the  Jews  of  Anjou.  The  first  circumstantial  in- 
formation furnished  by  contemporary  documents  is 
the  mention  of  tlie  massacres,  of  which  the  Jews 
were  victims,  in  1236;  but  it  is  not  known  whether 
the  murderers  were  inhabitants  of  the  province. 
These  massacres  were,  in  fact,  the  work  of  the  Cru- 
saders, who  began  their  exploits  in  Brittany  and 
continued  them  in  Poitou.  Tlirce  thousand  Jews  in 
Anjou  were  killed  and  five  hundred  submitted  to 
baptism  in  tlie  year  in  question.  A  rabbi,  Solomon 
b.  Joseph  D'Avallon,  composed  an  elegy  on  the 
martyrs. 

Tliis  catastrophe  did  not  completely  annihilate  the 
Jews  of  the  province.  They  are  met  witli  again 
in  1239  and  in  1271,  at  wliich  latter  date  thev  are 
found  complaining  that  they  are  obliged  to  wear  the 
"  wlieel,"  or  Jewish  badge,  and  that  certain  persons 
seized  property  that  should  pass  to  them  as  their 
rightful  heritage.  Charles  I.,  duke  of  Anjou.  pro- 
tected them  against  the  greed  and  arbitrariness  of  the 
bailitl's.  But  their  term  of  respite  seems  to  have  been 
brief.  In  December,  1288,  the  Jews  were  formall.v 
expelled  from  Anjou  by  Charles  II.  on  charges  of 
religious  propagandism,  of  usury,  and  of  enga,ging 
in  trade  with  Christians.  These  were  the  stereo- 
typed accusations  that  almost  invariably  accom- 
panied such  measures;  to  what  extent  they  were 
true  in  this  case  it  is  impossible  to  determine. 

A  number  of  Jews  returned  to  Angers  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  where  they  inhabited  a  particular 


born  at  Fez,  Morocco,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century;  a  descendant  of  the  ^ij.x.Mji  A 
family;  died  after  18H().  His  sjiecial  department  of 
study  was  the  law  of  ritual  slaughtering,  in  which 
subject  he  made  extensive  investi.sations.  traveling 
in  Xortli  Africa  and  Italy,  consulting  living  authoi- 
ities,  and  searching  for  manuscripts  of  Castilianand 
African  writers.  In  the  course  of  his  travels  he 
came  to  Tlemcen,  Algeria,  winch  had  once  been  a 
famous  seat  of  learning,  but  liad  degenerated,  owing 
to  the  persecutions  to  whicli  the  Jews  there  were 
subjected  (see  Alnaqua,  Ei'IIHAIm).  Ankava,  in  his 
desire  to  improve  the  state  of  education  among  tlie 
.lews  of  Tleni(;en,  remained  there  three  years,  and 
founded  a  Talmiidie  academy.  His  labors  were  highl.v 
appreciated  in  tlie  nortliwestern  parts  of  .Vfrica ;  and 
the  wraltliiermembers  of  the  Jewish  population  sup- 
ported him  lilierally.  He  published  (1)  "Zekor  le- 
Abraham  "  (Rememlier  unto  Abraham),  containing 
an  exposition  of  the  dietary  laws,  written  in  verse, 
and  a  commentary  on  tliem,  compiled  from  various 
manuscripts  (Leghorn,  1839);  and  (2)"Zebahim  She- 
lamim"  (Peace-Offerings),  written  especially  for  «//^>- 
hetiin  (slaughterers ;  Leghorn,  1858).  He  also  wrote 
an  Arabic  jiaraphrase  of  the  Seder  liturgj',  and  ed- 
ited and  revised  a  number  of  liturgies,  into  which  he 
incorporated  several  elegies  (kinot)  of  his  own. 

BIBLIOORAPHV  :  Zedner,  In  Stcinsclinei'lor's Hc'jr.  BilA.  vol.  I. 

S. 

ANKAVA,  JACOB  BEN  AMRAM  :  Trans- 
lator; lived  in  Algeria  in  tlie  nineteenth  century. 
He  translated  from  Spanish  into  Arabic  a  treatise  on 


609 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anjou 

Anna  Ivanovna 


the  laws  to  be  observed  by  Jewish  women,  under 
the  title  "Dat  Yelnulit  "  (Laws  for  the  Jewess),  Al- 
giers. 185"). 

BiBi.iocRAPiiY  :  Zedner,  Cal.  lUhr.  Bmhs  Brit.  Mux.  p.  50. 

J.   S.   R. 
ANKLET  :    An  ornanient  for  the  ankle,  alluded 
to  by  Isaiah  (iii.  18)  in  the  list  of  articles  of  jewelry 
that   llie  wonieu  of  that  day  were  accustomed  to 


Oriental  Anklets. 
Tlio  upper  forms  are  ancient,  the  lower  modem.  Anklets. 

(From  "  Narrsttvo  of  »  MImIoq,"  IH3V.> 

wear.  Sometimes  the  Anklets  were  connected  by  a 
short  chain,  compelling  in  this  way  an  affected  or 
mincing  manner  of  walking.  The  Targuni  on  the 
pa.s.iage  and  Yer.  Shall,  iii.  8/1  translate  'ukasiiii  by 
"shoes  "  or  "slippers."  (!.   15.   L. 

ANNA(inGreek  writings.  fdrHel),  HANNAH)  : 
1.  Tobit'swife.  of  hisown  kindred (Tolii I  i.  !(),  consan- 
guineous marriages  being  regarded  by  the  i)ioiis  Jews 
of  old  as  especially  meritorious  (see  Kohler.  "The  Pre- 
Talmiidic  Ilaggadah."  in  "Jewish  (Juarlcrly  Re- 
view." V.  40(1.  note).  2.  A  saintly  woman  men 
liomd  in  the  Xew  Testament,  daughter  of  I'lianuel 
of  the  tribe  of  Asliir.  who.  after  seven  years'  mar- 
riairc.  had  liiiiia  widow  for  fourscore  and  four  years, 
spending  night  and  day  in  the  Temple  with  prayers 
and  fasting,  and  who.  as  prophetess,  had  spoken  of 
the  conuiig  advent  of  lh('  .Messiah  to  those  assem- 
bled I  here  as  worshipers  "  looking  for  the  redemption 
of  Jerusidi'm,"  when  the  sudden  appeanince  of  .lesus. 
the  infant,  on  the  scene,  caused  her  to  give  thanks 
lo(i<id  for  the  fullilnient  of  the  >Iessianie  ]iredi(tion 
(Luke.  ii.  ;!(>-:!!l).  Exactly  the  same  story  is  lolil  of 
Siiiii'on,  the  devout  one  of  .lerusali-m.  that  "while' 
looking  for  the  consolation  of  Israel  "  he  had  ri'ceived 
a  revelation  by  the  Holy  Spirit  that  he  should  not 
die  before  he  had  seen  the  Lord's  .\noinlcd.  and 
when  he  saw  the  child  Jesus  in  the  Temple  he  blessed 
God  for  the  salvation  lie  had  seen  (Luke.  ii.  '^'.-i-HJl. 
Such  "  mourners  for  Zion.  who  look  for  tlw  .Messianic 
salvation '' or  "  for  the  consolation."  are  mcnlionrd 
in  the  early  Midrashini  ( I'es.  I{.  x.v.\iv. ;  Har.  Apoc. 
xliv.  7;  compare  Luke.  x.\iil.  Til). 

These  two  stories  of  Luke  have  tlie  trui-Ji'wish 
coloring,  whatever  may  In-  said  regarding  the  his- 
toric character  of  these  two  witnes.ses  to  the  Mes- 


sianic  claim  of  .Jesus.  It  is  certainly  remarkable  that 
there  existed  a  rabbinic  legend  of  another  long-lived 
sjiiutly  woman.  Serah.  the  daughter  of  Asher,  who 
was  permitted  to  live  all  through  the  years  of  Egyp- 
tian oppression  in  order  that  she  might  aid  in  the  re- 
demption of  Israel  by  the  discovery  of  the  bones  of 
Joseph  (Mek.,  Beshalah,  i.).    See  Seuah  bat  Asiikh. 

K. 

ANNA:  Daughter  of  Rabbi  Eleazar  of  Worms; 
lived  al  Ijfurt.  where  she  died  as  martyr  by  the 
hand  of  Crusaders.  Dec.  G.  121:5  or  1214.  Her  mother 
(Dolce)  and  sister  (Bellelte)  met  with  the  same  fate. 

Bibliography:  Kayserling,  Jlidkche  Fraven,  p.  08. 

G. 

ANNA  :  Dauirhterof  R.  Meir  of  Ramerupt.  sister 
of  Kalilieiiu  T:im  and  IJashliam.  and  granddaugliter 
of  Rashi;  a  learned  woman  of  Champagne.  France, 
and  who,  about  the  middle  of  the  tweiflh  century, 
gave  instruction  to  women  in  the  Jewish  religion. 

BIBLIOGRAPIIV:  Kavserllnp,  JUdiwhc  Fiaiien.  p.  137. 

G. 

ANNAiXJK).     See  ll.\i,i.i;i..  IIakakot. 

ANNA  BE^OREN'U  ci^xipa  NJX):  A  Pizmon 

for  the  Kve  nf  .VtoiieiiieMt,  aeeording  to  the  Sephar- 
dic  ritual,  taking  the  |ilace  occupied  by  "Oninara 
Ken"  and  "  Ki  Ilinneli  Ka-homer  "  in  the  ritual  of 
the  Ashkenazim.  It  is  a  jirayerful  hymn  by  D;ivid 
Ilm  Hekodali  (twelfth  century.  Zunz.  "  Literal urge- 
schichte."  p.  217).  who  obviously  intended  it  for 
antiphonal  renderinir  between  hazan  and  congre- 
gation. The  traililional  melody  is  of  ancient  Spanish 
origin,  and  of  consi<lenible  interest  in  itself  for  its 
construction  and  rhythm.  It  possesses  a  flavor  of 
Arab  melody,  better  preserved  in  the  version  given 
on  next  jiage,  which  is  that  of  Bevis  Jlarks,  than 
in  the  Italian  traditional  chant.  F.   L.   C. 

ANNA  rVANOVNA :  Empress  of  Russia  ; 
born  Feb.  8,  l(i!)3;  crowne<l  1730;  died  Oct.  28. 
1740.  After  the  death  of  Peter  the  Great  (Feb. 
8.  172."))  a  reactionary  policy  was  inaugurated  by 
his  imniediali' successors,  who  were  inlliieneid  by  the 
Greek  Orthodox  clergy.  This  policy  iniluced  Cath- 
erine I.  to  expel  the  Jews  from  the  I'knunc  and 
from  some  other  parts  of  the  empire,  with  the  order 
"not  to  admit  them  in  the  future  into  Russia  under 
any  circuiustances.  and  carefully  to  watch  every- 
where to  this  end  "  (Ukase  of  Jlav  7.  1727.  Complete 
Russian  Code.  vii,.  No.  ,")003).  Peter  II.  (1727-30). 
in  response  to  a  pi  lition  of  the  Zaporoirian  Hetman 
.\postol.  permitted  the  Jews  to  alleiid  the  fail's  of 
Little  Russia,  provided  they  carried  on  a  wholestilo 
trade  only  (Ckase  of  Sept.  2,  1728,  Complete  Rus- 
sian Code,  viii.,  No.  5324). 

The  German  element  at  the  court  of  .Vnna  Iva- 
novna. represented  by  Ostermann  and  Hiron.  fol- 
lowed a  broader,  mori'  pmclicnl  |iolicy  in  regard  to 
the  Jews,  whom  they  considered  to  be  a  useful 
factor  in  the  development  of  Russian  commerce; 
not  looking  upon  them  with  the  eyes  of  the  nar 
rowniinded.  uneducaled  Russian  clergy,  who  feared  ' 
them  as  enemies  of  the  Church.  .Vnna  Ivanovna, 
therefore,  "in  consideration  that  in  many  military 
.settleiuenis  the  number  of  merchants  is  very  scanty, 
and  commerce  and  industry  very  litlle  developed, "al- 
lowed the  .lews  ("  for  the  lienctil  of  the  inhabitants") 
to  (arrv  on  Inide  at  fail's  in  retail  {ilu'd.  v,-ix.  Nos. 
(ItUO.  »iiU4).  My  an  edict  of  July  14.  KIW.  the  .Tew 
Rariich  Leibov  and  the  captain  of  the  navy  Voz- 
nil/.yn  were  sentenced  to  be  burned:  the  former  for 
the  conversion  of  the  latter  to  the  Jewish  faiib; 
and  the  captiiiu,   for  apo»lu.sy.     It    was   probably 


Annas 
Anointing 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


610 


ow 
on 
to 


ing  to  this  incident  that  Anna  Ivanovua  issued, 
Aug.  29.  1T;?9.  a  uka.st'  forbidding  Jews  to  owner 
rent  in  Little  Russia  inns  or  any  other  property 


family  which  produced  five  high  priests  during  tlie 
Herodiau  period  (Josei>lius.  "Ant."  .\x.  9,  ij  1). 
These  were  Eleazar,  Jonathan,  Thcopliilus.  Auan, 


ANNA   BEKORENU 


up  -    on       Thee,  un  -  to 


nai,  6he- 
Lord,    0  do    Thou 


ma    -    'ah!  Haz.  :  An 
hark    -  eti !  0 ! 


1 — 
Da 

in 


1 1^— 

be  •   ra    -     ha  • 
Tliy    great      com 


^=i^=i^ 


:SBif: 


me 
pas 


:^P 


ka      'a  - 
sion    our 


won 
sin    • 


biz 

Jul 


'e 
grasp 


nn, 
ing, 


Cong. 


A  -    do  -  nai 
Lord,  do     Thou 


se     - 
for  - 


la    ' 
give 


-\ s»»- 

hah!  Haz.:  De  - 

us !  mih 


ba 

words 


I — 
rim 

have 


la 
/ 


kah 
plead 


ti. 
ed. 


i 


do  -  uai!  Haz  :  We  -  het 
good  Lord.'  In 

mf 


ti.   Cong.  :  Se  - 

ed.  For  - 


^ 


lah, 

give 


A    - 

us, 


do  -  nai!        An 
good  Lord!     0! 


n 

na 

when 


be 

we 


-| 

ko 

cull 
mf 


re 

up 


i 


nn,      le 

Thee,  un  ■ 


kol 

to 


sbaw  ' 

our 


-| — 
na 


1 1^— 

be  -    ra    -     ha  - 
Thy     great     com  ■ 


'e 
vol 


nn, 
ces. 


A     - 

Lord, 


do- 

0 


nai, 
do 


she  -    ma 
Thou    hark 


■ah! 
en! 


An 

0! 


i 


w 


ife-£HS 


fc 


I 


me    -    ka      'a  -   won 


pas 


sion    our    sin 


biz 

fui 


A 


dj  -  nai, 


1.1 


hah! 


grasp  -  ing.        Lord,     do     Thou      for  -    give 


{ibid.  v.-x.  No.  7869).     A  previous   edict,  of  July 
22,  had  expelled  all  the  Jews  from  Little  Russia. 

BiBLiooRAPHT:  Lev.inda,  Pnlnn  Klirimnluyhichri'ki  SImrnik 
Zalsoniir,  etc.,  1.H74.  pp.  7-14 :  N.  Kostomiirnv.  Uu-iskam  In- 
liiriiia.  etc.,  2d  eii..  ls«!.  il.  142  (7  wg.;  Solovyev,  Istoriya  Rus- 
sia, iv.  passim  and  v.  519  et  soi. 

H.  R. 

ANNAS  ("Anaf:  also  known  as  Anan;  prob- 
ably a  contracted  form  of  the  name  Ananiah  in  its 
Greek  form.  'Avavn^.  whicli  is  employed  by  Jose- 
phus):  Son  of  Sethi,  or  Seth  (Jo.sephus,  ""Ant." 
xviii.  2,  §  1),  a  Jewish  high  priest.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  tlie  office  by  Quirinus,  governor  of  .Syria, 
to  succeed  Joazar.  AVhen  in  his  thirty-seventh 
year,  and  after  having  held  his  position  from  the 
years  6-15,  he  was  deposed  by  Valerius  Gratus, 
procurator  of  Judea.     Annas   was   the   head  of  a 


and  Matthias.  His  daughter  was  married  to  the  high 
priest  Joseph,  who.  under  the  surname  of  Caiaphas, 
held  that  olliee  aljout  ten  J'ears  (27-37). 

Annas  is  the  high  jiriest  who  appears  in  the  New 
Testament  as  holding  tliis  office  along  with  Caiaphas, 
his  son-in-law  (Luke.  iii.  2).  In  fact,  one  passage 
calls  him  |ilainly  the  high  priest  (Acts,  iv.  0),  while 
Caiaphas  is  merely  a  member  of  the  hierarchic  fam- 
ily. It  is  into  Annas'  hands  that  Jesus  is  deliv- 
ered for  his  first  hearing,  ere  being  sent  to  Caiaphas 
(John,  xviii.  13).  though  in  another  passjige  (John, 
xi.  49,  .51)  Caiaphas  is  styled  the  higli  priest  of  that 
year.  From  these  citations  it  is  obvious  that  though 
Caiaphas  was  the  properly  ap|)ointed  high  priest, 
Annas,  being  his  father-in-law  and  a  fonner  incum- 
bent of  the  office,  undoubtedly  exercised  a  great 
deal  of  the  power  attached  to  the  position.     The  use 


611 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Annas 
Anointing 


of  the  siiiKiilar  in  the  passaire  in  Luke,  in  fact,  is  in- 
liTpreted  by  Dr.  Plunimer  as  signitieant  of  this  eir- 
(iiriistance:  i-l  (ippf/i/u<:  'Arra  Kai  Ka/acfpii — "under 
llie  hiirh  priest  Annas-C'aiaphas."  whieli  would  mean 
"tliat  Ijetween  them  thi-y  discharged  the  duties,  or 
that  eaeli  of  tliem  in  dilTerent  senses  was  rej^arded 
hitrh  priest,  Aiuias  tie  jure  (Aets,  iv.  ()|  and  Caiaplias 
il,  fiirtii"  {John,  xi.  49).  Phimmer's  further  sugges- 
tion that  Annas  may  liave  been  eneourag<'(l.  "so  far 
as  it  was  safe  to  clo  so.  to  ignore  the  lionian  ap- 
liointmenis  and  to  eontiinie  in  ollicc  iluring  the 
higl]  priestlioods  of  his  siieeessors. "  must  l)e  noted, 
particularly    in  view  of  the  fact  that  govennncnt 


ANNIVERSARY  OF  DEATH,   .^i..  Jaiiuzf.it. 
ANNUAX    HEBREW    MAGAZINE,    THE. 

See  ri;i;ioiiii  si,- 

ANOINTED  OF  THE  LORD,  THE.  See 
Mkssi  vh. 

ANOINTING.— Biblical  Data:  Two  words 
are  employed  in  the  Old  Testament  for  Anointing, 
"|1D  and  nCtS-  The  former  designates  tlie  )u-ivate  use 
of  unguents  in  making  one's  toilet,  the  latter  their 
u.se  as  a  religious  rite. 

As  a  means  of  soothing  the  skin  in  the  fierce  lieat 
of  the  Palestinian  climate,  oil  seems  to  liave  been 
ai>plied  to  the  cxjioscd  ]iarts  of  the  body,  especially 


flips      \N      ]a.\  IM  IAS      KlSi.. 
itrom  Wllktuon.) 


appnintmenls  to  religious  offlres  were  always  dis- 
rounlcimnced  by  the  Jews.  After  the  removal  of 
Caiaplias  four  more  sons  of  .Vnnas  held  the  high- 
■  -■  slhooil,  iind   the  last  of  IIk  in.  another  .\nnas.  is 


pri( 


•the 


said  to  have  |iut  to  death  James,  known  as 
brother  of  .lesus,"  and  the  lirst  bishop  of  .bTUsalem. 
The  .\nan  family  (J'jn  D'a*  is  rcferreil  to  in  the  Tal 
mud  (Pes.  r>1ii)  as  having  inlluenee,  but  using  it 
against  the  interests  of  the  people. 

Iluii.KMiRAPiiv:  SrliftriT,  (Irwh.  il.Jllil  Vnlkfn,  M  «!.,  11.217: 
I'Uiniiiier,  .Sf.  LukfAn  IntfriutlOnutl  CriltcaWninnuiiliiry^ 
pp.  St.  :<i:>. 

A.  ni\ 

ANNIXrS   KUFUS  :    Procurator  of  Jiiden  from 
the  year  li-irt  (Jose|)lius,  "Am."  xviii.  2.  Si  2). 

A.  W. 


to  the  face  (Ps.  civ.  LI):  that  this  was  n  part  of  the 
daily  toilet  may  be  inferred  from  Malt.  vi.  IT.  The 
)>ractise  isoliler  than  Daviil.  and  runs  throughout  the 
Old  Testament  (see  Dcul.  xxviii.  40;  Puth.  iii.  'J;  II 
."^am.  xii.  2ll.  xiv.  2;  llCliron.  xxviii.  1,1;  K/.ek.  xvi. 
!l;  Micali.  vi.  l."i:  Dan.  x.  If),  .\noiiiting accompanied 
a  bath  (Pulh,  iii.  :t;  H  Sam.  xii.  2lt;  P>.ek.  xvi.  9; 
Susanna,  17>;  it  was  a  part  of  the  toilet  for  a  feast 
(Kcil.  ix.  H,  Ps.  xxiii.  .">)  |in  which  a  dilTerent  term 
is  poetically  uscil]  ( Amos,  vi.  (i).  Ili'nce.  it  was  omit- 
ted in  mourning  as  a  sign  of  griif  (11  Sam.  xiv.  2, 
Dan.  \  III,  anil  rcsume<j  to  imliiale  that  motirniug 
was  over  (II   Sam     xii    2U;  .luililh.  x.  '.i). 

The  primary  imaningof  »<.i«/eiA.  which  i«-curs  al.so 
in  .Vrabio.  seems  to  have  bi>en  to  daub  or  smear.  It 
is  used  (Jer.  \xii.  14)  of  painting  a  ceiling  iiud  (Isa. 


Anointing: 
Anonymous  Works 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


612 


xxi  5)  of  anointing  a  shield.  It  is  applied  to  sacred 
furniture,  lilie  the  altar  (Ex.  xxix.  36.  Dan.  ix.  24). 
and  to  the  sacred  pillar  (Gen.  xxxi.  13):  "  where  thou 
anointcdst  the  pillar."  ,    ,   .    . 

The  most  important  use  of  mashah  is  in  connec- 
tion with  certain  sacred  persons.     The  principal  and 
oldest  of  these  is  the  king,  who  was  anointed  from 
the  earliest  times  (.ludiTcs.  ix.  8.   M; 
Anointing   I  Sam.  ix.  16.  x.  1:    II   Sam.  xix.  10; 
of  King.     I  Kings,  i.  39.  4.");  II  Kings,  ix.  3.  6. 
xi.Vi).    So  exclusively  was  Anointing 
reserved  for  the  king  in  this  i)eriod"that  "  the  Lords 
anointed"  became  a' svnonvm  for  king  (I  Sam.  xii. 
3,5   xxvi.  11;  II  Sam.  i.l4;Ps.  XX.7).     This  custcmi 
was  older  than  the  Hebrews.    El-Amarna  Tablet  No. 
37  tells  of  the  anointing  of  a  king. 

In  that  section  of  the  Pentateuch  known  as  the 
Priestly  Code  the  high  priest  is  auointcd  (Ex.  xxix. 
7-  Lev"  vi.  13.viii.l2).  and,  in  pa.ssages  which  critics 
regard  as  additions  to  the  Priestly  Code,  other  iiricsts 
as°well  (Ex.  xxx.  30,  xl.  13-1.5).  It  appears  from  the 
use  of  "anointed  priest,"  in  the  sense  of  high  priest 
(Lev.  iv.  5-7,  16;  Num.  xxx  v.  25.  etc.),  that  the  high 
priest  was  at  first  the  only  one  anointed, and  that  the 
practise  of  anointing  all  the  priests  was  a  later  devel- 
opment (compare  Num.  iii.  3:  Dillman  on  Lev.  viii. 
13-14;  Nowack,  "  Lchrbuch  der  HebiiUsclien  Arcliii- 
ologie,"  ii.  124).  In  the  earliest  times  the  priests 
were  iiot  anointed,  but  "their  hands  were  tilled," 
which  probably  means  that  they  were  hired  (com- 
pare Judges,  xvii.  5,  12;  I  Kings,  xiii.  33;  Well- 
hausen,  "Prolegomena,"  .5th ed.,  ].p.  155f?sc?. ;  Beu- 
zinger  "Lchrbuch  der  Hebrilischen  Arcliiiologie, 
p  407).  Weinel  (Stade's  "Zeitschrift."  xviu.  W)  ct 
seq.)  contests  this  view.  The  earliest  menti.in  of  an 
anointed  priest  is  in  Zech.  iv.  14;  and  as  E/.ek.  xliii. 
26  still  uses  "  fill  the  hand  "  for  "  consecrated  "  (that 
Ezekiel  uses  it  here  figuratively  for  the  altar  does 
not  materially  affect  the  argument),  we  may  infer 
that  priests  were  not  anointed  before  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  centurv  B.C.  Elijah  is  directed  to  anoint 
Elisha  as  a  prophet  (I  Kings,  xix.  16);  but  this 
seems  never  to  have  been  carried  out,  and  from  Isa. 
Ixi.  1  we  may  infer  that  the  direction  was  intended  to 
be  figunitive.  So  far  as  is  known,  prophets  were 
not  anointed. 

W.  R.  Smith  found  the  origin  of  tins  sacred  Anoint- 
ing in  the  custom  of  smearing  the  sacred  fat  on  the 
rmszebah.  or  altjw  ("  Religion  of  the  Semites."  2d  ed., 
pp'233,  383  et  seg.):  so  also  Wellhausen  ("Rcste  des 
Anibischen  Heidentliuras,"  2d  ed.,  pp.  125  et  seg.). 
Wcinel  maintains  (St'ade's  "Zeitschrift."  xviii.  50  ct 
seq.)  that  the  use  of  oil  is  an  agricultural  custom  bor- 
rowed from  the  Canaanites ;  that  the  offering  of  oil 
poured  on  an  altar  is  parallel  to  the  offering  of  first- 
fruits;  thus  the  anointing  of  a  king  with  sacred  oil  is 
an  outgrowth  from  its  regular  use  by  all  persons  for 
toilet  purposes. 

From  this  latter  view  It  seems  difficult  to  account 
for  the  great  sjmctitv  of  "  the  Lord's  anointed. "  The 
different  terms  usecl  would  lead  us  to  accept  Rob- 
ertson Smith's  views  of  the  origin  of  mashah 
(namely,  that  it  is  nomadic  and  sacrificial)  and  to 
believe  that  theswA;.  or  use  of  oil  for  toilet  purposes, 
was  of  agricultural  and  secular  origin;  hence  the 
distinct  and  consistent  use  of  the  two  terms. 

G.  A.  B. 

In  Rabbinical  Literature  :  The  first  Biblical 

instance  of  Anointing  as  a  sign  of  consecration— the 
pouring  of  oil  bv  Jacob  upon  the  stone  of  Beth-el 
—offered  a  problem  to  later  speculative  rabbis  as  to 
the  source  whence  Jacob  obtained  the  oil  in  that 
lonely  spot.  The  reply  was  made  by  them  that  it 
must  have  " streamed  down  from  heaven  in  quan- 


tity just  sufficient  for  the  purpose"  (Gen.  R.  l.xix., 
PirHe  R.  El.  xxxv.).     The  oil  of  holy  ointment  pre- 
pared bv  Moses  in  the  wilderness  (Ex.   xxx.  23  et 
iieq.)  had  many  miraculous  qualities; 
For  Conse-  it  was  never  absorbed  by  the  many 
oration.      spices  mixed  therewith ;  its  twelve  logs 
(1.68  gallons)  were  sufficient  for  the 
anointment  of  all  the  kings  and  high  priests  of  Israel- 
itish  history,  and  will  be  in  use  in  the  Messianic  time 
to  come.    'During  the  reign  of  Josiah  this  oil  was 
hidden  awav  simultaneously  with  the  holy  ark,  to 
reappear  in"  the  Messianic  "time  (Hor.    Hi  et   seg.; 
Sifra.  Jlillium,  1).  . 

As  to  the  mode  of  anointment,  an  old  rabbinical 
tradition  relates  (Hor.  \i<i.  Ker.  5*)  that  "the  kings 
wen-  anointed  in   \\w  form  of  a  crown;  that  is.  all 
around  the  head;  and  the  high  priests  in  tli<'  form  of 
a  Greek  Chi  (t).     In  other  words,  in  anointing  the 
priests  the  oil  was  poured  first  upon  the  head  and 
then  upon  the  eyebrows  (see  Rashi,  and  "  '  Aruk,"  n.  r. 
'3;   and.  as  ag"ainst  Kohut's  dissertation,   compare 
Plato,  "Tima-us,"  chap,  xxxvi.,  referred  to  by  Jus- 
tin Martyr,  "First   Apology,"  Ix. :    "He  impressed 
the  soul  "as  an  unction  in  the  form  of  the  letter  AT 
(chiasma)  upon  the  universe."     It  is  not   unlikely 
that,  owing   to   thiir   opposition  to  the    Christian 
cross,  the  Jewish  interpreters  adopted  the  hiph  {orm 
instead  of  the  ;r— H'c  original   ttie  of  Ezek.  ix.  4. 
The  rule  is  stated  that  every  priest,  whether  the 
son  of  a  high  priest  or  not,  had  to  be  anointed.     The 
son  of  a  king  was.  however,  exempt, 
Kules        except  for  special  rea.sons.  as  in  the 
Governing   case  of  Joash,  because  of  Athaliah  (II 
Anoint-      Kings,  xi.   12);   Solomon,  because  of 
ment.         Adonijah  (I  Kings,  i,  39);   and  .lehu. 
because  of  Joram's  claims  (II  Kings, 
ix.  1  et  seq.);  or  of  Jehoahaz,  because  Jehoiakim  was 
two  years  his  senior  (II  Kings,  xxiii.  30).     This  rule 
^yas, "however,  modified,  as  indicated  by  the  state- 
ment that  David  and  Solomon  were  anointed  from 
the  horn  (I  Sam.  xvi.   13;   I  Kings,  i.  3(1)  and  Saul 
and  Jehu  from  the  crus( — p'lk  (I  Sam.  x.  1 ;  II  Kings, 
ix.  3:   the  A.  V.  has  "vial"  and  "box"  in  these  re- 
spective passages).     Another  rule  is  mentioned,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  kings  of  the  house  of  Israel 
were  not  anointed  with  the  sacred  oil  at  all.     In  their 
cases  pure  balsam  was  used  instead;  nor  could  the 
last  reisning  kings  of  Judali  have  been  anointed  with 
the  sacred  oil  of  consecration,  since  Josiah  is  .said  to 
have  hidden  it  awav  (see  Hor.  IIA;  Ycr.  Sotah,  viii. 
22c;  Yer.  Hor.  iii.  4r).     Rabbinical  tradition  distin- 
guishes also  between  the  regular  high  priest  and  the 
priest  anointed  for  the  siiecial  purpose  of  leading  in 
■Kar—nMsfiiiiih  milhuiiiHli  (Sotah.  viii.  1;  Yoma,  72A, 
73<7).     According   to   tradition  (see  Josippon,   xx. ; 
Chronicle  of  Jerahmecl,  xci.  3;  compare  I  Mace.  in. 
.55),  Judas  Maccabeus  was  anointed  as  jiriest    for 
the  war  before  he  proclaimed  the  words  prescribed 
in  Dent.  xx.  1-9. 

Anointing  stands  for  greatness  (Sifre,  >ura.  11"; 
Yer  Bik  ii.  64//):  consequently.  "Touch  not  niuie 
anointed  "  signifies  "  my  great  ones."  All  the  vessels 
of  the  tabernacle,  also,  were  consecrated  with  the 
sacred  oil  for  all  time  to  come  (Num.  R.  xii.). 

As  a  rule.  Anointing  with  oils  and  perfumes  fol- 
lowed the  bath  (see  Shab.  41«;  Sotah,  lU).  the  head 
bcin'i-  anointe<l  first  (Shab.  61^).     On  the  Sabbath. 
Anointing .  whether  for  pleasure  or  tor 
For  Health  health,  is  allowed  (Yer.  Ma'as.  Sh.  ii. 
and  53/- ;  Yer.  Shab.  ix.  12rt,  based  on  Jlish- 

Comfort.      nah  Shab.  ix.  4 ;  compare  Tosef . ,  Shab. 

iii.  [iv.]  6). 
It  is  forbidden,   however,  in  both   instances  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement  (compare    Yoma,    vni.   1, 


613 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anointing 
Anonymous  Works 


764);  wlicrciis  on  tlic  Ninth  of  Ab  and  oilier  fast- 
(laj's  it  is  permitted  for  health  only  (compare  Ta'anit, 
12Ti),  and  is  declared  as  enjoyable  as  drinking 
(Sliab.  ix.  4). 

Anointing  as  a  remedy  in  case  of  skin  diseases 
is  mentioned  in  Yer.  Ma'as.  8h.  ii.  iiSn:  Bab.  Yoma. 
TTi;  and  Yer.  Shab.  xiv.  14c;  but  at  the  sjime  time 
incantations  were  used,  the  person  anointing  the 
head  with  oil  also  pronouncing  an  incantation  over 
the  sore  spots  (lohi«/i  'al  hii-iiiiikknli)  r\iici\\  as  stated 
in  the  Epistle  of  .hinies,  v.  14,  and  Mark,  vi.  13  (com- 
pare Isii.  i.  (i;  Ps.  ci.'i.  18;  Luke.  x.  34). 

Men  should  not  go  out  on  the  street  perfumed  (Ber. 
43A);  but  women  perfume  themselves  when  going 
out  (see.Iosephus,  "  B.  J."  iv.  i).  ^  10).  A  wife  could 
demand  one-tenlhof  herdowry-incomc  foriuiguents 
and  perfumes;  the  daughter  of  the  rich  Nicodemus 
bin  (_;oiioii  was  accustomed  to  spend  aiuiually  four 
hundred  gold  denarii  for  the  sjune  (Ket.  6(i4).  These 
facts  serve  to  cast  light  on  the  story  of  Luke,  vii. 
3tt-4(!,  and  John,  xii.  A. 

When  Adam,  in  his  nine  hundred  and  tliirticlli 
year,  was  seized  with  great  pain  during  his  sickness. 
lie  told  Eve  to  "take  Seth  with  her  lo  the  neighbor- 
hood of  paradise  and  pray  to  (iod  that  He  should 
send  an  angel  witli  oil  from  the  tice  of  mercy,  in 
order  that  tliey  might  anoint  Adam  therewith  and 
release  him  from  his  pain"  (Apocalypse  Mosis,  lli; 
Vita  Ad:e  et  Ev;e,  30-4).  What  follows  here  seems 
to  be  the  work  of  a  Christian  writer  or  interpolator, 
and  corresponds  with  "  Evangeliiim  Nicodemi,"  p.  19, 
"  Descensus,"  p.  3.  Compare  the  baptismal  rile  of  the 
Elke.saites  in  Ilippolitus' "  Refutation  of  Heresies"; 
till-  bajitismal  fornuila  of  the  Ophites  in  Origen, 
"Contra  Cclsum."  vi.  27.  "I  have  been  anointed 
w  ith  the  white  ointment  from  the  tree  of  life  "  ;  and 
the  Ebionitic  view  of  Christ  and  Adam  as  the  tirst 
jirophet  anointed  with  oil  from  the  tree  of  life,  while 
the  ointment  of  Aaron  was  made  after  the  mode  of 
the  heavenly  ointment  in  the  Clementine  "Hecogni- 
tioncs,"  .\lv.-xlvii.  "The  pious  anoint  themselves 
with  the  blessed  ointment  of  incorruption  "  ("  Prayer 
of  Aseni'th."  chaps,  viii.  and  x  v.).  Compare  also  the 
mystery  of  the  spiritual  ointmiiit.  in  the  Gnostic 
books  (Schmidt,  "Gnoslische  Schrifteu  in  Kopt- 
ischer  Sprache,"  pp.  195,  339  ct  seq.,  377,  492,  509). 

BiBI.10fii!AiMiv:    nR.«lln(ts,  Dirl.  s.v. ;   Hamburger,  R.  Ii.  T. 

s.v.  Salhi-  unti  SiiUn'tt,  -  K. 

ANONYMOUS  WORKS  :  Hebrew  anonymous 

literalun-  is  coivul  with  llii-  liliTaturc  of  the  nation. 
Tlie  Bible  mentions  I  woanoiiymous  historical  works: 
"  .\Iiihamot  Adonai "  (Num.  xxi.  14)  and  "Scler  ha- 
Yashar"  (Jirsh.  x.  13).  The  Hebrew  writer  of 
aiiti<iuity  generally  did  not  consider  his  work  as 
his  own  |)ro|)erly.  but  as  the  property  of  the  whole 
nation  whose  i<leasor  traditions  he  noted.  Assump- 
tion of  authorship  began  after  the  Talmudical  epoch; 
and  thi'U  an  author  who  delibenitely  omitted  to 
put  bis  name  to  his  work  had  a  motive  for  the 
omis.sion. 

Hebrew  Anonymous  Works,  as  to  the  rea.sons  for 
their  anonymity,  may  be  divided  into  the  following 
three  clas.ses:  (1)  Collectaneous  works,  such  as  the 
Midrashim,  to  wliicli  the  editor,  being  a  mere  com- 
piler, did  not  deem  himself  of  sutlicient  importance 
to  attach  his  name;  (2)  ancient  works  the  authors 
of  which,  cither  becausi'  of  modesty  (see  preface  of 
"Sefer  ha-l.liiuuik  ")  or.  what  is  more  fre(|Uently  the 
case,  because  of  the  negligence  of  a  copyist,  are  not 
given;  (3)  modern  works  not  .signed  simply  because 
their  authors  express  ideas  or  criticisms  they  are  un- 
willing to  father. 

The  following  is  an  approximate  alphabetical  list 


.-  n'crn  piniK  : 


of  all  the  printed  anonymous  Hebrew  works  known 
up  to  1875: 

Seety^iD]P'-"J,«f«  J 

Funenil  elepy  on  the  emperor  Leopold  II.,  InJu-l         ^  ™ 

dieo-tiennun.    Pnit'ui*,  17(15.  (    ^ 

Funeral  elegy  on  Knincis  I.    Triest,  1805.  nt  "[33  San  4 

mjN    .'i 
'tn  rim    « 

Letter-writer.    Augshursr,  VM.                            D'ClS^'  .tijn  8 

IX'lter  of  ttie  scholars  and  rabbis  of  Pal-  i  _„,.„,„  ,„,_ ,,„  o 

estinc  eoncemini.'  tin-  prc'tended  Bene  /"    ,.„,  -;,,!, 
Moshi-.    AmsI.-nlaiM.  17:11.  (  "^  O^'J^-ii 

Genraloify  of  various  rabbis.  ( 'p'^'n  N.-Din"  riDOr  p-\jN  10 

Venice,  ItWi.  )  ''n-i:«  nj-ini 

Homilies  on  Esther.  Prague,  1012.  noini  '■\o  ^s'  D'Iibh  nj.M  II 

(ieopniphy  of  Palestine.    Amsterdam,  1742.           tt'ip.n  .'^njN  12 

Letlor  of  I'lmsolatlon  to  persecuted    Jews.  I  _,_,_,_  __,„  n 

.N'amitlve.   In   Juda"o-(;erman    (Eulensplegel).  I  l„.„,  ,i,„„  ,, 

Frankfort-on-the-.Maln,  xvlll.  f    ■■  ^"^  I"*  '* 

rka.st:  of  tbo  Russian  empenir  addressed  lo  themln-i 

Ister   of   I'ducatlon,   concerning   Jewish    schools.  >-iNpiN  15 

Rome,  IM4.  ) 

Ordlnancesenactedbytheheadsof  the  Jewish  I  V^  N'XNJ'TiN  Itt 

coniraunltv  of  Amsterdam.    17(^.  f     pnr:;'  Sn 

Ethics.     Zoiklev,  ISOI.  iijjn  iin  17 

"Liirht  and  .loy  for  tlie  Jews,"  poem  In  He- 1  ^""Pi  ■'^'^i*'  1" 

brew  iinci  in  Dutch.    Amsterdam.  I7ti8.  ('     o'li^'S 

Ljiws  cunceniiniT  ritual  benedictions,  in  JudiEO-  (.,.„_  __,„  lo 

(iernian.     liu.scl.  IiaC.  ^O'-nmiNls 

A  treatise  oil  ircnmancy.  Dyiicmfunh.  172S.  o^riPi  Q*"iiN  20 
Annual  report  of  JcinKalem.  .Miisicrdam.  IStl.  .-in  .-in  21 
The  ten  precursory  sitais  of  the  comlug  of  the  '  , 

.Messiah,  l.^illl.    '  )' ' 

'^'xvil'"ceuturv""'  ""^  "'  *"^'''''"  f  ""'^S'^  ^1="''°  •"'^'«  23 
Ethiis.    Kimikfort-on-the-Malu,  18S0.  tfipn  .-nnix  2i 

Cc 'Iv.  m  .Iiicl-.eo-Uerman.      FranktortK)n- (.  L,.,.,  ,.„-„.,_,.  <,- 

tbe-Miiin.  17l^.  p'Cy  uni.'nK  -> 

Funeral  elegy.    Wilna,  without  dale.  1133  'N  28 

Masoretlc  work.    l.s*U.  nSjNl  nSjK  27 

Letter  of  some  ralilils  against    the   new  I  ^,--_  ,--_  _<„  «<> 

synagogue  at  Hamburg.  Altona.  1S19.  ( •  ^^^  -iji  n  n  a> 
Statutes  of  the  Hebra  Kaddlsha  of  .Mantua.  .---laT  '-"j-i  n'^N  29 
On  the  punctuation  of  Scripture,  .\mslerdam,  1840.  N-p::^  2S  30 
Religious  controversies.    Isnv.  l.">42.  nj-N 'D  31 

Novelhe  on  the  Talmud.    Briiuii,  17ti'i.  .nj>3  -iCN  '0  32 

Ritual  laws.    Neuwiwl,  1732.  Vdi-n  32a 

Account  of  a  voyage.  In  JudaH>-German.    Wllna,  <  _.„,_  ^,,„  « 

ISIS.  (■  •"")''''  '^  J"  *• 

Letter-s  fmm  rabbis  on  the  controversy ) 

between  Jm-ob  von  Emden  and  Elben- >•  n-\'Ns,i  ''-iSpoDN  34 

schiltz.      Altona,  17.>t.  \ 

An  ailyenture  of  the  gaon  Lsaac  Tlmo.   Kdnlgs- 1  _,^L„  „-»„  or, 

berg.  IS".7.  ( °       "  J^^"**  "" 

Purlin  comeily.  Prague,  1?J0.  ir-nvj'nN  B'3  ton  nupn  38 
Comedy,  In  Judieo-Uemian.  on  the  battle  of  David  >  ,„„,_,„  «» 

wllh<ii>llalh.    Hanau,  I7I1-2U.  ,- pN  xpK  Jt 

Ethics.    Isny,  l.'>42.  O'P'iJ  .-imN  88 

History  of  the  patriarch  Abraham.    London,  1846.  cn-tsN  ^:-n  39 


Satirical  dialogue  about  the  treatment  1  ,,„.,„  „.  ,,,,„-„,,  , 

of  the  Jews  In  tiennanv  and  Poland.  >"■'- '14'°  •'i.f,.,^-  ^  ' 
Prague,  XVIII.  century.                      )          '    '"'  ^^"' 

Ethics.                                                                           PMS  r'3  2 

SiTmons.  Salonlca.  I.'MH.                                              JCNJ  .-i<3  3 

I'oenis,  wieiitlllc  articles,  and  lellers  collected  I  _l_,_  ,-,,,  . 

by  lheToelcis.«leiy  of  Aiiisienlani.    1820.      i '^  >'-^    ^'^^  » 

Prayer  the  worils  of  wlilch  iH-glii  wlili  (  n::'in  i<i"''n  ncia  ^ 

the  letter  Lamed,    llamliiinr.  Is:«i.      (     '       i     -       <  >- 1 ->  -i 

PtK*ni  on  <ienesi.s  in  Judati-tieniian.    I'onslan- 1  ^, _,„,_-  /-,  a 

tinople.  XVII.  century.                                        i'    '^"^^   °  " 

A  Idler  from  JeriLsulein  Imploring  relief.    Constanti- 1  3,-13  7 
nople.  XVII.  .-.•nlury.                                                     I 

(Forall  Itumltol.  see  :-ii::.l                                             N.-x-ia  8 

Laws.  In  Judii'-Micrinan,  concerning  the  salUng  i    ,,„  „ 

of  llieul.     liiW.                                                             ,  n   .  ,    -13  It 

Pnignim  <if  llie  fi-sllvltli's  onlered  In  Prague  on  I 

the  oivasion  of  the  birthday  of  Archduke  Leo- >jjO"-\S'3  10 
pold.    Prague,  1710.                                                  I 
J 

Pi-dagngli-s,  In  JudiixvOermiin.  London,  1870.  B'J3  ""nj  '0  1 
U-giMids   alioiit    s<ilonion.  In  Juda>o- 1  _  s_  .„       ,,s  .    ,„  ., 

lieniiun.    U'liiN-rg.  m'OV  f  na  p  r.^i  .    iiJ  d  - 

ihe  a!«ent  of  .Miw.s.    .Salonlcn,  1727.  ns'2  r^\ii  'D  3 

IkHtmancv.    ?  Aiiistenlani.  1713.  S'MJ.l  '0  4 

on  tlie  expulsiiui  of  Ihe  Jews  from  I  _„-___  _,,,_„  «-,,,,  5 

Austria.    I  meow.  HKi.  f  I   ^'^f  ^'  ^=-  "^^  "  " 


Anonjrmous  Works 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


614 


On    the    inaiwm'res 

Wllna.  isr>«. 
A  niimitlvi'.  In  Judiro-German 

(eDbacb.  1?-1. 


of    Cbmlelnlckl.  I.  „j„,p,„,  p,„  p^,,j  s 


Of-i. 


D'::n 


rommentiirv  cm  tho  IVntat«'Uch.     Mctz.  1849. 
Tticllfeof  Siiisi-s.    CimstantiiKiple,  151ii.  nm  ^L 
On  Hi-lirpw  |in>niin(hillon.  i,  n-iiN    -iin:    lii   a 

Amslenlam,  ITli'i.  I  nans 

Etlili-s.    Warsaw.  IMH.  ^"<iri  '131    4 

on  iH-nltenif.    ConsIanUnople,  t  nais-rn  nN  D>33?I^  a'->3-i    5 

I'lli*.  *  '  " 

Hrlirf n-Gernmn-Iuillan  vocalnilary.    Cracow,  1590.  3iB  "la""!    n 
Wrekly  paper.    Anisifnlam.  lTil"-«S.  c-iniiiD'T    . 

Coimiienlarv  on  Kiushl.    Lt-Kliorn.  1783.  C-Jfil  njri    *< 

The  prammar  iif  Ila.slil.    Riva.  l'ii«>.  'tin  'iiivi    9 

SUitutfs  uf  ari'lk'f  wHlet.vof  Aluma.    Altona,  1808.  c;'ij -jii  10 
A  sennon  by  Jesus  of  Naiurelh  on  liuppl- 1  ,..,-. ,,,,...  .•).<><)  11 

ness.    ? Halle.  1704.  f  n.-nc  jj   to  ii 


MIdrash  on  E.slher.     Li-lpsic,  1856.  n^'j3  mjn    1 

HLstorv  of  the  knight  Slgmund.  i,  -,-- ia>-i  nn  c-iNCD'n    2 

Kurth,  1791.  i  ^  "        '  '     * 

'■"nm'n.  '  MH  "1^'"-  !•  r^-=  ^>-  y^>-^  ->-  t'=  r-N«-n 
.Novel.  In  Juda'o-tierman.  y^-iN^SD'n  (n:"K'  J"N) 

On  the  reRulatlon  of  s^'na(^ogal  contributions.  I,  ,...,  _,,^_ 

Venice.  1709.  ,  u  u-      j 

Decisions  of  the  (ieonlni.  Constantinople.  Inlb.  PV'DO  ."'U^i 
on  the  examination  of  the  lunt.'s  of  slaughtered  I.  ^j,,^^  pijKn 

animals.    Ferrara,  l.V>2.  i  '  *         '     . 

( )n  the  slauphterlnir  "t  cattle.     Venice.  1509.      nc^nv  P13^n 
lade.\   of  Hlbll.al  iia.-siiBes  quoted  by  the  Mid- 1.  ^^^  npn 

rashiin.    Constantiiinple.  1<>44.  i  '  '     , 

on  a  divorce  ciisc.     Venice.  l.'iiilJ.  nyxn  10 

opening  fonnute  for  letters.    Hoinburg.  ITiM.  ni'-n.-in  13 


(See  iy-Mr)   vci'i  1 

The  key  of  the  Zohar.    Cracow.  1(132-48.  pni"  y-v;"!  2 

(See  t<-\::d>'  rr"<:2  n-\vj)  .i-i-u  ■>tj-i  3 

(See  s'Ti!:)  lyo-i  4 

t 

On  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  of  Jerusa-  i 
lem,  extracts  from  the  Talmud  HH\.  otki).  >n'3n  jjnn  ii-\3t  1 
Cremona,  1500.  ' 


(See  piBDc  PUN)  a-^cn'  jnji  2 


On  Shabbethai  Zebl.    Venice,  lOtlS.  Sn-iS"  •J3-'  ;n:i  3 

History  of  Sodom.    Salonica,  before  I(>15.  sno  ppy:  4 

Homilies  on  the  Pentateuch.    Conslantlnople,  1534.  nDSs"  'jpT  5 
On  the  Messiah.     Constantinople.  1524.  S33i">I  6 


pi-2'V3.i  -inn 
Kiinigs- u,.„j  _^,„ 


Narratives  and  legends.    Verona,  1M7. 
The  precepts  incumbent  upon  women. 

lierg.  ISBl. 
Polemic  against  the  review  "  He-ljalu?."    Lemberg.  I.   ^ 

1861.  ,         '  ' 

(See  P'3n  pin  jnr)  ir^'-x  p^j  pin 
On  a  riot  in  the  town  of  Ingarischbrnd.  Moravia,  | 

Tammuz  ."ith.  15SJ;  poem  in  Judieo-lierman.  v'-njn  pin 

Prague,  1.583?  I 

A  chi>s>-prol>leiM.  in  .ludivi>-(;crman.    Berlin,  is?.!,  hnj  m-n 
Noveihe  in  the  Tahmid.    Offenbach.  172:1.  a'jiNJ  'SMim 


Riddles  In  Ksiher.     Amsterdam. 

Proclamations  nuule  in  the  synagogue  of  Am- 
sterdam.    .\msterdara.  1729  ? 

Hebrew-tJennan  vocabulary.    Cracow.  ItMO. 

Ethics,  in  Juda-o-Gennan.    Halle,  1747  ? 

On  the  calendar.    Basel,  1527. 

Supplement  to  Esther.    Wllna,  1813. 

On  the  precepts.    Venice,  1523. 

Jokes. 

Sufferings  of  the  Jews  of  Jeru.salem  In  the  [  ^,, 
year  IIKM.    Venice.  Ism. 

Letters  of  certain  rabbis  against  the  Hasidim.      a-m  Pi3in  17 

Satire  on  gamblers.    Venice,  1563.  a'jpnsn  u:  tun  18 


n^^jr  pi^n 

"  f  IJ311  K'vn    8 

pp  nirn  10 

1.-D3  r\T:::n  11 

Platen  pc3n  12 

•3112  Di'^n  13 

nun  14 

PTPD  naijn  15 

:mi^  pi3in  16 


(See  133  S3N)  !::apoD-3  2 


On  the  precepts. 
On  the  calendar.    Rome,  l.>47. 
Encyclopedia,    translated   from 
Furth  ?  ins. 


HMpn  1' 

D>i;c  1' 

the    Arabic.  I  oS,-np,y<i' 


|lo2'nn  niyi'   4 


Arithmetic.  lnJudaH>-Gennan.   Amsterdam, 

ItiMt. 
Connnentarv  on  the  Pentateuch. 
Monthly  (laper.    I'nigue.  18(B.  OD'IB'iSNJKtS  rB"i"    6 

Commentarv  on  Ruth.    Cnicow,  1.589.  D'i'S'  I'D'    7 

Letter-writer.    Prague,  1605-15.  iiu  nc<    H 

on  thecH'atlim  of  man.    Lublin,  1624.  oiNn  Pi'X'    9 

Prayer,  in  Juiheo-tierman.     Ainstenlam,  1688.  3p""  ni"  lU 

History  (Book  of  Jasliar).     Venice,  1025.  nc-n  'D  11 


On  the  accents.    Cracow,  1642.  D'cyia  m:'i3  1 

Mystic  explanation  of  the  Psalms.    Hamburg, '.  2,s,-in  niJlW  2 

Against  feuilniiH-  e.xtmvagance.     Amsterdam,  i  „,,»,-  u,,,,  i 

16i«.  ,•  w  3S  1  K3313  o 

Ritual  laws.     Salonica,  VI.  century.  >3  '■3  4 

Jokes  for  Purim.     Lemberg,  18.55.  B'lioS  13  ^3  5 

(irammar.    1665.  |i<i|iin  'I'^s  6 

Replvto  the  letter  of  the  phvslclan  Mordecal  I  ,.,_,  _.,,,  ,_,  - 
Hen;  concerning  hasty  intenuent.    Berlin,  >  ^""^'--J 
without  date.  )  '  -" 

On  Simeon  (ielder.    Amsterdam,  17.55.  E"i>p  '3n3  8 

Excomiuuidcatlon  of  Nehendah  IJIyya  Hayyun.    Con- 1  jipjj  g 


stunlinople,  without  date. 


( 


ciipn  |ic.  '3niK'»    1 


OypNOIN  UN 


S  2 
3 
4 
5 


Hebrew  grammar.     Paris,  1628. 

A  directory.     Briinn.  1799. 

Calendar.    Venlie.  1.575.  niS 

Gninmiar,    in    Hebrew    and    Judieo-C^rman.  I  ,,_-_-  _,s 

Cracow.  1.59S.  f  ,->n,nn  ni'? 

On  the  Decalogue.     Cracow,  li;il-,56.  i>i  (mip) 

Panegyric  (m  the  Torah.    Pragiu-.  11X6-15.  1<S  (niip)  6 

Biography  i>f  the  em|ieror  Joseph  I-     .       ,,,,„..„,   .......s  - 

II.     Briinn.  1799.  ,  DB,.N    JJ13    1.3    DJ,3>  i 

Letter-writer.     Cracow.  1661.  311  ]ir'^  8 

A  second  Targum  on  Esther.     Conslantlnople,  1.  .^^^     ^c,  p 

(See  pi'^nrn)  10  pt''?  10 


'!iNJ!<:  (y'i"iN3D'n) 
,  17.56.      a''iy  P'yiiN3 


Historical  magazine.    Metz,  1821  y 

Bibliographical  notis.    Constantiimpli 

on  the  controvei^v  betwiT?i  K.Mjilcn  and  Eil)en- 1  ,,       r-i.v<^ 

schiitz.    Wlihi>ut  rlateanil  printing  place.       )  -  J  y  n  k. 
On  the  precepts.     Cremona,  1556.  S3S'n  i:nc 

Satin-    upon    woman.      Constantinople,  I  _„,„,,,__  _„„_ 

1.570-71.  f    ^^    '^  ^-"^ 

A  monthly,  afterward  a  quarterly,  review  from  1783  I  _„„_ 

to  1808.    Knnigslierg.  17SJ-90.  f  I""" 

Medical  work.    Wilim.  without  date.  r|DND 

Ethical  lettei^s.      lYaukforl-on-the-Oder,  (.  „-„,-,  ~»,,l,„-„« 

,f,(l  ,  >B*'13  yi:"7N1ND 

"".510*'  "'""^■"'  ''""""^''-     '"'■'"''"•  I-  :-V13y  PVPIN  '-N  KOS 

On  the  MaccalK'an  wars.    Mantua.  1.557.  031'B:n  p'^js 

Advcntuies  of  .Meir  of  Brody.    Cracow,  1.532.    i-n2  —\  r^i'Z 
I>etter-writer.     Venice,  1.552.  ibd  p^jc 

Fonuulie   for   various  episodes   in  life.  I -_„  .,,-k,_  _k,_ 

Frankfort-on-the-Main.  1716.  f  =^**  '  "  '^  riJ= 

Midrash  beginning  with  llie  name  ".^bba  Gorton."  ] 

Is  also  called  np^'j-:i  mpijn  or  n*:";;  k-h-,  1.  N3n  S'lia 

Ixrause  based  upon  the  Book  of  Esther.     Lelp-        ' 

sic,  1856.  J 

1'33N  tyniD 
MIdrash  on  Genesis.    Wllna,  1800.  r",:'Ni3  PUN  Clio 

On  the  ten  martyrs.    Leliwlc,  18.53.  ni3;!<  n^N  S'H': 

Midrash  on  Gen-  xlix.    Leipsic.  18.53.  i:<3N  Bpy  P313  cm: 
On  the  Pentateuch.    U-lpsic,  18.55.  n^iui  ''lu  E'Ii: 

Published  lately  by  Professor  Schechter.  ''ii;n  c-nn 

See  "Jewish  Quarterly  Review,"  October,  1900, 1.,. 

Adler.  Brovde. 
On  the  Song  of  Moses:  the  .same  in  Jud£eo-Ger- 1.  __,      „,-„ 

man.     Leipsic,  1819.  ,*="="     - 

On  Gen.  xxxv.  .5.    I-^-ipsic.  18.54.  iyO"i  C'n': 

Midrash  on  the  Song  of  Songs  and  Eecleslastes.  I  ^^^^  c'lic 

Vercma,  1.595.  ) 

Midrash  on  Jonah.    Prague.  1.59.5.  njv  pnc 

Mystical  explanation  of  the  Creation :  also  called  J 

PTN13  ncyii  NP"i3.      Frankfort-on-the-M:i3  tyiiD 

Oder,  1719.  ) 

Collection  of  the  Talmudical  dicta  beginning »  ,i,,_l,  ____ 

with  the  word  "  Leolam."    Leiiwlc.  ia54.        1  -  V     t-nu 
Midrash  on  Esther,  from  the  4th  chapter  I  --,„)<  pSiin  cii": 

on.    Venice.  1544.  f    '        *  ■    ' 

See  Jplllnek,  "  Bet  ha-Midrash,"  il.  14.         niip  nz'^::  ciiS 
Homilies  on  the  Decalogue.     Ferrara,  I  p,-,-nrt  pir"  cua 

1.554.  f  *.>».- 

On  the  death  of  Aaron.    Leipsic.  1848.         pnx  pi>aB  C'HS 
(m  the  death  of  Moses.    Leipsic.  ISP*.  ncc  Pi-JB  ciia 

Midrash  on  the  Pentateuch,  the  Hve  Meglllot,  I.  _  „  m-^fc 

Proverbs,  and  Psalms.     Constantinople,  1513. 1 


■  33t:'n  cnr 


1 


615 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anonymous  Works 


3>0  iniB>  E>->12  31 

a') 


:  N3-1 


yii:: 


Oil  Suiruirl,  Psalms,  and  Proverbs.     Con- ' 

slanltiiopli'.  151:2.  I' 

On  till'  I'liiluicuch.    Munuhcm  b. SSolomon,  XII.  oentury? 
Pr(K*lHiniitli>n  uf  rabbis  at^ajnst  Zfhl  Aslikcna/i  r, 

ami  Must-;*  Ha^is.  Witlluut  printing  place.  1714. )' 
Elhli-s.     Mikl.iv.  \:Ki.  -iDii:.-i  'D 

PiiiMii  oil  till' bhthilav  "f  .N'ii|i()lei)n.     Paris,  1797.    ■\<E'    iiriD 
PiiiMji  nil  III!'  Iiuiiiu'iiratiun  nt  the) 

sviuiK'ik'iii'  at  Leydeii.    Aiuster- V  p'^n  cia^n  TC  list; 

(lam,  iK'iM.  \ 

I.i-tti-r  fioiii  a  proselyte.     Hiille,  1747.  ijn  'DPDC 

Letters  nf  the  rabbis,     llainbiinr.  179«.  D'J3-in  '^.-^d: 

Iiiile.x  (if  all  Taliiiuilleal  illeta  which  lietrin  nrltli  ( 

the  numbers  frcim  ;t  til  1.").     Znlklev,  IWll'.      ( 
( Tltlclsllisanil  pdi'liis.     Lelpslc,  1H7».       Z'-iVZ'  D*"iej«i  Q^nPDD 
Iieclsl.in  (ir  the  nilibls  (if  Italy  nn  the  ritual  bath  I.  ,^  -,,rn''p 


"NS  aran 


at  liecu'lii.      Venice,  almUt  W»l. 

The  iluuesdf  the  head  (if  the  family.    Venice  't  ri3N 
Karaite  relij?iou3  customs.    Venice,  without  t 
date.  )■ 

liellkTiuus  customs.   Cracow,  llkiO.  D'jn:i; 

Cabala.    Pnwrue,  15B0.  lino  ani  niij': 

n'^nj  n-ii!3': 


3  jnj3 


Printed  wiih  all  Bibles.- 


njBp  miDSi  n'^nj  n-\iD3 

n-M.-n  '■j;  niiD': 

mvn  '-y  njcp  miD:: 


PPID':  .'it 

r>4 


Index  (if  the  Talmud.    Salonica,  I.tSI.  iic'" 

Funeral  eleifv  on  .Adolph  V.,  duke  of  Mecklenburg- 1  ,„»- 
!>trelitz.  in  Hebrew  and  (ierman.    lierlln,  17W.  1    '    - 

("unenil elet'v  on  Fninclsl.  of  France.   Vienna,  IS!.).  13  10D3 
index  to  the  Talmud.    Altoua.  |.  ^,^„.^  ^j,^„,  ,,^3,  ,,^,..„ 

Hoiiiiletic  commentjiry  on  the  Peatuteuch.    With- 1  _„ 

out  priutlni,'  place  and  date.  f  a  jj  (  y- 


Tales  (Ma'astyiit). 

History  of   the  patriarch  Abraham.  I, 


I 


i:>3(<  omas  ncyn  fB 

'TK-i-j"  i"iN  nn-yc  !>9 

<NjrDi3  ncyo  .Wa 

triN  (-IJ3)  -ua  ncyn  iwi 

inN  iiya  nrys  tn 

a-u'j  tt'^ca  nry-  (i2 

113  p;'>"  t>* 

cnxn  '31  D'lina  '3D  nii-yn  Ul 

...  n;';'-  (t'"i"'Jinii  T'n)  >>■'> 
c-ir,  Ti;'  3-1  n;:';'3  w> 
m-ii  nN'13  nui;'3  117 
li'j  iii-it  nnn  '■•.:•  npi-!:  b8 
Pniirue,  liwi.  ni.-i-in  i;'y-\  py:-3  v^Nf  pp2  ni-i  "r  ncy?:  (!» 
OITellbiicli,  1714  V  DllN^'D  nryD  7(1 

Friiiikfort-i.n-the-Maln,  ItSili*.  DiCNJiaiND  nrVC  71 

Wllhelmsdorf,  li)71-!K).  nj-jn  -11  -Dr  '13  ncya  73 

PrintInK  place  and  date  not  known,     n^j  lyr'N  po  nuiys  73 
Pniirue.  .wil.  n':rn  N"-n  a":  n^3  ivJ"**  po  nn'l™  74 

Prinllni;  place  and  date  unknown.      -i;'"eP3  N'l  f'D  nc;":  7o 
PrlntliiK  jiluce  and  date  unknown.  3"ii  "ijiN  ^sc  po  n*,:'y3  7*1 


Lelpslc.  imn. 
f-dlikov.  17!«!. 
Venice,  l.'iW. 

Prat'iie,  li»«l. 

Plattue.  liiKI. 

Prague,  imm. 

Ba.sel,  line. 

Fiirth.  liini. 

olTenbach.  1714-30. 

Pni(,'ue.  lt>.'>7. 

PniKiie.  Iiy)7-»i0. 

(Nlkolsburiri  XVII.  oentury  ? 


Halle,  1711  •' 

Pnnrue.  xvil.  century. 

Fdrlh,  liKM. 

Haniiii.  Ik:.ii. 

Place  and  date  unknown. 

Pnufiie.  alioiit  imiii. 

Lemben;,  IMt. 


IBP  ryi'  po  ''iijn  nrys  77 
•\^T:n  .nsSiy  po  ncya  7H 
i:'i::i  .Pi:'y2  7'J 
'Knv  13  1>;~U'  '13  nr;'3  Sli 
T-  T'  -1113  ni73  HI 
t::N-i  ij  ns-ys  (yj"2i  j><n)  k> 
pji^  po  n^iys  CN-j  p-Ni  W 
.  ,  n::-''  py-i  pN  poN^'J-j  Ti  onp  dnii  nry3  tyj-'^mjisii  p-Ni  S4 
LemlK'nr.  IHtH. 

'■' I'slt'."'?"'  I'  ''^''°  ''•*--'  "'>"'  '■"  ^■">'"  0'3"''""J1N"  P<N)  M 
Index  of  the  Zohar.     Anistci-dam,  17111.  intn  nPD3  Wl 

Cabala.    Lublin,  XVll.  ccntiirv.  ]'^y  TJ  .•^inPo3  h7 

On  tlie  laws  concenilni^  niarriiitfe.    JoliannLH.  t  ^,,^^  «.l_       oq 

iK-iv.  l7.-il.  ,■  a-j.-n  ri'-nxs  88 

Tlins'  pn'cepta  incunils-nl  on  women.    Venice,  I  _,„,,  _,„_  „„ 


^133 


K-s<'liiiIo|offv.    Cracow,  XVn.  century  ? 

Melin-w  (iliis.Harv.    Napli's.  I1W. 

(  rltlclsiiiofiJelKerVlrsilirlft."   London,  ItO 

tin  Helin-w  pronunciation.     Ainslenlam.  Klfc'i 

(111  slialibeihai  Zi'bl.    I ilTrnliach,  IWII.     n'E'3 

PiK-iii.     Merlin,  17m.  '<i 

Proverlis.      .\iiisterdani,  ltl.'i7.  a'33n 

Apliorlsms.    Fcmini.  l.Vci.  apiini  a'3rn 

on  cxcoiiimunlcutlon.     Cunntantlnople  ?  1510  ?    ain.n  \ 


.^  ^,( 


m 

»i"np-l  '1,-13  HI 

a'Vin  n:'3  it! 
13n  3'L"3  "1 


iKiS"  -jai 


•;',"3  IM 
,s.«-  n-i 
,1,--  m 
:csi3  «7 


^»n  the  Inconstancy  of  widows. 
Parody. 


njc'-M  11J  I 
a-3'011  '0  2 


The  lK»k  of  religious  controversy.    Aitdorf,  I 

liiW. 
Hebrew  lexicon.    Place  and  dale  unknown. 


f  (jB"n)  prvsi  'a  3 
n>-i3y  pB''?  3'pj  4 


(See  risD3  PUN)  B'rms  'lap  3i3D    1 
Select   medical  remedies;   Judaii-German.  (_,„,„,  _,,,,,-    » 

Prague,  IHNH*).  )'  P'XIB^'  •  '^"5     - 

liules  of  the  Ghetto  at   Mantua.  I  _,_,_,  _.,„„  .„.._  .  _ 

Mantua,  llCO.  f  °'^^°^  B'Jlpn  lO'jn  11D 

Rulesofthesynagogueat  Amsterdam. In  Juda.'O-l  rjnjn    pia 

Gennan.    .\m.sleniam.  .Will,  centun-.            f   roj3n  ."*3 
Onjiogy,  in  Judieo-German.     Frankfoh-on- 1   _l„, _„ 

the-odei-,  17!t.'.  (■  =■'>  '^"  ^^° 

Order  of  prayers  In  the  synagogue  at  Hamburg,  I  _  ,,„_  _ 

in  Judiwi-Geniian.     Hamburg.  l»ll).  (  ^^iS^^  ^■'O 

Chronology.    Prague,  l.-vil).  B'N113C<1  3"N:p  11D    7 

F.schatology.    Ba.sel,  HHKI.  n3K'ji  110    8 

Index  of  tlie  Psalms.     Venice,  187(3.  Pi^.ip  pdo  -ifO    9 

Halakah.   Venice  V  l.'wl  y  D^jpt  ."3'3D  9a 

History  of  Shabliethai  Zebl.    Lemberg,  181M.        ri3i^n  pied  1" 
Collection  of  tales.     Miintua,  172.5.  D'll'ycn  USD  11 

tollectlou  of  tales.    Sdllkoy,  1S37.  rvc'ys  >pieD  12 


Instnictlons  for  offlclatlng  ministers  of  the  I  l,.,  ._,  _    .    , 
.Seiihurdlc  rite.    London.  17i»).  f  inj  p3  riiay  1 

On  the  calendar.     Kiva.  l.'itill.  pljlP3y  2 

U-ltei-s  of  the  nihhls  of  Palestine  on  Zebi  Ash- 1  ,,„„.„t,  ..  „  , 
keliazi  and  Moses  llagl.s.     1714.  ,■  "•NH;"''  r\iy  i 

Ethics.    Shkl.iv.  17s:i.  p,-,  py  4 

Poem  enumeratingall  the  ritual  laws.  Prague.  1614.  odC'C  I'J  5 

Decisions   of   ttie    magistrates   of    Amsterdam.  I , „ 

Amsterdam,  1735.  |"  t:p«^2D|iy  6 


Poems.    Venice,  1600. 

Many  new  iwems.    Bombay,  1856. 


B'JlCtfi 

D'jiEion 

(seei!.i-.c)|i;;'^«;;:;;^° 

Commentary  on  Ecclesiastes.    Lelpslc,  1855.     r''.P|P  '-y  -^riP-D 
Poems.    Mantua,  17:iil.  1131,  ijjp,  msD 

Program  of   the  festivities  In  the  city  of) 
Prague  on  theocca.slonof  the  birthday  of  •  JIXB'IN  lyjNPD 


I 

tJ"D'y  lyp  n'i''iB 

n33nS  PiNPDPo 


Archduke  Leopold.     Prague,  1710. 
On  the  plague.     Prague,  1714. 
Cabalistic.    Shklov.  17.H.5. 
Description  of  a  pilgrimage  to  Jenisalem.  I 

Wllna,  1H17.  I 

On  gniiiimar.     Naples.  1492. 
On  the  interpretation  of  dreams.     Wllhelms- 1  _      ,. 

ilorf,  KilKI.  f  ri3i''n  IIP, 


'yo: 


p^N  pe'po  10 

a"P3P  nPD  11 

C  12 


(See  P3D  '"3N)  -iD-i-iP  PN11X  1 
Two  poems.  In  Judipo-German.  * c       ^ 

Place  and  date  unknown.  )  ^7^?'^  J^-^cyj  pj-K'  N"1ij  2 

Calendar.    Tarnopol.  no  date.  3^p  ni^  in  T3k: -i»x  3 

lieglsterofallthecliapiersof  theTalmud.   Prague,  I  _  .,    _     „, 

11117.  i  "''"  ''"  * 

Tale,  In  Judipo-Gemian.     Rftdelhelm.  without  date,  pyij  -pi  5 


The  martyrs  of  Wllna.    Amsterdam.  1C02.    nj^-h  |P'|P3  S'S-ipp 
Pis'm.     Berlin,  17itl.  pp3t  Pip 

Criticisms.    Tricst,  without  date.  d'P'Dp  ^1^ 

PriHlaniatlon  on  the  abolition  of   the   poll-tax.  I  „_,.  u.- 
li.Klelheini,  1797.  (  "^V*  ^V 

IIoi,s..hold  n.medl«.     Amster- 1  ^^,^  ^y^,,,  ^^^^  i,^,^  „pj,. 


dam,  XVIII.  century. 
On  the  martyr  K.  Mattes 


(  ' 
l(K)6-«2. 


pnv3P  au'P  !:'iP",i  1 


Ijiws    for    the    slaughtering  of  cattle.  I  _„,_„  _„^_  _,.,_  . 
Frankfort-on-the-Maln.  1712.  f  n.-n.'  Pijip  pij',p 

^'unknliwn'.'''     '"'"'''  """' ''""' }  ''<"'>-'  T'-'a  aiN  rmr,  p«,p  I 


Moral  aphorisms.    Place  and  dale  unknoivn. 


tj;3i 


Commentary  on  the  Song  of  Solomon.   Zolklev,  I  „,_w  ,,.,„, 
wr,.  fP'J-pwN 

Mi.scellaneoHs  essays.    !.,emherg,  1837.  pkipp 

On  the  Messiab.     Prague,  l.'ids.  psiNjjiiP 

Meiisip.logv.    LemlH-rg.  \MX.  a"3yp 

M...ii..,.i  ,v..,L<       1  Anustenlam,  XVII.  century.  ,  113  Pikidp 

.iiKiicai  woiKs.      I  Aiiisleniam.  XVll. century.  PlSuDl  Pimoi 

on  convulsions.     l.Vi2.  PiBoi 

Many  catalogui's.    Hamburg.  1782.  riC'PP 


j''  JlfNP  1 


Responiia. 


Constantinople,  1.57.5.     a'jiNjn  riairpi  pi^kc  1 

Berlin,  1S4H.       B'ji3P|1  a";iNJ  Pi3iir.~i  ."'i'-nc'  2 

Pragne.  isui.       'npp3  a':ii»J  pi3i3"."i  riix:'  3 

Amslenlani,  1741.  B"n  ry  'pd  PiaiuTi  n-NS'  4 


Ansbach 
Ant 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


616 


ndfin  I'W  nSnf 


Philosophy.    Lublin,  15(11. 

PHiie(r>rlcon  JiTusalcui.    Wllna,  1817.  d>''i:"t  "naB- 

MLs<fliiiiiroiis.    L<-({l»irii.  1T4.'>.  D'J-y  nyji- 

!>tatuU-!>  of  llii' Ht'bni  Kuddlsliu«(  Amsterdam.  I    n<-i-i>  ^ie> 

Allona,  ITiKi.  '  f    u  -1. 

Poem  on  Subbatti  ok^ervance.  Z4)lklev,  1805.  PD"*  "^Cltt* 
Slaiuifs  (coinrri'ifiitlonul).    Huinbuiv.  IWl.  iv^jWN!:';' 

PiHMii.liiJU(l:ri)-(iini]im.  I'niKiie,  .\V II. century.  |1t:-vs"!;c' 
AiruinsI  feminine  e-MravaRanie  ("  Kiilling  Stars")  DiS'  p;".;;* 
SiitlrUal  ixiem.    I'niKue,  XVII.  century.  i"''  INiKC 

Ethlis.    Lublin.  IttC.  -icil  -I'lr 

Poem  In  honor  of  Napoleon.    Frankfort-on-the  (.  _v,„L  -,„, 

Main,  i:il-,.  f  """     ^  = 

Poem  in  honor  of   Georsre  IV.  of    England.  ^   p,s.— ^  -i.';! 


Hanover,  l.sii.  f    •  ' 

Poem  In   honor  of   Christian   VII.  of   Denmark.  (   _„  _,,„ 

Altona,  ITUlt.  ,    D^  ^  >- 

Poem  In  lionor  of  Frederick  William  III.  of  I  ___,.„  ,,_  _,-, 

Pnissla.    P,«en.  17i«.  f  ^"='=^  '^^  ^  * 

Poem  on  the  end  of   the  Seven  Years'  War.  I    .,l,.,  _,,,, 

Berlin.  ITUIt.  f   =1  ^^  ^  B" 

Elegy  on  Frederick  William  III.    Berlin.  1798.         n>nT^  I'ty 
On  the  pussiiKe  of  Napoleon  throuKh  Rot-  '.  ;,s-n,  ^,^3  ,-,,£. 


(See  umc.)    di!3  ^yi' 


terdam.    Itotterdam,  I8UI. 

Cabalistic  e.xpIanatIon  of  some  Psalm  verses.  1  ■..s,-,-.  .....r... 

Venice,  l.V)5.  l"     ^^'■^•-- 

Purim  jokes.   Amsterdam,  11150.    rNCDiii*?;  "''I'D  D'liD  ."nil;' 
llesponsa.    Salonica,  171*:.*.  p-ix  'lyw* 

A  story.    Amsterdam,  KtlO-.'iO.  ]-\"7^  j".r":NOS' 

Hebrew  erannuar.    Amsterdam.  185.5.  .-iiN  .~d:' 

Hebrew  roots.    Franklort-on-the-Oder,  1768.  yi"  ttns' 


HB'sS  nSn.i    1 


Poem  in  honor  of  Sir  Moses  Monteflore.    Am-  I 

sterdam.  IMl.  ( 

Lectures  on  the  prayer  ritual.    Venice,  15M.  'n  Pl^n.-'    2 

Thanks(?iving  poem.    Altona,  I8U.  met  7l|"»  nii.i    3 

Reproof    of    synaKOKue-readers     (hazanlm).  (.  .,,,_i,  ^_,,_    , 

Place  and  date  unknown.  (  °^'"  ■   ^"^'^    * 

Medical  work.    Zolklev,  1720.  Di.s  riiNn    5 

The  history  of  Jesus  (with  Wagensell,  1661).  'K"  pnSi.-i    6 

Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch.    Venice  ?  mSh  ra'P    7 

On  the  ritual  bath.  I'rairue.  -Wl.-.XVIl.cent.  nS'ator!  -inD  ppT    8 
Institutions  of  the  Karaites.     173;j.  D'N-\pn  i'i^T:    9 

Forms  of  contracts.    Venice,  1552.  pn:3C'  jir*'*'^  1'* 

On  penitence.    Cracow,  llititl  y  "jj  ylK  naii:'."!  ':i|"i'P  11 

Statutes  of  the  A«ihkenazlc  com-  i  -„,,...„  .,.,-  _i,-,-  niiin  V» 

munitv  of  Amsterdam.    Am4°   ""^-iT.Z.'Z^T^ir^^P"  ^ 

sterdam.  1737.  \  D-iiJ^'..N3  IKN 

Statutes  of  the  congregation  of  Fiirth.    Am- 1  „,-,,„.,,,.-  10 

stenlam,  1728.  (  '^^^^  0  '  "1  •    ''^ 

Agaln.st  feasting  and  en-}  Amsterdam.  1709. 


travagance. 


i 


Amsterdam.  1707.  ."niyo''  nypr  15 


Conflrmation  of  the  stat- 
utes by  the  magis- 
trates of  Amsterdam. 


Statutes  of  the  Orphan  Asylum 
Society  of  Amsterdam. 

Remedy   for   soul-ailments. 
1.53(1. 


Statutes  of  the  city  of  Amsterdam.    Amster- 1  _l,___  _,,,,.,  ir 
dam,  1737.  I  n-'npn  ni:,i.n  lb 

''xn''^'D':n     dn'-djni!3      (pi:!^)  17 

Amsterdam,  1758.    J'c  ppp  ^|^1N 

n"*?  I'pp  >i'iN  'SN'':"B3N  (Pup.P)  18 

Amsterdam,  1752. 

pijpn    Sy     <!!n<'"o!:n    (pupp)  19 
Amsterdam,  1759.    U'pS'PpT 

''■'J3  nrnp  p-iDnns  Pijpp  20 
Amsterdam,  1739.    n>3iP' 

M^TJ    ^VI-^P  nP3m  Pljpp  21 
Amsterdam,  1799.    onDn 
Basel,  ^  j,,^^,^  (,^,^^J  ^j^,^^  22 

On  penitence,  institution  of  amen,  I  JSN  pp\P  C'OJP   P31C'P  23 
and  fasting.     Lublin,  1677  't         )  P'jyp  PJliyp 

As  to  the  works  attributed,  coiTectly  or  incorrectly, 
to  earlier  writers,  such  as  the  Zohar,  the  Book  of 
Creation,  etc.,  see  Pseudony.mous  Literature. 

Bibliography:  Steinschneider.  Cat.  Bodl.;   Benjaoob.  Ozar 
ha-Scfarim  ;  Roest,  Catalogue  of  tlic  Rosenthal  Library. 

1.  B. 

ANSBACH  (sometimes  Anspach):  .\ncienttown 
of  Bavaria,  Germany:  the  ca|)ital  of  Middle  Fran- 
conia,  situated  on  the  Rezat.  tweuty-five  miles  south- 
west of  Nuremberg.  There  was  a  .Jewish  settlement 
here  in  1328,  but  it  was  annihilated  by  the  Flagcl- 
lantsin  1349.  In  themunicipal  records  of  Nuremberg, 
about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  Jews 
of  Ansbach  are  often  mentioned,  and  a  certain  Joseph 
de  Onolzbach  is  recorded  among  the  creditors  of  John 
II.  (1343).  From  the  fact  that  a""  Judengasse  "  (Jews' 
Street)  is  mentioned  at  Ansbach  between  the  dates  of 


1470-72,  one  may  conclude  that  a  large  Jewish  com- 
munity existed  here  at  I  hat  time,  althougli  only  seven 
Jewish  la.xpayers  are  found  recorded  in  1470.  Men- 
tion is  also  made  in  the  records  of  a  "Scluilklopfer," 
or  sexton,  which  shows  I  hat  I  heie  must  also  have  been 
a  synagogue  there.  In  l.'j(i4  the  .lews  were  banished 
from  .Viisbach.  and  were  only  pirmilled  to  be  there 
during  the  weekly  and  annual  fails.  They  were  again 
heaid  of  in  l(i4ii;  for  in  that  year  a  complaint  was 
made  that  their  piesenee  was  prejudicial  to  the  Chris- 
tian trade.  The  number  of  Jew  ish  families  in  Ans- 
bach in  1{)31  was  27.  Among  8  Jews  who  in  1673 
rendered  homage  to  Margrave  John  Frederick  here, 
there  were  7  houseowneis.  The  records  for  the  year 
107.5  show  that  only  8  Jew  ish  families  with  57  persons 
dwelt  in  Ansbach  at  that  time;  in  1704  the  number 
increased  to  10  families ;  and  by  1 7.'i7  as  many  as  43  re- 
sided there.  Nolwilhstaudiug  the  restrictions  placed 
on  their  living  in  this  city  their  number  had  risen  to 
(iO  families  in  1789,  and  among  them  were  24  house- 
owners, 

liitil  the  year  107.5  the  .Tews  of  Ansbach  held 
divine  service  in  a  room  in  the  house  of  Anton 
-Model:  but  owing  to  dissensions  a  luiinber  of  them 
separated  and  hel<l  their  services  at  the  house  of 
Simon  Model.  Through  theetlorts  of  Isjiac  Nathan 
the  coniinuuil_v  aecjuired  a  synagogue  in  1746. 

Among  the  notables  who  resided  here  from  1456 
to  14.58  the  .Tudenmeister  Pymann  may  be  men- 
tioned. About  1682  a  rabbi  of  the  name  of  Jere- 
miah Judah  is  mentioned.  Of  other  rabbis  there  may 
be  mentioned  Samuel  Zirndorfer  (17.54-92).  Ullniann 
(1792-93),  IIoehheimer(1793-ls;55).  Aaron  B.  Gruen- 
baum  (1841-92),  and  Dr.  P.  Kohu  (190(1).  In  1875 
there  were  200  Jews  in  Ansbach  (Engi'lbert,  "  Sta- 
tistik  des  Judenthums  im  Deutscheu  Reiche."  p. 
16).  and  in  1900.  295  out  of  a  total  population  of 
15,883.  The  congregation  has  a  Jewish  public 
school,  attended  by  40  children.  The  rabbinate  of 
Ansbach  has  charge  also  of  the  communities  in  C'olni- 
berg.  Egcrihaiiscn.  Jochsberg.  Lehrberg,  Leuters- 
hausen,  Oberuzenn,  and  Dietenhofen. 

BiBLiOGRAPnT:  S.  Haenle,  Ge»cli.  tier  Juden  im  Ehemaligen 
FUivtcnlhum  AilsIkicIi,  Ansbach,  1867. 

A.  F. 
ANSCHEL  :  Rjibbi  at  Cracow  :  flourished  in  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  the  author 
of  "Mirkebet  ha-Mishneh"  (The  Second  Chariot),  a 
.Juda'o-German  Biblical  concordance,  preceded  by  a 
lengthy  introduction.  The  volume — now  very  rare — 
first  api)eared  at  Cracow  in  1534.  but  was  reprinted 
in  the  sjune  citv,  in  1.584,  under  the  title  "Sefer  R. 
Anschel."  Woff  (in  "Bibl.  Hebr."  i.  359)  confounds 
Anschel  with  Asher  Anschel  b.  .Joseiih  Mordecai  of 
Posen.  who  translated  into  German  the  praj'ers  for  the 
three  principal  historic  feasts  of  the  Jewish  year,  pub- 
lished at  Prague  about  the  year  1000.  Wolf's  error 
wasco|)ied  by  Fiienn  ("Keneset  Yisrael."  p.  147)and 
by  Sternberg  ("  Geschichte  der  Juden  in  Polen."  p. 
184).  But  Zunz  recognized  the  distinction  between 
the  two  scholars,  and  furthermore  suggested  the  pos- 
sible identity  of  the  latter  with  the  grandfather  of 
R.  Meir  Lublin  (compare  "Gcsammelte  Werke."  iii. 
85,  87).  As  far  as  chronology  is  concerned,  Zunz's 
suggestion  may  be  correct,  forR.  Jleir's  grandfather 
probably  died  about  the  year  1600.  But  it  isdoulit- 
ful  whether  a  man  of  whom  R.  Meir  Lublin  speaks 
as  a  profound  and  pious cabalist  would  occupy  him- 
self with  the  rendering  of  the  liturgy  into  a  profane 
language.  Unfortunately,  the  allusion  of  R.  Meir 
to  his  grandfather,  in  his  responsa  ("Teshubot 
Maharam  Lublin,"  g  83).  and  a  similar  reference  to 
his  sanctity  and  cabalistic  attainments  by  R.  Jleir's 
son,  in  the  preface  to  the  same  work,  are  all  the 


617 


TUE  JEWLSII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ansbach 
Ant 


information  pxtant  relating  to  this  I{.  Aslicr,  who 
was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  Jewish  schohirship  in 
Poland,  anj  prolialily  succeeded  1{.  Jacob  Pollak  in 
the  occupancy  of  the  important  ral)l)inical  chair  at 
Cracow.  Asau  author,  only  the  memory  of  a  cabalis- 
tic dissertation  on  the  prayers  and  benedictions  writ- 
ten by  liini  under  tlie  name  of  "  Emek  ha-Herachah  " 
(The  Vale  of  Blessing)  has  come  down  to  us  (Isserles, 
"Tonu  ha'Ulah,"  iii.  y4;  Jleir  Lubliu,  "Kespousa," 
No.  83). 

Bibliography:  StelnschneWer,  Cat.  Bodl.  eols.  300  and  737: 
Biuss.  Siftr  YesUtnim.  p.  42;  I.  M.  Zunz,  'Ir  Im-Zfdtk,  p.  I, 
Leniljerk',  1H7-1;  IJeniliitziT.  Kelikil  I'l'ti.  I.  2li.  CriicDW.'  ]H»«: 
BenJucKh,  itzttr  hn-Sf  fV/n/*i,  p.  -144 ;  NLssenhuutii.  Li:-Iyoriit 
hd-yehiiiUni  lie-Luhlin  lUisturu  uf  the  Jews  in  Luhlin),  p. 
a.',  LulUiii,  IsiW.  11    G    E 

ANSCHEL  NORDEN  DE  LIMA.    See  Lima. 

ANSCHEL,  SOLOMON:  (i.rman  author;  lived 
in  southern  Germany  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He 
wrote  "  Ueber  den  Coninier/.  Zwisehen  Seele  u.  Kor- 
pcr  "  (a  translation  from  tli<'  Hilirew),  I'^ninkfort-on- 
the-JIain,  17^8;  "Thanatnliigia,  sen  in  Mortis  Natu- 
ram,"  etc.,  GiMtiiigen.  ITU.T;  "  AnfangsgrUnde  der 
Naturwisseuschafl "  (with  illustrations),  Mayence, 
180L 
BiBLiOGR.vriiT:  Fiirst, /{i'ldofJiooa  Ji«l<ii(-(i,  |i.  40.    ^j    jj 

ANSCHEL,  WORMS.    See  Ashkr  ben  Wolf. 

ANSCHELM  k  ailed  also  B.  Anshel  ha-Levi 
of  Colog'ne):  Chief  rabbi  of  several  (Jerinun  pniv- 
iue(  s.  He  was  appointed  to  the  otli(  e  of  chief  rabbi 
in  the  year  143"i  by  Conrad  of  Weinsberg,  liereditary 
chamberlain  and  plenipotentiary  representative  in 
this  particular  matter  of  the  Holy  Koman  Empire. 
Anschelin's  spheres  of  activity  was  restricted  to  -Ma- 
yence,  Cologne,  Treves,  Brenu'ii,  Worms.  Spiyer,  Ba- 
sel. Stra.sburg,  and  a  number  of  other  prominent  cities 
and  ilistiicts.  This  was  the  second  instance  of  .such 
an  appointment  in  the  history  of  the  German  Jews, 
the  lirst  being  that  of  1{.  Israel,  who  was  nominated 
at  Nuremberg,  May  3,  14(17.  by  King  Kuprccht.  to 
serve  as  ivOniglicher  Heichs-llochmeister  (royal  chief 
rabbi).  Anschelm  was  the  younger  contemporary  of 
that  group  of  eminent  rabbis  to  which  Maharil  (1{. 
Jaeoli  b.  Moses  ha-I^evi  Mollin)and  H.  Solomon  Kun- 
kel  belonged.  K.  Seliginann  Bing  Oppenheim  al- 
ludes to  him  as  a  remarkalih'  man.  Still,  we  tind  in 
the  Jewish  sources  no  reference  at  all  either  'o  his 
appointment  or  to  that  of  K.  Israel,  most  likely  be- 
cause governnieut  nominations  for  communal  posi- 
tions. U.S  well  a.s  all  external  interference  in  their 
religious  atTairs,  were  extri-mely  uniaipular  among 
the  Jews  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  were  very  fre- 
quently ignored. 

Biiu.KxiU.M'HV;    (indemunn,  Gcwhirhtf  dfA   Krztfhunoinve- 

s<ii«  mill  il,  r  Ciilltirtkr  Judtu,  IsHs,  Ml.  :w  rl  .•<tr;.,3«.'if(«f(;. 

II.  G.  E. 
ANSHE    KENESET    HA-GEDOLAH.     Sie 

SvNM.ooi  i;.   ( Iki;  At. 

ANSPACH,  JOEL:  French  religious  writer; 
bom  about  ISOO;  dieil  Se|)t<'mber.  1S7','.  He  wa.s 
the  only  brother  of  Philippe  Anspaih.  Joel  wa.s  the 
first  to  translate  the  daily  prayers  from  Hebrew  into 
French.  In  1K4'3  he  publislied  his  "Paroles  d'un 
Crovant  Israelite" — a  polemical  work  directed 
against  Catholic  proselylisni,  and  which,  therefore, 
occasioned  inueli  eoiiunent.  I.  ]i. 

ANSPACH,  PHILIPPE  :  Honorary  connsidor 
to  the  French  Court  of  ('a.s.salion  (court  of  appeal) 
and  ollieer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  born  in  .Met/.. 
180();  died  Pec.  3.  1875.  Hi.i  father.  Mayer  Anspacli. 
died   in    !S44,    aged   ninety-three   years,      Philippe 


studied  law,  and  at  the  time  of  the  July  revolution, 
1830,  was  a  practising  advocate  in  Paris.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  events  leading  to  the  revolu- 
tion of  Julj',  and  was  thereupon  ajipointed  deputy 
procurator  of  the  department  of  Seine  et-Marne  at 
.Meau.\  by  the  government  of  Louis  Philip)ie.  After 
tilling  this  otliee  for  a  time,  he  was  called  to  Paris, 
and  successively  became  judge  deputy  to  the  Court 
of  Justice,  deputy  attorney -general,  counselor  at  the 
Court  of  Appeals,  section-president  thereof,  and 
finally  counselor  to  the  Court  of  Cassation.  A  few 
years  before  his  death  ill  health  compelled  him  to  re- 
sign the  last  ollice.  after  a  legal  career  in  which  he 
displayed  profound  knowledge  of  law.  together  with 
remarkal)le  elo(|Uenee  and  incorruptible  linnness. 
Anspach  was  the  lirst  Jew  to  occupy  a  place  in  the 
su])reme  magistracy  of  France.  He  was  a  thorough 
Israelite  and  evinced  an  active  interest  in  all  matters 
pertaining  to  his  coreligionists.  Having  held  a  seat 
in  the  Consistory  of  Paris  for  a  long  time,  he  was 
elected,  in  184.-),  to  the  Central  Consistory,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  intelligence  and  admin- 
istrative ability.  It  was  characteristic  of  the  man 
that  at  court  levees  he  would  attend  as  one  of  the 
representatives  of  the  Jewish  consistory,  rather  than 
with  his  fellow  dignitaries  of  the  Court  of  Justice. 

Anspach  had  two  daughters,  the  elder  of  whom 
married  Baron  Gustave  de  Rothschild.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  pami>hlet,  "De  la  Procedure  Devant  les 
Cours  d'A.ssises,"  I,  B, 

ANT  IN  JEWISH  LITERATURE,  THE : 

In  Hebrew  n^DJ,  so  also  in  Arabic  miiiil  (etymologv 
doublful);  in  Aramaic  (Targuni.  Peshilo,  and  Tal- 
mud) tJJtStJ'Olty,  which  has  its  eepiivalent  in  the 
Arabic  KiiiHuiim,  Kiiiinm,  and  is  \ised  especially  of 
the  small  red  Ant,  distinguished  from  sfiinnn/teiiianii 
fiaudii  (camel-ant),  the  large  Ant  (see  Fleischer,  in 
Levy's  "Clial.  Wi'irterb  "  ii.  .578).  This  became  by 
synco|)e  HhxinnldiKii,  and  by  transposition  n/i'is/iiiiiiim. 
Another  designation  for  the  Ant  in  the  Talmud  is 
NVOp  (see  I{ashi  on  Ber.  54/*;  and  Koliut.  "Arucli 
Comiileluni."  vii.  12.W);  though,  according  to  some, 
this  means  the  locust. 

The  Ant  is  referred  to  twice  in  the  Book  of  Prov- 
erbs as  an  example  of  provident  and  organized  in- 
dustry ;  "  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard ; 
In  the  Old  consi<ler  hvr  ways,  and  be  wise :  which, 
Testament.  h;iving  no  guide,  overseer,  or  ruler, 
provideth  her  meat  in  the  summer,  and 
gatlierelh  her  food  in  the  harvest"  (vi.  ti-8);  and 
"There  be  four  things  which  are  little  upon  the 
earth,  but  they  are  exceeding  wise:  The  ants  are  a 
people  not  stnmg,  yet  they  prepare  their  meat  in 
the  summer"  (.xx.x.  24,  2.5).  The  pas,sages  refer 
to  some  s])ecies  of  harvesting-ant.  probably  either 
to  Ap/KTH'ii/dfti-r  (formerly  called  AttdMnirlmrd,  or  to 
..4.  striii-liir,  or  to  I'liniilmlc  iiitf/drfii/iiilii, which  are  to 
this  day  found  in  Syria  and  all  around  the  Mediter- 
ranean basin.  Thc\se  species  wlK'reverthey  are  found, 
as  the  latest  in  vest  igal  ions  of  naturalist;;  have  proved, 
lay  up  .stores  for  the  winter. 

In  connection  with  the  passage  in  Prov.  vi.  the  Ant 
is  treated  from  an  el liico  pedagogical  point  of  view 
in  Hul.  (.57/1),  where  it  is  related  that 
In  the  Simon  ben  Ilalafia  made  experiments 
Talmudic  to  ascertain  wlulher  the  ants  really 
Literature,  lived  without  a  ruUr;  in  'Er.  (UKV*), 
where  the  industry  of  the  Ant  in  pro- 
curing food  is  mentioned:  and  in  Di'Ut.  }{.  v.  and 
Yalk.  on  Prov.  1I3S.  In  Hul.  (t>3<;)  it  is  pointed  out 
that  till'  wisdom  of  Ihi'  Creator  is  manifested  in  the 
litness  of  the  bodv  and  the  wonderful  life  of  the  Ant. 

The  therapeutic  use  of  the  .Vnt  to  avert  or  cure 


Ant 
Anthropology' 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


618 


ills  is  referred  to  in  Yel).  "fid,  Yer.  Yeli.  viii.  Wi, 
iiiul  Slmb.  fitiA.  In  conueetidn  with  the  last  refer- 
ence, it  may  lie  remarked  that  the  Ant's  jiiiee  is  even 
to-day  sonietimes  popularly  recommended  asa  cura- 
tive of  jaundice. 

As  may  he  expected,  the  wise  little  animal  is  not 
absent  from  the  folk  lore  of  the  Talmudic  literature. 
In  Her.  (54/-)  it  is  related  that  when  Oir.  kinj;  of  Bii- 
shan.  took  upaniounliiin  of  tlirce  parasanu's  i«i  extent 
in  order  to  bury  under  it  the  entire  camp  of  Israel. 
God  caused  white  ants  to  bore  a  hole  in  the  rock,  .so 
that  it  slii>ped  over  the  head  of  Og  and  remained 
fastened  upon  his  neck. 

The  Ant  also  comes  in  for  a  share  of  the  legislation 
of  the  Talmud  (Mak.  16A;  compare  Peah,  ii.  7.  iv. 
11:  Maas.  v,  7;  .Men.  71/<;  M.  K.  6/-);  it  is  forbidden 
as  food.  The  passage  in  Peah  (iv.  11)  contains  a 
quaint  piece  of  legislation  which  would  show  that 
the  seed-stores  of  the  ants  in  Palestine  were  of  con- 
siderable size  and  imiiortance.  It  is  sjiid  there  that 
the  granaries  of  ants  found  in  the  midst  of  a  grow- 
ing crop  of  corn  sliould  belong  to  the  owner;  but 
if  these  gratiaries  are  found  after  the  reapers  have 
pa.ssed.  the  upper  jiart  of  each  heaji  should  g<i  to 
the  poor  and  the  lower  i)art  tn  the  owner.  Habbi 
Meir  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  whole  sliouhl  go  to 
the  poor,  because  whenever  there  is  doubt  about  a 


•-  i^^i^^iiS^^^j 


Ants. 

1.  Male.    2,  Female.    3.  Worker  (oeuter).    4.  Pupa.    6.  Larva. 

question  of  gleaning,  the  decision  should  be  in  favor 
of  the  gleaner.  A  description  of  the  process  of  de- 
stroying ant-heaps  is  given  in  >I.  K.  6/;. 

The  halakic  aspects  of  the  Ant  are  discussed  in  the 
"Halakot  Gednlcii  "  (cd.  Warsaw.  ]).  2(>'2i/)  of  Simon 
of  Ka vara,  and  in  the  "Sliulhau  'Aruk,  YorehDe'ah." 
§84.  "12,  13;  g  10(1.  §  104). 

In  the   post-Talmudic  writings  Arabic  influence 

(compare  Koran,  sura  xxvii.,  surnamed  the  "Ant  ") 

is  conspicuous.     To  this  we  owe  the 

In  Post-  pretty  story  of  the  meeting  of  King 
Talmudic  Solomon  with  the  ants,  in  which  the 
Writings,  wise  king  was  outwitted  by  the  cun- 
ning little  animals  (compare  "Ma'aseh 
ha^Nemalah,"  in  Jellinek's  "B.  H."  vol.  v.,  Vienna, 
1873;  German  part,  pp.  11  et  seq.;  Hebrew  part,  pp. 
23  et  seq.). 

Samuel  ibn  Hisdai.  in  "  Ben  ha-Mclek  weha-Nazir  " 
(xv.).  a  Hebrew  rendering  from  the  Arabic  version 
of  "Barlaam  and  Josjifat,"  holds  up  the  Ant  as  an  ex 


ample,  in  the  sense  of  the  i)as.sages  of  the  Book  of 
Proverbs.  Kalnnymus  ben  Kalonynius  in  his  "Ig- 
geret  Bii'ale  Hayyim  "  (iv).  which  is  likewisi-  a  He- 
brew version  from  the  Andjic,  describes  at  .some 
length  the  habits  of  the  Ant  in  building  its  abode 
and  in  gathering  and  preserving  its  food. 

An  elaborate  |)anegyric  on  the  Ant  is  contained  in 
the  Diiiktiiiiii  of  the  Ant  and  Ilea  in  ,)udah  Alharizi's 
"Tahkenioni."  The  falilc  of  the  Ant  and  the  wasp 
in  the">Iishle  Sliualim  "  <if  Berechiah  ha  Nakdan 
is  practically  identical  with  Lafontaine's  well-knowu 
fable.  "Le  Fourmi  et  la  Cigale." 

In  passing  over  to  the  religious  aspects  of  the  Ant 
in  post  Talmudic  writings,  the  religio-philosophical 
anil  legal  phases  become  apparent.  As  regards  the 
former.  Bal.iya  ibn  Pakinla,  in  his  "  llobot  ha-Leba- 
bot."  xi.  'i.  in  dealing  uith  tlie  passjige  in  'Er.  1(K)//. 
already  cited,  points  to  the  divine  wisdom  which 
is  manifested  in  the  ants.  In  book  v.  the  conduct  of 
the  Ant,  as  in  Pro  v.  vi.  G,  is  recommended  as  an 
example  in  the  treatment  of  our  own  affairs,  insig- 
luticant  when  measured  by  the  greatness  of  the  Cre- 
ator, but  still  more  contemptible  when  marred  by 
disorder. 

Maimonides,  in  his  introduction  to  Seder  Zera'im, 
deduces  from  the  fact  that  the  ants  are  sometimes 
winged,  scmietimes  without  wings,  that  it  is  due  to 
the  limilationsof  our  minil  that  we  can  not  gage  the 
purpose  of  many  things  in  the  universe. 

.Tose|)h  Albo.  in  his  "Ikkarim,"  iii.  1,  like  Bal.iya, 
utilizes  Er.  100/*  to  reconuneud  the  mond  example 
alTorded  by  the  animals.  The  Ant  es]iecially  tc^aches 
us  industry  and  honesty  by  the  manner  in  which  it 
gains  its  food. 

Among  the  exegetes.  Levi  ben  Gershon,  in  his 
commentary  to  Proverbs,  dwells  at  some  length  on 
the  sagacity  and  resourcefulness  of  the  Ant,  and  de- 
rives from  Prov.  xxx.  'iT>  an  admonition  to  humility. 

.Joshua  ben  Shuoi.  a  discijile  of  Solomon  ben  Adrel. 
in  his  ■■  Derashol  "  lo  I)e\it.  xvi.  S  tn  xxi.  !),  ])ointsoul 
the  wisdomof  theants.  and  adds  that  this  wisdom  is 
not  due  to  reason,  but  is  derived  from  the  sparks  of 
the  Supreme  Sold  iXcii/iiimiiJi  /ki-'EIi/diui/i  ).  of  the 
active  intellect  {nfkel  hii-jxiil,  i-nic  -nii/nnor),  which 
God  bestows  on  them  in  order  to  instruct  man. 

Isaac 'Arama.  in  his"'Akedat  Vizhak."  xxviii., 
shows  that  according  tn  the  passage  Prov.  vi.  6,  while 
everything  is  determined  liy  God's  ]>roviilence,  man 
must  nevertheless  gain  his  livelihood  by  industrious 
work.  In  .scctiiin  71  he  points  on!  thai  some  beings 
attain  to  perfection,  thouirh  ihey  may  nnt  lieendowed 
with  all  the  four  Aristotelian  principles  (comi)are 
Aristotle,  "  Physics,'' ii.  7;  "  Metaiihysics,"  i.  Ii);  and 
gives  as  an  instance  the  Ant,  which  has  no  e'dn^ 
or  "form"  in  thetechnicalsen.se.  He  thus  derives 
the  lesson  that  man.  in  whom  all  four  |)rinciples  are 
united,  should  strive  by  means  of  science  to  obtain 
mental  perfection. 

From  a  jiurely  scientific  (liiological)  point  of  view 
the  Ant  is  treated  by  Gershon  t)en  Solomon,  father 
of  the  exegete  Levi  ben  Gershon.  in  his 
Scientific  work  "Siia'ar  ha-Shamayini."  The 
Treatment.  Ant,  he  says,  gathers  its  wheat  in  the 
harvest,  biting  off  the  germs  of  the 
grains  in  order  to  (irevent  them  from  sprouting,  and 
thus  preserving  them  from  rotting — a  fact  verilied  by 
recent  observation.  Each  Ant  gathers  seven  grains, 
although  one  would  suflice  it  for  life.  One  who 
gathers  more  treasures  than  he  can  use  is  therefore 
called  an  "Ant."'  The  Ant.  he  sjiys  further,  is  pro- 
portionately the  strongest  of  all  creatures,  being  able 
to  carry  from  two  to  four  times  its  own  weight. 
Moreover,  it  can  move  both  ways,  forward  and 
backward. 


619 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ant 
Anthropology 


Tin-  "SefiT  liaBerit"  (cd.  Brllnn,  179!),  7iti)  dis- 
tiiiiiuislics  male,  female,  and  iieuler  {Krft/cim)  ants. 
Tlic  lirst  t\v(i,  (in  reatliinijr  maturity,  acquire  wings 
and  Hy,  wliile  upon  tlie  neuters  devolve  not  only  all 
I  lie  work,  but  also  the  hatclunij;  of  the  eggs,  of  wliicli 
a  single  female  lavs  no  less  than  s.OdO. 

M    Cit.— I.  M.  C. 

ANTEDILXTVIANS,  BOOK  OF.     See  Apoc- 

nvrii  A. 

ANTELOPE  :  ( Ine  of  a  variety  of  ruminants 
nseniljliag  thedi'er  in  many  respects.     The  Revised 


Antelope  (OrjAE  Addax). 

(From  n  phohvr&pfa.) 

Version  of  the  Bil>le  has  the  word  "Antelope"  twice 
«s  a  translation  for  "ixn"  (Dent.  .\iv,  .'>.  Isa.  li.  20); 
liut  this  lianslation  can  not  be  justified.  For  want 
of  other  sources  tradition  alone  can  establish  the 
identity  of  the  animal;  and  tradition  translates  ti-'i 
as  wild  o.\  (Tosef.,  Ivil.  i.  9;  llul.  ^0.0. 

G.   B.  L. 

ANTHROPOLOGY  :  The  science  of  man.  espe- 
cially In  his  |ph\  ^i<  al  aspects,  and  of  the  climatic  and 
social  envininmenis  delerminini;  thns<'  aspects.  The 
Anthropology  of  the  .l<'ws.  who.  either  racially  or 
socially,  form  a  separate  portion  of  mankind,  should 
be  of  special  interest  to  students  of  the  science  as 
bearing  upon  its  centnd  problem:  namely,  whether 
the  similarities  ob.serv<'d  among  <lilTei'ent  classes  of 
mankind  are  due  to  "  nature  "  or  to  "  nurture  ";  that 
is.  to  I  ouuiion  aneeslry  or  to  common  environment. 
If  .lews  are  wholly  of  one  nice,  the  dilTerence  ])ro- 
diiicd  among  them  by  variations  of  social  eiivinai 
iiieni  should  form  a  suitable  sphere  of  iii(|uiry:  if 
they  are  not  of  one  race,  it  is  of  interest  to  the  scien- 
tist to  ascertain  how  the  markeil  similarities  between 
.lews  of  dilTerent  climes  have  been  produced.  Much 
turns  upon  th<'  preliminary  (|uestion  whether  con- 
temporary .Ii-ws  are  of  the  same  race  as  those  men- 
tioneil  in  the  Itible. 

The  general  arguments  hitherto  advanced  against 

Ihi'  purity  of  Ihi- .le«  ish  race  are:    (I)  Tl videiiee 

Ihal  ill  Bible  times  the  .li'svs  intermarried  with  sur- 
naindingnations;  (■.')  thefreipient  reference  to  pros*'- 
lytes  in  early  {'hrislian  literature;  i'.U  the  prohibition 
of  intirmarriiii,'e  repealed  in  many  of  the  couikIIs  of 
the  Church  implies  fic'ipicnt  infringements;   (1)  the 


conversionto.Iudaismof  the  Chazars.a  Turanian  tribe 
in  S(mth  Hussia.  from  whom,  it  is  suggested,  most 
of  the  Russian  Jews,  who  form  about  half  of  con- 
temporary Israelites,  are  descended;  ("))  the  marked 
dillerence  in  type  to  be  observed  among  contempo- 
rary Jews.  To  these  arguments  the  upholders  of 
the  purity  of  the  race  reply:  (1)  The  intermarriages 
mentioned  in  the  liible  are  lew  in 
Purity        number  and  with  cognate  tribes;   (2) 

of  Race.  luoselytes  were  the  cliief  sources  from 
which  the  early  Christian  Churchdrew 
its  members,  thus  removing  them  from  contact  with 
Judaism  ;  (8)  the  severity  of  the  i)iuiisliment  attached 
by  the  Church  to  intermarria.ire  proves  liow  infre- 
quent intermarriages  must  have  been;  (4)  the  con- 
version of  the  Cha/.ars  was  merely  nominal,  and  it 
has  left  traces  on  only  the  few  Karaites  of  .South 
Rii.ssia:  the  other  Russian  Jews  came  from  Ger- 
many, as  is  shown  by  the  German  dialect  they  use; 
{■>)  the  dilTerences  of  type  may  have  been  produced 
by  .social  ditferences  and  are  not  so  great  when  a 
series  is  taken  into  consideration.  The  upholders  of 
the  i>iirily  point  out:  ((i)  That  cohiiiiiiii.  or  members 
of  the  priestly  caste,  were  anil  are  not  allowed  to 
marry  a  proselyte,  and  must,  therefore,  have  lire- 
served  their  purity  of  descent ;  (7)  that  the  marked  re- 
semblance of  Jewesses  throughout  the  world,  show- 
ing as  they  do  less  variation  among  the  females  of 
the  race,  conforms  to  the  biological  test  of  purity 
of  breed  ;  (S)  that  mixed  marriages  in  the  present  day 
are  markedly  infertile,  which  would  reduce  the  ili- 
tluence  of  such  intermarriages  in  an  increasing  geo- 
metrical ratio;  (9)  the  ratify  of  instances  in  historical 
sources  of  proselyfisni  in  mi.xed  marriages  since  the 
Middle  Ages;  ( I'dl  flu'  |irepofency  of  Jewish  blood, 
as  shown  by  the  markiii  .lewisli  lype  of  even  the 
remoter  offspring  of  Jews  that  have  intermarried; 
(11)  the  stringent  social  separation,  which  can  be 
historically  proved  throughout  the  Christian  cen- 
turies; (12)  the  existence  of  marked  Jewish  type  in 
the  features  and  bodily  measurements  of  contempo- 
rary Jews  wherever  found. 

JleasureiiKiits  of  .lews  liave  been  taken  sporad- 
ically in  most  Kuropean  countries  with  the  following 
results:  The  average  height  of  Jews  is  102.1  cm.; 
span  of  arms.  1(19. 1  cm. ;  ami  girth  around  the  chest, 
about  81  cm.:  so  that  they  are  the  shortest  andnar 
rowesi  of  Europeans.  Their  skidls  are  mainly  biiichy- 
ceplialic;  that  is.  the  bn'adth  is  generally  over  HO 
per  cent  of  the  length.  This  has  been  used  as  an 
argument   against   the  purity  of  race. 

Anthro-      as  most   Semites — like  the  Arabs  and 
pometry.     Syrians — are  dolichocephalic,  or  long- 
headed.    But.  as  Jewish  skulls  are  al- 
most the  broadest  in  all  Europe,  it   is  dillicult  to  say 
how  this  characteristic  could  have  aris<n  from  any 
mixture:  it  is  probably  due  tocerebral  development. 

As  regards  complexion.  Jews  are  (hirker  than  the 
surrounding  ]ieoples  in  Europe,  except  Galicia.  The 
hair  i<  also  darker:  on  the  average  15  per  cent  Iiav 
iiig  blaik  hair  as  against  'A  to  4  percent  in  the  gen- 
eral European  populations.  Curiously  i^nough.  there 
is  a  larger  proportion  of  red  haired  men  among  Jews 
than  in  any  other  nice;  pos.sibly  due  to  want  of 
luitrition.  Jewes-ses  seem  to  be  more  keen-sighted 
and  to  have  gn^ater  strength  of  grip  than  other 
women.  Among  Jews  about  one  fifth  have  blue 
eyes,  against  one  third  in  the  geneial  ]>opiilations. 
.Utogeiher  about  oiii' fourth  of  the  .liws  can  be  de- 
scribed as  fair,  as  au'ainst  one  half  of  the  poptdalions 
among  whom  Ihi'v  dwell.  The  nose  is  genendly 
considerc'd  the  ehanicferisti<-  feature  of  the  Jews, 
who  have,  on  the  avenige.  the  longest  (77  mm.)  and 
narrowest  (34  mm.).     Its  cliaracteristic  shape  is  due 


Anthropology 
Authropomorphism 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


620 


to  the  accentuation  of  tlie  nostrils,  which  gives  it 
the  •■  figure  0"  formation.  The  lips  of  Jews  are 
iilsoiharacteristic,  as  large  a  proportion  as  48  per  cent 
lieing  thick.  These  features  are  the  elements  that  go 
to  make  the  marked  Jewish  type,  which  lias  been 
defined  "as  Semitic  features  with  ghetto  expres- 
sion ":  it  is  foiuul  in  the  Assyrian  bas-reliefs  as  well 
as  in  the  ghetti  of  to-day.  From  composite  por- 
traits of  Jewish  lads,  the  Jewish  face  has  been  de- 
fined as  possessing  "accentuated  lle.xible  nostrils; 
largish  mouth,  with  ends  well  marked,  and  pouting 
under-lip;  heavy  chin;  broad  forehead  with  promi- 
nent superciliary  ridges  scantily  covered  with  hair 
toward  the  outer  extremities;  and  large,  brilliant, 
dark  eyes,  set  closely  together,  with  heavy  upper 
and  protuberant  lower  lid,  having  a  thoughtful  ex- 
pression in  youth,  transformed  to  a  keen  and  pene- 
trating gaze  in  manhood." 

The  above  results  are  averages  taken  from  differ- 
ent numbers  and  different  classes,  and  consequently 
vary  in  trustworthiness.  The  details  as  to  hair, 
eye!  and  complexion  are  based  upon  the  examination 
of  no  less  than  120,0(10  individuals;  those  with  re- 
gard to  the  nose,  upon  only  119.  Differences  in  social 
position  are  found  to  affect  results  considerably; 
thus,  while  12,000  Jews  gave  an  average  height  of 
1G2.1  cm.,  that  of  130  English  Jews  of  the  better 
<lass  was  170.8  cm.  The  predominantly  narrow 
girth  of  Jews  would  give  them  what  is  technically 
known  as  the  lowest  "  index  of  vitality  " ;  but  statis- 
tics prove  otherwise. 

With  regard  to  their  vital  statistics  Jews  show 
e(|Ual  similarity  among  themselves  and  differences 
from  the  populations  of  which  they  form  a  part. 
Thus,  as  regards  marriage,  Jews  in  almost  all 
countries  have  a  lower  marriage-rate  than  Christians 
when  reckoned  upon  their  total  population;  their 
average  being  about  6  marriages  to  every  100  inhab- 
itants. They  marry  earlier  than  Christians  (in  Kus- 
siu  one-half  of  Jewish  marriages  are  between  per- 
sons under  twenty);  and.  as  a  consequence,  there 
is  a  larger  proportion  of  .Jewish  marriages  between 
bachelors  and  spinsters.  Jews  marry  their  cousins 
more  frequently  than  other  people  do:  probably 
three  times  as  often.  The  rate  of  intermarriage  be- 
tween Jews  and  Chiistians  varies  in 
Biostatics.  different  localities,  from  1  per  cent 
in  Algeria  to  12  )ier  cent  in  Berlin. 
Jews  appear  to  .seek  divorce  in  slightly  fewer  num- 
bers than  the  rest  of  the  population. 

Estimated  upon  the  total  population,  the  birth- 
rate of  Jews  is  less — an  average  of  about  33.5  per 
1,000  per  annum  against  3G.3  per  1,000  of  the  whole 
population — though  this  is  opposed  to  the  general  im- 
jiression,  and  appears  to  be  contradicted  by  the  fact 
that,  as  a  rule,  Jews  have  larger  families  than  Chris- 
tians. On  the  other  hand,  mixed  marriages  are  re- 
markably infertile,  resulting  in  only  1.5  births  per 
1,000.  The  sex  of  Jewish  children  is  more  predom- 
inantly male  than  in  the  general  population,  in  the 
proportion  of  113  to  105  (the  female  children  being 
reckoned  at  100);  though,  curiously  enough,  in  Eu- 
rope there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  Jewesses  to  Jews 
( lOG  to  100)  t  ban  of  other  women  to  men  in  the  general 
]>opulation  (103  to  100).  This  predominance  of  male 
births  among  Jews  has  attracted  the  notice  of  natu- 
nilists,  and  appears  to  be  due  partly  to  the  smaller 
number  of  illegitimate  and  still-births.  It  is  found 
that  a  larger  proportion  of  males  occur  among  the 
still-births,  so  that  if  there  are  less  still-births,  the 
larger  is  the  number  of  males  born.  Jews  show  an 
average  of  about  3  per  cent  still-births  among  all 
births  as  against  4  per  cent  for  the  general  popu- 
lation; this  difference,  though  only  of  1  per  cent 


absolutely,  is  25  per  cent  relatively.  The  compara- 
tive infrcquencv  of  still -births  maj-  be  due  to  the  small 
proportion  of  illegitimate  births  among  Jews,  which 
is,  on  the  average,  only  one-fifth  of  the  normal  pro- 
portion. The  superiority  varies  in  different  iilaecs, 
and  is  growing  less  marked  as  the  pressure  of  ghetto 
opinion  is  becoming  less  effective;  in  I'rus.sia,  for 
example,  there  has  been  a  perceptible  rise  in  the  rate 
of  illegitimacy. 

The  death-rate  of  Jews  is  lower  than  that  of  their 
neighbors:  strikingly  .so  in  deaths  under  five  years. 
This  is  the  key  to  the  whole  of  Jewish  vital  statis- 
tics, inasmuch  as  comparatively  few  deaths  occur 
between  five  and  twenty;  hence,  a  relatively  larger 
proportion  of  the  Jewish  popidation  is  living  be- 
tween these  ages  than  is  the  case  in  genend  popula- 
tions. Consequently  when  marriages  or  births  are 
reckoned  on  the  tthoU:  population  they  appear  less 
among  .lews  than  among  their  neighbors;  though  if 
reckoned  upon  the  population  over  twenty  years  of 
age— which  would  be  the  proper  method — they 
would  be  really  larger.  Thus  in  Budapest,  the  per- 
centage of  the  Jewish  population  under  twenty  was 
45,  while  that  of  the  Christians  was  about  34.  The 
low  death-rate  among  infants  is  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  Jewish  mothers  rarely  do  anything  but 
housework.  A  low  death-rate  is  shown  in  almost 
all  the  remaining  ages  until  the  very  highest  age, 
which  implies  that  Jews  are  longer-lived  than  their 
neighbors.  It  has  been  suggested  that  Jews  should 
claim  special  life  tables  and  premium  rates  from  the 
insurance  companies.  Owing  to  the  early  date  of 
marriage  and  the  viability  of  children,  the  length  of 
a  generation  (=  average  age  of  males  at  marriage -f- 
1  year  -\-  half  the  number  of  }ears  of  female  fertility) 
of  Jews  is  less  than  among  Christians  (about  31  years 
to  36);  so  that  there  are  a  larger  luimber  of  genera- 
tions living  together;  their  increase  is  more  rapid; 
and  tradition  holds  a  stronger  place  among  them. 

Little  has  been  done  in  the  collection  of  details  as 
to  the  special  morbidity  of  Jews,  either  as  regards 
the  diseases  to  which  they  are  most 
Morbidity,  suscejitible  or  as  regards  those  from 
which  t  hey  die.  Jews  have  been  cred- 
ited with  immunity  from  tuberculosis;  but  this  has 
been  disproved  by  the  experience  of  the  overcrowded 
immigrants  in  New  York.  They  are  undoubtedly 
freer  than  others  from  alcoholism  ;  the  number  of 
such  cases  at  Jewish  clinics  being  phenomenally 
small.  .Tews  are  said  to  be  more  liable  than  others  to 
diabetes  and  hemorrhoids — due  probably  to  their 
sedentary  habits.  They  are  less  liable  to  venereal  dis- 
eases. They  are  undoubtedly  more  liable  to  disease 
of  the  nervous  system,  as  is  shown  by  the  larger  per- 
centage of  deaf  and  dumb,  blind  and  insane  among 
them  than  among  the  general  population.  .lews 
are  markedly  more  color-blind  than  their  neigh- 
bors, at  least  one-half  as  much  again.  Their  neu- 
rotic tendency  is  due  either  to  racial  peculiarities  or 
to  the  fact  that  they  are  mostly  town-dwellers  and 
that  they  earn  their  living  by  relatively  more  brain- 
work.  Curiously  enough,  Jews,  while  showing  infe- 
riority compared  with  Christians  in  regard  to  nervous 
diseases,  show  superiority  with  regard  to  suicide, 
few  of  them  resorting  to  self-destruction. 

The  peculiarities  of  Jewish  statistics  may  be  due 
to  racial  unity  or  to  similarity  of  social  conditions. 
Even  such  measurements  as  those  of  height  and 
growth  may  be  due  to  nurture  rather  than  to  nature. 
It  has  been  found,  for  example,  that  Jews  in  the 
East  of  London  reach  an  average  height  of  64.3 
inches,  whereas  in  the  West  End  the  average  is 67.5. 
The  social  condition  of  Jews  has  thus  a  direct  bear- 
ing upon  their  anthropometry,  and  the  key  to  this 


621 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anthropology 
Anthropomorphism 


is  afforded  by  the  fuel  that  they  ]\\t-  ahnost  e.xelu- 
sivcly  in  towns,  due  in  ])arl  to  medieval  persecution 
and  in  part  to  the  needs  of  put)lic  worship.  As  a 
rule,  only  one-fifth  of  the  Jewish  pop- 
Social  ulation  dwell  fiutside  of  large  towns, 
Conditions,  whereas  two-thirdsof  the  jreneral  pop- 
ulation do  so.  This  aeeouiits  in  a  large 
nieasuro  for  their  frail  physiciiie  and  shorter  height, 
and  for  the  larger  ])roportioii  of  mentally  and  phys- 
ically attlicted.  It  also  explains  the  small  number 
of  Jews  in  Continental  armies,  and,  above  all,  the 
rarity  of  their  emi)loyment  as  agricultural  laborers. 
The  peculiarities  of  "their  occupations  are  the  pre- 
dominance of  eonuneree — over  oO  per  cent  of  tile 
adult  workers  being  thus  engaged  as  against  onlj'  6 
per  cent  of  the  general  jjopulation — and  the  corre- 
spondingly small  number  of  artisans,  who  are  only 
one-half  as  numerous  as  among  the  Gentiles.  Of 
the  occupations  most  in  vogue  among  Jewish  arti- 
sjiiis  tailoring  and  shoemaking  take  the  precedence, 
as  they  do  in  the  general  jiopulation;  and  the.se 
liuve  been  the  occa.sion  of  much  "sweating"  in  the 
I'nited  States  because  of  the  long  work-hours  which 
the  Uussian  Jews  are  willing  to  accept.  Owing  to 
the  prevalence  of  these  ill -paid  industries,  Jews  in  the 
general  mass  arc  poorer  than  their  fellow  citizens, 
though  a  few  ex<<'ptional  jiersous  liavc  acquired 
great  wealth.  Taken  as  a  whole,  Jews  are  poorer 
than  any  European  i>eople.  They  appear  to  give 
more  attention  to  the  higher  education  of  their  chil- 
dren ;  and  as  a  consei|Uence  are  found  among  the 
professional  clas.ses  in  nuich  larger  proportion  than 
their  luunbers  warrant:  forexamplc,  in  Italy  t<. 7  per 
.(■nt  of  Jews  against  3."  jier  cent  of  the  general 
jicipulation.  Here,  again,  correction  has  to  be  made, 
bccausi-  of  the  fact  that  Jews  are  town-dwellers, 
from  whom  the  professions  are  almost  exclusivelv 
recruited.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  regard 
to  medicine.  Jewish  doctors  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe  are,  com]iaratively  speaking,  three  times  as 
nuiuerous  as  Gentile  doctors.  There  are  fewer  clergy- 
men: an  average  of  1  Jew  to  1,.500  of  the  population 
as  against  1  Christian  to  1,000. 

Tlie  results  mentioned  above  liave  lieen  compiled 
from  a  large  number  of  statistics  of  various  count  lies. 
an<l  it  may  be  desiralde  to  illustrate  the  general  re 
suits  by  the  case  of  Prussia,  which  has  coflected  sta- 
tistics about  its  Jews  for  a  longer  i)eriod  than  any 
oilier  country. 

St.\tistic8  Relatiso  to  Jews  in  Prussia. 


Jews. 

Others. 

78.91 
lUH 

<l.l 
4S.9S 
Zi.7 

a.4 
a.9 
■i.i 

1.7 
14.9 
40.1 

».« 

7.H 
tt:i.4.''. 
I».:u 

14.HH 

a'i.23 

4.1 

1«.7 
28.8 
53J> 

22.4 
SA.I> 
10.1 

ai.4 
103 

8.2 

MurrlfiifH.  fMTcfntJii:**  of,  lo  iiopulultun 

I'miiiirrltMl  {MTNOiiii  <ivt'r  14 

Illrtlw  |MT  l.imii 

still-hlrihs.  iii-rcentiiifH  of  nil  hirths 

Illi'irllliimlf.  jientjntuKc  uf  ull  birtlm 

Til  H  iiiiirrliiKi' 

Til  a  iiiLxril  iimrrlaffe 

r>4 

38.2 
4.1 
7.9 
4.6 

oo 

58.2 

Snlrlili-s  luT  l(«M««i 

21)2 

AilllitMl.  ii,T  In.lH) 

41  98 

llllnil.  |»T  in.(»ll 

IX'iif-iimtrs,  INT  lo.uun 

Iiisiine.  |MT  ln.i«io 

9.IM 
22  67 

Ciitiir-lilliiit,  |H-n-eiiUiffi* 

2  1 

K.vi-i : 

lllUf 

liniv 

Ilniwii 

Mulr: 

llliinil 

4.3 

32.7 

24.3 

^  o 

28  1 

llliiik 

1.2 

Ki-d 

0.3 

St.vtistics    Relating    to    Jews    in    Prussia. 

Continued. 


Jews. 

Others. 

8kin: 
White 

77.7 
1.06 

19.:si 

M.IW 
B.26 
15.79 

3.6 
7.2 

.58.7 
6.46 

985 

Occupations : 

;i6.ii 

liti  06 

Imlustrv 

Commerce. 

]2..i2 
7  18 

oniciHl  ami  prnfrssioiml 

Education  : 
HIpher 

05 

rrimiiials  per  1,000 

Paupers 

69!5 
4.19 

The  foregoing  figures  relate  for  the  most  part  to  the 
averages  of  the  last  quinquennial  period  (1891-9.")) 
for  which  statistics  are  available:  but  some  of  the 
details  refer  to  earlier  dates.  They  are  similar  to 
what  is  found  among  Jews  of  otiier  countries  in 
every  case  exeejit  with  regard  to  births  and  mar- 
riages, and  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths,  which 
is  generally  above  the  proportion  in  the  general 
pojnilalion. 

Anthropologically  con.sidered,  the  Jews  are  a  race 
of  markedly  uniform  type,  due  either  to  unity  of 
race  or  to  similarity  of"environment.  Their  phys- 
ical condition  is  mainly  determined  by  their  dwelling 
in  towns.  Their  social  position  is  theleast  fortunate, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  crowded  together, 
as  in  the  Pale  of  Settlement" in  Russia,  or  are  forced 
to  immigrate  to  other  countries,  w  here  they  have  to 
compete  as  foreigners.  The  general  population  is 
approaching  the  Jewish  with  regard  to  predilection 
for  town  life.  The  Hu,ssian  Jews  domiciled  in  other 
countries  are  bringing  up  a  generation  adapted  to 
the  newer  environment.  Jewish  anthropological 
characteristics  will  therefore  be  likely  to  become 
more  similar  to  that  of  the  general  lioimlation  in 
the  future.  But  the  peculiarities  due  to  race  will  still 
remain.     See  al.so  the  following  articles: 


Army  und  Navy. 

Artlsan.s. 

Bl.ilciKy. 

Kinbs. 

liliiid. 

(bazars. 

I'hllclivn. 

Cohanim. 

rnnunt*n-t'. 

<'oniiili'.xl(in. 

rninioiiii'Iry. 

C'rliiilniiliicy. 

Ufa!  and  Dumb. 

Deaths. 


F.diicatliiii. 

Klbuoki^'y. 

ExptHnaikin  of  Life. 

Expression. 

Eyes. 

(ieneratlon.  Length  of. 

Hair. 

Increa.se. 

Insane. 

Intemiarriage. 

Jevves.s«i. 

MarrlafTe. 

Migration. 

Morbidity. 


Nose. 

(Hruiiations. 
PatlioloRv. 
Physical  Develop- 

iiient. 
Prt'ixilenoy. 
Professions. 
Purity  of  llace. 
Sex. 

iHH'lal  Condition. 
Soclolopy. 
Sulfide. 
T>I)es. 
rilal  Stalisllcs. 


BiHMOORAniv :  C.  llinow.  \,ue  Dtilrfltit  Ji"'  -tiKhmiiiifoirie 
ilir  Jwlrii.  lsS(i;  .Iciseiib  Benrel,  Die  Mrdizin  tier  Tiiliiiu- 
ilifttii.  ixx't;  Hlllini.'s.  liiilir  I'lilalatmr  nf  tlit  Suiyenn  <;«  n- 
iral'x  Liliriirii.  urulir  Ji  ir.i,  (rlvesa  full  list  of  nionogni|ibs  U) 
ilate:  AndOT.  Xnr  Vnlhshiiiiilf  ilir  Jiiilrn,  l.sXl ;  Jaiiilet, 
SliulicH  ill  Ji'icWi  Slaliflici.  London,  issd.  deals  with  nxst 
of  the  topics  in  di'lall.  The  chief  cmiirlliutlons  since  niuilc 
an"  those  of  Wels.vnlHTK.  iJir  AtilliiiiiKiliiair  iter  Sllil-liiui- 
Hinrlini  Jiiilrn.  \X'X>,  and  W.  /..  Ulplcv,  Tin  /Mem  nf  /viiniiw, 
ISHW,  xlv.:iiis-ii«i. 


ANTHROPOMORPHISM     and    ANTHRO- 

POPATHISM   I  «. -  ..     ■man";  ».i,k.',.  ••|.>nu"; 

-rrii»"..  "  tilling  "i:  The  ascription  lotlie  Deityof  hu- 
man forms  or  modes  and  of  human  feelings  or  mcMids, 
respiictively.  Such  ascripl  ion  is  asold  as  religion  itself. 
If.  as  Zel  ler  correctly  observes  ("  PhilosophieilerGrie- 
clien,"  2(1  ed.,  iii.  !li)(b,  every  conception  concerning 
the  Deity  is,  in  its  final  application,  dependent  upon  a 
posteriori  I'videnci — that  is.  u])oii  an  inference  from 
events  and  elTi'Cis,  or  from  things  as  they  occur  and 
exist,  to  theirahsoltite  ground  or  rea.son — and  if  any 


Anthropomorphism 


Tin;  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


622 


more  precise  specification  or  definition  of  tliis  Abso- 
lute can  be  derived  only  from  tile  conscious  ronlenis 

of  soul-experience  and  world-knowl- 
Psycho-  edjie,  tlien  the  orijriii  of  the  ascription 
log-ical  of  human  characteristics  to  the  Deity 
Genesis,     finds  an  easy  exiilanation;  fornothinf; 

means  so  nuicli.  nothing  is  so  impor- 
tant, as  our  own  conscious  possessions,  as.  for  in- 
stance, our  faculties  of  sensation,  emotion,  thought. 
Accordingly,  in  our  search  for  and  discovery  of  the 
Author  of  all  things,  we  attribute  to  Him  the  most, 
valuable  traits  we  are  awaie  of;  namely.  tlK)se  jios- 
sessed  by  ourselves  incompletely,  in  m<ie  segments 
of  a  circle,  as  it  were.  Init  posses.se(l  by  Mini  in  per- 
fect measure,  in  the  completed  circle.  With  regard 
to  primitive  religions  the  well-known  epigram  is  cer- 
tainly true,  that  "men  created  gods  in  their  own 
image."  Anthropomorphism  is,  of  course,  met  with 
among  all  the  peoples  of  anticpiity,  not  excluding 
the  most  advanced.  Even  Jahvism,  before  the  great 
refoiTiiation  by  the  Prophets,  was  not  free  from  An- 
thropomorphism. It  is  unquestionably  true  that  the 
Hiblical  expressions  of  an  anthro])omorphic  nature, 
such  as  the  hand  of  God.  His  arm.  foot,  mouth,  ear, 
or  eye,  or  His  speaking,  walking,  iind  laughing, 
merely  describe  in  naive  fashion  the  activity  of  God 
as  living  and  working  after  the  manner  of  human  be- 
ings. But  sucliexi>ressions  woidd  never  have  come 
into  use  had  there  not  beena  time  when  ])eople actu- 
ally had  a  sensuous  conception  of  Deity.  That  this 
period  of  naive  utterance  was  not  limited  to  the  pre- 
.Tahvistic  age  is  shown  by  numerous  Biblical  expres- 
sions, such  as  that  He  walked  in  the  garden  in  the 
cool  of  the  day  (  Gen.  iii.  8);  He  ate  w  ith  At)rahani 
(Gen.  xviii.  8);  He  wrote  with  His  own  hand  upon  the 
tables  of  stone  (Ex.  xxxi.  18l.  and  the  like.  Never- 
theless, this  very  anthropomorphic  view,  or,  to  be 
more  exact,  this  authropopathic  attitude — this  con- 
ception of  the  Deity  as  a  being  with  affections  simi- 
lar to  those  of  a  human  being — contained  the  germs 
for  the  development  of  the  conception  of  YHWH 
as  being  a  mere  tribal  deity  into  a  universal,  ethical 
Being. 

It  was  just  this  conception  of  YIIWII  as  a  per- 
sonality to  whom  neither  wrath  nor  mercy  nor  love 

nor  hat( — to  whom,  indeed,  "nothing 

Stages  of    human  is  alien  " — that,  when  deepened 

Devel-       and  eiuiobled,   led  necessarily  to  the 

opment.      prophetic  view  of  God;  to  the  doctrine 

of  a  holy,  spiritual  Being.w  ho,  on  the 
one  hand,  influences  and  actively  maintains  the  or- 
derly structure,  organization,  and  system  of  the  uni- 
verse; and  whose  relationship  to  the  individual  and 
to  tlie  mass,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  conditioned 
by  arbitrariness  or  momentary  emotion,  but  is  the 
outcome  of  eternal,  divine  law.  This  higher  con- 
ception of  Deity  on  the  part  of  the  Pro])hets  deter- 
mined also  their  attitude  toward  Anthropomorphism 
and  Anthropopathism,  Many  jiassages  of  Hosea,  one 
of  the  oldest  Prophets  who  committed  their  prophe- 
cies to  writing,  will  serve  to  illustrate  this  attitude. 
"  The  work  of  craftsmen."  "  the  calf  of  Samaria."  are 
some  of  the  epithets  which  this  prophet  applies  to 
the  effigies  on  images  <>i  Y'H^VH.  held  sjicred  by  the 
people  (Hosea.  viii.  4.  6;  .\.  3;  xiii.  2).  Again,  when 
the  people,  under  the  influence  of  their  delusions. 
deemed  it  impossible  that  YHWH  should  withhold 
His  pity  from  His  people,  he  proclaimed  in  the  name 
of  YHWH;  "But  I  am  God.  and  not  man  "  (Hosea. 
xi.  9).  Thus  YHWH  is  so  exalted  above  everything 
earthly  that  He  should  not  be  represented  by  an 
effigy  or  image  lest  He  be  dragged  down  into  the 
sphere  of  the  sensuous.  Besides  this.  His  very  spiri- 
tual constitution  is  so  intrinsically  different  in  its 


essence  from  that  of  man  that  no  comparison  can  be 
made.  JIan  may  be  overcome  by  a  symiiathetic 
heart  or  a  censuring  con.seience;  the  character  of 
YHWH  is  firmer:  "for  he  is  not  a  man  that  he 
sh<mld  repent  "  (I  Sam.  xv.  29). 

Isjiiali  was  more  practically  successful  in  his  ef- 
forts against  the  worship  of  sensuous  representations 
of  the  Deity.  He  induced  Hezekiali  to  destroy  the 
brazen  serpent,  which  may  have  dated  back  to  the 
days  of  Moses  (II  Kings,  xviii.  4).  But  before  the 
Prophets,  even  I)avid,"a  manafterGod'sown  heart." 
as  well  as  Laban  of  old,  had  ti  niji/u'iii  (small  house- 
hold idols  in  human  form,  used  as  donustic  oracles) 
in  Ills  house  (I  Sam.  xix.  13,  10;  Gen.  xxxi.  :54).  The 
lofty  and  novel  conce|)tion  by  the  Prophets  of  the  es- 
sential characteristic  of  YHWH  as  etliical — through 
which  ethical  nature,  despite  His  sublimity  and  in- 
eompn'hensibility.  He  has  something  in  couuuon  with 
man — becamea  matterof  fundamental  importance  in 
the  development  of  the  .Jewish  religion.  With  the 
prevalence  of  legalism  the  immediateness  of  the  rela- 
tion between  God  and  man  ceased;  in  other  words, 
the  "Law  "  made  the  transcendent  nature  of  God  a 
postulate.     Hence  there  may  be  noticed,  in  a  few 

books  of  the  Old  Testament,  a  certain 

Beginning   aversion  to  bringing  the  Creator  into 

of  Anti-      direct  relations  with  Hiscreatures.    To 

anthropo-    the  people  God  was  no  longer  visible  in 

morphism.    person — as  described  in  the  most  vivid 

colors  by  the  older  sources — but  He 
was  visible  in  "majesty"  and  "glory  "  instead  (Ex. 
xvi.  7.  10.  xl.  .34  et  m/. :  Lev.  ix.  2;i;  Num.  xiv.  10, 
xvi.  19).  It  was  no  longer  the  actual  personality  of 
YIIWII  that  dwelt  in  the  Tabernacle,  but  the  men- 
tal image  called  up  by  His  "  Name  "  (DC)  that  there 
abode  (Deut.  xii.  5,  11;  xvi.  2.0.11;  xxvi,  2);  .so  like- 
wise in  the  Temple  dwells  His  name  (II  Kings,  xxiii. 
27;  II  Chron.  xx.  9.  xxxiii.  7).  See  Ginsburger, 
"  Anthropomoriiliismus,"  pj).  202  el  scq. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  theological  prob- 
lem regarding  Anthropomorphism — that  is.  the  en- 
deavor to  interpret  the  sensuous  statements  concern- 
ing God  in  the  Bible  so  as  to  give  them  a  spiritual 
meaning — iscoeval  with  .Jewish  theology  itself.  For 
it  is  obvious  that  there  is  a  definite  method  and  pur- 
pose in  the  consistent  efforts  of  the  nomistic  writers 
to  suljstitute  new  terms  for  those  found  in  the  ancient 
authorities,  or  to  remodel  entire  accounts.  Such  re- 
vision is  to  be  .seen,  for  example,  in  the  .so-called 
"  priestly  code  "  where  all  theophanies  are  consist- 
ently omitted,  and  "the  word  "  or  "the  presence  of 
God"  substituted  for  them.  This  reluctance  to  of- 
fend the  Deity  by  anthropomorphic  utterances  con- 
cerning His  person  grew  stronger  with  time,  so  that 
the  use  of  the  name  YHWH,  which  was  felt  to  be  a 
proper  name,  in  contradistinction  to  the  other  ap- 
pellations of  the  Deity  in  the  Bible,  was  thereafter 
avoided  (see  Adon.^i). 

Aversion  to  Anthropomorphism  exercised  a  great 
influence  upon  the  men  of  the  "Great  Synagogue," 
who  undertook  to  establish  a  sacred  canon.     For  the 

more  the  belief  in  the  letter  increased, 

Men  of  the    the   more   zealously  did   the  leading 

Great  Syu-  spirits  of  Israel  endeavor  to  bring  the 

agogue.      Scripture    into    harmony   with    their 

purer  religious  and  ethical  views. 
Quite  unobjectionalile  as  it  had  seemed  to  the  old, 
naive  .ludaism  that  God  should  say.  "I  will  dwell  in 
your  midst,"  in  a  later  age,  when  the  idea  of  the 
transcendence  of  God  had  become  the  i>revalent 
one,  and  the  ancient  simplicity  of  thought  had  dis- 
ap]ieared.  offense  was  taken  at  such  an  expression, 
and  the  phrase  "I  shall  cause  you  to  dwell "  was 
substituted  for  it.     A  favorite  phrase  of  the  ancient 


623 


THE  JEWISH   ENfVfLoPEDIA 


Anthropomorphism 


Biblical  writers  is  "to  behold  tlie  face  of  God,"  By 
uiiiiiis  of  a  slight  vowel-eiianiic  (,v/(v(»7i  in  place  of 
i/iri/i)  this  became  "to  appear  before  Goil," 

This  and  similar  emeiidatioiis  of  the  Scribes  (see 
GeijfiT,  "  L'rsclirifl."  pp.  iil8  d ki//.)  show  that  the  <'ii- 
(leavorof  the  "Soferim"  was  toliohl  the  Dc'ityaloof 
from  all  contact  with  the  merely  human,  and  thus 
to  avoid  attributing,'  human  qualities  to  God  even  in 
interprelini;  the  laniruage  of  the  Bible.  Neverthe- 
less, A  nth  ropomorjihism  and  even  Antliroiiopathism, 
when  not  too  gross  and  flagrant,  did  not  appi-ar  to 
them  seriously  objectionable.  Among  the  eiirhteen 
"Tikkune  Soferiin  "  (emendations  of  the  Scribes)  in 
the  Mck,  (Ex.  .\v,7.  ed.  Friedmami.  Jiilri). which  istlie 
oldest  source,  not  a  .single  e.vamplc  of  the  changing 
of  a  real  antliropoinori)liic  expression  is  found.  The 
older  Targumim  aildnce  a  principle  similar  to  llie"So- 
ferim."  They  always  speak  of  the  Mi;.mh.\  ("word  " 
of  God) — if  in  the  Hebrew  text  (iod  is  represented  as 
speaking — but  they  retain  in  their  translations  such 
expressions  as  the  hand,  linger,  or  eye  of  God.  The 
present  te.\t  shows  only  traei's  of  this  tendi'ncy,  but 
they  are  inimistakable,  asGinsbiirger  has  shown  {I.e. 
1>.  2(5.")).  (rinsburger  (p.  '.iTO)  is  accordingly  right 
when  he  deduces  the  following  rule  for  the  employ- 
ment of  memra  in  the  older  Targumim:  "Whenever 
a  relation  is  predicated  of  God.  through  which  His 
spiritual  presence  in  an  earthly  being  must  be  as- 
sumed, tin'  para|ihrasi'  with  memra  is  employed." 

The  "fathers"  of  the  Sejituagint  went  much  fur- 
ther than  tlie  "Soferim  "  or  the  "  .Metnrgemaniin  "  in 
their  employment  of  interpretative  ex- 
Septuagint.  pressions.  by  paraphrasing  or  spiritual- 
izing (rendering  less  worldly  or  gross) 
the  anthropomorphic  or  aiitliropopathic  phrases  of 
the-  Mible.  The  "  image  of  (Jod  "  becomes  in  the  Sep- 
luagint  "the  glory  of  the  I,ord"('16cn  Myiioe) :  " the 
mouth  of  God."  "  the  voiic  of  the  Lord  "  [ouvi/  Kviiioi). 
Even  human  emotions  are  excluded  froiu  Deity.  Re- 
pentance, wrath,  and  )iily  are  suggested  in  such  a 
manner  that  nothing  human  is  stated  of  God.  The 
customary  assumption  that  thisaversion  to  the  pred- 
ication of  anything  corporeal,  or  indeed  human,  of 
fjod  is  due  to  the  intlnenee  of  Greek  philosophy  is 
far  from  certain.  Krankei,  in  his  "  Vorstudien."  was 
the  Hrst  to  deny  that  any  traces  of  (Jreek  inlluence 
can  be  disciivered  in  the  Sepluagint:  and  Freuden- 
thal  has  fully  demonstnited  the  correctness  of  this  as- 
sertion. According  to  the  hitter's  argument  ("Jew. 
Quart.  Hev."  180().  pp.  2()()  it  xc/.).  no  other  traces  of 
the  alleged  inlluence  of  Greek  philosophy  can  be 
noticed  in  the  Septuagint;  and  conseipK'Utly  the 
avoidance  of  anthropomorphisms  ai]d  anihropopa 
tliisins  in  the  Septuagint  must  be  looked  u]ion  as  a 
ri'tinement  of  religious  idi'as  wliieli  had  its  origin 
upon  Jewish  soil.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that 
many  aiilhropomoiphie  phrases  ari'  simply  luitrans- 
latabh'  intr)  (JriMk;  for  instanci'.  "  '3  Sy  "by  God" 
(lilirally.  "by  lli<'  mouth  of  God").  Although  the 
Septuagint.  and  later  the  Targ\iiniin.  Onkelos  and 
Yerushalmi.  to  the  Prophets  avoid  anthro])omor 
phisms  and  anthropopalhisms,  whenever  the  Biblical 
ixprissionsseem  such, no  lixed  rule  for  the  avoidance 
of  these  phrasis  can  be  shown  to  have  existed,  as 
the  same  Targum  sometimis  renders  an  Anthropo- 
morphism literally,  and  again,  in  anipl  her  place,  cpiiti' 
freely.  (Theehibonite  rules  which  .Maybaum  sets  up 
fort  )idielosscem  loocomplieated.  Besides.  ( tnkelos. 
<lespite  its  pnsent  uniform  character,  cuutaiiis iiiany 
originally  extraneous  elements. ) 

In  the  older  rabbiincal  litenilure  there  also  occur 
a  number  i>f  utienuiees  which  show  a  ten<lency  to 
suppres.H  low  and  sensuous  conceptions  of  (JikI  by 
nii'ansof  a  new  lierineneutics.     Kiferring  to  the  fan- 


ciful and  figurative  expressions  of  the  Prophets,  an 

old  rabbinical  sjiying  remarks:  "The  Prophets  show 

gnat  daring  in  likening  the  Creatorto 

EarHer      thi-creature"  (Gen.  H.  xxvii.  1 1.   Habbi 

Rabbin-  Akiba  sought  a  different  interpre- 
ical  Liter-  tation  of  those  passjiges  in  the  Bible 
ature.  that  seem  to  identif}-  Goil  and  the 
angels.  God,  in  His  sublimity,  must 
in  His  very  es.sence  dilfer  from  His  holy  angels. 
Comiiare  >Iek..  Heshallah,  (i.  where"  Akiba  iledares 
as  heretical  the  c<'rtaiidy  ancient  explanation  of  the 
worils  ••  like  one  of  us"  (Gen.  iii.  22)  as  referring  to 
the  angels.  Compare  his  Christian  contemiiorary 
Justin  Martyr,  who  declares  the  interpretation  Akiba 
rejected  to  be  "Jewish  heresy"  ("Dialogus  cum 
Try  phone,  "62).  Wlienever  actions  similar  to  those 
of  a  human  being  are  predicated  of  God,  the  older 
rabbis  employed  the  term  Sl3'33  ("as  though  it 
were  possilile");  intending  by  this  term  to  .sjiy  that 
these  expressions  are  not  to  be  taken  literally,  but 
only  as  a  mod<'of  speech  acconunodated  to  the  aver- 
age" intellect  (,Mek..  Yithro.  4). 

An  entirely  flitferent  ten<lency  from  the  one  just 
described  in  the  treatment  of  anthropomorphisms 
and  anthroiiopathisms  is  apparent  as  soon  as  jiliil- 
osophical  speculation  concerns  itself  with  Jewish 
monotheism  as  a  factor  in  determining  the  interjire- 
tation  of  the  Scrijiture.  Such  a  result  was  quite 
inevitable;  for.  as  Frankel  ("  Vorstudien."  p.  1T4)  re- 
marks, the  ordinary  intellect  often  regards  what  ap- 
pears to  the  speculative  reasonerasanthroi)omorphic, 
as  a  notion  in.separable  from  the  c<ineept  of  (!od. 

The  maimer  in  which  Aristobidus.  l.'iO  nc.  en- 
deavors to  remove  the  anthro|ioiuorphic  designations 
of  G<id  is,  accordingly,  no  longer  the 
Aristobulus  same,  nor  is  it  even  similar  to  the  pro- 
and  Philo.  cedure  of  the  Palestinians,  as  the  ex- 
isting fragments  of  his  work  show. 
The  "resting  "  of  (!od.  of  which  the  Bible  speaks, 
means,  according  to  AristipbiUus.  that  He  instituted 
a  permanent  selfmainlaining  order  in  the  world. 
So  God's  "coming  down  "  is  not  to  be  conceived  as 
a  bodily  descent  into  space,  but  only  as  a  vision 
or  mental  picture  (see  Siegfried,  "Piiilo,"  p.  198). 
From  this  it  is  evident  that  Aristobidus  stands  with 
only  one  foot  on  the  base  of  traditional  Judaism; 
and  of  his  succes.sor  Philo  not  even  that  much  can 
be  asserte<l.  The  God  of  Philo.  owing  to  the  in- 
tlnenee of  Platonism.  is  not  only  essentially  dilTer- 
ent  from  man  and  the  worhl — an  idea  which  also 
coincides  with  the  leaching  of  the  Pharisees  of  this 
j)erio(l — but  He  is  entirely  devoid  of  attribtites. 
Philo  opposes  not  only  the  literal  understanding  of 
the  anthropomorphic  and  anlhropo]iathie  passages 
in  the  Bible,  but  also  the  doctrine  of  God  as  an 
active  worker,  inasnuieh  as  activity  can  not  be 
predicated  of  a  Being  devoiil  of  attribtites.  This 
was  the  impelling  motive  of  Philo's  doctrine  of  the 
"Logos."  which  doctrine  later  on  became  a  chief 
pillar  of  Christianity. 

Alexandrianisni  liad  no  material  influence  upon 
the  development  of  Judaism,  so  that  a  long  time 
pas,sed  before  the  experiment  was  repealed  of  read- 
ing the  Bible  with  philosophical  scrutiny.  The  an- 
tipathy of  the  Palestinian  Jews  to  the  Greeks  and 
everything  (ire(ian  involved  this  eonseipience,  that 
rabbinical  liteniturc  shows  no  development  what- 
ever in  the  tieatnient  of  Anlhropom<irphism,  Hn- 
ninii,  an  aiiioni  of  the  third  century,  when  rebuking 
a  cantor  for  unduly  multiplying  the  attributes  of 
God  in  his  pmycrs  (Ber.  2.>;).  ailded  that  he  himself 
would  use  no  attributes  in  imiving,  if  it  weri'  not 
that  some  are  employed  in  the  liible.  But  the  ex- 
ample he  gives  to  illustnite  his  point  shows  that  his 


Anthropomorphism 
Antichrist 


Tin:  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


624 


remark  was  not  tlip  outrnmo  of  pliilosopliic  reflec- 
tion, but  was  based  n|ioii  the  olil  pniphelic  view  of 
the  Deity.  It  wn.'<.  lie  .siii<l.  like  praising  a  Croesus 
by  saying  "ho  has  a  few  coins";  better  no  praise 
than  inadequate  epithets:  against  "Moreh,"  i.  59. 

The  question  became  a  matter  for  lively  discus,sion 
in  the  various  schools  when,  for  a  second  time,  there 
was  forced  upon  the  Jew  the  jiroblemof  reconciling 
prophecy  and  pliilosopliy — by  the  latlc'r  term  mean- 
in  gAristotelianisin.  the  only  jiliilosopli- 
Saadia  and  ical   system  which  prevailerl    among 
the  Me-      tlie  Anibs,  and  therefore  also  with  the 
dieval  Phi-  Jews  living  among  Moslems.     It  is  in- 
losopliers.   teresting  to  notice  how  this  second  at- 
tempt to  harmonize  Judaism  and  Hel- 
lenism led  to  the  same  result.    Judaism  was  in  danger 
of  being  so  intcllectuali/ed  as  to  be  no  longer  recog- 
nizable as  a  religion.     The  dcvclopiMcnt  of  Jewisli 
thought  during  the  jicriod  from  Saadia  to  Jlaimon- 
ides  presents  an  exact  inirallel  to  that  connecting  the 
Septuagint  and  I'liilo;  and  this  is  most  .strikingly 
brought  out  by  theclianged  altitude  toward  the  Bib- 
lical Anthropomor])liismand  Anihroiinpalhism.     As 
regards  Anthroiiomorphism  Saadia  is  in  full  harmony 
with  rabbinical  Juilaism  when  he  maintains  that  the 
corporeality  of  Goil  is  contrary  bolli  to  reason  and 
Scripture — at  least  in  so  far  as  tradition  woidd  have  it 
(see  ■■  Kitab  al  Amanat  wal'  Itiiiadat,"  ed.  Landauer, 
p.  93,1.  10  ft  *Y/.,  Leyden,  1881— ii.  3  of  the  Hebrew 
translation  of  the  work).    Following  the  Targum  of 
Onkelos — which  be  esteems  very  highly — he  sets  up 
the  following  rules,  according  to  which  the  ten  ant  liro- 
pomorphic  designations  which  occur  in  Scripture  are 
to  be  e.xiilaiiicd:  Uod's  "head"  indicates  sublimity; 
"eye."  jirovidence;  "face."  favor  or  disfavor;  "ear." 
heeding;  "mouth  "  and  "lip."conuuand  .and  instruc- 
tion; "hand,"  power;    "heart."  iusighl;   "bowels," 
compassion;  and  "  foot,"  the  act  of  conquering  or  sub- 
duing, coiKjuest.     But  his  treatment  of  the  subject  of 
Anthropopathism  is  dictated  more  by  Greek  pliilcso- 
phy  than  l)v  Judaism,  and  is  not  remotely  connected 
with  his  views  on  God 'sat  tributes  (see  ATTiunrTES). 
Bahya.  the  next.Iewish  philoso])licr  after  Saadia — 
liewrote  his"  Hobotha-Lebabot"  probably  in  the  year 
10-tO — mentions  hisgreat  predecessorin 
Bahya        a  few  words  (chap.  i. .  g  10)  and  accepts, 
and    Judah  in  its  entirety,  his  explanation  of  the 
ha-Levi.      Biblical  antliropomorphisms.    He  lays 
more    stress,    however,    than    Saadia 
upon  the  negative  character  of  the  divine  attributes, 
so  that,  had  he  been  consistent,  he  would  have  arrived 
at  the  standpoint  of  Maiinoniih'S.     But  Bal.iyadid  not 
possess  a  clear  conception  of  the  nature  of  negative 
attributes;  for,  while  he  taught  that  God  is  absolute 
unity,  he  also  claimed  that  this  fact  involved  the  at- 
tributes both  of  being  and  eternity  (see  Kaufmann, 
"Die  Theologie  des  Bachva  ibn  Pakuda,"  Vienna, 
1874;  and  "  Attributenlchrc."  p.  lo3). 

Judah  lia-I.evi — not  to  mention  Ibn  Gabirol,  whose 
views  scarcely  possess  any  Jewish  characteristics — 
was  far  more  consistent  than  Bahya,  and  was  the  first 
Jewish  philosopher  to  reject  completely  the  doctrine 
of  essential  attributes,  insisting  on  the  fact  that  it  is 
impossible  to  predicate  anything  of  God.  But  his 
approach  to  Neoplatoiusm — the  doctrine  of  God  as 
"  ])ure  existence  " — is  after  all  not  a  real  approach. 

When  luiinfluenced  by  philosophic  speculation 
Judah  ba-Levi  maintains  a  position  nearer  to  tradi- 
tional Judaism  tluin  any  other  religious  philosopher. 
His  pious  convictions  are  not  based  upon  specula- 
tive philosophy,  but  on  historical  facts,  on  revelation 
and  prophecy,  the  representatives  of  which  compre- 
hended and  recognized  the  higher  world  as  clearly 
and  distinctly  as  ordinary  mortals  do  this  mundane 


sphere.  This  philosopln'c  mysticism  determined 
also  his  attitude  toward  Anthropomorphism.  While 
opposed  t<i  the  conception  of  the  corporeality  of  God, 
as  contrary  to  Scripture,  lie  would  nevertheless  con- 
sider it  wrong  to  reject  comidetely  the  sensuous 
concept,?  of  Anthropomorphism — even  the  fanta.stic 
measurements  of  the  physical  dimensions  of  Deity 
(HCTp  11j;X">— as  there  is  souK'tliing  in  llii'se  ideas 
which  tills  the  human  soul  with  awe  of  God. 

Hut  this  rather  op|iortunist  and  indulgent  attitude 

toward  Anthropomorphism  found,  almost  during  the 

lifetime  of  Judah  ha-Levi  (died  about 

Maimon-     11.^0),  a  delermined  opponent  in  the 

ides  and  person  of  Mainionides — the  greatest  of 
His  Jewish  philosophers.  JIaimonides  was 

Influence,  the  first  Itabbinile  Jew  to  set  >ip  the 
incorporeality  of  God  as  a  dogma,  and 
to  jilace  any  i)erson  who  dciiird  this  doctrine  upona 
level  with  an  idolater.  While  his  predecessors  had 
contented  themselves  with  rejecting  Anthropomor- 
phism as  contrary  to  reason — treating  it  as  a  purely 
theoretic  matter — JIaimonides  declared  it  a  heresy 
that  would  deprive  any  one  holding  the  doctrine  of  a 
share  in  the  world  to  come  ("  Yad  lia-Hazakah.  Hilkot 
Teshubah,"  iii.  7).  The  first  part  of  hisreligio-philo- 
sophical  work  (the  "Jlondi  Nebukim")  practically 
constitutes  a  treatise  on  Hebrew  synonyms,  the  object 
of  which  is  to  explain  away  the  anthropomorphisms 
in  the  Bible.  But  Maimonides  was  not  content 
to  restrict  himself  to  opposing  Anthropomorphism. 
Philosophy  being  to  him  not  the  handmaid,  but  the 
mistress,  of  theology,  he  pursued  his  thought  until 
lie  arrived  at  the  concept  of  God  as  a  melaplivsical 
being,  withdrawn  in  cold  sublimity  and  isolation 
from  His  creatures — with  whose  weal  or  wo  He 
could  no  longer  concern  Himself — and  void  of  a 
free  will;  a  being,  in  short,  to  whom  no  attributes 
could  be  ascribed  except  those  of  a  negative  char- 
acter. Thus  Maimonides  was  confronted  with  a  dif- 
ficulty similar  to  that  which  Philo  encountered  when 
he  propounded  his  doctrine  of  the  "Logos":  the 
question,  namely,  how  to  establish  a  communication 
between  a  God  devoid  of  attributes  and  the  material 
universe.  In  fact,  his  lack  of  success  was  as  com- 
plete as  that  of  Philo,  at  least  as  far  as  Judaism  is 
concerned. 

Despite  the  high  esteem  enjoyed  by  ilaimonides 
among  the  great  body  of  Jews,  he  was  unable  to 
achieve  any  success  with  his"intellectualization  "  of 
the  notion  of  God.  Only  one  of  his  teachings — that 
of  the  incorporeality  of  Ctod — found  favor  in  the  eyes 
of  his  coreligionists,  was  accepted  in  all  sincerity, 
and  was  even  adopted  in  the  ritual  of  the  Synagogue; 
a  proof  that  in  this  doctrine  he  had  caught  the  true 
spirit  of  Judaism.  That  his  warfare  against  Anthro- 
pomorphism was  a  matter  of  serious  concern  to  the 
Jews  is  shown  by  the  comment  of  Abraham  ben 
David  of  Posquieres — the  only  one  who  could  rival 
Maimonides  in  rabbinical  scholarship — on  the  pas- 
sage in  the  "Yad  ha-Hazakah."  referred  to  above: 
"  Greater  and  bet  ter  men  than  he — JIaimonides — have 
held  this  opinion." 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  whence  the  Jews  of 
southern  France — who  bitterly  opposed  Maimonides 
— derived  their  antiantliropomorphic  views.  (See 
Kaufmann.  " Attributenlehre,"  p.  485.  Even  in 
northern  France  at  an  earlier  date.  Rashi  on  Mak. 
Viii  remarks  that  the  angels  are  not  composed 
of  flesh  and  blood,  which,  in  philosophic  phraseology, 
means  the  "angels  are  incorporeal.")  The  Jews  of 
Provence  were  possibly  influenced  by  the  mystical 
literature  in  which  the  "  measurements  of  the  dimen- 
sions" of  God  play  a  great  part,  although  this  liter- 
ature did  not  enjoy  universal  authority,  oven  when, 


625 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anthropomorphisin 
Antichrist 


in  later  times,  thef'almln  hail  cinnc  to  )ircvuil  amonir 
a  L'l'eat  scetinii  of  the  Jews.  AliiahaMi  lien  David 
Jimlialily  intended  to  snirirest  that  Ihe  Kreiieh  .lews, 
with  tlieir  belief  in  the  literal  meaniiii,'  of  Hil)le  and 
Talmud,  were  led  to  anthro|)onuir|)hie  views  by  the 
fantaslie  <lescriptions  w  liich  some  of  the  lla.spidol 
friveof  Godanil  Ilisaetions.  Compare,  forinstance. 
the  remark  (Sanh.  (IS)  that  the  Almighty  will  shear 
filT  till'  heard  of  the  kini;  of  Assyria,  or  the  i)a.ss!i}!;e 
(Ket.  ~li)  where   the  IJililieal   expression  D'H^X  D^V 

(ima.iie  of  God)  is  enlarcri-d  to  in'J3n  mOT  D^V  dlx' 
ima.u'e  of  th<-  likeness  of  His  form);  for  aeeordinj;  to 
.Maimonides.  "Moreh."  i.  ;i.  n*J3n  sijrnities  "matlie- 
mat  leal  form." 

Mention  must  also  be  made  of  Ilasdai  Crcscas — the 
greatest  Jewish  philosopher  after  .Maimonides — not 
only  beeause  he  opposed  tile  lutt<'r's  dixlrine  of  nega- 
tive attributes,  by  assertin.g  that  it  is  jiossible  to 
aseribe  many  attributes  to  Deity  without  injury  to 
the  idea  of  His  unity,  but  because  he  exerted  intlu- 
enee  upon  Spinoza,  the  greatest  of  all  ojiponents  of 
Anthropomor|)hism.  Spinoza's  vi<'ws  upon  this  sub- 
ject, however,  no  longer  belong  to  Jewish  philosophy, 
but  to  philosophy  in  general.  For  the  Karaitic  views 
on  thesubiect.,sce  Aahon  iskn  Ei.l.r mi  thk  YocNciKU; 
the  chief  works  sjiecitically  written  by  Karaites  on 
Anthropomorphism  are:  Aaron  b.  .loseph.  "  Ez  ha- 
IIavvim."ed.  Delitzsch.and  Judali  lIadassi,"Eshk()l- 
ha  Kofer." 

HiMi.iociuPMY:  S.  D.  l.uzzatto.  (ihth  lift:  pp.  1-LV).  Vienna. 
|s;(();  z.  Knuikel.  Einiiirs  zn  ili  u  Tnrijniniin,  In  Zi  it.  f.il.  Ui  • 
liilinsi:ti  Inti:rt:s.-<i:  <l.  Jwli  nthrmi--*.  is4(i,  pp.  IID-I:^);  Idem, 
I'l  ht  riii  }i  KiartM.s.wf/*  r  Pataist.  Krcf/c.vc  auftlk  Atrxiimlr. 
Ih  riti>ufUiik,H  7.9.  Lei))sie.  IK'tl ;  idem,  Vttrntttilit:}!  zlt  dir 
Si'iitiutiiiulti,  1841.  pi».  174-1711;  A.  (ielffer,  I'rschrift  uml 
i%  itirsi  tzinnjcn  ilrr  /J(7>r/.  pp.  :iln  *  f  ^fi/..  ;(.si  ,f  sn/..  Hres- 
liui,  ls."i7:  s.  Maybauni.  />iV  Anlhriiinnniirjthii'n  uint  An- 
tUrt>i»,iHtthU' n  lii'i  0;f;ff;^^J*,  Bre.slau.  Is7n;  c.siepfried. /*/n7<) 
von  Ah-xamtrit}!  (sei*  index  ►.  Jena.  lK7-'i:  M.iiinslturper.  Oir 
AnthrniMtm<trithv<iinn  in  den  T(tr{ftuiiiiiu  \n  Ztit,  f.  Pint. 

ril.nl,.,,i,.  IMIl. 

T,  O. 
ANTIBI ca»njy :(■<'., of -Ain  Tab), ABRAHAM: 
Chief  nibbi  at  Aleppo;  died  March  i:i.  ISoS.  His 
book  of  responsa.  "Ohel  Yesharini  "  (The  Tent  of 
the  Highteous).  arranged  according  to  the  four 
Tui'im  (or  legal  code  of  Jacob  ben  Asher),  was  pub- 
lished at  Leghorn  in  1H43. 

BniiioiiinPIIV:  Henjaccili.  ftfar  ha-Scfarim,  p.  1!) ;  Ohlrondl 
and  Ni'iti.  Tntfdiit  iicdittc  YixraH,  p.  .52 :  Steinschneifler.  In 
./<»■.  Quiirt.  Rev.  xl.  HW;  Zeclner,  Cat.  Helir.  UiiiiHs  liril. 
Mum.  It.  .'il. 

II.  G.  E. 
ANTIBLA :  A  family  of  pro.sclytcs  living  at 
J<  Tu^aleni  ill  the  first  century  li.r.,  which  had  been 
in  i>rosperous  circumstances,  but  was  afterward  re- 
duced to  poverty.  From  allusions  to  them  contained 
in  four  Talmudic  pas,sages.  in  w  liicli  Ihe  spelling  of 
till'  familv  name  is  corrupted  (Ver.  Penh.  viii.  'iXn; 
Tosef.,  I'eah,  iv,  II;  Sifre,  Dent.  :)(•;!,  1111),  Griltz 
reslores  ihe  nimie  to  Ihe  Greek  form,  .Vgalhobulos. 
Il  appiars  that,  being  unable  to  inainlain  their  old 
standard  of  life,  they  proposed  lo  emigrale.  Tin' 
represeutalives  i>f  Judaism,  however,  who  at  thai 
lime  reiriirded  hopefully  the  inlliix  of  hralhen  into 
Ihe  .Jewish  failh  (SchUier.  "  I.ehrliuih  der  Neulesla- 
meiitliiheii  Zeilgeschichle."  pp.  (l-l-l  r/  «■</.).  did  not 
like  to  see  proselytes  emigrating  for  lack  of  the 
means  of  subsistence;  and  Ihe  mailer  was  submilt<'d 
lolhe  rabbis (D'03n).  whoawarded  (ipDS)tlie  family 
a  cerlain  sum.  In  three  of  the  above-i|Uoli'<l  pa.s- 
sageslliissum  is  said  lo  have  been  six  hundred  talents 
of  gold,  w  hich  amoiinl  seems  loo  exorbitant  to  tie 
iredible,  in  view  of  ihe  fact  Ihiil  a  lalcnl  wi'ighed 
about  sixty  pounds.  In  anoiher  passage  il  is  re- 
corded Hint  six  liundreil  gold  shekels  (ubout  $'.2,000) 
L— 10 


were  awaided ;  and  this  would  aj^pear  lo  be  more 
probable.  The  Ribliis  baserl  I  heir  rlecision  on  Deiit. 
xxvi.  r-'(I{.V.l:  "Thou  shall  give  il  iinlo  tin-  Levile. 
to  I  he  si  ranger  |-|J  =  proselyte  I  .  .  .  that  Ihc-y  may  eat 
within  thy  gates";  laying  stress  on  Ihe  words  "lliy 
gates,"  and  interpreting  thi.s expression  tirmean  that 
the  Israelites  must  take  care  not  lo  allow  in-oselytes 
to  emigrate  w  hen  in  needy  circumstances.  This  ac- 
count of  the  treatment  received  by  Ihe  Antibla  at 
the  hands  of  ihe  rabbis  throws  an  inleresiing  light 
on  Ihe  altitude  of  the  Synagogue  toward  proselytes. 

BiRLIOGRAPIIV:  (iritz,  in  Monatssclirift,  1881,  pp.  289-294. 

M.  B. 

ANTICHRIST:  Counterpart  of  the  Slcssiah 
and  o|>poiiiiii  of  God  Himself;  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant personages  in  Christian  eschatology.  The 
name  oecuis  for  the  first  time  in  the  Johaiinean  Epis- 
tles (I  John.  ii.  IS,  22,  iv.  3;  II  John,  7);  but  the 
idea  is  met  with  in  earlier  New  Testament  w  ritings, 
and,  like  Ihe  greater  pari  of  the  eschatology  of  early 
Christianily,  its  beiriniiings  are  to  be  found  in  Jewish 
theology,  and  modern  scholars  even  hold  Ihe  opin- 
ion that  its  true  origin  is  lo  be  found  in  Ihe  Baby- 
lonian Chaos-myths.  In  II  Thess.  ii.  1-12 — a  passjige 
probably  of  Paiilini'  origin — it  is  slated  that  the  day 
of  the  Lord  shall  not  come  before  "the  nam  of  sin," 

the  lawless  one  (o  aiounr),  "the  son  of 

Antichrist    ])ei(lition,"  be  revealed.     This  oppo- 

in    Pauline  neiil  will  apjiear  and  seat  himself  in 

Writing's,    the    Ti-mple    of    God   at    Jerusalem. 

"showing  himself  that  hi'  is  God": 
but  he,  Ihe  wicked  one,  will  then  be  consumed  by 
the  Messiah  through  Hie  sjiiiit  of  his  moulh,  who 
thus  will  make  an  end  of  him  "whose  conung  is 
after  Ihe  working  of  Satan  with  all  ]iower  and  signs 
and  lying  wonders."  Paul  declares  further  that 
"Ihe  inysleiy  of  ini(|nity  doth  alreadv  work,"  but 
that  that  which  now  resliainetli  will  restrain  until  it 
be  taken  out  of  the  way,  and  "that  wicked  [one] 
be  icvealed." 

This  "liltle  apiwalypse,"  as  this  passage  has  well 
been  called,  has  been  variously  expounded.  It  is, 
however,  (|uite  evident  that  Paul  unileistood  by 
Antichrist  a  personal  opponent  of  Ihe  Messiah,  this 
conception  being  compounded  of  ideas  derived  from 
the  Old  Tcstmiu.nt  and  the  .\pocrypiia  (Dan.  vii.  2."), 
ix,  27,  xi.  'Mi;  Isa.  xiv.  13  it.\(i/.:  Ezek.  .xxviii.  2. 
14;  I  JIacc.  xiv.  14).  It  is  not.  however,  clear 
whether  this  description  is  intended  lo  represent  an 
opjiosing  .Messiah,  or  a  Jewi.sli  pseiido-^NIessiah,  or 
whether  Paul  had  any  deriiiili'  liislorieal  personage 
in  mind.  His  expression  concerning  llii'  lawless  one 
(u  I'miii'c),  seating  himself  ill  Ihe  Temple  (compare 
Ezek.  xxviii.  14).  and  "showing  himself  llial  lie  is 
(lod."  can  hardly  be  underslood  of  a  Jewish  Mes- 
siah; nor  can.  by  any  jiossibiliiy.  a  Homan  ruler, 
such  as  Caligula  or  Neio.  be  iindei'stood  by  it.  Just 
as  unreasonable  is  it  to  a.ssiime  that  by  Ihe  expression 
"  he  who  now  reslrainelh  "  (A.  V.  "  lellelh  ")  the  ap- 
pearance of  Anliehrist.  il  is  intended  to  designate 
the  Uoinan  .!.'<ivcrnnieiil  or  Ihe  emperor  himsilf.  The 
iiiii|uilous  one.  ihe  incarnalion  of  evil  upon  earlli.  is 
not  a  polilical  personage,  held  back  by  Hoiiiiin  power. 
The  passage  is  lo  bi-  explained  by  the  aid  of  raiibin- 
ical  e.sclialology.  as  for  instance  in  .'saiili  lis.',  which 
teaches  llial  lUr  Messiah  will  not  appear  iiiilil  the 
whole  world  is  eillier  entirely  riglileous  rX2T  v13) 
or  eiilirely  wicked  (3"n  )h^2^'-  a  slandpoinl  llial  ex- 
plains not  only  the  expression  "thai  which  re- 
slrainelh " — the  rabbis  speak  of  various  iliiiiijs  w  liieh 

impede  the  redemption  inHxjn  nX  "331*!;;  Mek., 
Beslmllal,i,  l.ed.  Weiss,  p.  2»;  Niddali.  lIVo— but  also 


Antichrist 
Auti^onus 


Tin:  .IKWISII    KNCYCI.oI'KDlA 


626 


I'lucidates  Piiiil's  vacilliition  as  to  the  in'iiixl  to  be 
M't  for  tlie  "(liiy  of  tin-  f.ord.'"  In  liis  ciirliiT  Kpis- 
ties.  Paul  spiak'siis  if  lieexpectcil  tlie  ]>i()niiseil  time 
to  arrive  speedily,  lieeaiise  heeouiiled  upon  llienijiid 
eompiest  of  the  world  l)y  ClirisliaTiity,  for  liiiii  llie 
first  and  e.ssential  eondition  of  llic  world's  perfect 
ri.!;liteousiie.s.s;  but  experience  frradually  showed  him 
that  his  optimism  was  uufoiinde<l.  and  therefore  lie 
speaks  of  the  |)ower  that  prevents  the  dawning  of 
the  glad  time. 

The  statement  of  Paul  that  the  wicked  one  will 
be  slain  by  the  breath  of  the  Jlessiah  is  based  upon 

ls;i  \i.  4.  as  interpreted  in  the  Targiim  DlJpDIN 
Nj,"L"1.  Even  the  names  of  Antichrist  in  this  passage 
are  of  .Jewish  origin;  the  "biwless  one"  (II  Tliess. 
ii.  .S.  R.  V.)  is  none  other  than  Bki.i.m. — whom  Paul 
mentions  in  another  ])lace  as  the  opponent  of  the 
Messiah  (II  Cor.  vi.  I'l) — a  name  interpreted  by  the 
rabbis  as  compounded  of  »p3  w  ilhout.  and  7iy  yoke, 
so  that  Belial  is  the  one  who  will  not  accept  the 
yoke  of  the  Law  (Sifre.  Dcut.  92;  Tanna  El.  K.  iii. ; 
jlidrash  Sam.  vi..  ed.  ]5id)er.  p.  64).  1 1  is  thus  evi- 
dent that  this '•little  aiioealypse"  represents  not  a 
Christian,  liul  the  .lewish  view  of  the  Anti-.Me.ssiah. 
The  pseudepigniiihic  literature  (see  passages  <|Uoted 
by  Bousset,  pp.  80,  9i),  100)  informs  us  that  in  Jewish 
circles  in  the  pre-Christian  period  the  expectation 
was  prevalent  of  the  appearance  of  Belial  (one  of 
Satan's  lieutenants)  if  not  of  Satan  himself;  and 
that  his  activity  was  imagined  as  being  almost  iden- 
tical with  that  <xpe(ted  of  the  AnticlirisI  in  Thessa- 
loniaus.  There  is  a  remarkable  similarity  between 
this  !Ne\v  Testament  passage  and  II  Sibyl.  167  ft 
nc'i.,  and  III  Sibyl.  46  d  acq. — the  former  a  Sibylline 
of  undoubted  Jewish  origin — the  expression  in  ii. 
iy8,  the  Tpicaa  ai/nn-rn,  the  three  signs  of  Elijah,  cer- 
tainlv  referrinii  to  the  Jewish  tradition  (found  in 
Meki'lta  Beshailah,  l.ed.  'Weiss,  p.  (i())that  beforethe 
appearance  of  the  Messiah,  the  prophet  will  reveal 
the  whereabouts  of  the  three  holy  utensils  which 
disajipeared  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  (compare  Jellinek.  "B.  H."  iii.  72  and  Pirlje 
Kabbenu  ha-Kadosh.  ed.  Gri'inhut,  57). 

As  to  the  idea  of  the  ^Vntichrist.  like  Jewish  eseha- 
tology  itself,  it  is  derived  from  three  sources:   pro- 
phetical teachings,  later  Midrash.  and 

Origin  of     an  adndxiure  of  heathen  mythology. 

tlie  Idea.  Ezekiel  (.x.xxviii.,  .\x.\ix.).  speaking 
of  a  last  great  oul]iouring  of  the 
heathen  powers  against  Israel — which  outpouring  is 
to  introduce  the  new  period  foretold  by  the  ancient 
prophets — names  Gog.  the  jtriuce  of  the  land  of 
JIa.gog,  as  the  rei^rescntative  of  those  powers.  The 
same  idea  amplified  is  found  in  Zechariah  (xii.-xiv.) 
where  God  is  described  as  ajipearing  upon  Zion  at 
the  last  hour  with  Ills  hosts  of  angels  to  juotect  His 
own  from  the  attacks  of  the  heathen,  and  to  give 
them  victory.  'When,  therefore,  in  the  Maecabean 
jieriod,  the  Jews  first  perceived  the  chasm  between 
Judaism  and  heathenism,  the  idea  of  a  presentation 
of  the  philosophy  of  the  world's  history  was  con- 
ceived and  admirably  carried  out  in  Uaniel.  It  was 
no  more  a  ijuestion  of  the  salvation  of  Israel  in  the 
future,  but  of  the  redemption  of  the  whole  world. 
The  course  of  the  world's  history.  ;is  illustrated  by 
the  attitude  of  the  heathen  toward  the  Jews,  was 
now  viewed  as  a  continuous  triumph  of  powers 
hostile  to  God — a  triumi)h  which  would  not  end 
tmtil  the  whole  world  had  become  utterly  corruiit. 
to  be  superseded  by  the  kingdom  of  God  and  a  new 
order  of  things. 

The  opposition  between  this  world  and  the  future 
■world,  between  Satan  and  God,  between   heathen 


and  Israel,  naturally  furnished  ropreseiitalives  for 
the  supR'ine  struggle  in  the  final  hour  of  the  world's 
existence.  If  (toil  in  His  own  proper  person  would 
apjiear  at  the  deiisive  contest.  His  opponent  could 
be  niKither than  Satan;  liut  if  (Jod  were  to  be  repre- 
sinted  by  .Messiah,  it  must  of  necessity  follow  that 
Satan  shoidd  be  represented  by  one  as  close  to  him 
as  was  Mes-siah  to  Gotl ;  that  is  to. say,  by  Antichrist. 
Uncertain  as  is  the  characterization  of  Messiah  in 
the  new  orderof  things,  the  personality  of  his  conn 
terpart  is  equally  fluctuating.  In  the  circles  that 
expected  the  ndc  of  Belial  at  the  end  of  days.  (Joii 
was  recogni/ed  as  the  chief  personality  in  the  final 
catastrojihc;  and  Antichrist,  as  the  worst  tool  of 
Satan,  corresponds  in  his  sphere  with  that  conce])- 
t ion  of  the  Iilcs.siah  current  among  the  Pharisees  in 
the  age  of  Jesus,  according  to  which  Messiah  was 
to  be  the  one  man  whom  God  would  cn<low  with 
especial  strength  and  intluence.  such  as  were  voucli- 
sjifed  to  no  other.  Just  as  the  Ilaggadah  through 
its  interpretations  of  ancient  ]iro]ihecies  endeavored 
to  furnish  a  closi'  description  of  the  personality 
of  Messiah,  similarly  Antichrist  received  more  and 
more  definite  forms  derived  from  the  descriptions 
and  conceptions  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  was.  for 
instance,  very  early  identified  with  Gog — such  a 
Midrash  is  clearly  evident  in  the  Sept uagint  trans- 
lation of  Num.  xiv.  7  (compare  also  "Ab.  Zarah,  'Sb; 
Saidi.  !t4(() — and  his  death  expounded,  as  already  re- 
marked, according  to  Isii.  xi.  4. 

The  conception  of  Antithrist  no  doubt  also  con- 
tains mythological  elements,  which,  far  from  being 
uprooted  from  the  national  consciousness,  became, 
through  contact  with  Babylonia,  Persia,  and,  at  a 
later  date,  with  Greece,  more  and  more  deeply  in- 
grained in  it.  An  eloquent  proof  that  Antichrist 
meant  no  more  than  its  name  signifies — namely,  the 
AntiMessiah — is  furnished  by  the  fact  that  none  of 
the  Pharisaic  literature  has  any  word  concerning 
him.  The  oliicial  teachings  of  the  Pharisees  in  the 
I)ost -Christian  time  endeavored,  for  reasons  easy  to 
understand,  to  ne.srative  all  that  was  superhuman  in 
the  popular  conception  of  Messiah  (compare  espe- 
cially Justin.  "Dialogus  cum  Tryplione."  xlix.);  so 
that  no  room  was  given  for  Antichrist  to  play  any 
very  eminent  role.  Thus  Eliezer  b.  Hyrcanus — an 
eye-witness  of  the  national  catastrophe  in  the  year 
70 — sjieaks  only  of  !i  ruler  after  the  style  of  Haman, 
who  will  usher  in  the  pangs  of  the  Slessiauic  period 

(nX"D  be  '^an;  Saidi.  its/'). 

The  Apocrypha  of  Baruch  (Syriac)  and  IV  Ezra 
(=11  Esdras),  which  originated  in  the  same  circle, 
knew  nothing  of  an  Antichrist:  for  what  Baruch, 
xl.  1,  2,  saysof  the  last  ruler  of  the  heathens  is  simplj' 
that  the  latter  will  choose  for  themselves  a  leader 
for  the  last  battle;  and  IV  Ezra,  while  it  contains 
explicit  statements  concerning  the  pangs  of  the 
Messianic  period,  has  no  reference  whatever  to  an 
Antichrist.  Both  Bousset  and  Gunkel  are  i)robably 
wrong,  therefore,  when  they  refer  to  Antichrist  the 
pa.ssage  (II  Esd.  v.  6),  "And  even  he  shall  rule, 
whom  they  that  dwell  upon  the  earth  look  not  for" 
— words  which,  being  based  on  Isa.  xxiii.  13.  may 
allude  simjily  to  Home,  as  is  apparent  from  Suk.  .524 
and  Yer.  Ta'anit.  iii.  4.  where  the  Romansarc  meant 
by  the  euphemism  "Chaldeans."  It  is  true  that 
there  is  no  lack  of  references  in  Talmudic  literature 
to  the  belief  in  a  contest  between  God  and  the  devil, 
or  an  evil  angel,  in  the  latter  days  (see  AHRfM.\N). 
To  this  class  belongs  the  battle  between  Gabriel  and 
the  Leviathan;  also  the  sea-monster  (B.  B.  74A),  and 
the  conquest  of  the  prince  of  Edom,  that  is,  Samael 
(Mak.  12rt;  compare  also  the  triumph  of  Messiah 
over  Satan,  Pesil>.  R.  xxxvi.). 


627 


THE   JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antichrist 
Antieonus 


Till-  bitter   fei-ling  against    Hoinc   that   actuated 

the  Ji-ws  for  the  hun(ire(l  years  between  30  auil  IHO 

jieriiiitted   no   other   eoneeption    than 

Nero  as  that  it  would  be  Homes  ruler  who 
Antichrist,  would  marslial  the  lieatliiii  hosts  for 
the  final  slrui:i:li'  ami  lead  tlieni  to 
victory:  anil  Nero — the  vilest  wretch  that  ever 
mounted  a  throne — tilled  the  ideal  of  wickedness 
sulhciiiitly  to  be  considered  the  worthy  leader  of  the 
heathen.  The  Jewish  Sibyl,  writing  about  the  year 
M(l.  tells  the  story  that  Nero  was  at  that  tinu'  in  con- 
cealment in  the  hind  of  the  I'artliiaiis.  where  he 
Would  remain  for  decades,  returiiiuir  thence  to  stir 
up  a  universjd  war(I\'  Sibyl.  Il'J-lOU,  in  au'reement 
with  a  Komau  legend:  see  Zahn,  "Zeilschr.  fi'ir 
Kirchliehe  Wis.senschaft  und  Leben,"  IHftli,  ;i37  il 
■111/.,  and  GetTcken,  "Gottinfrer  Nachrichten,  Phil.- 
Ilist.  Classe,"  1899,  pp.  441  (I  set/.).  More  of  the  de- 
inotiiae  character  of  Antichrist,  and  more,  therefore, 
of  the  original  conception  concerning  him  as  being 
{■itlier  Satan  or  one  of  Satan's  tools,  is  retiectedin  the 
reference  to  Nero  in  the  tifth  Sibylline  (;!(i3  </ .vry.). 
writlen  ill  74:  "Then  from  theeiids<if  the  earth  shall 
return  the  malricidal  man  who  has  become  fugitive, 
and  who  frsimes  irui|uitous  plans  in  ins  mind;  he 
will  destroy  the  whole  earth,  and  coniiuer  all,  and 
ill  all  matters  he  will  be  wiser  than  all  other  men. 
,  .  .  Hut  the  wise  people  shall  have  jieace,  the  peo- 
ple that  remaineth  tried  in  sorrows  in  order  that  it 
may  thereafter  rejoice.  "  Hut  the  complete  meta- 
morphosis of  Nero  into  a  devil — wherein  he  is  no 
l(inger  the  representative  of  Home,  but  the  incarna- 
tion of  the  Evil  One — is  first  to  be  found  in  a  Jewish 
JSibyl  of  about  12()-12-j  (V  Sibyl.  2H-;j4).  Of  Nero  it 
is  liiere  siud.  "The  one  that  received  the  letter  for 
50  [letter  J.  N,  as  initial]  will  become  ruler — a  terri- 
ble dragon,  breathing  tierce  war.  .  .  .  Thereafter 
he  will  return  and  make  himself  like  unto  God,  but 
He  [God]  will  convince  him  that  he  is  as  nothing." 
Here  Nero  is  the  true  Antichrist,  the  Satan,  the  old 
Dragon  CJ^DTpn  UTIJ),  who  measures  himself  against 
God. 

This  conception  did  not  remain  confined  to  Jew- 
ish circles,  but  as  the  Revelation  of  John  (.\iii.,  xvii.) 
shows,  when  rising  Christianity  sulfered  much  at 
the  hands  of  the  Homan  power,  it  spread  among  the 
Christians  likewise.  In  any  case,  the  last  struggle 
of  the  heathen  is  conceived  as  a  battle  against  Goil; 
and  it  appears  thus  in  tlie  IMidrash  Wayosha'  (Jel- 
linek,  "  IJ.  H."  i.  ")6),  where  it  is  declared  of  Anti 
<-lirist:  "And  he  shall  say.  '  I  will  first  coni|uer  their 
Go<l,  and  after  that  will  kill  them  [the  Jews]'"; 
again  the  old  conception  of  Antichrist  us  uu  oppo- 
nent of  God. 

The  Hiblical  narrative  of  the  departure  of  the 
Nnieliles  from  Egypt  alTorded  much  material  for  the 
d(  Miiption  of  the  latter  days,  iiiasnuieli  a-*  the  tiiial 
reilemptioii  was  conceived  after  the  fashion  of  the 
first.  Thus  the  Ephraimite  .Messiah — Messiah,  the 
son  of  Joseph,  as  he  is  called — who  ]ilays  ii  great 
part  therein  in  conjunction  with  Ait.Mii.is,  origi- 
nali'd  in  the  legend  preserved  bv  the'  Hairgadahof 
an  alti'mpled  departure  from  Kirvpt  made  bv  the 
Kphraimites  (Mek.,  Shindi,  9:  Saiih.  K'r.  Piik,.  R 
El.  xlviii.  I;  auil  inasmuch  as  prioriolhi- tirsi  redemp- 
tion tlKfe  had  been  a  prominent  Ephiiiimite  named 
Nun,  who  headiil  an  attempt  by  the  Israelites  at  ,self- 
emanci)ialion  and  found  a  violent  iliaih  at  the  hands 
of  the  Egyptians,  parallelism  demanded  that  there 
should  be  an  Ephiiiimite  .Messiah,  to  be  slain  by 
Armilus. 

Till'  conception  of  AnIichrisI  held  by  the  Cliureli 
of  the  curly  Christian  age  and  Ihroiiglioiit  IheMiddle 
Ages  is  very  much  involved  and  in  need  of  critical 


investigation.  The  pas.sagcs  concerning  Antichrist 
in  the  New  Testament  were  misunderstood  at  a  very 
early  date:  and  there  seems  to  have  been,  moreover, 
a  persistent  oral  tradition  that  modified  the  legend  of 
Antichrist  to  a  considerable  degree.  In  John,  v.  43. 
the  pojiular  Jewish  conception  of  an  Anti-.Mes,siah  has 
become  tmnsforined  into  a  Jewish  pseudo-Messiah, 
a  presentation  which  was  championed  for  many  cen- 
turies in  the  Cliurch(see  Rous,set,  l.r.  pp.  IHitei seg.). 
It  was  i)arlieularly  expected  that  he  would  be  of 
the  tribe  of  Dan  (ihi'l.  p.  112).  which  is  probably 
connected  with  the  Jewish  conception  of  the  Messiah, 
that  he  would  be  derived  from  that  tribe  on  the  ma- 
ternal side  (Gen.  H.  .\cviii.  ;  see  also  Zohar.  Balak, 
\'.W)).  On  the  other  hand,  there  reigned  fora  certain 
time  among  Christians  too  some  confusion  of  Anti- 
christ with  the  legend  of  Nero  (Bousset,  l.c  pp.  49 
et  seg).,  and  there  is  likewise  to  be  found  an  identifi- 
cation of  Antichrist  with  Belial— Antichrist  being 
oftei;  represented  as  the  son  of  Satan,  and  even  as 
an  incarnation  of  Satan  himself  (see  Bki.i.vi.). 

The  legend  of  the  origin  of  Antichrist  (=.  Belial) 
set  forth  by  Gunkel  and  Bousset  is  that  the  Baby- 
lonian Tiamat.  ijueen  of  the  abyss  of 
The  Mod-    darkness  and  fiood.  aided  by  thepow- 

ern  Hy-      ers    of    her  infernal    domain,    rebels 

pothesis.     against  the  higher  gods,  but  is  defeated 

by  the  ,son  of  the  gods,  Marduk;  and 

it  gives  rise  to  a  human  incarnation  in  the  shape  of 

the  Antichrist  with  superhuman  powers,  the  man 

who  sets  himself  up  as  eijual  to  God. 

The  idea  of  Antichrist  has  made  its  way  beyond 
the  confines  of  Judaism  and  Christianity  and  has 
entered  into  various  literatures  of  the  world — only, 
however,  through  the  medium  of  Christianity. 
There  are  traces  of  it  in  the  more  ancient  Edda 
literature;  while  the  semi-Christian  old-Bavarian 
poem  "Muspilli"  (ninth  century)  makes  e.\teiisive 
use  of  the  various  Antichrist  legends.  The  Parsec 
Pahlavi  writings  betray  unmistakable  evidences  of 
the  tradition,  especially  the  apocalypse  "  Hahman 
Yast,"  written  in  Pahlavi  and  translated  in  "Sacred 
Books  of  the  East,"  v.  191  ,1  wt/.,  which  is  full  of 
it.  In  .\rabian  liteiature.  Antichrist  is  calleil  "Al 
Dajjal  "  (the  liar),  or  more  fu'.ly,  "  Al  Masili  al-Daj- 
jal  "  (the  false  Messiah).  The  name  shows  its  Chris- 
tiau-Syriac  source;  for  "dajal  "  dt-notes  "lying  "  al- 
most exclusively  in  the  Christian  dialect  of  .Vmmaic. 
In  the  .Mohammedan  account.  Dajjal  is  really  the 
Jewish  pseuilo-Messiah.  and  is  slain  by  Jesus  after 
he  had  long  maintained  his  imposture.  Of  the  nu- 
merous details  concerning  him.  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  he  is  represented  as  a  one  eyed  monster, 
of  horrible  mien,  and  that  in  some  respects  the  pic- 
ture agrees  with  the  various  descriptions  ot  Armi- 
lus (see  .VitOMiN.KTiox  oK  Desol.vtiox;  AllHIM.KN; 
AuMii.fs). 

Diiu.iiHUiAPiiY  :  TliP  III<'rnUir<?on  Antlrlirlsl  I.h  very  exlen-ilvo, 
HI  Uml  iinl.v  a  sniutl  selifllon  iiui  tw  jrlvi'ii  lii.r\' :  Itomeniiinn, 
('iifii//i(  fitiirziM/i  ri  Thi/vnilntiii  r-/ifi»  I'cn.  ii|i.  ;u,s-;{i>i4UK»:t7 
irliii  til  rt'fi'n'nre,s  to  lUenitunO;  ltnu.>«4't.  Ihr  Antichrist^ 
(iitlUniri'ii.  IMi'i.  trunslalitl  liiln  Kiii.'ll>li  liv  Kfiinc.  Istkl;  iil|.in, 
Cttntmrntitr  ztir  J(i/iiuoi(.s-,l/*«M-<itf//»..i«-.  i»|i.  4I.*i.  4'V4-IMI ; 
Frii'tlliliiiliT,  In  /{>i'.  Kt.  Jiiiivji.  .\xvlil.  I'.iituri/.:  (iHtTiken.  In 
/*(>  Uiwifrln-  Jnhrti.  ItHII,  pp.  :Wi-:fllll ;  litlllkel.  .'<r/lulihoi(;loiti 
("/iii.u.  isil'i.  |ii>.  ■i.'l  .7  ».;. ;  H.illziniiiin.  I.thrh.  il.  .V.ii(.*(. 
Thfiilit\jif.  I,,  It.  isi*e  Index  ;  this  work  o'lilalii.'^  nlwi  VHluHlile 
literary  ivt<.n'iiii>!0  ;  Hmii;.  In  TliiiUini.  Slml.  diiji  ll'llrtciii- 
hi-ru.  V.  Iss  if  I...;.,  -.sa  ,  (  «!./. :  .Salinii'ki'iiliiiri.'i'r,  In  Jahrlt. 
fllr  IhiilM-lK  ';'/i.i.(iit;(f.  iv.  <UV4ilT:  SiliflriT,  ilrxch.  II.  .'kCJ: 
WalnU'ln.  ill  Z<  itw/i.  /.  irrwM'ii«r/i.  Tlirnhm.  xxxvlll.  .Vis  d 
Kii. ;  Zalin,  KiuUit.  fii  (Inn  .V.  T.  i.-u-c Index). 

L.  G. 

ANTIGONXTS    (ANTONINTTS) :     Palestinian 

.scholar  ot  llie  l;i.-l  laiiiiailii'  i.'iiienition  (.si'cond  and 
third  cintiiries).  Oiilylwo  Ilaggadot  (Mek.,  Heshal- 
Ial,i.  introduction;  r(/<-i/i  to  Ex.  xiv.7)and  one  Ilalakah 


Antifronus 
Autl-Juif 


Till-:  .IKWISII    KN(  VCI.ol'KDI.V 


628 


(Yer.  Ilor.  iii.  4f<<n  Imvc  romc  down  from  Iiim.  In 
the  tirst  iiiciiliiiiu-il  |>!iss.iirr  lie  thus  illiistnilts  the 
vei-selEx.  xiii.  il):  "And  the  Lord  wrnl  Ixforc  iIkmii 
by  dny  in  u  pillar  of  ii  cloud,  to  lend  tlicin  liy  tin- 
way."  etc..  by  a  simile:  "A  kin>;  Imd  held  court 
till"(larkncss  set  in.  his  sons  all  the  while  attendini: 
him.  On  liavinjr  tin'  tribunal,  the  kini.'  look  up  a 
ton-hand  liirhted  the  way  for  his  .sons;  whennpon 
the  court ierssjiid  to  him.  '  We  will  take  up  the  lor(-li 
and  (-airy  the  lijrht  befivrc  thy  sons ';  but  the  kiiit^ 
re]died.  '  It  is  not  because  1  have  none  to  do  it  in 
mv  slead.  but  I  wish  to  manifest  my  affection  for 
my  sous,  that  ye  may  honor  them  accordiufrly.' 
Tims  did  the  Holy  One.  blessed  be  lie.  make  known 
llis  love  for  the  people  of  Israel  that  the  world 
miirht  learn  to  treat  them  with  honor.  Hut.alasI  not 
only  does  the  woild  not  do  so.  but  it  decrei-s  u|ion 
them  one  mode  of  death  after  the  other,  laeli  one 
severer  than  the  last.''  Mekilta  in  lioth  instanc-es 
gives"  Antoninus"  as  the  author,  and  so  does  Valk.. 
Ex.  2'2S.  'ilJO.  in  whi(-h.  throusih  a  transposition  of 
words.  Habbi  is  inti-oduced  as  telling  something 
about  Emperor  Antoninus.  "  Yuha.sin  "  (ed.  Fill- 
powski.  i>.  ILj)  has  the  same  version;  but  lleilpriu 
("Scdi-r  lia-Dorot."  x.r.)  has  "Antigonos";  in  Yer. 
Hor.  I.e.,  H.  Joshuali  b.  Levi  reports  in  Antigonus' 
name. 

BiBi.iofiR.4PiiT  :  Weis-s,  Meltllta,  I.e.:  Hiii-licr.  -ly.  Tun.  it.  .V)l ; 
Rupuiiiirt.  'Erch  MUHii,  under  .liifniiiiiK.i. 

S.    M. 


ANTIGONUS,  Son  of  John  Hyrcanus  :  Born 
about   18")  i'..i..  died  1(K!.     He  was  Hyicanus'  sec- 
ond son.  and.  though  young,  proved  an  able  sol- 
dier  during   his 
fatherslil'etiiue. 
In     eoujunctiou 
with  his  brother 
Aristobulus.    he 
besieged  and 
captured   Sa- 
maria abotit  109 
iSotah.  ;Wi';  Jo- 
.seplius.    "  Ant. " 
xiii.     10.    S    2). 
beating  off  suc- 
cess f  u  1 1  y  t  li  e  Copper  Coins  of  King  Antigonus. 
Syrian     Antio-  (mut  M.jdm,  "coin.  of  th«  j.*!.") 
chus  of  Cy/.icus 

and  the  Egyptian  Callimander,  general  of  Ptolemy 
Lathy  riis.  both  of  whom  attempted  to  relieve  the  city. 
\Vh(-ii  Aristobulus  bci-nme  kingabout  HI."),  (hough  he 
impri.soued  his  otlu-r  brothers,  he  not  only  left  Antig- 
onus at  liberty,  in  appreciation  of  his  merits,  but 
even  treated  him  asa  sort  of  a.ssociatc  in  the  govern- 
ment. This  favor  shown  by  Aristobulus  awakened 
the  jealousy  of  a  court  cabal,  at  the  head  of  whif-h 
Queen  Alexandra  (Salome)is  siiid  to  have  stood,  and 
-which  succeeded  tinally  in  having  Antigonus  slain  at 
the  king's  command.  "The  details  of  his  death  as  given 
l)y  .Iose])hus  are  probalily  legendary,  but  histori(-ally 
certain  is  the  fat-t  that  he  owed  his  <Ieatli  to  a  (-ourt 
intrigue.  .losephus'  account  nuis  that  Aristobidus. 
who  loved  his  brother  warmly,  was  made  suspicious 
of  him  by  calumnious  representations  on  the  jiart  of 
the  (pieen  and  other  enemies,  who  maintained  that 
lie  was  aiming  at  the  ci-own.  The  king  issued  (-om- 
mands  to  his  body-guard  to  cut  Antigonus  down 
should  he  ever  ap|iear  before  him  in  armor,  and  at 
the  same  time  sent  wor<l  to  his  brother  to  come  to  him 
immediately,  but  without  armor.  Antigonus' ene- 
mies prevailed  on  the  me-ssenger  to  inform  him  that 
the  king  hail  heard  of  his  new  armor  and  weapons. 
and  desired  to  see  him  with  them.    Antigonus  readily 


complied,  and  upon  Ins  entry  to  the  royal  castle,  at 
the  Ki-ast  of  Tabernaeles.  al)oul  104.  was  slain  by  the 
guard.  An  avenging  Nemesis  si-emed.  howevi-r.  to 
exact  atonement  for  his  death,  for  when  a  sirvant 
spilt  some  blood  from  the  v<'insof  the  kinif  upon  the 
very  spot  whei-e  AnliiToniis  had  been  slain,  tlii'  king 
saw  the  linger  of  (ioil  in  the  coincidence,  and  grieved 
himself  to  death  over  his  brother's  imlortunate  fate. 
See  also  Jci).\s  TIIK  Essknk. 

BlRMOiiKAiMiY  :  .liiM'pluis.  .1  ii(.  xlll.  1(1.  88  3. :) ;  Idem.  n.  J.  I. 
i;  see  also  the  histories  of  Euuld.  (iriitz,  und  Sehiircr. 

L.    G. 

ANTIGONUS  (with  the  lb-brew  name  n'nno) 
MATTATHIAS  :  The  last  Hasmonean  king  of 
.Iu(li'.-i,  died  ;1T  1-.  r.  lie  was  the  second  son  of  Aris- 
tol)ulus  II.. and  logelherwith  his  father  was  (-arried 
piisoner  to  Kome  by  Pomp(  y  in  (>3  u.<  .  Hotli  es- 
C!i|)e(l  in  'u.  and  returiK-d  to  I'alistine.  .\fter  .Vris- 
tobidus'  unsuccessful  attempt  to  oppose  the  lioman 
forces  there,  the  senate  considered  the  king  so  little 
to  be  feared  that  it  decreed  his  liberty  Antigo- 
nus. however,  was  not  .so  ready  to  surrender  an- 
cestral rights.  AVliile  his  older  brothir  .\lexauder 
was  planning  to  secure  them  he  remidni-d  (piiet, 
but  on  .Vle\an<ler's  death  .Vntigonus  considered 
himself  exi-lusive  heir  of  tlx-  llasmonian  dynasty, 
and  rightly  judging  his  tmi-le  llyrcaiuis  to  be  but  a 
))UI>pet  in  the  hands  of  till'  Idumean  Antipatir.  he 
set  to  work  zealously  to  assert  himst-lf.  He  tirst  at- 
tempted to  attain  his  ends  with  the  help  anil  (-onseiit 
of  the  Koinans;  in  ])ursuance  of  this  i)laii  hi-  visited 
JuliusCa'Siir.  who  was  in  Syria  in  4T.aud  complained 
of  the  presumptuous  usuri)ation  of  Antipater  and 

lly  nanus.       He 
ui-g(-d    his   own 
supirior     rights 
as  the   only   re- 
maining son  of 
Arist  obu  1  u.s. 
Hut   in  spite  of 
the  fact   that 
both    his    fiither 
anil  bnither  had 
sulTen-il  death  in 
the   (-a  use  of 
C*sar.  the  latter 
rejected    .Vntig- 
onus' clai  ms, 
possibly  suspecting  the  sincerity  of  his   pi-ofes.sed 
friendliness  toward  Home.     Hefused  by  the  Homans, 
he  turned  to  theiroppon(-iits.    llistirst 
Defies        attempt,  in  4'i.  to  seize  the  government 
Rome.         of  Palestine  by  fon-e with  the  assistance 
of  his  brother-in-law,  Ptolemy  Mennei 
(sec  .\LEXAXDii.\  [S.m.ome]  ).was  defeated  by  Henxl. 
but  in  the  course  of  two  years  he  succeeded  in  at- 
taining his  object.     Thi'  state  of  affairs  in  .ludea,  as 
well  as  general   conditions    ]>revailing    Ihrotighout 
the  Uoman  empire,  was  most  ]iropitious.     Tlic  ex- 
cessive taxation  wrung  from  the  peoi)le  to  jiay  for 
the  extravagances   of   Antony    and    Cleop.-itra   had 
awakened  sodeei>-seateda  hatred  against  Home  that 
Antigonus  had  only  to  show  himself  to  the  people 
to  win  their  allegi'uice  away  fi"om  Herod  aii<l  other 
creatures  of  the  Honian  power.     He  gained  the  ad- 
herence also  of  the  aristocratic  class  in  .lerusidein. 
su(-h  as  the  "  Bene  liaba."  and  prob.dily  also  assured 


himself  of  the  lieaily  cooperation  (if  the  h-ailers  of  the 
Pharisees.  .Moreover,  the  Parthians  invaded  Syria 
in  the  year  40.  and  they  much  preferred  to  see  an 
anti-Roman  ruler  on  the  throne  of  Palestine.  An- 
tigonus. who  was  genius  enough  to  make  use  of 
such  an  excellent  opportunity,  promised  them  large 


629 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AntitronuB 
Anti-Juif 


sums  of  jiolil,  iiud,  according  to  cominon  report, 
tivc  liiiiKircd  fciiudc  slaves  In'sidcs.  sf)  that  tlicy 
iriiiiiciliatclv  put  a  trimp  of  live  liumlrcd  warriors 
at  liis  (lisposid.  Tlic  appearance  of  these  I'arlhiaiis 
at  tlie  jrates  of  Jerusalem,  where  daily  riots  took 
place  hetween  the  itartizaiis  of  Antiironus.  who  held 
po.s.ses.si<)ii  of  the  Temple  fortress,  and  those  of  Ilyr- 
canus.  or  more  correctly  of  Autipater.  caused  the 
halanee  to  turn  in  favor  of  the  former,  llyreanus 
and  I'liasail  in  vain  endeavored  to  win  over  the 
I'arthians.  The  former  was  sent  a  captive  to  IJaliy- 
Ion,  afli-r  sulVerinj.'  the  mulihiti<in  of  Ins  ears,  which 
rendered  him  henceforth  unlit  for  the  otlice  of  hijrh 
|)riest.  I'hasiU'l  bent  out  his  brains  aj^ainst  a  stone 
wall.  Herod,  too  weak  for  ojien  resistance.  Hed 
from  .lerusalem.  ami  in  the  year  40  Antii:on\ls 
wasollieially  jiroclaimed  king  and  hiirh  priest  by  the 
Parlhians.      His  three  years'  reign,  however,  was  one 

continuous  struggli'.     His  aniagonist. 

Crowned     Herod,  succeeded  in    having   him.self 

King.        declared  king  of  Judca  by  Home.    The 

lirst  year  passed  ipiietly  enough  ;  for 
Ventidius,  Antony's  legate,  and  his  lieutenant  Silo, 
were  kept  niutral  by  bribes  and  alislained  from 
doing  their  duty  in  enforcing  the  rights  of  Herod. 
IJut  on  the  lalter's  return  in  li!)  from  Home  he 
opened  a  brisk  camjiaign  against  Antigonus,  con- 
(|ui'red  Jojipa,  and  (jccupied  .Masada,  where  his  (am 
ily  were.  He  then  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  but  had 
to  reliiKpiish  it  toward  wint<r,  for  Silo  refused  fur- 
ther coopi'nition,  and  dismissed  his  troops  to  their 
winter  ipiarters;  for  which  timely  act  Antigoinis  no 
doubt  .amply  eompenwileil  him.  In  the  spring  of 
oH  Herod  wrested  the  provin<e  of  (lalilee  f'om  An- 
tigonus' possession,  a  victory  of  only  temiioiiirv  ad- 
vanta^'e.  for  when  Herod  sl.ortly  after  went  to  Samo- 
sala  lo  pay  his  respects  to  .\nloiiy,  the  (lalileans  rose 
against  Herod's  brother  and  representative  Joseph, 
slew  him.  and  drove  away  his  army.  Herod,  who 
hiard  of  this  only  upon  his  return  to  Palestine,  was 
eager  to  avenge  his  brother.  He  dared  not  attack 
Antigonus' army  near  Jericho,  for  he  had  not  yet  the 
necessjiry  slri'iiglli,  but  w  hen  .VnliLronus  fo<ilishly  di- 
vided his  forces.  Herod  fell  upon  I'appus.  .\ntigoiuis' 
general,  and  completely  routed  him.  so  that  all  Pal- 
<sline  as  far  as  J(  rusjilem  fell  into  his  han<ls.  The 
approach  of  winter  compelled  Heroil  to  postpone 
until  the  next  spring  a  siege  of  .lerusiilem.  whither 
.\nligonus  and  the  renwiani  of  his  army  had  lied. 
When  till-  siege  began  it  was  marki-d  by  e.vlnior- 
dinary  bravery  and  fanaticism  on  the  side  of  An- 
liL'onus'  followeis;  full  of  hatred  against   Home  and 

liomani/ers.  they  considered  the  st rug- 
Besieged  in  gle  a  religious  line,  in  w  hieh  the  prophe- 
Jerusalem.    cies concerning  the  inviolability  of  tlw 

Temple  iiiid  the  nallcai  would  be  tri- 
umphantly vindicated.  In  vain  the  Pharisees  ad- 
\  ised  surrender  to  so  powerful  a  foe.  just  as  the 
Prophets  of  old  had  inveigheil  against  (he  cojivictlon 
of  their  contemporaries  that  (ioil  would  protect  His 
city  aL.'ain>l  any  besiiLring  enemy,  no  matter  htiw  iiu- 
mi'iiMis,  .\  sloul  dcl'eiise.  lasting  thri'c.  possibly  live, 
nionllis.  was  made  against  the  attacks  of  the  enemy 
an<t  the  pangs  of  fitinine.  which  lattiT.  owing  to  (he 
yiar  being  one  of  rilease(see  SllK.Ml  n  Ml),  was  more 
than  ordinarily  severe,  Anti.ironus  beliavid  most 
manfully  iluring  the  siege,  but  after  the  llnid  assault, 
when  no  hopi-  was  left,  he  fc'll  entrealinir  at  the  feet 
of  (ill'  Uonian  general  Snsius,  who  brutally  mocked 
his  griif  by  dubbini;  him  "  .\nli;.'one."  aftir  Sopho 
des'  tearful  heroine.  .\t  (he  suiru'estion  of  Herod, 
who  was  afraiil  (o  allow  .\nligonus  (o  be  (akiii  to 
Home  in  th<'  triumphal  tniiii  of  .Mark  An(oiiy.  Ii's( 
he  should   there  sueeessfiilly    plead    for  liis  rights, 


this  last  king  of  the  Hasmonean  house  was  taken  to 
Antioch,  ami  there  fell  beneath  the  executioner's  a.\. 
It  was  th<'  first  time  that  the  Komans  liad  ever  thus 
put  a  king  to  death.  Tin-  last  king  of  jiure  J<w  i.sh 
blood  fell  before  the  intrigues  of  the  jirst  king  of 
Judea  not  entirely  of  Jewish  birtli. 

Bini.ior;R.»pnv  :  J<is<'phus,  .-tiif.  xlv.  (4:  Idem,  n.  J.  (.  14  isoe 
also  (iittex)  :  F.wald.  Hixtnrii  uf  hratK  v.  402  411;  (Jnit/, 
distil.  il.Juihii.  n.  UK):  Hllzlp,  tlencli.  lUf  Vnlhei  l.-iiiil.  ii. 
.■)S1:  .scliiirer.  liiMli.i.iXSanii  liiilex  ;  .siaile,  fi'cw/i.  i/i.«  I'uMrji 
Ixynfl,  11. 44>T ;  .Moiiiiiisen,  Tin:  I'rnviucfit  <>f  tin-  liimtmt  Hni- 
jiire.  11.  17.">-1TS:  Madden,  <'iiin»ii(  the  Jtio,  p.  By.  Fur  "I tier 
liieralure,  see  St'tiflrer,  Ueech.  p.  280. 

L.   G. 

ANTIGONUS  OF  SOKO  :  Tlie  first  .scholar  of 
whom  I'harisilc  liadilinn  has  ]>reserved  not  only  the 
name  but  also  an  important  theological  iloctriiie. 
He  tlourislic-d  about  the  lirst  half  of  the  third  einturj' 
B.C.  According  to  the  Mislinah.  he  was  the  disciple 
and  successor  of  Simon  Tin;  J  1ST,  His  motto  ran: 
"Be  not  like  slaves  who  serve  their  master  for  their 
ilaily  rations;  be  like  those  who  servi-  their  master 
withuut  H'gard  to  emoluments,  and  let  the  fear  of 
God  be  with  you"  (Ab,  i,  3;  see  Griltz.  "Geschd. 
Juden,"  ii.  (),  239).  Short  as  this  ina.xim  is.  it  con- 
tains the  whole  Pharisaic  doctrine,  which  is  verj' 
diirerent  from  what  it  is  usmilly  conceived  (o  lie. 
Thus  (he  first  known  Pharisee  urgesthat  good  should 
be  iloiie  for  its  own  sjike.  and  I'vil  be  avoidetl. without 
regard  to  conseipu-nces.  whether  advantage nus  or 
detrimental.  The  naive  conception  dominant  in  the 
Old  Testament,  thatGod's  w  ill  must  lie<lone  to  obtain 
His  favor  in  the  shape  of  jdiysical  prosperity,  is  re- 
jected by  Anti.nonus.  as  well  as  the  view,  specificall}- 
called  "  Pharisiiic."  which  makes  reward  in  the  future 
life  the  motive  for  linman  virtue.  I(  is  impossible 
that  .\nligonus  (imld  have  been  inliueiucd  by  Hel- 
lenic views:  chronology  forbids  the  supposition.  The 
cause  of  this  elhical  superiority  was  simply  thiil  the 
Pharisees  carefully  nurlured  (he  ,irerms  of  higher 
morality  sown  by  the  I'rophiis  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ami  brought  them  to  full  fruition.  Particu- 
larly Jewish  is  the  second  phrase  of  his  maxim;  the 
fear  of  (iod  is  the  Jewish  correlate  (o  general  human 
morality  mentioned  in  (he  fii°st  half  of  (he  mo((o. 
.Vndgonus  points  out  that  men's  actions  should  not 
beintluenccd  by  (he  lowly  sentiment  of  tear  cd  mor- 
tals, but  thai  there  is  a  divine  judgment  of  which 
men  must  st.-ind  in  awe.  Theexpression  "Heaven" 
for  "God  "  is  the  oldest  evidence  in  postexilie  Juda- 
ism of  (hedevi'lopinelit  of  (he  idea  of  a  Iranseenrleiital 
Deily.  I(  is  also  a  curious  fac(  (ha(  AiKigonusis  the 
first  noted  Jew  (o  have  a  (Jreek  name. 

Later  legend  i-onnects  AiKi.ironus  wi(h  (he  origin 
of  the  S:ii|du< ci'  sect.     See  S.MiIU  IKKS.  L.    G. 

ANTI-JUIF,  L'  :  A  name  assumed  by  nine  dif- 
ferent publicadons  issued  in  Kranceand  Algiers  and 
directed  against  the  Jew  s.  In  nearly  every  ease  (hey 
wiTc  shori  lived.  The  (ii-s(  "  .\iiti  Juif,"  a  weekly, 
published  in  Paris,  describing  itself  as  an  "organ  of 
social  defense.  "  onlv  reached  its  fourth  number  {from 
Dec.  IS.  IMSl,  lo  Jan.  S.  ISS'.'I  It  was  i^sui-d  nmler 
the  managi'ineiit  of  L.  Panehioni.  In  the  hading 
ardele.  (lidded  "Our  Aim,"  the  edi(or  calls  (he  at- 
(I'lidon  of  his  readers  (o  (he  financial  prosperily  of 
Knuiee  a(  (ha(  (ime — a  boon  which  he  attribiilis  to 
"comniiTcial  feu<liilism" — for  the  nianifest  purposi- 
of  exciting  the  hatred  of  (he  working  classes,  lie 
cdainis  (ha(  "  (he  Jew  rules  and  governs  "  Tlierefon- 
Ik' deems  it  his  mission  (o  accpiaini  (he  public  widi 
(he  real  conilidon  of  (lie  couiKiy  and  (osiiggesi  how 
i(  can  be  improved.  The  second  periiHlicai  in  point 
of  tiiiH'  w  as  die  "  And  Juif  "  dia(  appeared  a(  .vlgiers 
iu   l!Sl«t,  and  wa.H  .sigueil  by  i(s  printer,  Uouyer.  us 


Anti-Maimonists 
Antinomian  i  am 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDLV 


630 


rcsponsililr  iditor.  Tt  was  disrontinucd  after  a  few 
n\linbi'rs  hail  l)ciii  issunl.  Aftcran  interval  of  seven 
years.  T.  .Macon,  a  printer,  undertook  the  puhliea- 
tion  of  a  third  "  Anti-.Inif. ''  wliieh  also  apiiean'd  in 
Algiers  as  the  "orjian  of  the  Anti  ?^einitie  Li'afriie." 
The  career  of  this  biweekly  bejran  on  .Inly  M.  l!^i)7. 
at  Mnstaplm.  a  suburb  of  Aljriers,  and  lasted  but  a 
short  time.  No  jrreater  success  atti'iided  the  ])ub- 
lication  of  the  fourth  of  these  anti-Semitic  journals, 
.styleil  the  "  AntiJuif  Boursuicnon."  which  apiieared 
March  \i.  IS'J.s,  at  Dijon,  after  havinj;  dropjied  its 
orijiinal  name.  "Le  Libre  IJouru'uiL'non."  It  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  imitate  the"  Libre  Parole,"  the  anti- 
Semitic  journal  of  fidouard  Drumonl.  A  fifth  jieriod- 
ical  of  like  purpose  was  the  "  Anti-.Tuif  .Marseillais  et 
de  la  Hegion  du  Midi,"  which  ajipeared  on  Aui;.  0. 
189S.  at  Marseilles,  and  was  discontinuecl  soon  after. 
In  Al.fferia  the  sixth  jiaper  devoted  to  anti  .Semilism. 
"  L'Aiiti-.Iuif  Al.irerien,"  a)ipeared.  with  an  illus- 
tnited  supplement.  March  27.  1(^98.  The" Anti-Juif 
Stephanois."  the  seventh,  was  published  at  Lyons. 
Sept.  18.  189S.  l)ut  was  immediately  discontiiuied. 
The  eighth,  a  weekly,  describing  itself  as  an  "organ 
of  the  Anti-Semitic  Lea.irue,"  was  published  in  Paris 
on  Aug.  11  of  the  sjime  year.  Nineteen  ntimbers  ap- 
peared in  1898.  and  forty-one  in  1899.  The  first  num- 
bers were  signed  by  Chanteloube  as  res])onsilile  e(li- 
tor;  the  last  were  issued  under  the  editorship  of  Jules 
Guerin.  notorious  for  his  escapade  in  the  HueCha- 
brol.  where  he  defied  arrest  for  s(mie  days  in  a  dwell- 
ing-house (No.  .il)  that  was  ironicallv  called  "Fort 
Chabrol"  (Aug.  and  Sept. ,1899).  Wil'h  hisimiirison- 
ment  the  publication  ceased.  The  ninth,  the  "Anli- 
Juif  du  Midi."  appeared  June  11.  1.S99.  at  Montjiel- 
lier;  its  publication  ceased  with  the  third  number. 

A  small  paper,  more  vituiierative  even  than  the 
preceding,  and  called  "  L'Anti-Youtre.  Or.srane  de 
Protestation  Sociali'"  (Oriran  of  Social  Protest),  was 
edited  at  Lille  by  NoOl  Gaulois  (i)seudonym  of  Em- 
manuel Gallian),  and  printed  in  Paris,  in  JIarch. 
April,  and  May.  lsi)l.  Four  numbers  <mly  of  this 
sheet  appeared.  Parodying  the  well-known  e.xclanui- 
tion  of  Gambetta,  it  ]iroclaimed  as  its  motto;  "The 
real  enemy  is  the  Jew!"  {Le  Ynuire  c'cst  I'e/nirmi). 
In  its  second  number  it  printed  some  illustrations 
rcpresentin.sr  the  so-culled  Damascus  alTair.  in  which 
a  bleeding  child  was  pictured.  The  editor  did  not 
even  know  that  the  Damascus  affair  was  caused  by 
the  disappearance  of  an  old  monk.     Sec  Dam.^sci-s. 

M.  S. 

ANTI-MAIMONISTS,  THE.  SecM.viMoxisTS. 

ANTINOE  :  City  in  the  south  of  Middle  Egypt, 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile:  foiuideil  by  the 
emperor  Hadrian  in  the  year  122.  Jews  seem  to 
liave  come  to  the  city  at  the  same  time  as  did  the 
Greeks,  drawn  thither  by  the  trade  with  the  port  of 
Myso  Hormus  on  the  Hed  Sea.  In  February.  189G. 
C.  Schmidt  discovered  a  Hebrew  inscription  of  the 
second  century  in  the  old  Christian  cemetery  of  An- 
tinoe.  The  letters  of  the  inscription  were  ori.sinally 
covered  with  red  paint;  what  remainsof  the  inscri])- 
tioD  is 

C"nn  -inva 

In  addition  to  the  inscription  there  are  a  candelabrum 
with  seven  branches.  an(lacvpress-tree(see  "^gvp- 
tische  Zeitschrift."  .\.\xiv.  Itj4).  G. 

ANTINOMIANISM :  A  term  generally  tised 
to  denote  the  opposition  of  certain  Christian  sects  to 
tlie  Law;  that  is,  to  the  revelation  of  the  Old  Testa 
ment.  The  apostles  were  compelled,  in  response  to 
the  urging  of  Paul  and  his  friends,  to  accept  the 


doctrine  of  the  non-binding  character  of  the  Law 
for  h<>athen  Christians  (Acts,  xv,  8).  but  Paul  set  up 
in  addition  a  theory  coneerinng  the  Law  which  not 
alone  posits  its  complete  abrogation  in  the  luriod 
after  Jesus,  but  also  diametrically  opposes  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  Jewish  (and  Judieo-Christian) 
thought  concerning  it.  The  latter  taught  that  the 
Law  was  the  onlv  means  by  which  unui  could  be  jus- 
tified before  God,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  early  utter- 
ance: "God  desireil  to  justify  Israel,  and  therefore 
He  ,i:ave  him  many  laws  and  conunandments"  (.Mak. 
Misimah):  Paul  d'eclared  that  "by  thedeeils  of  the 
law  there  shall  no  tlesh  be  justified  in  his  si.irht " 
(liom.   iii.  21).  Gal.  ii.  IG).     The  Law.  accordirig  to 

Paul,  was  calculated  to  multiply  sin 

The  Law     through  the  added  o]>porlunities  for 

a  Source  of  transgression  which  were  alTorded  by 

Sin.  its    numerous   pn'cepts  (Gal.   iii.    19, 

Uom.  V.  21)).  By  rea.son  of  the  Ijiw, 
transgressions  against  it  become  positive  disobedi- 
enci-  to  the  divine  will,  and  are  fell  as  such:  thus 
leading  to  the  recognition  of  the  true  nature  of  sin 
(Bom.  iii.  20.  iv.  1.1.'  vii.  T),  Being  transgressions  of 
divine  commiuidments.  transgression  heaps  up  guilt 
upon  guilt  for  man,  who  thus  becomes  subject  to  the 
rejection  and  the  wrath  of  God.  and  to  the  "curse 
of  the  law  "  (Hom.  iii.  19).  Conse(|uenlly  thisexpe- 
rieiice  of  the  Law  leads  man  to  dis]iair  of  the  possi- 
bility of  attainini:  to  riu-liteousness  by  his  own  acts, 
and  thus  the  full  deslruclive  p<iwer  of  siu  stands 
revealid  to  him.  Then  the  cry  of  a.sony  goes  up 
from  him.  calling  aloud  for  sidvation  from  the  state 
of  death  into  which  sin  has  plunged  him.  In  this 
.sense  the  Law  may  be  said  to  be  the  ne.irative  prep- 
aration for  the  New  Testament  dispensjilion  of  grace 
through  Jesus.  From  the  peda.irogic  character  of 
the  Law,  Paid  further  deduces  its  transitory  ])ur- 
l>ose;  for  with  the  appearance  of  Jesus,  with  whom 
the  era  of  grace  begins,  it  ceased,  and  nuist  cease,  be- 
cause grace  and  Law  are  irreconcilable  opposites. 

If  it  be  asked  how  came  it  that  Paul,  the  former 
.lew.  the  strict  Pharisee,  arrived  at  a  conception  of 
the  Law  so  offensive  to  the  .Jewish  standpoint,  the 
reply  nuist  be  made  that  he  learned  the  art  of  des- 
troying the  Law  by  the  Law.  or.  as  the  author  of 
the  Clementine  writings  has  it,  "ex  lege  iliscereiiuod 
nesciebat  lex"  ("  Becognitiones."  ii.  .14),  from  his 
Pharisiiic  masters.  It  was  altogether  a  practical  mo- 
tive which  seems  to  have  inspired  Paul  to  attack 
the  universjil  conception  of  justification  through  the 
Law.  for  he  had  been  convinced,  by  his  own  strenu- 
ous endeavors,  of  the  impossibility  of  complete  obe- 
dience to  it.  Paul's  con  viit  ion  was  prevalent  in  those 
days  in  many  Pharis;iie(ircles("  Monatssihrift."  l^nO, 
pp.  l.")8.  l.">4).  His  \itti'ran<cs  with  reference  to  the 
abrogation  of  the  Law  after  Jesus  had  also  .some  prec- 
edent, forthercisnodoulit  that  theassertionsmadeby 
many  rabbis  concerning  the  abrogation  of  the  sac- 
rifices.* as  also  of  the  festivals. f  opposed  tliou,!rh  they 
were  to  the  dogmas  of  the  later  Pharisees  who  daily 
prayed  for  the  restoration  of  theTemple.  weresim)dy 
older  conceptions  of  the  Messianic  agi'  ilevelo|)ed  by 
Paul,  and  tin  re  fore  disavowed  by  the  later  rabbis.  In 
his  ar,<runient  for  his  theory  of  ihe  Law.  Paul  shows 
himself  an  apt  pupil  of  Pharisee  doctrine,  a  knowl- 
edge of  which  is  essential  to  the  complete  understand- 
ing of  Paulinism.  Tims  his  statement  in  Gal.  iii.  19, 
"it  was  ordained  by  angels."  has  long  been  under- 

*  "  In  tlie  tiine  nf  the  Mes.»iiah  llie  sacriQees  will  ceaj*e  (i^xrept 
that  or  thanksjrivlncr)"  iPeslk.  ix.  "tVi,  the  oldest  Midrash  cnlleo- 
tion):  the  sjinifsi'iitenee  is  repeated  in  many  other  Mldrashiin,  as 
was  jxtinteii  out  I'V  s.  Ilufier.  note  a,  1. 

+  "A11  fi-stivnls  will  in  future  he  aholished  "  (Midr.  MIshle. 
ix.  2),  Tills  sHine  |)a.s.sjipe  is  repeated  in  Yer.  Meg.  i.  .5.  hut 
there  it  Is  intentionally  inodiHed. 


631 


THE  JEWISH  ENX'YCLOPEDIA 


Anti-KaimoniBts 
Antinomianism 


Stood  to  be  of  rubhiiiiciil  on'i^in.    Proof  for  this  is  not 

imleed  to  be  found  in  the  Septuagint  (I)eut.  xxxiii. 

2),  or  in  Josephus  ("Ant."  xv.  5,  §3); 

Paulinism    for  both  passages  (h-sorilie  tlie   pres- 

and  Phari-  cnce  of  angels  on  Mount  Sinai  during 
saism.  tlie  revelation  as  eontribiiling  to  the 
glory  thereof,  whereas  Paul  seeks  to 
demonstrate  the  inferiority  of  the  'I'orah  in  that  it 
is  the  work  of  angels,  and  not  of  God.  The  follow- 
ingTahnudic  passage,  however,  affordsan  interesting 
parallel  to  these  words  of  Paul :  "  An  unbeliever  said 
to  K.  Idit,  'Wliy  is  it,  said  in  Ex,  xxiv.  1,  "An<l 
he  said  unto  Moses,  Come  up  tmto  the  Lord"?  It 
sliould  say,  "Come  up  unto  me."  The  rabbi  an- 
swered: 'God  in  this  plaee  is  the  Metatron,  whose 
name  is  as  the  name  of  his  Lord.'"*  The  "Mita- 
troll"  is  proliahly  a  liabylonianf  inter))(ilalion,  for 
the  older  sources  mention  some  arehangel,  sueh  as 
Mieliael,  prince  of  Israel,  as  the  actual  giver  of  the 
Law,  thus  alfording  some  foundation  for  Paul's  dis- 
]>araging  rellection  u])on  the  Torah's  origin.  Sind- 
larly,  liis  reference  in  Gal.  iii.  11  to  Hah.  ii.  4,  "Th<' 
just  shall  live  l)y  his  faith."  from  which  he  seeks  to 
prove  the  superiority  of  faith  over  the  Law,  is  not 
original  with  him.  "Six  hundri'd  and  thirteen  com- 
mandments." .says  the  Talmud  in  .Makkoi,  •,':!/.,  •iin, 
"wer<-  giv<'n  to  Closes;  .  .  .  then  came  Ilabakkuk 
and  ri-duccd  them  to  one,  as  it  is  said,  '  The,just  shall 
live  by  his  faith.'"  The  differenee  between  the  Tal- 
nuul  and  I'aul  here  is.  of  course,  (|uite  a  fundamental 
one;  the  Talmuil  meaning  only  that  the  chief  con- 
tent of  the  Law  is  faith,  without  abolishing  thereby 
a  single  precept.  It  is  very  instructive,  however, 
to  note  how  Paul  adapts  Pharisaic  utterances  to  his 
own  purposes. 

Paidine  Antinomianism  became  the  property  of 
tlie  Church  only  in  a  much  restrieled  sense;  namely. 
in  its  iiractical  aspect,  the  non-binding  nature  of 
the  Law.  The  reason  for  this  is  easily  discerned. 
The  Chiireli  had  a  very  clear  way  out  between  Jew- 
ish nomianism  ami  T^aul's  violent  Antinomianism, 
by  simply  regarding  the  Jewish  law  as  an  imper- 
fect, picparatory  grade  of  revelation,  which  was  to 
lie  fullilled  and  complclcd  in  the  higher  Chrislian 
morality.  Ki|ually  eviih'iit  is  the  reason  why  Paul 
could  not  select  this  way.  "  He  was  loo  niueh  of  a 
Pharisee  to  distinguish  critically  between  what  was 
temponiry  and  what  was  permanent,  between  the 
form  and  tlie  contents  of  the  Ijiw;  the  Law  was  to 
him  an  inseparable  whole  of  divine  origin,  which 
was  either  the  sole  and  entire  means  to  salvation  or 
else  the  means,  not  to  salvation,  but  to  daninalion 
(PHeiderer,  "  rrchristenlhum," '^()7|.  I'aul  was  in 
dei'd  too  much  of  a  ,]v\v  to  draw  the 
Further      fullest   coiisei|uenees    of    his    antiiio- 

Develop-      inistie  doctrine,  so  that  only  through 
ment  of  the  the  artillcial  separation  between  Law 

Doctrine,  and  the  promise  to  the  forefathers,  es- 
pecially to  .\braham.  cinild  he  maintain 
a  historical  conneii ion  between  Judaism  ami  Chris 
tianity.  TheGiioslicsdevilopid  Aniinoniianisin  more 
eonsisl<>nlly.  Kcgaidlessof  theirditTinnces  of  opiii 
ion  ill  other  respects.  Iliey  are  all  siriclly  antino- 
mistic,  ami  the  opposition  with  them  is  no  longer 
lielween  Law  and  (iospel,  lint  between  thetioil  cif  the 
Old  Ti'Stament  and  that  of  the  Ni'W  Testament. 
They  do  not,  like   I'aul.  approiieli  thi'  topic  liislor 


*  Snnli.  :ix/i.  The  ciirn'ii  ■■x|iliuiiiitiiii  >>r  llih  luiKsiiiri'  Ik  thiit. 
Ilrninllnir  in  U.  Idll,  YilWII  iliies  liol  iiIwiiv.h  llliim  (iiKl  In  |ht- 
M>ii,  lull  MiiiH'ilitii's  all  iiiarcl.  TliN  Is  alxi  iiiulnUiliictl  liv  the 
.lew  III  .liisiin  Miirlvr.  "  IMiilekru<<,"  Ivl..  iiiiil  (iiii.  It.  II. ;;. 

*  Mf|ll|nill  h  never  felllltl  111  IIIIV  nilihlllli-al  Work  nl    rille<4llll- 

laii  iirlirlii :  Tiirif.  Ver.  lien.  v.  :.'l  N  a  laier  ulcim.  H.  Iilll,  wlm 
Ih  iimiallv  eiilteil  It.  Iill.  IlMil  III  Hiiliylniila  ijh-**  IhielliT,  "\B 
rill.  Ainer."  |i|>.  Till  (I  HI  I/. I. 


ieally.  but  from  the  side  of  their  doctrine  of  dualism 
which  originated  in  Platonism,  or,  properly  speak- 
ing, in  Parseeisin.  Hence  the  Gnostic  view  of  the 
dilference  between  the  Supreme  God  and  the  World- 
Creator  leads  to  tlie  contrast  of  Redemption  and 
Creation,  as  finding  exposition  in  the  New  and  Old 
Tcstami'iits  respectively. 

Paul's   Antinomianism  seems   to   have  exercised 
most  inlluence  upon  the(!nostic  Marcion  (who  taught 
in   Home  about  ITjO),  whose  dualism,  unlike  that  of 
other  Gnostics,  is  not  the  cause,  but  the  result,  of  his 
pronounced    Antinomianism    (Harnack,    "Dognien- 
geschichle,"  iii.   2.")l)).     >Iarcion  proceeds  from  the 
strong  Pauline  antitheses  ;  Law  and  Gospel,  wrath 
and  grace,  works  and  faith,  tlesh  and  spirit,  sin  and 
righteousness,   death  and   life;    and  as  these  oppo- 
sites  seem  irreconcilable,  he  arrives  at  the  dualistic 
doctrine  of  the  just  and  angry  God  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  of  the  God  of  the  Gosjiels 
Gnostic       who  is  only  love  and  mercy.     Besides 
Elabora-      Marcion.     his    conteinporary    Tatian 
tions.  (came  to   Home  about    IT'i)  must  be 

mentioned  (compare  Hilgeiifeld,  "  Ket- 
zergescliiclite,"p.  384).  His  dualism  of  the  demiurire 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  of  the  SupremefJod  of  the 
Xew  Testament  is  likewise  an  olfshoot  of  Pauline 
.Vntinomianism.  He  differs  from  .Marcion  only  in 
llial  he  does  not  conceive  the  relation  between  the 
demiurge  and  God  as  a  hostile  one  (Kurtz,  "  Lehr- 
bueh  der  Kirehengescliiclile,"  i.  T9). 

The  inlluence  e.\erted  by  Antinomianism  on  the 
conduct  of  life  jiroved  to  be  of  a  twofold  nature; 
while  Marcion  and  Tatian  were  led  by  it  to  extreme 
asceticism,  with  the  Gnostics  it  resulied  in  libertine 
Iiraclises  which  contributed  not  a  little  to  their  ulii 
mate  downfall.  Especially  notorious  in  this  regard 
were  the  Nikolaitans,  the  Simonians,  the  Carpoera- 
tiaiis,  and  the  Prodicians.  to  which  must  be  added 
the  Pseiido-Hasilidians.  L.  G. 

Joel  ("Ulicke  in  die  Religionsgeschichte."  i.  28. 
Hreslaii,  Is.SOjsays;  "We  claim  that  the  aniinomistic 
(and  antinationaU  movement  in  Christianity  oriiii- 
nated  among  the  Hellenistic  .lews  already  in  the 
days  of  Pliiln.  and  that  its  representatives  were  thus 
unintluenceil  by  Christianity."  The  interesting  pas- 
sage in  Philo  ("  I)e  Miu'iatione  Abraliami,"  xvi.  4.'5(b, 
showing  plainly  that  the  allegorical  system  of  inter- 
pretation had  long  before  led  to  Aniinoniiaiiism, 
leads  as  follnws;  "For  there  are  those  who.  while 
taking  the  lelterof  the  laws  as  a  symbol  of  spiritual 
things,  lay  all  Ilie  stress  upon  the  latter,  but  neglect 
the  foriuer.  I  am  inclined  to  blame  Ihein  for  their 
levity,  inasmueli  as  they  ought  to  pay  regard  to  bulh 
the  aeciirali' investigation  of  the  things  hidden  and 
I  he  faithful  observance  of  those  laws  which  are  man- 
ifestly slated.  These  iiieii.  however,  conduct  them- 
selves as  if  they  lived  alone  in  a  ileserl.  or  as  if  they 
Were  souls  without  conneclion  wilh  the  body,  as  if 
they  had  no  knowledge  of  the  evistcnce  of  a  city. 
village,  or  house,  iir  of  any  iiitercinirse  of  men; 
they  disngard  everylhiiig  that  is  pleasing  to  the 
niajorily.  aiming  only  at  the  plain,  naked  I  ruth  by 
il.self.  Yet  Holy  Scripture  warns  such  men  not  to 
despise  a  gonil  repiitalion,  nor  to  disregiird  any  of 
the  ciisloiiis  which  holy  men.  of  greater  wisdom  than 
any  of  mir  lime,  have  established.  For  we  are  far 
from  tliinkinir  thai  liecaiise  the  Sabbath  is  inwardly 
a  lessiiii  III  leach  us  the  power  of  the  I'ncreated  and 
the  iiiaiiivily  of  the  Ihiiigscnaled,  we  should  there- 
fore have  tlie  laws  of  the  Sabbalh  abrogated  anil  so 
light  a  tire,  till  the  land,  carry  burdens,  or  briiiir 
suits  liefore  I  he  court  and  five  juilirmeiil.  or  demand 
the  restoration  of  deposits,  iir  exact  tlie  |>uyuieut  of 


.Ajitioch 
Antiochus  m. 


TllK  JEWISH   EM  YCLUl'KDlA 


632 


debts,  or  do  other  tliin<;s  permitted  only  on  other 
duvs  not  siicred.  Nor  shoiilii  we,  liecaiise  the  festi- 
vals lire  tlie  syiiihoHe  expressiiin  of  spirilual  joy  and 
of  Ihe  tliaiiksitivinj;  we  owe  to  (!oil.  aliolish  llic  an- 
nual festival  convocations.  Nor  does  it  follow  be- 
cause the  rite  of  circumcision  is  an  emlilem  of  the 
«,\eisionof  pUasiiresand  passions,  and  of  the  refuta- 
tion of  that  impious  opinion  acconlin;^  to  which  the 
mind  considers  itself  able  to  produce  by  its  own 
]iower,  that  we  are  to  annul  Ihe  law  which  has  been 
given  rejrardini;  circumcision,  .  .  .  We  take  heed 
of  the  laws  jriven  in  ]daiu  words  in  order  to  more 
■clearly  understand  Ihose  lhini;sof  which  the  lawsarc 
the  syndiols,  and  tlius  we  shall  esca|ie  blame  and  ac- 
eusiition  from  men  in  yeneral."  M.  Friedlaender  goes 
further  still  and  considers  the  Minim  to  have  been 
Jewish  Gnostics  of  anfinoniistic  views.  See  his  "  l)er 
Vorchristlicher  Jiidis<'her  (Jnosticismus,"  pp.  (17- 
123.  llisopinion  is  not  shared  by  IJaclierC  H.  E.  J." 
1.S99.  lip.  3.S(7»'7.).  It  wo\il(l  .se<'m,  however,  that 
the  life  and  teaching  of  Ei.lsii.\  ni;.\  .VniYAii  place 
him  in  the  sjime  ealegory  with  the  Hellenistic  auti- 
uomiaus  to  whom  I'aul  aud  Apollos  belonged. 


ANTIOCH  :  Ancient  capital  of  Syria,  situated  in 
the  ncMihiiii  ]iarl  of  that  country,  fifty-seven  miles 
■west  of  .Vlippo,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Orontes. 
about  lifleen  miles  above  its  mouth.  Anlioch  was 
founded  in  300  n.o.  by  Seleueus  Nicator  {.Josephus. 
"Ap."  ii.  4),  who  named  it  after  his  father,  or.  ac- 
cording to  others,  after  his  son  (see  Gen.  K.  ^  'i'A: 
"Anlioch  is  called  after  Antiochus").  According  to 
"Midr.  Tehillim"  (i.\.  !<).  and  "Seder  'Olani  Zutta." 
Antiochus  was  the  foinider.  but'this  is  incorrect  (Ha- 
poport.  ■■  Erek  Millin."  p.  148).  From  "  Jlegillat  An- 
tiochus" it  is  evident  that  the  Jews  considered 
Antiochus  Ei)i]>haneslhefounder("  Rev.  Et.  Juives," 
x.\.\.  '.ilS).  .Vnlioch,  aslhechief  city  of  Syria,  was  the 
seat  of  the  Unman  governor,  wlio.se  jurisdiction  ex- 
tended over  Palestine  also.  A  large  number  of  Jews 
resided  in  Autioch  from  ilsfoundalion(.Iosephus,  "  H. 
J,"  vii,  3,  §3),  and  received  from  Seleu- 
Early  ens  Xieatorall  the  ri,ghts  of  citizenship 
Settlement   (Jnse]dms,  "  AnI."  xii,  3,  t;  1).     Their 

of  Jews.  privileges  weii'  inscribed  upon  tablets 
of  brassand  carefully  guarded,  'I'lieir 
communal  head  bore  the  title  of  archon;  and  the 
Syrian  kings  succeeding  Antiochus  Epiphanes  gave 
many  votive  olferings  to  the  Synagogue.  When  the 
heathen  inhabitants  of  Antioeh  besieged  Demetrius 
Nicator  in  the  royal  palace,  they  were  put  to  flight 
by  the  Maecabean  Jonathan  (ih.  .\iii.  .'5,  t;  3).  To  the 
creilit  of  the  .Vntiocliians  be  it  said,  that  they  la- 
mented, no  less  sinceri'ly  than  the  .Tews,  the  death  of 
till'  upright  high  jiriest  Onias,  who  was  luurdeied  by 
command  of  .Menelaus,  in  Daphne,  a  beautiful  suburb 
of  Antioeh  (II  Slacc,  iv.  33;  somewhat  differently. 
"  Ant."  .xii.  5,  g  1).  JIark  Antony  commanded  the  An- 
tioehians  to  return  to  the  .Jews  everything  of  which 
they  had  deprived  them  ("  Ant,"  xiv.  12,  g  6). 

"When  war  broke  out  in  fid.  and  Greeks  and  .Tews 

were  everywhere  engaged  in  bl ly  strife,  the  .Vnti- 

oehians  did  no  harm  to  their  Jewish  fellow-citi/eiis 
("B.  J."  ii,  18.  s; .')),  Perhaps  they  considered  them- 
selves under  obligations  to  Ihe  Jews,  because  Herod 
the  Great  had  adorned  their  city  with  a  street  twenty 
stadia  in  length  and  jtaved  with  marble  ("B.  J."  i. 
21.  S  11).  After  the  fall  of  .Terusalem  and  the  siib- 
iugation  of  the  Jews,  however,  bitter  hatred  arose 
between  the  .\iitiochians  and  the  Jews.  The  chief  of 
the  .Jewish  community,  a  certain  Antiochus,  became 
the  accuser  of  his  own  brethren,  and  the  legate  Casen- 
nius  Petus  was  hardly  able  to  protect  them  against 


the  wnith  of  Ihe  people  ("B.  J,"  vii.  3,  s;3).  The  vic- 
torious Titus  was  received  by  the  Antiochians  with 
enthusiasm,  but  Ihey  could  not  induce  him  to  expel 
Ihe  Ji'Ws  from  their  lity.  nor  even  to  destroy  Ihe 
brazen  tablets  upon  which  the  fraiuhises  of  the  Jews 
were  in.scribed, 

Vespasian  maintained  a  powerful  ganison  in  An- 
lioch, and  the  city  served  henceforth  as  Ihe  strong- 
hold over  Judea  ("elausiriim  (luoddam  Jiida'ie,"  the 
expression  of  Ilegesi])pus.  iii.  .">.  23.  who  is  on  this 
point  independent  of  Jose|)hus).  The  Jews  ill  An- 
tioeh. as  everywhere  else  in  Ihe  Dias])ora.  made 
many  converts,  so  that  Clirislianity  gained  foothold 
there  (luickly.  .VChrisliaii  congregation,  composed 
of  Jews  and  (Jentiles.  was  early  organized  (.Vets.  .vi. 
19).  and  the  name  "Christian  "  lirsl  came  into  use  iu 
this  city  (.Vcis,  xi.  20).  There  was  also  a  synagogue  in 
Antiocliia  Pisidie  (.Vets,  .xiii.  14). 

Anlioch  now  became  a  chief  center  of  Christian- 
ity; but  it  also  long  retained  its  iniporlance  for  Ihe 
Jews,  The  iiiblical  "Hamath"  is  considered  by  the 
Jeru.salem  'Pargiim  (Gen,  x.  is.  Num.  xiii.  21 1  io  be 
Anlioch.  In  tlie  Babylonian  Talmud  (Sanh.  9fii'/)  liie 
Biblical  Kiblah  is  explained  as  Anlioch.  or,  rather. 
Dajiline  near  Anlioch.  The  laller  is  also  mentioned 
in  other  connections  in  the  .Miilmsh.  the  Targum, 
and  the  Talmud,  both  in  the  Haggadah  and  the  Ha- 
lakah.  In  the  Halnkah(Git.  44//)  the  .Vntiochiaiis  are 
qiioteil  as  a  tyjie  of  iion-PalistiMians. 

In  Rab-  Several  teachers  of  the  l,aw  lived  in 
binic  Lit-    Antioeh  or  had  occasion  to  be  there; 

erature.  among othi'is  was  Isaac  Nappaha  ( ICet. 
88(().  Here  K.  Tanl.iuma  had  a  discus- 
sion on  religion,  probably  with  Christians  (Gen.  I{. 
xi.x.  4).  Here,  too,  II.  Aha.  "the  prince  of  Ihe  cita- 
del"  (see  A II. V  S.\n  ii.\-BiitAii),  and  K.  Tanl.iuina 
effected  the  ransom  of  Jewish  captives  taken  by  the 
l{omans(Ycb.  iTvi  ■,  seethe  corii'et  readings  in  Kashi) 
in  the  campaign  of  Gallus  in  3.")1,  Judaism  still  at- 
tracted Christians  to  its  riles  in  Antioeh.  In  conse- 
(|iience.  the  lirst  synod  in  Antioeh  (341)  declared  in 
its  first  canon  that  Easier  should  not  be  celebrated 
at  the  same  time  as  the  .Jewish  Passover  (JIansi, 
"Synopsis,"  i.  .")!).  The  attachment  of  the  Chrislian 
to  Jewish  customs  may  be  particularly  inferred  from 
six  sermons,  delivered  against  the  Ji'Ws  in  ,\ntiocli 
(about  3(!fi-3NTl  by  John  Chrysostom,  later  patri- 
arch of  Conslantinoiile.  On  Sabbaths  and  holidays. 
Christians,  esiiecially  women,  visited  the  synagogue 
in  preference  to  the  church.  They  also  jireferred 
to  bring  their  disjuiti'S  to  .lewisli  juilges  and  look 
llieir  oaths  in  the  synagogue. 

The  Jews  felt  so  secure  in  their  jiosition  that,  in 
Inmestar,  a  small  town  situated  between  Clialeis  and 
Antioeh.  they  scoffed  at  Jesus  and  the  Cliristian.s. 
but  were  severely  |uinislied  (Socrates,  "  Historia  Ec- 
clesiastica,''  vii.  Hi;  conii>are  "Codi'X  Theodosianus," 
xvi.  8,  18).  The  Antiochians  revenged  the  wrong  of 
Inmestar  by  depriving  Ihe  Jews  of  llieir  synagogue 
(423).  Thi'  emperor  TlK'odosius  II.  restored  Ihe 
synagogue  to  them;  but  on  Ihe  jiroteslalions  of  the 
fanatical  monk  Simeon  Styliles,  be  ceased  to  defend 
the  cause  of  the  Jews  (Evagrius,  "Hist.  Ecel."i,  13), 
During  llie  reign  of  Ihe  emiieror  Zeno,  in  brawls 
between  the  factions  of  the  blue  and  Ihe  green,  many 
Jews  were  murdered  by  the  greens  (Malalas."Cliron. 
Pasch."  Bonn.  p.  389).  AVlien  Persia  threaleiied 
the  Eastern  Eni]iire.  the  emperor  Phocas  vainly  en- 
deavored  to  force  the  Jews  to  be  baptized,  and  Ihose 
of  Anlioch  were  driven  to  ri'bellion,  in  Ihe  course  of 
which  many  Christians  were  killed  and  Ihe  patriarch 
Anaslasius  was  eoiulemned  to  a  shameful  death  (filO). 

The  newly  ajipoinled  gnveriKir.  Bonosiis.  sup- 
pressed the  rebellion  only  by  dint  of  great  efforts.    He 


633 


THE  .lEWlSII  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antioch       

Antiochus  m. 


slew  many  Jews  and  hanislieil  the  rest  from  tlic  city 
(Maliilas.  "Tlicopliuiies  "  and  ■■('hronuini  Paschalc  " 
fertile  year  t')l(l).  Aiitii)eli  sulVeri  d  m\i(li  fnim  earth- 
quakes, and  from  incursions  of  llie  Fii-sians.  the 
Arabs,  and  the  Crusaders.  When  iiinjamin  of  'i'u 
dehi  visited  it  in  the  twelftli  century,  il  conlained 
(inly  ten  .lewisli  famiiies.  who  supporled  themselves 
by  the  manufacture  of  jrlass.  There  are  said  to  have 
luen  twenty  live  fatnilies  in  lUii'.t.  all  followin!;  the 
f^epliardic  ritual  ("  Isr.  Annalen."  i.  21S).  The  lirit- 
ish  consul  here  in  ls,SH  wa.sa  Jew  (Pal.  E.xjdor.  Fund. 
Slatciuent.  ISSS.  p.  (IT).  In  1S!)4  il  conlained  lietween 
300  and  -100  .lews  ( liaedeker.  "Palestine  anil  .Syria." 
2d  ed.,  ]).  41"i).  The  modern  name  of  the  ( ity  is 
Antakieh. 

Binr.ionRAIMiv  :  Xeulinuer.  (ii'niiniiiliii  ilii  Tnlmuil.  p.  :ill; 
IJi'MliriT.  'i'ltiniirftfi/hi'ich-liiiititrisrhr.H  Lrxiciiit  ztt  Jttsi_i)lms 
I-htrins.  iMilex.w.r.  AiiUiHii;  .srhiirer.  fitj<rh.''kled.,  lll.S;.!.  H. 
Bury,  vl  Ilir(titrji**f  fhr  J^titiv  lintnan  Emttirr  frtmi  Arm- 
(liiii'li)  In  ih.  II.  a«l,  Ixiniliiii,  IssH;  Hell.  liifch.ihrChiiliiiii. 
Hi.  hi't  it  siij.:  I.f  StntiiL'e.  I'lil.  Kj'i/liir.  Fnutl,  Ijuttrttrlu 
Sliili  i».  nl.  |s.ss  pp.  Mli  it  »(■,/. 

S.  Ku. 
ANTIOCHUS  II.  (surnamed  l>v  the  flatterv  of 
till-  Greeks  ■•Tlieos"  [God|):  King  of  .Syria  (2()l-246 
U.C.);  date  of  hirlli  unknown,  but  set  by  some  cliro- 
nologisls  at  2S(j  ii.c. ;  died  240.  He  is  the  lirst  of 
the  kings  of  this  name  referred  to  in  the  Bible.  For 
many  years  he  wage<I  war  a.irainst  Piolciny  II..  Pliil- 
adel|ihus.  king  of  Egypt,  and  on  the  eonelusioii  of 
])eace  married  his  daughter  IJerenice.  having  for  that 
purpose  divorced  hiswife,  ]jiodicc(24S).  Twoyears 
later  he  look  Laodiee  l)aek  again.  The  reinslated 
queen   poisonid    liiui  ami   IJereuice,   and    had    their 


silver  Ciilll  cif  .MitlcMlllls  II. 

Ohrcri'r  :  lleiil  of  .Mitln,lius.  dludeined.    Ilevitiu- :  B.\SI.\Efl5 
ANTIO.XOY ;  Apollo,  .seated.  hiildliKt  bow  and  aiTt^w. 

tMut  Ckrilncr,  •'  C>taloini«  ft  ?*l»iu  hi  Colii«."> 

son  executed.  These  (-vents  are  referred  to  clearly 
enniigli.  though  in  an  indirect  manner,  in  Dan.  \i.  li. 
Antiochus  II.  was  prolialily  well  inclined  toward 
the  .lewisli  peopli'.  bill  the  slalenieiit  madi-  by  modern 
scholars.  Ilial  be  graiiteil  full  cilizenship  to. lews  re 
sidiiii;  in  Hellenic  cities,  is  founded  upon  a  misiuiiler- 
.slandiiiir  of  a  passage  in  .loscpliiis  ("  Anl."  .xii.  :t.^  2l. 

BlIll.liMMtAl'llv  :  lipivwii.  tii-irli.'t'M  Ihtlfnimiitin,  I.  ;lS*W-f  «*■*;.; 
Iliiliii.  til  ill  ti ill  III  liiKih.  Iv.  'SMit  «./.;  SeliiinT.  (IikiIi.  iwe 
index  I :  Willrleli.  ./i>il>;i  iiiiil  rVrft'cfuii,  |>|i.  37. 38;  Idem.  Jii- 
iltiicit  (we  Indexi. 

L.  G. 

ANTIOCHUS   III.  THE    GREAT:    King   of 

Syria;  born  alniui  242  ui.:  reigned  trom  •,>',':!;  died 
IMT.  Eleven  verses  of  Daniel  (.\i.  III-2I I  are  supposed 
by  critics  to  refer  to  the  wars  ami  fate  of  this  monarch, 
who  was  the  lirsl  (ireek  ruler  to  exercise  consideni- 
ble  inlliienee  on  ludli  the  inleiiial  and  exliriiiil  alTairs 
of  Palestine  He  was  accordingly  the  lirsl  .Scjeiicid 
to  occupy  the  altenlion  of  .lewisli  liimorians,  both 
Palestinian  and  .Mexaiidriiin ;  and  the  lirsl  book  of 
the  Maecabcesi  vii  til.  as  well  as  .losepliils.  wliodniws 
upon  older  .lewisli  Hellenii-  sources,  devcdes  consid 
crablealtcntion  to  this  monarcli.     It  was  through  him 


that  .Judeas  long  and  peaceful  (luietiide  amid  con- 
slant  warfare  all  around,  from  the  days  of  the  Per- 
sians down  to  iViitioclius,  was  interriipu-d.  About 
2iy  n.c.  the  .Jews  were  made  to  feel  what  il  was  to  be 
the  bone  of  contention  between  two  powerful  neigh- 
bors.   Antiochus  considered  Palestine  as  a  portion  of 


\ 


Silver  Loin  ol  AnUoi'liu.s  III. 

Obverse  :  Head  of  AnliiKhti."!,  diiulemed.     «.;rcr»c ;  BASIAEQS 
AXTIO.VOY;  an  elephant. 

(After  Ganliirr,  •'  CaUlofuc  of  S*ku<-I.l  CoiM.") 

his  Seleucid  dominion,  invaded  the  land,  and  sii/eda 
large  niiniber  of  its  foriilied  jilaces.  A  .irreat  nuinber 
of  the  .lews  were  of  the  opinion  that  Seleucid  rule 
was  to  be  preferred  to  the  Egyptian,  since  the  y<ike 
of  Egypt  had  been  severely  felt  in  recent  years  iii  the 
shape  of  the  pitiless  la.xalion  of  the  ToiilAlis.  The 
Toblad  family  naturally  favoreil  Egypt,  and  Ihroiigli 
their  inlhience  .Jerusjileni  did  not  fall  into  llic  power 
of  Anliochiis.  Hut  when  Antiochus  vam|iiished  ihe 
Egyptian  general  Scopus  at  Paneas  in  northern  Pal- 
estine (lilSl.  the  gates  of  .Jerusalem  were  opemd  to 
Die  comiueror  by  ils  citizens,  who  likewise  rendered 
valuable  assistance  in  the  subsei|Uent  siege  of  the 
citadel  while  il  remained  in  Egy pi ian  hands.  ]n  the 
interval  between  Anliochus'  eiiiry  into  I'alesline  (2|H) 
and  llie  formal  incorporalion  of  llie  counlry  with  the 
Seleiicid  empire  (!!)><).  .Judea  was.  as  .Josej)hus  says, 
like  a  storm-losscd  ship  on  tiie  ocean. 

In  addition  to  the  turmoil  of  war,  there  arose  in 
the  .Jewish  nation  pro-Seleucid  and  pro-I'toleniaic 
parties;  anil  the  schism  exercised  great  inlluence 
upon  the  .Judaism  of  the  time.  It  was  in  Antioch 
lliat  the  .Jews  lirsl  made  the  iici|Uaintaiice  of  Hellen- 
ism and  of  llie  more  corrupt  sides  of  (Irei'k  ciillun-; 
and  it  was  from  Aiilioch  that  Palestine  henceforlh 
was  ruled,  although  the  defeat  of  .\nlioclius  by  the 
Homans  at  Magnesia  ( l!IO)  nialerially  crippled  his 
power.  The  source  of  infornialion  concerning  the 
alliliide  of  this  Seleiicid  toward  the  .lews  is  .lose- 
|>liiis.  but  iinforlunately  his  aceiisloined  desire  to 
represeiil  all  greal  rulei-s  as  friendly  to  the  .lews 
has  led  him  lo  incorporate  in  his  history  much  ihat 
is  leLTeiidary.  He  meiilions  lluce  decries  issiu  d  by 
.Vnlioehus  concerninir  the  .lews.  Ill  llie  lirst.  ad 
dressed  loan  unknown  Ploleniy.  Ihe  king  lauds  the 

.lews,  and  in  recognition  of  their  mirils 
Decrees  of  he  gninis  theiii  freedom  of  religious 
Antiochus.  worship  and  pniciise.  immunily  from 

taxation  forall  elders,  priests.  Temple- 
scribes,  and  singers,  and  forall  wlioseltled  iii.Iiriisa 
lem  before  a  certiiin  lime.  1'lieallilude  of  .Vnlioehiis 
was  especially  favorable  to  llicTeniple.  Such  tilings 
as  wine.  oil.  incense,  wheal.  wi«kI.  sail.  etc..  Ihat 
were  needed  for  sacrilicial  use.  wen-  lo  Ik-  sup|iliiil 
at  the  king's  expense.  Tin-  dern-i-  eliis<-s  with  tin- 
king's  command  lo  his  general  lo  si-l  fne  all  .Ji-w  ish 
prisoners.  Objerlions  niised  lo  individual  provisions 
of  this  decree  are  not  suMicieiil  to  provi-  il  spurious; 
the  a.ssunince  of  free  religious  jmiclise  siiggi-sts  an 


Antlochus  IV. 
Antiochus  VI. 


THE  .IKWISII    KNCYCLOI'KDIA 


634 


annolironi.siii.  for  im  restrictions  in  tliis  rppiitl  were 
iiiiposcd  l)cforr  Aiilimlnis  Kiiiplmiiis;  and  WclUmii- 
sen  ("Isniclitisclic  ii.  .Ju(iis<lic  Gcscliiclilo,"  p.  '2'SH) 
iisj;s  liow  tlic  Syrians  could  liavc  Jcwisli  prisoners  at 
lliis  ])eriod  (alllioii^'li  in  jioint  of  fact  Jews  (iglitiiij; 
in  lielialf  of  llie  Eiryptians  may  liave  liciii  incaiil). 
lint  the  whole  tone  of  tliedecree.  eei-lainly  in  its  piis- 
ent  form,  stamps  it  as  a  Jewisli-ilillenic  faliriealion. 
dniwn  np  i>n  tlje  model  of  Persian  and  Koman  jiulilie 
proelainalions.  Equally  dillieult  is  it  to  aceoiiiit 
for  the  origin  of  the  second  decree,  proninliraled 
throusfhout  the  entire  empire,  according  to.Iosephus 
as  a  hiMiv  Trpiiyjiauita  (sacred  |iroelamation).  It  de- 
liars  heathens  from  entering  the  .Sanrtnary  at  Jenisji- 
lem,  forhids  the  introduction  of  |irohiliited  meat 
into  the  city,  as  well  as  the  keeping  of  luiclcan  ani- 
mals there,  under  a  penalty  of  three  thousand  silver 
dnulmia'  to  lie  ))aid  to  the  priests.  No  prohibition  of 
iIk'  u.se  of  horses,  asses,  etc.,  in  the  streets  of  .lerusa- 
lem  ever  existed,  and  it  is  hard  to  imagine  any  reason 
for  the  fahrication  of  such  a  prohibition.  Hi'ichlcr's 
suggestion,  in  his  "Tobiaden  >inrl  Oniaden."  that 
these  ordinances  refer  to  the  Samaritan  saiicluarj- 
does  not  remove  the  difticidty.  The  .Mishnah,  15.  K. 
vii.  7  (see  also  Ab.  ]{.  N..  ed.  SclK'chler.  .\.\.\v.  KKi), 
forbade  the  maintenance  of  poultry  and  sheep  in  the 
city;  and  probably  .losephus'  decree  may  be  con- 
nected with  this  prohibition,  vvhicli  was  considered 
an  ancient  ordinance.  Even  more  unintelligible  is 
the  third  of  these  decrees,  touching  "two  thou.sjin<l 
.Jewish  families"  brought  by  Antiochus  from  Meso- 
jiotamia  and  Babylonia  to  Phrvgia  and  Lydia  for  the 
paeilication  of  tliose  districts.  The  settlement  of 
.lews  tliere  by  Aniioclius  may  well  be  hislorical,  but 
that  passage  of  the  edict  is  surely  lie! it  ions  in  which 
he  says:  "1  am  convinced  that  tliey,  the  Jews,  will 
be  well-disposed  guardians  of  our  interests,  because 
of  their  piety  toward  God,  and  I  know  that  they  have 
reci'ived  an  example  of  fidelity  and  willing  obedience 
from  theirancestors."  Antiochus  was  hardly  in  a  Jio 
sition  to  kn<iw  much  about  Jewish  piety,  nor  was  their 
loyalty  to  the  >Scleucid  liouse  of  very  ancient  date. 

liiiii.ioi;RAriiv  :  liuclilcr,  Tnliiwicti  vnd  0»iViil<'ii, pp.  14:^-172; 
Ijniyscn,  Gesrh.  il.  liilU  ;om/i«.v.  ii,  (see  index);  Kwald,  liitf- 
tin'i)  (see  inile.x);  Flat  he.  fiisih.  Mithulimii  ns;  (Jrjitz,  Ucufh. 
inde.x  :  Srhiirer,  (^isih.  inile.x;  Wcltliaiisfn,  /.  ./.  ti.  2d  ed., 
pp.  222,  22:t.  2:51,  2:>1 :  i'h  tn,  ill  (ii'lthtun-  tj'trltrli:  J.H2*'i(/(';), 
i.su.'),  p.  9iVi;  Willriiii,  ./i/«/*/(  itii'l  (irii'clti'tu  pp.  '^  et  .•«■(/.: 
idem,  Jruttiiat  isf-t-  itnli-xi;  furtlier  litetTiture  mentioned  in 


*allly-Wiss»>\Vii*s  U'  '!l-Kiir}i(l"i>'.<lit\  s.v. 


L.  G. 


ANTIOCHUS  IV.,  EPIPHANES  ("the  Illus- 
trious''): King  of  Syria;  leigned  from  ITon.c. ;  died 
164.     He  was  a  sou  of  Antioclius  the  Great,  and, 


i*iiver  Coin  o(  Antioebus  IV. 

Ohver^e :  Head  of  Antiochus  as   Zeus,  laureated.    fieirrnr: 
BASlAEnS   ANTIOXOY   ©F.OY   Ent*ANOY5   NIKH't'OPOY. 

Zeus  seated  on  ttirone,  buldioe  Nilie. 

(AfWr  Oanlu^r,  "  Catalopue  "i  SelruoIJ  Colni,*') 

after  the  murder  of  his  brother  Seleucus,  took  pos- 
session of  the  Syrian  throne  wliich  rightly  belonged 
to  his  nepliew  Demetrius.  This  Antioclius  is  stvlcd 
in  nibbinical  sources  Viinn,  "the  wicked."     Abun- 


dant  informntion  is  extnnt  concerning  the  charac- 
ter of  this  monarch,  who  exercised  great  inlluence 
il|)on  Jewish  history  and  the  development  of  the 
Jewish  religion.  Since  Jewish  anil  heathen  sources 
agree  in  their  characterization  of  him.  their  por- 
tniyal  is  evidiritly  coriccl.  Antiochus  combined  ill 
himself  the  worst  faults  of  the  Greeks  and  the 
Koniiins,  and  but  veiy  few  of  their  good  qualities. 


Tetrndmehm  of  AntliKhiis  IV. 


dltvn'y^' :  Head  of  ,\ntloclins  ns  Zeus,  liinrenti'd.  licvrt'iti': 
BA:£IAEtlS  ANTIOXOY  eEOY  FIII*A.N()V5  MKH+OFOY. 
ZeiLs  sealed  on  Un-one.  tioldlnir  Nlk^. 

(Aft.T  Cnr.iiirr.  "  C«ui"L'"i.-  of  Silpti,  i.l  C..ln».") 

He  was  vainglorious  and  fond  of  di.splay  to  the 
verge  of  ecceiUricity,  libeiiil  to  extravagance;  his 
sojourn  in  Rome  had  taught  him  how  to  cajitivate 
the  common  people  with  an  appearance  of  geniality, 
but  in  his  heart  he  had  all  a  cruel  tynint's  contempt 
for  his  fellow  men.  The  attemjit  of  modern  pliil- 
Hellenes  to  explain  Antiochus'  altitude  toward  the 
Jews  as  an  endeavor  "to  reform  a  stiff-necked  jieo- 
ple  "  receives  no  contirmalion  from  the  fact  that  a 
Tacitus  tii-sl  formulated  il.  Aniinehus  had  no  wish 
to  Ilelleni/.c  his  con(|Uered  sulijeels,  but  to  denation- 
alize them  entirely;  his  Aramean  subjects  were  far 
from  becoming  Hellenes  simi)ly  because  they  had 
.surrendered  their  name  and  .some  of  their  Semilic 
gods.  His  attempt  to  level  all  differences  among 
the  nations  he  rided  aro.se  not  from  a  conviction  of 
the  superiority  of  Greek  culUn-e.  the  true  essence  of 
which  he  can  scarcely  Ix'  said  to  have  aiipreciated, 
bill  was  simply  a  ]iroducl  of  his  eccentricity.  The 
Jews  themselves  alTorded  Aniioclius  the  tirst  o])- 
portunity  to  interfere  in  their  domestic  aiTairs.  The 
struggle  of  the  Toiu.vDs  against  the  high  priest  Onias 

111.  originally  a  |iersonal  matter,  grad- 

The  To-     iially  assumed  a  religio-political  phase. 

biads  and   The    conservatives    siding   with    the 

Oniads.      legitimale  high  ])riest  apiimached  Ihe 

king  of  Egyjit;  for  they  relied  more 
on  that  monarch  than  on  Antiochus.  somclimes  nick- 
named 'E-i/iavi/c  (madinan).  while  tlu'  Tobiads  well 
understood  that  Antiochus'  favor  was  to  be  pur- 
chased with  gold.  The  Tobiads  caused  the  deposi- 
tion of  Onias  (ITS),  and  the  appointment  of  their 
own  partizan.  Jason.  In  order  to  ingratiate  himself 
with  the  king,  this  new  high  [iriesl  ivslablislied  an 
arena  for  public  games  close  by  the  Temjile.  But 
the  king  cared  ver_v  much  more  for  gold  than  for  tlii' 
I  lellenizing  of  Palestine,  and  a  certain  Jlenelaus  made 
use  of  the  fact  so  shrewdly  that  he  received  the  high- 
priesthood  in  place  of, lason.  in  the  year  171.  But  wlien 
false  tidings  came  to  Jerusalem  that  Antiochus  had 
died  on  a  campaign  in  Egypt,  Menelaiis  could  not 
maintain  himself  in  the  city,  and  together  with  the 
Tobiads  fled  to  Egypt.  On  his  return  homeward, 
Antiochus  came  to  .leriisalem  to  reinstate  Menelaus, 
and  then  the  trueeharacterof  the  Hellenism  that  Anti- 
ochus desired  was  revealed  to  the  Jews.  He  entered 
the  Temple  precincts,  not  out  of  curiosity, but  to  plun- 
der the  treasury,  and  carried  away  valuable  utensils, 
such  as  the  golden  candlestick  upon  the  altarand  the 
sliowliread  table,  likewise  of  gold.     This  spoliation 


635 


THE  JEWISH   EXCVCLUI'EUIA 


Antiochus  IV. 
Antiochus  VI. 


of  tlie  Sanctuary  frustrated  all  [he  attempts  of 
Jason  and  the  other  Tobiads  to  Helleuize  the  peo- 
ple, for  even  tlie  most  well-disposed  of  Hellenizers 
among  them  feltoulragedat  this  desecration.  They 
must  have  j;iven  vent  to  their  setiliineiit  very  freely; 
for  only  thus  can  the  policy  of  e.xlerniination  waged 
by  Antiochus  against  the  Jews  and  Judaism,  two 
years  later,  108.  he  e.vplaineil.  As  long  as  lie  was 
occui)ied  witli  preparations  forhise.\peditionagainst 
Egypt.  Antiochus  had  no  time  for  Palestine;  but 
when  the  Konians  compelled  hin\  to  forego  his  plans 
of  conquest,  his  rage  at  the  lUKXpeeted  impediment 
was  wreaked  upnu  the  iiniocent  Jews.  An  ollleer, 
AjMillonius,  was  sent  through  the  country  with  an 
armed  troop.  commis.sioned  to  slay  and  destroy.  He 
tirst  entered  Jerusalem  amicably;  thensuddeidy  turn- 
ing upon  the  defenseless  city,  he  murdered,  plun- 
dered, and  burnt  through  its  length  and  breadth. 
The  men  were  butcliere(l,  women  and  children  sold 
into  slavery,  and  in  order  to  give  permanence  to 
tlic  work  of  desolation,  the  walls  and  numerous 
liouses  were  torn  down.  The  old  (ily  of  David 
was  forlitied  anew  by  the  Syrians,  and  made  into  a 
very  strong  fortress  completely  dominating  the  city. 
Having  thus  madc^  Jerusalem  a  Greek  colony,  the 
king's  attention  was  lu'.xt  turned  to  the  destruction 
of  the  national  religion.  A  royal  decree  iiroclainied 
the  abolition  of  the  Jewish  mode  of  worship;  Sab- 
baths and  festivals  were  not  to  be  observed;  cir- 
cumcisiiin  was  not  to  be  |iiTfnrmed  ;  the  sacred  books 
were  ti>  be  surrendcreil  and  the. lews  were  compelled 
to  olTer  sacritices  to  the  idols  that  had  been  erected. 
The  olHcers  charged  with  carrying  out  these  com- 
mands did  so  with  great  rigor;  a  v<'rital)le  inqui- 
sition was  established  with  monthly  sessions  for 
investigation.  The  possession  of  a  sjicred  book  or 
tile  perfoniianee  of  the  rite  of  ciieumcision  was  puri- 
islied  with  death.  On  Kisli-w  ( Nov. -Dec. ) -,.'.■),  1(!S, 
the  "abomination  of  desolation"  iDDICO  }1ptJ'.  Ran. 
xi.  31,  xii.  11)  was  set  up  on  the  altar  of  burnt  of- 
fering in  the  Tem|ile,  and  the  .lews  reiiuired  to 
make  obeisance  to  it.  This  was  ]ir(ibubly  the  Olym- 
pian Zeus,  or  Haal  Sliamein.  See  Aiiomination  kv 
I)Ks<)i,.\Trox. 

Antiochus,  however,  bad  misunderstood  the  true 
cli:iracter  of  Judaism,  if  he  thought  to  exterminate 
it  by  force.  His  tyniiiny  aroused  both  the  religious 
and  the  ])olitical  cdiisciousness  of  the  .Tews,  which 
resulted  in  th<>  revolution  led  by  the  M.vcc.MiKKS. 
After  the  pa.ssive  resistance  of  the  l.Iasidim  (pious 
onis).  who.  much  to  thi^  surjuise  of  the  Hellenes. 
suiTered  martyrdom  by  hundre(ls,  tlu'  Hasmonean 
Mattathias  organized  open  resistance  in  KiT-lOti. 
which,  through  the  heroii'  achievements  of  liis  son 
and  successor  Judas  the  .Maceahee  in  difeating  two 
large  and  well  ecpiipped  armies  of  .\ntioehiis.  grew 
to  forniidal)le  ])roportioMs.  Antiochus  leali/ed  that  a 
serious  attempt  must  l>e  niaile  to  put  down  the- rising, 
but  was  himself  too  busily  occupii'd  against  the  Par 
thians  to  take  personal  charge.  Lysias.  whom  he  hail 
left  as  regent  in  Syria,  received  instructions  to  send 
a  large  army  against  the  Ji  «s  and  exterminate  them 
utterly.  Hut  the  genemls  Ptolemaus,  Nicunor,  and 
Oorgias,  whom  Lysias  despatchecl  with  large  armies 
against  Judali,  were  (h'fealed  one  after  thi'  other  (  MHi- 
lOrO,  anil  compelled  to  take  refiigi'  upon  Philistine 
soil.  I.ysias  himself  (Ui,">)  was  foried  to  tlee  to  An- 
lioch,  having  lieen  lomplc'tely  routed  by  the  vie 
torious  Jew.s.  Hut  although  he  began  togather  new 
forces,  nothing  was  accomplishecl  in  the  lifetime  id' 
Antiochus.  wlio  died  shortlv  thereafter  in  Taba'  in 
Persia.  KM. 

ItnilliiiiKArHV:  Ilnlm.  (Irirrhlyihr  r,V«r/i.  Iv.:  Fllitlli'.  licitrh. 
MnhiiUtiiitnit,  It.;  1.  F,  IliifTlimnii,  Anlittchun  IV.,  Kiiiphiiiiiii 


(dlssprtatlon),  Lelpsle,  ls7:(;  F.wald.  JlMnm.  v.,  Iiulex;  driilz. 
Oearlt.  it.  /»,  tiulex  :  Selmrci-.  (iif<i}t.  iwU'X  ;  Wellliauseii.  /.  J. 
G.  -d  eci.,  ;JVi  it  w;.;  Willrii-h,  Jnitt  it  ititd  (triix-fiiii,  pp.  tu  tt 
«f';. ;  iiii'iii,  ./iiWdirK  (senlndcx).  t     p 

ANTIOCHUS  v.,  E'UPATOR  ("Well  bom"); 
King  of  Syria,  son  of  Antiochus  IV. ;  born  ITI!  n.r. ; 
died  Idi.  He  succeeded  his  fatherat  tlieage  of  twelve 
(according  to  some  at  the  age  of  nine),  and  reigned 
for  two  years  (l()-4-l(i2  B.C.).  Lysias  made  himself 
guardian  of  the  young  king  and  regent  of  the  empire. 
He  thought  the  time  had  come  to  retrieve  the  los.ses 
sulfered  under  the  jireceding  monarch,  and  with  an 
enormous  army,  accompanieil  by  the  young  king,  he 
set  out  against  Judea.  Against  such  an  overwhelm- 
ing array  of  force,  the  heroism  of  the  compai-.itively 
small  band  of  Judas  Maccsibeus  could  avail  nothing. 
On  the  held  of  Heth-Zechariah.  between  Jeru.salem 
and  Heth/.ur.  the  Jewish  army  was  defeated,  Bethzur 
wascaptuH'd,  and  thedwellei'son  the  Temple-mount 
(Zion)  in  Jerusalem  were  brought  near  to  capitulation 
by  lack  of  food,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  a  Sab- 
bati<-al  year.  Ihit  in  their  extremity  the  Ji-ws  were 
unexpectedly  helped  by  the  political  distiirbiuices  in 
the  Seleucid  empire.  In  order  to  oppose  I'hili]).  who 
had  been  designated  by  the  preceding  king  as  the 
guanlianof  his  son  and  regent  of  the  kingdom,  and 
who  was  then  threatening  Ant  ioeli,  Lysias  proclaimed 
full  religious  fieedom  for  the  Jews.  Antiochus  V., 
or  rather  his  guardian,  may  thus  be  said  to  have  sub- 
jugated the. lews,  but   the  latter  at   least  gained  all 


Mlver  Culn  of  Auttut-tais  V. 

Oliivm- :   Heiiil  of  Anllncluis,  Blleted.    Rf rernf ;  B.\Sl.\KnS 
ANTIOXOY  EYUATOPOS.    Zeus  seaU'd,  boMlne  Nike. 

(Afl«r  6]iri]n«r.  "  CxUtoipi*  of  S«littH-lil  Colni,") 

that  they  had  successfully  fought  for  against  Anti- 
ochus IV. ;  namely,  the  free  exercise  of  their  relig- 
ion. This  imciticatiiui  of  Palestine  was  not  long 
enjoyed  by  Antiochus  V..  for  he  aial  his  guardian 
were  niunlered  in  Ui'i  by  Demetrius  I. 

IliHi.io(;KAPtiv  ;  Vlnl\u\  tifm-li.  ^f^lfil•^ll^nu■llH,  vul.  It. :  f^hilivr, 
(iimh.  I.  Iik'i  it  .>o(..  and  tile  lluniliin'  (|iiuteil  tlierr;  Wlllrieli, 

Jllilinnl.   hnlrX.  j^      Q 

ANTIOCHUS  VI.:  King  of  Syria,  son  of  Al.F.x- 
\M>Klt  Bai.as;  died  14'.J  H.c.  Like  his  predeces.sor, 
.\ntio(hus  VI.  was  king  only  in  name.  He  was 
proclaimeil  king  whileslill  a  minor.  1411  n.c.  by  Dio- 
dotus.  eallid  Tiyphon.  former  gem-iiil  of  Alexander 
Halas.  The  Jews  at  first  sich-d  with  Demetrius  II.. 
Nicator.  his  rival  fortlie  tlinaie;  hut  in  vii'wofthe 
vaiillalion  ami  tlw  treacherous  character  of  Deiue 
trills,  they  held  it  advisa'ile  to  give  their  allegiance 
to  .\ntioehus  VI.  Like  his  father.  Antiochus  VI. 
was  well  ilisposeil  towiird  the  .lews.  He  not  only 
contirmed  Ihi'  Hasinonean  Jonathan  in  j>os.session  of 
all  that  Demetrius  had  gnuited  him.  but  In- also  np- 
pointed  his  brolhir  Simon  as  military  commander 
over  the  district  reaching  to  the  Kgvptian  frontier. 
.\ntiocliiis'  conlideiiee  in  these  brothers  was  not  in 
vain;  Jonatlian  defeateil  Demetrius'  military  ciaii- 
niandcr  in  the  plain  of  Ha/.<>r.  while  Simon  capturi-d 


Antiachus  VII. 
Antiochus,  Sc:'Oll  of 


Till-:  .IKWISII   EN'CYCL()l'i;i)lA 


636 


till' fortri'ss  of  Bflli/.iir.  wliicli  liml  ili-clnred  for  Dc- 
ii\itriiis.  Tlii'se  anil  similar  tiitcrpriscs  of  the  Has- 
inciiicaiis  wvrc  uiiilcitakiii  as  iiiiicli  ill  the  iiilcivst  of 
the  Jews  tlu-iiisclvcs  as  of  the  kiiiir.  for  Dcini-lriiis 
was  foe  to  liotli.  The  ju'rowth  of  Jewish  military 
power,  however,  seemeil  to  alarm  Trvphoii.  Aiitio- 
<-hus'  jriiiir<lii"i.  for  he  justly  aiipreheiided  the  ulti- 
mate lireaking  away  of  the  Ji'wish  (icople  from 
Seleiieiil  rule.  It  appears,  moreover,  tlial  Tryphoii 
was  just  then  (144-14:i)  meilitating  the  removal  ot 
his  ward  anil  Ihesei/.iireof  his  throne:  he  feared,  how- 
ever, that  .lonalhan  woiilil  oppose  him  in  this  plot  on 
both  niond  and  jjolitieal  grounds.  He  therefore 
gained  ])osse.ssion  of  Joiuillian's  ])erson  liy  tri'aehery, 
and  murdered  him  (end  of  143).  One  year  afterward. 
Try]ilioM  threw  olT  the  mask,  nuirdeicd  Anlioehus 
\T.,  and  seated  himself  upon  the  throne. 
BiBl.locR.M-nv;  Kwalil.  lli.ilnni.  v.  :i:tl.  :!:M:  Si-liOn'r.  Gruch. 
i.  i:t:i.  w  Ill-re  further  lileralure  is  quiiied.  See  also  Willricb, 
Jiiitdiiii.  p.  ;;>.  ,     ,, 

ANTIOCHUS  VII.,   SIDETES  (from  Side  in 
Pamphylia);  King  of  Syria,  son  i.l  Kmietriusl;  horn 


.Silver  rniri  nf  .\ntioi-lms  VII. 

0'>i-<-i-»<- •  Heart  nf.Miii.ichiis,  illailenied.  nrrnvr :  B.\SIAF.ns 
.\NTloxov  EYEITETOV.  Pallas  armed,  holding  Nike  and 
spear. 

(.\ft..r  ttardniT.  "  Caulopii*-  of  SelciicM  Coins.") 

104:  died  129  n.c.  In  138  n.r.  he  deelarod  against 
the  usurper  Tryiihoii.  who  had  taki-n  llie  jdaee  of 
his  blot h(-r  Demetrius  II..  then  a  inisoni-r  with  the 
Parthiaiis.  One  of  the  tirst  nets  of  An1io(-hus  Sidetes 
was  to  write  to  the  Ilasmoiieaii  Simon,  eoiifirniing 
liini  in  all  the  privileges  conferred  by  his  jiredeces- 
sors.  Tli(-  ol)je(-t  of  this  friendliness  was  of  course 
to  secure  Simon's  as.sistance,  or  at  least  neutrality,  in 
the  campaign  against  Tryphon,  and  just  jis  .soon 
as  he  gained  some  sliu-ht  successes  over  the  latter,  he 
radically  alfiri-il  hisdi-mi-anortowaiil  the  .lews.  Iii- 
not  only  revoked  all  iirevious  promises,  but  de- 
manded of  Simon  |)ossession  of  the  <-on(|Uered  cities 
of  .JatTa  and  Ga/.ara  and  of  the  citadel  of  .lerusiilem, 
or.  in  default,  a  payment  of  l.OtiO  talents.  Simon 
refused  eithi-ralternative,  w-liereu]ioii  Antiochussent 
his  general  C'endeba-us  against  him,  but  he  was 
defeated  by  Simon's  sons,  Judiili  and  .John  (137). 
Home  alTaii-s  took  upsomuch  time  in  the  succeeding 
years  that  Antiochus  left  the  Jews  in  peace,  but  as 
soon  as  he  found  leisure  he  invaded  Judea.  devas- 
tated the  country,  and  besieged  in  Jerusalem  John 
Hyicanus,  who  iiad  nn-nnw  Idle  succeeded  his  fathi-r 
in  the  governnient.  The  siege  lasted  several  years. 
The  final  terms  of  peace  granted  by  Antiochus  were 
the  surrender  of  all  weai)ons,  the  ]>aym(-nt  of  a  tax  by 
all  cities  outside  of  Judea.  .lOd  talents,  and  hostages 
for  security.  Hard  as  these  conditions  seemed,  they 
were  in  reality  moderate,  for  Judea  lay  completely 
in  Antio(-hiis'  hands.  The  supposition  advanced  by 
modem  si-holars  that  Rome  interfered  on  bi-half  of 
the  Jews,  though  not  impossible,  is  hardly  probable: 
nor  is  it  likc-lv  that  the  decree  of  the  Senate  in  Jose- 


plius,  "Ant."  xiii.  9,  §  2,  refers  to  Antiochus  Sidetes. 
As  a  result  of  Hyreamis'  va.ssalage  to  Antiochus.  he 
was  compelU-d  lo  take  part  in  the  hitter's  expedi- 
tion against  the  I'arthians.  li'J;  but  the  death  of  the 
king  next  year  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  subje<-tion. 
liiiii.ii>iiKAI*liV:  Flathe.  (it-.tt-li.  Mtthtitauu-iin,  11.  I'Mt  tt  «f//. ; 
Kwald.  llift'ii'ii,  v..  liiilt-,\  ;  si-hftrtT,  <r*-.vr/i.  1.,  index  :  Wlllrii-li, 
JU(tnU-u,  index  ;  Wellhausen,  /.  J.  (».  2d  ed..  pp.  -Mt  rt  «'i/. 

L.  G. 

ANTIOCHUS  VIII.,  GRYPHUS  (•Handle  '— 
from  I  he  sliape  of  his  nose);  King  of  Syria  from  l'i'> 
to  1 13  and  from  111  lo  JHi  n.c.  Horn  in  the  year  141 : 
died  ilG  in-.  For  the  first  three  years  of  his  reign 
he  w-as  actively  opposed  by  Alexander  Zabinas.  his 
rival  for  the  throne.  Of  necessity,  thi-i-efoie,  he  lived 
on  terms  of  amity  with  the  Jews,  who  in  a  measure 
pos.sessed  the  balance  of  power.  After  the  ilefeat  of 
Alexander  Zabinas,  he  enjoyed  eight  years  of  undis- 
turhed  pii.s,sission  of  the  government  and  eonliniied 
in  his  attitude  of  friendship  toward  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple, for  he  did  not  yet  feel  himself  sullicienlly  strong 
to  insist  upon  the  ti-rnis  of  the  treaty  made  by  Antio- 
chus Sidetes;  nor  was  he  any  better  able  to  do  so  in 
the  years  113-!)():  for  although  he  maiia!r<-d  to  wrest 
a  part  of  Syria  from  hisopi)onent  .\ntioclius  IX.,  the 
liorlion  of  the  country  which  borileied  on  I'alestiue 
was  not  includeil. 

ItiHi.iofiHAI'IIV :  ?'Iathe.  (Irsch.  Mfilinlniiifnn,  it.  1172:  Ewald, 
Hisliir}/,  V.  '.MU\  Kllhn.  Bt:HrU{ii:  zur  (it-m-U.  lUr  SiiiuIiUh'it^ 
pp.  14  ft  Koi,\  Si-hunT,  (ifftch,  i.  Af.)  ft  wi/.;  Wellhauseii,  i. 
J.ii.  -M  ed..  pp.  •Mt-»a:  Willrli-h.  JmUiifn.  index. 

L.  G. 

ANTIOCHUS  IX.,  CTZICENUS(from  Cyzi- 
cus)  :  King  of  .Syria;  died  95  li.^-.  He  was  the  half- 
brother  of  Antiochus  VHI.,  the  iireceding  king.  He 
rose  against  him  in  113.  and  for  two  years  was  sole 
ruler  of  Syria.  He  was  then,  however,  comjielled 
to  be  satistied  with  the  district  of  Cn-le-syria.  since 
Anlioehus  VHI.  obtained  ]iossession  of  all  the  rest. 
Aceoiding  to  the  description  given  by  Diodoriis.  An- 
tiochus IX.  was  like  the  fourth  Antiochus  in  ehaiac- 
ter  and  certainly  resembled  him  in  hostility  to  the 
Jews.  Circumstances,  it  is  true,  were  dilferent :  the 
relative  strength  of  Syria  and  Judea  had  in  tiie  mean- 
time undergone  changes,  very  much  to  tin- advantage 
of  the  latti-r.  When  in  llO-iOT  li.e.  he  atlempted  to 
lend  assistance  to  the  Samaritans,  then  hard  jiressed 
by  the  Jews,  he  was  easily  beaten  olT.  A  second  at- 
tempt to  subjugate  Judea  with  the  h<-l])  of  Egyp- 
tian soldiers  failed.      He  was  compelli-d   to  retreat 


MhtT  Inni  cif  .\nticH-lius  l.X. 

Ohrn-fr:  Head  of  .tnlloi'hus.  diademed.  liererw  :  B.\:i\EnS 
.\NTIOXOY  *I.\OII.\TPOS.  I'allas  armed,  holding  Nike  and 
siwar. 

(.\fltr  Git.Iiitr,  "  C«taloe,ie  of  Seleuciil  Coins.    ) 

after  sulTering  gnat  losses,  and  the  generals  whom 
he  left  in  command  fared  no  better.  Thereu])on 
Antiochus  desisted  from  further  hostilities. 

Bim.KiGR.vPHV:  Flalhe,  fVfw?!.  MnkriUniifii^.  ii.  fi73:  Ewald, 
HiVon;.  ■Ki-.m  :  Kuhn.  lii-itriiiic  ztir  ilfxch.ilfr Si-lrukideti, 
\H  ft  .If!/.:  Si-hurer.   ilf.^rh.  1.  211)  cf  wo.:  Willrich.  Jwlnica, 

L.  G. 


Index  ;  Wellhausen.  /.  J.  G.  2d  ed..  p.  ai2. 


637 


TlIK  JEWISH    i;.N(V(l,(il'i;i)IA 


Antiochus  VII. 
Antiochus,  Scroll  of 


ANTIOCHTJS    XII.,    DIONTBXTS :    Kiiiir  "f 

Syria.  Ill'  uiis  till'  _vciiiiii;i'st  scm  df  (;r\  pd-;.  :t]j(l  lljc 
last  i)f  llii- 8i-liuiiils  111  ciiiMi'  ill  cniitiict  with  .lews. 
In  a  caiiipiiiirn  aicainst  Arctas,  kinir  nf  the  Arabs, 
Antidclius  iiiti-niU'rl  to  march  thniiij;h  .ludca,  l)iit 
Alexander  Jaiuni'us  Wdiild  not  iicnnit  it;  iicvcrllw- 
Icss  Anlicirlms  jitTsistcd  in  his  piiriicisc,  and  took  no 
noticcof  the  olistaclcs  Alexander  set  in  his  way.  The 
epi.sode  hud  no  further  results,  for  Antiochus  died  in 
the  campaign. 

BlBi.ii«;it,\riiY  :    Kulin.  licitrflor  zur  Gcmhichtc  ihr  Silcit- 
kiiliii.  :i\  it  wq.:  Srliiircr,  tiisrhiihlr.  1,  lill. 

L.  G. 

ANTIOCHUS,  SCROLL  OF  (Megillat  An- 
tiochus):  Name  lit  a  ii-c-uilepii;iiiph.  urilteii  in 
llelilew.  descrihin.ir  the  revolt  of  the  .Mai-ealiees, 
and  (h'pietinir  its  glorious  course.  Saadia  (><!l'2-U4'J) 
was  the  tirst  to  niak('  iiii'iition  of  this  little  book. 
lie  referreil  to  it  as  "  Ketab  Bene  Haslinionai  "  (Irans- 
latinj;  doubtless  the  Hebrew  "8efer  Bene  Ilash- 
nionai  "),  ami  cited  a  verse  from  it  (Ilarkavy,  "Zik- 
kariai  la  Hishonim,"  v,  \'}l).  ISO),  which  leaves  no 
doubt  conceruiuir  the  identity  of  the  .Meijillah  with 
this"I!ook  of  the  Ilasiiioueaiis  "  lint  the  niuch 
discussed  ".'scloll  of  the  House  of  the  Ihismoneans," 
which,  it  isallcfred,  the  "Ilalakot  Ge- 
"  Book  of  dolot  "  quotes  (middle  of  tlie  eighth 
theHasmo-  century),  is  ])urely  iiiia,i;inary  ;  for  not. 

neans."  only  does  the  manuscript  read  in  this 
passfi'.'e,  ".Mejxillal  Ta'anit  "( "  llalakol 
Gedolot."  cd.  llildesheimer,  p.  111.")),  but,  even  if  the 
expression,  "Me^'illat  bet  Hashiiionai,"  of  the  printed 
text  be  adopted,  the  passai;e  would  then  bear  the  very 
opposite  iiieaniiiii;  to  the  one  that  has  been  deduced 
from  it  since  the  time  of  Uapoport.  The  passjiire 
should  be  translated:  "The  oldest  of  the  [lupils 
of  Shammai  and  Hillel  wrote  '  Mejiillat  Het  Ilasli- 
nionai.'  ]5ut,  \i|)  to  the  iiresent  time  notliin,!;  is 
known  of  the  >iei:illali;  and  this  state  of  incoirni- 
zanco  will  last  until  the  priest  .shall  appear  with  the 
I' rim  anil  Thumuiim." 

The  last  words  of  the  passasre  orijrinate  in  Xeli. 
vii.  (i.").  and  leave  no  doubt  concernini;  the  ob.scure 
expression  niin?  HpV;  since  the  words  of  Nehemiah 
or  the  similar  expression,  "when  Eli,jah  shall  ap- 
pear," were  used  to  express  tin;  iiha  that  what  has 
disjippeiired,  or  lies  hidden,  will  some  time  make  its 
rcappeiVTiince  (I  JIucc.  iv.  40;  Mek.,  Heshallah,  Wa- 
yassii',  5,  ed.  Weis.s,  ji.  (10).  This  view  also  nnllilics 
ilil  speculalion  that  the  Talmud  and  the  .Mlilnishim 
drew  upon  a  "  liook  of  the  IlasMioneans."  At  any 
rate,  it  may  be  asserted  that  the  .Mei.rilliil  Antiochus 
was  written  at  u  time  when  even  the  vai;iiest  recol 
lection  of  the  .Maccabeans  had  disappeared.  An  ad- 
ditional proof  of  the  .siuiie  fact  is  furnisheil  by  the 
hiniiua^re  an<l  subject  nialler  of  the  work  itself. 

The  scroll  bcirins  with  a  clescriplion  of  the  great- 
ness and  power  of  Aiitiixlius,  who  was  mii.'hty  and 
victorious,  and   built  .\niioch,  a  city 
Contents     on  the  seacoast  (a  misunderstandin.i;  of 
of  the        Gen.  H.   xxili.,  bciiinnint,').     His  jrcn- 

ScroU  of  iial  liairias  also  founded  a  city  be- 
Antiochus.  yond  .\nlioch,  and  called  it  after  him 
self.  In  the  twenty  third  year  of  his 
reii;!!,  Antioi-hiis  iletermhieil  to  beirin  the  reliirious 
war  iigaiiisl  the  Jews.  To  (hat  end  lie  sent  to  Jerii 
siilem  his  jrcneral  Nicaiior.  who  ni>red  furiously 
aRainst  the  pious  Jews,  and  set  up  an  idol  in  the 
Temple.  When  the  hiirh  priest  John,  sun  of  Malta 
thias.  saw  (his.  he  appeared  before  Nicaiior's  lious<' 
mill  demanded  entrance,  .\dmitled  to  Nicanor's 
presence,  he  declared  himself  willing  (ocomi>ly  with 
the  king's (lemaiid,  and  (o  olTer  H.sacritlcu  to  the  idol. 


He  expressed  (he  wish,  however,  (ha(  all  l>reseDt 
should  leave  the  house;  since  he  feared  that  if  the 
Jews  heard  of  his  deed  he  would  be  stoned.  When  left 
alone  with  Nicanor,  John  thrust  into  the  general's 
heart  (he  dagger  that  he  had  concealed  under  his 
garments. 

After  this  .lohn  waged  a  victorious  war  against 
the  Greeks;  and.  as  a  memorial  of  his  great  deed,  he 
erected  a  column  with  the  inscription,  ".Maccabee, 
the  Slayi;r  of  the  .Mighty  "  Antiochus  now  .sent  his 
general  Hagris  (a  distorted  form  of  the  name  liac- 
cliides),  who  at  tirst  killed  a  number  of  Jews  for  ob- 
serving their  religions  precepts;  hut  he  wasat  length 
compelled  by  the  tivesousof  Mattatliias  to  tice.  He 
boarded  a  vessel,  and  set  .sjul  for  Antiixh.  When, 
lor  the  second  time,  he  moved  with  a  mighty  host 
against  the  Jews,  he  was  not  much  more  successful. 
The  live  sons  of  Mattatliias  ojiposeil  him  valiantly, 
and  aUhough  Judas  and  Ek'a/.ar  lost  their  lives,  (lie 
Jews  were  (riumpliant.  Their  success  was  in  uo 
small  measuredue  to  the  aged  .Mattatliias,  who,  after 
the  fall  of  Judas,  himself  undertook  the  guidance  of 
the  battle  This  tliir<l  battle  was  also  the  last ;  for 
Hagris  was  burned  by  the  Jews,  and  .Antiochus. 
after  a  revolt  of  his  subjects,  lied  to  Asia  Minor  and 
drowned  himself. 

The  Jews  I  hen  purilied  thcTemiile  They  were  for- 
tunate enough  to  tind  clean  oil,  which  was  needed  for 
the  holy  lights,  and  although  the  (|uantity  seemed 
siillicient  for  one  day  only,  it  la.sted  miraculously 
during  eight  days.  For  this  reason  the  Jlaecabees 
instil uted  the  eight-day  Ilanukkali  feast. 

This  outline  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  Scroll 
sulliccs  to  ilelcrmino  its  historic  value.  That  .\nti- 
ocli  is  mentioned  as  a  coast  city;  that  John,  with 
the  surname  "  .Mac<-al)ee,"  is  called  a  high  luiest ; 
and  that  Ihe  reign  of  Antiochus  is  .sjiid  to  have  lasted 
twenty-three  years,  all  go  to  prove  that  the  Megillah 
is  a  spurious  work  of  fairly  recent  times.  Since  no 
Fali'stinian  ever  lalled  .Vnlioch  a  coast  city,  the 
statement  concerning  its  jiosil ion  shows  also  that  (he 
work  is  a  liabylonian  jiioiluct. 

The  ililerminalion  of  the  exact  date  of  the  Scroll 
is  more  ililliculi.  If  the  above-mentioned  pa.s,sa,ge 
in  the  "llalakol  Gedolot"  really  refers  to  a  "Hook 
of  the  Hasmoneans."  the  finly  possible  period  could 
have  been  from  the  middle  of  the  eighth  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  ninth  century;  for,  as  has  been  sai<l,  the 
"  Halakot  Gedolot  "  does  not  presup))o.sea  book  that 
existed  contemporaneously  with  itself. 

Till'  sources  drawn    upon  by   the  author   of   the 

.Megillah  were  unhistoric.  with  the  one  exception  of 

Ihe  Kirsl  Hook  of  the  .Maccabees diroli- 

Sources.  ably  the  Syriac  version),  of  w  liich  pas- 
sages were  copied  letter  for  letter  (st'e 
"  Megillat  .\ntioclius."eil.  Jellinek.  vcrse'iit;  1  Mace, 
iii.  •!(>).  Till'  idea  of  the  high  ]>rie.st  John  was  de- 
rived from  the  Talmud,  in  which,  however.  John 
llyrcaniis  is  always  called  Snj  ;ri3  |2nV;  and  Ihe 
writer  of  the  Megillah  confusis  him  wiih  John,  son 
of  Ihe  Hasmonean  .Mattatliias,  mentioned  in  the 
liook  of  the  .Maccabees.  The  inirach'  of  the  cruse 
of  oil  likewi.se  sprang  from  the  Talmud,  which  it- 
self drew  it  from  the  Megillat  Ta'anit. 

The  w  lio'ly  legendary  characler  of  (he  Scroll  did 
iio(  [ireveiil  i(  from  being  held  as  of  consei|Uenee 
a(  ci'r(ain  periods;  in  fad.  (his  leireiidary  chanu'(er 
may  have  conlribuled  to  its  appreciation.  In  Saa- 
dia'slime  it  miisl  have  biin  greatly  esleinieil ;  ollier- 
wise  he  would  not  have  allribuled  its  authorship  to 
Ihe  live  sons  of  Mallalhias  (/.c.  p.  l.">0);  and  Nissini 
b.  Jacob,  at  llie  iMginning  of  theelevenlh  century, 
invi'.s(s  it  with  almost  canonical  dignity  (introdue- 
(ion  (I)  "Sefer  .Ma'a.sio(,"ed.  Warsaw,  ji. .'»).     OurinR 


Antipaa 
Antipater 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


638 


the  thirteenth  century,  as  is  known,  it  was  pub- 
licly read  on  Hanukknh  in  the  Italian  synasiogues 
(Isiiiah  <le  Trani.  in  liis  "Scholia  "  on  Suk.  44A.  ed. 
Lemberii,  3I/<),  probably  in  the  Hebrew  translation 
that   had   been   made  at  a  (|uile  early 

Held  in  liale.  This  part  that  it  liad  in  the  rit 
High  Esti-  ual  seems   to  have  been    peculiar   to 

mation.  Italy;  and  to  this  is  due  the  fact  that 
the  Megillah  iscontained  in  one  of  the 
oldest  Italian  Mahzorim  (1568).  A  number  of  man- 
uscript Tomh  scrolls,  of  various  oriirliis  and  dates, 
also  contain  the  Jlegillah.  which  eitlicr  follows  the 
Pentat<'uch  or  is  found  among  the  Five  Megillot. 
From  this  it  isevidcnt  that  the  .M<'i.'illali  was  classed 
almost  in  thesame  rank  as  the  canonical  books.  E.\- 
cc'pt  in  the  ritual  that  at  present  obtains  in  Yemen, 
the  Megillah  has  disappeared  from  the  liturgy. 

BlBi-IOORAPnv:  Gastcr.  In  Tratittacliimn  nf  the  yinth  Iiitrr- 
naliniinl  CimnrcsK nf  OricntalMK.  il.  ■i'.ii.  London,  l»!tt  Iron- 
Tainint;  it  coiiiplete  list  of  ttie  nuinuscrlpl.s  and  t'<liti<ms  of  Hit* 
scroll  a.s  wet!  a.s  tfie  litonuure  conceminir  it,  from  wliicli  tlie 
f()llowin»i  is  a  st-le4-titin);  Harkavy,  Zikkttr<m  ht-Iiishouim, 
V,  2ii,V:aH*  tconlainmt;  other  literature  on  tin-  suli1»Tti;  Jo. 
sephsolin,  7->iV  Snticn  IV^tr  dif  Kiimpfe  d,  Mn}ihiil>ili  r  ;  Jel- 
llnek,  in  B.H.  1. 2.'-ii,  vl.  7-»:  Kapoixirt,  in  Bil.h un  h(t-'lllim, 
xli.8(P,Sl;  s«'har<>r,  Gf«di.l.  123:  Krauss.  in  lltv.  KI.JuivcK, 
XXX.  214  el  Kcq.,  XXXV,  222  c(  ncq. ;  steinsflinelder.  Cat.  Itixll. 
col.  3118.  Editions:  First  edition  of  the  Ilelirew  text,  Naples, 
H91 :  cditio  princcps  of  the  Aramaic,  edited  by  Filipowski, 
together  \vith  hi.s  MUthar  ha-l'eniniitu  I.i)ndon,  IHM  :  an- 
other .AIS.:  Gaster,  I.e.  pp.  17-27:  Jellinek,  B.  II.  Helirew, 
i.  142-146,  Aramaic,  v1. 4^.  Besides  these  there  are  many  re- 
print.s.  Translations:  Latin:  in  Bartolwci,  Bihlinlliien  Mimtin 
liahhiniea^  1.  3i<i  et  *tct/. :  German:  anonymous,  Meuilktt 
Mattnthiti^,  Venice,  1.S48  (in  rime):  MeuiUitt  Attti<>ehu.-t  (no 
jilace  or  date  given,  but  pmhably  Prasrue  and  the  eighteenth 
centuryi  :  Spanish  :  Ncs  nanukhalt  (no  date  or  place  given, 
but  probably  of  the  nineteenth  centurv), 

L.   G. 

ANTIPAS  (HEROD  ANTIPAS) :  Seventh 
(lint  >i\lh,  ;is  slulcil  in  tJiaefz.  or  third,  as  in  Dean 
Farrar's  biography  of  the  Heiodsl  and.  at  the  lime 
of  his  father's  death,  youngest  son  of  Herod  the  (Jreat 
by  his  Samaiitan  wife,  JIalthaee.  The  exact  date 
of  his  birth  can  not  be  ascertained,  but  it  nmst  cer- 
tainly have  occurred  before  20  n.c.  He  died  in  exile 
about  the  year  39.  Antipas,  like  most  of  the  other 
members  of  his  family,  was  educated  at  Home,  and 
kept  in  close  touch  with  the  imperial  court.  Little 
is  known  of  his  mode  of  life  or  of  his  activity  before 
his  accession  to  power,  though  his  later  acts  do  not 
lead  to  the  supposition  that  he  had  been  superior  in 
virtue  to  his  half-brothers,  or,  indeed,  to  most  of  the 
inilrician  youths  brought  up  near  the  palace.  From 
two  Greek  inscriptions — one  from  the  island  of  Kos, 
and  the  other  from  Delos  ( "  C.  I.  G. "  No.  2502 :  "  Bul- 
letin de  Correspondances  Ilelleniques,"  iii.  3(i5)— it  is 
apparent  that  lie  traveled  extensively,  though  it  can 
licit  be  ascertained  at  what  period  of  his  life. 

Upon  the  discovery  of  Antipater's  attempt  to  poi- 
son his  father,  Herod  the  Great  appointed  Antipas 
his  successor  to  the  throne  of  Judea;  but  either, 
as  some  state,  on  accoimt  of  the  severe  illness  that 
had  a.irain  befallen  him,  or  owing  to  the  fear  of  dire 
consequences  in  leaving  the  whole  kingdom  in  the 
hands  of  his  youngest  son,  Herod  divided  .ludea  into 
several  districts,  and  in  his  last  will  (about  4  n.r.) 
bequeathed  to  Antipas  nothing  but  the  tetrarchy 
of  Galilee  and  Perea,  which  brought  its  ruler  an  in- 
come of  200  talents;  giving  to  another  son  by  Mal- 
thace,  Archelaus,  the  right  to  the  title  of  "  king  fif 
Judea."    Antipas  did  not  acquiesce  in 

Becomes  this  new  partition  of  his  father's  do- 
Tetrarch.  minions.  He  went  to  Koine,  accom- 
panied liy  the  rhetorician  Ircneus.  and 
chdmcd  the  kingdom  in  accordance  with  Herod's 
earlier  will;  but  though  a  deputation  of  fifty  Jews 
had  reached  the  imperial  court  to  plead  against  Ar- 


chelaus— and  incidentjdly  against  Antipas — Augus- 
tus nilitied  the  terms  of  the  last  will. 

I'pon  several  occasions,  during  his  rule  of  the  tet- 
rarchy. Antipas  apjiealed  to  Uonie  for  extension  of 
his  territory.  Hut  his  scheming  and  petitions  were 
of  no  avail,  and  his  final  appeal  to  C'aligida  for  fur- 
ther adtlition  to  his  dominion  was  fruitless  and  only 
hastened  his  ruin.  It  is,  therefore,  either  as  a  general 
expre.xsiiin  of  authority  and  power,  or  in  cognizance 
of  the  fact  that  the  royal  title  was  always  i)orue  by 
some  member  of  the  Herodian  family  (Archelaus  was 
then  no  longer  ruling),  that  the  epithet  "  king  "  is 
used  (iiidy  once)  in  the  Xc'W  Testament  in  sjieaking 
of  Antipas!  .Mark.  vi.  11).  Wherever  else  in  the  New 
Teslanient  he  is  mentioned,  the  title  given  to  him  is, 
generally,"  tetrarch":  the  name  .Vntiiias  never  occurs 
there.  Herod  being  the  only  name  used  (Matt.  xiv.  1; 
Luke.  iii.  1,  19.  and  i.\.  7).  Josephus.  who.  in  the  tirst 
jiart  of  the  "  History  of  the  Jewish  War,"  speaks  of 
iiim  as  Antijias.  calls  him  Herod  in  relating  the  divi- 
sion of  Jmlea;  adding  to  the  name  the  phrase,  "he 
who  was  called  Antipas  "("  H.  J."  ii.  9.  ^  1).  but  using 
simply  the  iiatronymic  thniughdiit  the  rest  of  his 
work.  In  the  English  translation  of  Gnietz  (ii.  114), 
Herod  is  spoken  of  as  Antipas  I. ;  but  this  use  of  the 
Roman  numeral  is  evidently  unwarranted. 

Though  Antipas  was  by  nature  iiusillnnimous, 
cringing  before  higher  authority,  and  at  times  .sav- 
agely cruel,  he  .seems,  nevertheless,  to  have  allowed 
to  his  subjects  a  certain  amount  of  independence. 
His  main  elTorts  as  a  ruler  were  directed  toward 
the  adornment  of  towns  that  already  existed,  and  the 
establishment  of  new  ones.  He  rebuilt  lieth-Hanm 
(Betharainptha),  in  the  south  of  Perea,  and  called 
it  Livias ;  he  next  reconstructed  and  enlarged  his  cap- 
ital, Sepphoris;  and  then  made  into  a  town  the  for- 
tress Macherus,  on  the  eastern  shore 
Hakes  Ex-  of  the  Dead  Sea,  rebuilding  the  fortress 

tensive  itself  and  erecting  a  niagniticent  ]ial- 
Improve-     ace.     It  was  ])iobably  in  this  i)alace 

ments,  that  John  the  H:iptist  i)reached  and 
was  afterward  imprisoned.  Antipas' 
crowning  eHort  in  this  direction  was  the  building 
(2-4-20)  of  the  town  of  Tiberias  on  Lake  Gennesaret 
in  Galilee,  which  he  arranged  more  on  the  plan  of  a 
Greek  than  of  a  Judean  city,  with  a  stadium  and  a 
splendid  ]ial;ice ;  the  walls  of  the  latter  being  iidorned 
with  figures,  and  even  the  government  (if  the  town 
being  on  Greek  lines,  with  a  council  of  (iOO  members, 
an  archon,  and  a  committee  of  the  ten  first  (oi  iina 
-purm).  The  name  given  to  the  town  was  in  honor 
of  the  ruling  enqieror,  Tibenus.  As  soon  as  its  con- 
.struction  was  coni|>leted  Antipas  moved  his  court 
thither;  and  Tiberias  thereafter  became  the  perma- 
nenl  capital  of  Galilee. 

The  relations  of  Antipas  with  the  court  of  Rome 
and  with  its  various  emissaries  in  Asia  were  never 
cordial.  Augustus,  it  has  been  said,  openly  ex- 
pressed his  contempt  for  the  tetrarch;  though  the 
marriage  of  Antipas  with  the  daughter  of  Aretas 
was  contracted,  probably,  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
pleasing  the  emperor,  who  greatly  favored  the  alli- 
ance of  Roman  otficials  with  foreign  ]irincesses,  and 
though  the  new  name  (Livias)  given  to  Hethllaran 
was  intended  as  a  mark  of  honor  to  Livia.  the  wife 
of  Augustus.  L'nder  Tiberius  constiint  intrigue*  to 
gain  tlie  emperor's  favor  were  carried  on  between 
Antipas  and  the  other  influential  Roman  ofticials. 
In  this  way  he  in  one  instance  brought  ui)on  him- 
self the  enmity  of  Vitellius.  This  proconsul  had  ar- 
ranged an  exiiedition  against  Artabanus  HI.,  king 
of  Parthia:  but  being  ordered  by  Tiberius  to  come 
to  ]ieaceful  terms,  he  met  the  Parthian  on  a  bridge 
thrown  across  the  Euphrates  for  this  very  purpose. 


639 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antipas 
Antipater 


Here  Antipas  prepared  a  maKiiiticcnt  tent  for  tliem 

ami  entertained   them  suniptuoiisly  ;  l)iit  liefore  Vi- 

telliiis  eould  inform  the  emperor  of  tlie 

Reasons  for  negotiations  the  telrareli  liad  sent  mes- 

His  XJn-  senders  to  Rome  witli  the  neeessary 
popularity,  despatches.  Tlie exact  date  i if  t he  meet- 
ing between  Vitellius  and  Artabanns 
lias  been  the  subject  of  much  dispute,  an<l  is  still  a 
moot  question.  Antipas  was  continually  intriguing 
against  Pontius  Pilate  also.  Atone  time  Antipas  sent 
a  complaint  to  the  emperor  against  Pilate  because 
the  latter  had  jiut  u])  an  unwelcome  votive  tablet 
in  the  palace  of  Jerusalem  (about  3G).  Nor  was  An- 
tipas |)opular  among  the  Judeans.  It  is  true  that, 
at  least  ostensibly,  he  complied  with  the  more  im- 
portant ordinances  of  the  Jewish  faith,  and  that  he 
went  to  Jeru.sidem  to  celebrate  the  feasts.  But  the 
house  of  Herod  hail  become  an  object  of  hate  and 
suspicion;  and  Antipas  himself  had  done  nothing  to 
counteract  the  spreading  of  these  .sentiments.  On 
the  contrary.  Jie  had  adorned  his  palace  walls  with 
the  tigures  of  animals,  even  though  there  had  been 
no  eltigies  on  the  coins  he  minted ;  and,  above  all.  he 
hail  violated  the  MoSiiic  law  in  marrying  Herodia.s. 
John  the  Baptist  (h'nounced  him  jniblicly  (Malt.  xiv. 
4;  Mark,  vi.  IS);  and  even  Jesus  called  him  "that 
fox  "  (  Luke,  xiii.  32). 

In  the  history  of  the  Messianic  movement  Antipas 
plays  a  most  iiniK>rtant  i>art ;  for  he  is  the  Herod  of 
the  Gospels  who  slew  John,  and  who  was  jiartly 
responsible  for  the  execution  of  Jesus;  though  the 
story  of  the  presentation  of  John's  head  on  a  char- 
ger, by  the  daughter  of  Ilerodias,  is  jirobably  an  ex- 
aggeration.    It  is  possible  that  John's 
Concerned    imprisonment  and  death  were  insiiired 
in  Deaths  of  by   Ilerodias.  whos<'  marriage,  as  has 
John  and     heiii  said,  he  had  denonnceil.      Anti- 
Jesus,  pas'  i)art  in  the  fate  of  Jesus  consisted 
in  lhe]ireliminaryhearingof  the  latter; 
for  Pontius  Pilate,  to  whom  the  accusjitions  against 
Jesus  were  brought,  handed  over  the  preacher  of 
Galilee  to  the  tetrarcliof  thatdistrict,  who  was  then 
sojourning  in  Jerusidem.    Jesusanswered  neither  the 
charges  of  his  accusers  nor  the  questions  of  Antipas; 
and  he  was  handed  back  to  the  higher  authorities,  to 
be  tried  according  to  Koman  law  and  custom. 

Anti])as  married  twice,  his  lirst  wife  being  the 
above-mentioned  daughter  of  Aretas  VI.,  king  of 
Arabia  Pelnea.  During  one  of  his  visits  to  Home 
he  met  Ilerodias.  his  own  niece  and  the  wife  of  his 
half  brother  Philip,  and  persuailed  her  to  leave  her 
husband  and  to  accompany  him  to  Tiberias.  His 
.\rabian  wife,  upon  bearing  of  her  iiiqxnding  dis- 
graci',  obtaineil  peiniission  from  Antipas,  on  the  plia 
(if  ill  health,  to  go  to  Maclierus.  which  then  belonged 
lo  .\retas;  and  there  sluMnct  her  falher,  whom  she  in- 
duci'd  to  pick  a  (|uurrel  with  her  husbaml  and  to  in- 
vade his  tetrurchy.  .\nlipas'  army  was  defeated,  atid 
his  lands  were  threatened  (37).  He  was 
Abandons  obliged  to  order  Vitellius  against  Are- 
First  'Wife,  tas;  but  before  the  Homan  proconsul 
had  left  Judi'a  the  empi'ror  died :  ami 
Vitellius,  in  revenge  for  Antipas'  tnarliery  on  the 
occasion  of  the  piai-e  negotiations  with  .\rtabanus 
HI.,  promptly  desisted  fromhismarch.  Fortuiuilely, 
Aretas  withdrew  to  his  own  lands. 

.\nlipas'  marriage  with  Ilerodias  was  neither  of 
long  duration  nor  very  happy.  She  was  amliilious, 
and  wishi'd  to  si-e  her  husband  in  the  possession 
of  greater  territorial  power  .\fter  Ihedeath  of  Tjlic 
rius  she  itiducid  her  liusliand  to  make  a  personal 
appeal  lo  the  niw  emperor  for  Ihi'  possession  of  the 
royal  title;  but  .\grippa,  whose  llrst  appointment 
to  imperial  function  (as overseer  of  the  markets)  had 


been  brought  about  through  the  inlluence  of  Ilero- 
dias and   Antipas,   sent    a    messenger,  Justiniauus, 
to  Caligula,  who  was  then  at  Baiic,  an<l  accused  the 
tetrarch  of  plottinjr  against   Home.     Antipas  could 
not  (leny  that  he  had  collected  a  vast 
Is  Ban-      stock  of  arms;  and  he  was  stripped  of 
ished.        all  his  lauds  and  wealth,  which  Calig- 
ula gave  to  Agrippa,  banishing  Anti- 
pas (39)  to  Lugdunum,  in   Gaid,  whither  Ilerodias 
followed  him.    He  died  shortly  afterward,    'Whether 
this  Lugdunum  be  the  modern  St.  Bertrand  de  Com- 


('(ipiKT  f  (iln  o(  HiTiHl  .\nU|ui,'i, 

Ohrrne:  HPOAOV  TETP.VPXOV,  surrmmillnir  a  iialin-tiraiKh. 
and  L.AT  (year  33— of  Ills  reign).  lUvcrse :  TIBE1'1.\C  in 
wreatb. 

(Aft^r  MkddeD,  "  Coliii  of  the  Jrwc") 

ininges,  near  the  Spanish  border,  or  wliether  the  ex- 
tetrarch  removed  from  Lyons  to  Spain,  can  not  bo 
ascertained.  Josephus  states  definitely  that  Antipas 
died  in  Spain.  The  assertion  in  Dio  Ca.ssius  (lix.  S) 
that  Caligida  put  Antipas  to  death  is  certainly  un- 
true, tmless  the  phrase  is  intended  in  a  general  and 
not  in  a  literal  sense. 

"Antipas"  is  a  contracted  form  of  "Aniipater," 
or  "  Antipatros";  and  its  meaning  is,  therefore,  not 
"against  all."  as  has  sometimes  been  as,si'rted. 

Bini.iooRAPnv:  Josi  phus.,lii(.xvii.,  xvlll.;  Idem,  /J.  J.  1. 2S,  B  4 ; 
II.  2.  8  3;  Idem,  Life.  8  6.i  (NIese's  ed.:  see  Index);  Sohflrer, 
(imfh.  (Fnitl.  transl.)  I.  2d  part,  17  <■(  »f<(. :  (irStz,  (Icsch.  it. 
Jwkn.  111.  iea  ct  «•(/.;  Farrar,  The  Iltrmh.  pp.  134  et  w<;. 

W.  M. 

ANTIPATERl abridged  form,  Antipas):  Father 
of  Herod  1.  ;  died  43  B.C.  He  was  the  son  of  Antipa.s, 
a  convert  to  Judaism,  who  was  governor  of  Idumiea 
under  the  reigns  of  Alexander  Janna'us  and  his  (|Ueen 
dowager  .Vlexantlra,  and  rendered  himself  service- 
able to  the  Jewish  rulers,  through  his  connections 
with  his  former  congeners,  of  Anibia  Pelnea.  An- 
iipater, who  seems  to  have  succeeded  his  father  as 
governor  of  Iduma'a.  ha<l  reason  to  f<'ar  that  King 
.\ristohulus  II.  would  not  retain  him  in  his  position. 
He  therefore  trie<l  hisutmost  todethrone  .\rist<ibulus, 
and  lo  restore  the  weak  Ilyreaiius  II..  who  would 
be  an  easy  tool  in  his  haiiils,  t<i  the  llirone  which  was 
righlfidly  his.  With  this  vii  \v  Aniipater  tried  to  per- 
suade Hyrcanus.who  was  not  only  of  a  peaceful  and 

kindly  disposition  liut  altogether  free 

Plots         friun   suspicion,  that  his  brother  was 

Against       plotting  Ids  ilealh  in  order  to  secure 

Aristo-       liimsi'lf  upon  the  throne.    Hyrcanusat 

bulus.         lirst  refiis<d  crediTice  to  Aniipater,  but 

finally  allowed  himself  to  b<'  gained 
over,  .\ntipater,  who  fidl  no  attachment  for  Ju- 
daism or  the  Jewish  slate,  and  who  stoo<l  ready  lo 
sacrillce  their  interests  in  order  to  .s«-rve  his  own 
ends,  had  madi-  previous  arningements  with  .\retas. 
an  .\raliian  <hie/,  lo  giv<'  his  lielp  lo  Ilyrcanus  in 
rilurnfora  large  sum  of  money  and  |)os.ses.sion  of 
twelve  cities,  which  hail  been  conquered  from  the 
.\rabians  by  the  llasmoneans  after  long  and  hanl 
lighting,  .\ntipalir  then  look  Hyreanus  with  him 
to  Aretas,  who  forthwith  pioeeeded  with  a  large 
amiy  against  Arislobiiliis,  and  defeated  liini.    Thus 


Antipater 
Anti-Semitism 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


640 


Antipater  siU'ceMicil  in  iraining  his  objects,  although 
Ihe.lewisli  sliite  lost  its  inilepeiidenee  in  consequence. 
Tile  ilispule  was  referrcci  to  Uonie.  and  decision  was 
jriven  aL'aiiist  Arislolmlus. 

The  reinnani  of  independence  whicli  Pompey  had 
allowed  lo  .Indea.  whose  nominal  kins;  was  now 
llyrcanus  II..  proved  of  ffieat  advantaire  to  Aniip 
aler.  as  he  now  lnld  llyrcanus  conijdetely  nnder 
his  control,  llyrcanus  needed  a  cnifly  an<i  skilful 
counselor  at  his  side,  such  as  Aniipater.  to  meet  (he 
(liHiculties  of  party  opposition  from  within  and  of 
Homan  i:reed  from  without.     Antipater.  however, 

retained  his  ]iosilion  of  iiilluence  even 

Hyrcanus    after   llyrcanus  was   strippeil   of  all 

and  political  power  by  Galiinius  (.")T  it.c. ). 

Antipater.    His  proconsul  arran.ired  "nil  atTairs  of 

.lerusalem  a<cor<linj,'  to  the  will  of 
Antipater,"  a  i)lirase  which  seems  to  indicate  that 
Antipater  was  made  the  ta.\ -collector  of  the  Jew  ish 
realm. 

When  his  personal  interests  did  not  conflict  with 
tliose  of  the  Jews  the  cntfty  Idumean  was  of  ffreat 
service  to  them.  Thus,  after  the  battle  of  Pharsiilia 
(Aug.  9.  4M  n.c.).  he  was  (|uiek  to  take  sides  with 
Ca'.sjir;  and-  the  hitler's  frien<lsliip  to  the  Jews  was 
mainly  due  to  the  services  rendered  him  by  Aniipater, 
in  Egypt,  nominally  under  the  authority  of  llyrca- 
nus. Ciesjir  rewjudi'd  Anti|)ater  by  appointing  him 
governor  (fTi'r/x.rror)  of  Judea  in  the  year  47  H.c.  ; 
and.  what  was  of  still  greater  advantage  to  Antip- 
ater. Hyrcanus  was  ni.-ule  etliiiarcli  instead  of  Aii- 
tigonus.  son  of  .Vristoliiilus  II.  Kntii'cly  ignoring 
Hyrcanus.  he  appointed  his  own  sons.  Pliasiiel  and 
lIero<l.  governors  of  Jerusiilem  and  of  Galilee  re- 
spectively. During  the  subset|Uent  struggle  be- 
tween Ciesar  and  the  Pompeians.  Antipater  e.xhili 
ited  great  statesmanship  in  steering  little  Judea 
skilfully  through  the  troublous  times.  As  long  as 
Ca'sar  lived  iie  reinained  his  parli/an.  foreseeing  the 

ultimate  victory  of  the  great  general: 

Changes      but  after  his  assjissination.  Antipater 

of  sided   with  Cassius  because  the  latter 

Policy.        had  seized  SyiHa.  and  Judea  coidd  not 

liave  stood  against  him.  He  was  as 
energetic  in  his  services  to  t'assius  as  formerly  to 
Ca'sar.  and  was  most  prompt  in  delivering  the  TOO 
talents  which  the  Jews  had  to  (-ontiibute  for  Cas- 
sius'army.  In  the  midst  of  his  activity  and  rising  suc- 
cess Antipater  was  poisoned  (43  li.c. ).  while  feasting 
with  Hyi-eanus.  l)y  the  hireling  of  a  certain  .Malieh. 
who,  like  Antipater.  was  aspiring  to  an  influential 
position  in  Judea.  No  good,  however,  came  to  Ju- 
dea by  his  death,  for  the  power  of  the  I<lumean 
Jiouse  was  not  annihilated  thereby,  and  his  sons, 
jiarticularly  Herod,  carried  on  the  work  of  the  de- 
struction of  Judea.  So  nuieh  was  this  the  case  that 
the  hatred  of  the  Jews  conceiitraled  itself  mainly 
against  the  son.  and  legend  has  little  to  say  of  the 
actual  founder  of  the  Ilerodian  dynasty.  A  frag- 
ment of  a  legend  concerning  the  life  of  Antipater 
has,  however,  been  preserved  by  Jidius  Africanus. 
According  to  this  writer,  Idumean  robbers  attacked 
Ascalon,  and  pluiuhicd  a  shrine  of  Apollo,  taking 
with  them  the  son  of  the  temple  attendant  Heiod, 
because  he  was  too  poor  to  redeem  his  son  Antipater. 

Antipater  was  thus  brought  up  as  an 

Antipater     Idumean  and  later  won  the  friendship 

in  Jewish     of    Hyrcanus    II.    (Julius   Africanus. 

Leg-end.       •  I'.pistola  ad  Aristidem."  v. ;  Migne. 

"  Patrologie.".\.  ■>'.)).  The  Jewish  oi-igin 
of  this  legend  is  at testeii  liy  Justin  Martyr  (•'  Dialogus 
cum  Tryphone,  "  lii.).  who  characterizes  this  state- 
ment of  Herod's  origin  from  Ascalon  as  Jewish. 
That  this  account  is  fabulous  is  shown  bv  the  man- 


ner in  whicli  the  narrative  endeavors  to  prove  the 
Idumean  oiigin  of  lleri>d.  The  legend  refuses  to 
n-garil  him  even  as  a  half-Jew  (Deut.  .\xiii.  8).  but 
calls  him  a  Philistine,  a  member  of  a  rjiee  which 
ow-es  its  existeiK-e  to  unchastily  ((ien.  H.  .\x\vii.  it). 
and  then  seeks  to  reconcile  its  slatemeni  with  actual 
fact.  The  noli  Jewish  origin  of  the  Herodiaiis  is  also 
demonstrated  by  the  Mishiiali  Sotah,  iv.,  at  end.  See 
also  IIkkou  I.  and  HvucANUS  II. 

BiBi.ior.RAPiiv  :  Joseplius.  .1  lit.  xlv.  1,  B  3:  2.  J 1 :  3.  e:i:  3,82: 
s.  es  l-.-i:  ».«-■;  11.64:  /).J.  I.  li.  iiS-r,:  11.  M:t  111;  fcir oilier 
r»'tHn'nrt*s  see  .Mfse's  i-tlillnii.  index;  Kwiild.  Hitttin'}/  of  /«- 
iiiil.  V.  :Clil-:aii<.  4<i:).  -KiT.  44(*;  liruiz,  Grut-h.  <l.  Jiulcii.  M  e<l.. 
Hi.  i;M,  137.  14'J.  1,'w ;  Schttrer,  Ucuch.  1,  333  ct  scq..  270  et  acq., 
2li2-:^5. 

L.  G. 

ANTIPATER:  Kldist  son  of  Herod  the  Great 
and  of  the  Idumean  I)oris.  who  soon  after  Antip- 
aler's  birth  was  discarded  by  her  husband  ;  born 
about  lis  lie.  ;  executed  4  lie.  He  wiislilsl  brought  up 
in  obscurity  and  penury:  but  Pheronis  and  Salome, 
brotherand  sister  of  Herod,  fearing  that  the  iiilluence 
of  Alexander  and  .Vristobulus.  the  two  sons  of  Ma- 
riamne.  would  lie  detrimental  to  their  own  designs 
upon  Herod,  induced  the  latter,  after  the  death  of 
Mariamne,  to  recall  to  his  palace  both  his  former 
wife  and  bis  tirst-born  son.  Antipater.  with  his  half- 
brothers,  was  then  sent  to  Home,  under  the  care  of 
Agrippa,  to  receive  an  education  betitting  a  prince 
and  jialrician  (  Ki  n.c.  I. 

.Vnlipater's  life,  from  the  day  of  his  mother's  re- 
turn to  favor  and  of  his  own  recall  to  the  jialaee  of 
.Tenisilem.  was  one  continuous  endeavor  lo  supplant 
in  the  favor  of  his  father  all  the  other  members  of 
the  Herodian  family,  and  linally.  when  this  object 
was  well-nigh  achieved,  to  gain  pos.ses- 
His  Machi-  sion.  through  parricide,  of  the  throne 

nations.  of  Juilea.  While  at  Honn-.  .\ntipatcr 
tried  to  iiilluence  Herod  against  .Vle.x- 
ander  and  Aristobulus.  who  were  apparently  the 
favorites:  insinuating  that  these  sons  of  Mariamne 
were  scheming  lo  avenge  their  mothirs  death  on 
the  person  of  their  father.  He  succeeded  .so  well  in 
his  calumnies  against  them  that  Herod  bniught  them 
to  Home,  aei-iised  llieiii  before  Augustus  of  plotting 
his  overthrow,  and  begged  of  the  emperor  permission 
lo  punish  them.  .Vugusliis  probably  siw-  through  the 
plot,  and  tein]ioi-arily  reconiiled  Herod  with  his  sons. 

Herod  returned  with  the  three  iiriiiees  to  Jeru.sa- 
lem;  and  there  Antipater  began  his  machinations 
afresh.  Common  ambition  had  united  him  with 
Pheroras  anil  Salome;  and  a  plot  was  concocted  to 
jKiison  Herod.  Antipater  had  also  succeeded  in 
gaining  Ihe  confidence  of  Alexander  and  Aristobu- 
lus. especially  of  the  former,  and  could  eonse(|nently 
pursue  with  ease  his  jilaii  for  their  ruin.  .Vfter  cast- 
ing suspicion  upon  I  he  two  luinees  liy  innueiidos  and 
secret  accusations,  he  persuaded  Herod  to  torture 
the  servants  of  the  palace  into  revealing  what  they 
knew  of  the  alleged  infidelity  of  his  sons.  Some  of 
these  confessed  ihal  thesonsof  Mariamne  were  plot- 
ting to  as.sassinate  till'  king:  and  Alexander  and  Aris- 
tobulus were  (-onsei|ueiitly  cast  into  prison.  The 
former  pretended  to  acknowledge  his  guilt,  and  im- 
pli(-ated  in  his  confession  Pheroras.  who  was  there- 
upon banished  to  his  telrarchy;  but  not  a  word  did 
he  breathe  against  .Vnlipater.  so  well  had  Ihe  latter 
beguiled  him.  Augustus  reluctantly  granted  Herod 
permission  to  banish  or  execute  his  two  prisoners; 
and  it  was  on  the  occasion  of  this  peculiar  request 
that  Augustus  is  said  lo  have  exclaimed:  "I  would 
ralher  be  of  Herod's  swine  than  of  his  sons  "  (Macro- 
bins.  "  Satnrnalium  Conviviorum  Libri  Septem," 
ii.  4). 


641 


THE  JKWI.SII   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


Antipater 
Anti-Semitism 


Upon  till-  exi^ulinn  of  his  sons  in  tlic  year  7  nc, 
Herod  uoniinatcii  AntipatiTiissuccessfir  tollio  tlirone 

of  .Jiideii.  and  iniiiudiately  fravc  liiin 

Shares  the  a  sliar<'  in  the  jrnvcninicnt ;  Imt,  in  the 

Govern-     fearof  a  possilile  discovery  of  liis  plols 

ment        and  of  a  iurllur  clianirc  in  the  disposi- 

of  Judea.    tionof  the  kimrdoin.  Aniipaler  souirht 

to  iironse  Herod's  suspicions  against 
the  otiier  two  sons,  Philip  and  An  liclaus.  He  sent 
letters  to  some  inlhienlial  friends  at  Home,  reiiucst- 
injj  them  to  ask  Herod  to  despatch  Antipater  to 
Home.  Herod  complied  with  tlicir  rei|uest,  and  sent 
liy  him  many  costly  presents  to  the  emperor.  Safe 
now  from  detection  Antipater  could  more  easily  pre- 
jiare  the  execution  of  his  plots  and  counterplots.  He 
sent  Hulhyllus,  one  of  his  freedinen.  to  Jerusalem 
with  lettera  accusinj^  Philip  and  Arclielaus;  and  he 
allied  himself  with  Acme,  a  Jewish  slave  of  IJvia,  as 
he  knew  that  Salome  corresponded  with  the  empress, 
and  that,  throiisrh  the  ird'onnation  he  would  thus 
frain,  he  could  accuse  Salome  of  treach<'ry  aijainst 
llercKl.  to  whom  hi'  even  .sent  a  letter  purjiortini;  to 
he  from  Herod's  sister,  e.vposinir  her  guilt.  At  thi' 
same  time,  he  was  plottiuf^  with  Salome  and  Pheroras 
ajiainst  Herod,  and  is  sjud  even  to  have  sent  to  Phe- 
roras poison  which  cillier  he  or  his  sister  was  to  give 
to  Herod. 

But  an  incident  occurred  that  upset  all  of  Antip- 
ntcr's  liiiiKius  plans,  and  brou.ilht  hiiu  to  his  ile- 
served  fate.  It  was  at  an  investiiration  into  the 
death  of  Pheroi-as.  whose  wifi-  had  l)een  accused  of 
having  poisone<l  liim,  that,  in  eslalilishing  her  inno- 
cence, the  villainy  of  Antipater  was  laid  bare.  In  the 
meantime,  correspondence  between  Acme  and  An- 
tipater having  been  intercepted,  Herod  sent  a  letter 

to  I{ome  in  most  alTectionate  tirnis. 

Meets  His  asking  .\nlipater  to  return  to  Jerusa- 

Fate.        lem.  which  he  unsuspectingly  did.    On 

his  way,  while  in  ('ilicia,  he  heard  of 
Pheroras'  death,  of  his  mother's  secon<l  banishment. 
and  vague  rumors  of  the  accusations  that  awaited 
him.  He  nevertheless  continued  on  his  journey  to 
Jerusalem;  hoping,  probably,  to  allay  his  father's 
suspicions.  On  his  arrival  Herod  accused  him  be- 
fore a  tribunal  headed  liy  (Juintilius  Varus;  but 
though  Nicolas  id'  Damascus  laiil  bare  the  whole 
]ilot,  and  though  the  iliadly  poison  itself  was  pro 
duced  and  tisted  in  open  court.  Antipater's  sixcch 
in  answer  to  the  accusers — which  moved  Varus  and 
even  Herod  himself — innsl  have  had  its  elTect.  since 
a  verdict  was  not  jironounced.  .\nlipater  was  pro- 
visionally cast  into  prison,  anil  Herod  sent  letters  to 
Augustus,  with  full  information  of  his  son's  machi- 
nations, and  with  the  rei|Uest  that  he  be  anthori/.ed 
to  piuMsh  him.  'I'lie  emperor's  reply  stated  that 
Acme  had  been  ]iut  to  death,  and  thai  Herod  was  at 
liberty  to  deal  with  his  son  as  he  deemed  best. 

The  e.veculion  of  Antipater  (4  is.c.)  took  place 
under  somewhat  peculiai  circumstances.  Herod,  in 
an  attack  of  fren/.y,  had  attempted  suicide,  and 
Archiabus  with  a  loud  cr\  had  torn  the  knife  from  the 
king's  hands.  Antipater,  whose  prison  was  only  a 
liltie  distance  away,  heard  the  cry.  and.  thinking 
Herod  dead,  tried  to  bribe  the  jailer  to  liberate  him. 
Herod  harned  of  .Vnlipater's  action,  and  the  ex 
ecution  of  the  latter  was  ordered  and  carried  out  on 
the  spot. 

Bim.ioisn.irnv  :  Jnseptais.  Atil.  xlv.  li,  1 1 ;  xvl.  :t.  (  ^; 
S  I;  xvll.  r,,  «  1;  lileiii.  /J.J.  I.il,  «1:  (irittz.  (,-.»r»i.  ./. 
III.  am.  ■J4I\  1 1  «i;.:  SihnriT.  Iluull.  I..  M  ]mn.  l  it  m  ■/.; 
Ihr  y/.  I  ..•(.»,  lip.  lit  -(  «<7. 

\V. 


ANTIPATER,  SON  OF  JASON.     See 

THAN   TIM     I  I  \sMoM.  \N 
I.— 41 


xvl.  4. 
lull,  II. 

Karnir. 

M. 

Jon  A 


ANTIPATRIS  :  City  founded  about  the  year  10 
i!.i  by  IIciikI  ilir  (Iieat  in  the  jilain  of  Kefar  Saba. 
From  a  passjige  in  Josephus  it  a|ipiars  that  there 
had  been,  in  the  lime  of  .Mexander  Janiiicus.  a  town 
on  this  site  called  Kefar  Saba  ("old  village"),  which 
name  reapi)ears  in  the  modern  Kefr-Saba.  It  is 
true  that  Talmudic  authorities  distinguish  between 
Antipatris  and  Kefar  Saba;  but  in  all  probability 
lliev  intend  by  the  latter  name  to  designate  the 
whole  plain.  This  plain  is  no  doubt  identical  with 
the  "coast  of  Antipatris"  (Tosef. .  Dem.  i.  11)  alluded 
to  by  the  rabbis  about  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. From  such  jiassages  it  appears  that  Antipatris 
was  inhabited  mainly  by  Samaritans.  The  expres- 
sion "coast  "  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  city 
was  in  proximity  to  the  sea  (as  Xeuliauer  thinks),  in- 
asmuch as  Josephus  describes  the  city  as  surrounded 
bj' a  river;  and  the  term  used  may  also  denote  the 
banks  of  a  river.  Joseidius  detines  the  location  of 
Antipatris  as  l")l)  (another  reading  has  100)  stadia 
from  Jo]i|)a,  at  the  entranci'  into  the  mountains,  and 
^'i;  miles  soulh  of  Ca'sjirea.  upon  the  highroad  from 
that  lily  to  Lydda — a  detiiiition  which  applies  very 
well  to  the  modern  Kefr  Saba.  In  Talmudic  wri- 
tings, Antipatris  figures  as  the  most  northerly  limit 
of  Judea  (Tosef..  Git.  vii.  [v.]  it;  Yoma,  (>!)«).  which 
jirobably  indicates  that  at  that  period — about  loO  to 
liOII — Anti|)atris  wasan  important  city.  In  the  fourth 
century,  however,  it  had  evidently  fallen  into  decay  ; 
and  .lerome  designates  it  as  a  "semi  demolished  little 
town."  It  was  in  existence,  nevertheless,  as  late  as 
the  eighth  century.     See  also  Kefak  Saha. 

liiiiLioiiRAPny:  Neuhauer,  f.'.  7".  iip.  s<>-()(i;  Buh\.  Gciiiirn)iliie 
Alteti  PalfM ilia.  ii\>.  ISI.  llfi.  till.  151,  IM;  Hi.i-tlEer,  T(/;>.i- 
i/i'tt)jliiyfh-Hi.-*ltirM-lifi*  LfXifnii  zu  .  .  ,  fI.  Jimu'/i/iiw,  p.;57; 
ShiiiTr.  (li.srh.  II.,  ai  purl.  i:il>-ir)S  (uhleh  contains  a  list  iit 
tile  litrraliin-  uih'II  tlirsubjeeu. 

L.  G. 
ANTIPHONY.     See  Ciiom. 

ANTI-SEMITISM:  A  modern  word  expressing 
aiilagonism  lo  liir  political  and  social  eijuality  of 
.lews. 

The  term  "  Anti-Semitism  "  has  its  origin  in  the 
ethnological  llieory  that  the  Jews,  as  Semites,  are 
entirely  dilVereiit  from  the  Aryan,  or  Indo-European, 
])opulalions  and  can  never  be  anial.iramated  with 
Iheiii.  The  word  im]ilies  thai  the  Jews  are  not  op- 
posed on  acccuinl  of  tlieir  religion,  but  on  account  of 
I  heir  racial  characteristics.  As  such  are  nnntioned: 
greed,  a  special  aptitude  for  money-making,  aver- 
sion to  hard  work,  clannishne.ss  and  obtrusiveness, 
lack  of  social  tact,  and  especially  of  patriotism. 
Finally,  the  term  is  used  to  justify  resentment  for 
every  crime  or  objectionable  act  committed  by  any 
individual  Jew. 

lis  receni  origin  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  David 
Kaiifmanu,  in  1S74.  sjieaks  of  the  ethnic  theory  of 
Semilism  as  "allerneueste  Weislieit  "  ("Maga/in  fllr 
die  IJlenilur  lies  .\uslandes,"  1S74,  No.  44). and  Lml- 
wig  Bamberger,  in  his  es.say,  "  Deutsililum  u.  Judeii- 
tiim  ("  I'nsere  Zi'il,"  isso,  i".  104).  says.  "The  war-cry 
against  the  Semites  is,  as  the  woiil  indicates,  of  very 
recent  date."  In  his  memoirs,  too.  referring  to  l.s.'iS 
or  shortly  before,  Hamlierger  says  that  the  wonl 
".Semilism"  had  not  then  been  invented  ("Erinner- 
uiigeii,"  ii.  :tll,  Herlin.  ismt).  In  February,  issi,  a 
correspondent  of  the  "  AllgemeineZeilungdes  Jiideli- 
lliiims"  speaks  of  "  Anti  Seinitisin"  as  a  designation 
which  recentiv  came  into  use  (".Vllg.  Zeil.  d.  Jiul." 
ISSl.  p.  l;tH).  On  July  lit.  ]HH-i.  the  editor  says.  "This 
ipiite  recent  Anti-Semitism  ishanlly  three  years  old" 
{ill.  |S,s->,  p.  4sit).  So  far  as  can  bi'  ascertained,  the 
word  was  first  printed  in  IMHO.  In  that  year  W.Marr 
pulilishcd  "Zwanglose  Antisemitische   Hefte."  anil 


Anti-Semitism 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


642 


Willielm  ScliiTiT  >isc(l  I  lie  trrni  "  Antisemiteu  "  in  the 
"Xeiic  FrcMf  Pri'ssi- "  of  January. 

It  is.  Iiowi'vcr.  imp(is.sil)l('  to  trace  witli  (crtainty 
till"  tirst  iisf  of  the  word.  It  docs  not  appear  to  have 
l)een  eoined  before  the  end  of  the  sev- 
History  entirs,  when  the  (lernian  empire  en 
of  the  tered  npon  a  course  widely  ililTi  nnl 
Term.  from  its  former  policy.  The  nature  of 
the  word  imiilics  the  ])rce.\istence  of 
the  word  and  iilea  of  Sernitisni,  which  has  itself  a 
history  that  must  he  tniced.  Auirusi  Ludwii;  von 
Sehliizer  (ITIi.VlSUiJjand  Johann  Gottfried  Kicldiorn 
(1T.V.J-Iy27).  hoth  iirofcssoi-s  in  Gottinireii,  weri'  the 
first  to  use  the  term  "Semitic  nations"  (Eichhorn, 
"  Historisch  Krili.sclie  Einleitunj;  in  das  Alte  Tesla- 
ment."  'id  ed.,  1787,  p.  4."i;  iilini.  "  Hcperloriinn." 
17!sl,i.  (51;  "Ausland."  1873.  p.  Il):i4)ina  jdiiloloirical 
sense;  hut  the  ethnical  distinctness  of  Semitic  nations 
was  not  a  ireiierally  accept<'d  theory  until  Franz  Uo])p 
(17'J1-1S()'7).  in  his  "  Coniiianilive'Cranunar  "  (18:!;^- 
52).  had  created  tile  <-orrelative  lerni  of  "  Indo-Ger- 
nianiclaML''Ma!;es."  called  by  the  Frenchschool  "Inilo- 
European."and  by  the  Enjrlish  "  Aryan."  What  was 
oriiiinally  a  merely  linjiuislic  term  soon  became  an 
etiuiical  desiirnation  based  on  the  results  of  compara- 
tive philolojry.  The  tirst  who  attenijited  to  draw  a 
picture  of  the  ethnical  chanicter  of  the  Semites  as 
contradistiniruished  from  the  Aryans  seems  to  have 
heen  Clirislian  Lassen  ( lis0()-7fi).  jjrofessor  at  Bonn, 
who.  in  his  "  Indischc  Altertumskunde,"  Bonn,  1844- 
61.  i.  414,  says: 

"  Clviliziiiliiti  liiis  lieen  tlie  (rift  of  but  a  few  nations.  Of  other 
races  only  Kjrvptians  and  ("liinese,  and  of  tlie  Caucasian  only 
Semites  and  .\ryans.  tiave  l)uilt  up  tiunian  civilization.  History 
pn)y**s  that  Semites  do  not  ixissess  the  liarmony  of  psychii-ai 
fori'cs  which  distinifuishes  the  Aryans.  The  Semite  is  selllsh 
and  e.\i-lusive.  He  posses.sps  a  .^harii  Intellect  whii-h  enatiles 
him  to  niaiie  use  t»f  the  opportunities  cri'ated  by  others,  as  we 
And  it  In  the  history  of  the  Phenieians  and.  later  on,  of  the 
AratB." 

Independently  of  Lassen,  Ernest  Renan  (1823-92) as- 
serted the  same  principle  of  the  inferiority  of  the 
Semites,  which  inferiority  he  claims  to  have  been 
the  tirst  to  recognize  ("  Ilistoire  Genende  et  Systeme 
Compare  des  Langues  Semiti(pies."  .")th  ed..  1878.  p. 
4).  "The  two  words."  he  S;iys.  "which  have  served 
tinlil  nowasa  .symbol  for  the  projrress  of  the  hunian 
mind  toward  truth,  science,  and  iihilosopliy,  were 
foreijin  to  them"  (i/i.  p.  3).  .StroML'er  still  are 
Renan's  exjircssions  in  his  essiiys  on  the  history  of 
religion  ("Etudes  dllistoire  Heliuieusc."  .ith  ed., 
Paris,  1862).  Thei-ein  he  claims  for  the  Aryans  all 
the  jrreat  military.  |>olitical,  and  intellectual  move- 
ments in  the  world's  history  ;  while  the  Semites  nuist 

be  credited  with  the  reliiiiotis  niove- 
Benanon  inenls(i).  8.")).  The  Semites  have  never 
the  Jews,    liad  any  compii-hension  of  civilization 

in  the  sense  in  which  ir,  iinderslaiiii  the 
■word;  they  were  at  no  time  i)ul)lic-si)irited  (]i.  S8). 
Intolerance  was  the  natural  consequence  of  their 
monotheism  (p.  87),  which,  if  not  imiwrted  from 
the  Semitic  world,  would  have  remained  foreign  tothe 
Aryans,  who  were  impressed  wi'h  the  variety  of  the 
universe  (p.  S.";).  The  Jewish  people,  while  not  ])io- 
jrressive.  claimed  that  the  future  wastlu'lrs:  and  this 
illosrical  position  accounlsforthe  hatred  which  eight- 
een centuries  wei'e  unable  to  mitigate  (p.  130). 

While  R<iian,  in  the  preface  to  his  history  of  the 
Semitic  languages,  warned  against  wresting  individ- 
ual pajwages  from  the  context,  and  insisted  that  the 
racial  element  was  counterbalanced  by  many  other 
influences;  while  he  said  that  the  .Tews  of  our  age 
are  not  Semites,  but  modern  men;  and  while  he  even 
denied  the  I'Xislenceof  a  Jewish  race  ("  Le  Judai'sme 
comiue  Rate  ct  conime  Religion,"  Paris,  1883),  it  was, 


nevertheless,  he  who  hail  foigeil  the  arms  which  the 
anti-Semites  used  in  Ihiir  attacks  on  Jews  and  Jiidji- 
ism.  For  they  <(iulil  refer  to  the  testimony  of  a  scholar 
and  a  freethinker,  when  they  repeateil  in  reference  to 
the  Jews  what  he  hail  said  of  the  Semites — luunely. 
that  they  lacked  jiersonal  courage;  that  their  moral 
ideal  was  dilTercnl  from  "ouis";  that  they  were 
siltish.  chielly  negalive,  and  allogether  "  tine  race  in- 
complete." -Many  other  representatives  of  the  young 
science  of  ethnology  —  which  was  constaully  ad- 
vanced by  the  development  of  compar- 
Applica-  ative  philology  —  proceeded  to  ilniw 
tion  to  lines  of  demarcation  between  .Sendlic 
Ethnology,  luid  Aryan  civilization  (Philippson, 
"  Wellbewegende  Fr!lgen,"i.  31,  Leip- 
sic,  1808).  •  Of  the  immense  liteniture  on  the  subject 
an  article,  pulilished  in  the  "Ausland,"  a  weekly 
edited  by  Friedrich  von  Hellwald,  1872,  pp.  901  k 
UK/,  and  9.')7  it  mf/.,  seems  to  have  exercised  a  great 
inthieiice  upon  Ihe  growth  of  the  anti  Semitic  move- 
ment, althoiigli  the  aiionynions  author  (afterward 
acknowleilged  by  von  llellwidd  to  be  himself)  is  in 
no  way  original,  but  has  mainly  copied  the  words  of 
Reiiaii.      He  says; 

'*  The  Jews  ar^'  not  merely  a  difTen-nt  religions  communtly. 
but -and  this  is  to  us  the  most  imixtrtant  factor  ethnically  an 
altojjether  different  race.  The  Kuro[H'an  feels  instinctivi'ly  that 
the  Jew  is  a  slnmjrer  who  Immi^rntted  fmm  .\sla.  'I'hesiwalled 
prejudice  is  a  natural  sentiment,  flvlllzatiou  will  overcome  the 
autipiithv  aL'ainsi  the  l>nielite  who  merely  prof i-ssi-s  another  n-- 
li^rinii.  hut  iM'\crtli;ii  ;iLr:iinst  the  mdally  different  Jew.  The  Jew- 
is  cusiiiitpoiitjin.  iiiiii  ("issfsses  a  certiiin  a.stiaeness  which  imikes 
him  the  master  of  the  honest  .\r>'an.  In  eastern  F.iiropc  the 
Jew  is  the  cancer  slowly  eatin);  into  the  llesh  of  the  other  na- 
tions. Exploitation  of  the  people  is  his  only  aim.  Selllshness 
am!  lack  of  iiersonal  connare  are  his  chief  chanicteristics  ;  self- 
sacrltlce  and  patriotism  are  altogether  foreljfn  to  him." 

It  is  claimed  tlitit,  although  the  Jews  have  ainalgsi- 
maled  to  a  considerable  extent  with  their  surround- 
ings, they  no  longer  adopt  commeicial  pmstiits  ex- 
clusively, Inive  their  children  educated  in  the  public 
schools,  and  are  eager  1o  give  up  their  peeiUiaritie.s, 
the  Jew  renuiins  a  separate  individuality,  and,  while 
he  participates  in  the  spiritual  and  poliliial  work  of 
the  nation,  his  dcsii'e  is  to  make  it  subservient  tothe 
ride  of  Judaism  ( Koeiler,  "Ziitschrift  fiir  die  Ge- 
sainmten  Slaatswissenschaften,"  ls71,  Xo,  3;  .Jules 
Richard,  in  "  Le  Conslitutionnel,"  Nov.  24,  1872). 

AVIiile  the  term  Anti-Semitism  should  be  restricted 

in  its  use  to  the  modern  movements  against  the  Jews. 

in   its  wider  sense  it   may   be    said    to   include   the 

persecution  of  the  Jews  at  all  times 

The  Old     and  among  all  nations  as  jirofessors  of 

Hatred  of  a  separate  religion  or  as  a  peo|)le  hav- 

the  Jews,  ing  a  distinct  nationality.  Its  his- 
tory begins  with  Ihe  |ierioil  of  the 
Book  of  Esther,  when  the  charge  was  tirst  made 
that  the  Jews  are  a  "]ieople  scattered  abroad  and 
dispersed  among  the  people  in  all  the  |u-ovinees  of 
thy  kiugilom:  and  their  laws  arc  diverse  from  all 
|)eople;  neither  keep  they  the  king's  laws;  therefore 
it  is  not  for  the  king's  profit  to  sufTer  them  "  (Esth. 
iii.  8).  The  Jews,  having  met  with  nations  who 
disputed  their  claim  of  sujieriority.  were,  in  the  llcl- 
lenized  Orient  iuid  later  on  in  the  Roman  world.  Ihe 
targets  of  hatred  combined  with  conlempl.  The 
charges ])referreil  against  them  were  lliat  Ihey  hated 
all  other  men;  that  they  were  clannish  («"';'")  and 
irreligious  (<irtfor;?r);  that  they  had  not  |)articipated 
in  the  work  of  civilization;  that  they  litid  become 
a  menace  to  the  Roman  emiiire;  thiit  their  bodies 
emitted  a  peculiar  odor;  that  Ihey  sju-rificed  annu- 
ally a  Greek;  and  that  they  were  descendants  of 
lepers,  who  had  been  expelled  from  Eirvpt  (Sehiirer, 
"Gesch."  3d  ed..  iii.  397-42(1.  Leiiisic.  1S98;  Reinach. 
"Te.xtes  d'Auteurs  Grecs  et  Romains  Relatifs  au 


643 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anti-Semitism 


.IikIhisimc."  IS!)."):  Viiirt-lsliiii  mid  Hii'irci/'Gi'Sch.  (ler 
.ludiii  ill  Uniii,"  lii-rliii,  ls!»(i).     Sic  Ai'loN. 

'I'lic  iniilii-vai  liliiiilmc  on  the  sulijcct  is  forci^'ii 
til  this  iiilicli-,  as  ils  alliicks  mi  .luilaisiii  aiv  piiiici 
)ially  nil  irliiiiiiiis  iriiiiiiiils,  aUlioii>;li  llii'.Jrws  wrri' 
also  |>i'iirliUiiii'il  as  ilaiis<'i')us  from  an  rconoiiiic 
lioiiit  of  virw  ami  ilriioiimril  as  ciii'iiiicsof  all  Cliris- 
tiaiis.  Wliat  is  pioiicily  known  as  Aiili  Srinitisni  had 
its  roots  in  llir  airi'  fnllowiii,!;  liii'  Frrmli  Ki'voliitioii, 
wlii'ii  ri'li;;inus  liliiTty  liad  lii'inmi' a  iiiori- oi- Irssuf- 
(■i-pli'd  ilo;;iiia  in  poliliral  sririirr,  anil  a  ni-w  liasis 
liad  to  111-  found  for  llir  altarUs  on  llir  .Ii'ws.  more 
particularly  lor  the  o])]>ositioii  to  tlirir  full  nifmii- 
cliisi'iiiciit.  The  years  followiiii;  tlir  liallli'of  Wa- 
terloo saw  a  deluge  of  niili-.Iewisli  ]iamplilets  {.lost, 
"Neue  (Jeseli.  dcr  Israelileii."  Hieslaii.  i.  4IJ  f?  wy. ; 
Griltz,  "(Jeseli.  d.  .Jiiileii,"  .\i.  'MX  it  n,//.). 

Heaetionary  tendencies  wliicli  molded  the  political 
])hysiiiiriioiiiy  of  Kurope  until  the  French  Hevolu 
tinll  of  \s:'A),  and  of  easleni  Europe  down  to  the 
forties,  aroused  a  slroiigdemoeiiilieopposition.  The 
opponents  of  reform  eomliiniii!;  the  reaelionarv 
forces  ill  liotli  llie  political  and  ecclesiastical  camps 
received  valuable  eneouraseinent  by  the  accession 
to  the  throne  of  Kini;  FreilerieU  \Villiaiii  IV.  of 
Prus.sia  (IH40).  In  a  ••('abinctsordre "  of  1H41  the 
king  dctined  his  views  on  a  new  law,  wliicli  was  to 
regulate   the    stiitus  of    the  .Tews;    to 

Frederick    treat  the  .lews  as  a  colony  of  foreign 

William     ers;   to  give  them  aulonoiiiy  in   their 

IV.  of       congregational    atfairs;    anil    to    take 

Prussiaand  from    them   the   municipal    franchise 

the  Jews,  which  they  had  possessed  since  1812, 
Small  vexatious  measures — for  exam- 
jile,  when  Minister  of  .luslice  von  Miihler  issued  a 
circular  reeomineniling  that  every  court  should  buy 
a  copy  of  a  paniplilel  direcleil  against  the  .lews 
(Tliiele,  "  Die.Iiiilisehiri  (Jauner  ill  Deutschland  ") — 
gave  further  cncouiageincin  to  the  naetioiiaries. 
(On  this  period  see  Willi.  Kreuiiil.  "  Die  Oegenwiirtig 
Bealisichiigte  rmgestaltiiiig  dcr  Hiirgerlielien  Ver- 
liilltnisse  dcr  .luileii  ini  I'reiiss.  Staate."  1K4"J;  and 
Isidor  Keim.  "  Kin  Wort  iiber  die  Hichtlichen  Zu- 
Sliliide  dcr  .luileii  iiii  I'reii.ss.  Staate,''  I.eipsie.  1842.) 

The  opposliion  against  granting  toiiie  Jew.s  all 
liolilical  ri^'hts  came  from  various  ipiarlers.  It 
wasnatiinil  that  those  who  believed  in  the  ideal  of 
"a  Chrislian  country  "  should  be  opposed  to  it.  and 
that  these  should  be  joined  by  the  advocales  of  the 
autoeralic  form  of  government,  based  on  the  princi- 
|)le  of  classes,  which  is  a  diluleil  feudalism.  The 
represeiilalive  of  the  latter  parly  was  Hermann 
Wagener  ( 181.")~,si)).  who  in  his  ••sfaatslexieoii,"  and 
in  his  pamphlet,  "  Das  .Iinleiilum  unil  dcr  Staat  " 
(18,")7),  defended  ils  doctrine,  Krom  an  ecclesiastical 
jioilit  of  view,  the  liecessilv  of  keeping  the  .lews  on 
an  inferior  level  of  politieai  and  civil  rights  was  de- 
fended by  A.  Til.  ilarlmann.  jirofessor  at  IJoslock 
(1TT4-1W18).  in  various  pamphlets,  among  which  was 
"(iegeli  (ileiehbereehligung  der.luileii  "  (  ls:tl).  The 
liberal  Chrisliaiis  also  furnished  opponeiils  of  the 
cmancipiilion  of  the  .lews;  forcxamplc  .loh  Kr.  Hiihr 
(17TT-l.s-l.si.  head  of  the  Protestant  Cliurch  in  Sa\e 
Weimar,  who  was  one  of  the  foremost  rationalists 
of  his  age;  II.  K.  O.  Paulus  (IT(ll-Is.'il),  professor 
at  Heidelberg,  (he  most  outspoken  representative 
of  riilioimlism.  In  his  "MUdisihe  N'alionalabsonde 
rung  "  ( ls;i(l)  lie  advocated  the  denial  to  the  Jews  of 
all  political  riLrhls  until  lliey  would  give  up  their 
ritual  luaclises.  The  same  position  is  taken  by 
Karl  Slreckfiiss  MTTS-l.s-14).  a  poet  and  govern 
nieiit  olliciiil  in  Prussia,  in  his  pamphlets,  "  reber 
<las  Verhilltiiiss  der  Jndeii  in  ileii  ('hrisllicheii 
Sliuiten"  ^l!erlill,  184;)).  in  which  he  ,says  (p.  ll.l); 


"As  long  as  all  Jews  do  not  renounce  their  ceremo- 
nial law,  enianci])ation  can  not  become  an  accoin- 
lilishcil  fact."  Similarly,  Hruiio  Haucr  ( lS()!)_s-,>), 
one  of  the  most  radical  of  (Jernian  theologians;  "The 
only  logical  position  of  the  Jew  in  the  Christian 
state  is  that  of  a  sejiarate corporation  "  {"  Die  Juden- 
frage,"  1S43.  p.  .'j9).  Ew'U  the  modern  tendency  to 
label  as  Jewish  evervthins;  that  is  disliked  is  found 
in  the  works  of  Wolfgang  Menzel  (lTil.S-lsT3), 
an  intliiential  literary  critic,  who  calls  the  literary 
moveiiienl  known  as  "Young  (iermany"  by  the 
name  of  "Young  Palestine,"  and  in  Richard  Wair- 
iier's  ] lain ph let  "  Das  Judentimi  in  der  .Musik  "  ( isil!)). 

In  ISTO  a  complete  cliange  had  taken  place.  l,ib- 
ci-alism  had  become  |)rediiniiiiaiit  in  western  Europe. 
The  North  (Jermaii  Confederation  had  adopted  in 
ISO!)  the  liberal  principle  that  a  man's  creed  should 
not  in  any  way  alfect  his  civil  or  political  rights. 
What  is  called  Anti-Semitism  was  limited  to  those 
who  ii)ipiiseil  the  fiinilamental  principle  of  the  mod- 
ern state,  the  eiiuality  of  rights  regaidle.ss  of  creed 
and  nationality,  and- yet  even  the  "  Kreu/./.eitung  " 
of  Berlin,  the  organ  of  the  feudal  autocracy,  "  Junker- 
Partei,"  spoke  of  the  Alsatian  Jews  as  a  Jewish 
branch  of  the  German  nation  ("Allg.  Zeit.  d.  Juil." 
18T1,  p,  SO.}),  when  political  interest  made  the  friend- 
ship of  the  Jews  a  desirable  ob.jeet. 
Jesuit        The  most  persistent  advocatesof  papal 

Hostility    infalliliility,  the  Jesuits,  in  their  organ, 

Toward  "  Voce  della  Verita,"  said  at  the  time: 
Jews.  "If  a  recoiiciliation  between  the  pope 
anil  the  kingdom  of  Italy  should  ever 
take  place,  the  Jews  will  have  to  return  to  the 
(aietto  "  ("  Kiilnisehe  Zeitung,"  April  (i,  18T3).  The 
DucdeBniglie,  then  the  leaderoftlie  monarchical  and 
Clerical  party  in  the  French  Chamber,  luoclaimcd, 
as  the  chief  misfortune  of  France,  that  there  sliould 
lie  more  than  one  religion  ("  Allg.  Zeit.  d.  Jud."  ISTH. 
11.  lOT).  Bislio|)  von  Ketteler  of  Mayeiiee.  one  of  the 
i'oiiiiileis  of  the  "Ceutruni."  or  Catholic  party,  in  the 
Heichstag.  mocked  at  the  German  ".^Iiellel"  who 
allowed  Jews  to  teach  him  what  Teutonism  wa.s — u 
hit  at  I.udwig  Bamberger,  who  was  deputy  to  the 
German  Ueichstau'  from  Mayence  {ih.  lsT2.  ]).  'JO.')). 

The  most  peculiar  and  coiilradiclory  charires  were 
brought  a,i;aiiist  the  Jews  in  the  clerical  newspapers. 
The  "Volksliote"  of  Munich  said  that  the  Jews  were 
responsible  for  the  fraudulent  business  methods  of 
the  Daelmiier  Hank,  w  hicli  wasan  enterprise  founded 
and  patronized  by  the  Clerical  party.  TlieJewshad 
ruined  it  by  Iheir  control  over  the  law  courts.  The 
"I'liivei's"  of  Paris  and  the  "  Vaterland  "  of  Vienna 
(.\pril  (i.  lST:i)  claimed  that  the  "Old  Calholie 
Church"  was  the  work  of  the  Jews,  while  Hermann 
von  SiharlV  SiliarlTeiistein  in  his  "Das  ICntlarvie 
.liiilenlhum  der  Neiizeit  "  (ii.  (11.  Zurich.  1871) 
claimed  that  the  wickidiies.s  of  the  Jesuits  was  due 
to  the  large  number  of  Jews  in  the  oriler.  This 
policy  was  not  eoiitineil  to  the  Catholics.  When 
the  Prussian  Diet  passed  the  law  of  Fib.  8,  ISTO, 
which  placed  the  control  of  the  school  system  in  the 
hands  of  the  state,  von  SeiilTl  Pilsieh,  a  member  of 
the  Con.servalive  party,  said,  referiing  to  Easker, 
the  law  was  the  work  of  a  "little  Semitic  gentle 
man."  In  a  literary  conlroversy  on  the  subject  of 
socialism  .\ilolf  Wagner,  who  subsei|iiently  was  one 
of  the  leadei'sof  the  Christian  Socialists,  dwelt,  as  an 
argument  against  liisoppoiieiil  H.  It.  (Ippeiiheim,  on 
the  fai-t  that  the  latter  was  a  Jew.  The  leadiT  of 
the  Czechs  ill  .\ustria.  Fiiiiieis  Palacky  ( ITltS-lsTt!). 
a  I'roleslant.  said,  in  his  farewell  address  to  the  Czech 
nation,  that  the  Jews  were  Shylocks  The  soil  was 
ready  (o  receive  the  seed  of  AntiSi'iiiitism  which  frotu 
1878  became  a  distinct  political  program. 


Anti-Semitism 


TTTE  JEWISH  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


644 


It  was,  tlicri'fori'.  imt  (lirticult  fur  Prince  Bismarck, 
wlicii  in  1H78  lie  clmiij.'i-«l  liis  lilxnil  policy  anil  re- 
turned to  his  former  reaclionarv  iirin<iples,  to  wake 
an  echo  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  which  was  soon  an- 
swered in  Ihmirary.  Austria,  and  Fninci'.  In  order  to 
comprehend  this  fully,  we  must  understand  the  polit- 
ical condition  of  (lermany,  where  Anti-Semitism  origi- 
nated ("  L'Antisemitisme  moderne — c'est  line  impor- 
tation allemande."  says  A.  Leroy-Beaulieu,  in  "  Isniel 
cliez  les  Nations."  p.  25.  Paris.  lnt)7).  IJismarck  had  al- 
ways been  an  advocate  of  autocracy  and 
Attitude  of  an  opponent  of  a  parliamentary  form 
Bismarck,  of  irovernment.  AVIien  he  adfipted  the 
latter,  it  was  partly  lieca\iseof  the  e.\- 
ijreucies  of  the  times,  and  partly  liccause  the  Liberals 
stood  fora  united  Germany,  while  the  Conservatives 
opposed  it  as  an  encroachment  ujion  the  sacred  ri.irhts 
of  the  lejritimate  princes,  and  the  Ultramontane  ])arty 
dreaded  it  on  account  of  the  hegemony  of  Protestant 
Prussia.  From  IstiT  Bismarck  allied  himself  with 
thcLiberal.s — to  which  party  most  of  theCJerman.Iews 
belonged — and  tlius  obtained  the  ric|uired  jiarlia- 
mcntary  support  in  founding  the  (iciiiian  empire. 
When  the  empire  had  beeu  tirnily  established,  the 
danger  of  a  rest  unit  ion  of  the  monarchy  in  France 
and  of  a  war  of  revenge  had  passed  entirely  away. 
When  President  MacMahon  had  resigned  (IMTit),  and 
the  Liberals  had  done  their  |)arl  in  assisting  Bis- 
marck in  his  war  against  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
"iron  chancellor"  grew  tired  of  his  allies.  Acci- 
dental events  had  aided  him  in  produ<ing  the  impres- 
sion that  his  change  of  |)olicy  was  necessjuy.  On 
May  11,  1S7.S,  Ho<lcl,  a  vagabond,  made  an  attempt 
upon  the  life  of  Emperor  William.  As  Ilddel  had 
some  leanings  toward  the  Socialist  party,  the  gov- 
ernment introduced  a  bill  in  the  Heichstag  against 
Socialistic  agitations.  This  bill  was  rejected;  but 
shortly  afterward  (.Tune  'i.  ISTS)  sympathy  with 
the  "  glory -crowned  "  monarch,  who  was  then  in 
his  eighty-second  year,  and  the  great  jirestige  which 
the  government  gained  through  the  Congress,. 
held  in  Berlin,  wliicli  followed  the  war  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  st  rengthened  the  case  of  I  he  gov- 
ernment, which  dissolved  the  Keichstag,  The  ni-w 
elections  (.Tuly  8(p.  1878)  brought  an  increase  of 
Conservative  mend)ers.  This  may  be  considered  the 
birlliday  of  Anti-Semitism.  The  word 
The  Grermanhad  not  yet  been  uttered  ;  b>it  a  "  Xeiier 
Elections  Wahlverein  "  (New  Electoral  Society), 
of  July  30,  which  had  been  formed  in  Breslau, 
1878.  drew  up  a  platform  which  jiroclainied 
the  necessity  for  a  revision  of  the  Lib- 
eral legislation  of  previous  years.  Two  years  before 
this,  the  "Deutsch-Konscrvative  Partei "  had  been 
formed,  which  proclaimed  the  neces.si(y  for  the 
Christianization  of  school  and  state.  This  party  was 
a  reactionary  one  of  moderate  tendencies.  In  1878 
an  attempt  was  made  to  win  over  the  masses  of  the 
people  to  the  conservative  ])rograin  by  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Christian-Socialist  Party  (Christlich-So- 
ciale  Partei).  which  adopted  some  parts  of  the  So- 
cialistic jirogram,  in  combination  with  conservative 
principles.  The  real  founder  of  this  party  was  the 
court  chaplain  Adoi.f  SrikiiEi!.  The  object  of  this 
organization  was  to  luovide  a  vent  for  the  political 
dissatisfaction  of  the  people. 
Officially,  Anti-Semitism  did  not  show  itself  at  first 
in  its  true  colors.  It  wsxs,  however,  the 
Anti-  moving  force  of  the  Christian-Social- 
Semitism  ist  partv.  at  the  head  of  which  was  the 
1878-1900.  court  chaplain  Adolf  Stocker.  Bis- 
marck had  wearied  of  the  Liberals, 
upon  whose  support  he  could  not  rely  for  his  new  pol- 
icy, which  demanded  sjiecial  laws  against  the  Social- 


ists, a  protective  tariff,  measures  against  the  abu.se  of 
commercial  freedom,  and  increasing  deman<ls  for  the 
army.  The  Christian-Socialists  S(Kin  received  enthu- 
siastic support  from  many  cpiarters,  cspeiially  from 
teachers  and  journalists,  Oneof  the  most  important 
acipiisitions  to  thiir  cause  was  Ileinricli  von  Treit- 
schke  ( Ixil-t-'JO;  jirofessor  of  history  in  tin'  I'niver- 
sity  of  Berlin,  a  mend)cr  of  the  National  Liberals), 
from  whose  remarks  two  bitter  phrases  gained  wide 
currency,  lie  spoke  of  "  IIoseMiverkaufende  Pol- 
nisclie  .Ilinglinge  "  (Polish  youngstei-s  who  s<-ll  trou- 
sers), and  SJiid:  "In  the  circles  of  educated  Germans, 
who  would  jirotest  indignantly  against  the  charge 
of  religious  or  national  intolenuice.  oni-  single  cry 
is  heard,  "The  .lews  are  oiu'  misfortune'  \/Jir  Jn- 
ilfii  Kind  iiiiser  L'lii/liir/,]''  (see  "  Preussische  .lahr- 
bncher."  Nov.  atid'Hec.  1879.  and  .Ian..  188(1;  re- 
printed as  a  pamiihlel  imder  the  title,  "  Ein  Wort 
iiber  Unser  .ludentum,"  Berlin.  1880).  The  impor- 
tance of  thise  articles  is  demonstrated  by  the  fact 
that  the  minister  of  public  woi-ship.  von  Puttkamer, 
a  iirominent  niend)erof  the  Keactionary  party,  whom 
Bismarck  had  appointed  in  the  place  of  the  Liberal 
Falk.  referred  to  it.  in  a  debate  in  the  Prussian  Diet, 
Feb.  13,  1880,  as  a  proof  of  the  necessity  of  Jire- 
.serving  the  <lenominationuI  character  of  the  public 
schools.  The  excitement  continued  and  nnclnd 
such  a  pitch  that  in  Berlin  .lews  were  assaulted  in 
]iublic  |daces.  On  one  such  occasion  a  .lew  named 
ICantorowicz  was  insulteil  in  a  streetcar  by  two 
high  school  profes.sors  and  slapixd  one  of  his  assjiil- 
ants  in  the  face;  tiiis  brought  about  a  debate  in 
the  Diet  which  lasted  two  days  (Nov.  20-','3.  1H80). 
Hiincl.  a  member  of  the  Liberal  ]iarty.  had  inter- 
pellated the  government  as  to  tjie  jiosition  it  intended 
to  take  with  regard  to  the  anti-Semitic  movement, 
which  had  assumed  tangible  shape  in  a  petition  to 
the  government  to  restrict  the  civil  and  )iolitical 
rights  of  the  .lews.  Minister  Count  von  ."^lolberg 
replied  that,  while  the  government  had  not  yet  re- 
ceived the  petition,  he  was  ready  to  dechire  that 
it  lia<l  no  intention  of  altering  the  existing  laws. 
Professor  Virchow  replied,  however,  that  tiie  anti- 
Semitic  movement,  started  by  the  Clericals  ami  the 
Feudalists,  had  received  encouragement  and  ma- 
teria! aid  from  the  secret  funds  of  the  govern- 
ment, which  desired  to  see  some  .lewish  (leputies 
defeated. 

Public  meetings,  at  which  Stiicker  and  his  adju- 
tants. Fiirster  and  Ilenrici.  harangued  the  audience, 
denouncing  the  .lews  as  a  danger  to  the  (Jermau 
nation,  were  of  daily  occurrence.  In  all  numicipal 
elections  Anti-Semitism  was  made  an  issue.   Women's 

.•issociat ions  were  formed  with  the  ob- 

Anti-Semi-  ject   of    boycotlin;:   all    .lewish    ini'r- 

tism  an      chants.     A  strongagitation  was  set  on 

Issue  in       foot  to  enlist  the  interest   of  the  stu- 

Elections.     dents.    The  petition  to  disfranchise  the 

.lews  obtained  1.400  signatures  aiufing 
the  students  of  Berlin,  and  \.0'2'i  among  those  of 
Leipsic.  In  spite  of  the  strict  rule  enforced  by  the 
Prussian  polic<',  serious  riots  occurred  at  Netistet- 
tin.  .hdy  17.  18.  1881.  Xot  long  afterward  the  syn- 
agogue of  that  ]ilace  was  burned  down,  and  the 
.lews  being  charged  with  having  set  fire  to  the  liuild- 
ing,  some  of  them  were  arrested  as  incendiaries  on 
charges  preferred  by  the  anti-Semites;  though  de- 
clared innocent,  they  were  attacked  by  a  mob.  and 
only  the  timely  interference  of  the  polic<'  saved  them 
from  being  kiile<l  (March  7.  1884).  The  language  of 
mobs  was  heard  in  the  parliaments.  A  priest  named 
Frank,  a  deputy  to  the  Bavarian  Diet,  said  (.Tan.  30, 
1880)  in  an  address:  "If  you  wish  to  assist  the  .starv- 
ing i)o]Mil;ition  in  the  Si)essart.  make  one  brief  law: 


645 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anti-Semitism 


'Every  "  Iliuuielsjiuk- "  [.Iiwisli  pc'cller]  is  to  In- shut 
or  liiiiiitcd.'  " 

At  I  lie  same  time  the  uriiiiiii/.edaiiti  Semites  lost  no 
opporl unity  to  lirinir  ulujiit  priielieal  results  llirougli 
their  airilatioii.  Tlieir  eliiel'aiiu  was  to  exeluile.lews 
from  pulilie  ollice;  ami  this  idea  was  emphasized  l>y 
the  refusal  of  I'aslor  llapke.  in  lierlin.  to  take  oatii 
before  a  Jewish  jiidjre  (Jan.  S.  iss:!),  whieli  Stdeker 
culled  the  juslilied  outeiy  of  an  outraired  couseienee 
("herechtiKtci'  Ausdruck  der  (Jewisseiisiiolh  ").  The 
Conservative  party,  whose  s|)()kesman.  von  Uaiieh- 
haupt,  (h'clart'd,  "^Vehave  taken  upon  ourselves  the 
whole  odium  of  tlie  anti-Semitic  movement,"  iiUro- 
dueed  a  liill  in  the  Keichstaf;  providing;  that  Chris- 
tians shoulil  liav<-  the  rii;hl  lo  ask  for  a  Christian 
juilire  when  takinj,'  an  oath.  Although  the  jjovern- 
liient  did  not  aceede  to  these  di-niands,  it  jrave  them 
inilireet  eiicouraireineiit.  liismarek  answered  very 
courteously  telejrninis  sent  to  him  by  anii  Semitic 
meet  in  ITS.  The  adiniinstration  of  the  minister  of  |)ub 
lie  worship,  von  Pultkamer.  as  far  as  was  com- 
jiatible  with  existini;  lejrislation.  complied  with  the 
demands  of  the  Conservatives;  and  the  bill  intro- 
<luced  into  the  I'russian  Dlil  by  the  minister  of 
])ublic  worship,  von  Zedlitz.  is!)',',  even  jiropo.sed  to 
divide  the  school  children  aecordiiiir  to  their  reliirion. 
The  bill  was.  however,  defeated  by  the  strijiig  opjio- 
sition  of  the  best  elements  of  the  country. 

The  demand  of  the  anti-Seiiiitic  i)etiti()ners  to  pro- 
liiliit  ail  Jewish  immigration  from  liussia  was  not 
directly  fjrmnled.  but   the  };overnment   recoirnized  it 
so  far  as  to  e.\<'rcise  a  strict  supei'vision  of  the  Rus- 
sian refujrees  who  arrived  in  (ieiinany  in  larirc  mini- 
bers.     A  law  of  1S4T  was  unearthed,  which,  as  the 
government  acknowled;;ed.  had  become  superseded 
by  subseinieut  h'jiislation.     Still,  from  it  the  govern- 
ment dediu-eil   the  right   to  e.xpel  all 
Exclusion     foreigners  employed  by  a  Jewish  com- 
of  Jewish     muinty    (Oct..   1SS4).      .Similarly,  an 
Immi-        eillct  (.May.  IHS."))  to  exp<'l  all  for<'ign 

grants.  Poles  from  the  eastern  provinces  of 
(Jerniany  seems  to  have  been  aimed  at 
the  Russian  Jews  who  were  residents  of  (Jermany, 
many  of  whom  ha<l  been  living  there  for  years. 
Hisniarek's  refusal  to  transmit  to  the  Reichstag  the 
expressions  of  svmpathy  i>assed  by  the  llouseof  Rep- 
resentatives at  NVashinglon.  upon  the  death  of  Kdu- 
ard  Lasker  (Jan.  5.  1SS4),  was  interpreled  as  an  anti- 
Semitic  demonstration.  Various  attempts  were  made 
to  take  from  the  Jews,  in  an  undi'rhand  way,  the 
rights  which  the  constitution  hail  given  tlii'in.  Fiscal 
legislation,  sinli  asan  ini'ieased  tax  on  stock-jobbing, 
was  often  prompted  by  anti-Semitic  motives.  The 
regularly  repc'aled  motions  of  anti  .Seiniti<-  |)arties  ill 
the  Reichstag  anil  in  thr  Diets  of  the  various  states, 
to  investigate  the  text  books  of  the  Jewish  religion, 
to  have  thiTalmud  or  the  Shulhan  '.\ruk  translatiil 
at  the  expense  of  the  government,  and  to  prnhibil, 
onlhegrianidof  crui'lty,the  killingof  animals  accord- 
ing lo  the  Jewish  rite,  were  received  liy  the  govern- 
ments with  little  complacincv  in  tlii>  I'russian  House 
of  Lords (  March  2'.'.  ISi);i).  in  Ihi'  Diet  of  lJiiden(Feb,, 
IMiUi.  andiiilheRiiclistiig(Aprili."i.lHlHt).  As  long  as 
Bismarck  was  in  power  .Xnii-Si'mitism  was  checked; 
for  though  an  anti  Semite  by  birth,  as  he  himself  con 
fes>eil.  he  iicvir  perinilled  the  lurbulenl  eli'inenls  lo 
gain  the  upper  hanil.  Li  fad,  after  his  retirement 
he  said  thai  llii' Consirvalives,  in  their  altiinpl  lo 
light  Socialism  with  anii  Semitism.  "  had  got  hold  of 
the  wrong  insect  powiler"  ("Allg.  Zeit.  d.  Jud," 
Nov.  II..  IHiCJ).  The  aicessioii  of  Emperor  William 
11.  lo  the  throne  (J  line  15,  ISSHjsoon  gave  encourage 
ment  to  the  anti  Semi  I  es  and  I  hi'ir  allies.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  induce  the  emperor  to  refuse  his  co.i- 


lirmatiou  of  the  election  of  Prof.  Julius  B<.'rnsteiii 
as   rector   magnitjeus  of   the   Uuivei'sily  of   Halle. 
Bismarck  evidently  advi.sed  the  emperor  to  decline 
so   to  act.     It  was  also  Bismarck's  inlluence  that 
brought  about  Striker's  retirement  as  court  chaplain. 
Bismarck's  retirement  (March  '.20.  18'J0)gavea  new- 
impetus  to  the  anti-Semitic  agitation  in  Germany. 
Ahlwardt   apjieared   upon   the  scene;    and  his  pam- 
phlets— es])ecially  the  " Jiidenliinten."  in  which  he 
claimed  that  the  firm  Ludwig  Liiwe 
Bismarck's   it  Co.  had  been  hired  by  the  Alliance 
Retire-        Israelite  I'niverselli;  to  furnish  inelli- 

ment  En-     cient  guns  to  the  German  army  in  or- 

courages     der  that  Germany  might  be  defeated 
Anti-         in  the  war  of  revenge — created  a  great 

Semites.  stir.  The  government  took  a  tirm  po- 
sition against  Ahlwardt.  but  in  oilier 
cases  displayed  more  weakness.  AVhen  the  Ober- 
landesgerichtsprilsident  of  Breslau.  a  high  ollicial  iu 
the  department  of  justice,  issued  a  circular  (1S91) 
advising  the  judges  not  to  put  Jews  on  a  jury,  and 
the  Liberals  made  this  fact  the  liasis  of  an  hitnrpella- 
tion  in  the  Reichstag,  the  government  defended  the 
proeei-ding.  The  "  ICreuzzeitung,"  the  organ  of  the 
Feudalist  party.  Siiid  (Oct.  1.  ISil'Jl  that  tjie  charges 
brought  against  the  Talmud  in  the  anti  Semitic  lit- 
erature ought  to  suggest  to  the  government  the 
necessity  of  examining  the  text  books  of  the  Jewish 
religion  (Strack.  "Die  Judeii:  Di'irfen  sie  Verbrecher 
von  Religionswegen  genannt  werden'/"  Berlin,  1H!I3). 
The  matter  was  brought  up  in  the  Prussian  Diet 
(Feb,  i;i  189:5),  anil  Minister  Bosse  replied  to  the 
ell'ect  that  he  had  already  ordered  the  revision  of 
these  books,  but  could  say  no  more  for  the  present, 
the  reports  not  having  been  handed  to  him. 

The  Bi.o(U)  Accis.vTiox  made  its  ai'pearancc  in 
connection  with  the  murder  of  a  child  in  Xanteu, 
June  '2it.  isyi.  The  government  did  all  in  its  power 
lo  suiipress  the  rumor  that  the  local  sliohit  (Jew- 
ish butcher)  had  eommitted  the  murder;  and  the  ac- 
cused was  acquitted.  But  other  events  showed  that 
the  governinenl  displayed  much  forbeanince  in  cases 
of  anti  Semitic  otienses.  Referring  to  a  trial  of  a 
societv  of  irambleis.  in  which  some  Jew  s  were  impli- 
cated," the"  Tilgliche  Rundschau"  (March  3,  L'^US) 
said:  "This  state  of  afTaire  shows  that  all  Jewry 
should  either  be  forced  back  to  the  conditions  of  the 
eighteenth  century  or  be  expelled  from  the  coun- 
try." Some  Jews  brought  a  libel  suit  against  the 
jiaper,  as  the  law.  in  sucli  cases,  gives  every  member 
of  a  libeled  community  the  right  to  prosecute.  Tho 
court,  however,  decidl-d  (Oct.  V).  I8i);i)  that  the  ar- 
ticle did  not  attack  all  Jews,  but  only  those  who  had 
been  guilty  of  the  actions  which  the  writer  chanicter- 
ized  as  revolting. 

Among  other  instances  of  nn  nnti-Semitic  tendency 
may  be  mentioned  the  avowed  practise  of  the  Hes- 
sian mini-terof  justice.  Dittmar.  toappoint  no  Jews 
as  judges— the  "  Fninkfurter  Zeitung  "  (Oct..  lS!t9) 
had  made  this  the  subject  of  an  article,  accusing 
the  minister  of  a  violation  of  the  conslitiilion:  ii 
decision  of  the  Bivarian  minister  of  the  interior  that 
Jews  could  not  hold  any  position  in  schools  fiv- 
i|Uenleil  by  Christian  children  ("  Mittheilungeii  au3 
deiii  Verein  ziir  Abwelir  des  Aniiscmitismus."  IS'.til, 
p.  '\'u):  and  a  decision  of  the  court  in  (ilogaii,  May 
I'-,  istm.  dismissing  the  ca.s<>  airaiiisl  Count  I'Uckler- 
.Musk.'iu.  w  ho  had  said  in  a  public  address  that  it  was 
lime  to  ilrive  the  "  Judenlvinde"  (Jew-giiiig)  out  of 
the  country. 

In  (iermany  a  sa)cielv  for  the  proleetion  of  tlio 
rights  of  the  Jews.  "Veri'iii  zur  Abwehr  des  An- 
lisemilisnius."  formed  in  ISltl  by  some  of  the 
most   prominent   German    authors,    scientists,    aud 


Anti-Semitism 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


646 


statesmen,  has  so  far  had  more  iiionil  than  pnu-tical 
rL'sults. 

Whi'ii.  ill  the  Iliinirariiin  Parliainrnt,  Vi<'t(>r  i\v 
Istde/.i.  a  (li'i>iHy  iiiikiinwii  up  to  lh:il   tiiiir.  iiiailc 

a  liiiilii'ii  (.hily  I".'.  ISTS)  that  tlic  jri'V- 
Hungary.     i  rniiicnt  shoulil  force  Turkey  to  j;iv<^ 

up  I'alesliiie  ami  should  deport  tliere 
all  the  Jews  of  Hungary,  it  was  coiisi<lered  a  joUe. 
Even  as  late  as  Nov.  27.  IHHO.  the  Hun-rariaii 
niiiiisler  Trefort  eouhl  declare  in  Parliament:  "Our 
eountry  shall  never  witness  a  spectacle  similar  tn 
that  prcs<'nted  in  (Jermany."  Events  soon  i>rovcd 
that  his  (iptiniisin  was  not  justilied.  Anti-Scniilisni 
was  favored  liolh  l)y  the  t^lavonie  Tuitionalities. 
which  were  oppressed  hy  the  government,  and  hy 
the  Clerical  i)arty.  which  sjiw  the  time  approach- 
ing when  the  government  would  have  to  alirogate 
the  canonical  law,  which  was  still  recognized  in  the 
marriage  legislation.  Seventeen  mendiers  of  the 
House  of  Deputies  made.  Feb.  IS,  1SS2,  a  motion  to 
repeal  the  act  wliieh  had  emancipated  tlie  Jews.  The 
disnppear;ince  of  Kstlier  iSolymosi  in  Tis7.,\-I''szi..U!. 
April  1.  1SS',J.  aroused  such  an  excitement  that  the 
Jewish  deputy  Morris  \\'ahrnuinn  and  Istoc/i  came 
to  blows  in  Parliament  (June  o.  ISSi).  In  many  places 

riots   occurred;    Jews   were    mobbed. 

The  Esther  and  in  some  instances  were  killed  or 

Solyraosi      seriously    wounded.     Such    riots    oc- 

Case.         euircd  in  Presburg,  Sept.  iS,  ls.s-,2;  in 

Budapest,  Oedenlnu-g,  and  other  jdaces 
,  (Aug.  S,  \x>i:\).  aftcM-  the  ilischarge  of  the  Jews  ac- 
cused of  the  murder  of  Esther  Solymosi:  the  most 
serious  of  all,  in  Zala  Egcrszeg,  on  Aug.  23.  1N8:S.  A 
petition  to  the  Parliament,  asking  that  the  act  for 
the  emancipation  of  the  Jews  be  repealed,  received 
only  a  few  votes;  even  the  independents  who  were 
in  opposition  to  the  iroveriunent  voted  against  it 
(Jan.  20,   is,s;!i. 

Not  long  afterward  (Oct..  issij)  an  anti-Semitic 
party  was  organized  in  Parliament.  It  consisted 
of  four  members.  Onody.  Szell.  Istdczi.  and  Simonyi. 
Its  platform  demanded  the  restriction  of  economic 
liberty,  withdrawal  of  the  right  to  sign  jiromissory 
notes,  and  exclusion  of  the  Jews  from  the  lii|in>r 
trade.  The  elections  of  1884  increased  the  nundier 
of  anti-Semites  to  IT.  but  the  goveriunent,  in  the 
address  from  the  throne  at  the  opening  of  the  ses- 
sion. Sept.  !l.  1JSS4.  declared  itself  strongly  against 
the  anti-Semites.  The  minister-president,  Tisza, 
lost  no  opportimity  to  detine  his  position  iluring  the 
debate  on  the  address.  The  year  1HS4  marked  the 
height  of  the  anti-Sendtic  movement;  and  with  the 
new  ecclesiastic  legishilion  of  1S!M,  which  abrogated 
the  |irivileged  position  of  the  Koman  Catholic  Church 
and  recognized  the  Hebrew  failh.  Anti-Sendtism  in 
Hungary  received  a  crushing  blow. 

The  defeat  of  Austria  in  istili  and  its  financial  con- 
dition, which  tiordered  on  liankrujitcy,  had  bro\ight 
the  (Jermau-Liberal  element  to  the  front.  The  con- 
sequence of  this  change  of  policy  was  the  promul- 
gation of  the  Constitution  (Staatsgrundgesetzc)  of 
iS()7,  which  declared  the  princijile  of  religious  lil)- 
erty.  What  might  be  called  Anti  Senntism  came  from 
the  ranks  of  those  who  were  o]i])osed  to  the  i>rinci|de 
of  religious  libertv  and  iiolitical  ei|uality.  or  CDuld 
be  heard  among  those  who.  while  liberal  in  principle, 
drew  the  line  of  distinction  in  the  social  life.  Thus 
Anton  von  Schmerling,  a  fornier  minister-president 
in  the  Austrian  House  of  Lords  ( 18H(|).  urged  the  ne- 
cessity of  instruction  in  (Jerman  in  schools  in  order 
to  overcome  the  advantageous  position  of  the  Jew- 
ish soldiers  in  the  regiments  of  Galicia.  who.  owing 
to  their  knowledge  of  tlic  German  langviage,  had 
better  chances  of  promotion  to  tlie  position  of  non- 


commissioni'd  ollicers;  lie  aihU'd,  "  Pei-sonally.  I  am 
not  in  .sympathy  with  the. lews,"  Thesirious  tinan- 
eial  crisis  of  1S7:!,  which  struck  Austria 
Austria,  severely,  proiluciil  there  as  in  (ormany 
ill  filling  au'anist  ihi'  stock  exchange 
and  eonse(|ni'nlly  against  l.iiiendism  in  general,  and 
against  the  J<ws  in  particular.  This  ill  leeling  be- 
came a  political  factor  when,  with  the  formation 
of  the  TaalTc  ministry  (1H7!I),  the  Czechs,  who  had 
hitherto  refused  to  acknowledge  the  constitution  of 
lM(i7,  sent  their  deleLrales  to  the  lieiclismth.  As  the 
Uerinan  Liberal  element  (  Verl'a.ssungs]iartei) opposed 
the  ministry,  the  latter  formed  a  majority  out  of  the 
Slavicelement.  condiined  with  the  Oerman  Clericals. 
Without  beingantiSi'mitic  the  nnnistry  tried  to  win 
the  favor  of  the  majority  by  some  concessions  to 
the  Keactionary  progriun.  This  was  the  tenilency  of 
the  , school  law,  ]iasscd  in  lss;i.  which  re(|nired  that 
the  prineiiial  of  every  public  school  shonlil  belong 
to  the  same  chnreh  to  which  the  majority  of  the 
school-children  belonged.  This  l;iw  ilebarri'd  the 
Jews  from  all  teaching  positi<ins  in  eountry  districts, 
and  served  to  deter  Jewish  students  from  entcrinjf 
the  normal  schools.  The  law  Tuade  an  exception  in 
favor  of  Galicia.  where,  in  the  cities,  the  Jews  were 
oft<'n  in  the  majority.  Ucstrictions  upon  peddling 
and  upon  theelothing  tnide  wei'e  further  concessions 
to  the  political  parties  demanding  a  revisiiai  of  the 
constitution  in  a  reactionary  sense. 

The  first  one.  however,  to  make  Anti  Scmilism  a 
political    program    was    Georg   von    Schimerer.   an 
amliitious   politician   and   miliionaire, 
Georg'       who  had   iidierited   his   wealth    from 
von  his  father,  a  railroad  contractor  in  the 

Schonerer.  employ  of  the  Hothschilds,  He  re- 
nouiu-ed  the  anti  (Jerman  policy  of 
Count  TaalTe,  and,  together  with  two  other  mend)ers 
of  the  Heiclisratb,  ScliiiHelanil  Kiirnkranz,  formed  the 
nucleus  of  an  anti  Seudlie  party.  In  the  Diet  of 
Lower  Austria  heilemande<l  (Oct, :!,  lSS2)a  legal  solu- 
tion of  the  Jewish  i|Uestion.  threatening  that  other- 
wise the  people  woulil  take  the  law  in  their  own 
hands.  Previously  (May  11.  1SS2)  he  had  brmight 
intothi'  H<'ichsratli  a  petition  against  theiimnigration 
of  Hussian  Jews,  and  had  found  the  support  of  2^ 
members.  He  obtained  still  more  ardent  support 
among  the  students  of  the  university  of  X'ieniia  ;  and 
the  largest  of  the  stuileiits'  societies,  the  Deutsche 
Lesehalle,  was  responsible  for  turbulent  meetings 
at,  which  the  Jews  were  ins\dted.  The  larger  and 
more  respectabh'  element  of  the  population  ilid  not 
participate  in  this  movement;  nor  did  the  govern- 
ment as  yet  tolerate  its  excesses.  ^leetings.  at  which 
violent  speeches  were  delivered,  were  jiromiilly  dis- 
solved by  the  i>olice:  and  intlanunatory  jiamphlets 
were  sujipressed.  The  most  pronunent  citizens  in 
Vieima  and  of  other  large  cities,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  Berlin  and  Paris,  formed  committees  for 
the  purpose  of  assisting  the  Jewish  refugees  fnnn 
Russia,  The  affair  of  Tisza  Eszhir  also  exercised 
its  inHuence  upon  the  conditions  in  Austria.  Hoh- 
ling.  who  in  1S71  as  professor  in  the  Catholic  Acad- 
emy of  Minister  had  ]i\dilishcd  his  notorious  pam- 
phlet. '■  Der  Talmudjudc."  hail  in  the  meantime  been 
called  to  Prague,  where  he  continued  his  agitation, 
adding  to  his  former  charges  against  rabbinical  lit- 
erature the  odious  one  that  the  Talmud  makes  it 
the  duty  of  the  Jews  to  use  the  blood  of  Christians 
in  certain  religious  rites  (Holding.  "DiePolemik  und 
das  ilenschenopfer  des  Babbinismns,"  Paderborn, 
IHK:!;  ".Meine  Antworti'n  an  die  Habbinen  oiler  Fi'mf 
Briefe  iiberden  Talmuilismus  und  das  Blutritnal  der 
Juden,"  Prague,  188;i),  This  agitation  was  taken 
up   ia   the    Reiclisrath,  where   the   Polish    deputy 


647 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anti-Semitism 


^Iiriinovk-/  iiiado  a  motion,  January,  1883,  to  liavc 
Ilic  'l";ilrini(l  Iraiislutcil  uikUt  the  supervision  of  the 
governiMcnI. 

Tlie  elections  to  the  Heiehsiatli  of  1884  broujjhl 
several  anti-Seinitie  candiilati-s  into  the  ]iolitieal 
arena.  Even  in  Vienna,  liitlierto  a  strongliold  of 
IJheralism,  one  eandidate.  Fattai,  presented  himself 
to  the  electors  on  the  hasis  of  an  anti-Semilie  plat- 
form, but  he  was  defeated..  The  inunicijiid  eoun- 
eil  demonstrated  its  liberalism  throu^di  a  conjfralu- 
latory  message  sent  lo  Sir  .\bises  .Nbpiiletiore  upon 
liis  liimdredth  birthday  (Oct.  ~'4.  ISS-l).  lint  Anil- 
Semilisrn  made  conslani  proijress;  and  in  18U1  th(' 
elect i< ins  to  the  Ueichsratli  brou^rht  thirteen  anti-Sem- 
itic members,  who  were  divided  into  three  f;rou]is, 
the  Ultra-Xalionals,  with  Schi'merer  at 

Iiiechten-    I  heir  head,  who  were  in  favor  of  an- 
stein        ne.\ation  of  the  (ierman  jiart  of  Austria 
and  lo(!ermany;  the  Loyal  Auslrians,  led 

Lueger.  by  I'allai;  and  the  Cliricals,  under 
I'lince  l.icchlenstein  and  .Schneider. 
Similarly,  the  provincial  Diets,  espe<-ially  that  of 
Lower  Austria,  showi'd  an  incrtased  number  of  anti- 
Semitic  mendiers.  The  debates  in  these  bodies,  the 
speeches  in  iiublic  meetinirs,  the  pamphlets  and  news- 
papers indul^'cil  in  laui^uaire  which  brealhed  a  vio- 
lence perhaps  oidy  e(|Uale(i  in  Ihe  literature  of  the 
Jacobins  during  the  Frencli  Kevolulion.  .Schneider, 
ill  the  Dicl  of  Lower  Austria,  said  that  the  govern - 
mciit  shiiuld  olTci  a  premium  for  the  sliootiiii;  of  Jews 
similar  lo  that  olTered  for  shoolin.!;  wolves.  Lueircr, 
who  was  Ihe  leader  of  the  Clerical  anIi-Semites,  ad- 
monished the  various  fact  ions  of  his  followers  to  amal- 
ftamale,  sayinj;  that  it  was  not  worth  while  to  (luarrel 
over  such  minoriletailsas  lo  whether  the  Jews  should 
be  hanired  I ir  beheaded,  (ircuori^'  said  in  Ihe  Dicl  of 
liowcr  Austria,  "These  are  nol  human  beings;  llicy 
are  Jews,"  and  I'jiward  Suess.  Ihe  famous  i;-eoloL'isl. 
and  Liberal  leader  ill  the  jjcichsnith.  was  prompled 
to  the  remark,  April,  1.'^!I4:  "What  has  been  spoki'ii, 
written,  and  done  airainsi  the  Jewish  peojilc  during 
Ihe  last  few  years  has  been  in  llairrant  violation  not 
only  of  our  Conslitiitinn.  but  of  the  principles  of  hu- 
man jusliceand  Christianity." 

The  worst  pari  of  Ihe  drama,  which  has  not  yet 
come  III  an  end.  bciian  u  hen  Ihe  anti-Semites  in  18!l."i 
suiceedcd  ill  eleclinif  a  majorily  lo 
The  Polna  the  munici]ial  council  of  Vienna,  and 
AfiFair.  when  Lue;rer,  after  the  ;.'overnment 
had  twice  refused  lo  eonlirm  him,  was 
made  biirL'omasler  in  IM'.lT.  The  eleclions  to  Ihe 
Hi'ichsmlh  of  lis'.lT.  which  were  held  on  Ihe  basis  of 
a  new  law  eiilari;ini;  Ihe  franchise,  briniirht  losses 
lo  Ihe  Liberals  and  iraiiis  lo  Ihe  ami  Semilis  of  the 
diU'ereiil  shades,  notably  to  the  Chrisllan  Socialists. 
The  weakness  <d'  the  f;overnmenl.  manifesled  in  the 
fre<|Ui'nt  elmn);es  of  ministries,  en<oura(.'e(l  Ihe  liir 
buleiil  elemenl.  and  riots  ajfainst  the  Jews  occurred, 
amon^which  those  at  I'niirue,  Dc'ciniber,  IHitT:  .\a- 
chiKLApril,  |M!I!I.  andlldlleschaii.tlilobcr,  l.'<!l!t,  wire 
very  serious  ones,  resiillintr  in  bloodshed.  The  iniir 
der  of  .\s;nes  llru/a  in  I'nlnii.  Itoheluia.  March  ■,'!(, 
IHjIil,  <aiisi'il  ;;real  e\eilemenl.  Tin-  clmrL'enf  ritual 
murder  was  revived  ;  anil  a  .lew  named  Ilhlsner  was 
indicted  and  fniind  u'uilly  by  a  jury.  IlUlsner  was 
retried  and  a;.'ain  found  K"i".V  Nov.  14,  U'lHI  (see 
I'oi.N.v  .\kk.viii). 

In  the  meantime  Anti  Semilisni  wiisasseiiiiiL'  itself 
with  Kri'at  vehemence  in  Fninee  Public  seiilimenl 
with  regard  lo  ihe  .lews  had  indeed  under;,'one  a 
j;real  ehanire  sini  e  Ihe  dealli  of  CremieUX.  When  he 
iljed,  Ihe  Kiencli  Chaiuberof  Depulies.  by  :t44  voles 
lo  111.  passed  a  lesdluliun  (Feb.  'J.  IH.'SOi  ti<  have  him 
liiirled  111  Ihe  public  expense.      In  a  U'cliire  "(>n  Ihe 


Jews  as  a  Race  and  as  a  Ui  liiiion,"  delivered  .Tan.  27, 
]n>*'4.  by  Frnesi  Heiiaii,  who  had  been  instrumental 
in  popidari/iuir  the  ethnical  theory  of  Semitism,  he 
said:  "  Let  us  be  ylad  thai  these  Iheories,  so  interest- 
ing' for  Ihe  historian  and  Ihe  ethnojrrapher,  have  no 
|)faelical  meaniiii;  in  Fiance."  In  the  sjiine  year  the 
essayist  Victor  Cherbulie/.  in  speaking  of  the  ciai- 
diliiins  in  (Jerniany  sjud  :  "We  experience  some  dilli- 
culty  ill  France  in  reali/ini:  thai  there  is  a  Jewish 
ipieslioii  in  (ieriuany  ;  that  lhisi|iieslion  sliouhl  excite 
the  soiiiidesl  minds,  and  should  furnish  material  for 
virulent  polemics.    Thank  heaven,  I  here  are  plenty  of 

thinirs  .sellled  forever  in  France,  as  to 
France,      w  hieli  one  would  Iry  in  vain  to  reopen 

diseiission"(G.  Valbert.  iiseuilonvni  for 
Cherbuliez:  "  Homines  et  ( 'hoses dii  Teiups  Present," 
11.  Til,  Paris,  188:i).  The  publicalioii  of  ftdmiard  Drii- 
monl's  book,  "Iji  Fraiii-e  Juive  "  (|SS(i|.  proved  the 
falsity  of  all  Ihis.  Hut  Ihe  chanu'c  in  juiblic  opinion 
was  not  so  siirprisini,'  as  il  may  al  (irsi  sitrhl  seem. 
The  Kepubliean  parly  always  coiisiiUred  Clericalism 
its  enemy.  Gambettii,  who  had  coined  the  battle- 
cry.  "Le  cleriealisine,  voilii  rennemi,"  led  a  cru.sade 
ajiaiiist  Ihe  Catholic  Church.  While  he  was  unsue- 
eessful  in  his  atteinpl  lo  carry  an  ameiidmeiil  to 
the  school  law  of  I.HSO,  which  would  have  forbidden 
.lesiiils  to  eiiijcairc  in  ediieatioiial  work,  hi-  and  his 
friends  were  neverlhcless  able  lo  pass  a  law  which 
ordered  Ihe  cx|iiilsiiiii  of  cerlain  monaslicdrders.  This 
law,  by  which  -111  monasleries  were  closed  and  4,:j.">IJ 
monks  and  nuns  were  rendered  homeless,  ereali'd  a 
great  deal  of  bitterness  against  the  doniiiianl  party 
of  freethinkers.  The  school  hiws  of  1881  ordering 
gratuitous  tuition  were  a  blow  against  the  schools 
maintained  by  Ihe  friars.  The  freelhinkers  wei<' ile- 
noiiiiced  as. lews  in  disguise.  In  ISS]  a  weekly  pajier, 
called  "  LWnti-.Ii  IF,"  was  foundi'd  in  Paris.  When 
Haroii  Holhschild  clolhed  poor  school-children  his 
act  was  denounced  as  thai  of  a  Jewish  propaganda. 
The  agitation  in  favor  of  a  bill  permiiling  divorce, 
which  the  Code  Napoleon  had  prohibiled,  created 
great  eoinmolicai  within  Ihe  ninksof  the  Church,  and 
was  used  as  a  weapon  against  the  Jews,  because  the 
chief  agilalor  for  il.  Naquel,  was  a  Jew.  Hishop 
Fieppel  of  Orleans  called  Ihe  bill  in  the  chamber  a 
"Seiiiilie  law  "  (August.  1SS4|. 

The  eleclions  of  18S.">  nearly  brought  a  majority 
of  >Ioiiarchists  into  tlu' Cliamber.  This  parly  had 
seized  Ihe  opporluility  to  dcnoiiiice  Ihe  perseenliiig 
spirit  of  alheism.  A  riot  in  ChaleauA'illaine.  w  here 
Ihe  prefecl  had  ordered  the  closing  of  a  chapel  in  a 
manufaclory.  was  made  the  subjeci  of  an  inlcrpel- 
lalion  in  Ihe  Chamber  (April  II!.  Is.'S(i),  und  during 
Ihis  healed  disciissiiin  Drunionl's  bonk.  "La  Fnince 
Juive. "already  relcrnd  lo,  was  published.  The  plie- 
noinenal  success  of  the  book  sliowid  that  the  gri'at 

ma.s.ses  of  the   populalioii   shared   the 

Drumont's   view  of  the  author;  namely,  that   the 

"  La  France  .lews  were  the  cause  of  all  ihe  niisfor- 

Juive.''      nines   (hat    had   befallen   Fnince.       F. 

Hruneliere.  edilor  of  Ihe  "  Kevue  ties 
Deux  Mondcs,"  himsi'lf.  as  he  confisses,  nol  preju- 
dlceil  ill  favorof  Ihe  .lews,  sums  up  Drumi'iil's  binik 
as  follows:  "If  the  Fniliie  of  M.  Crevy,  as  everv- 
boily  will  admit,  does  nol  resemble  I  hat  of  Louis  XI  \  .. 
and  still  liss  ihal  of  Si.  Louis.  Ihe  fault,  or  nilher  Ihe 
crime,  lies  w  illi  I  he. lews.  They  areas  guilty  for  what 
Ihey  have  ilone  as  for  wliiil  liny  ha\i-  lefi  undone." 
Hruneliere  accuses  DrilliKHit  of"  being  bliiiilid  by  lia- 
Ireil  "  anil  speaks  nf  his  "senini-  audace  de  fiina- 
lisine"i"|{eviied.sDeux  .Mondcs."  ISSIl.  pp  T.">,  llli;l). 
Oilier  biKiks  by  Driiinonl  followed  in  nipid  succes- 
sion; and  his  paper,  "La  Libri'  Parole,"  si«in  beeiiiiu? 
a  Very  intlucutiul  uud  wiilely  read  journal. 


Anti-Semitism 
Autislaveiy 


Till-;  .IKWISII   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


648 


Political  sciimliils.  iiiiii  i'S|U'cially  llie  vcimlity  <>f 
an  iniTcdibly  laifri'  niinilRT  of  politicians  and  jour- 
nalists, hroiijflit  Fniiuc  to  the  vcrirt'  of  civil  war. 
Till' collapse  of  the  Panama  (anal  ('onijiaiiy,  anil  tlic 
inililicalion  of  the  scamlals  coMnicliil  wiih  it,  were 
a  new  source  of  ilan.ner  to  the  repulilic.  In  that  co- 
lossjil  swinille  .several  Jews  were  promineiit ;  anil 
althoui;li  they  were  merely  tlie  ajrents.  the  venal 
IHiliticians  heins  the  real  culprits,  the  fact  of  their 
participation,  constantly  reiterated  by  the  clerical 
aial  the  anIi-Seinitic  press,  fomented  the  hatred 
a.irainst  the  Jews.  The  anti-Semitic  a.ijitalors  hail 
especially  protested  bitterly  a.nainst  the  Jews  hold- 
inir  administrative  oltices  or  commissions  in  the 
army.  In  isyi  Cajitain  Mayer  was  killed  in  a 
duel  which  he  fousrht  with  Mari|uis  de  Mores,  one 
of  the  tiercest  leaders  in  the  anti  Sent- 
The  Drey-  itic  movement.  In  1H95  the  Dkky- 
fus  Affair,  fis  Akkaiii  broiiiiht  the  excitement  to 
a  dangerous  pitch.  In  Algeria  the 
demonstrations  led  to  bloodshed.  The  aiili  Semites 
elected  Max  Resris,  one  of  tlie  most  rabid  Jew-haters, 
as  mayor  of  Alfriers;  and  allhouijh  the  ixovcniment 
deposed  him.  Anti-Semitism  still  raired  in  Al.ireiia. 
Durinji  the  revision  of  the  Dreyfus  trial  in  IHil!), 
Gueriii,  the  editor  of  "  L'Anti-Juif,''  detied  the  au- 
thorities for  a  time  by  barricading  himself  in  a  liouse 
and  refusins  to  yield  to  the  law.  While  the  fear 
lest  an  outbreak  niiiiht  endanger  the  success  of  the 
Exposition  of  lllllO  served  to  suliilue  )iolilii'at  pas- 
sion, the  niunicii>al  elections  in  Parisaiidin  Al.sxeria, 
in  the  ntontli  of  May,  19110.  resulted  in  a  victory  for 
the  Nationalists,  who.  beini:  a  composite  of  Clerical 
Jlonarchists  and  opiionents  of  the  government  in 
jiower,  are  luaiidy  cemented  together  by  their  com- 
mon Anti-Semitism. 

In  Hussia  the  elTect  of  the  as.sassi nation  of  Alex- 
ander II.  (March  l:i.  ISSl)  was  the  strengthenin.g  of 
reactionary  tendencies.  The  lale  emperor  had  in 
various  wa_vs  tried  to  mitigate  the  despotic  form  of 
governmont which  was  the  traditional  policy  of  the 
empire.  The  restrictive  laws  against  the  Jews  were 
to  some  extent  moderated  Viy  exceptions  and  other- 
wise were  less  rigorously  enforced,  Alexander  III,, 
haunted  by  the  specterof  Xihilism.  gave  himself  en- 
tirely into  the  hands  of  the  SIav(i|ihiles,  wliose  policy 
was  that  of  unrestricted  tyranny,  PiinvEDONosTZiiv, 
head  of  the  Holy  Synod;  Count  IiiNATlEV,  Alis.\- 
Kov.  and  such  men  possessed  his  unbounded  confi- 
dence. An  improvement  of  the  sad  condition  of  the 
Jews  was  part  of  the  Liberal  jirogram.  and.  con- 
sequently, could  not  be  countenanced. 
Russia.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  the  new  eni- 
]ieror.  serious  riots  broke  out  (.Vpril 
27,  1S,><1)  in  Elizabethgrad.  in  the  southern  (lart  of 
the  emiiire,  and  in  Kiev  (May  •'>).  Property  of  im- 
mense value  was  destroyed;  Jews  were  expelled 
from  .several  cities;  and  a  considerable  luimlier  were 
killed  or  seriously  injured.  Similar  scenes  occurred 
in  \\  ius;iw  in  Decemlier.  1S,'<1,  .More  than  two  thou- 
sand families  were  made  homeless,  and  pro]ierl  v  esti- 
niuted  at  from  T()7,lHii)  to  l.lli),ll(M)  rubles  in'value 
was  destroyed,  Iui])erial  ukases  of  Aug.  2'Jand  Oct, 
10,  issl,  restricted  the. lews'  right  of  residence  to  the 
towns  of  the  so-called  Paleof  Settlement,  aniLso  pro- 
duced a  l)ale  within  the  Pale;  proliibileil  the  side  of 
liquor:  the  right  to  hold  land;  and  limited  the  num- 
ber of  Jewish  students  in  colleges  and  universities. 

The  fanatic  population  showed  a  full  perception 
of  the  intentions  of  the  government.  Serious  riots 
were  of  almost  regular  occurrence  —  at  Rostov  on 
the  Don.  May  'i'i.  1^88:  in  Xijni-Xovgorod.  June  7. 
1884;  and  recently  in  Xikolaiev.  April.  18!)!l.  The 
expulsions  continued,  and  assumed  serious  propor- 


tions in  1891  and  1892;  so  that  President  Harrison, 
in  hismes,sage  to  Congress,  spoke  of  the  <oneeru  crea- 
ted by  these  measures  in  the  I  iiited  .States. 

Thi-death  of  Alexander  III,  (.Nov.  1.  18!tl)  brought 
no  decided  change  in  the  status  of  the  .lews;  and 
while  persecutions  have  abated,  the  restr'elivc  laws 
are  still  in  force.  One  result  of  these  conditions  has 
been  the  scheme  for  settling  the  Jews  in  Palestine, 
advocated  by  Laurence  Oliphant,  and  sidisei|uently 
taken  up  bv  the  ZliiMSTs;  and  a  similar  attempt  by 
Haron  de  llirscli  to  found  homesteads  in  Argentina 
for  the  Jewish  refugees.  Large  nmnbers  of  them 
settled  in  England,  in  the  United  States,  and  in  South 
-Vfrica. 

Ever  .since  the  dethronement  of  Prince  Cusa  of 
Rumania  in  18(i(i.  that  country  has  been  the  theater 
of  serious  outbreaks  of  mob  violeuce  against  the 
Jews.  The  per.secutions  of  December.  1871.  caused 
by  the  trial  of  a  Jew  aceusi'il  of  buying 
Rumania,  sjicred  vessels  stolen  from  a  church, 
evoked  protests  in  almost  every  civil- 
ized country.  When  Rumania's  independence  was 
recognized  liy  the  Congress  of  IJerlin  (.Inly  1.  1878), 
it  was  on  condition  that  the  constitution  of  the  new 
eoiuitry  should  grant  eiiual  rights  to  all  citizens,  re- 
gardless of  creed.  Rumaida  suhinitted.  but  did  not 
fulfil  its  obligation,  and  the  l{umanian  government 
declared  all  Jews  to  be  alieiisand  made  the  naturaliza- 
tion of  foreigners  dependent  u))on  a  special  act  of  the 
le.!rislature.  Nalunilization  was  granted  in  but  very 
few  instances, and  Ihelot  of  the  Jewsin  Rumania  grew 
steadily  worse.  They  were  the  victims  of  frequent 
mob-violence  (as  in  Hucharest,  Dec,  12.  1807.  and  in 
Jassy,  Jlay  28,  1800).  and  their  assjiilants  went  un- 
punished when  brought  before  the  courts.  As  in 
Russia,  .Tews  were  expelled  from  villages,  and  in 
many  other  ways  restricted  in  their  economic  activ- 
ity; they  were  debarred  from  the  piddle  schools, 
and  at  preMiit  (lOOli  the  government  is  |>utting 
every  imaginable  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  Jewish 
schools  with  the  evident  object  of  preventing  the 
Jews  from  improving  their  condition.  Large  num- 
bers of  enu'grants  left  the  country  during  1900.  not- 
withstanding the  accession  to  power  of  a  more  liber- 
all.v  minded  premier.  ^linister  Carp. 

This  article  is  limited  by  the  definition  of  Anti- 
Semitism  as  the  opposition  to  Jew  s  on  the  ground  of 
their  ethiucal  inferiority.  Therefore  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  refer  to  the  condition  of  the  Jews  in  countiies 
like  Persia  and  .Morocco,  where  religious  fanaticism 
needs  no  scientific  jiretext.  However,  the  blood  accu- 
sations of  Corfu,  April.  1801,  resulting 
Other  from  the  murderof  a  Jewish  child,  and 
Countries,  the  subsequent  riots  may  be  referred 
to  in  this  sketch,  but  will  be  treated 
more  iipproprialely  under  Bi.ool)  Ac'CVS.VTlox.  An- 
other instance  of  .Vnti-Seiuilism  is  given  by  the  cn- 
aetinents  which  have  been  passed  prohibiting  the 
killingof  animalsaccording  to  the  Jewish  ritein  Sax- 
ony, by  an  order  of  the  minister  of  the  interior  -March 
2:i,  \x'M.  and  iu  Switzerland  by  a  referendum,  Aug. 
20.  189:5. 

While  it  may  be  stated  that  .Vnti-Sendlism  as  such 
does  not  exist  either  in  England  or  in  the  I'nited 
States,  still  amid  the  ,ireneral  class  distinctions  main- 
tained in  social  intercourse  in  those  countries,  a 
feeling  a.gainst  the  Jews  manifests  itself  in  social 
discriminations,  A  prominent  exiiounder  of  the  anti- 
Semitic  theories  in  the  English-speaking  world,  and, 
according  to  Lueien  AVolf  {"  .\  .Jewish  View  of  the 
Anti-Jewish  Acitation,"  in  "  Xineteenth  Centiuy," 
1881.  ix,  :i;i8-:{.-i7),  their  originator,  is  Prof.  Goldwin 
Smith,  of  Toronto.  IU<  charges  against  the  Jews  are 
the  same  that  are  found  in  the  works  of  the  German 


649 


HIE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Anti-Semitism 
Antislavery 


authors  on  tlie  subject.  He  aoousi'S  tlicm  of  tribal 
cxclusivciicss  and  cosnio|iolitanisni ;  lie  culls  tlicm 
intruder!!  and  jmrasitcs,  and  an  unassociablc  race. 
He  looks  upon  commerce  as  the  only  motive  of  their 
activity,  and  .'iays  <if  Disraeli :  "A  Jewish  statesman 
got  up  jin^'oisni  mueli  as  lie  would  f;et  up  a  specu- 
lative maniu  for  a  commercial  purpose"  (Goldwin 
Smith.  "The  United  Kin.irdom."  i.  4(i.  lOH.  I:JT.  IW, 
New  York.  1H99;  "The  Jewish  (Jueslion"  in  "  Nine- 
teenth Century."  1881,  pp.  10,  4U4-.">1.");  "Can  Jews 
be  Patriots?  "Vi.  i.v.  ST.'j-WS:). 

It  can  not.  however,  be  denied  by  any  fair-minded 
person  thai  some  of  the  anti  Semitic charires  are  mon- 
strously absurd,  as  when  Ahlwardt  .slid  that  Saiii 
lillsrath  l.ewin — who  happened  to  lie  iiiai'  tlie  place 
where  Emperor  William  was  shot  by  Noliiiinir — 
had  been  advised  by  the  Alliance  Israelite  I'niver- 
sclleof  the  attempt  to  assjissinatc  the  emperor;  orlhe 
story  that  Creniieu.x  had  olTered  a  jiri/.e  of  one  mil- 
lion francs  for  the  em|ieror's  head.  Dn  the  one  hanil 
the  accusation  was  spri-ad  thai  the  tinu  of  I.udwij; 
Lijwe  had  furnished  bad  iruiis.  because  the  Alliance 
wished  to  see  Germany  defeati'd  ;  on  the  other  hand. 
Captain  Dnyfus  was  accused  of  hav- 
Pettiness  inir  lietrayed  army  secrets  to  Ger- 
of  Charges  many,  because  the  Jews  desired  that 
by  Anti-  country  to  be  victorious.  A  German 
Semites,  author  has  even  accuse<l  the  Jews  of 
liavinj;  caused  the  stylistic  careless- 
ness of  nifidern  German  writers  (G.  Wustnauuu 
"  Allerhand  .Sprachilummheiten."  I,eipsic.I8!)l).  An- 
ti-Semitic pamphlets  and  journals  have  conslantly 
published  circulars  purportiiifr  In  be  issued  by  the 
Alliance,  which  were  forjreries,  and  they  have  fabri- 
cated a  letter  of  the  German  ambassjidor  to  Pari.s — 
Count  von  Wimpfen.  who  conuiiitled  suicide  Deo. 
24,  1882 — in  whicli  he  had  (liarired  IJaron  Ilirsch 
with  bein.ir  the  cause  of  his  misfortune;  whereas, 
uctually,  the  unfortunate  man  had  asked  the  baron 
as  his  best  friend  to  take  care  of  his  family.  They 
have  untirintrly  published  an  allej^ed  address  of  an 
En.irlish  chief  nibbi.  Headclif.  in  which  the  Jews 
were  admonished  to  put  Ihemselves  in  I  he  possession 
(if  all  tlie.money  of  Ihi'  wurld.  so  that  Goil's  prom- 
ises to  Abnihani  shouTil  be  fullilled.  The  source  of 
this  alle.ired  address  was  a  novel,  "Gacta,  Dl'ippel, 
Warsjiw,"  by  Hermann  Goedschc,  who  hail  beendis 
missed  from  the  I'russiau  postal  service  because  of 
foririiies  that  he  had  coiimiitled.  and  who  wrote 
undi  r  the  pseudonym.  ".'Sir  John  Katclille."  So 
whether  rifrht  or  wroiii;  the  anti  Semitic  cause  was 
only  too  freiiuenlly  advoealed  by  such  methiids. 

Ilnii.indRArnv  :  The  (ienimn  weekly  Vitthrilinnini  numlrm 
Vi  n  ill  ziir  Ahinhr  itt^  Aiitifi  inilii*iiiiin,  Herllli,  slnt-e  Isitl, 
I.S  a  reiH-rlnrv  of  tlie  IllNtury  i>f  Alltl-Si-inltlslll.  'riie  tellenil 
lileriinirt'on  the  Slll>jll'(  1^  w>  lnlMlell^«•  tllllt  It  Is  llll)H>ssll>ti>  (o 

fflve  more  iliuii  a  list  of  the  iiii>sl  iiroiiilneiit  works :  A  hlMl- 
oirniiiliy  up  to  1S8.'»  was  (jiveii  liy  Jos4'|ih  Jarolw,  '/Vic  Ji-irifth 
(^iitfsfi'iii.  Uiniltin,  IHH'i,  siipiileiiieiiliil  by  I,  I^ih'Ii  In  the  lirv, 
fir.  Jiiiri-A  for  the  satin*  vear:  (iliiiriui,  thr  tirtysni.  unit 
firlinilun^lKtti'biriiiiht  in  Itirlin^  1S77;  the  sts-mul  part  iiii- 
iltT  the  title.  Ihr  Hi'trxiii-  unit  lirlhutiiiiiinxihiriiuli t  in 
Ihiilfihliiiiil.  Derllii,  IKTT:  II.  voii  Tn-ILHilike,  Kin  Hurl 
III..)-  Cii.-i;- Jm</(ii(;ih)ii.  lli-rllii.  Issii;  W.  Marr.  ;v  r.s'((i/i(..s 
Jliitrnllinnn*  i)ln'rililji  fin'nlilin  nlhllni,  V^iUi  i-ii,.  Item.  IK71I ; 
F..  Iiniirlni:.  hif  .httU  nf nt{ti-  iii-*  Itni'rn-.  SiHi  n-  nml  t'nllnr- 
|i.ii/r.  (  arlsnilie  anil  l^lpslr.  ISHl  :  K,il.  v.pii  Hartinann.  /inn 
Jiiili  ntliiiin  in  linlininirt  liii'l  ZllA  loi^f,  1.4'lpslr.  Iss.'t:  .\il. 
.st.«ket, /ki.s  .Wo.;.riii  ./ii>/.ii(/ii/iii.  li.Tlln.  Issn;  Clirli'ttiih- 
Sin-iiil.  Ilerlln,  Ismi;  II.  .Milwanlt.  l>*r  Vi-rzirriltuntfahniniif 
ill  r  Arijii-tii  n  Vi'ithirinitiliuijiiilrnlfinni.  Merlin.  Isim:  Jn- 
ill  njlintin,  pan  I..  Iln-sflrli,  IrtC;  .\.  Wiihniiiill"!.  /I'l*  lir\rtz 
iliM  yi'innili'illhnnin  nml  ilir  Ihntiih  Jniliiihiiisihnll, 
<'iirlsnilie.  ISHT  ;  MelM>niiaiiii  von  s^iniienlM-nr.  Urilrilw  znr 
lit.*i-h.iUr  AntiMni.  Itiiriunnu,  |Ks.*i;  A.  Itohllla.'.  I>rr  Tnl- 
iiiinlinili,  Mniistrr.  bCI  ;  Hr.  .lustiis  'A.  Ilriiiiniini.  Jinlrn- 
s/iii|j)l.  PailiTl'ini.  IK-CI;  Kil.  Ilrutiioiil.  7,<i  h'innrr  Jiiivr. 
Paris,  isml;  /,.i  /*  rinVir  Unliiilli;  l-nrls.  ISNI;  /,.  7'<»(<iiii<ii> 
tl'ioi  .liifiWiiii/i-.  I*iirls.  I.'flil :  r.  Coiisiaiit.  I.ii  Jnifmli  ritnt 
TKiyl'M  •'  VlliMiiiii.  I'arl.s,  IsiC  ;  sir  ItUiuinl  F.  lliiniui,  77ii: 


Jiv.  the  (iipm.  anil  M  14am.  fhliaRo  and  New  York.  IMS. 
of  the  ajKilopetlc  literature  may  he  noteii :  AntiAfmiten' 
r^itifijit.  I)fr  AntinrniiliKnitttt  iin  Lti-litc  itfn  ChriKtnithutni*. 
ihs  lin'hts  unit  iti:r  Mural,  Danzlff.  Issr.i  (Kntr.  trans,  by 
MiN.  llelliiiann);  A.  I-ernv-Keaiilleii.  Isnid  I'hiz  trjt  yaliiiuti. 
I'arl.s,  IslH;  Th.  .Moiiiiiisin.  Anili  Kin  Wurl  llhir  fnsrr 
Juilinllinm.  Berlin,  issd;  Fr.  IiHlliz.s<h,  Srliinlmiatt  ilni 
litnltliiinirn  itnlilinti  nml  Jnstn.^^,  Krlaniren.  lHs;i;  ij.  ijizare, 
I'lintvr  VAntitUinitisnn\  Paris.  ISiHi;  x.  Chinerklne.  Li>*  Toii- 
m'lfncnvcM  lie  VAnti<i'iiiili.-iiii  in  lin.inif,  Paris.  Is^C:  Sehrat- 
tenholz.  Ar  Anti:"  niili  n  Ihimmrr.  Isiti;  furthiT  lllirature 
In  the*  Thfiilitittjicliir  Jitlinj*hcrii^ht.  whleh  b  publislied  an- 
nually by  Si'hwetsrbke  In  BruDsnlvk. 

D. 

ANTI-SHABBETHIANS.     See    SnAnnETn.u 

Zir.i 

ANTISLAVERY  MOVEMENT  IN  AMER- 
ICA :  Tile  instil  utinii  i.|  neirro  .--hiM  ry  in  .\iiierica 
has  lieeii  traced  back  to  Ilie  sujrgestion  of  a  pilhir  of 
the  Chureh,  l,as  Ca.sas.  who  ]iropiised  it  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  enslavement  of  the  American  Indians, 
since  the  latter  were  lieinir  ra|iidly  exterminated  by 
.Spanish  oppression.  E.xpericnce  showed  that  the 
negroes  were  better  able  to  endure  the  hardships  of 
slavery.  Given  the  institution,  it  is  not  hard  to  ac- 
count for  the  fact  that  so  receptive  and  assimilative 
a  peo|)le  as  the  Jews  should  have  adopted  it  from 
the  people  amons  whom  Ihey  were  livinir.  Thus  the 
Maranos.  who. settled  in  the  New  World  soon  after 
its  discovery,  held  slaves,  and  numerous  references 

are  made   to  Jewish  slaveholders  in 

Jewisli     Brazil,  Jlexico,  the  West  Indies.  New 

Slave-        Y'ork,  and  New  England,  lonir  liefore 

holders.      and  down   to  the  American   Hevolu- 

tion.  There  are  several  early  refer- 
ences even  to  American-Jewish  slave-dealers.  The 
<;rowth  of  democnicy  and  chanjreil  econoinic  condi- 
tions had  irradually  ]iut  an  end  to  slavery  in  the 
North  soon  after  the  lieirinnin^'  of  the  nineteenth 
century  ;  but  in  the  South  slavery  remained  common, 
anions  Jews  as  well  as  amonjr  others.  Shortly  be- 
fore the  Civil  War  there  were  amonfr  the  a.cgrcssive 
Southern  sympathizers  some  .Tews  who  used,  as  con- 
clusive proof  that  it  was  not  wronir  to  keep  slaves, 
thealle";e(l  fact  that  noble  iihilanthropists  like  Judall 
Totiro  sanctioned  slavery  The  whole  arirnment, 
in  reality,  rested  on  ti  false  assumption  rifrardinj; 
Touro's  altitude  toward  the  inslilulion.  lie  evinced 
his  antislavery  views  in  no  uncertain  manner;  for  the 
iKLMdes  who  waited  upon  him  in  the  house  of  the 
Shipards — with  whom  he  lived  for  forty  years — were 
all  emancipated  by  his  aid  and  supplied  with  the 
means  of  establish! nir  themselves;  ancl  the  only  slave 
he  |iersonally  possissed  he  trained  to  business,  then 
emancipated,  furnishing  him  with  money  and  valua- 
ble advice. 

.Vs  a  IkhIv.  the  .lews  in  America  took  no  action 
either  for  or  against  the  slavery  (|Ueslion.  though 
individual  Jews  were  numbcK-d  among  meniliers  of 

American    abolition    societies    in    the 

Anti-         early  forties,  and  the  .\merican  and 

slavery       Foreiirti   .\nli  Slaverv  Siwiety   in    its 

Jews.         report,  in  |s."i;t.  noieil  that  some  .lews 

in  the  Soul  hern  states  "have  refii.sed 
111  have  any  right  of  properly  in  man.  or  even  to 
have  any  slaves  about  them. "and  thai  the  cruel  |)er- 
secutions  lliev  themselves  had  been  subjected  lo 
tended  lo  make  thiMii  friends  of  universid  freedom. 
Hut  suih  tendencies  were  at  least  partially  checked 
by  I  he  fact  thai  the  Oriental  cusloms  nml  antece- 
dents of  the  Jew  (lid  not  incline  to  make  him  per  so 
an  enemy  of  slaverv.  Ilial  certain  |irr<-epls  in  the 
Mainionidean  cihIc  of  laws  were  specilicnlly  antag- 
onistic to  Ihe  emancipation  of  noii  Jew  ish  sbives, 
and  that  pecuniary  and  pulitind  considerations  frr- 
iHieiitly  dictated  an  altitU(U'  friendly  lowani  slavery 
uniong  Jewish  citizens,     .\ppcals   lo   religion   and 


Antlslavery 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


650 


monility.  however,  could  not  fiiil  to  produce  their 
eHecl.  and  Jews  as  will  as  people  of  other  denoiiii- 
iiatiiins  were  destined  to  contriltute  ^rfi'ly  '"  •'."' 
development  of  untislavery  sentiment  in  America,  in 
spile  of  the  pronounceil  repufrnanee  of  a  nund)er  to 
"earryini:  polities  into  the  pulpit."  Dr.  David  Kin- 
horn,  for  instance,  shortly  after  he  arriveil  in  Haiti 
more  as  minister  of  the  Har  Sinai  conjrreiralion.  Icx^k 
stronir  ■rrouiul  airainsl  slavery,  lirst  in  his  monthly 
"Sinai."  in  is.'il).  and  afterward  in  the  pid|iil.  lie 
contended  that  if  it  were  true,  as  asserted,  that  the 
I'nion  rested  on  slavery,  then  with  so  thoroujrhly 
immoral  a  basis  it  would  be  neither  capable  of  sur- 
viving nor  tit  to  survive:  and  he  pointed  out 
that  the  spirit  of  Judaism,  as  o|)posed 

£inhorn      toils  letter,  deniamled  the  abolition  of 

Against,      slavery.     An  address  di-livered  by  Dr. 

Raphallfor,  Morris  J.  Kaphall.  a  New  York  rabbi 

Slavery.  (Jan.  4.  ISGI).  on  the  national  fast  day 
desiirnatcil  by  the  President,  aroused 
much  attention  and  comment;  for  in  it  he  con- 
tended on  behalf  of  Judaism  that  slavery  had  the 
divine  sjinclion  of  the  God  of  Israel,  and  that  only 
ijrnonmt  babblers  invoked  the  alli  ired  "hijrher  law  " 
njrainst  slavery,  since  there  could  be  no  higher  law 
than  the  Hible".  and  this  ordained  slavery.  Numer- 
ous ant  isia  very  leailers immediately  proleste<l  against 
th<se  views  ou  liehalf  of  Judaism,  and  refuted  Hap- 
liall's  arguments.  Dr.  Einhorn  attacked  them  so 
strongly  and  unmistakably  that  he  aroused  the  ire  of 
the  proslavery  leaders,  and  his  life  was  in  danger 
(luring  the  Baltimore  riots  in  April.  IStil.  He  was 
forced  to  tiee  from  Baltimore,  and.  ralhcr  than  per- 
mit himself  to  lie  muzzled,  he  surrendered  his  |)osi- 
tion.  Other  Jewish  pulpit-leaders  also  look  sliong 
ground  on  the  subject,  especially  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War.  This  was  particularly  true  of  Hen- 
janun  Felsentlial  and  Liebman  Adier  of  Chicago. 
Sabalo  Morals  of  Philadelphia.  Benjamin  Szold  of 
Baltimore,  and  Samuel  M.  Is;uics  of  New  York. 

For  a  niunber  of  years  Ixfore  the  war.  Jewish 
laymen  as  individuals  had  lieen  active  in  the  .siime 
cause.  Chief  among  these  was  ^Michael  Heilprin.  the 
dislinguished  Jewish  scholar.  He  had  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  course  of  antislavery  meetings  in 
Philailelphia  a  few  years  before  the  war,  and  was 
roused  to  immediate  action  by  Dr.  I{jip- 
Heilprin,     hall's  sermon.     On  Jan.   Hi.   IStil.  he 

Pinner,  contrilmted  a  fiery  denunciation  and 
Benjamin,  an  exhaustive  scholarly  refutation  of 
Hapliall's  views  to  the  "New  York 
Trilnme,"  which  at  once  recognized  the  article  edi- 
torially. Thus  indorsed,  it  commanded  the  widest 
attention;  and  owing  to  this  vehement  but  convin- 
cing repudiation  of  alleged  proslavery  views.  Heiliuin 
succeeded  in  arousing  the  |)ublic  in  a  more  marked 
degree  than  any  other  American-Jewish  antislavery 
chamjiion.  During  the  five  years  preceiiiiig  this 
time.  .Moritz  Pinner  had  also  done  yeoman's  work 
in  the  Siime  cause  l)y  circulating  antislavery  litera- 
ture and  developing  antislavery  propaganda.  In 
is.")7  he  started  an  abolitionist  newspaper  in  Kansas 
City,  a  proslavery  region;  and  was  an  antislavery 
delegate  to  the  state  and  national  Republican  con- 
ventions of  ISOO,  which  latter  inclmled  other  Jewish 
menibei's.  In  Chicago  as  early  as  is.iy  Jews  were 
active  in  liberating  an  imprisoned  fugitive  slave,  and 
soon  after  in  securing  German  recrviits  for  the  He- 
publican  party  in  the  AVcst.  Nor  did  the  So\itli. 
which  produced  such  brilliant .lewish  workers  in  the 
proslavery  cause  as  Judah  P.  Benjamin,  fail  to  con- 
tribute a  fair  ipuita  also  of  Jewish  antislavery  work- 
ers, in  some  instances  as  early  as  1840.  Nuuktous 
other  examples  of  Jewish   antislavery  activity  in 


America  are  at  hand.  In  the  West  Indies  some 
Jewish  aniislavi'ry  symjiathizers  were  to  be  found 
early  in  the  idneleenlh  century:  others  actually  de- 
visi-<l  eHicient  methods  for  rendering  emancipated 
slaves  self  supporting  and  independent.  In  the  Inited 
States  these  various  tendencies  which  developed  and 
arouseil  a  sentiment  in  favor  of  theanlislavcry  move- 
mi'iil  among  Jewish  residents  are  responsil)le  in  ii 
large  di-gree  for  the  enormous  number  of  Jewish  sol- 
diers who  enlisted  in  the  Union  army  during  the  Civil 
War. 

Bmi.ioiiRAPnv  :  Tlie  artli'li"s  nnd  .sermons  roforrwl  to  iit>ove; 
also  slaion  Wolf,  The  American  Jur  tin  I'ttlrinf,  SttUiier* 
anil  Citizen,  IstlT). 

M.   J.    K. 

ANTISLAVERY  MOVEMENT  AND  THE 
JEWS:  Tile  niovenienl  ai;aiii>>l  slaveiy  is  ipue  of 
the  most  important  ilTorls  in  Ihedevelopmeut  of  civ- 
ilization; and  the  relationof  the  Jewsto  this  subject 
merits  special  attention. 

J.  K.  Ingram,  in  his  valuable  work  on  the  "  History 
of  Slavery,"  has  well  ]ioinled  out  that  "our  great 
horror  for  some  aspects  of  slavery  musi  not  jirevent 
us  from  recognizing  that  insiitulion  as  a  neces.sary 
step  in  social  ])rogress."  by  the  immense  advance  in- 
volved in  the  subslitution  of  siMvitude  for  the  inuiio- 
lation of  captives;  by  making  possibh'the  system  of 
incorporation  by  con(|Uest  ami  liy  developing  regular 
and  sustained  industrial  lif.'.  Each  of  these  advan- 
tages was  thereby  realized  in  a  marked  degree  in 
Jewish  life.  But  it  is  important  also  to  observe  that 
among  the  Hebrews  the  evilsof  the  inslilution  were 
greatly  minimized  in  theory  and  in  practise,  which  In- 
gram refers  to  when  he  slales  that  "  when  we  consider 
its  moral  eU'ects.  whilst  endeavoring  to  the  utmost  to 
avoid  e.xaggcTation.  we  must  yet  pronounce  its  in- 
tluenee  to  have  been  profoundly  detrimental."  The 
pronounce<l  manner  in  which  theivilsof  the  system 
were  minimizeil  and  the  hardshl|is  of  the  institution 
were  ameliorated  by  Jewish  law  more  clearly  apjiears 
in  the  article  on  Sl.wkkv.  Such  amelioration  is  nat- 
urally to  be  anlicipated  among  a  people  believing  in 
the  common  descent  of  all  human  beings  and  in  the 
brollarhood  of  man. 

While  it  is  important  to  note  Mie  ])receplsenjoining- 
kind  and  humane  treatment  of  botli  Jewish  and  Gen- 
tile slaves  which  are  found  in  Jewish  law.  we  must 
not  forget  that  the  feeling  of  racial  athnity,  and  the 
idea  that  the  ]ierpetual  jihysical  subserviency  of  any 
one  Jew  involved  ,'i  ]iartial  denial  of  the  sovereignty 
of  God,  tended  to  restrict  es|ieeially  the  enslavement 
of  Jews.  The  tendency  to  abolish  slavery  among 
Jews,  even  in  early  times,  is  clearly  indicated  by  the 
following  customs:  Unlessa  Hebrew  slave  consented 
to  prolong  his  term  of  service,  it  exjiired  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventh  year:  a  general  emanci- 
pation of  slaves  look  place  in  the  tiflieth  or  jubilee 
year;  on  restoring  the  sum  paid  for  his  purclia.se  or 
ransom,  a  slave  received  a  cerlificaleof  ni;uiumission; 
on  the  death  of  a  master  without  heirs  the  slaves 
were  in  certain  ca.ses  set  free;  sometimes  they  were 
tj  citly  emancipated,  as  when  they  were  numbered 
among  the  free  Hebrews  selectecl  to  participate  in 
religious  service. 

The  Bible,  indeed,  records  the  emancipation  of  all 
Hebrew  slaves  in  King  Zedekiali's  time,  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  iirophet  Jeremiah  (Jer.  .xxxiv.  S).  dur- 
ing the  first  siege  of  .lerusjilim  by  Nebuchadnezzar; 
but  after  the  withdrawal  of  that  comiueror,  the  more 
powerful  masters  again  forced  their  emancipated 
slaves  into  servitude.  After  the  downfall  of  t  he  first 
monarchy  the  right  to  hold  a  fellow  Hebrew  as  a 
slave  was  regarded  as  at  an  end.  although  an  attempt 
was  maile  to  reintroduce  the  enslavement  of  Hebrews 


651 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antislavery 


iiiinuiliatcly  jiftcr  tlic  icstDration.  Nchcmiali.  how- 
ever, successfully  resisted  tlw  endeavor  (Neh.  v.  "i- 
10).     lleriid  aroused  Iiuicli  ilidifXIialioii  by  reeslatilisli- 

in;j  the  old  law  under  whieli  a  .lew 
Emanci-  could  be  sold  inti>  slavery  for  crime: 
pation  in  and,  as  the  |icoi)le  refused  to  |iurchase 
the  Bible,     such   lliOirew   slaves,    he   oversle]i|>ed 

the  old  law  by  sellinir  them  into  foreiun 
countries,  to  the  exasjienition  of  the  people.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  lirst  monarchy,  therefore,  He- 
brews, generally  speaking,  were  not  held  as  slaves 
by  fellow  Hebrews,  though  nou  .Jewish  slaves  con- 
tinued to  be  conunon  posses-sions  among  the  .lews. 
But  prior  to  the  common  era  the  principle  of  the 
abolition  of  all  slavery,  whether  of  .lews  or  of  iion- 
.lews,  was  adopted  in  theoiv  and  in  practise  among 
Hie  Kssenes.  Thus,  we  learn  frcjm  j'liiloiand  similar 
testimony  is  furnished  by  .losephus):  "Anil  they  [the 
Esseiies)  do  not  use  the  ministrations  of  slaves,  look- 
in.g  uiion  the  possession  of  servants  or  slaves  to  be  a 
thing  absolutely  and  wholly  contrary  to  nature:  for 
natuie  hath  created  all  men  free;  but  the  injustice 
and  covetousness  of  some  men  wiio  pn'fer  'ne((Ual- 
ity ,  that  cause  of  all  evil,  having  subdued  some,  have 
given  to  the  more  powerful  authority  over  those  who 
are  weaker"  (Philo,  "On  a  Contemplative  Life,"  i.\.). 
It  is  interesting  toobserve  that  the  French  statesman 
Isaac  Adolphe  Cremien.v,  in  an  address  before  thi' 
general  International  Antislavery  Congress  held  in 
London  (1H40),  proudly  said  on  this  jioint: 

"I  feel  (.Teat  pleiisiire  In  joining  Iliis  cenvenllon,  bemuse  I 
mil  a  (lesi'eniliint  uf  Ulc.se  Hfhrews  who  were  Ilie  Ilrst  te  pni- 
etailii  the  iilieillinn  <if  shivery  ;  ami  I  this  day  niily  repeat  what 
Itie  .lews  haye  alway.s  ailiiiitleil  In  priia-ljilt..  Indeed,  it  is  iinl 
yyltlinut  interest  that  I  nitw  recall  i«»  yi.iir  ree(»llecii«in  lliat  it 
was  the  MTt  of  Ille  Kssi.Ties  wliirii  lli>I  dei-lalt'd  slavery  lu  he  a 
eriiiie.  and  that  it  was,  t<>  lis*'  the  expression  of  ,losephiis,  a  per- 
IM'ttial  ratise  of  perturhatlon  f'.r  the  state.  In  this  asseinl>ly 
tills  must  entitle  tliein  to  the  lili;liest  Kloiy." 

The  dispersion  of  the  .lewisli  race  among  the  na- 
tions resulteil  in  clucking  fora  time  the  Antislavery 
^loveinent  which. Judaism  bad  been  developing.  liotli 
(Ireece  and  Kome  familiari/.id  the  .Jews,  as  never  be- 
fore, with  slavery  as  a  gigantic  and  apparently  in 
(lispensiil)le  sy.stein :  and  the  .lews  soon  learned  in 
Hemic  to  (In  as  the  lionians  did.  lionutii  inroads 
among  the  barbarians  resniled  in  the  enslavement  of 
an  ever-increasing  number  of  caplives;  and  it  was, 
in  fact,  from  such  treatment  of  .'Slavonic  captives 
that  the  term  "slave"  was  derived.  In  this,  as  in 
other  tiilds  of  commerce,  .lews  became  conspicuous 
during  the  later  er.is  of  the  Uoiiian  empiii-;  and  it  is 
therefore  not  surprising  to  lind  numerous  explicit 
rffertMici'S  to  .lews  as  slave  traders  and  posses.sors 
of  slaves.  Particularly  in  the  history  of  liome  and 
Spaiti  are  refereiici'S  encountered  to  .Jewish  slave- 
dealers  and  slaveowners  priiu'  loUdO  of  the  common 
em.  Cliarlenuigne  and  Louis  the  Pious  si'cni  to 
liuve  specitically  sjinetioned  such  innditions.  These 
dealings  brought  with  Iheni  tliiir  own  punishment 
for  the  .lews,  however:  for  it  is  to  .Ji'wisli  illa- 
tions to  slavery  that  one  can  Inice  a  number  of  oul- 
ttrciiks  against  the  .lews  on  the  part  of  the  common 
Church  and  the  Christian  state  of  thi'  early  .Middle 
Ages.  There  waslheobvious  ilanger  that  Christian 
slaves  in  the  households  of  .lewish  musters  were 
liable  to  become  con  verts  to. Judaism  :und  so  Kmjieror 
Constantine,  the  Tlieoilosiaii  eiale.  Pope  (Jregory  1., 
iind  various  oilier  Cliurch  and  secular  authorities, 
forbade  such  eonviTsioiis,  and  thenafler  proliibiled 
the  iici|iiisiiioii  or  even  the  retention  of  Chrisliun 
slaves  by  .Jews.  These  measures  were  directed  not 
against  slavery  genenilly.  but  more  and  inoreaL'uinsf 
the  eiislavemi-nt  of  Christiiins.  It  was  not  till  about 
12(XJ  that   the  CInircli  took  strong  ground  against 


slavery  generally.  Of  course  the  .Jews  abandoned 
slavery  as  it  came  tube  abandoned  by  law  or  <-ustom 
in  the  various  countries  where  they  \v<Te  living, 
.Jewish  law  seems  throughout  to  luive  assured  cjuite 
geiieially  hnnuine  treatment  for  slaves  among  Jew- 
ish possessors. 

The  movement  in  favor  of  the  aliolition  of  (he  en- 
slavement of  .lewsbecunie  marked  in  character  in  the 
time  Jirecediiig  the  commencement  of  the  common 
era.  When  the  Jews  were  living  in  a  land  not  their 
own  the  feeling  displayed  itself  in  the  establishment 
of  societies  and  funds  for  the  ransom  of  .lewish  slaves, 
Israel  Abrahams,  in  his  "Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle 
Ages,"  p.  !l(i.  siiys,  "that  Jews  from  the  larliest  peri- 
o(|s  regarded  the  ihity  of  ransoming. lewish  captives 
as  one  of  their  most  jiressing  obligatiiuis."  The  pay- 
ment of  money  for  this  purpose  was  always  made 
a  first  charge  upon  the  syniigogal  funds.  Among 
Spanish  Jews  such  ransoms  were  taken 
Kansom  of  (piite  as  a  matter  of  course.  Habbi 
Jewish  .Moses ben  H'i""k  in  the  tenth  century 
Slaves  in  was  ransomed  by  the  Cordovan  Jews; 
the  Middle  and  somewhat  later  Don  Is;iac  .Vbruv- 
Ag^es.  unci  devoted  much  money  and  labor  to 
redeeming  large  niinibers  of  Jewish 
slaves.  Numerous  other  instances,  even  to  the  pres- 
ent day,  are  recordid  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe 
in  which  Jews  have  settled.  In  fact,  the  generosity 
and  sense  of  obligation  of  Jews  in  this  res()ect 
became  so  well  known  that  Jews  were  captured  and 
enslaved  for  the  .sjike  of  securing  these  ninsonis. 
Traces  are  found,  too,  of  purchases  by  Jews  during 
the  Dark  Ages  of  heathen  slaves  .solily  for  the  pur- 
pose of  converting  them  to  Judaism  and  liberating 
them. 

When  .African  slavery  was  introduced  in  America, 
early  in  the  si.vteenth  century,  we  a.irain  find  Span- 
ish,   Portuguese,   and    Dutch  Jews  engaged    in    the 
slave  Irallie,  and  holding  slaves  in  common  with  their 
noil  Jewish  lirelliren.      In  view  of  the  historical  alti- 
tiiile  of  .Jiidaisiu  to  slavery,  we  are  not   surpris<'d, 
however,  to  learn  that  Jews,  like  Cremieu.\,  logieallv 
and  zialously  threw  themselves  as  such  into  the  anti- 
slavery  struggle.      In  the  ease  of  Cre- 
Abolitionist  mieii.x  liims<.lf,  we  lind  that  for  many 
Movement  years  he  had  been  an  earnest,  impas- 
in  the        sinned,    and    indefatigable    abolition- 
Nineteenth  ist    before  it   became   his  privilege,  as 
Century,     a    member  of  the   Krench    Provisional 
Government   (1S4.'<),   to  announce,   on 
behalf   of   the   Cabinet,    the    abolition    of    slavery 
tliroiighoiit  the  French  possessions. 

In  England  there  were  Jewish  members  of  the  ab- 
olition societies,  and  Gninville  Sharp,  in  his  "  Ijiw 
of  Hetribiition,"  and  NVilbirfiuee,  in  his  "  A  Letter 
on  the  .\bolition  of  the  Slave  TniiU\"  freely  em- 
ployed .lewish  teachiiiirs  as  arguments  against  sla- 
very. When  at  the  oulbnak  of  the  .Vnierican  Civil 
War  it  became  iniport.int  for  the  .lewish  pulpit  and 
press  to  give  exprission  to  Jewish  viiws  on  llie  sub- 
ject, mill  liki'  Uabbi  (i.  (iotllieil  of  .Manchester,  and 
Dr.  L.  Philippson  of  Honn  and  .Magdeburg,  forcibly 
combated  tlie  view  announced  by  Southern  sympa- 
thizers, that  Judaism  regarded  slavery  as  divinely 
ordaineii.  Habbi  M  Sliel/iiurs  "I)ie  Verhillt- 
nisse  iliT  Sklaveiei  bei  den  .\lten  Hebiilirn,"  pub- 
lished in  (iermaii  at  Copeiihuireii  and  I.eipsic  in  IS,'i!t. 
was  rapidly  ti-anslated  and  published  in  the  I'liited 
Stales  in  many  i|iiarters,  and  rendered  valuable 
service  in  the  same  direction.  Siniilarlv,  in  (Jer- 
niany,  Ilertliold  Auerbiiih  in  his  work,  "1>as  Ijind- 
haiisum  Hliein,"  closely  imitated  Mrs.  Sloweiii  arous- 
inir  public  opinion  against  slavery  and  the  slave 
trade  through  the  medium  of  ticlion;  and   Heinrieh 


Anti-Talmudists 
Antokolski 


Tin;  .IKWISM   EN'CYCLOPEDIA 


652 


Ilrinc  (lid  not  liesitnti'  lo  nvow  the  fact  timt  it  was 
till'  i-^liililisliiiiciit  iif  the  .slave  system  in  Aineiica 
that  iiiilueeii  him  l<i  jrive  up  his  iuteiitii)ii,  formed 
ill  his  early  years,  of  migmtinjr  to  the  L'nited  Stales. 

IliHi.inoitArilY:  J.  K.  IiDmiin,  HMnrii  nf  .s'/nivi)/ :  M.  Mlcl- 
ziner,  Shtvfni  Amotm  tlctirctr:*,  in  Am.Jitr.A  iinmil.  IHNi; 
.1.  Winter,  SUIIuiid  ihr  Shlnvrn  hei  den  .Iwlrn;  Mirnll. 
I>a.i  Sliliirinrichl  ilm  Alien  TeMitmi  itl.i;  /iuIik'  Kalin.  I.'Ks- 
iliirinii-  Siliin  In  llilile  el  le  T(tlnniil.  I'liris.  |s<i;  ;  Vlnlmw  anil 
Hiiltzi'iliiurlT,  Sniiitnlunn  l'ttimlih^-M'is.tensrli,iltlirhi  r  Vnr- 
liH{ie,  .%■(  Ml-  l''iil{ie,  1st  series.  So.  '£i ;  M.  J.  Kuliler,  ,li  irx  inni 
llie  Aineriran  AuliKlarern  MirvemenU  in  J*h/».  i>f  Am. 
Jew.  Ilitil.  .s'oc,  N«>.  .'>;  Lsmel  Abralianis,  Jewinh  Life  in  lite 
Mitlille  Ayctt;  SchafT-Herzoe,  Kncyeh^feflia  nf  lieliniitn.* 
Kniiuleilae,  vol.  ill.  .■).  artlele  on  Slaverti;  .loiseph  Jai'olis, 
,/iii'«"f -l)i(;ii'i)i  hJnglaniJ;  Depping,  Die  JhiIcm  in>Mitlel- 
ttllt  r,  pp.  :Vt  ( /  .sf '/. 

M.  .1.  K. 

ANTI-TALMUDISTS.  See  Fk.vnkists,  Ka- 
uai i  1  ~ 

ANTOINE,  NICOLAS :  French-Christian  tlieo- 
li>i:ian  who  became  converted  to  Judaism;  born  of 
C'alholic  parents  in  1003  or  1603  at  Bricy,  a  small 
town  of  Lorraine:  suffered  martyrdom  at  the  stake 
in  Geneva,  April  20,  1633.  For  live  years  he  at- 
tended the  collejie  at  Luxemburir.  and  was  then 
sent  to  Pont-a  ^lonssoii,  Treves,  and  C'oloi^iie  for 
hiulier  instruction  tinder  the  Jesuits.  Their  intlu- 
ence,  however,  seems  to  have  been  nil  ;  for  when 
Anloine  returned  to  Briey,  at  the  aire  of  twenty,  he 
was  no  lonjier  an  ardent  Catholic.  The  doctrines  of 
Protestantism  attracted  him,  and  he  allowed  him- 
self to  be  converted  by  the  fervent  eloquence  of 
Feri'i,  a  preacher  of  reputation,  and  pastor  of  the 
Kef'oi'med  Church  in  Metz.  The  yminK  convert 
then  allended  the  academies  of  Sedan  and  Geneva 
in  order  to  study  the  Keformed  faith,  but  the  deeper 
he  delved  into  the  stndy  of  Pi'otestaiitism  the  less 
fervent  became  his  enthusiasiu;  and  he  very  soon 
ari'ived  at  the  most  unexpected  conclusion;  namely, 
that  the  Old  Testament  alone  contained  the  truth. 
The  rabbinate  of  Met/,  refused  to  receive  the  youiii; 
man  into  Judaism,  offering  as  an  excuse  the  fear  of 
reprisals  on  the  part  of  thcaufhorities;  and  Antoine 
was  advised  to  go  to  the  Netherlands  or  to  Italy, 
\vhere  Jews  enjoyed  more  liljerty.  Accompanied 
by  a  Christian  clei'gyman  whom  he  had  known  in 
Sedan,  and  whom  he  attempted  to  convert  to  Juda- 
ism on  the  way,  he  repaired  to  Venice. 

Refused  There  he  found  that  the  prevailing 
Admission  con<litions  had  been  too  favorably 
to  Judaism,  deiiicted.  The  Jews  were  tolenited 
by  the  Venetian  republic  merely  for 
commercial  reasons:  they  were  huddled  into  a 
gloomy  ghetto,  and  were  obligctl  to  wear  a  yellow 
disk,  which  exposed  them  to  the  wanton  raillery  of 
the  populace.  The  Venetian  Jews  could  offer  An- 
toine no  more  encouragement  than  their  brethren  of 
Metz.  At  Padua  he  met  with  a  similar  check.  Ac- 
cording to  the  documents  ])roduccd  at  his  trial,  the 
Italian  .lews  gave  him  the  "diabolieal  advice"  to 
imrsue  the  life  of  a  pious  .Jew  under  the  cloak  of 
the  Church.  Antoine  proceeded  to  Geneva,  where 
he  acce])ted  a  position  as  tutor  in  the  family  of  the 
pastor  and  iirofessor  Diotlati.  For  .some  time  he 
also  taught  the  upper  class  of  the  college,  but, 
being  an  apostate  from  Catholicism,  he  was  not 
cousidei'ed  sufficiently  orthodox  to  be  entrusted  with 
the  chair  of  philo.sophy  at  the  Academy  of  Geneva. 

Antoine,  desiring  to  marry,  sought  another  np- 
pointment.  A  new  Protestant  parish  had  just  been 
formed  at  Divonne,  a  little  village  of  the  district  of 
Gex,  which  had  lielonged  to  France  since  1602,  but 
was  now  under  the  religious  jurisdiction  of  Geneva; 
and  there  Antoine  obtained  the  jiosition  of  pastor. 
Once  installed,  he  sought  to  pacify  his  conscience. 


Revealing  his  inmost  convictions  to  no  one,  he  se- 
cretly observed  a  Ihoioughly  Jewish  mode  of  life, 
saying  his  prayers  in  Hebrew  and  ob- 
Protestant   serving  iiU  the  Mosaic  rites.     In  his 
Pastor,       public    services    he   pronounced    the 
Though  a     name  of  Jesus  as  seldom  as  possible. 
Jew.  He    was   never   known   to   read    the 

apostolic  confession  audibly.  In  the 
communion  service,  instead  of  the  words  "This  is  my 
body,  this  is  my  blood,"  he  was  once  heard  to  say, 
"Your  Savior  remembers  you."  His  sermons,  the 
texts  for  which  were  t«ken  exclusively  fiom  Lsaiah 
and  the  other  prophets,  became  celebrated  far  and 
wide;  yet  they  liieked  any  ])eculiarly  Christian  char- 
acteristics. The  ]ieasanlsof  Divonne  were  lierfectly 
salistied  with  their  ]mslor,  who  was  eloiiuent  in  the 
exh-eine  and  full  of  kindness  toward  them;  they  were 
not  shocked  by  the  vague  form  of  bis  sermons.  But 
the  lord  of  the  adjoining  manor  was  outniged.  One 
Sunday,  Antoine  preached  on  the  second  Psillin, 
which,  according  to  orlhodox  Christian  theology,  an- 
nounces the  coming  of  the  son  of  God.  Antoine,  on 
the  contrary,  |)erinitted  himself  to  declai'e  that  God 
had  no  son  and  liiat  theie  was  but  th<>  one  God. 
This  was  too  much  fi>r  th<>  lord;  he  reiuonstrated 
loudly  with  the  heretical  pastor  and  threatened  to 
denounce  him  to  the  synod.  Antoine  fell  into  gloomy 
desjiair;  a  nervous  jittack  dei)riveil  him  of  his  reason. 
To  several  colleagues  from  Geneva  who  had  come  to 
see  him  he  began  to  chant  theseventy-fourlh  Psidm; 
then  he  suddenly  stopped,  and,  exelaiiuing  that  he 
was  a  Jew,  blasphemeil  Christianity.  Iliscoudition 
was  recognized  at  once,  and  lie  was  put  to  bed  ;  but 
he  escaped  his  watchers,  passi'd  the  night  wandering 
through  the  country,  and  was  found  the  next  morn- 
ing in  Geneva  in  a  most  pitiable  condition,  kneeling 
in  the  streets  and  calling  loudly  upon  the  Goil  of  Is- 
rael. He  was  placed  in  an  asylum  for  the  insjine  Feb, 
11,  1032.  Medical  ti'eatment  accoin]ilislied  but  little 
for  him.  Ilis  clerical  colleagues  did  all  they  could  to 
induce  him  lo  change  his  religion;  but  he  never  ceased 
to  proclaim  that  he  was  a  Jew  and  desired  to  remain 
a  Jew. 

A  cluirge  of  heresy  could  no  longer  be  avoided ; 
the   chief  of  the  Geneva   police  arrested   Antoine, 
and  instituted  proceedings.     While  he  was  in  prison 
the  clei'gy  were  tireless  in  seeking  his  reconversion, 
dying  in  vain  to  luakc   him  sign  a  declaiation  of 
orthodox  faith.     Bidden  to  formulate  his  religious 
belief,  he  drew  up  twelve  articles,  which  wei'e  sub- 
mitted loan  ecclesiastical  court.     In  them  he  gave 
the  tenets  of  Judaism  in  the  style  of 
His  Im-      Maimonides'  thirteen  articles  of  faith, 
prisonment  and  added  "eleven  philosophical  ob- 
and  jeetions  against    the    dogma   of   the 

Execution.  Trinity."  At  the  same  time  he  ad- 
dressed to  the  judges  three  memorials, 
two  of  which  have  been  preserved.  In  spite  of 
the  exertions  of  Sletrezat,  a  pastor  of  Paris,  and 
others,  the  judges  were  immovable.  Tht^  trial  com- 
menced April  11 ;  Antoine's  altitude,  full  of  dignity, 
aroused  much  syiupathy.  The  threats  of  the  judges 
were  of  no  more  avail  than  the  persuasions  of  liis 
colleagues.  He  repeated  constantly:  "I  am  a  .Tew; 
and  ail  I  ask  of  God's  grace  is  to  die  for  Judaism." 
The  court  sought  to  show  that  he  had  iiromulgated 
his  heretical  doctrines  at  Geneva:  this  he  conti-a- 
dieted  most  forcibly.  All  the  efforts  of  the  judges 
weie  met  with  the  unchanging  reply,  "With  the 
help  of  God  I  am  determined  to  die  in  my  present 
belief."  Fifteen  clergymen  or  professors  of  theol- 
ogy were  summoned  as  witnesses.  Several  of  them 
begged  for  a  light  sentence,  since,  in  their  opinion, 
Antoine  had  comiuitted  no  sin  by  becoming  a  Jew, 


653 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYfLOPEDIA 


Anti-Talmudists 
Autokolski 


tlioiifrh  for  liis  liypocrisy  he  ilcsprvcd  uiifrofkiiij; 
fir  haiiishniiiit,  or.  iit  the  worst,  cxcotuiniiniciitioii. 
Furthermore,  they  said  that  the  matter  ought  not  to 
be  hastened,  ami  that  the  advice  of  the  various 
cliurchesand  ueadeniies  sliould  hi' sought.  A  fanat- 
ical miijoritj'.  liowever,  insisted  tliat  the  judges 
sliould  seize  the  i)resent  opportunity  to  demonstrate 
their  faith,  since  it  was  most  dangerous  to  absolve 
one  who  had  jirofessed  Judaism  while  wearing  the 
garb  of  a  Christian  priest.  For  some  days  longer 
the  judges  waileil  for  Antoine  to  recant.  As  his  re- 
cantation wasnot  foilhcoming.  they  pronounced  sen- 
tence Ajiril  ;.'il,  Kilii;  condenining  him  to  he  loaded 
with  chains,  jdaced  upon  a  pyre,  to  be  there  stran- 
gled, and  then  burned.  In  vain  thcclergy  petitioned 
for  a  respite;  Antoine  was  e.xeeuted  the  same  day. 
He  went  to  his  death  serenely,  and  died  imploring 
the  nicrey  of  the  God  of  Abraham. 

BIBLIOC.RAPIIV  :  Siimmtcr,  AUn-  Ziil.  il.  Ju<l.  1H94,  Nos.  4  and 
j;  Hcv.  Et.  JuivcK.  xxxvl.  Itfi,  xxxvll.  lUl-lW. 

J.   B. 

ANTOKOLSKI,  MARK  MATVEYEVICH : 

Russian  sculptor;  born  in  Wilna  in  1S4'3.  As  a  young 
child  he  displayed  a  talent  for  art.  and  afti-r  a  short 
term  in  thi'  Judi r  (He- 
brew school)  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of 
carving  in  W(]od.  Ar- 
tistic carvings  in  wood 
e.xeeuted  by  liimattraet- 
cd  attention,  and  the 
youthfid  artist  was  pre- 
sented to  General  Na- 
zimov.  then  governor- 
general  of  Wilna.  At 
the  age  of  twenty -one 
lie  went  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where,  with  the 
aid  of  JInie.  Nazimov, 
he  was  enabled  to  enter 
the  Imperial  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts.  While 
there  he  tnaintained 
himself  by  worUini:  in  a 
turner's  shop,  receiving 
a  very  scanty  compen- 
sation. In  1S<U  the  silver  nie(hil  of  the  tirsl  order  was 
awarded  to  him  by  the  academy  for  his  woodearv- 
ing,"  The  Jewish  Tailor,"  whicli"i)iomptly  gained  for 
him  n  reputation.  In  the  following  year  "The  Mi- 
ser Counting  His  Money."  a  work  executed  in  ivory, 
brought  him  the  large  silver  medal  of  theaiademy 
and  a  pension  from  the  emperor.  In  1S(J()-(17  hi'  pii>- 
iluccil  a  bas-relief,  "The  Judas  Kiss."  and  a  group 
modeled  in  clay  enlitlid  "The  Descent  of  the  Inqui 
sitinn  on  a  Jewish  Family  at  the  Feast  of  I'assover." 
For  certain  reasons  the  academy  would  not  elect  him 
amember,  butolTerid  him  the  unusual  title  of  honor- 
ary citizen,  which  he  declined.  In  l^^t'iM  Anlokol- 
ski  went  to  Merlin,  and  after  a  short  slay  relumed 
to  St.  Petersburg,  and  produced  the  famous  statue. 
"  Ivan  the  Terrible."  for  which  he  was  appoinled  an 
aeademieiaii  at  the  express  command  of  F.mperor 
Alexander  l\..  who  purchased  the  statue  and  oidercd 
a  bronze  easting  of  il  to  be  placed  in  the  Hermitiige 
at  St.  Petersburg.  The  statue  represenls  the  lyraii- 
niral  czar  in  one  of  the  intervals  of  remorse. 

Soon  after  the  com|)letion  of  this  work  Autokolski 
went  to  Home,  where  he  priKluceil  the  colos.sal 
statue  of  "Peter  the  Great"  (IHT',').  and  projected 
"  Dmitri  Donskoi."  "  Yamslav  the  Wise."  and  "  Ivan 
III."  In  his  autobiogniphv  Autokolski  speaks  of 
the   cxtraordiunry  popularity  that  "Ivan  the  Ter- 


Murk  .Mitokiilskl. 

(From  a  fhi'l'iirriiph.) 


rible"  had  among  his  countrymen,  whereas  his 
statue  of  Peter  the  Great  was"  not  appreciated  in 
Kussia  till  after  its  successful  exhibition  at  the  Paris 
Salon.  According  to  his  opinion  the  half-mythical 
Ivan  speaks  more  feel- 
ingly to  the  national 
heart  than  the  epoch- 
making  and  energetic 
Peter. 

In  1874  Autokol- 
ski produced  "Christ 
Hound  Before  the  Peo- 
ple," which  was  re- 
ceived with  great  en- 
thusiasm. In  IHTo  he 
returned  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  while  thcri' 
produced  in  quick  suc- 
cession "The  Death  of 
Socrates"  (ISTti).  "The 
Last  Sigh  "  ( ISTT),  and 
"The  Head  of  John 
the  Baptist  "  (ISTS).   In 

thesamevearhis  works      _    .   .„,,    v.  .    u  i     ..  i,_ 
,••,.,    ,     .   .,  Bust  of     Mephlstoplieles,    by 

were  exhibited  at  the  Anti.kolskl. 

Paris  Exposition,  when 
the  jury  awarded  him 
a  first-class  niedal.  He  was  also  created  by  the 
French  government  Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
In  IS.so  he  received  the  tilleof  profes.sor  of  sculpture 
and  settled  permanently  in  Paris.  In  1H82  he  pro- 
duced "  Spinoza,"  and  later  "  Yermak  "  (the  Cos,sack 
coni|ueri)rof  Siberia)and  "  Xestor.  the  Annalist."  At 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  UlOU  he  exhibited  "  The  Sleep- 
ing Beauty  "and  "Pax,"  the  latter  a  young  blind 
Christian  girl  in  front  of  the  Coliseum. 

Of  Aniokolski's  career  and  works  the  celebra- 
ted Russian  art -critic  Stassov  gives  the  following 
description; 

"Aniokolski's  preernlnenfe  In  Europe  was  universally  ne- 
know  U-ilKeU  ui  ilie  I'aris  KxikisIUoii  in  l.sTS.  where  an  liilfnia- 
tlouul  Jury,  comiiost-a  of  urnsts    il»'leL'iii»'>  from  all  nuuoiis  — 


<Fr«im  »  plioU<([TKiih.) 


"Death  of  Sornit<>!i,"  by  Antokolskl. 

(Frnm  m  phou^ftiph.) 

awnnleil  lilm  llie  flrst  and  hlffhest  nrlxe  for  wiilplim' ;  anil  In 
hiiiiilifiNof  ai-tlcli-i  lu  llif  Jounuiis  ilii-  fon'lirn  rrtlli-s  never 

\n-arv  of  »|i.-iikluir  of  ilii.  ei-i'nl   |lin|»Tiaiii fl  Aui.ikolskl. 

Miiiiv  fuvoniWe  opIiiloHs  iif  tills  kliiil  lm\e  txvn  uheii  lu  Ilio 
fori'lirn  imxi  iil«.nt  Aiiiokobkl.    lliil  for  us  II  Is  a  mailer  of 

siioiiclarv  linporiai w  hat  Kiiropi'  ihliiks  of  him.    Mmh  iiion' 

sltfUllliant  Is  lhri|iieslloii  of  what  he  Is  to  us  Itiiwlans.  lie  l9 
llie  irmilest  s<'iilpior  I'f  our  nire.  He  n-pniu'iilK  lu  his  imtxih- 
ulllv  iKiiuelhluK  alloifi'llier  illlTen-nt  frum  wliul  all  Uie  n»l  of 


Antoli 
Antonia 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


654 


our  sciilptDrs  stnnd  for— txith  ani'lfnl  and  inmlem.  This  hiw 
lM*(*n  in)tnirt>st  frniii  Itn*  very  b<>irlnnlnff  nf  Ms  raniT  when  he 
^vi4>  y<*t  a  s(iiili-nt.  'I'hf  ItusNian  art  |)n*ss  then  wctroiiHHl  hliii 
jt>yfully.  But  when  ilh  a  yuiiih  hi*  cj-i-atcil  his  *  Ivan  tlic  Tcrri- 
l)li''  111'  asKiumlitl  I'vi'ry  nn<:  .  .  .  Slmc  thai  llnii>  his  ri'puta- 
tlon  liiLs  su-ailily  ifniwn.  ami  our  synipatlilcs  art'  imin'  and 
more  with  hlin.  Antokulskt  i-an  nut  Ih*  cliLsst'd  with  the  rest 
of  our  artists,  not  eyen  with  llie  most  eonsplruuus  anionir  them. 
It  must  not  IH'  foiirotien  that  he  Is  a  Jew  anil  what  this  means 
In  Utissta  ;  that  tiefnre  aehievlDi;  anything;  he  was  <-om)M-lled  to 
iinder(fo  harilshljis  whirh  no  artist  .>(  any  other  niee  would  havi> 
been  made  to  underpo.  Ihe  Ixilil  fearles.sni-ss  of  Antokolski 
was  the  ^rreuter  liecHiise.  insieaci  of  hitiintr  his  .lewish  oritriii.  in- 
stead of  eauslnir  it  to  he  forpitten.  he  louilly  pn>elajined  it. 
Yram  the  \ery  llrsi  he  appeared  ttefore  the  ludtresof  the  aead- 
eniy  and  the  liii.sslan  puhllc  w  Ith  suhjeets  aiid  typi^s  of  a  purely 
Jewish  elianieter.     Furlnnatelv  at  that  time  Kns>.lai)  s.i,-|..ty,  at 


"Ivan  the  Terrible,"  by  Antokolski. 

(From  a  photograph.) 

least  a  ereal  part  of  it.  Iiepan  to  relieve  It.self  of  the  shameful 
views  and  opinions  of  former  epwlis.  'I'he  preailiini.'s  of  rirn- 
pov.  that  the  Jews  had  a  ripht  to  live,  resounded  throuirhout 
Ilussia  and  found  a  ready  response  in  many  hearts.  Tills  time 
even  the  aeademy  was  not  to  Ik'  outdone  in  penerosity,  and  it 
pranted  Antokolski,  in  ISIU,  the  second  silver  medal  for  his 
oarvlnp  In  wood,  'The  .Jewish  Tailor'"  ("Vyestnlk  Ycvropy," 
1SK3, 1.  tiSO-OiK). 

Bibliography  :  Bulpakov,  NauM  Khiidmhniki,  St.  Peters- 
burp,  lS)<i).  i.  14  (,(  .»(■(;.;  v.  Stassov,  No.ihd  !>Iiuliitiiiii,  in 
Vllisltiilt  }ViTop)/,  February,  1883 ;  David  Mapiriil.  ,1  ii(o;ir>(- 
s/fi  (In  Hebrew),  Wai-saw,  18!»; ;  Artnhioiirniiiiii.  in  Vurxl- 
7)iA-  I'm-opi/,  18S7,  .\os.fland  10:  lia.slikovski.  Sm-}i  nn  innir 
liiisskK-Vi  rn  isl.iiir  Diicuntcti.  i.7  it  x,  i;..  iiiies.-,a.  Is'.r.i;  ,!(/,(. 
y.iit.  (l.Jihl.  Iks:!,  p.  i;tci;  .1  rt  ./oi(r;io(.  pp.  Iitl  luT,  Loudon. 
1889;  Iiiltniiiii-niiil  Stuilio,  Oetober,  18',);;  Uudunluliiiuft, 
1900,  No.  3,  pp.  59,  60. 

II.  R. 
ANTOLI.     S.-c  .Vn ATOLi. 

ANTON,  SANCHEZ.     See  SAXrnEZ  Axtonio. 

ANTON,    CAKL    (originally  Moses   Gershon 

Cohen) :  .VittliKr;  liorii  in  >[ilaii  (Conrland).  of  Jew- 
isli  pmiiitaire;  lived  in  the  fiirhteenth  centurj-.  lie 
claimed  descent  from  Ilayyim  Vital  Calabresc."  After 
stiidyingfor  seven  yetirs  at  Prajrno  tinilcr  .loiijttlian 
Eihcnscluitz,  Anton'tniveltd  in  the  East,  and  ou  Lis 


return  l)ccame  a  convert  to  Cliristianitv,  and  was 
liaptized  at  Wnlfcnliimd.  The  diikc  i>f"liriiiis\vick 
appointed  him  |)rofcssor  of  llelirew  at  Ilelnistt'dt. 
lie  was  disiiiii;tiislicd  from  the  usual  .lewisli  convert 
to  t'hristianily  hy  the  fact  that,  tludiirh  lie  occasion- 
ally reviled  liis  former  corcli_;;ionists,  he  also  spoke 
well  of  them,  even  vindicating  them  in  his  hook  on 
the  .lewish  oath  ("Einleiliing  in  die  .Illdischeii  iind 
Kahhinisclien  Heclile,  dahey  Inshesondciheit  von 
cinein  .Indencide,"  etc.,  Brunswick,  I?.")!!),  iiirainst 
some  of  Eiscnmenirer's  aspersions.  Anion  took  part 
in  llic  well  known  dispute  lietween  .lac(di  Emden 
and  .loiiathan  KibenschUl/,  in  which  he  warmly  de- 
liiolrd  Ihe  latter — some  say  at  Kilienschi'itz'  re(|nest 
("  Kin/c  Nachlicht  von  deni  Falsclien  Jlessias.  Shal)- 
lielliai  Z(dii."etc.,  WolfenhUtlel,  IT.VJ:  "Nachlesezu 
Dieser  Nacliricht."  Brunswick,  17."):S).  He  wrote  a 
Latin  tract  on  the  leirend  of  "The  Wanih'rinir  ,lew," 
entitled  "Commeiilalio  Historicade.lnila'o  Immortali 
in  (|iia  h.ic  Kalmla  Examinatiir  et  ConftitaUir," 
Ih'lmstedt,  ITotl;   Iranslali'd  .Vhraham  .hiirel's  cate- 

cliism."  I.ekal.i  Tcdi  "  (0 1  Iiistriiction),  Brunswick, 

17.")(!;  and  gave  a  description  of  a  rare  copy  of 
".''^hiilhan  '.Vriik  Eben  ha-Kzer,"  to  he  foniid  in 
inanusciipt  in  Ihe  City  l.ihniry.  llamhiirg.  lie  also 
w  nde"  Fiilnila'.Vntic|iiitatiim  Ehraicariim  Veteriiin," 
lie.,  Brtinswick.  lT.")t).  His  "Sammliing  einiger 
ItaliliinischerOden  nebst  einer  Frcyen  riiersidzting," 
liriinsxvick,  1T.")8.  is  a  enrions  ]irodnction.  as  the  odes 
are  written  neither  in  Hebrew  nor  in  Habbinic.  and 
would  be  unintelligible  but  for  the  accoin|)auying 
German  translation. 

Bnii,ioi;RAriiv  :  Ciriitz,  Gi.icli.  d.  Jinhn.  lid  ed„  x.  371. 

S.  A.  H. 

ANTON  DE  MORTORO  KOPERO.   See 

loiCI   Kn,    .\nton    111.    Mi.lcKilCO, 

ANTONIA  :  The  name  given  by  Herod  the  Great 
to  a  torlriss  on  the  north  side  of  the  Temple  at  .Jeru- 
salem. It  formed  ii  projectiidi  on  the  noi'tliwest,  so 
I  hat  it  Wits  not  till  it  was  destroyed  that  the  Temple 
area  became  ti  S(|nare  (.Joscphns,  "IS.  J."  v.  ,5,  sj  2 
and  vi.  Ti,  ^  A).  According  to  the  historian,  the  cir- 
cuit was  large  enough  to  enclose  broad  s])aces  for 
quarters  for  troops,  with  courts  and  baUis  rcsem- 
Iding  a  ]ialace.  These  courts  ad  .joined  the  norlli  and 
west  cloisters  of  the  outer  enclosure  of  the  Temple. 
There  were  four  corner  towers,  and  the  main  ciladel, 
on  a  lofty  scarped  rock,  was  said  to  bc'jOcubits  lii.trh. 
The  corner  towers  were  of  the  same  hi'iglit,  but  that 
on  the  .southeast,  rising  from  lower  ground,  wjts  70 
cubits  high,  A  deep  ditch  separated  the  fortress  from 
the  hill  of  Bezctha  to  the  north  ("B.  .1."  v.  4.  Js  2), 
and  the  rock  hid  the  Temple  from  view  on  this  side, 
while  a  secret  passage  leil  from  Antonia  to  the  inner 
Temple  (".\nt."  xv.'ll.  j;  7).  The  rock  so  described 
is  evidi'iitly  that  on  which  the  modern  barracks  are 
now  built,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  Htiram 
enclosure.  This  block  of  rock  is  scarped  on  either 
side,  and  rises  30  feet  above  the  inner  court,  arid 
about  (!0  feet  above  the  ancient  ditch  to  the  north, 
which  is  165  feet  wide.  The  block  is  about  140  feet 
thick  north  and  south,  and  e.vtends  for  3.")0  feet  east- 
ward from  the  ncd-thwest  an.srle  of  the  lltirain.  The 
buildings  erected  iijion  it  are  comiiarativclv  modem, 
but  the  ancient  Temple  wall,  of  large  masonry 
adorned  with  projectin.s  pillars,  adjoins  the  scarp 
on  the  west.  The  remains  of  the  underground  pas- 
sage (cut  in  the  rock)  are  fountl  still  to  the  north 
of  the  present  "Dome  of  the  Rock  "  in  the  Temple 
enclosure,  leading  northward  in  the  direction  of  the 
cast  end  of  the  scarji,  toward  the  position  of  the 
soiithea.st  corner  tower,  which  has.  however,  disap- 
peared in  consequence  of  alterations  in  this  part  of 


655 


TIIK  .lEWISlI   EN'CYCLOPKDIA 


Antoli 
Antonia 


tlic  Harnni.  The  cntiro  area  of  Antonia  appears  to 
Imvf  been  a  qiiailraMfilc  of  about  oIK)  feet  nortli  anj 
south  by  ;{.")(!  cast  anil  west,  or  four  acres. 

Tlionirli  reljuilt  ami  perhaps  enlarjred  by  Herod, 
tliis  eitailel  liail  existed  much  earlier.  The  liirnh 
belonging;  to  tlie  Holy  House  (Neh.  ii.  8)  was  prob- 
ably a  "fortress" — aceordiniito  the  Aramaic  and  As- 
syrian ini'anirifjjof  the  word — rather  than  a  "  palace." 
and  the  corner  lowers,  Hanani'el  and  .Mcah.  ari'  men- 
tioned to  th<'  north  of  the  Teniph'  (Zeeh.  .\iv.  10, 
Neh.  iii.  1.  .ler.  .\x.\i.  87).  .loseplius  ("U.  .1."  i.  3, 
t;  3)  gives  the  name  Baris  to  the  fortress  which  pre- 
ceded Antonia  on  this  site;  and  in  the  .Mishnah  (.Mill. 
i.  9;  Tamid.  i.  1 ;  Zeb.  .\ii.  3)  the  liirah  is  noticed,  w  ith 
the  passage  leadiu,;;  to  the  gate  Taili  on  the  iioiili 


built  in  the  foss  after  Hadrian's  rebuilding  of  Jeru- 
salem—tlu'  modern  level  being  some  40  feet  higher 
than  the  bcjttom  of  the  ditch,  'i'hus  Antonia  re- 
placed u  citadel  guarding  the  Temple  on  the  north, 
which  existed  even  before  the  deslnictiou  of.Iern- 
salem  by  Nebuehadne/.zar,  and  it  had  to  l)e  taken 
by  Titus  before  the  Holy  House  could  be  attacked 
from  the  north. 

BiDLiooUAPnv  ;  Buhl,  (ii-ngraitlii):  tltx  Alteu  Pdh'tnthui^  pp. 
141,  ir>l,  1.>1 ;  Vim  Alt^ii,  Die  Antnttia  unit  Ihtx  Cinytliuin/^ 
In  Zcit.  IhiiUeh.  PaliM.  Ver.  I.  m  t(  «<;. 

C.  R.  C. 

ANTONIA  :  The  younger  daughter  of  the  trium- 
vir .Mark  .Viiionv  ami  sister-in  law  of  Tiberius.    She 


Rll.SS  OF  TMK  AXTOXIA   FORTIltISS,  .iKiaSALbM. 

(troiii  Sta<U.  "  UMciiklilv  l>r»rlK."> 


side  of  the  Holy  House  This  liirah  wasfortilied  by 
tlie  Hasmomans  (.loseplius.  "Ant."  xv.  11.  S4)aml 
became  the  i)alace  of  John  Hyrcaniis("  Ant."  xvii.  4, 
^  li).  The  northwest  corner  tower  .seems  to  have 
iieen  known,  rather  lati-r.  as  Siralo's  Tower  ("Ant," 
xiii.  II.  S  -'■  "  "■  •'  "  i-  •'•  S  ••'•  "'"'  '"■'■e  "as  a  iiar 
row  \uidi  rgrouud  jiassage  in  whicli  Arislolndtis  was 
killed.  Tliis  may  be  n-pre.sented  by  the  rockcui 
pa.ssage  leailhig  from  the  dilcli  norlhwesl  of  Ati- 
tonia.  which  now  ends  at  the  Haram  Wall  built  by 
Hi'rod,  and  probably  one<'  communicaletl  by  steps 
Willi  Ihe  iiilerior  of  the  Antonia  eourlyard,  soulll 
of  the  great  scarp  above  described.  The  ililch  ex- 
isted al  Ihe  lime  of  I'ompcys  siege  ("  H.  .1."  i.  7, 
S  3).  and  was  arlilieially  <-ut  through  Ihe  hill  (v.  4. 
§2).  It  was  partially  iilhd  in  by  I'ompey  ("  Ant." 
xiv.  4,  S  •'>•  »"''  "'  •'"'  present  day  the  street  runs 
over  llie  "Twin  Pools,"  which  apiu'ur  to  hnvc  been 


was  on  friendiv  terms  with  IJerenire  (the  dauglitor 
of  Salome)  ami  also  with  her  son,  afterward  King 
A<ilill'l'A  I.  When  Agrippa  had  ilissipalcd  his  for- 
lime  al  IJome  and  returned  pemulcss  to  Judea.  I'l-- 
Irus,  a  freednian  <•(  Hirenici'.  bei|Ueatlicd  by  lier  to 
.Viiloida,  ailvamed  him  a  sum  of  money.  .VltlioULdi 
Ihe  promissory  note  was  drawn  for  'JO.IKMI  Allii- 
dniehmas,  I'elrus  gave  him  ■J.oOO  less.  lii-ing  unabli- 
to  pay  his  debt  of  300.(K(0  silverliiigs  to  the  liomaii 
In-asury,  Agrippa  lUd  from  Jamnia  lo  Alexanilrin, 
where  the  alabanh,  Ai.KXANDl.n.  who  w.as  at  the 
same  lime  Ihe  guanli.in  of  Anionia's  properly  (Jo- 
.seplius.  "  .\nt."  xix.  "(,  ^  I ),  supplic-d  him  w  ilh  money. 
Agrijipu  tlien  went  |o  Italy,  and  in  order  to  appeasi' 
till' ani;er  of 'I'iberius,  borrowed  Ihe  sum  of  ;i00,tMMt 
silverlingsfrom  .\ntoiuaand  paiil  his  debt  to  I  hi' treas- 
ury. Soon  after  he  also  p:iiii  the  money  back  to  An- 
tonia.   Uersoii,  afterward  i;inpenirC'laiidius(41-54), 


Antonia.  Princess 
Antonio,  Diotro 


Tin;  .1I;\\I^II  i;n(V(L()PK1)IA 


656 


wns  educated  together  with  Agrippa.  and  their  mu- 
tual friendship  proved  ti>  lie  a  permanent  one. 

Bnii.iiKiiiiPiiv  :  The  airniinls  nf  Joscplais  In  Ills  .tii*.  nml 
li.  J.  lUV  luTllllIW  laklMl  flXHIl  Iliu  lost  M  inks  ut  Cluiirtliis  Riifus 
(Moiiiiiiscii,  In  llmiUK.  Iv.  'JCi!). 

S.    Kli. 

ANTONIA,     PRINCESS     OF     WTJKTEM- 

BERG  :  A  ('liri>li:iii  llclir;\i'-l  a  ml  <:iliiilis!i<- scliolar. 
born  in  the  first  half  of  theseventeeiilii  eenlury  ;  died 
167il.  One  of  the  elTeets  of  the  Hefonnalion  in  Ger- 
many was  an  increased  interest  in  the  Ilclirew  lan- 
giiaffeamoii!:  Cliristian  scholars,  anil  royal  and  iiolile 
families  included  it  .sometimes  even  in  the  curriculum 
of  their  daughlers'  education.  In  the  scvcntccnlh 
century  many  German  women  attained  to(|uite  aeon 
sideralile  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  One  (if  the  best 
known  of  them  was  Antonia,  the  daughter  of  Duke 
Eherhurd  III.  of  Wurtemberg  (l(i-,'!l-74).  She  ae- 
(luiicda  remarkable  mastery  of  Hebrew,  and.  acconl- 
ing  to  contemporary  I'vidcnce,  was  well  versed  in  rab- 
binic and  cabalistic  lore.  Esenwein.  dean  of  l"racli 
and  jirofessor  at  Ti'ibingen.  wrote  as  early  as  .luly, 
Ki-li),  lo.Iohn  Huxtorf  at'lSasel  that  Antonia.  "having 
been  well  grounded  in  the  Hebrew  language  and  in 
reading  the  Hebrew  Hible.  desires  to  learn  also  the  art 
of  reading  without  vowels."  and  three  years  later  lie 
wrote  to  Buxtorf  that  she  had  niad<'  such  jirogress 
that  she  had  "with  her  own  hand  imt  vowels  to  the 
greatest  part  of  a  Hebrew  Bilile."  I'hilip])  .lacob 
Spcner,  anotlu'r  pupil  of  Buxtorf.  during  his  temjio- 
rary  stay  at  Ileidellierg.  was  on  friendly  terms  with 
the  princess,  and  they  studied  Cabala  together.  Bux- 
torf himself  presented  her  with  a  copy  of  each  of  his 
books.  There  is  a  manuscript  extant  in  the  Koyal 
Library  of  Stuttgart .  entitled  "  rnterschiedliclier  Uiss 
zu  Sepliiroth,"  which  is  supp<ised  to  have  been  writ- 
ten by  Antonia.  It  contains  cabalistic  diagrams,  some 
of  which  are  interpreted  in  Hebrew  and  German. 
Her  praise  was  sung  by  many  a  Christian  Hebraist, 
and  one  iioem  (in  twenty-four  stanzas  witli  her  acros- 
tic) in  honor  of  the  "  celebrated  Princess  Antonia"  has 
been  preserved  in  the  collection  of  manuscripts  of 
John  Buxtorf. 

BiBi.ioiiR.VPHY:  Stelnschnelder,  Ilchi.  mhl.  xx.  67,69;  Kay- 
serlna;,  J.ic  Qunrt.  Riv.  l.silT,  ix.  ."iHU  rl  s,y. 

M.  B. 

ANTONINUS  IN  THE  TALMUD  :  A  Roman 
emiieror,  and  the  hero  of  .Jewish  legends  that  recount 
wonderful  things  about  his  attitude  toward  .Jews 
and  .Judaism,  and  more  particularly  concerning  liis 
friendship  with  Habbi.  He  is  called  "the  son  of 
DITIDX  '  (Severus)  liy  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  but 
which  Honian  emperor  is  actually  meant  by  this 
name  can  hardly  be  determined.  He  lias  in  turn  been 
identitied  with  Marcus  Aurelius  (Hapoport  and  Bo- 
dek).  .Septimius  Severus  (Gractz,  who  identities 
Kabbi  with  .Tudah  ha-Xasi  11.),  Caracalla  (.lost  and 
N.  Krochmal),  Elagabalus  (Cassel),  and  Lucius  Ve- 
rus(Frankel).  The  account  in  the  Talmud  is  legend- 
ary, not  liistorical,  and  no  heed  is  given  to  details, 
or  ditliculties  of  a  chronological  or  psycluilogical 
nature.  The  traditional  religious  discussions  be- 
tween Ilailrian  and  .Joshua  ben  Ilananiah,  between 
Akilia  and  Tinnius  JSufus,  lietweeii  Sliabur  I.  and 
Samuel  Yarhinai.  as  well  as  the  legendary  interviews 
between  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  high  priest 
Simon,  or  between  Ptolemy  and  the  jiriest  Eleazar, 
may  serve  as  parallels  to  the  various  Antonine  leg- 
ends. Jewish  folk-lore  loved  to  personify  the  rela- 
tions of  .Judaism  with  heathendom  in  the  guise  of 
conversations  between  Jewish  sages  and  heathen 
potentates. 

The  legend  of  Antoninus  begins  with  his  earli- 
est youth.    The  mother  of  T?alibi  exchanged  her  son 


soon  after  liisbirlh  for  Antoninus — the  child  of  an 
intimate  aci|Uaiiitanee.  In  this  way  she  and  her 
child  managed  to  escape  the  ollicersof  Hadrian,  who 
were  persecuting  the  woman  because  she  had  her  son 
circumcised.  As  a  c<inse(|uence  Antoninus  imbilied 
with  his  milk  a  love  for  .lews  and  Judaism  (Tos. 
All.  Zaiiili.  1(1//):  and  it  was  Kablii,  the  son  of  this 
vicarious  mother,  whoservedasthe  guide  and  friend 
of  Antoninus;  succee<liiig  linally  in  getting  him  to 
embrace  Jmhiism  (Yer.  Meir.  i.  72//;  B.  II.  vi.  130, 
131). 

However,  Antoninus,  the  "king,"  did  not  (los- 
ilively  accept  Judaism  in  its  eiilirety  until  he  hail, 
with  the  help  of  his  .le«  ish  friend,  thoroughly  inves- 
tigated ils  fundiimental  ]irinciples.  Thus  he  chal- 
lenged the  Jewish  c<inception  of  punishment  after 
death  by  alleging  thai  it  was  very  ea.sy  for  both 
body  and  soul  to  exculpate  themselves.  The 
body  coulil  say.  "It  is  the  soul  that 
Antoninus  transgress<s,  for  just  as  soon  as  it 
and  leaves  me  I  am  inert  as  a  stone. "    The 

Rabbi.  soul  on  iis  part  could  reply,  "Tin' 
fault  is  in  the  body,  for  since  I  have 
separated  from  it  I  hover  like  a  bird  in  the  air'' 
(Sanh.  91«  ct  sir/. ;  a  shorter  form.  Mek.  Besliallal.i, 
Shirah  ii.).  Kabbi's  answer  explained  the  right  re- 
latiousliip  lietweeii  body  and  soul  by  tlie  parable  of 
the  blind  man  and  the  lame  one  ("  Monatsschrift," 
1H73,  ]i.  7."i).  Hablii  also  instructed  Antoninus  con- 
cerning the  resurrection,  which  would  take  |ilaee 
(piite  diirereiitly  from  the  usual  lielief  which  in- 
cluded even  the  intact  con<litionof  the  grave-clothes 
(Yer.  Kil.  ix.  '.Mh,  Y'cr.  Ket.  .xii.  S-in,  where  the 
name  appears  as  Antolinus).  Antoninus  puts  ques- 
tions to  Rabbi  concerning  the  cosmos — as,  for  in- 
stance, what  meaning  there  is  in  the  sun's  setting 
in  the  west  (Sanh.  !H//) — as  well  as  questions  con- 
cerning Judaism  )ir(iper. 

In  like  maiinir  Aiiloninns  could  not  see  why  the 
.Jewish  law  appointed  cerlain  hours  for  prayer,  since 
the  latter  should  be  olTered  at  an\-  time  that  the  im- 
pulse to  devotion  was  felt  (Tan.  ed.  Buber  i.  19(1); 
Rabbi  accordingly  showed  him  by  an  apt  illustration. 
But  sometimes,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  Antoninus 
who  instructed  Rabbi,  making,  for  inslance.  the 
statement  that  while  the  unborn  child  receives  its 
vital  |irinciple  at  conception,  the  germ  of  mentality 
and  its  conconiiiant,  evil  inclination,  are  received  at 
birth  only  (Sanh.  I.e.). 

Legend  has  many  details  concerning  the  jiersonal 
relations  between  tli(^  two.     There  were  sumptuous 
banquets  given  in  honor  of  each  other,  of  which  the 
menus  have  been  ]ireservcd  (Gen.  R.  xi.  4,  Esther 
H.  i.  3).     The  emjieror  would  take  counsel    of  his 
friend  prior  to  any  warlike  enterprise,  as,  for  in- 
stance, concerning  his  intended   campaign  against 
Alexandria  (this  is  told  regardless  of  tlie  absurd- 
ity  of   a  war   at   that    jic-riod    between    Rome   and 
Egypt).     He  is  said  to  have  undertaken  this  expedi- 
tion relying  upon  Rabbi's  assurance. 
Intimacy    based  upon  E/.ek.   xxix.   l."i.  thai  he 
of  had  nothing  to  fear  from  the  Egy]'- 

Antoninus  tians  (Mek.,  Beshallah,  Sliimh(i).  It 
and  Rabbi,  appears  that,  owing  to  political  cir- 
cumstances, the  exchange  of  views 
between  these  friends  was  attended  with  jiositive 
dan.ger,  although  it  was  arranged  that  there  should 
be  no  third  person  jiresent  wlien  Antoninus  visited 
Rabbi,  and  that  upon  each  occasion  the  emperor 
should  slay  with  his  own  hand  the  two  servants 
that  knew  "of  the  conference  CAb.  Zarah,  Id").  The 
friends  were  also  compelled  to  have  recourse  to  a 
species  of  sign  language.  Thus  theemperoi  'semis- 
sary  brought  lijibbi  the  question  as  to  what  he  should 


667 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antonia,  Princess 
Antonio,  Dio^o 


do  to  Ix'ttcr  llic  liiiancial  CDiulilion  of  I  lie  stiitr.  Hiiljlii 
led  the  iiicssciiircr  into  his  pmlcii,  and  williout  sjiy- 
iiig  n  word  juiikMl  u|i  sonu'  of  the  huge  nidishcs  aiid 
replaced  them  with  youiis  ones.  The  emperor  un- 
derstood the  intimation;  ami  by  th<'  removal  of  the 
heads  of  liis  tinaneial  administnilion  he  elTeeted  a 
wholesome  elianire  ((!en.  K.  Ixvii).  Antoninus  had 
two  wishes  most  at  heart;  one  was  the  (levalion  of 
Tiberias  to  the  rank  of  a  "colony" — probably  be- 
cause it  was  a  Jewish  town;  and  the  second  was  to 
assure  the  succession  of  his  son  to  the  throne.  He 
could  obtain  either  but  not  both  of  these  re(juesls 
from  the  Senate;  and  he  applied  to  I{;ibl)i  for  coun- 
sel. Habbi  brouu;ht  two  men  into  the  presence 
of  the  messenirer,  put  a  dove  in  the  hand  of  one  of 
them  and  bade  him  mount  the  back  of  his  fellow. 
Then  he  said  lo  him  that  supported  the  other,  "^iee 
that  he  whom  IhnU  earliest  lets  the  dove  f;o  free!" 
Antoninus  understood  the  intimation;  his  son.  once 
emperor,  woulil  have  it  in  his  jjower  to  raise  Tibe- 
rias to  the  position  of  a  eolimy  (Al).  Zarah,  H)Ij).  A 
similar  answer  was  relurned  to  the  emperor  by 
Habbi  in  reply  to  Ids  in(|uirv  as  to  w  hat  he  should  do 
concernini;  his  unprincipled  danf,'htcr,  whose  name 
was  <!ira.  The  imiuiry  came  in  the  shape;  of  a 
plant  called  (!arf,'ira;  that  is.  "Gar  Gira";  Gira 
hath  iroiie  astray.  Hablii's  answer  consisted  of  the 
plant  Kusbarta  (meaniiii;  "Kus,"  slay,  "brata,"  the 
daii{,diter).  Anioidiuis  replied  again  by  seiuling  the 
plant  luirrathe,  which  word  means  "my  e.xtinc 
tion"  :  whereupon  Hjilibi.  apprecialini;  the  emperor's 
\inwillin.irness  to  cut  olT  his  posterity,  replied  by 
sendiiif;  tlu;  plant  l.lasa,  "  Have  mercy  "  (//;.  !()/(). 

The  emperor's  appreciation  of  ijabbi  took  the 
form  of  the  richest  presents,  tracts  of  land  (Yer. 
Sheb.  vi.  'Mil),  even  sacks  of  gold,  the  mouths  of 
whicli  were  covered  with  grain  in  older  not  to  e.xcite 
the  jealousy  of  the  Romans.  Habbi  did  not  wish 
to  accept  these  presents  until  Antoiunus  puintcd 
out  to  him  that  the  time  woidd  come  when  his  pos- 
terity would  be  very  glad  of  the  gold  in  order  lo 
ai)pease  the  greed  of  those  thatshould  be  desc-ended 
from  him  (Antoninus)  ('.\li.  Zarah,  KlA). 

The  earlier  legend  .sees  in  Aiitniiinus  only  the  God 
fearing  iion  Jew,  so  well  inclined  toward  Judaism 
that  he  erected  an  altar  to  the  Jewish  God,  without 
actually  beconnnga  Jew  (Yer.  .Meg.  i.  ~2'i;  thus  also 
probably  Midr.  Teh.  .vxii.  24).  The  later  legend, 
however,  regards  him  as  the  type  of  the  true  pro.se 
lyte.  pnv  13.  and  it  is  allirmed  that  at 
His  the  risiirrection  he  \\  ill  arise  and  be  the 

AHeged  leader  of  all  proselytes)  Yer.  -Meg.  l.r.. 
Conversion.  Lev.  H.  iii  ).  The  cause  of  his  conver 
sion  is  said  to  have  been  his  inciinry  id' 
Habbi  whether  he  would  be  entitled  to  partake  of 
I,Kvi.vrn.\N  in  the  future  world.  Habbi  assured  him 
he  would  be  considered  worthy,  but  Antoninus 
wmdd  not  believe  him,  because  the  law  concerning 
the  paschal  lamb  (Kx.  xii.  IM)  states  distinctly  that 
no  uncircumeised  one  shall  partake  nf  that.  He 
accordingly  entered  the  covenant  of  Abraham  and 
became  11  Jew  (Yer.  Meg.  I.e.). 

nnii.KKiitAi'iiv  :  lUiixiiwirl,  'Knh  Millin.  ».  v.:  Iilcni.  In  Krrrin 
I.lrwril,  Iv  -'l.'«  ;;tli.  vll.  I:1HL'U:  J>.»l.  (;.»r/i.  ilir  hi<i,l- 
ilin.  Iv.  117 •  (  mil.,  unci  iipiH-nilljl,  p. ;!:£.' ;  liliMii.  In  Ximi.  IS4I,  |i|i, 
ULLT,  II :  lileiii,  /,i/.ni(iirMii((./.vi(>nVri(i.  IWll,  p,  11 ;  s.  Ciw. 
si'l.  In  Krscli  iiiiiKinilnT,  Kiirulil.  ixvll.  17  >»«<<;.;  Knn'hiniil. 
Ilc-lliilii;. II. 7i: /..  Kniiikel,  .V. /m. p.  isr.';  (iriliz,  (;.«<;i. ;!<l ,■,{., 
Iv.  4S.'i.(  mil.:  Idi'lll,  III  .Viiililliarhrifl.  I.  ;!:lll,  ml.  Clll;  ll(«lel,. 
Mnrrun  .liov/t»*i -In/oMoiie*.  I.el|»>lr,  \>ii\H:  II.  llniTiiiiinn.  fn 
Mttiiitzin.  xlx.  'CI,  :14\  wliiTi'  nil  till'  If^end.H  nf  .\i)tiiiiiiiu!«  itn- 
I'olUrtiHl ;  Iliu'lKT,  Aa.  l>iii.  II.  4W. 

L.   O. 

ANTONINUS   PIUS   (Titus  AureHus    Ful- 
xrxis     Boionius     Arrius     Antoninus):       Hi'tiian 
l.—Vi 


Curious  Pk'ture  of  Antoninus  Plus 
frctin  the  .iri(l.-(>eriiuiii  "Josip- 
IXJii,"  FQrth,  KtW. 


emperor;  born  in  the  year  80;  died  in  161;  ruled 
from  ViH  until  his  death.  The  reign  of  this  just 
and  humane  emperor  came  like  a  bles.siug  to  the 
Jews,  particularly  to  those  of  Palestine.  The  re- 
ligious iiersecutions  of  Hadrian  had  deva.stateil  the 
country,  depopulated  the  cities,  and  made  the  intel- 
lectual development  of  the  Jews  impossible.  Had 
these  conditions  lasted  much  longer,  there  xvould 
have  been  an  end  to  the  Jewish  people  in  the  Homan 
empire.  As  soon  as  the  Jews  knew  of  the  ch;inge  of 
rulers,  they  sent  an  embassy,  with  H.  Judah  b.  .Sha- 
mu'a  at  its  head,  to  Rome  to  negotiate  for  improve- 
ment in  lheircondition(.Meg.  Ta'anit,  .xii).  Through 
the  intercession  of  an  inlluential  matron  they  suc- 
ceeded in  procuring 
milder  treatment.  On 
the  tifteenth  of  Ab 
(.Vug.,  138 or  l;!!!)  the 
emperor  permitted 
the  burial  of  the  Jew- 
ish soldiers  and  mar 
tyrs  who  had  fallen  in 
battle  a.gaiust  the  Ro- 
mans, and  whose  in- 
terment had  been  put 
under  severe  penalty 
(  Yer.  Ta'anit,  iv.  ^  5, 
()9((;  Ta'anit,  Sin). 
Half  a  year  later 
(.March.  Kit)  or  140) 
.\ntoninus  repealed 
the  edicts  of  Hadrian 
— which  had  iirevent- 
ed  the  Jews  from  ex- 
ercising their  religion — on  the  condition  that  they 
should  not  receive  proselytes  (Meg.  Ta'anit.  .xii. ; 
"  Digesta  "  of  .Modestinus,  xlviii.  S,  11).  Moreover, 
they  were  forbidden,  on  penally  of  death,  to  enter 
Jerusalem.  Those  Jews  who  had  fled  to  foreign 
countries  in  order  to  escape  the  persecutions  of  Ha- 
drian gradually  returned  to  their  homes.  The  intel- 
lectual stagnation  of  the  Jewish  people  came  to  an 
end  ;  and  the  disciplesof  Akiba  founded  a  new  center 
of  Jewish  culture  at  rsha,  whither  the  patriarch 
Simon  b.  Gamaliel  H    also  reiiaired. 

It  is  stated  to  have  been  in  .Vnloninus'  reign  that 
I  he  Jews  were  deprived  of  the  right  lo  have  their  own 
courts,  which  prerogative  was  by  the  Pharisees  con- 
sidered essenlial  to  religion  (Yer.  Saidi.  vii.  §2,  24/»). 
Those  that  dared  to  criticize  the  measures  of  the  em- 
peror were  baiushed  or  put  to  death  (Shall.  3o/').  It 
is  licit  surprising,  then,  that  even  under  .\ntoniuus 
the  .lews  attc'inpted  to  throw  otT  the  Homan  yoke 
("Seriptores  lIisioria>  Augusta',  .\iitoninus  Pius,'' 
eh.  v. ).  The  strained  relations  existing  between  the 
Parthiansaiid  the  Romans  may  have  cucoimiged  the 
Jews  to  revolt  and  to  expect  assistance  from  tin-  Par- 
lliians  Hut  such  assislaiiee  was  not  rendered,  and 
the  revolt  was  probably  nippcMl  in  the  bud;  Jewish 
sources  do  not  even  allude  to  it.  .Sif  also  .Vntoni- 
MS    IN    TIIK   'I'.Vl.Ml  I);    Sl.MoN    11.   Y'di.l.M;    V.MdS. 

Illlll.liiiill.kniv:  (iriltz,  (Irmli.  il.  .linlnl.  2cl  wl..  Iv.  IHI-IHO, 
ani,  ai7,  47IMni;  VuK-ftsirln  uuil  Itliwr.  <leKli.  ilirjinlrii  in 
Hum.  I.  111. 

L.  G. 

ANTONIO,  DIOOO  :  A  physic  ian  who  lived  in 
I.isbiiii  ill  the  lirst  half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Ill  l."i:i!l  he  .siieeeccled  Duarlc'  de  I'll/,  as  ri^presenla- 
live  of  the  Portuguese'  Manuios  at  I{ome.  charired 
with  the  mis-sicui  of  endeavoring  lo  prevent,  or  at 
lea.st  lo  postpone,  the  eslablishment  of  the  Incpiisi- 
lion  in  I'ortiigal.  For  this  purpose  certain  sums  of 
moiii-y  were  entrusted  to  him,  but  lie  iisc'd  Ihein  for 
obtaining  papal  briefs  of  protection  for  him.self  and 


Antonio,  Dom 
Antwerp 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


658 


liis  family.     Diogo  was  succcok-d  in  iifllco  by  his 
lirother  llfctor.     See  Antonio.  Hkctok. 

BiBLiooRAPiiY :  Kayscrllng,  Gesch.  (kr  Jmliti  in  Portiioni, 

M.  K. 

ANTONIO,  DOM  :  Prior  of  Crato,  pretender  to 
the  Ikriiiic  of  P()rtu!;al :  died  1595.  He  wasa  natural 
son  of  Dom  Luis,  lirother  of  Kin.:;  Henry  of  Porlujial, 
and  of  the  converted  Jewess  lolaiithe,  Henry's  mis- 
tress: but  was  legitimated  by  his  father.  The  nu 
merous  secret  Jews  of  Portugal  naturally  looked 
forward  to  his  accession  with  s;itisfaction,  as  it  was 
not  likely  he  would  continue  the  persecution  of  his 
own  mother's  relatives  and  coreligionists.  After  the 
death  of  Dom  Henry  (Jan.  81,  15S0),  Philip  II.  of 
•Spain  claimed  the  Portuguese  crown,  and  ottered  in 
vain  to  Dom  Antonio  an  annual  income  of  40,lHI0duc 
ills,  in  addition  to  the  receipts  of  the  iiriory,  if  he 
would  relinquish  his  claims.  As  soon  as  Philip  be 
gan  towage  war  with  Portugal.  Antonio  had  himself 
proclaimed  king.  The  Duke  of  Alha,  the  command- 
er-in-chief of  the  Spanish  troops,  attacki-d  the  ad- 
herents of  Antonio  with  the  utmost  fury.  In  the 
battle  of  Alcantara.  Antonio  with  dilliculty  avoided 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  pursuing  foe.  and  tied 
with  a  few  thousand  followers  to  Oporto.  Pursued 
thither,  he  wasagain  obliged  to  seek  sjxfety  in  flight, 
and  died  in  e.xile.  He  visited  England,  where,  it  has 
been  conjectured,  his  presence  gave  particular  point 
to  the  character  of  Siiylock.  Philip,  the  new  ruler 
of  Portugal,  revenged  himself  most  cruelly  on  the 
Alaranos. 

Bibliography:  KayserlinR,  Gesch.  rl.  Judcu  in  Portugal,  p. 
271) ;  M.  Ptillippson.  Eiii  Miniateriiini  iinter  Pliilip  II.— 
Kardinal  GraiircUa,  pp.  87  et  seq.,  Berlin,  1895. 

M.    K. 

ANTONIO,  HECTOR  :  Brother  of  Diogo  An- 
tonio. He  was  the  representative  of  the  Portuguese 
Maranos  in  Rome  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  commissioned  to  adjust  the  finances  of  his 
brother,  and  to  convey  to  Pope  Paid  III.  a  com- 
jilaint  against  the  inquisitor-in-chief,  the  Cardinal- 
Infante  Don  Henricjue.  The  Portuguese  amba.ssador 
at  the  Vatican  urged  the  immediate  imprisonment 
of  the  fugitive  ilarano.  but  he  was  saved  by  the  in- 
tercession of  the  pope.  Antonio's  elTorts  on  behalf 
of  his  suffering  brethren  met  with  no  success. 

Bibliography  :  KayserlinK,  Gesch.  der  Juden  in  Portnuah 
pp.  221i.  LW. 

M.  K. 

ANTONIO,    JOSE    DA   SILVA.     See  Silva, 

Antonio,  .losi-:  ha, 

ANTONIO  DE  MENDES.  See  Mendes,  An- 
tonio UK, 

ANTONIO  DE  VERONA  (called  also  Maria 
Antonio) :  Italian  Jew.  resident  in  England  from 
llV2;j-'25.  who  seems  to  have  been  a  teacher — proba- 
bly of  Hebrew — at  King's  College.  Cambridge,  the 
books  of  which  record  a  grant  of  £2  (SIO)  to  him  in 
1623-24.  Queen  Ileurierta  Maria  gave  him  a  letter 
of  recommendation  to  Oxford  L'niversity,  Jan.  19, 
1625.  He  is  probably  the  s;ime  Jew  who  had  a  pen- 
sion of  £40  (S200)  granted  him  at  Cambridge  (Calen- 
dar of  State  Papers — Domestic,  1625-26,  p.  98). 

Bibuoorapbt:  Athenwum,  Aug.  27,  Sept.  3, 10, 1887. 


ANTXJNES  :  Family  name  of  several  prominent 
.Tews. 

Aaron  Antunes  :  Hakam  of  Amsterdam;  lived 
about  the  year  1715.  He  is  known  as  a  correspondent 
of  many  rabbis  of  his  daj',  among  them  Jacob  Mahler. 


rabbi  of  Dils.seldorf.  He  left  a  commentary  on  the 
"Sayingsof  the  Fathers  "(written  at  Naerden.  1723), 
and  a  halakie  treatise.  "  .Mattih  Aharon  "  (.Varon's 
Kod).  both  of  which  are  still  extant  in  manuscript. 

Luis  Antunes:  A  victim  of  the  Inquisition  at 
Coimbra;  born  in  1672.  He  was  .sentenced  to  im- 
prisonment for  life  for  his  profession  of  Juilaisin. 

Manuel  Antunes,  of  I.ainego.  his  biotlur  Ra- 
phael, and  his  sisters  Clara  and  Beatriz,  met  wiih 
the  same  fall'. 

Others  known  under  this  name  are:  David  An- 
tunes, author  of  a  poem  on  the  martyrs  .M.in  os  ila 
Alnifvcla  lii-riial  and  Alir.ihani  Xunes  Bcrnal ;  lived 
in  Anistcrdam.  lt!55;  Gabriel  Antunes,  a  relative 
of  David,  settled  in  Barbados  in  1680;  and  Aaron  de 
Solomon  Antunes,  printer  in  Ainst<.'rdam  from 
1715  to  1720. 


BiiiLiocKAniv  :  Rcruc  Orientale,  1. 280. 


M.  K. 


ANTWERP  :  Chief  seaport  of  the  kingdom  of 
Belgium;  capital  of  the  province  bearing  the  same 
name. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  at  what  time  Jews  com- 
menced to  settle  in  the  city,  as  all  early  data  are 
wanting.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  however,  a 
certain  number  of  Jews  must  have  resided  in  Ant- 
werp; fi>r  in  the  Jlemorbuch  of  .Mayence.  as  well  as 
in  that  of  Deutz.  mention  is  made  of  a  place  called 
"Antdorf."  in  connection  with  Brabant.  Mc'chlin, 
and  Brussels,  as  one  of  the  plates  where  the  .lews 
suffered  martyrdom  at  the  time  of  the  Black  Death, 
in  1348-50.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Antweri) 
is  intended  ("Rev.  £t.  Juives."  viii.  136;  Salfeld. 
"Das  Martyrologium  des  Nurnberger  Memor- 
buches."  p.  286;  Koenen,  "Geschiednis  der  Joden 
in  Nederland,"  p.  74). 

It  is  uncertain  whether  or  not  the  Jews  of  Ant- 
werp sullered  with  those  of  Brabant  and  Luxemburg 
who  were  driven  out  of  these  districts  in  1359  after 
the  famous  trial  at  Brussels,  at  which  several  had 
been  charged  with  desecrating  the  Host  of  Saint 
Gudule.  A  more  humane  spirit  seems  to  have  pre- 
vaile<l  here;  for  in  MSO  the  authorities  succeeded 
in  obtaining  a  charter  |ic-rmitting  Jews  to  .settle 
among  them,  upon  the  express  condition,  however, 
that  they  should  give  no  occasion  for  scandal. 

Antwerp  reached  the  height  of  its  prosiierity  in 
the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  As  a  com- 
mercial city  it  became  the  center  of  the  East  Indian 
trade  of  the  Portuguese;  and  many  of  the  rich  mer- 
chants and  bankers  of  Lisbon  had  branch  houses 
here.  In  1.536,  according  to  a  document  in  the 
Belgian  state  archives,  Charles  V.  gave  i)ermission 
to  Maranos  to  settle  in  the  Netherlands.  This  doc- 
ument, as  well  as  many  others  relating  to  the  Jews  of 
the  period,  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  "Plakajilboek  " 
of  Brabant ;  but  it  has  been  shown  that  this  collec- 
tion, made  in  164^.  was  at  a  later  time 

Maranos  expurgated.  The  magistrates  of  Ant- 
Gran  t  e  d  werp  must  have  been  overjoyed  at  this 
Doinicili-  promise;  for  not  only  was  the  welfare 
aryRig-hts.  of  the  city  a  matter  of  their  concern, 
but  they  seem  always  to  have  been 
actuated  by  a  spirit  of  tolerance  not  common  at  this 
period.  When  the  letters  patent  of  this  decree 
reached  them  in  1537.  they,  in  allixing  their  official 
seal  to  the  document,  added  the  words  "Le  tout 
sans  fraudeou  mal  engin."  The  Maranos  were  only 
too  willing  to  make  use  of  this  iierinission.  and  pro- 
ceeded to  acquire  houses  and  set  up  their  businesses 
in  their  new  home.  One  of  these  was  the  rich  Ma- 
rano  Francisco  Mendes,  a  member  of  the  well-known 
Nasi   familv.      At  the  head   of  the  branch  of  his 


669 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antonio,  Dom 
Antwerp 


bank,  wliicli  he  liiui  islablished  at  Antwerp,  was  a 
jounfTcr  bnitlicr,  Diejr"  Mciidcs.  AVlicn  tlie  Inqui- 
sition wiis  inlriKluccil  into  I'DiInirul  llir  cliiof  l)iisi- 
nessof  tlie  tirni  was  relcfriitcd  to  Antwerp,  anil  many 
fif  the  Miiranos  of  Portwijal,  fearing  the  Holy  Ollice, 
fame  and  settled  in  this  city. 

It  was  at  Antwerp  that  Graeia  Meiidesia,  wife  of 
Francisco  Jlendes,  lived  for  many  years,  havini;  lied 
there  some  time  before  the  year  1");{5. 
Graeia  Her  nephew.  .IiiAo  .Mi^n<'/.  (afterward 
Hendesia.  Don  .losej)!!  Nasi),  is  .said  to  have  oc- 
cupied a  ]ironiinent  jjlaee  ainnni;  the 
citizens  of  Antwerp  and  to  have  been  well  received 
by  Maria,  sister  of  Charles  V..  who  was  at  that 
time  regent  of  the  Low  Countries.  When  Joseph 
moved  to  Italy,  he  tried  to  interest  the  Protestants  in 
Antwerp,  as  well  as  Sultan  Selim  II.,  in  his  scheme 
for  acipiiring  an  island  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago. 
in  which  to  settle  thi'  unfortunate  Jews  that  were 
driven  out  of  Spain.  But  the  people  of  Antwerp  did 
not  .seem  to  have  lhou;;ht  much  of  the  iirojcci,  and 
lent  him  no  heljiing  hand.  It  was  at  Antwerp  that 
large  stims  of  money  were  collected  and  .sent  to 
Portugal  and  to  Italy  in  the  hope  of  intluencing  the 
Inquisition  to  relax  its  vigilance  in  the  case  of  the 
secret  Jews.  Graeia  .Mendesia,  after  a  few  years, 
found  the  burden  too  great  of  trying  to  live  up  to 
a  religion  with  which  she  did  not  sympathize:  and 
with  nuich  trouble  she  escaped  to  Italy,  where  she 
could  openly  pnifcss  Judaism,  and  there  continued 
her  noble  work  in  behalf  of  her  oppre.s.sed  brethren 
(Griltz,  "Gesch.  dcr  Juden,"  i.\.  80(>). 

There  are  accounts  of  other  notable  e.\iles  from 
the  Spanish  |)eninsula  living  in  this,  perhaps  the 
oldest,  Klemish  selllement  of  the  Maranos.  Most 
prominent  among  them  were  the  renowned  i)liysi- 
cian  Amatus  Lusitamis  (l.")l  1).  and.  in  the  n<'.\t  cen- 
tiu'y.  the  traveler  Pedro  Tci.\cira,  who,  after  hav- 
ing completed  his  journey,  settled  liere,  returned  to 
the  Jewish  faith,  and  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels 
(Kay.serling,  "  Gesch.  dcr  Juden  in  Portugal."  ji.  :{(ll ; 
tdeiii,  introdiution  to  J.  J.  lienjandn,  "Eight  Years 
in  Asia  and  Africa."  pj).  1  <7«<y/.,  Hanover,  18.")!)). 

There  arc  only  a  few  data  relating  to  the  fate  of 
the  Jewish  iidiabitanis  of  Antwerp  in  the  secon<l 
half  of  the  si.xteenth  century.  It  is  (piite  prob 
able  that  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition  into  the 
Netherlands  by  Philii)  II.  and  his  agent,  the  duke 
of    Alva,    was   sorely    felt    by    them. 

The  In-      though  the  city  authorities  did  all  in 

quisition  in  their  power  to  keep  these  secret  Jews 

the  Neth-    among   them.     It  is  known  that   the 

erlands.  city  councils  of  Arnheim  and  Zlllplun 
answered  Alva  that  lher<'  were  no 
Jews  in  their  towns;  and  this  was  in  a  measure  true 
also  of  Antwerp.  This  treatment  of  the  Jews,  es- 
pecially at  Antwerp,  was  of  great  assistance  to  its 
particular  commercial  rival,  Amsterdam,  which  so 
greatly  ben<lited  by  the  large  influx  of  Spanish- 
Portuguese  Jews. 

.Many  Maninos  could  not  come  to  Antwerp,  for 
the  path  to  this  havin  was  not  always  free;  and 
at  YlissinL'en,  where  they  had  to  pass  the  customs 
olllcials.  many  iundninccs  were  put  in  their  way. 
Such  dilUcullies.  for  instance,  arose  (February.  1541) 
in  the  rase  of  a  certain  Don  Andre  de  Carvajal,  al- 
though he  cnergelicidly  di'iiied  being  even  a  New- 
Chrislian.  He  said  that  he  was  of  noble  birth,  a 
native  of  Toledo,  a  goinl  Catholic,  a  doctor  of  Iheol 
ogy  of  the  rniversityof  Salaman<-a.  and  thai  In-  had 
never  entered  the  Abrahamic  covcnanl.  No  won 
der,  then,  that  the  converted  Jews  adilres.sed  a  nn' 
niorial  to  the  emperor  in  that  sunn-  year,  in  which 
they  explained  that,  although  they  wished  to  eonii' 


to  Antwerp  to  engage  in  useful  occupations,  they 
were  molested  by  the  government  officials,  who  ac- 
cused them  of  being  .lews,  Maranos.  heretics,  and 
aijostates.  If  they  had  in  any  way  unwittingly 
transgressed  any  of  the  emperor's  ordinances,  they 
begged  to  be  judged  on  these  counts  by  the  burgo- 
masters and  judges  of  Antwerp. 

No  answer  seems  to  have  been  given  by  the  em- 
peror. The  olllcials  of  the  city  took  up  the  cause  of 
the  converted  Jews,  and  in  154.')  refused  to  publish 
an  imperial  decree  onlering  all  merchants  that  had 
come  from  Pcjrtugal  to  leave  the  country  within  a 
mouth.  When,  in  154i),  this  edict  was  reissued,  the 
burgomasters  at  first  refused  to  sign  the  document. 


Auiweri'  SyiiuKoirae. 

(From  ft  <lrftwlnit  lo  |xNM«l<>n  cf  Prof.  RIchftrd  Gcrttbrll.) 

Their  heail.  Nicolas  Van  ihr  Meemn.  even  wi'ut  so 
far  as  lo  iliinand  an  interview  with  the  regent  Maria 
(who  hiippelieil  lo  be  at  UupelmomleX  in  order  lo 
plead  the  cause  of  the  Maranosaml  lo  exculpate  the 
city  for  having  disobeyed  such  luijusl  commands. 
He  was  unsuccessful,  however,  and  the  margrave  of 
.\iitwerp.  Van  der  Werve.  re<'eived  an  order  to  ar- 
rest (iabricl  ile  Neigro.  Emmanuel  Manrii|uez.  anil 
Kmniannel  Sanino,  three  of  the  most  pronnnent  of 
the  Manuios.  Vandir  Meenin  received  small  thanks 
for  his  piuns.  the  i|uei-n  ordering  Du  Fief,  the  proc- 
unitor  general  of  Hndianl.  to  citi'  him  before  a  Iri- 
bunal.  Thouirh  the  chart'e  fell  through  for  want  of 
the  uices.s;MV  proof,  its  elTecl  wasseiii  ill  till' removal 
of  most  of  ilie  Maranos  from  .\iiUverp;  only  those 
being  allowed  lo  remain  who  hail  resided  there  for 
si.x  years,  and  who  promis«'d  Ihereafler  to  follow  all 


Antwerp 
Apamea 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


660 


tlic  pri'scriptioiis  anil  (•iTt'inoiiics  nf  tlii'  Ciitlirilio 
Cliurcli.  Till'  reason  for  tliis severe  treatment,  wliieli 
was  due  to  Alva,  is  probably  to  be  founil  in  tlie  faet 
that  many  of  the  Maranos  were  ^lail  to  eseape  tlie 
yoke  of  the  Catholic  Church  anil  to  join  the  Protes- 
tants. This,  at  least,  was  the  ease  with  the  fuaiilies 
of  Maic  Perez  anil  ilmmauuel  Treniellius. 

The  Peace  of  Westphalia,  in  lOlS.  enabled  a  large 
number  of  JIaranos  to  return  to  Antwerp;  and,  to- 
gether with  the  establishment  of  tlieCalvinist  conven- 
ticles, secret  synagogues  in  the  city  are  mentioned. 
Among  these  Manuios  may  be  mentioned  Don  Manuel 
Alvarez  Pinto  y  Hibeni.  owner  of  Chilveches.  Abul- 
leque,  and  LaCelada.  nobleman  of  Spain  and  knight 
of  St.  Jago,  from  wliom  the  widely  sjiread  family 
of  Pinto  takes  its  origin  (Israel  da 
Return  of    Costa.  "Adelijke  Geslaehten  "  in  his 

Maranos      "  Israel  en  de  Volken."  2d  ed.,  p.  4G9). 
Discounte-   There  are  accounts  of  a  debating  and 
nanced.      literary  society  in  KISI,  callecl  "Aca- 
demiade  la  Virtud,"  founded  by  Span- 
ish Jews,  similar  to  the  many  societies  of  this  kind 
founueil  at  Amsterdam  (Da  Costa,  ib.  p.  469). 

The  state  government,  however,  did  all  in  its 
power  to  prevent  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of 
Jews  at  Antwerp,  and  in  KiTO  it  denied  their  re(|Uest 
to  take  up  their  |iermanent  cpiarters  at  Hilborde. 
though  they  olTen'd  live  million  tlorins  a  year  for 
the  privilege.  This  refusal  was  probably  due  to  a 
priest  named  Coriache.  who  presented  to  the  privy 
council  a  memorial,  written  by  the  bishop  of  Ant- 
werp, complaining  that  for  the  last  twenty-tivc 
years  or  more  some  of  the  richest  Jews  f)f  the  city 
had  removed  their  goods  to  Amsterdam  and  had 
there  reentered  the  Jewish  community,  after  having 
lived  for  many  years  outwardly  as  faithful  and  obe- 
dient Catholics.  Such  a  one  was  Dr.  Spinoza,  who 
for  several  years  had  practised  medicine  at  Antwerp 
(C'armoly,  "Revue  Orientale,"  i.  ITti).  The  autluui- 
ties  even  went  further:  in  1682  they  forcibly  bap 
tized  a  child  born  to  Diego  Curiel,  on  the  pretext 
that,  having  been  born  in  a  Catholic  country,  he  by 
right  belonged  to  the  Church.  This  Curiel  was  a 
member  of  a  well-known  Portviguese  family  :  one  of 
his  relatives.  Jacob  Curiel.  otherwise  called  Nunez 
da  Costa — who  had  been  ennobled  by  John  IV. — was 
for  many  years  the  agent  of  Portugal  at  Antwerp. 
Another  Marano.  Francisco  de  Silva.  happening  to 
pass  the  host  as  it  was  being  carried  to  a  sick-cham- 
ber, neglected  to  kneel  before  it.  He  was  thrown 
into  prison,  although  the  council  of  state  refused  to 
allow  him  to  be  brought  up  in  court  on  the  charge. 
The  bishop  of  Antwerp.  Ferdinand  de  Beughen. 
made  strenuous  demands  for  the  punishment  of  the 
culprit,  aud  the  clergy  even  went  .so  far  as  to  de- 
mand the  total  expulsion  of  Jews  from  Antweip. 
The  burgomasters,  when  asked  for  their  opinion  by 
the  council  of  state,  answered  that  the  .lews  hall 
brought  to  their  city  the  diamond  trade,  that  they 
were  prosperous,  and  that  they  lived  quietly  for 
themselves;  so  that  there  was  not  much  ground  for 
complaint.  But  they  added  that  it  might  be  well 
to  force  the  Jews  to  adopt  certain  marks  and  a  dis- 
tinctive dress,  and  to  live  in  a  portion  of  the  city 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants.  Whether 
this  was  done  or  not,  history  does  not  record. 

The  wars  of  Louis  XIV.  gave  the  .lews  a  certain 

respite.     In  1694  the  officers  of  the  bishop  and  the 

magistrates  attempted  to  put  the  seals 

Respite,     on  the  secret  synagogue:   but  Elijah 

Andrada,  one  of  the  Jews,  detied  them 

to  reestablish  the   Inquisition   in  the  Netherlands. 

The  Jews  seem  to  have  been  successful  this  lime ;  and 

they  even  brought  the  matter  before  the  courts,  de- 


manding a  restitution  of  certain  property  confiscated 
in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Spain. 

The  .Jews  in  Antwerp  are  again  referred  to  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Spanish  Neth- 
erlands, by  the  Peace"  of  l"trecht  (April  U,  1713), 
became  jiart  of  the  Austrian  monarchy.  On  Sept. 
16,  171.").  Abraham  Aaron,  a  Jewish  merchant,  re- 
ceived the  rights  of  citizenship  in  .\ntwerp,  which 
rights  were  essential  to  the  carrying  on  of  tnide  by 
him  without  restriction.  On  June  13.  1732,  a  certain 
Jacob  Cantor,  who  had  lived  for  thirty  years  in 
Brussel.s,  received  a  certificate  of  citizenship  from 
the  magistrates  of  Antwerp.  This  grant  was  an- 
nidled  later,  as  one  of  the  qualifications  for  citizen- 
ship was  the  profession  of  the  Catholic  faith.  In 
August,  1769,  Abraham  Benjamin,  another  .lew, 
who  for  many  years  had  lived  in  London,  desired 
to  settle  with  his  family  in  Antwerp  and  to  carry 
nn   trade  between   England   and   the 

Readmis-  Xitiierlands.  The  magistrates  were 
siontoCiti-  luiwilling  to  grant  such  permission; 
zenship.  fearing,  perhaps,  that  as  the  govern- 
ment was  trying  to  raise  the  status  of 
manufactures  in  the  Netherlands,  it  would  not  look 
with  favor  upon  the  reception  of  a  mail  who  would 
Ijcnefit  English  rather  than  Belgian  trade.  The  fear 
was  also  expressed  that  in  virtue  of  his  rights  as  a 
citizen,  Benjamin  might  set  up  a  retail  busines.s. 
The  privy  council  (in  wIkjsc  hands  was  the  granting 
of  citizens'  rights),  therefore,  proposed  to  the  gov- 
ernor-general to  authorize  the  granting  of  citizens' 
rights  to  this  Jew  on  condition  that  he  pledge  him- 
self not  to  trade  in  retail;  should  he  thus  trade,  a 
fine  of  a  thousand  florins  was  to  be  imposed  over  aud 
aliovc  the  ordinary  penalties  that  might  be  pre- 
scribed by  the  magistrates  of  Antwerp.  Accordingly 
the  governor-general,  on  Oct.  2S.  1769.  authorized 
the  magistrates  to  admit  Benjamin;  but  they  at  the 
same  time  stipulated  that  this  act  shoidd  not  be  con- 
sidered a  precedent,  and  that  the  decree  of  17.58, 
which  excluded  the  Jews  from  citizenship,  should 
continue  in  force.  In  October.  \'X'i,  Benjamin  Joel 
Cantor  and  his  brother.  Samuel  Joel  Cantor,  mer- 
chants, made  a  similar  request  to  be  admitted  as  citi- 
zens of  Antwcrji.  They  were  the  graiuUhildren  of 
the  Jacob  Cantor  mentioned  above;  and  in  their 
petition  they  alleged  that  their  father,  Joel  .Jacob, 
who  was  a  native  of  Amsterdam,  had  lived  for  more 
t  han  eighteen  years  in  Ant  werp.  and  that  their  grand- 
father had  been  admitted  as  a  citizen  of  the  place. 
The  facts  alleged  by  these  two  brothers  were  offi- 
cially confirmed  :  and,  on  the  advice  of  the  governor- 
general,  the  magistrates  of  .Vntwerp  admitted  the 
applicants  to  citizenship  (Dec.  lliuiil  24,  1782),  their 
names  being  registered  in  the  Plakaatboek.  Two 
years  later  Levi  Abraham,  a  Hanoverian  Jew.  who 
had  resided  in  Antwerp  for  fifteen  years,  made  an 
attempt  to  secure  the  rights  of  citizenship,  in  order 
to  carry  on  his  trade  in  jewelry  and  in  other  branches. 
The  privy  coiuicil  rejiorted  adversely,  however,  on 
this  petition,  alleging  that  the  business  he  desired 
to  carry  on — namely,  that  of  a  second-hand  dealer — 
was  suspicious,  at  any  rate  one  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, and  the  grant  was  refused  (Dec.  4.  1784). 

In   1794  the  French  became  masters  f)f  Belgium, 

and  the  new  ideas  sown  by  the  Revolution  made 

themselves  felt  here  also.     The  Jews 

Reestab-  were  freer  to  settle  at  Antwerp,  which 
lishment  of  they  did  very  soon  after  this;  though 
Jews.  no  trace  can  be  found  of  their  having 
had  a  synagogue  of  their  own.  The 
imperial  edict  of  JIarch  17,  1808,  divided  off  the  Jews 
living  in  French  countries  into  consistorial  con.scrip- 
tions,    and   these   again   into  synagogue   districts. 


661 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Antwerp 
Apamea 


Antwerp,  together  willi  llic  nine  oilier  (l(]>ailiiiiiils 
of  Belfiiuiii,  wasincliideil  in  tlieeonsistiiry  of  Crefelil ; 
but,  strange  to  say,  no  delegate  seems  to  have  l)een 
sent  from  any  one  of  these  eomnuinilies,  eitlier  to 
the  meeting  of  notables  in  Paris  in  ISlKi.  or  to  the 
hanhedrin  in  IHDT.  On  the  overliirow  of  Xajioleon, 
Jielgium  was  united  with  llollaiid  ;  and  .lews  came  in 
laiixe  Mumliers  Ijotli  from  the  Rhine  district  and  from 
Holland.  The  organization  of  the  various  commu- 
nities planned  by  the  Austrian  governor  in  1814 
was  carried  out  by  the  Dutch.  Antwerp,  as  a  jjrov- 
iiiee,  belonged,  together  with  .South  Brabant,  Kast 
and  West  Flanders,  Namur,  and  llainaut,  to  the 
fourte<'nth  district,  the  chief  synagogue  of  the  dis- 
trict being  at  Brussels.  The  .lews  <if  Antwerj>  ae- 
(juired  possession  of  a  cemetery  in  IH'.'H. 

The  rev(ihiti(jn  of  lS;iO  again  made  a  change,  and 
Antwerp  became  part  of  tlie  Belgian  consistory,  of 
which  Brussels  was  the  head.  This  consistory  at 
lirst  was  made  U])  of  five,  and  in  1S:33  of  seven  mem- 
bers. Antwerp  having  one  seat  therein.  Three  de- 
pendent .synagogues  of  the  tirst  class  w<Me  established 
at  Antwerp.  Ghent,  and  Liege.  Although  this  con- 
sistory has  general  charge  of  Jewish  allairs  in  the 
countrv.  an<l  allhongii  the  government  contributes 
toward  the  animal  e.\penses,  the  individual  <-onnnu- 
idties  have  a  large  amount  of  freedom.  Shortly  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  lh(^  second  half  of  the  nine 
teenth  century  a  i)rivale  eolleelion  was  made  and 
a  .synagogue,  together  with  u  school,  worthy  of  the 
conunuuity,  which  was  now  continually  incn'asing. 
was  built.  In  1S4(I.  according  to  olliciai  slalisiics. 
Antwer])  had  'fi  registered  Ji'wish  households  and 
S.")  non-registered,  which  last  term  jinjliably  refers 
to  those  who  were  unable  to  pay  regular  ta.\es.  In 
1900  the  Jewish  population  of  Ant  werp  was  n.lliid. 
At  the  large  synagogue  the  old  Amsterdam  Tortu 
guese  miii/iiif/iH  followed;  but  during  the  e.xodus  of 
tlie  Kussian  Jews  in  the  years  following  IHMl  sc'veral 
thousands  of  them  settled  in  Antwerp,  an<l  there 
erected  a  numberof  synagoguesand  meeting  houses 
with  a  mii\hag  closely  allieil  to  the  (ierman  Polish. 

The  present  (I'JOl)  rabbi  of  the  Portuguese  syna 
gogue  is  I).  S,  Ilirsih.  who  bears  the  otllcial  title 
"Ministre  Otliciant  du  Culle  Isnielite." 

One  of  tlie  chief  industries  practised  by  the  iioorer 
Jews  of  Antwerp  is  Ihat  of  diamond cutling,  the 
rose  diamond  lieing  a  specialty  of  their  work.  The 
diamond  (Utters  number  between  (lOO  and  70t). 

A  Hebrew  printing  press  was  established  at  Ant 
werp  in  l.")(>.">  by  Clirisiopher  Plantin  (I.")M-S!h. 
The  type  and  specimeiisof  the  work  done  there  may 
still  be  seen  in  Planlin's  house  (in  the  Marche  du 
Vendredi),  which  is  now  the  "  M  usee  Plant  in."  Per- 
mission to  i)rint  Hibrew  books  was  given  to  I'lantin 
by  the  emperor  .Ma.vimilian  H.  on  Feb.  'Jl,  l.'id.").  The 
tirst  book  with  Hebrew  characters  printed  in  Ant- 
werp seems  to  liav<>  been  "  Hebraa.  (.'haldaa,  Orii'ca 
ct  I.iilina  Nomina  Vironim,  .Mnlii'ruin  .  .  .  siiis 
<piac|ue  chanicteriliiis  reslitiila.  cum  latina  interpre 
talione. "  In  the  following  years  there  were  pub 
li.shed  here  (nC5n'13N  =Anversa): 

l.'itIO  "  nilillii  llehmloa,"  mm  piinotl.s :  1  vol.  4to :  2  viils.  8vo ;  4 

1507  " renlaliucliu.H  wii  (|uliii|iii-  Lllirl  MohIm,  llebniln',"  cum 

plllK'llH,  I  vnl.  Hvi». 

l.'iCi*  StiinlNliil  (irespll  "  Ih<  Miiltlpllrl  Slrloi-t  Talcnio  Ilobrniro," 

1  Veil.  Hv... 
l.Vlil  "  lllliHn  Sncm  lleliniloo,  Clinldiilcc,"  I  vol.  4Io  (port  of  the 

l'..|VKl..ll. 
'*  INjlllllnniin  I.llMT,"  I  vol.  Hvo. 

*' AlplnitH>(uin  Ilt'l)nilcuin."  I  vol.  Hvo. 
1S70  "lIllilln.siiinillelinilcc.clmMiilrc"  (piirt  iif  tin-  Pnlvulotl. 
"(iminiitiillrii    llelini'n"  .  .  .  tuietore  Johiiniic  Isiiiii'o,   1 
vol.  4tii. 
KiTS  " ThcwiiiniH   llrl>nilrn<   I.lnifuiD— tirammntlca  Cbuldira," 
etc,  (purt-sof  till'  Polyglot). 


1.1"!  "  BIbllu  Sacra  Hebralce,  Cbaldaice,  et  Latine,"  8  vols.  fol. 
(I'lilyKlot). 
"Hibllii  Hebraica,"  sine  nunctls.  I  vol.  8vo. 
l.')74  " HaKli>(.'r-,ipha  lii'liniiie     (Rsaliiis.  Provcrlw,  Job,  Daniel, 
Kzni,  .Nehcniiuh.  clinjiilcU-si.  siiw  punell^  1  vol.  12ino. 
"  P.sulierluio  Hehnilrurii."  sine  punclis,  1  vol.  21iiio. 

157.'>  ■■lilniT-.irluin    Benjuruinl    Tiideleiuils x    lli'tiralco 

l.iitliiuiii  (artuin  lieiieii.  .\iia   Monlano  inien)rele,"  1 
vol.  Hvo. 
l"iSO  "  lllblia  Hebraloa,"  -Ito. 
l.jSl  "  Psalleriuin  Hebralce.'*  1  vol.  lOrao. 

Joannes    Dnisius— "  Interpretum     Vetenim     OriProrum, 
Ai|iiiUp,  Syinniachl,  Tlu-oilollonls  .  .  .  quic  extant  fratr- 
ineiita  In  Psaluios  Uavldis,  Hebralce,  Grave,  et  Latine,^' 
1  vol.  svo. 
I.'jK!  '•  BIblla  Hebralea,"  1  vol.  4io. 

JanI   lirusli,  "Ad  Voees  Ebraloai*  Novi  TestamentI  Com- 
iiientarius  .  .  ."1  vol.  4to. 
1 JS4  "  Hiblia  Hcbiiilca.    Eorundem  Latina  inteniremilo  .Xantis 
Paifiiiiii  LucensLs,  reienter  Benedlitl  Artie  .Moulani  HU- 
PHlli:e,"  ...  I  vol.  fol. 
"Psaluii  llebraice."  .sine  puneti.s.  I  vol.  lllino, 
"Interpi'ftum   Veleruiii    tiniH-oniin,   Aquila?,    Symmaehl, 
Thfodutinnis  .  .  .  qiiie  extant    fra^nienla   In    Psulmos 
Iiavidis,  Hebralce,  Gra?oe,  et  t,allue  ex  Editlone  JoaonLs 
Drlcscliii,"  I  vol.  Svo. 
1;>SS  "  Propbela;  Mlnorcs,  Hebralce,"  1  vol.  12mo, 

Bini.iooRAPiiv :  For  the  earlier  periml :  M.  C.  Ilahlenbeek,  Lot 
Juiftid  Aiifirs  In  Htrtic  (It  Biiyiyiif,  isri,  rtll.  1»T-14I>,  from 
d'wunients  In  the  Slate  Archives  of  Beli^iuin :  tiiille  Ouver- 
leaux,  yiitea  ct  Documents  sttr  leu  J  nits  tte  BeUfi(fU€  sous 
rAticifii  Iti\iiwi\  In  Tici'.  Kl.Juivcs.  vll.  117  e/  «•</.,  2.t2  f  t 
.•«'(/.;  Idem.  viil.  :SHit  .mi;.;  IiIimm.  Ix.  ay  ct  »«/.;  Carmoly,  Ksxal 
surVllialiiiit  ill  s  Isni'titf. II  II  III  Ifiiiiue.in  Ucvue  IJrieiitah, 
i.  4lii:t  sii{.  For  iii'Mleni  times;  [H.  s<iinmerhau.sen ]. /JriV ^c 
(ii«  Bikiini,  In  Mi'ii,its.'<ilirift.  I.  4mi  ct  wi/.,  r>4l  f(  «(■(/.; 
idem,  Itriifc  nus  V{rl/.«.^i /,  in  Mnnnliutrhrifl,  II.  S7II  <■(  «<•<(.: 
\'n-nyilciiiinicn  vnur  hct  lsriti'Uti-<ch  Kcrhui  iiiHitschai}  tiin- 
iiin  lilt  h'liniiiiirili  ilcr  XciUrlmnhn.  The  Haeue,  IsSS. 
For  Hebrew  lypogniphy  at  Antwerp:  Stelnsehiielder,  Jllil. 
Tiiiiiigriijiliif.  in  F,rsi-h  and  (irulier's  EncttclnpiiiUe,  x.xvl. 
7)(j ;  idem,  Vnl.  ;foi».  c-ols.  22.  :*!.  44.  4!l.  :in.HS ;  Leon  DeRpoive, 
Lii  Miiisim  phnitin  ti  Anvfrs^  pp.  i:l:{  ct  .vr-o..  Parts,  Issd. 
For  the  Jewish  dianiond^uuen*  at  Antwerp:  ytnmitsschrift, 
vl.  :iii4;  L.  Soloweitschlk,  Vn  PruU-tariat  Mccunnu,  p.  115, 
Itrilssels.  |.s;is. 

G. 
ANUSIM.     .See  Mauanos. 

APAHEA :  Among  the  nmn_v  towns  bearing  this 
name,  the  followiugare  of  importance  with  reference 
to  .lews: 

1.  Capital  of  tlie  province  of  Apamcne.  Syria  ;  situ- 
ated ou  theOrontes,  soutliof  Antioch.  Like  tlie  other 
cities  of  Syria  ( Jo.sephus.  "  B.  J."  vii.  3.  ^  3).  Apamea 
probably  had  a  large  Jewish  population,  though  there 
are  no  records  extant  as  to  the  sittlemenl  of  Jews 
there.  According  to  Josephus  ("B.  J."  i.  10.  ^  10), 
.\ntiii:iler  sent  his  sons  to  Apamea  with  soldiers  to 
.Iulius(':es:ir.  who  was  hard  pressed  at  the  time.  Tlie 
liibliis  (diisiilered  Syria,  and  especially  .\piiniea.  a.s, 
in  a  certiiin  degree.  Iielonging  to  Palestine.  Both  the 
Jeriisjilein  Targumim  consiilei-ed  the  city  of  She- 
pliam  iNum  xxxiv  11).  situated  on  the  northern 
border  of  I'alesline.  to  be  i<lcntical  with  Apamea. 
The  similarity  of  .sound  in  the  two  names  is  no  doubt 
accountable  for  tin'  idcniilication ;  anil  it  was  be- 
cause (vf  this  siinilarily  tli:il  N'CSX  wiis  .sometimes 
written  N'DDDN  But.  since  the  latter  word  means 
also  Spain,  this  has  led  to  many  errors. 

t)f  the  tribes  of  the  Keiiites.  Kenizzites.  and  Kad- 
immites  (Oen.  xv.  lit),  the  rabbis  said  tiial  they  will 
belong  to  Israel  tmly  in  the  Messianic  age;  and  H. 
Simon  b.  Yohai  (sccoinl  century)  refers  llie  last- 
named  tribi'  to  .\panien  ((Jen.  H.  xllv.  23;  s<'e  "Mo- 
mitsschrift."  xxxix.  .10).  Since  Apamea  virtually 
heloiiged  to  I'ahstini'.  the  lirst  fruits  brought  by 
Ariston  from  that  town  were  accepted  for  sacritice 
in  JiTUsalem  iMishnah  Hal  iv.  111.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  .lewish  war.  the  inhabitants  of  .Vpaineik 
spared  the  Jews  wholiveil  in  their  midst,  and  would 
not  snITer  them  to  be  murdered  or  UmI  into  ciiplivity 
(Josephus.  "  B.  J."  ii.  IH.  §  .I).  The  sul)Se(|iient  his- 
tory of  the  Jews  in  this  vieinit  v  is  unknown.    Under 


Apamea 
Aphraates 


THE  JEWISH   E^'CYCLOPEDIA 


662 


the  nanu'  Fanii,  Efumin.  the  town  still  flourished  dur- 
ini;  the  Aniliimi  middle  Hires;  hut  is  now  a  mass  of 
ruins  near  Kalat  el-.Medik.  in  the  jiashalie  of  Tur- 
ablus  (Hitler,  "Erdkuude,''  xvii.  1077  ft  «(/.)• 

2.  City  in  Phrygia.  a  eouutry  to  which  Autiochus 
the  Great  trausphuited  many  Jlebrews  (Josephiis, 
"Ant."  xii.  3,  45  4).  By  order  of  Flaecus.  a  large 
amount  of  Jewish  money— nearly  lO'l  pounds  of 
g„l,l_iiitcnded  for  the  temple  in  Jerusalem  was 
ccmliseated  in  Apameu  in  the  year  ()2  ii.e.  (Cicero, 
"Pro  Flaeco,"  eh.  xxviii.).  According  to  the  Jew- 
ish "Sibylline  Books"  (i.  261),  Arai-at.  where  Noah's 
ark  rested,  was  in  Phrygia:  and  the  exact  sjjot  is 
pointed  out  as  the  source  of  the  great  JIarsyas.  At 
this  place  was  situated  the  ancient  city  of  Celen;e, 
whose  inhabitants  were  compelled  by  Anlioehus 
Soter  to  move  farther  down  the  river,  where  they 
founded  the  citV(d'  Aiiamea(Strabo,  xii.  577).  Coins 
minted  in  Apamea  in  the  third  century  bear  the  ef- 
tigy  of  Noah  and  his  wife,  together  with  the  word 
"Noah"  (Heinach,  " J.es  Monnaics  Juives,"  p.  71, 
Paris,  1887).  Besides  the  legend  of  Noah,  the  Enoch 
legend  was  also  current  in  Ajiamea,  as  in  the  whole 
of' Phrygia  (Stephen  of  Byzantium,  .«.c.  'Ikuviov). 
The  two  are,  however,  interwoven:  and  iicrhaps 
"  Anuakus"  or"  Naimakus."  as  the  hero  of  the  Enoch 
legend  is  called,  is  a  combination  of  the  names  Noah 
aiid  Enoch.  The  legend  seems  to  have  tsiken  shape 
from  the  circumstance  that  Ajiamea  had  the  addi- 
tional name  K/ Jwroc  =  "ark"  (Ramsay.  "The  Cities 
and  Bishoprics  of  Phrvgia."  1.  ii.  6G9-673;  SchUrer, 
"Gcseh."  3dcd.,  iii.  14-16). 

The  passages  in  the  Talmud  relating  to  witchcraft 
in  Apamea  (iSer.  ()2./)and  to  a  dream  in  Apamea  (Nid- 
dah,  30*)  probably  refer  to  the  Apamea  in  Phrygia 
\yhich  was  looked  upon  as  the  fabulously  distant 
habitation.  Similarly  the  mueh-discus.sed  passage, 
Yeb.  ll.W,  which  treats  of  the  journey  of  the  exilareh 
Isaac,  shotdd  also  be  interpreted  to  mean  a  iourney 
from  Carduene  to  Apamea  in  Phrygia ;  for  if  Ajiamea 
in  Mescne  were  meant  (BriiU's  "Jahrb."  x.  It."))  it 
is  quite  impossible  that  the  Babylonians  should  have 
had  any  ditliculty  in  identifying  tlie  body  of  such  a 
distinguished  personage. 

3.  town  of  Mesene.  Stephen  of  Byzantium  de- 
scribes it  («.r.  'ATn,uf«i)  as  surrounded  by  the  Tigris 
at  the  point  where  the  river  divides.  Ptolemy, 
("Geographike,"  v.  18)  says  it  is  situated  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  (compare 
Pliny,  vi.  146).  Ajiparently  these  were  two  dift'cr- 
eut  cities,  which  seem  to  have  been  close  together — 
as  is  expressly  stated  in  Kid.  71/'— the  upper  and  the 
lower;  one.  "probalily  the  upper,  was,  so  far  as  its 
Jewish  inhabitants  wire  concerned,  pure  ;  that  is,  its 
inhabitants  were,  in  the  rabbinical  sense,  of  legiti- 
mate Jewish  descent ;  the  other  was  mixed.  Nol- 
dekcC'MandiiischeGrammatik,"  p.  26)  suggests  that 
the  dialed  spoken  in  lower  Apamea  was  akin  to  the 
^landa'an.  The  place  is  now  called  Korna  (Ritter, 
"Erdkunde,"  xi.  1021). 
Bimiocu.vrnv:   Sellir    Caissel,  article  JwJtn.  in   Erscli  and 

(irutiiT.  Km  »'.)";«''''<•■  xxvil.  17S;    Neubaiier,  G.  T.  P.i$i8; 

Berliner,  Jiiilriltie  zur<tci){ir('l'>iii  ""''  K('iie>i;r<i|</iic  Ba/ij/- 

loiiiciix,  in  Pr'iiimmin  ilr-t  Ilirliinr  Haliliiiicr   Seminars. 

IHSi,  pp.  l!l.  22:  liritz,  Ikw  Krniitircich  MeHdu:.  in   Pivi- 

wiimm  Oca  Brestauer  Rabbiner  Seminars,  1879,  p.  27. 

S.  Kit. 

APEIiLA :  A  real  or  fictitious  name  of  a  Jew 
referred  to  by  Horace  as  extremely  credulous.  I're- 
dulity  seemed  to  the  Roman  writers  synonymous 
with  Jewish  beliefs  in  general,  and  "Apella,"  from 
Horace's  expres-sion  "credat  Judaiis  Apella"  ("Sat- 
ires," I.  V.  100),  became  the  by-name  for  a  credulous 
man.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  name  is  merely 
an  epithet  (from  «,  privative,  and;)cH(X  skin)  equiv- 


alent to  the  Latin  "curtus"  (sec  Porphyry's  com- 
mentary on  Ihirace,  ed.  W.  Meyer,  U^ipsic,  1874). 
This  etymology  was  accepted  by  Geiger  ("Quid  de 
Judicorum  moribus,  etc.,"  p.  42) and  by  Kenan  ("  Lcs 
Apotres,"  p.  113),  but  is  alto:;ether  liclitious,  as  has 
been  .shown  by  J.  A.  lliM  (  "H.  E.  J."  xi.  37)  and  T. 
Reinach  ("  Auteuis  Grccs  et  Romains,"  p.  24.">),  who 
see  in  it  a  very  common  Greek  name  of  the  iieriod, 
contracted  frJmi  ApoUodorus.  Josephus  ("Contra 
Apionem,"  ii.  7)  speaks  of  an  excellent  historian  of 
that  name;  Petronius  ("Satyrieon,"  p.  64)  mentions 
another ;  and  Ajiella  is  the  name  of  a  freedman  men- 
tioned by  Cicero.  Indeed,  it  does  not  seem  to  l>e  a 
Jewish  name  at  all.  S. 

APELI.es  of  ASC  AliON:  Counselor  and  eom- 

pjuiiciu  1.1  ihr  rmpi  i..r  C.-digul.-i  (37-41).  Afteraca- 
reerof  debauilic  ry  be  went  on  the  slageand  bccamea 
tragic  actor (Philo,"I)eLegationc  ad  Caium."  xxx.). 
Apelles  was  imbued  witli  a  deeji  sealed  haired  of  the 
Jews,  which,  through  couslaiit  comiiai.ionship,  he 
was  enabled  to  transmit  toCaligula.  In  lliis  he  was 
aided  by  another  courtier,  Hki.icon  of  Egypt,  who 
was  the  empeior's  fool,  and  who  madea  specialty  of 
deriding  and  burlestiuing  the  Jews  (ih.  xxvi.  d  m'/.). 
When  the  embassy  of  AUxandrian  Jews.  ln;ided  by 
Philo.  ari-ived  at  liome  to  ple;id  before  Caligula  for 
the  equal  righls  on  behalf  of  the  Jewish  connuunily, 
it  was  oi)iioscd  by  Apelles  and  his  companion,  who 
lent  their  support" to  Apion  and  his  anti-Jewish  dele- 
'i-ation.  Philo  and  his  friends  were  dismissed  in 
anger  by  Caligula.  Apelles,  whom  his  eccentric 
master  fiequenily  submitted  to  whimsical  tortures 
(Suetonius,"  Caligula,"  xxxiii.),  may,  at  lenglh,  have 
met  his  death  on  such  an  occasion  (Philo,  I.e.  xxx.), 
though,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  suggested  that 
he  may  have  been  living  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian 
(Suetonius,  "Vespasian."  xix. ;  where  "ApoUinari" 
or  "  Apellari "  may  really  stand  for  "  Apelli "). 

BlBI.iOfiRAPIIY :     Paiilv-Wissowa,     Roil-Enniklopfl-lir     drr 
KltisKhrlirn  AUrrtlnims  IT'i««:HScJin/(,i.3688:  GrSU,  (Jench. 

if.  jHi/i  II,  y<U'<i..  111.  :itiac(«c<(.  ,r   /-.    -c 

H.   G.   E. 

APES.— Biblical  Data:  These  animals  are  men- 
tioned in  1  Kings,  x.  22.  and  the  parallel  passage  in 
II  Chron.  ix.  21,  as  having  been  bi-ought.  with  gold, 
silver,  ivory,  and  iieacocks,  by  ships  of  Tarshisli  from 
Ofuiu  (coinpare  II  Chron.  viii.  IH).  The  Hebrew 
name  /!■'</' is  a  loan-word  from  the  Tamil  /,<ij>i.  from 
which  indeed  the  Teutonic  fijie  is  also  a  loan  with 
the  loss  of  the  guttural,  so  that  the  Hebrew  and  the 
English  words  are  idintical.  In  Egyjitian  the  form 
gofe  occurs.  The  Indian  origin  of  the  name  has  been 
used  to  identify  Opliir  with'Abhira  at  the  moulh  of 
the  Indus  (see" Vinson,  "Revue  de  Philologic."  iii.). 
The  Assyrians, however,  were  acquainted  wilh  Apes, 
which  were  brought  to  them  as  tribute.  Apes  are 
not  now  and  almost  certainly  never  were  either  indig- 
enous to  ralesline  or  acclimatized  there. 
In  Ra'bbinical  Literature:  The  rabbis  ap- 
pear to  have  hiid  some  acquaintance  with  Apes. 
They  knew  that  they  were  like  man,  and  for  that 
reason  the  bles.sing  on  Him  "who  Viirieth  his  crea- 
tures" was  to  be  Siiid  at  sight  of  an  ape  (Ber.  'ySb). 
They  compared  man  in  old  age  to  anaiie(Eccl.  R.  i. 
2:  tan.,  Pekude,  3).  To  see  an  ape  in  a  dream  is  un- 
lucky, because  of  his  ugliness (Ber..'j7/i).  Apes  were 
regai-dcd  as  a  luxury  (Eccl.R.vi.lD.and  were  trained 
to  perform  as  servants,  to  clear  out  vessels  (Yoma, 
29/i),  or  to  pour  water  on  the  hands  (Yad.  i.  5). 
On  the  other  liand,  it  was  erroneously  th.Might 
that  it  took  them  three  years  to  bring  forth  (Bek.  8a), 
and  they  were  included  in  the  class  of  beasts,  with 
the  dog,  wild  ass,  and  elephant  (Kil.  viii.  6).     To 


663 


THE  JEWISH   EXCYCLOPEDLl 


Apamea 
Aphraates 


harness  auy  of  lliese  would  not  be  reckoned  an  in- 
fringement of  Dent.  xxii.  10.  Tlierc  was  a  legend  to 
the  ellect  tliat  of  the  three  elas.ses  of  men  that  built 
the  Tower  of  IJabel.  one  wa.s  turned  into  A|ies(Sanh. 
109'( :  compare  Yalk..  Gen.  <>'Z).  Apes  wen'  used  asa 
method  of  disadvantageous  comparison  ;  tlius,  Sarali 
was  to  Eve  as  an  ape  to  man;  Eve  to  Adam;  and 
Adam  to  Coil  (H.  li.  '>x<i)- 

In  the  (lays  of  Enosh  the  liuman  race  degenerated 
and  began  to  lonk  like  Apes(Oen.  H.  xxiii.).  Tlie  .Mo- 
hammeilans  have  a  legend,  referred  to  in  the  Koran 
(suras  ii.  01.  (i'2;  vii.  Ki;!),  to  the  elTeet  that  eerlain 
Jews  dwelling  at  Elath  ou  the  Hed  sea  in  the  days 
of  David,  who  yielded  to  the  temptation  to  lish  on 
the  Sabbath,  were  turned  into  Apes  asa  punishment 
for  Sabliathbreakiug  (Lane,  "Thousjind  and  One 
Xights,"  iii.  ooO). 

There  is  another  animal  mentioned  in  the  Talmud 
which  would  a|>pear  to  be  of  the  same  category  as 
the  ape ;  since  its  resemblance  to  man  was  so  great 


Damascus  by  iUiab,  king  of  Israel  (I  Kings,  xx.  29 
ctmii.).  See  Ai'iiEK,  B.vtti-e  of.  The  site  is  dis- 
puted. The  common  opinion  is  that  the  town  lay 
east  of  the  Jordan  and  that  the  name  is  preserved 
in  the  moilern  Fek,  three  miles  east  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  on  the  edge  of  the  i)laiu  of  Jordan.  Latterly 
the  opinion  has  gained  credence  that  it  wa.s  the 
same  Apliek  as  that  mentioned  in  Josh.  xii.  IH  and 
I  Sam.  iv.  1,  in  the  north  of  the  i)lain  of  Sharon, 
the  supposition  being  that  the  Syrians  were  inva- 
ding Israel  from  the  western  side  as  being  the  most 
vulnerable.  In  the  same  place  Joa.sli  also  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Syrians  under  Ben-hadad  III.  (II 
Kings,  .xiii.  IT).     See  also  illustration,  p.  (iG4. 

BniLiomui'nv :  Smith.  HMoriral  Grimraiiliji  of  the  Hutu 
L(i/i((.  iuilex,  s.v. ;  Hulil.  (Jrnfinnihk  ilrK  Allen  PaliMiiia, 
P--'l-'.  J.    F.   -Met". 

APHEK,  THE  BATTLE  OF:  This  event. 
described  in  I  Kings,  xx.  '2ii-'-i4,  was  one  of  the  most 
notable  in  the  prolonged  warfare  between  northern 


APE.S    LKO    and    rARRIF.D    .IS   TKIBLTK. 
(From  L«yar<),  "  NlDrvth.") 


that  its  dead  body,  liki'  that  of  a  man,  would  render 
at<'nt  unclean  (Kil.  viii.  5).  Its  name  mCM  'JHS  has 
been  interpreted  variously  as  a  chinipan/ee  or  orang- 
utan; while  some  rigard  the  animal  as  altogether 
fabidous  and  identical  willi  mCH  'J3N.  "stones  of 
the  field  "  (Sammter,  Jlishnayot  [iranslation],  i.  77; 
Job,  V.  2:i). 

Bnn.iniiRAi-nv  :  I-ewlwilm,  7)iV  /.unlnaii  .;.»  Tulminlf.  pp.  W- 
Ii7.;i.^l:  Hiiilmrt.  J/i<  r<ij"i<fiii,  nil.  111. cup.  .vxxl.:  U-v.v,  .Yr  n- 
llilir.  11V.r»<l/r.;   .liistnAV,  IHil.;  Kiihul.  .Iiiii/l,  s.v. 

J. 
APHARSACHITES  :  A  tribe  living  in  Sanm- 
ria,  wlioobjecled  lo  tl»>  bulliling  of  the  Temple  by 
the  Jews,  and  brought  Ihe  matter  to  the  attention  of 
Darius(E/.ni,  iv.  !l,  v.  (>.  vi.  (i).  They  bail  been  liiiiis- 
liorled  to  Samaria  by  .\snapper  (Ezra,  iv,  il).  Their 
idenlity  has  not  been  fully  established.      It  appears 

probable  that  the  term  has  been  niisundi  rst I  and 

designates  in  reality  certain  ollicials.  Sie  AfliAlt- 
siiKs.  G.  B.  L. 

APHARSITES  :  As.syrian  subjects  Ininsplanted 
into  Sanmilii  by  Asnapper.  In  E/.ni.  iv.  !l.  they  are 
found  intriguing  against  the  Jews,  and  lliis  led  Ar 
tiixerxes  to  issue  orders  for  the  building  of  the  Tem- 
ple to  cease.  (}.    B.    L. 

APHEK  :  The  name  of  several  places  menlioned 
in  the  Old  Testament,  of  which  the  most  famous 
was  the  scene  of  a  severe  defeat  of  Ben  liadail  II.  of 


Israel  and  the  Aramcans  of  Damascus.  The  Syri- 
ans, who,  under  Ben  hadad  II.,  had  been  defeated 
by  Israel  the  year  before  in  a  conltict  among  the  hills 
of  Samaria  ( 1  Kings,  xx.  215),  stationed  themselves  in 
the  lowland,  which  they  believed  a  more  advan- 
tageous position.  Their  rendezvous  was  probably 
Aphek,  in  the  north  end  uf  the  great  plain  of  Sharon, 
They  were  again  ilefealed.  and  after  being  blockaded 
in  .\pliik  they  surrendered  to  Ahab,  who  treated  them 
mereifullv  and  allowed  them  to  return  to  Diunasciis, 
One  result  of  the  victory  was  tiiat  a  truce,  lasting 
over  two  years,  was  concluded  between  Israel  ami 
Damasi-us,  so  that  the  following  year  (H.")4  n.i.)  .Mail) 
and  lieu  hadad  were  foinid  lighting  .side  by  side 
against  the  A.s.syrians.  War,  howi'Ver,  broke  out 
airain  in  M3,  when  Ahab  was  killed  at  Hamoth- 
Cileail.  J.   F.   McC. 


APHORISMS. 


M.WIMS. 


APHRAATES,  THE  PERSIAN  SAGE  :  The 

name  lp\  «  liii  il  :i  S\  li.iii  li.imili--l  of  ilu-  f. •iirlheeiilury 
was  known.  Ilis  iioinilies,  w  ritteii  between  the  years 
:i:l7  and  'M'l.  are  valuable  to  Ihe  Jewish  historian; 
for  it  may  be  conlidently  asvrled  that  no  church  fa- 
ther was  ever  so  strongly  inlluenced  by  rabbinical 
Judaism  as  this  defender  of  Christianity  against  Ihe 
.lews.  Georgios.  bishop  of  the  Arabs  (about  7S(n, 
notes  .Aphraates'  dependence  upon  Jewish  diH'trine 
(SCO  Ilis   letter  about  Aphnuites  in  Wright,  "The 


Aphraates 
Apl\^oros 


Tin:  .n:\visii  kxcyclopedia 


664 


Homilies  of  Aphraates,"  v.  36).  Wellbausen  lias  noted 
••  how  eoiuplrtely  the  Syiiac  Church  was  bouii<l  to 
.Jewish  tnidition,  even  in  the  fourth  century."  and 
has  ])ointed  out  lliat  this  "is  shown  strikinirly  by  the 
'  Iloniilicsof  Aphraiiles'  "  (Bleck,  "  Einlcilunir  iiidas 
AlteTestanunl."llh  id..  1^78).  Funk  and  Cin/.lierg 
(••  Die  lla,i.',!;a<la  liei  drn  Kirchenvilteru."  i.  1,  T(!,  Ani- 
sterdnm,  lS!t9.  and  in  "  Jlonatsschrift,"  pp.  fit.  119, 
153,  15,"!,  l.')8.  221,  22S)liolh  show  many  iiarallcl  pas- 
sjiges  from  Kabhinical  literature  with  whichlheScrip- 
tunil  explanations  of  Aphraates  coincide.  In  certain 
very  imiiortant  questions  concerning  the  soul,  God. 
ntribution,  etc.,  he 
sliows  himself  a  doc- 
ile pupil  of  the  Jews. 
His  doctrine  of  tin- 
two  attributes  of  God 
— justice  and  mercy 
— is  decidedly  .lewish 
(see  hom.  vi.  C,  114. 
and  other  passages); 
it  is  often  encoun- 
tered in  Rabbinical 
literature  under  the 
familiar  designations 
of  "Middat  lia-Din  " 
and  "  Middat  lia-Rah 
aniim  " ;  its  oldest  rab- 
binical source  is  Sifre 
to   Deut.   (ed.   Fried 

His  Doc-     J!?^'"'' 

-       -  ^-^z      p. 


trine  of  the 

Attributes 

of  God. 


71;  and 
itisalso 
foun  d 
in  Philo,  as  Siegfried 
("Philo,"  p.  213)  has 
shown.  Aphraates. 
in  agreement  with 
the  rabbis,  declares 
that  God's  mercy  is 
fur  men  living;  while 
His  justice  is  admin- 
istered after  their 
death.  He  holds  also 
that  divine  justice — 
the  cctivity  of  the 
Jliildat  ha-i)in — does 
not  begin  immedi- 
ately after  death,  but 
only  on  the  day  of 
judgment.  Aphraa- 
tes' oschatology  — 
still  adhered  to  by  the 
Nestorians — is  base<l 
upon  the  theory  that 
the  human  soul  has  a 
double  entity:  (</)  the 


Afka  (Ancient  Aphek),  Near  Sidoii ;  mi  the  Stmrce  of  tde  River  Ailuais 
(Now  Nahr  Ibrahim). 

(From  a  photogr.iph.) 


natural"  soul,  which  is  im- 
mortal, but  is  buried  with  the  body  after  death,  re- 
maining without  consciousness  until  the  resurrection, 
and(A)  tlie  "  heavenly"  soul,  which  after  death  reverts 
to  its  Ilea venl)- nature  (hom.  vi.  13).  This  peculiar 
conception  of  a  stml-slumber  (v''i'pi-(jn'i-,^(n).  it  has 
been  shown  ("Monatsschrift,"  1899,  p.  64),  was  wide- 
spread among  the  Jews  in  Aphraates'  time.  In  the 
Talmud  (Sliab.  152//)  it  is  stated  that  the  soul  resides 
in  the  body  during  the  first  year  after  death. 

Now,  since  neither  reward  nor  punishment  can  be 
predicated  of  a  sleeping  soul,  Aphraates,  to  be  con- 
sistent, is  compelled  to  adopt  the  position  contended 
for  by  him,  which  is  that  only  on  the  day  of  judg- 
ment is  recompense  dealt  out  (hom.  viii.  7.  end). 

The  difference  between  the  pious  dead  and  the 
wicked  dead  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  sleeping  condi- 


tion of  the  former  is  free  from  any  iinplea.sant  feel- 
ing, while  that  of  the  lalt<T  is  punished  by  disagree- 
abledreains  (hom.  viii.  S).     Thus,  A])hraates  refei-s 
to  till' godless  rich,  "who  sit  in  sorrow 
Future       lUid  the  shadow  of  death,  and  think  not 
Condition    of  this  world  "(hom.  xxii.423,  1,  15,  10), 
of  Pious  and  which  is  not  to  In-  interpreted  as  iiK-an- 
■Wicked.      ing  ntribulion  such  as  the  doctrine  of 
purgatory  would  imply.     In  the  same 
manner  Aphraates,  with  hisd(seri|itionof  lifein  par- 
adise, based  upon  labbinical  hagga<lic  lines  (Fiiidi, 
p.  158).  does  not  intend  to  depict  the  ciaidition  of  the 

pinnsaflerdiiith,  but 
lo  jiorliay  Iheir  state 
after  resurrection. 

This  is  clearly  evi- 
dent when  the  trans- 
ition from  the  de- 
scription of  the  dead 
to  that  of  paradise  is 
niMile  in  the  words, 
"  iintil  the  time  when 
all  the  just  shall  rise 
again."  In  this  way 
idso  is  he  to  be  under- 
stood when  he  says 
"thai  the  earlier  ones, 
who  were  strong  in 
the  faith,  will  not  re- 
ceive their  reward 
until  the  later  ones 
come"  (see  Funk,  p. 
156;  hom.  ix.  8);  that 
is,  all  who  die  must 
wait  for  their  recom- 
l)ensc  until  the  resur- 
rection. The  sugges- 
tion must  therefore 
be  rejected  that  Aph- 
i-.nales  herein  teaclies 
the  rabbinical  theory 
that  the  resurrection 
will  take  place  only 
when  the  full  num- 
ber of  .souls  apitointed 
by  God  shall  have 
received  their  bodies 
(Yell.  02.0;  for  there 
is  no  trace  of  this  iu 
his  works. 

The  last  judg- 
ment, according  to 
Aiihraates,  does  not 
exist  cither  for  the 
perfectly  pious,  who 
arise  iniinediately  and 
at  once  participate  in 


eternal  life,  or  for  the  absolutely  wicked,  who  are  de- 
li veredoverto  the  torments  of  hell  without  judgment; 
therefore,  "  the  judgment  will  be  only  for  the  rest  of 
the  world  who  are  called  sinners;  .  .  .  those  who  have 
few  faults  the  Judge  will  reproach  .  .  .  and  as.sign 
them  to  eternal  life  as  their  portion  after  the  judg- 
ment. And  those  sinners  whose  tran.sgressions  are 
manifold  will  be  sentenced  in  the  judgment  and  go 
into  suffering  [hell]  unto  eternity"  (hom.  xxii.  433, 
line2;  p.  434,  line  7).  This  conception  of  Aphraates 
is  none  other  than  the  familiar  theory  of  Hillel  (R. 
H.  16i)  concerning  the  divine  mode  of  judgment. 
While,  then,  the  condition  of  man  at  the  resur- 
rection depends  upon  the  grace  of  God,  the  exist- 
ence of  the  world  depends  upon  man ;  that  is, 
upon  the  pious.  Therefore.  Aphraates  holds  the 
opinion  that  "  in  all  times,  from  the  beginning  and 


665 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aphraates 
Apii^oros 


unto  eternity,  there  will  be  pious  uiiil  upright  men 
on  earth."* 

This  is  also  of  nilibinical  origin;  for  the  rahhis 
teach  that  the  world's  existence  depemls  upon  the 
presence  of  the  pious  in  it;  the  only  disigreenient  is 
in  the  necessary  number  of  these  "  pillars  of  the  tini- 
verse."f  A  fixed  period  is  set  for  tlie  world:  "For 
the  world  will  exist  for  (i.ddO  years,  like  to  the  six 
(lays  of  the  Lord,  and  then  the  Salibalh  of  God  will 
bejrin  "  (horn.  ii.  13,  p.  3(i,  line  !>).  This  niilleiniarian- 
isni  is,  however,  not  to  he  ascribed  to  nibbinieal 
influence  upon  ApliRuites;  for  it  belonjrs  to  the  oldest 
elements  of  Christianity,  tatcen  over  from  Judaism; 
indeed.  Aphraates  refers  to  "the  Inidition  of  »'//• 
sages."  This  is  mentioned  l)eeause  it  is  charaeleris- 
tic  of  the  whole  method  of  Aphnuites,  who  herein 
also  teaches  consonantly  with  the  rabbis  (compare 
Sanh.  97rt). 

The  knowledire  of  Aphraates'  personal  relations 
■with  Jews  is  limited  to  what  may  be  learned  from  his 
writin.irs.  For  instance,  he  maintains  that  the  hom- 
ily "  Upon  Persecution  "  (hom.  xxi.)  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  the  arjrumenis  against  Christianity  made 
to  him  by  a  Jewish  sage  (the  ejiithet  "l.iak  kima  " 
here  is  not  a  title,  like  the  old  "hakam."  but  "sjige" 
in  general).  His  fre(|Uent  vigorous  attacks  on  Jew- 
ish sages  and  disputants  also  show  that,  in  spite 
of  the  great  influence  that  the  nibbinieal  teach- 
ings exercised  over  him.  he  entered  the  lists  against 
his  teachers  more  than  once.  One-half  of  this  collec- 
tion of  homilies  is  an  avowed  defense  of  Clirislianily 
against  Judaism;  and  his  charsicteristie  priM<i]ile  is 
that  attack  is  the  best  defense.  Therefore,  he  inveighs 
(horns,    xi.,    xii..    xiii..    xv.)    against 

Defends  circumcision.  Pas.sover.  the  Sabbath, 
Christian-  .and  dietary  laws,  the  chief  portions  of 
ity  Against  the  JewLsh  ceremonial  law.  in  order  to 
Judaism,  proceed  to  the  rejection  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  "chosen  people  "(hom.  xvi.).  In 
his  apologetics  for  Christianity,  next  to  the  defense 
of  the  designation  "Son  of  God"  for  Jesus  (hom. 
xvii.).  it  is  celibacy  that  he  mainly  upholds  against 
Jews  and  heathen  (hom.  xviii).  In  hom.  xix.  he 
disiiroves  the  Messianic  hopesof  the  Jews.  Hut  to  his 
honor  be  it  sjiid.  that,  unlike  other  ancient  Chris- 
tian apologeti'S,  such  as  Origen  anil  Jerome,  who 
owed  much  to  Jewish  teacliers.  his  writings  are 
almost  entirely  free  from  any  bitterness  toward  them 
personallv,  a  charaeterislie  which  NiUdcke  ("Giit- 
tingirGi'"lehrl<>  An/.eiger."  ISdT.  p.  l.">rj)  was  the  tirst 
to  indicate.  It  should  not  be  coneluiled  that,  because 
Aiihniatesattackeil  Judaism  only  in  the  last  ten  of  his 
liomilies  (which  were  composed  after  the  war  be- 
tween the  Persians  and  Honnins  in  HUT),  this  at- 
tack was  the  result  of  ill-feeling  between  Jews  and 
Christians,  the  former  favoring  the  Persians,  the  hit 
teropposingthem,  .\pliniatcs  showed  not  the  slight 
est  traces  (d' personal  ill  feeling  toward  the  Jews;  and 
liis  calm,  dispassionate  toni-  pnives  that  it  was  oidy 
his  firm  conviction  of  ChrisliaTuty  that  caused  him  to 
as.sail  Judaism.  The  fact  that  in  Ihelirst  half  of  his 
work  he  did  not  attack  it  is  easily  c^x plained;  the 
themes  he  treated,  such  as  fasting,  love,  faith,  prayer, 
cic. .  furnished  no  basis  for  polemics  against  Jews. 

BlBMooRAPMY  :  ttiH-ra  S.Jitrolii  Kiiiitrnfii  yMheut,  Anne- 
nliin  mill  Ijitlii  fif..  Me.  AnlDnellii.H.  Iliniii'.  IT.VI,  Ventre.  ITil'i ; 
In  fjilln.  In  (iullundl,  IWil.  Vet.  I'alr.  lTt»l,  v..  nnil  In  Amie- 

•  Hiini.  xxlll.  4.Vi.  Ai'linuUt's  (incites  In  pni<>t  ii  IIIIiIIi-bI  TcrM> 
whioli  iliM^a  not  eiW  In  our  llllile.  nif  .iniilaUnn.  |i.  I'll,  nl 
which  neither  Wrlirlil  nor  llert  imilil  tlnd  llii'  *iuni'.  in  Pwilm 
lx.txl.t.;;;  "The  w.irlil  Im  luillt  ui«>n  inen-y  "  lA.  V.  "Men-y 
RhBll  Ik"  built  ii|>  tiin'ver"!. 

+  See  Snk.  4"l/i.  wliiTi'  Uie  niiiiil"'r  l,i  plneeil  at  nil;  tiul  In 
Ymnii.  :ts/..  .m,  is  h.'M  «illUI.Mit.  s-.>  "  Muniilwuhrlfl,"  I.e..  |>. 
6411,  mill  the  |»Lisutti's  qu(ite<l  from  Dloitem-s  miil  JUKtln  Manyr. 


nian.  Coiistiiiitlnnrile.  li«t ;  W.  Wright,  Tli,-  /^.mi7i.jt  nf 
Ai/hraotrs^tln:  Ptritiati  .Sayr.  Ixndon  .  lH*i!*  (thts  Is  the  af(- 
liit  itriitcti/suf  the oriplnatSvriac  text) ;  PotruUtnia  .s'f/nVir/x. 
Paris.  1S!H.  vol.  I..  Syriac  and  IMin  (the  last  homily  oinlltiHli ; 
(i.  Bert,  Ai>hr(iatcjt^  dfn  Pcrxij*f/icH  M'ei^i:n,  Iltitnilkii,  nus 
item  Siiri'<ili(>'  Vlinvitzt.,  Lelp.slo,  1888,  In  (ielibart  and  Har- 
naek.  Terte  viiil  i'litirKiichuiiutn.  111.  3.  4:  J.  <iwynn.  T/i« 
A'((7:»(f'  null  Pnst-Xieetii:  Fathntt.  second  series,  xill.  :M.5-412 
lonly  a  few  hoiiillics  translated  Into  KiarlLsh)  ;  S.  Funk,  />fe 
iltt{i(Ulw-hfu  Kleinenti-  in  ilin  IlinniUt  u  ihs  A]ilirnotf^^ 
Vienna,  Isid  ;  h.  GlnzlierE.  I>ir  Jhnnimln  h.  il.  Kiirheii- 
x-illrrii.  part  I.  Allistcnlalu.  ISiW;  Idclii.  IH<  }hmiliula  h.  il. 
Kirrhtuviiltru  nwl  in  fltr  Apiiknfi'lii-'^rln  n  Litcrntur.  \n 
MniiiilMihrifl.  IH'JK;  Herzop.  U<nl,  n(iihl"i"'l<lir  fUr  I'ri>- 
ItfliititifcUt  Tluiilinii€.M  ed.,  Lfl|wl<-,  Issdi.  x.r.;  ForKel,  lit 
Vita  ft  Scrii}tii<  Aifltraatift,  Louvain.  IWi;  Duvul.  La  Lit' 
trrature  Suriaiiue,  pp. 'Swr-'£i^,  Paris.  1891*. 

L.  G. 
APHRASCHUS    RACHMAILOWICZ.     See 

Al  1   l:  \>     1!  \l   MM  AKI.OVICII. 

APHRODITE  :    Greek   name   for   the   gofhlcss 

of  love.  Among  Orientals,  addicted  to  sensualitv. 
she  was  woi"shi|)ed  undiruianv  formsand  tiirures.  Tlic 
word  'Ao/)'i'li7;,  (Aiilit'int.  A/ilimlit.  Aiihriidtl),  which 
can  not  be  satisfactorily  derived  from  Gre<-k.  plainly 
shows  its  Semitic  origin;  for  upon  elo.s<-r  insiu'Ction 
it  is  proved  to  be  identical  with  Aiihtorit  (mncy)  (F. 
Ilommel.  "Neue  JahrbUcher."  cxxv.  176;  II.  \xvj. 
"Die  Semitischen  Fremdwiirter  ini  Griecliischen," 
Berlin,  189.'),  p.  ■250).  Aphrodite  was  considered  so 
peculiar  to  Syria  that  she  was  worshiped  there  as 
' AoimMri)  Ivpia,  or  the  Syrian  Aphrodite  (see  Pauly- 
Wissowa,  "healencyklopiidie  der  Classi-schen  Alter- 
Ihumswissenschaft,"  i.  '2TT4). 

There  existed  in  Palestine  a  reco.cni7.ed  Aphrodite 
cult;  (1)  in  Jaffa  (Pliny.  "Ilistoria  Natunilis,"  v. 
129);  (2)  in  Acre  (ancient  Acco),  which  city  i)o,sses.sed 
a  bathailomcd  with  a  painting  of  the  godiless,  where 
even  the  patri:ircli  (Jamalii'l  did  md  on  that  account 
refuse  to  liaihe  (Mishnah  Ab.  Zarali,  iii.  4;  Yalkiit, 
Dcul.  HHH);  (3)  in  Hozrah  at  the  lime  of  I{.  Simeon 
ben  I.,t»kish  (Talmud  Vcruslialmi.  Slicb.  viii.  3W). 
These  cities  were  for  the  most  part  inhabited  by 
pa.irans.  When,  under  Emperor  Hadrian,  even  Je- 
rusidem  became  a  pa.san  city  with  tin-  name  .Elia 
Capitolina.  the  strong  heathenish  inclination  of  its 
inhabitants  displayed  itself  in  the  erection  of  a  tem- 
ple to  Venus  upon  Alount  Golgotha  .iust  outside 
the  city  (So/.omen,  "Uist.  Eccl."  ii.  1:  ilieronymus, 
"  Kpistohe."  13). 

Probably  connected  with  the  worship  of  Aphrodite 
was  the  bird  which,  it  is  alleged,  was  worshiped  by 
the  Samaritans  and  which  may  have  been  the  dove, 
an  attendant  of  the  goddess  of  love. 

lliiu.iocRArnr:  (iriltz.  (lewMchte  iter  Jiidz-n,  3d  ed.,  Iv. 
l.W;  Sclillrer,  ficwhiehtt  <lc»  JlUlitchcn  Vitlkoim  ZtUalttr 
Jesu  On  i«(i.  I.  5<i5  and  ,584. 

S.    K. 

APIKOROS  pi  API?:ORSIM):  In  common 
Jewish  paihiMcc  tliis  u.nil  i>  usnl  to  signify  that  a 
man  is  a  heretic,  unsound  in  his  belief,  or  lax  in  his 
religious  practise.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  'ETiM^iof,  but  Maiinoiiides  (Commentary  <m 
the  Mishnah,  Sanh.  xi.  1),  deriving  it  from  the  New 
Hebrew  ipsn  =  freedom,  explains  it  to  mean  one 
who  refuses  obedience  to  the  l.)iw.  In  the  Mishnah 
(see  also  .Vets.  xvii.  IS)  the  word  Dmp''2X  evidently 
means  an  adherent  of  the  El>icuriaii  philiisi.phy  :  the 
context  shows  this  clearly.  Il  reads:  ".\ll  Isnieliti-s 
have  a  share  in  the  future  world.  The  followinir. 
however,  have  no  share  in  the  future  world  :  He  who 
says  there  is  no  resum-clion  jthe  wunls  rmnn  p 
arl-.  as  Uabbinowit/.  lias  proved,  intirpolated).  lie 
who  says  the  Ijiw  has  not  been  iriveii  by  Gixl.  and 
an  Dmp'DK"(Sanh.  x.  I.Gem  !H><i(.  Thi-recan  be  no 
iloubt  tliiil  .\pikoros.  in  this  ronnectiou.  ri'fers  to  a 
man  who  refus<'S  to  Iwdieve  in  life  after  death.     In 


Apilforoa 
Apiou 


IIIE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


666 


commenting  upon  Num.  xv.  31,  Sifre  (Num.  112) 
sj»ys:  "For  tlie  word  of  the  Lord  lie  1ms  dcspiseil ; 
tills  is  till'  Sadducce:  and  his  commandment  he  hatli 
broken;  this,  the Apikoros." 

Tlie  firel  mention  of  Epicureans  in  relation  to 
Judaism  is  found  in  Josephus,  "Ant."  x.  11,  S  '' : 

■•  Those  Hliii  read  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  may  thence  ills- 
cover  how  the  Epicureans  aiv  In  ern>r  who  ca.st  I'rovlilence  out 
o(  hiiMiuii  life  ami  do  not  believe  that  (iod  takes  care  of  the 
alTali>  of  the  world,  nor  that  the  unlvei-se  Is  Koverned  and  held 
bv  that  blesswl  and  Iniiiiorlal  beine.  but  say  that  the  world  Is 
larricd  aloiit!  of  It.s  own  acconl.  without  a  ruler  and  prortder; 
which,  were  It  ilcsUtute  of  a  guide  to  conduct,  as  they  ln!a«lne. 
It  woulil  be  like  ships  without  pilots  which  we  see  drowned  by 
the  winds,  or  like  chariots  without  drivers  which  are  overturned 
—so  would  the  world  be  diLshed  to  pieces  by  its  belnii  carried 
without  a  providence  and  so  perish  and  come  to  naujtlit." 

Undoubtedly  this  is  the  orieinal  meaning  of  Api- 
koros. See  also  Frankel,  "^lonatssc-hrift,"  18.52,  p. 
212,  who  limls  Epieureanism  to  have  affected  Juda- 
ism in  the  time  of  Antigonus  of  Soko. 

The  Talmudic  authorities  of  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries  cither  did  not  know  the  real  meaniuir  of 
the  term  or  extended  it  intentionally. 
Meaning  of  Some  sjiy:  "Apikoros  is  one  who  de- 
the  Term  spises  a  nibbi.or  who  insults  his  neigh- 
in  Tal-  bor  in  the  presence  of  a  rabbi,  or  one 
mudic    Lit-  who  says,  '  What  good  did  the  rat) 

eratiire.  bis  do  to  us?  They  study  Bible  and 
Hishuah  inTl?  |for  their  own  pleas- 
ure or  for  their  own  benetit].'"  Another  opinion 
sees  the  type  of  the  Apikoros  in  the  school  of  Ben- 
;iamin  the  Piiysician,  who  taught:  "What  good  did 
Ilie  rabbis  do"  to  usV  They  have  neither  permitu-d 
the  raven  nor  prohibited  the  dove." evidently  mean- 
ing that  their  whole  work  was  of  little  consequence. 
Another  opinion  sees  an  Apikoros  in  a  man  who 
sjieaks  of  the  rabbis  disrespectfully  as  "these  rab- 
bis," or  addresses  his  teacher  by  his  name  instead  of 
calling  him  "  Habbi  "  (Sanh.  99/».  WOa). 

In  the  Tosefta  (Sanh.,  ed.  Zuckennaudel,  xiii.  5,  p. 
4;i)  the  term  is  evidently  used  in  the  stricter  sense 
of  the  materialist  where  it  is  .said:  "The  Minim  [Ju- 
(hro  Christians],  the  apostates,  the  informers,  and 
the  Apikorsim  are  punished  in  hell  forever."  The 
sjvme  passage,  with  slight  clianges,  is  found  in  the 
Tiilmud  (R.  II.  1T<():  and  froni  it  the  doctrine  of 
the  eternity  of  hell  for' the  Apikorsim  is  taken  into 
the  codes  "of  Alfasi  Uid  l"C.  ed.  Vienna,  2(19/')  aiirl 
of  Maimonides  ("  Yad  ha-Hazakah.  Ililkot  Teshu- 
bah,"  iii.  .5;  see  also  Lampronti,"Pahad  Yizhak."  .■<.(■. 
DJn'J,  who  upholds  the  belief  in  the  eternity  of  hell 
against  Leon  di  !Modena). 

The  ^Midrash  sees  a  type  of  the  Apikoros  in  the 
snake  (Gen.  R.  xix. ).  In  Talmud  Yerushalmi  (Sanh. 
x.  27(0,  Korah  appears  as  a  type  of  the  Apikoros  by 
his  ridicule  of  the  Law.  He  asks  Moses  whether  a 
blue  garment  requires  fringes;  and  when  Moses  an- 
swers ill  the  affirmative.  Korah  says:  "  Ilow  ridicu- 
lous !  One  blue  cord  stiffiees  to  comply  with  the  Law, 
while  a  garment  which  is  all  blue  does  not  "  (see  also 
Num.  H.  xviii.  2  and  Tan.,  Korah.  2.  where  the 
word  "Apikoros,"  however,  does  not  occtir). 

The  "  Shulhan  '  Aruk  "  defines  Apikoros  as  one  who 
does  not  believe  in  the  divine  origin  of  the  Law  and 
in  prophecy  ("  Yoreli  De'ah,"  ^  1.>S,  2).  The  liiws  con- 
cerning such  an  unbeliever  are  very  strict.  He  may 
be  killed  directly,  or  his  death  may  be  caused  indi- 
rectly (i/>.).  A  scroll  of  the  Law,  otherwise  a  sacred 
object,  if  written  by  an  Apikoros,  shall 
In  KabbizL-  be  burned  {ib.  S  281. 1 ).  A  rabbi  of  rec- 
ical  Codes,  ognized  standing  can  not  be  excom- 
municated, even  if  he  be  a  sinner;  but 
if  he  read  a  book  written  by  one  of  the  Apikorsim 
his  immunity  ceases  {ib.  S.  334,  42).  A  man  suspected 
of  being  an  Apikoros  is  not  permitted  to  read  the 


prayers  before  the  congregation  ("Oral.t  Hayyini," 
tj  53,  18).  If  an  Apikoros  saysa  benediction,  it  is  not 
permitted  to  respond  with  "Amen"  (ib.  ^  215,  2). 

The  later  nibbis  extend  tli<'  term  "Apikoros"  still 
further  than  the  Talmudic  rabbis.  Moses  C'hages, 
in  his  "  Leket  ha  Keniah  "  l"  Yoieh  De'ah,  "  ]>.  1U3'(, 
Amsterdam,  1(197 1.  thus  inveighs  against  those  who 
refuse  to  acceiU  blindly  the  authority  of  the  medie- 
val rabbis:  "Satan  enters  through  a  needle's  eye  and 
teaches  people  first  to  refuse  obedience  to  the  rabbis 
of  their  age,  and  having  become  accustomed  to  this, 
they  reject  what  displea.ses  them  even  of  the  words 
of  grciit  men  like  Miiimonides.  saving.  'He  was  also 
merely  a  man  of  tlish  and  IiIdikI  anil  subject  to  error 
like  one  of  us;  but  it  is  a  lundamcMtal  principle  of 
our  religion  that  every  one  who  denies  the  author- 
ity of  a  religious  work,  great  or  small,  is  called  an 
Apikoros.'"  Similarly,  Eliezer  Papo  (rabbi  in  Silis- 
tria,  Bulgaria,  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century)  says  in  his  vi'i-y  popular  textbook  of  re- 
ligious ethics,  "Pele  Yo'ez,"  j).  18//,  Vienna,  1876: 
"  One  who  doubts  or  ridicules  one  word  of  the  Torah 
or  of  the  rabliinieal  authors  is  an  .\pikoros  in  the 
fullest  sense,  an  infidel  who  has  thrown  off  the  joke; 
and  there  is  no  hope  for  him." 

Bini.ioijRAPHv:  Lampronti,  I'ahnil  ri?i|KiJ](,  s.v.  Dni|i'DN  ; 
Itapoport,  'Erek  MilUii.  s.v.:  HambUTBer.  R.  IS.  T.  supple- 
ment I.,  under  Eiiikurilcr. 

D. 

APION  :  A  Greek  grammarian  and  sophist  of 
Alexandria,  noted  for  his  bitter  hatred  of  the  Jews; 
born  in  the  Great  (Dasis  of  Egypt  between  211  and  30 
li.C  died  probably  at  Rome  between  45  and  48.  As 
Joel  ("Augriff'e  des  Ileidenthums,"  etc.,  ]i.  8)  jioints 
out.  his  name,  derived  from  the  Egyptian  bull-god 
Api.s.  indicates  his  Egyjitian  origin.  He  wa.s  sur- 
naniedalso  Pleistonikides,  or  son  of  Pleistonikes(S'ii- 
das.  and  in  his  epitaph  in  "Corpus  Inscript.  Gra'C." 
iii.,  aiirienila  474'.?/i).  "the  man  of  many  victories"; 
also  Moehlhos  ("  the  inclustriousone  ").  Apion  him- 
self claimed  to  have  been  born  in  Alexandria  (see 
Willrich.  "Judeu  uud  Grieehen  vor  d.  Jlakkaba- 
iselien  Erhebung."  p.  172).  but  it  seems  that  he  was 
only  brought  thither  when  very  young,  and  edu- 
cated in  the  house  of  Didymns  tiie  Great,  the  gram- 
marian (born  03  B.C..  died  about  1).  He  was  a  pu- 
pil of  the  centenarian  Euphranor.  while  A|iollonius, 
son  of  Archibius.  was  his  pu]iil  rallier  than  his 
teacher.  When  Theon.  head  of  the  Homeric  gram- 
mar school  iU  Alexandria,  died.  Apion  succeeded  him 
in  that  position,  preferring,  however,  the  fanciful 
etymological  method  of  Didymusand  the  allegorical 
one  of  Krates  to  the  rigid  traditional  system  of  Aris- 
tarehus.  But  it  waschietly  asan  itinerant  lecturer  on 
Homer  that  he  gained  his  great  pojiularity  (Seneca, 
"Eiiistolie."  p.  8H).  In  this  capiieity  he  traveletl 
through  Greece  and  Italy,  first  during  the  reign  of 
Tiberius,  who,  disdaining  his  unscholarly  manner, 
called  him  the  "World's  Drum"  {ci/mbalum  iinnuli). 
In  Rome  his  charlatan  nwihodfi  (ritiimi  osfcntationis, 
Gellius,  "  Noctes  AtticiE,"  v.  14)  failed  to  impress  the 
people  favorably.  It  was  in  the  tumultuous  and 
excitable  city  of  Alexandria,  chiefly  under  Caligula, 
that  his  opportunity  fur  using  hissujierficial  knowl- 
edge to  advantage  came  to  him.  He  utilized  both 
tongue  and  pen  in  appealing  to  the  prejudices  of  the 
populace,  and  sedulously  fanned  the  flame  f)f  discord 
during  the  conflict  that  broke  out  between  the  Jews 
and  .Tew-haters  in  Alexandria,  upon  Caligula's  im- 
perial decree  to  have  his  image  set  uji  and  worshiped 
by  the  Jews  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  people.  xVjiion 
labored  against  the  Jews  with  growing  success,  and 
his  fellow  citizens  appointed  him  at  the  head  of  the 
delegation  to  the  emperor  Caligula  in  the  year  40  to 


667 


TUE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apif^oros 
Apion 


present  the  formal  cluirgi;  of  ilisloyallv  a,!.'ainst  the 

Jews  of  Alexandria.     It  was  a  fiirci;oiic  ciiiichisioii 

that  he  wuulililcfeal  I'liilo(llie  philoso- 

His  Polit-    lih<-n.  till-  JHiul  of  the  Jewish  delejja- 

ical  tioii  (Josephus,   "Ant."   xviii.  M,  sj  1). 

Activity.    After  t  his  he  seems  to  have  sett  lei  1  down 

in   Home,  and  ojiened  a  school  there, 

ntimlierinjr  I'liiiy  amoiis;  his  diseiples.     lie  probably 

died  there,  siilTcrinj^,  as  Jose]ilius  narrates,  from  an 

ugly  disease  to  remedy  whieh  he  vainly  resorted  to 

circumcision,  the  operation  he  liad  so  often  derided 

in  his  \vritin<;s  (Josephus.  "('onlra  Ap."  ii.  14). 

Apion  was  a  man  of  ^^reat  vi'rsatility  of  intellect, 
supertieially  familiar  wilhall  braiuhcsof  knowledge 
{TnpiepyuTarnr:  yi)ii/iiiariiii\jv,  Julins  Afrieanils).  lie  lec- 
tured on  the  Pyramids  and  on  I'ytliagoras,  on  the 
virtues  and  vices  of  Sappho  and  Anacreou,  on  the 
birthjdaee  of  Homer  as  well  as  on  Lais,  the  noted 
courtezan.  lie  loved  to  dwell  on  the  niiraeidous 
tilings  in  natural  science,  whereof  he  eagerly  accii- 
midated  facts  to  illustrate  all  sorts  of  mythological 
and  sujierslitious  views,  lie  was  also  a  magnetic 
orator  who  knew  how  toa|ipeal  to  the  imagination  of 
the  people.  Of  his  extreme  vanity  both  Josephus 
and  Pliny  the  Elder  give  ample  i)roofs.  He  held  out 
the  promise  of  glorious  immortality  to  any  one  to 
whom  he  should  inscribe  a  work  of  his.  "'Thus," 
says  Pliny,  "speaks  one  who  is  the  trumpet  of  his 
own  fame  rather  than  that  of  the  world,  as  Tiberius 
called  him  "  (Pliny,  preface  '2.")).  Again,  after  eiiu- 
meral ing  the  rcmarkalile men  t he  Greeks  pn iduced.  he 
proclaims  Alexandria  happy  in  jiossessing  a  citizen 
like  himself  (Josephus,  "C'<intra  Ap."  ii.  Hi).  More 
serious  is  that  trait  of  his  elauwter  for  which  he 
was  called  a  "Cretan,"  as  synonymous  with  impostor 
(see  Von  Outschmiil,  "Kleinere  Schriften,"  iv.  ;!."iT). 
He  pretended  (Pliny,  "  llisloria  Xaturalis."  xxx.  (ilto 
liave  raised  up  Homer's  shade  from  the  dead  liy  the 
help  of  some  magic  plant,  and  to  have  received  fioni 
it  information  about  the  poet's  ))lace  of  birth  and 
parentage,  whieh  he  was  not  permitted  to  disclose;  to 
have  received  from  Kleson,  an  inhabitant  of  Ithaca, 
(luring  his  stay  there,  an  exact  description  of  J'eiiel 
ope's  suitors'  game  of  draughts  (.Vlhenaus,  i.  l(i); 
to  have  heard  from  Kgyptian  sages  the  true  account 
of  Closes  and  the  Exodus,  an  account  which  he  sim 
ply  copied  from    Manilho  (Josephus, 

Claim  of     i/i.  ii.  2);  to  have  lucn  an  eyewitness 
Universal    of  the  scene  at  the  Circus  Maximus 

Knowl-  when  the  lion  recognized  Androclus 
edge.  as  his  benefactor  (Uellius,  I.e.  vi.  4); 
and  of  the  scene  at  Puteoli  when  the 
dolphin  displayed  love  for  a  youth  ((lellius, /.c.  vii. 
8).  It  is  almost  inconceivable  how  Von  (iut.schniid 
{I  r.  p.  :!()())  can  defend  Apion  against  the  I'liargcs 
of  charlatanism  made  by  I.ehrs.  Trust  worthy  con- 
temporaries like  Pliny  the  Elder.  Sineca.  (Wllius, 
and  Athcna'us  represent  him  exactly  as  does  Jose- 
phus, as  a  man  \ipon  whose  statements  little  reliance 
can  be  placed.  In  the  "Clementine  Homilies"  (iv.  M 
elff'/.,  v.  r>  rt  x(7.)he  is  introilucid  bnlh  as  n  believer 
in  mai.'ic — if  not  a  fraudulent  practitioner  of  the  art 
— anil  a  difeniler  of  (ireek  mythology. 

Apion  wasa  voluminous  writer,  but  fewof  his  wri 
lings  have  been  preserved  except  what  is  found  in  the 
(|Uotalions  of  Josephus,  his  adversary.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  the  Ijiliii  language,  and  wasoneof  thetlrsl 
to  compose  a  glossjiry  on  Homer,  probably,  as  Von 
Oulschmiil  says,  enibodied  in  the  "Lexicon  Homer 
icon  "  of  his  disciple  .\pollonius,  and  hence  in  the 
"  Etymologicon."  He  wrote  a  I'ulogy  on  Alexander 
the  (ireat,  as  (iutschmid  supposes,  in  ricoL'inliiin  of 
the  honor  of  citizenship  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
Aloxaudriaus.     Another  book  of  his  bore  the  title 


"  On  Homer  as  a  Magician,"  wherein  he  treated  of  the 
superstitious  side  of  Homeric  life,  such  as  the  magi<- 
plant  uu/v,  Circe  and  Hades,  in  a  manner  in  keeping 
with  the  taste  of  his  age.  Apion  was  the  author  of 
"comments"  on  Homer  and  on  Aristophanes,  and 
also  wrote  a  discourse  on  Apicius,  the  gourmet.  Hut 
his  chief  work  was  on  Egj'ptian  history,  written  in 
close  imitation  of  Mauetho's  work  of  the  same  title, 
"  ,^£gy  pt iaca, "  and  embodying  the  con- 
His  tents  of  Jlauetho's  other  works,   the 

Egyptian  one  on  the  ancient  life  and  worshiii  of 
History,  the  Egyptians,  and  the  other  on  their 
theology.  It  was  divided  into  five 
books,  the  first  three  corresponding  with  tin-  three  of 
Manetho's  books,  the  other  two  books  with  two  other 
works  of  Jlanetho,  and  presented  in  pojiular  style 
whatever  seemed  to  be  marvelous  and  interesting  to 
a  credulous  age.  While  collecting  his  stories  thus 
from  the  most  dubious  .sources  in  Egyptian  history, 
hi'  assumes  to  sjieak  with  the  authority  of  one  who 
has  made  personal  researches  regarding  the  things 
whieh  he  relates,  and  on  the  very  spot  where  they 
occurred.  It  appears  that  he  made  it  his  especial 
object  to  explain  animal-worship  and  other  religious 
practises  of  the  Egyptians  by  ob.servations  of  the 
marvels  of  nature,  and  so  he  wrote  a  special  work 
on  the  study  of  nature  and  its  forms,  wherein  he 
also  follows  Manetho's  example  and  adopts  his  pan- 
theistic view.  As  has  been  cicarlv  shown  by  Schiirer 
("(Jesch.  d.  Jnd.  Volkes,"  iii.  2,"  4lW),  it  was  in  the 
third  book  of  his  "  /Egj'ptiaca  "  (and  not  in  a  special 
book  against  the  .lews,  as  was  erroneously  a.ssuined 
by  the  Church  fathers,  and  asserted  ever  since)  that 
those  slanders  were  made  by  Apion  against  the  Jews 
which  found  their  way  to  Tacitus  ("  History,"  v. 
1-.-))  and  many  other  writers  in  Home,  and  against 
which  Josei)hiis  wrote  the  second  part  of  his  splen- 
did apologetic  work,  known  by  the  title  "Contra 
Apionem."  In  the  polemical  portion  of  his  book, 
Apion  repeated  whatever  Manetho.  ApolloniusMolo, 
Posidonius,  ChaTemon,  and  I.ysiniachus  had  ever 
written  against  the  Jews.  He  first  attacks  them 
from  the  point  of  view  of  an  Egyptian.  He  reiter- 
ates with  considerable  embellishment  the  slanderous 
tale  told  by  Manetho,  of  the  Jewish  people  hav- 
ing been  led  out  of  Egypt,  a  horde  of 
Type  of  lepers,  blind  and  lame.  He  pietends 
an  Anti-  to  have  heard  from  I  he  ancient  men  of 
Semitic.  Egypt  that  Moses  was  of  the  city  of 
Heliopolis,  the  city  of  the  sun.  anil 
that  is  why  he  taught  his  people  to  offer  prayers 
toward  the  rising  sun.  To  account  for  the  origin 
of  the  Sabbath,  he  tells  a  story  current  among  the 
pcopli'  of  the  time  (if  not  invented  by  him)  as  fol- 
lows: When  the  1 II), tldtl  lepers  (this  is  the  number 
also  given  by  Lysiiuaehus),  expelled  from  Egypt, 
had  traveled  for  six  days,  they  developed  buboes  in 
their  groins,  and  so  they  rested  on  the  seventh  ilay 
for  their  recuperation.  The  name  for  this  malady 
being  Sihl><>  in  the  Egyptian  language,  they  called 
the  dav  of  rest  StiUxith  (Josephus,  "Contra  .\p." 
ii.  2-3)! 

Apion  next  assails  the  Jews  from  the  point  of  view 
of  an  Alexanilrian.  Hea.skshow  these  Jews,  coming 
from  Syria,  could  claim  the  name  and  title  of  Alex- 
andrian citizens,  and  he  upbniids  them  for  not  wor- 
shiping the  same  gods  as  the  Egyptians,  and  spe- 
cifically for  not  erecting  images  to  the  emperors  as 
all  the  rest  were  content  to  do. 

Finally,  he  deriiles  the  religion  of  the  Jews  by  re- 
ilenitingall  sorts  of  riilicidous  slanders  concerning 
till'  Temple  of  Jerusalem.  Thus  he  writes  that  when 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  entered  the  holy  place,  he 
found  there  an  ass's  head,  made  of  gold  and  worth  a 


Apion 
Apocalypse 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


668 


great  deal  of  money.  To  make  tlie  fable  still  more 
interesting,  he  relulVs  that  when  the  Jews  were  at 
war  with  the  Idumeans,  a  man  bj- 
Tales  About  the  name  of  Zabidiis,  a  worshiper  of 
Jewish  Apollo,  the  god  of  the  city  of  Dora. had 
Worship,  coiiic  fortli  promisini;  that  he  would 
deliver  iijv  the  noil  inlu  the  Imiidsof  the 
.lews  if  they  would  conic  with  him  to  the 'I'cniplc  and 
briiij;  the  whole  multitude  of  the  Jews  with  them. 
lie  then  made  a  wooden  instrument  and  put  it  around 
him.  placiiiLT  three  rows  of  lamps  therein,  so  that  he 
appealed  to  the  men  in  the  distance  like  a  walkinjr 
star  on  earth  ;  and  while  the  people,  alTiiiihtcd  by  the 
sisrht.  remained  ([iiiet  and  afar  olT,  he  went  into  the 
Tcniplc,  removed  the  g-nlden  head  of  an  ass,  and 
went  in  .Jireat  liasle  liiick  to  the  city  of  DoRi  ("Contra 
Ap.''  ii.  10).  IJut  as  the  worst  of  all  calumnits,  he 
lays  the  char.sre  of  human  Siicrilice  upon  the  Jewish 
faith — a  charge  which  despite  all  better  knowlcdsre 
of  the  fact  has  so  often  been  repeated.  He  narrates 
the  following  story:  "  Antiochus  found  in  the  Tem- 
ple abecl  anil  a  man  Iving  upun  it.  with  a  small  table 
iiefiire  liim  laden  with  dainties,  from  the  tisli  of  the 
sea  and  the  fowl  of  the  land  :  the  man,  on  bciiigasked 
by  the  kin,g  the  reason  for  his  being  there,  told  him 
amid  sobs  an<l  tears  that  he  was  a  Greek,  who  had 
been  traveling  through  the  land  to  earn  his  liveli- 
hood, when  he  was  suddenly  seized  and  brought  to 
the  Temple,  and  there  locked  up  and  fattened  on 
those  dainties  before  him.  Wondering  at  these 
things,  he  learned  upon  inquiry  that,  according  to  a 
law  iif  the  Jews,  they  contrive  each  year  at  a  certain 
time  tocapturea  flreek  foreigner,  fatten  him  up.  and 
then  bring  him  to  a  certain  forest,  where  they  slay 
him  with  religious  rites;  then,  tasting  of  his  entrails, 
they  take  an  oath  upon  the  sacrilicc  to  be  at  ever- 
lasting enmity  with  the  Greeks,  and  afterward  cast 
the  carcass  into  a  pit.  And  then  the  man  implored 
Antiochus,  out  of  reverence  to  the  Greek  gods,  to 
rescue  him  from  this  jieril,  inasmuch  as  he  was  to  be 
slain  within  a  few  days." 

Finally,  as  denoting  their  hatred  of  all  non-Jews, 
he  makes  the  statement  that  "the  Jews  swear  by 
God,  the  Maker  of  heaven,  earth,  and 
Hatred       sea,  to  bear  no  good-will  to  any  for- 
Against  All  eigner,  and  particularly  to  none  of  tlie 
Nations.     Greeks  "("  Contra  A  p."  ii.  11).    He  ridi- 
cules the  Jewish  sacrifices,  their  ab 
stention  from  swine's  Hesh,  and  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision (lb.  ii.  14).     As  special  proof  that  the  Jews 
have  neither  good  laws  nor  the  ri,glit  worship  of  God, 
Apion  singles  out  the  fact  that  they  are  never  rulers 
of  other  nations,  but  always  stibiects;    wherefore 
their  own  city  (Jerusalem)  had  often  suffered  siege 
and  misfortune.     But  while  Koine  was  always  des- 
tined to  rule  them,  the  Jews  would  not  even  submit 
to  her  dominion,  notwithstanding  her  great  magna- 
nimity (il/.  ii.  12).     Xor,  says  Apion,  have  they  ever 
produced  among  them  any  pronounced  genius  nor 
inventor  of  any  kind,  nor  any  one  at  all  eminent  for 
wisdom  (ib.  ii.  13). 

The  few  excerpts  preserved  by  Josephus  exhibit 
systematic  defamation  of  the  Jew.  and  are  all  the 
more  remarkable  as  they  have  been  repeated  almost 
in  the  same  form,  mutiitin  iiintiuidix.  throughout  the 
anti  Semitic  writings  of  the  centuries,  from  Tacitus, 
who  reechoed  these  charges  in  his  "  History,"  \'.  2-5, 
down  to  these  days.  They  comprise,  first,  aspersions 
cast  upon  the  .Jewish  race :  secondly,  derogatory  state- 
ments concerning  their  patriotism  and  loyally  as  citi- 
zens; and,  thirdly,  malicious  misrepresentations  of 
their  faith,  their  religious  beliefs  and  rites — accusa- 
tions originating  in  old  pagan  legends  and  made  bj- 
a  prejudiced  multitude  ever  anew  against  the  Jew.s, 


and  for  some  time  also  against  Christians  (see  Muel- 
ler, "Contra  Apionem,"  jip.  2.")S-260.  203-204;  and 
articles  on  Ass  WoKsiiir  and  Hlood  Accts.\TioNs). 
Apion,  however,  found  a  jiowerful  antagonist  in 
Josephus,  who,   with  great  skill  and  fine  sarcasm, 

refuted    every  one  of  his  statements. 

Refuted  by  His  work  has  become  for  both  Jewish 

Josephus.    and  Christian  writers  the  model  of  a 

systematic  defense  of  the  faith.  Jose- 
phus writes.  "1  had  my  doubts  whether  I  should 
refute  this  dema.iiogue,  but  as  there  are  so  many 
people  who  are  more  easily  caught  by  superficial 
talk  than  by  accurate  knowledge  and  delight  in  de- 
nunciation more  than  in  commendations.  I  thought 
it  to  be  necessiiry  not  to  let  that  man  off  without 
examination  into  his  accusjilions;  for,  after  all,  peo- 
ple might  wish  to  see  a  traducer  like  this  once  for 
all  exposed  to  public  contempt." 

Quite  characteristic  is  the  portrait  of  Apion  given 
in  the  "Clementine'  Homilies,"  v.  2-20  (written  about 
the  end  of  the  third  century),  where  Clement  relates 
that  he  knew  Ai>ion  to  be  a  great  hater  of  the  Jews 
— one  who  had  written  many  books  against  them, 
and  indeed  had  luade  frien(lshi|i  with  Simon  Magus, 
the  Jew  hater,  in  order  to  learn  from  him  more 
against  the  Jens — and  that  when,  therefore.  Apion 
once  called  to  see  him  w  bile  he  was  contined  to  his 
bed,  he  pretended  that  he  was  sick  from  love  of  a 
woman  he  could  not  have.  Thereupon  Apion.  as 
one  proficient  with  the  art  of  healing,  promised 
to  put  him  in  possession  of  his  desired  object  within 
six  days  by  the  heli>  of  magic,  and  wrote  a  love- 
letter  or  philter,  in  which  he  dwelt  on  all  the  loves 
of  Zeus  and  other  gods,  and  showed  that  to  the  ini- 
tiated, as  well  as  to  the  gods,  all  illicit  loves  are  i)er- 
mitted.  Clement,  pretending  that  he  had  actually 
sent  the  letter  to  his  lady-love,  wrote  a  fictitious 
reply,  purporting  to  come  from  the  woman,  in  which 
she  ridiculed  and  severely  censured  the  gods  for 
their  immoral  conduct,  and  closed  with  the  remark 
tliat  she  had  learned  from  a  certain  Jew  to  under- 
stand and  to  <lo  things  pleasing  to  God.  and  not 

allow  herself  to  beeiitrapped  into  adul- 

Clement     tery  by  any  lying  fables;   she  prayed 

and  Apion.  that   Clement   too    might   be    helped 

by  God  in  the  effort  to  be  chaste.  Apion 
was  enraged  upon  healing  the  letter  read,  and  said: 
"  Have  I  not  rea.son  to  hate  the  Jews'?  Behold,  some 
Jew  has  converted  herand  persuaded  lierto  chastity, 
and  she  is  no  lon,ger  accessible  to  my  jiersuasions. 
For  these  fellows,  setting  God  before  them  as  the 
univer.sal  inspector  of  men's  actions,  are  extremely 
persistent  in  chastity,  holding  that  the  opposite  can 
not  be  concealed  from  Him."  Clement  then  told  him 
that  he  was  not  in  love  with  any  woman  at  all. 
but  that  after  a  thorough  examination  of  all  other 
doctrines,  he  had  adopted  the  doctrine  of  the  unity 
of  God  taught  him  by  a  certain  Jewish  linen-mer- 
chant, whom  he  had  been  fortunate  enough  to  meet 
in  Home.  "Apion  then  with  his  unreasonable  hat  red 
of  the  Jews,  neither  knowing  nor  wishing  to  know 
what  their  faith  was,  and  being  .senseles.sly  angry, 
forthwith  quitted  Rome  in  silence." 

BiBi.lOGRAPHV  :  Scliurer.  Cla>r)i.  iil.  4ili'i-tll ;  Gulsclimld.  K7ci- 
iicrc  SrJtriftrn.  ls!t!.  Iv.  ;«tl-;iri :  Ilausratb.  XcutcKtament- 
ticlii  /.•  iliir.-'iliii hi:,  ii.  lST-192:  Rrinarh.  I'l-rtes  ir.iiitnii-K 
Gncs  it  hoinaiu--^  liclatifs  nu  Jurlaisme^  IStfi.  pp.  li'»-134; 
Lelirs,  (jtiiil  Ajiiii  Hiimcro  Pra^^littril,  etc..  1S!7.  pp.  1-S4: 
S.  Mmli.r.  Do-  Flaviuii  Jn.<rji)nis  S^chrift  (/I'l/cH  .Ipi'iii, 
1877 ;  I.iL'htfcifit,  art.  Apinn.  in  Smith  anil  Waco,  Dicti'imininf 
C7in'.i/i'Oi  liiii^irnphy;  Cotin.  in  Pauly-Wis.sn\va,  }\falfiic]i' 
chipWIie.  art.  Apimt ;  Wlllrirll.  Juilen  unit  Grirehi  H  vur  ilir 
HahkahHiMhrn  Erhrtiuim.  IKIB,  pp.  172-17H:  Fninkel,  in.V"- 
nnt.<iehrift,  18.t2,  pp.  17. 41,  SI,  121 ;  Joel,  A  ngriffe  li.  Hciden- 
thums  geffen  Juden  und  (^hristeni  Zipser.  D»'^  Flfii^itia  Jo- 
sephus Werk :  llhcr  das  Hnhc  Alter,  etc..  ed.  by  Ad.  Jellinek, 
1S71 :  I.  Leri,  in  Rci:  it.  Juivcs,  xli.  pp.  lS8-lft5.  jj 


669 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apion 
Apocalypse 


APOCALYPSE:  8  1.  The  Terms  "Apoca- 
lypse"  and  "Apocalyptic."  .\m  '  .Viicicalypsi," 
iu  the  UTiiiinolDgy  of  «iily  .Ii-\visli  iiiid  C'liristiaii 
literature,  is  a  revelation  of  hidden  thiiifis  niven  by 
God  to  some  one  of  his  chosen  saints  or(still  oftener) 
the  written  account  of  such  a  revelation.  The  wonl 
is  derived  from  the  Greek  ('i-nKti/vif'ir,  "uncoverinfr, " 
"disclosure";  a  noun  which  does  not  appear  at  all 
in  clas.sical  Greek,  and  in  the  later  jirofane  writers 
is  not  employed  in  any  way  that  corresponds  to 
the  use  above  mentioned;  it  seems  to  have  origi 
nated  among  Greek-speakinfr  Jews,  and  then  passed 
from  them  to  the  Christians,  who  developed  it  still 
further. 

The  Greek  verb  a7roKa?.'virTetv  is  occasionally  em- 
ployed in  the  Scptuagint  to  translate  the  Hebrew 
ilhi  ("reveal"):  thus,  of  a  secret,  Prov.  .\i.  13;  com 
pare  Ecclus.  iv.18,  x.\ii.  22,  .\li.  23  [.\lii.l] ;  of  future 
events  disclosed  by  God,  Amos,  iii.  7,  and  especially 

in  the  idioms  |ts  n?3,  "  uncover  the  ear,"  Q^yy  n?i. 
"uncover  the  eyes,"  meaning  "reveal."  Num.  .\xii. 
31,  .\.\iv.  4.16(compare  Knoch,  i,  2);  compare  further 
I  Sam.  ii.  27,  iii.  21,  etc.  So  also  Theodotion's  trans 
lation  of  the  Aramaic  X73.  Dan.  ii.  10.  22.  28  el  xi'/.A'. 
The  noun  aTo/id/ii/ic  appears  in  the  Greek  translation 
of  Eeelus.  with  the  meaning  "disclosure  "of  what  is 
unknown,  Ecclus.  .x.xii.  22  (/'iwrz/p/oD  arruKa'/.infii^,  "re- 
vealingof  a  mv.stery  " — compare  Theodotion's  trans- 
lation of  Dau."ii.  1!»,  28  et  xefj.),  xli.  23  [xlii.  I],  xi.  27. 
The  nearest  approach  to  this  usage  w  hieli  has  been 
observed  in  a  profane  writer  is  the  passage  in  Plu- 
tarch, "Jloralia."  70  F:  id  yap  .  .  .  rf/^  afiapTiaf  ri/v 
vox'^ETiiatv  K(u  fi-nKn/-vijuv  (iTop^rjrnv  tii'ttt,  K.r.  (th<' 
reference  in  Ste|)lianus,  "Thesjiurus  ");  but  it  must 
also  have  been  iu  u.se  among  Greek  speidiing  Jews 
at  the  beginning  of  the  conunon  era  in  the  sense 
"revelation  from  God."  Thus,  when  Paul  speaks  of 
"visions  and  revelations  [iiToK«/ii/'Mr]  of  the  Lonl  " 
(II  Cor.  xii.  1,  7:  I  Cor.  xiv.  6,  26;  compare  Justin. 
"Trypho."  p.  81),  he  is  plaiidy  using  a  term  wi-11 
known  to  Ilelleuists,  in  its  history  directly  connected 
with  the  Sejituagint  use  of  the  verb  in  such  passiigesas 
Num.  xxii.  iJl.l  Sam.  iii.  21.  and  such  use  of  the  noun 
as  that  found  in  Ecclesiastieus  (Hennas,  "Vision." 
iii.  3  should  perliai>s  also  be  compareil  here).  The 
same  may  be  sjiid  of  its  use  in  Hev.  i.  1 ;  it  illustrates 
Jewish  \isage.  Further  evidence  of  the  same  kind 
may  be  foimd  in  the  words  of  Luke.  ii.  32,  (pur  lir 
aToK(iXei/io'  ilh'uv  (compare  the  <!ri<'k  of  Ps.  xeviii.  2), 
"a  light  for  revelation  to  the  Gentiles,"  occurring 
iu  a  context  which  is  Hebrew  through  and  through. 
Hellenistic  Jews,  then,  employed  the  noun  a-oKii'/r\j'i( 
in  speaking  of  visions  and  revelations  sent  from  God. 
No  etymological  ei|uivalent  of  the  wonl  in  this  sig- 
nitleatiou  was  iu  use,  however,  either  in  Hebrew  or 
in  Animnic.  The  t<'rm  commonly  used  in  the  Old 
Testament  is  pjn  (also  p'jn.  nmo)  "  vision  ";  see,  for 
example,  Dan.  viii.  1. 

The  use  of  avaita'/.vxfiit  to  designate  the  written  ac- 
count of  such  a  vision,  or  the  book  containing  it.  was 

the  next  step.     This  usiige  apparently 

Use  of  the  had  its  origin  in  thi'  litli'  given  to  the 

Term.        New   Testament   A]>ocalypse;   which 

title  was  itself  obtaineil,  very  natu- 
rally, from  the  opening  words  ■ATiwi;u>e^''/r'I;/(Toir  Xpia- 
roi>(se'e  above),  in  whi<li  the  term  "revelation  "  is  of 
course  us<'d  simply  to  desiribe  the  eontenis  of  the 
book,  not  as  a  liteniry  designation.  The  name  Apoc- 
alypse was  then  given  to  othiT  writingsof  the  same 
geiiend  character,  of  which  many  appiand  at  about 
this  time.  From  the  .second  century  it  was  applied 
to  a  number  of  books,  both  Jewish  and  Christian, 
which  show  the  same  clianicteristic  features.     Ik'- 


sides  the  Apocalvpse  of  .John  (thus  named  in  some 
of  the  earliest  of  the  Christian  Fathers),  the  Mura- 
tori  fragment,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  others 
mention  an  Apocalypse  of  Peter.  Apocalypses  of 
Adam  and  Abraham  (K]ii]ihanius)  an<l  of  Elia.s  (Je- 
rome) also  begin  to  be  mentioned;  see,  for  example, 
the  six  titles  of  this  kind  in  the  "List  of  the  60 
Canonical  Books"  (published,  i\r/..  in  Preuschen, 
"  Anale<ta,"  p.  l.")9).  The  use  of  the  Greek  noun  to 
designate  writings  belonging  to  a  certain  class  of  lit- 
erary products  is  thus  of  Christian  origin,  the  orig- 
inal norm  of  the  class  being  the  New  Testament 
l^•velation. 

In  recent  times  the  designation  apocalyptic  lit- 
erature, or  apocalyptic,  has  conmionly  been  used  to 
include  all  the  various  portions  of  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  Scriptures,  whether  canonical  or  apocry- 
l>hal.  iu  which  eschatological  predictions  are  given 
in  the  form  of  a  revelation.  That  the  term  is  at 
present  .somewhat  loosely  used,  and  often  made  to 
include  what  is  not  properly  apocalyptic,  is  due 
in  jiart  to  the  fact  that  the  study  of  this  literature  as 
a  distinct  class  is  companitively  recent. 

§  II.  Characteristic  Features.  Both  because 
of  the  origin  of  the  name  a]]oealyptic.  and  still  more 
because  of  the  |)rominence  with  which  certain  well- 
marked  characteristics  appear  in  the  typical  writings 
of  this  class,  there  is  justitication  for  giving  tlie 
Apocalypse  a  place  by  itself,  as  a  distinct  branch  of 
literature;  and  it  is  both  possible  and  desirable  to 
mark  olT  the  boundary  lines  with  some  distinctness. 
As  characteristic  features  of  the  Apocalypse  the  fol- 
lowing may  lie  noted: 

1.  It  is  a  revelation  of  mysteries,  things  which  lie 
bi'Vond  the  ordinary  range  of  human  knowledge. 
The  .Most  High  gives  to  His  sjiints  detinite  instruc- 
tion in  regard  to  hidden  matters,  whether  things 
altogether  foreign  to  human  experience,  or  merely 
events  in  hinnan  history  which  have  not  yet  come  to 
Iiass.  Some  of  the  secrets  of  heaven  are  disclosed, 
in  greater  or  less  detail:  the  purposes  of  God;  the 
deeds  and  chanicteristics  of  angels  and  evil  spirits; 
the  explanation  of  natural  phenomena;  the  story 
of  Creation  and  the  history  of  primitive  man;  im- 
jiendiiig  I'Veuts.  especially  those  connected  with  the 
future  of  Israel;  the  end  of  the  world;  the  tinal  judg- 
ment, and  the  fate  of  mankind;  the  Messianic  age; 
pictures  of  heaven  and  hell.  In  the  15ook  of  Enoch, 
the  m<ist  comprehensive  Jewish  Apocalypse,  the 
revelation  includes  all  of  these  various  elements. 

2.  Thedisclosureof  hidden  wisdom  is  made  through 
a  vision  or  a  dream.  Because  of  the  peculiar  nature 
of  the  sidijeet matter,  this  is  evidently  the  most  nat- 
ural lit<niry  form.  Moreover,  the  maunerof  the  rev- 
elation, and  the  experience  of  the  one  who  receives 
it,  are  generally  made  more  or  less  prominent.  Usu- 
ally, though  not  always,  the  accivunt  is  given  in  the 
first  person.  There  is  something  portentous  in  the 
circumstances,  corresponding  to  tlie  importance  of 
the  sicrels  about  to  be  diselo.sed.  Theeli'ineiil  of  the 
mysterious,  often  so  prominent  iu  the  vision  itself, 
is  foreslnulowed  in  the  |ireliminary  events.  Somr  of 
the  persistent  features  of  ihi'  "apoealypli<'  tradi- 
tion" ari'  connected  with  the  circumstances  of  the 
vision  and  the  pi'rsonal  experience  of  the  seer.  As 
Daniel  after  long  fasting  stands  by  the  river,  a  lieav- 
eidy  iM'ing  appears  to  him.  an<l  thi'  revilatii'n  follows 
(Diin.  X.  2  1 1  mi/.).  .?ohn.  in  the  New  Tistament 
Kevelation  (i.  Hit  m'/.),  has  a  like  experience,  told  in 
very  similar  words.  Compare  also  Hie  lirst  elmpler 
of  ihe  (ireek  ,\poealypse  of  Ifairuch;  and  the  Svriac 
.Vpocalypsi',  vi.  1  it  mi/.,  xiii.  I  il  *'/.,  Iv.  1-3.  t^r.  as 
tin"  prophi't  lies  uprni  his  bed.  dislre,s.s<(l  for  tlii'  fu- 
ture of  his  people,  he  falls  into  a  sort  of  trance,  and 


Apocalypse 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


670 


in"  the  visions nf  liislicjul"  is  shown  llip  future.  This 
is  till'  ins<'  in  Dun.  vii.  1  <7  xrr/  ;  II  Ksii.  iii.  1-3;  ami 
in  the  Sliivimic  IJook  of  Enoch,  i.  2  il  neij.  As  to  the 
cle.scri|)tion  of  the  effect  of  the  vision  \i\Mm  the  seer, 
sec  Dun.  viii.  27;  Enoch,  l.\.  3:  II  Estl.  v.  14. 

3.  The  introduction  of  Angels  as  the  bearers  of 
the  revelation  is  also  a  standing  feature.  Tlie  Most 
High  does  not  speak  in  person  (contrast  the  early 
Hebrew  narratives,  the  visions  in  Amos.  vii. -i.\.  etc.), 
but  gives  His  instruction  through  the  nicdiuui  of  His 
heavenly  messengers. who  act  as  the  seer's  guides  or 
interpreters,  liringing  the  mysteries  of  the  unseen 
world  before  his  eyes,  e.\])Uiining  to  him  what  he 
sees,  answering  his  questions,  and  disclosing  to  him 
the  future.  There  is  hardly  an  examjile  of  a  true 
Apocalypse  in  which  the  instrumentality  of  angels 
in  giving  the  mes.S!ige  is  not  made  prominent.  In 
the  Assum)ilion  of  Moses,  which  consists  mainly  of 
a  detailed  jircdiction  of  the  course  of  Israelite  and 
.lewish  history,  the  announcement  is  given  to.Ioslma 
by  Moses,  just  before  the  death  of  the  latter.  So, 
too,  in  the  Sibylline  Oracles,  which  are  for  the  most 
part  a  mere  foretelling  of  future  events,  the  Sibyl 
is  the  only  speaker.  But  neither  of  these  books  can 
be  called  truly  representative  of  apocalyptic  litera- 
ture in  the  narrower  sense  (see  below).  In  another 
writing  which  has  sonielinics  bi'cn  classed  as  apoca- 
lyptic, the  Hook  of  Jubilees,  an  angel  is  indeed  the 
mediator  of  the  revelation,  but  the  vision  or  dream 
element  is  wanting.  In  this  case,  however,  the  book 
is  not  at  all  apocalyptic  in  its  nature. 

4.  In  the  typical  compositions  of  this  class  the 
chief  concern  of  the  writer  is  with  the  Future.  The 
Apocalyjise  is  primarily  a  Prophecy  usually  with  a 
distinctly  religious  aim,  intended  to  show  God's 
way  of  dealing  with  men,  and  His  ultimate  purposes. 
The  writer  presents,  sometimes  very  vividly,  a  pic- 
ture of  coming  events,  especially  those  connected 
with  the  end  of  the  present  age.  Thus,  in  certain 
of  these  writings  the  subject-matter  is  vaguely  de- 
scribed as  "  that  which  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  latter 
days  "  (Dan.  ii.  2S;  compare  verse  29);  similarly  Dan. 
.\.  14,  "  to  make  thee  understand  what  shall  befall  thy 
people  in  the  latter  days";  compare  Enoch,  i.  1,  2; 
X.  3  ct  seg.  So,  too,  in  Uev.  i.  1  (compare  Dan.  ii.  28 
f<  «fg.,  LXX.),  "Revelation,  .  .  .  that  which  nuisl 
shortly  come  to  pass. "  Past  history  is  often  included 
in  the  vision,  but  usually  onlv  in  order  to  give  force 
and  the  proper  historical  setting  to  the  iirediction,  as 
the  panorama  of  successive  events  passes  over  imper- 
ceptibly from  till'  known  to  the  unknown.  Thus,  in 
the  eleventh  chajiter  of  Daniel,  the  detailed  history 
of  the  Greek  empires  in  the  East,  from  the  conquest  of 
Alexander  down  to  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  An- 
tioehus  Epiphaues  (verses  3-39,  all  presented  in  the 
formof  a  prediction),  is  continued,  without  any  break, 
in  a  scarcely  less  vivid  description  (verses  40^.'))  of 
events  which  had  not  yet  taken  place,  but  were  onlj' 
expected  by  the  writer  (see  next  page.  S;  III.);  viz.,  the 
wars  which  should  result  in  the  death  of  Antiochus 
and  the  fall  <if  his  kingdom.  All  this. however, serves 
only  as  the  introduction  to  the  remarkable  e.schato- 
logical  prcdii'tions  in  the  twelfth  chapter,  in  which 
the  main  jnirpose  of  the  book  is  to  be  found.  Sim- 
ilarly, in  the  dream  recounted  in  II  Esd.  xi.  and  xii., 
the  eagle,  representing  the  Roman  cmpiri'.is  followed 
by  the  lion,  which  is  the  promised  Messiah, who  is  to 
deliver  the  chosen  people  and  establish  an  evcrlast 
ing  kin.gdom.  The  transition  from  history  to  pre- 
diction is  seen  in  xii.  28.  where  the  expected  end  of 
Domitian's  reign — and  with  it  the  end  of  the  world 
— is  foretold.  Still  another  example  of  the  same  kind 
is  Sibyllines.  iii.  G08-623.  Compare  perliaps  also  As- 
sump'tio  Mosis,  vii.-ix.     In  nearly  all  the  writings 


which  are  properly  classed  as  apocalyptic  the  e.sclia 
tological  element  is  prominent.  In  fact,  it  was  thi' 
growlhof  speculation  regarding  the  age  to  come  and 
the  hope  for  the  chosen  people  (see  next  page,  S;  III.) 
which  more  than  any  thing  else  occ«sione(i  the  rise  and 
inlluenced  the  development  of  this  sort  of  literature. 

5.  Still  another  ehaniclerislic  of  thi'  Apocalypse  is 
f(nmd  in  certain  literary  properties  which  are  always 
present  to  some  extent,  and  usually  are  (|\iile  prom- 
inent. The  ch'Mient  of  the  mysterious,  apjiarent  in 
both  the  matter  and  the  manner  of  the  writing,  is 
a  inarkcci  feature  in  everv  typical  A)iocaly|)se.  The 
literature  of  visions  and  dreams  has  its  own  tradi- 
tions, which  are  remarkably  jiersislent;  and  this  fact 
is  uiuismilly  well  illustrated  in  the  group  of  Jewish 
(or  Jewish-Christian)  writings  under  consideration. 
This  apocalyptic  (|uality  ajipears  most  iilainly  (<0 
in  the  use  of  fantastic  imagery.  The  best  illustration 
is  furnisiied  by  the  strange  living  creatures  which 
figure  in  so  many  of  the  visions — "beasts"  in  which 
the  properties  of  men,  animals,  birds,  reptiles,  or 
purely  imaginary  beings  are  combined  in  a  way  that 
is  startling  and  often  grotes(pie.  How  characteristic 
a  feature  this  is  may  be  seen  from  the  following  list  of 
the  most  noteworthy  passjiges  in  which  such  crea- 
tures are  introduced:  Dan.  vii.  1-H.  viii.  3-12  (both 
pa.ss!igesof  the  gri-itest  importance  for  the  history  of 
apocalyptic  literature);  Enoch.  Ixxx  v.-xc. ;  Slavonic 
Enoch,  xii.,  xv.  1,  xix.  6,  xlii.  1,  etc.;  II  Esd.  xi. 
1-xii.  3,  11-32;  Greek  Apoc.  of  Bar.  ii..  iii. ;  Hebrew 
Testament,  Naphtjili's.  iii.;  Rev.  iv.  C  et  seg.  (com- 
pare Apoc.  of  Bar.  [Syr.]  Ii.  11).  ix.  7-10,  17-19,  xiii. 
1-18,  xvii,  3,  12;  Herin.as,  "Vision,"  iv.  1.  Certain 
inythi<'al  or  scmimythical  beings  which  aitpear  in 
the  Old  Testament  are  also  made  to  play  a  jiart  of 
increasing  imp<irtance  in  the.se  books.  Thus  "Levi- 
athan" and  "Behemoth"  (Enoch,  Ix.  7,  8;  II  Esd.  vi. 
49-52;  Apoc.  of  Bar.  xxix.  4);  "Gog  and  Magog" 
(Sibyllines,  iii.  319  et  seq.,  512  el  neq.;  compare 
Enoch.  Ivi.  5  et  seg.;  Rev.  xx.  8).  As  might  be  ex- 
jiccted,  foreign  mylhologies  are  also  occasionally 
laid  und<T  contribution  (see  below). 

The  apocalyptic  (juality  is  seen  again  (J)  in  the 
frequent  use  of  a  mystifying  symbolism.  This  is 
most  strikingly  illustratecl  in  the  well-known  cases 
where  f/i  mutn'a  is  cmjiloj'ed  for  the  sake  of  obscur- 
in,g  the  writer's  meaning;  thus,  the  mysterious 
name"Taxo."  Assumptio Mosis,  ix.  1;  the  "number 
of  the  beast."  OdO,  Rev.  xiii.  18;  the  number  888 
{'li/anl^),  i^ihyllines,  i.  326-330.  Very  siniihir  to  this  is 
the  frer|Uent  enigmatic  prophecy  of  the  length  of 
time  which  must  elapse  before  the  events  predicted 
come  to  ])ass;  thus,  the  "time,  times,  and  a  half," 
Dan.  xii.  7;  the  "fifty-eight  times"  of  Enoch,  xc.  5, 
As.sumptio  ]Mosis,  x,  11;  the  announcement  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  "  weeks  "  or  days  (without  specifying 
the  starting-point),  Dan.  ix.  24  et  seg.,  xii.  11.  12; 
Enoch  xciii:  3-10;  II  Esd.  xiv.  11,  12;  Apoc.  of  Bar. 
xxvi.-xxviii. ;  Rev.  xi.  3.  xii.  0;  compare  Assumptio 
miosis,  vii.  1.  The  same  tendency  is  seen  also  in  the 
employment  of  symbolical  language  in  s])eaking  of 
certain  persons,  things,  or  events;  thus,  the  "horns" 
of  Dan.  vii.,  viii.  ;  Rev.  xvii,  et  neg. ;  the  "heads"  and 
"  wings  "  of  II  Esd.  xi.  et  seg. ;  the  seven  seals.  Rev. 
vi. ;  trumpets,  viii. ;  bowls,  xvi. ;  the  dragon.  Rev.  xii. 
3-17,  XX.  1-3;  the  eagle,  Assumptio  Mosis,  x.  8;  and 
so  on.  As  typical  exainples  of  more  elaborate  alle- 
gories— aside  from  tho.se  in  Dan.  vii.,  viii..  II  Esd. 
xi..  xii.,  already  referred  to — maybe  mentioned;  the 
vision  of  the  bulls  and  the  sheep,  Enoch,  Ixxxv.  et 
seg.;  the  forest,  the  vine,  the  fountain,  and  the  cedar, 
Apoc.  of  Bar.  xxxvi.  et  seg. ;  the  bright  and  the  black 
waters,  ibid.  liii.  et  seg. ;  the  willow  and  its  branches, 
Hernias,  "Similitudines,"  viii. 


671 


THE  JEWISH  E^•CYCLOPEDIA 


Apocalypse 


To  this  (lis(ri|>ti<)n  of  the  literary  iHCulUirities  of 
the  Jewish  A|iocal_vpsc  luifiht  bi^  added  that  in  its 
distinctly  I'sthatolofjical  [jortions  it  exhiliits  with 
cousid<Tal)lo  uiiiforiiiily  the  diction  and  symliolistn 
of  the  chissical  Old  Tcslanient  passjiiies  (see  helow). 
As  this  is  true,  liowever,  in  lilie  degree  of  tlie  Inilk 
of  late  Jewish  and  early  Christian  eschatnlogieal 
literature,  most  of  ■which  is  imt  apocalyptic  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word,  it  can  hardly  be  treated  as 
u  charaitr  risiic  mi  a  par  with  those  described  above. 

^  III.  Origin  and  Materials.  The  origin  of  the 
Jewish  Apocalypse  is  to  be  .sought  chieMy  in  the 
natural  development  of  certain  welldetined  tenden 
cies  in  the  national  literature;  possibly  also  in  part, 
as  some  have  thoiiglit.  in  tlie  iiilluence  of  foreign 
reli,gious  idc^as  and  litei-ary  models.  The  earliest 
known  example  of  a  Jewish  Ajjocalypse  is  the  ISook 
of  Daniel  (middle  of  the  second  century  li.c),  with 
Avhich  book  the  distinct  beginning  of  a  new  branch 
of  literature  is  made  (though  some  hold  that  a  part 
of  the  Book  of  Enoch  is  anterior  to  Daniel).  But  the 
author  of  Dan.  vii.-.\ii..  though  a  pioneer  and  an 
originator  in  this  department,  could  hardly  be  called 
the  creatorof  the  Jewish  Apocalvpse.  Nearlyevery 
one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  his  work  is  to 
be  found  well  established  in  the  earlier  literature  of 
liis  people.  Ftnthcnnore,  the  subseiiucnt  composi- 
tions of  this  class  were  not  wholly  or  even  larirely 
developed  from  tin;  materials  provitled  in  this  book. 
Like  Daniel,  and  together  witli  it.  they  were  a  char- 
acteristic product  oi'  the  times  (see  below).  The  ex- 
tensive Enoch  lit<'rature,  which  begins  to  make  its 
appearance  soon  after  this,  is  in  it.self  a  sutlieient 
demonstration  of  the  fact.  It  is  evident  that  the 
materials  for  this  sort  of  composition  were  at  that 
lime  ready  to  Iiand.  On  the  other  side,  the  Book  of 
Daniel  certainly  did  determine,  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, liow  the  existing  materials  should  be  use<l  in 
the  apocalyjilic  tradition  an<l  in  the  pojiular  escha- 
tology.  Its  intlneiice  on  both  the  religious  and  the 
literary  side  was  very  great. 

The  most  nearly  related  jirecursor  of  the  Jewish 

Apocalypse    was    the   characteristically   developed 

eschutological  elemi'nt  in  the  later  Hebrew  ])roph- 

ecy.    The  Hebrew  ideas  concerning  the  last  things 

were  in  many  respects  very  similar  to 

Late         those  which  were  helil  by  thesurroinid- 

Hebrew  ing  peoples;  but  the  same  fiuidamen 
Prophets,  tal  biliefs  which  shaped  the  religious 
life  of  the  nation,  and  determined  the 
developuK'nt  of  every  other  dipartment  of  it.s  re- 
ligious literature,  showed  themselves  to  be  fully  op- 
erative liere  also.  It  was  llie  doctrine  of  the  <'hosen 
people,  especially,  which  was  the  controlling  intln 
ence  in  the  growth  of  Hebrew  and  Jc>wish  eschatol- 
ogy;  and  this  is  easily  reiogni/.cd  also  us  the  domi- 
nant iilea  in  the  Jewish  .Vpocalyjise. 

The  hope  I'nr  Israel  cherished  by  the  later  i)ropli- 
et.s  tinds  its  coniphlest  and  most  ixalted  expres,sion 
in  I.sa.  xl.-lxvi.,  where  thi'  future  of  the  nation  is 
painti'd  in  vivid  colors  and  on  a  magniticent  scale: 
"Israel  is  the  chosen  ])e(iple  of  the-  one  God,  who 
has  plainly  declared  His  purpose  ever  since  the  be 
ginuing.  Though  it  is  now  a  dispised  race,  trodden 
under  foot,  its  glorious  future  is  certain."  As  the 
horizon  of  the  .lews  gradually  widined.  anil  tiny 
saw  more  plainly  their  ndative  position  among  thr 
nations  of  the  earth,  and  the  impossibility  of  gain 
ing  any  lasting  political  supremacy,  the  belief  in  an 
age  to  come,  in  which  riuhteousni'ss  and  the  true 
religion  should  hold  undisputed  pos.session,  came 
more  anil  more  prominently  into  the  fori'grounil. 
In  the  .Maecabean  agi',  especially,  tmder  the  stress 
of  severe  persecution,   this  Ixdief,  anil   the   various 


doctrines  connected  with  it.  received  a  mightj'  im- 
pulse. Thus  out  of  the  hope  nourished  by  "  Deutero- 
Isaiah  "  and  his  fellows  (who  are  only  les.s  eloquent 
than  he  in  giving  voice  to  it)  there  grew  of  necessity 
the  doctrine  of  "  the  world  to  come  "  ih<t'ohirii-hiih(i): 
the  ever-present  contrast  between  which  and  "this 
world  "  (/"'-'"'"'"-/"'i</0  is  one  of  the  fundamentals 
of  apocalyptic  literature  throughmit  its  whole  his- 
tory, though  these  particular  forms  of  expression 
are  late  in  appearing  (see,  however,  Enoch,  Ixxi.  \'i). 
Thus,  the  purpose  of  the  whole  elaborate  symbolism 
of  Dan.  vii.  is  to  be  found  in  the  final  antithesis  be- 
tween the  successive  empires  of  this  world  and  the 
"everlasting  kingdom"  of  the  siu'nts  of  the  Jlost 
High  (verses  18,  27).  Compare  also  especially  II 
Ksd.  vii.  .^().  viii.  1. 

The  more  unlikely  it  seemed  that  Israel  would 
iver  be  able  to  gel  the  upper  hand  of  the  surround- 
ing nations,  the  stronger  grew  the  feeling  that  the 
linal  triumph  would  be  preceded  by  a  complete 
overthrow  of  the  existing  order.  The  present  age 
wiiuld  come  to  a  sudden  end  ;  and  a  new  age.  ushered 
in  by  the  "day  of  the  Lord."  would  take  its  place. 
This  "end"  (D'D'.I  nnnsO  would  be 

"Day  of  announced  by  great  portents,  and  con- 
the  Lord."  vulsions  of  nature,  "signs"  on  the 
earth  and  in  the  heavens;  and  in  speak- 
ing of  these  things,  a  phraseology  highly  figurative 
and  mysterious  became  tixed  in  use.  See.  forexample, 
Isa.  xxiv.  etsi'f/.,  xxxiv.  -t.  Ixvi.  l.T;  Zeph.  i.  l.'J;  Zech. 
xiv. ;  Joel,  iii.  H  et  w/.  [ii.  30  f/ifj.].  etc. :  and  com- 
pare in  the  New  Testament  Matt.  xxiv.  29,  and  the 
synoptic  parallels.  These  ideas  and  images  were  a 
fruitful  source  of  material  for  the  apocalyptic  wri- 
tings: compare,  for  example,  Sibyl,  iii.  TOG-SOT;  II 
Esd.  v.  1-13.  vi.  20-28;  Apoc.  Bar"  xxvii.,  liii.,  Ix.x.; 
Enoch,  xci  -xciii.,  c.;  II  Esil.  ["5  Ezra"]  xv.  5,  20. 
:ii-4rr.  xvi.  18-39. 

Moreover,  the  day  of  Israel's  triinnph  was  to  be 
a  day  of  judgment  on  the  Gentiles.  The  various 
phases  of  this  idea  made  so  iiromiuent  by  the  later 
lirophets — a  series  of  linal  bloody  wars,  in  which  the 
oppressors  of  Israel  shall  fall:  "  Gog  and  Magog" 
(Ezek.  xxxviii.  ft  »)•(/.).  the  judgment  and  punish- 
ment of  the  nations  by  Jehovah  (Zeph.  iii.  8;  Joel,  iv. 
[iii.]  2,  9  ft  x(i/.) — are  elaborated  in  characteristic 
manner  by  the  apocalyptic  writers.  The  most  stri- 
king example  is  the  prediction  in  Dun.  xi.  40-45  (see 
above.  ?;  II.  4). 

The  idea  of  a  final  trimnph  of  God  and  His 
heavenly  hosts  over  evil  spirits  also  followed  natu- 
rally, and  kept  pace  with  the  development  of  the 
Jewish  angelology.  The  "  guardian  angels  "  of  Dan. 
ix.-xii.,  and  the  punishment  of  the  "  fuUen  stars," 
which  oceuides  so  much  sjiace  in  the  EiuhIi  litera- 
ture, are  only  elaborations  of  beliefs  which  hud 
already  rec<'ived  distinct  exjiression;  compare  Isa. 
xxiv.  21  ft  iifij.  (a  most  important  jiassjige),  xxvii. 
1;  Ps.  Ixxxii. :  Deiil.  xxxii.  8  ((Jreekl:  Joi),  xxxviii, 
7,  etc.  The  appearance  of  the  evil  spirit  "Azazel" 
in  Lev.  xvi.  8  ft  nfi/.  is  |)roof  tiuit  tlie  numes  of 
ungels  anil  demons  were  in  common  use  before  the 
days  of  Daniel  and  Enoch. 

I5ut  the  esihatologiial  teuchings  current  among 
the  Jews  Ht  the  beginning  of  the  .seeond  century 
lie.  were  not  eoneerned  luinly  with  the  fate  of  the 
nations,  and  of  the  people  Israel  in  parliculur.  As 
the  coming  "day  of  the  Lord"  was  li>oked  ujion  as 
a  time  when  wrongs  were  to  be  st't  right,  it  was 
luitiinil— indeed  necessiiry — that  the  expected  judg- 
ment should  also  up])ear  as  the  linal  lrinm)ih  of  tlie 
righteousover  the  wicked,  even  ii\  Israel.  Thus  Mai. 
iii.  l-r,.  13-18.  19-21  (iv.  1-3);  Zeph.  i.  12;  Zech.  xiii. 
Setufj.    Hence  the  diMlriueof  the  resurrection  of  the 


Apocalypse 


Tin:  .11; WISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


673 


righteous  Israelites — already  fonmilated  in  Isa.  xxvi. 
19  (as  the  context  shows),  xxv.  8 — which  assumed 
such  importance  in  the  hands  of  the 
Doctrine     apocalyptic  writers,    bejrinnini;   with 
of  Restir-    Dan.  xii.  2  and  Knoch,  xxii.     In  both 
rection.      of  these  latter  passjijres,  the  resurrec- 
tion of  at  least  a  part  of  llic  wicked 
amonj;  the  Jews  is  also  predicted;  and  the  fact  well 
illustrates  the  growing  proniincnce  of  the  individ- 
ual, as  contrasted  with  the  nation,  in  the  type  of 
theology  which  these  writings  represent.     So,  too, 
the  ])icture  of  a  hell  of  tire,  in  which  tho.se  who 
have  done  wickedly  shall  burn,  begins  now  to  take 
a  prominent  place;  <■.,(/.,  Enoch.  Ixiii.  10.  xcix.  11,  c. 
i».  ciii.  7  tt  seq.     Here,  also,  the  Apocalypse  was  an- 
ticipated by  the  prophet,  Isa.  Ixvi.  24  (compare  Isa. 
XXX.  3;l). 

On  the  literary  side  also,  as  well  as  on  the  side  of 
theology,  the  Apocalypse  was  in  the  main  a  new 
adaptation  and  elaboration  of  recognized  Jewish 
models.  Hebrew  literature  had  its  "'visions"  and 
"dreams."  and  the  popular  beliefs  as  to  their  im- 
portance were  like  those  commonly  held  among 
other  ancient  peoples.  The  intluence  of  (Jen.  xl. 
et  siq.  on  the  author  of  the  Hook  of  Daniel  is  easily 
recognizable.  The  mysterious  visions  of  Zechariuh 
and  Ezekiel  contributed  much  to  the  traditional 
pattern  of  the  later  group  of  writings,  with  which 
they  have  so  many  allinities.  The  interesting  pas- 
sage Gen.  XV.  9-18  (compare  ver.se  1)  might  almost 
be  called  a  miniature  Apocalypse;  notice  the  way 
in  which  it  is  spoken  of  in  II  Esd.  iii.  Ifi;  Apoc.  Bar. 
iv.  4.  Numerous  other  passages  might  be  mentioned 
which  in  some  respects  mark  the  transition  to  the 
genuine  Apocalypse,  and  may  have  served  to  some 
extent  as  models.  Among  these  are  the  Balaam 
prophecies,  Num.  xxiv,,  and  the  many  predictive 
passages  in  the  Prophets  in  which  the  future  course 
of  history,  the  "day  of  the  Lord,"  or  the  Messianic 
age,  arc  pictured  in  highly  poetical  and  often  mys- 
tifying language.  With  these,  Vergil.  "  Kcloga."  iv. 
4—17,  deserves  to  be  compared.  Some  of  the  wri- 
tings commonly  classed  as  apocalyptic,  on  the  other 
hand,  really  behmg  to  this  Sitme  "transition"  stage. 
for  example,  the  principal  part  of  the  Sibyllines. 
and  the  As.suinption  of  iloses,  which  are  hardly 
more  than  specimens  of  supernatural  predictive 
power,  or  clairvoyance.  Even  the  .second  chapter 
of  Daniel  may  be  included  here,  for  it  has  more 
affinities  with  the  older  literature  (for  example,  the 
allegories  of  Ezekiel)  than  with  chapter  vii.,  in  spite 
of  its  very  similar  contents. 

The  marvelous  "beasts"  of  the  apocalypses  (see 
§  II.  0)  also  have  their  prototypes  in  the  earlier  liter- 
ature (compare  the  very  simple  representation  in 
Isa.  vi.  2  with  Ezek,  i.  5  ft  mri.).    The 
Mytholog-  frcrpient  employment  of  mythological 
ical  Crea-   creatures  and  conceptions  already  fa- 
tures.        miliar   in  the  Old  Testament  has  re- 
ceived notice  above  (^  II.  T)).     It  is  to 
be  observed  also  that  the  incorporation  of  this  mythol- 
ogy into  Jewish  eschatology  had  already  taken  jilace; 
see  especially  Isa.  xx  vii.  1 :  "In  that  day  the  Lord  with 
his  sore  and  great  and  strong  sword  siiall  pimish  Le- 
viathan the   piercing  serpent,   and   Leviathan   the 
crooked  serpent:   and  he  shall  slay  the  dra.i^on  that 
is  in  the  sea."     Foreign  mythological  material  not 
foiuid  in  the  Old  Testament  is  also  occasionally  in- 
Inulueed.    Thus,  the  "  dragon  with  the  seven  heads  " 
(Hev.   xii.)  seems  to  have  been  derived   from   the 
Babylonian  mythology  (Giinkel.   "Schopfung  und 
Chaos."  p.  3(il,"note  2;"Bousset,"Offenbarung  johan- 
nis,"  pp.  394,  898).     The  idea  of  the  creation  of  the 
universe  in  the  form  of  an  egg,  and  the  description  of 


the  proccs.s,  in  Slavonic  Enoch,  xxv.,  are  plainly  bor- 
rowed. Very  close  parallels  are  found  in  both  the 
Hindu  and  the  Egyptian  co.smogonies. 

The  (piestion  whether  the  origin  of  the  Jewish 
Apocalypse  was  to  any  considerable  extent  due  to 
foreign  litemry  models  is  one  that  can  not  at  ])resent 
be  answered  witli  certainty.  The  second  centiuy 
n.C.  was  a  time  when  considerable  gains  were  made 
for  the  Jewish  rcli.iiion  and  literatur<'  through  the 
inlluence  of  the  surrounding  nati<ins.  The  possi- 
bility naturally  suggests  itself  that  this  new  adapta- 
tion of  existing  materials,  and  the  fusion  of  them 
into  so  well  dctincd  a  i)roduct,  was  due  to  an  im- 
puls<'  rcc<'iveil  from  without.  Persian  inlluence  has 
generally  been  looked  for  first  of  all.  both  lu'cause 
of  what  is  known  of  its  contrihutions  to  Jewish  the- 
ology at  aliout  this  time,  and  also  because  of  the 
distinctly  Babylonian  charactirof  most  of  the  myth- 
ological elements  incorooraled  in  this  literature.  But 
the.se  Babylonian  niwhs  had  imdoubtedly  been  more 
or  less  widely  current  among  the  Jews  for  a  long 
time;  with  nearly  all  of  them  we  know  this  to  have 
been  the  case.  Such  mysterious  ami  fantastic  ele- 
ments as  these  are  sure  to  be  taken  up.  by  a  natural 
jjrocess,  into  the  literatiue  of  the  "hidden  wisdom." 
Furthermore,  among  the  ideas  which  make  their  ap- 
liearance  in  the  earlier  apocalypses  there  is  hardly 
anything  distinctively  Persian;  nor,  finally,  do  we 
know  of  any  Persian  writings  of  this 

Origin  of  nature  whicli  could  have  furnished  the 
Jewish  model.  So  far  as  litcniry  iiarallelsare 
Apocalypse,  concerned,  the  liypollirsis  of  a  Greek 
or  Egyptian  source  would  have  more 
in  its  favor.  Some  of  the  Greek  (especially  Oridiie) 
eschatological  compositions  that  were  current  at  this 
time  have  much  in  common  with  the  Jewish"  Enoch" 
writings;  see  Dieterich,"  Nekyia."  1S93,  \^\i.'i\~ ct  seq. 
In  the  oldest  strata  of  the  Sibylline  oracles  pa.ssages 
of  immistakably  heathen  origin  have  been  preserved, 
which  present  the  exact  counleri)art  of  such  writings 
as  the  Assumption  of  Moses.  Another  interesting 
parallel  is  all'orded  by  a  certain  Egyptian  demotic 
"chronicle."  written  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies, 
which  is  in  fact  a  "prophecy  after  the  event"  of  dis- 
tinctly theological  character,  eoucheil  in  mysterious 
language  (Wachsmuth,  "Eiideitung  in  das  Studiiun 
dcr  AltenGcschichtc,"  p.  357).  But  in  regard  to  these 
parallels,  it  must  be  said  again  that  the  evidence 
of  any  direct  borrowing  from  Greek  or  Egyptian 
sources  is  wanting.  The  most  probable  theory  of 
the  origin  of  the  Jewish  Ajiocalypsc  wo\dd  seem  to 
be  this,  that  it  was  a  characteristic  jiroduct  of  the 
national  religious  literature,  directly  produced  and 
given  shape  by  external  conditions;  namely,  the  ter- 
rible distress  under  Antiochus  Epiphancs.  Like 
other  branches  of  Jewish  literature  in  the  Greek  and 
Human  periods,  it  certainly  assimilateil,  from  the  be- 
giiuiing.  more  or  less  foreign  material;  but  in  its  es- 
sential features  it  seems  to  have  been  tndy  Jewish  in 
its  origin,  as  it  continued  to  be  in  its  subsequent 
history. 

§  IV.  Development  and  Influence.  One  of  the 
most  noticeable  features  in  the  history  of  this  litera- 
ture is  the  constancy  with  which  its  own  traditions 
are  maintained.  Phraseology,  imagery,  and  modes 
of  thought  or  interpretation  aie  jias.sed  on  from 
hand  to  hand.  Numerous  illustrations  of  this  fact 
have  already  been  given;  see  above,  tj  II.  o.  Among 
still  other  characteristic  exainples  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  the  "seven  heavens."  Testaments  of 
the  Patriarchs.  Levi,  iii. ;  Ascension  of  Isiuah.  vii.-x. ; 
Slavonic  Bookof  Enoch, iii. -xx. ;  Greek  Apoc.  Bar.  ii.- 
xi.  (in  its  original  form,  probably);  the  "seven  angels," 
Enoch,  XX.  (see  Greek  MSS.;  Testament  Patriarchs, 


673 


THE  JEWItiU  ENXYCLOPEDIA 


Apocalypse 


Levi,  viii. ;  Kev.  viii.l,  etc. ;  compare  Hennas,"  Siniil." 
ix.  6,  12;  tbe  "watchers"  {eypr/yopoi,  pTy),  Dan.  iv. 
14(20  Masoretic  te.xt):  Enoch,  i.  .5,  xii.  2,  etc.;  Slav. 
Enocli,  xviii.  3;  Testament  Xaphtali.  iii.;  the  great 
beasts  wliich  "came  up  out  of  the  sea."  Dan.vii.  3;  II 
Esd.  .\i.  1;  Rev.  xiii.  1;  the  traditional  employment 
of  such  monsters  to  symbolize  the  heathen  world- 
powers,  successive  rulers  being  reijresenteil  by  u  se- 
ries of  heads,  horns,  or  wings,  and  so  on.  In  point 
of  tlieological  teaching,  also,  there  is  to  be  observed 
the  same  noteworthy  transmission  of  material  (see  t  he 
examples  in  §  III. ).  It  is  plain  that  the  fixity  of  tliis 
"apocalyptic  tntdition"  is  due  to  the  nature  of  the 
subject-matter.  Tlie  writerof  such  visionsof  the  fu- 
ture was  obliged  to  deal  to  some  extent  with  dt Unite 
things— per-sons,  events,  times,  and  places.  The  end 
of  the  world,  for  example,  could  take  ])lace  in  but 
one  way ;  and  after  the  scene  had  once  been  described, 
a  subsequent  writer  on  this  theme  coidd  not  disre- 
gard or  contradict  the  former  description  without 
throwing  discredit  upon  his  own  work.  In  no  other 
branch  of  literature  is  it  so  indispensable — and  so  ea.sy 
— to  have  the  sui)port  of  tradition.  It  was  tliis  desire 
forautlieuticity.cliietly,  that  caused  the  mostof  thes<' 
writings  to  be  put  forth  under  the  names  of  former 
great  men  of  Israel.  Only  in  the  case  of  the  Chris- 
tian "  Shepherd  "  of  Ilermas  does  the  author  write  in 
his  own  name. 

In  spite  of  this  uniformity  of  tradition,  the  liooks 
of  this  group  exhitiit  very  consideraI>le  diversity. 
In  the  development  of  .lewish  apoca- 
Controllingf  lyplic  literature  two  controlling  mo- 
Motives.  tivi'S  may  be  especially  ol)served:  in- 
terest in  the  future  —  especially  tlie 
future  of  the  true  Israel — and  interest  in  the  secrets 
of  the  universe.  The  two  oldest  apocalypses  that 
have  been  jtreserved — Daniel  and  Enoch — may  serve 
to  represent  these  two  main  divisions.  The  Hook  of 
Daniel  is  the  most  strongly  patriotic  of  all  the  apoc- 
alyp.ses.  Very  little  attention  is  jKiid  in  it  to  the 
unseen  world;  no  great  interest  in  the  current  myth- 
ology is  apparent;  here  alone  among  all  the  wri- 
tings of  this  cla.ss  there  is  no  reference  to  theancient 
Hebrew  history.  The  cschatology  of  the  book — im- 
mensely important  as  it  is.  and  strongly  empliasized 
by  the  author  Iiimself — is  crowded  into  the  briefest 
possible  space,  vii.  13  et  »/'/.,  27,  xii.  1-3.  Angels 
are  maile  prominent  onlv  fur  the  purpose  of  emi)ha- 
si/.ing  the  fact  tliat  (ioi!  and  His  hosts  are  in  direct 
control  of  all  that  has  come  upon  the  Jews.  That 
to  which  everylhing  else  is  subordinated  is  the  pre- 
diction of  the  iniTiieiliate  future.  The  tiews  are 
8o<m  to  be  delivered  from  their  oppressors,  and  the 
faithful  will  triumph  forever.  Another  book,  to  be 
as.soeiated  with  r)aniel  in  the  above  ela.ssitication, 
but  of  a  very  dilTerenl  character,  is  II  Esilras.  In 
this  another  anil  most  important  line  of  develop- 
ment is  exemplilieil.  Theological  interests  are  in 
the  foreground.  (Questions  <()neerning  the  ilealing 
of  (iod  with  His  jieople.  anil  His  ultimate  purposes 
for  them,  are  asked  and  answered.  The  doctrine  of 
the  Messiah  is  plaitdy  set  forth.  In  all  these  re- 
spects, the  (Syriac)  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  is  the 
coimterpart  of  II  Es<lras. 

The  Hook  of  Enoch,  representing  the  other  main 
division  of  this  literature,  is  cliietly  concerned  with 
the  heavens  aliove.  and  the  mysteries  of  the  uni 
verse.  Interest  in  t\\r  future  of  Israel  is  by  no 
means  wanting,  but  it  occupies  a  very  subordinate 
place.  Angels  and  demons,  the  heaveidy  Ixidies,  the 
places  and  conditions  of  departed  spirits,  are  among 
the  subjects  which  receive  most  attention.  Tlii' 
book  is  composit<',  consisting,  in  fact,  of  several 
independent  books  of  dilTerent  dates;   Its  national 

I.— 13 


apocalyptic  portion  belongs  in  time  near  the  Book 
of  Daniel.  A  number  of  apocalyp.ses,  generally  of 
minor  religious  value,  follow  in  this  track.  The 
most  noteworthy  example  of  degeneration  along  this 
line  is  furnished  by  the  Greek  Apocalypse  Baruch. 

Both  of  these  varieties  of  ajiocalyptic  exercised 
a  profound  intluence  on  the  nation.  Such  doctrines, 
conunon  to  both  of  them,  as  those  of  the  resurrec- 
tion, the  millennium,  and  the  ilessianic  kingdom, 
were  soon  given  an  assured  place  in  the  common 
belief.  The  elaborate  mythology  and  occult  science 
of  the  Enoch  literature  were  inherited  by  the.Jew- 
ish  Midrash  and  the  early  Christian  writing.s.  As 
for  the  more  distinctly  i)atriotic  apocalypses,  espe- 
cially Daniel  and  II  Esdras,  there  is  abundant  evi- 
dence that  they  gave  in  full  measure  what  they 
were  designed  to  give:  encouragement,  and  anew 
religious  impulse  to  the  pious  in  Israel.  For  the  de- 
tailed evidence  of  their  great  intluence  on  the  devel- 
opment of  both  Jewish  and  Christian  theology,  see 
the  articles  devoted  to  the  separate  books. 

The  Jewish  apocalyptic  writings  were  not  the 
property  of  any  sect  or  school.  Their  point  of  view 
was  in  general  that  of  Palestinian  orthodoxy,  of  the 
type  of  which  the  Pharisees  were  the  best  represent- 
atives. Most  of  them,  but  probably  not  all,  were 
written  in  Palestine,  Most  of  them,  but  not  all, 
were  composed  in  the  Hebrew  language.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  regard  the  writers  as  men  of  a  pessimistic 
turn  of  mind,  or  to  contrast  them  sharply,  as  a  cla.ss. 
with  the  prophets.  So  far  as  religious  teaching  is 
concerned,  it  is  not  po.ssible  to  draw  any  distinct 
line  between  projihecy  and  Apocalypse,  The  devel- 
opment in  this  regard  was  continuous,  as  some,  at 
least,  of  the  writers  themselves  felt;  see  tlie  use  of 
rrpoOTfiia.  Kev.  i.  3,  xxii.  7  et  sfq.  The  appearance 
of  the  successive  apocalypses  did  not  mark  succes- 
sive periods  of  )H-rsecution.  or  unusual  distress,  as 
has  sometimes  l)een  a.ssimied.  After  the  Book  of 
Daniel,  there  is  no  evidence  that  any  writing  of  this 
kind  was  called  forth  by  the  immediate  circum- 
stances of  the  people. 

From  the  Jews  this  type  of  composition  pa,sscd 
over  to  the  Christians,  who  both  wrote  books  of 
their  own  on  this  model,  and  still  oftener  appropri- 
ated existing  Jewish  books  in  their  entirety  or  in- 
terpolated them.  Theadditions  to  II  Esdras(chaps. 
i..  ii.,  XV..  xvi.:  called  also  "Tt  Ezra")  are  perhaps 
the  most  striking  illustration  of  the  last-named  pro- 
cess.    Other  r\amplis  will  be  mentioned  below. 

§  V.  The  Jewish  Apocalypses.  Tlw  following 
isa  list  of  theihief  npresentatives  of  Jewish  apora- 
lyptic.  As  the  .several  books  are  treated  at  length 
elsewhere,  otdy  the  briefest  description  of  them  is 
given  here,  the  aim  being  to  prcM'iit  in  each  case 
such  particulars  as  will  best  illustrate  the  history  of 
the  growth  of  this  literature. 

1.  Daniel.  The  latter  part  of  this  book  (written 
probably  Hi.")  it.c.)  is  the  oldest  Jewish  Apocalypse 
known  to  us.  Cha|)s.  i..  iii.-vi.  have  little  or  none 
of  the  "apocalyptic  "  character.  For  a  characteriza- 
tion of  chaps,  vii. -xii..  see  above,  tj  IV. 

2.  Enoch.  Oldest  portion  written  about  120  B.C. ; 
the  reinaiiuler  within  a  period  of  ]ierhaps  fifty  years. 
Original  langviage  was  certainly  Semitic,  prolmbly 
Hebrew.  For  the  most  part  it  is  typicallvapocalvp- 
tic.  and  a  mine  of  characteristic  material;  see  ^  IV. 
Esiiecially  i>rominent  features  an' iingelology.  .s«'cn'ts 
of  the  unseen  world,  explanation  of  natural  phenom- 
ena, the  history  of  the  world,  arranged  in  its  succes- 
sive '•  periods."  .111(1  the  Missianii'  kingdom 

3.  Slavonic  Enoch  (or  Book  of  the  Secreta  of  Enochv 
Written  probably  iti  the  former  lialf  of  the  first 
century  of    the  common   era.     Original   language 


Apocalypse 
Apocalyptic  Literature 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


674 


was  probably  Orcok.  General  rlmractcr  like  that  of 
the  ol(l<T  Ixiok,  but  iiuich  more  iiitlufuced  by  GrtiU 
tliought.  It  (.ontainssomc  pliilosopliicalsipccuhitidn. 
TUcre  are  niarki-d  Gnostic  ek-nieuts.  tspcc-ially  in  tlic 
very  detailed  accoviut  of  the  Creation.  Noteworthy 
features:  the  seven  heavens,  the  niilleiiniuin.  and 
the  condition  of  souls  after  death.  The  book  is  Jew- 
ish tliroujrhout.  Some  writers  have  attempted,  but 
without  sutlicient  reason,  to  show  that  it  contains 
Christian  iidditioiis  and  interpolations. 

4.  Assumption  of  Moses.  Written,  probably  in  He- 
brew, at  alinul  the  beiriiiiiing  of  the  common  era.  In 
form,  not  a  vision  or  dream,  but  a  prediction  of  the 
future  history  of  Israel  delivered  to  Joshua  by  Jloses. 
The  material  which  is  more  or  less  ajiocaiyptic  in 
character  is  contained  in  chaps.  vii.-.\.,  with  which 
Dan.  xi.  4((-xii.  18  may  be  compared.  The  book  as 
known  to  us  is  inconiplrte. 

5.  II  Esdras  (also  4  Ezra).  The  Semitic  (appar- 
ently Hebrew)  original  was  composed  about  the 
year  90.  In  all  resjiects  a  typical  Apocalypse  of  the 
theological  type,  of  which  it  is  the  best"  specimen. 
The  instruction  in  hidden  things  here  has  to  do 
chiefly  with  matters  of  religion  and  faith.  Teach- 
ing by  allegory  is  a  jiromiuent  feature.  The  influ- 
ence of  Daniel  (referred  to  by  name  in  .\ii.  11)  is  very 
noticeable,  es|ieciallv  in  the  dream-vision.s,  chaps. 
xi.-xiii.  The  "signs  of  the  end,"  v.  1-13.  vi.  18-28. 
Messianic  predictions,  xii.  31  et  neij. ;  xiii.  32  ct  mq. ; 
51  (t  acq. :  xiv.  9,  etc.  The  general  resurrection,  and 
last  judgment,  vii.  30-3.').  Extended  account  of  the 
(■oniiitiouof  souls  after  death,  vii.  78-98.  The  stand- 
point of  the  book  throughout  is  that  of  Palestinian 
Judaism  (contrast,  c.;i..  the  account  of  the  Creation. 
vi.  38-5-i,  with  Slavonic  Enoch,  xxv.-xxx.),  but  the 
author  is  decidedly  original,  as  well  as  orthodox. 
Chaps,  i..  ii.,  xv..  xvi.  are  a  later  addition,  appar- 
ently of  Ciiristiiiu  origin  (.see  ii.  42-48). 

6."  Apocalypse  of  Barnch  (preserved  entire  onlv  in 
Syriac;  hence  sometimes  termed  the  "Syriac  Apoc. 
liir. ").  Beginning  of  the  second  century.  Original 
language  Hebrew  or  Aramaic.  A  series  of  visions. 
connected  by  narrative,  hortatory,  or  sometimes 
highly  rhetorical  pas.sages.  In  its  geniTal  character, 
the  book  is  the  inferior  counterpart  of  II  Esdras,  to 
which  it  also  sustains  a  very  close  literary  relation- 
ship, the  correspondence  extending  even  to  the 
phraseology.  The  features  mentioned  above  as  char- 
acteristic of  II  Esdras  are  present  here  also.  The 
appended  letter  (chaps.  Ixxvii.-lxxxvii.)  contjiius 
nothing  of  an  a])ocaly)itic  nature. 

7.  Greek  Apocaljrpse  of  Barnch.  Greek  text  first  pub- 
lished in  1897  ;  an  aliriilged  Slavonic  recension  known 
since  1886.  A  work  dating  from  the  latter  part  of 
the  second  century.  Oinginally  Jewish,  but  now  con- 
taining Christian  additions.  A  good  example  of  a 
(h'generate  Apocalypse  of  the  Enoch  type  (see  §  IV. ). 
Baruch  is  conducted  by  an  angel  through  the  five 
(originally  seven?)  heavens,  and  sees  strange  sights, 
the  account  of  which  is  grotesiiue  rather  than  im- 
pressive. Next  to  nothing  is  said  about  the  future; 
and  the  religious  element,  usually  so  prominent  in 
this  literature,  is  almost  wholy  wanting.  There  is 
evident  dependence  on  the  Slavonic  Enoch,  as  well 
as  on  the  curlier  P.aruch  literature. 

8.  The  Sibylline  Oracles,  Books  III.-V.  A  Jewish 
adaptation  and  expansion  of  similar  heathen  "ora- 
cles."  The  hypothesis  of  still  further  Christian  ad- 
ditions is  without  sufficient  ground.  The  plainly 
Jewish  portions  date  from  140  n.c.  down  to  about 
80  of  the  present  era.  These  Oracles  lie  quite  out- 
side the  course  of  the  characteristic  apocalyptic  tia- 
dition ;  but  furnish  in  part  a  good  example  of  the 
nearly  related  class  of  prophetical-eschatological  wri- 


tings (see  §  III.).  Thus,  in  Book  III.,  which  con- 
tains the  pas,sages  most  nearly  resembling  the  true 
Apocalypse:  pre<iictiou  of  the  successive  kingdoms 
wiiich  are  to  l)ear  rule  over  the  Jews;  the  woes  to 
come  upon  the  various  lands:  the  signs  of  the  end 
of  the  worhl;  the  judgment  dav;  the  blessed  age  to 
come:  lines  71-92.  107-198.  29r,-.'i(i  1 .  608-()23.  767- 
806.  Similar  passages  in  Book  IV. :  40-48.  172-183. 
In  Book  v.:  lo.VKil.  260  ,1  «<y..  3t4-38.'>,  414-133, 
513-531.  With  all  these,  the  familiar  passages  in 
Joel,  Zech.  xiv.,  Malachi,  Issv.  xxiv.  et  »eg.  shoidd  be 
compared. 

9.  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs.  Probably  a 
work  nt  the  lirsi  (  entuiy  ol  tin-  common  era.  origi- 
nally written  in  Hebrew.  Chiefly  haggadic  Midrash. 
combined  with  some  predictive  prophecy.  The  only 
apocalypti<-  jjortions  are  in  the  Testaments  of  Levi 
and  Naphtali.  In  Levi  two  visions  are  described: 
the  seven  heavens,  ii.-v.  ;  the  .seven  angels,  viii.  Sec 
also  xviii. .  iirediction  of  the  Jlessianic  age.  In  Naph- 
tali, v.,  vi.  (Hebrew  text,  ii.-vi.),  two  dreams  arc 
narrated,  which  have  something  of  the  ajiocaiyptic 
character.  The  whole  book,  in  the  form  known  to 
us.  has  been  cililcd  by  Christian  hands. 

10.  Life  of  Adam  and  Eve  (or.  in  another  recension, 
the  Apocalypse  of  Moses).  Original  language  probably 
Hebrew;  date  uncertain.  It  has  received  someChins- 
tiaii  additions.  The  book  contains  hardly  anything 
apocalvptic  in  the  narrower  sense;  see,  however. 
Apoc.  ^Iosis,  xiii. :  prediction  of  the  resurrection  and 
of  the  futine  bliss  in  paradise  (compare  Dan.  xii.  1 
it  seq.):  and  the  fantastic  visions  in  Apoc.  Mosis, 
xxxiii.-xlii. ;  compare  also  Life  of  Adam  and  Eve, 
xxv.-xxviii.     See  Ad.\m.  Book  of. 

The  following  also  deserve  mention: 

The  Book  of  Jubilees.  Sometimes  classed  with  this 
literature,  and  in  Syiiccllus  (ed.  Dindorf,  i.  5)  called 
the  Apocalypse  of  Moses.  It  i)ur]iorts  to  have  been 
given,  through  angels,  to  Mos<'S  on  Mount  Sinai, 
but  in  the  character  of  its  contents  it  is  very  far  re- 
moved from  being  an  Apocalypse.  Ascension  of  Isaiah 
(also  Vision  of  Isaiah).  A  brief  Ajioealypsi'.  found 
combined  with  the  older  Jewish  "Martyrdom  of 
Isiiiah."  of  which  it  forms  chaps.  vi.-.\i..  and  also 
existing  sejiarately.  It  is  a  Christian  product,  how- 
ever: the  theory  of  a  .Tewisli  ki-rnel  is  liardly  tena- 
ble. Apocalypse  of  Abraham.  A  true  Apocalypse,  of  the 
second  century.  Aiijiareiitly  Jewish,  with  Christian 
additions.  Preserved  only  in  a  Slavonic  version  (ed. 
Bonwetsch,  1897).  Apocalypses  of  Elias  ami  Zephaniah. 
Coptic  fragments,  ed.  StcindorlT,  issiil.  Both  prob- 
ably Jewish  in  origin.  lu:t  worked  over  by  Christian 
hands.  The  Apocalypses  of  Moses  and  Esdras  published 
by  Tischendorf.  " Apocalyjises  Ai"Miy|ili:e."  1.S66, 
are  Christian  works.  Apocalypse  of  Sedrachis,  a  late 
production,  dependent  on  Tischen(h)rf's  "Apoca- 
Ivpsis  Esdra","  and  also  upon  II  Esdras.  Ed.  by 
James.  "  Ai>ocrypha  Anecdota."  1893.  pp.  127-137. 
Apocalypse  of  Adam  is  a  Greek  fragment  describe<l  by 
James,  /.r.  l:^S-14."').  Testament  of  Abraham,  and  Tes- 
taments of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  are  gmlilished,  or 
translated  in  extract,  by  James  and  Bariu'S.  "Texts 
and  Studies,"  ii.  2.  1892.  These  all  contain  some 
apocalyptic  material,  perhaps  Jewish. 

For  a  partial  account  of  some  characteristic  medie- 
val apocalypses,  see  Bousset,  "Antichrist"  (English 
trans),  pp.  72-78.  Of  the  early  Christian  writings 
of  this  class,  the  most  important  for  the  history  of 
Jewish  apocalyptic  literature  are  the  New  Testa- 
ment Revelations  and  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas.  See  al.so 
Ai'f)CRvi'iiA.  Es(  ii.vToi.ooY.  and  the  literature  on  the 
several  apcjcalyjises. 

BiBLioGRAPHT :  Among  the  more  important  books  and  essiays 
dealing  witti  this  subject  are  the  following :  HUgeofeld,  Die 


675 


THE  .lEWLSII  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apocalypse 
Apocalyptic  Literature 


JihlM-hf  Aintktiljnttik,  1H.^T:  Idciii,  Missutttjuittrtirutn,  lH*ifl; 
Snii'iKl.  In  SIailf'«  ZiilwUri/t.  IHSi.v.  ai;-2."i(i ;  cunkpl.  .n'i/io;<- 
ftitm  laul  I'hinni.  IHilj;  liddssct.  Dtr  AulUhrisI,  Kuu.  trims. 
by  Ki'iiMi'.  ls!»;;  iili'iii.  (iih  itluiruim.lnhaitnis,  ismi.  pp.  ill. 
anil  llic  K.\iui>iiis.'s,  /"ix-iiii  ;  SihiinT.  Cixih.  ill.  ISIK,  pp.  im 
et  sai.:  Milton  s.  Tcirv.  llililiiid  Ain'iiiliii'li'".  Ni'W  Viirk, 
IHHH;  Wi-llliaii.scn,  Skizzrii  iiml  Vifiiiiln  ih  ii.  Is'.p.i.  v|.  S15- 
349;  Kant/.s('h,  Dif  Aimkn/phni  iiinl  I'st  uili  tii{intittH'}i  dfn 
Altiu  TrxIdmtnlK.lii'J'.t:  R.  ll.clmiics.  Hoi>k  i>|  Kiiarh,  IMti; 
Idem.  Sun  t.^  of  Enoch.  IKini;  Idrni.  Ainnfilitpst  o/  llantcit, 
iKiHi;  Idem,  HfljiLW,  JiwMi,  ftnil  ChrMiiui  Esrluiliiltimi, 
is™.  ,,    ,,    .,, 

APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE,  NEO- 
HEBRAIC  :  The  Nctj-llclnaic  iipocalvplk'  forms 
liui  mil-  hruiicli  <if  Apomlvptic  Mlcralun'.  a  species 
of  liteniliin-  e.\liibiting  many  ramilicatidiis,  and  ic])- 
resented  in  a  ciitnplex  l)iit  nnbniken  cliain.  ficiin 
tlie  lime  iif  llie  ilaceabcaii  War  down  to  tlieclose  of 
the  Middle  Aires.  It  is  eharaeleristic  of  Apoealv])- 
tic  Liti'mttire  from  its  very  heuinnins^  tliat  it  did  not 
remain  eontined  to  its  native  Palestine.  It  ma<le  its 
ivay  almost  immediately  to  llelleni.stie  Alexandria. 
where  it  appears  in  the  (Jreek  laniruane  under  the 
mask  of  the  lieatlieii  .Sibyl  and  with  other  my tlioloi;- 
ieal  emliellisliments.     The  same  tliinjj 

Growth  oceuncd  ai^aiii  when,  at  the  rise  of 
Out  of  the  Christianity,  tlie  Cluireh  took  over  the 
Older.  apocalyptic  without  clmnLrein  essence 
or  even  in  artistic  form  from  the  Syna- 
gogue, and  made  it  her  own — a  fact  admitted  l)y  all 
modern  New  Testament  critics — and  theaiiocalyptic 
writings,  thereafter  naturalized  in  the  literatures 
of  the  Occident  as  of  the  Orient,  may  li(^  traced 
through  the  centuries.  Nor  did  this  transplanting 
])rocess  take  place  only  in  iipostolic  times.  In  the 
course  of  its  development  the  Cliristian  apocalyptic 
diew  freely  from  later  .Jewish  sources,  which,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  often  inllueuceil  directly  or  in- 
directly by  the  apocalyptic  of  the  Church.  Consid- 
ering this  uniiiterru|)ted  tlux  and  retlux  of  Apoca- 
lyptic Literature  during  ujiward  of  a  millennium  and 
a  lialf.  it  .seems  on  the  face  of  the  ni;itter  improbabU^ 
that  the  Xeo  Ileliniic  apocalyptic  shouhl  dati'  no 
farther  back  than  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century, 
as  Zuiiz  (compare  "  L.  (!."  pj).  iiWi  ef  nt'r/. ;  "G.  V." 
295,  ix.  417  ,t  «,•(/.)  and  Griltz  C'Gesch."  v.  441 : 
"Monals.schrift,"  viii.  67  rt  seq.,  11)3  et  nif/.,  140  (7 
se>/..  ix,  til)  it  Kit/.)  maintained,  and  still  more  imiirob- 
able,  that  it  should  exhibit,  as  these  scholars  be- 
lieved, an  entirely  new  chaiacter  and  trend  of 
thought,  the  resultant  of  the  specific  inlhiences  and 
tendenciesoperating  in  medieval  times.  Theapoca 
lyptic  research  and  discoveries  of  the  last  few  dec- 
ades have  proved,  in<leei|,  that  (piile  opposite  coii- 
clu.sions  us  to<iateand  character  must  be  drawn.  It 
lias  l)een  shown  ever  more  convincingly,  that  the 
chamcterislic  feature  of  Apocalyptic  Litenitiire  is 
constancy  in  ideas,  the  ,sainc  set  of  thoughts  being 
handeil  dOwu  from  generation  to  genenition  without 
iinilergoing  any  material  niodilication.  It  has  been 
pointe<l  out  fiirlhir,  that  the  intricate  coimi-ctioii 
among  the  dilTerent  u|iocalypseH,  where  dinct  liter 
nry  inlliicnci'  is  freipienlly  mil  of  the  qiiistion.  can 
becxpliiined  only  by  tlu'  a.ssum|>tioiiof  an  apocalyp 
tic  tradition,  transmitted  orally  as  an  esoteric  <loc 
trine.  In  Ihr  same  way  a.s  Chrislianily  created  no 
new  and  chanictcristic  apocalyptic  expectations,  ho 
a  later  age  adopted  its  apocalyptic  material  ready 
foriise  from  the  past;  the  .Middle  .Vgesdid  not  creati' 
norinvcnl  in  this  province,  tiny  merely  worked  ov<r 
the  materiat  handed  down  to  thiin,  putting  merely 
a  new  stamp  on  the  old  coin  ;  their  task  was.  on  the 
one  hand,  to  apply  the olil  hopes  and  promises  to  the 
present,  and.  on  the  other,  to  inlerprel  the  present 
according  to  thesi'  hopes.  In  tlie  cii.se  of  the  Nco- 
Ilebraic  apocalyptic  it  was  precisely  the  .same. 


The  nature  and  object  of  the  Neo-Hebraic  are  the 
same  as  tho.se  of  the  older  ajiocalyptic.  The  great 
question  in  it,  too,  is,  how  and  when  will  the  period 
of  Messianic  glory  he  realized:  anatiii-al  i|uestion  in 
postexilic  times,  in  the  face  of  the  unfulfilled  prom- 
ises of  the  Prophets.  The  answer — identical  with 
that  given  in  Danii'l  and  the  succeeding  apocalypses 
— lay  in  the  diialistic  conception  of  two  worlds:  a 

])resent  world  (n|n  D^IV'-  corrupt  by  reason  of  the 
evil  powers  inlu-ieiit  in  it ;  and  a  future  ideal  world 

(Xan  D71V) — a  conce|)tion  of  things  due,  in  part  at 
least,  to  lonigii  intliiiiices.  The  logical  couseiiuence 
<if  thisdualislic  belief  was(l)  that  (iod's  plan  of  sal- 
vation can  be  realized  only  after  all  the  evil  ])owers 
— the  host  of  Salan  and  tin'  heathen  subject  to  them, 
toijether  with  the  world  itself — shall  have  t)een  an- 
nihilated, and  CJ)  that  the  future  world,  with  all 
its  blessings  iirecxistiiig  from  eternity  in  heaven, 
shall  then,  at  the  end  of  time,  descend  thence  anil 
replace  the  old  world,  having  the  perfect,  glorious 
New  .leriisalem  for  its  center.  In  the  Neo-Ilebrew. 
as  in  the  cd<lir  Apocalyiitic  Liteniture,  the  eschato- 
logical  draiiia  is  enacted  not  in  one  era,  but  in  two: 
the  temporary  .Messianic  interiiii,  and  the  everlasling 
kingdom  of  heavenly  bliss — the  latter  offset  by  the 
everlasting  tormeiils  of  hell  in  .store  for  the  wicked. 

lu  general  tone  and  coloring  the  older  apocalypse 
served  as  model  for  the  Neo-IIebrew.  It  shows 
the  same  particularism  and  narrow  nationalism  that 
predominate  in  the  later,  according  to  which  the 
kingdom  of  find  means  sjilval ion  for  faithful  Israel 
alone,  but  for  the  unrepentant  heathen  world  damna- 
tion. Siinihirly  the  Christian  apocalyptic  grants 
future  bliss  only  to  the  faithful  adherents  of  the 
Church.  In  like  manner,  the  gross  .sensuousuess  in 
the  detailed  description  of  the  joys  of  the  Messianic 
and  siipraniiiiidaiie  world  is  (|iiite  common  in  the 
older  apocalyi)tic.  So  also  is  the  fact  that  besides  the 
revelations  regarding  theendof  time,  and  the  occur- 
rences in  tliiit  jicriod,  there  are  not  infrei|Uently  other 
revelations  concerning  siiiienialural  subjects — for 
example,  heaven,  hell,  and  paradise,  the  mysteries 
of  the  Creation,  the  course  of  the  universe,  angels, 
and  the  whole  worhl  of  spirits,  even  God  Himself — 
and  in  these  revelations,  the  fantasy  in  the  older 
apocalyi)tic  is    i|iiite   as  unrestrained 

General      and  extravagant  as  that  in  the  later. 
Tone.  Siinilarlv,  the  one  sided  em))lmsis  laid 

in  the  Neo  llebniic  apocalypti<'  upon 
the  ideal  way  in  which  the  Torah  is  to  be  foslereil 
in  the  future  world,  and  on  the  pouring  out  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  over  all  men,  is  in  <'onformity  with  the 
spirit  of  the  older  apocalyptic:  in  fact,  is  in  accord 
with  the  whole  devilopmiiit  of  the  religious  lifeand 
thought  of  the  .lews  from  tin' time  of  the  Maccabees, 
acciuiliiig  to  whiih  the  Torah  is  not  only  the  crea- 
tive, preservative  principle,  which  existed  agi'S  be 
fore  the  creation  of  the  world  as  Ihees-seiiceof  Go<l'3 
consciousni'ss.  but  is  also  the  sum  and  Center  of 
(iod's  di'sign  with  man  icompiire  Siracli.  xxiv. ; 
liarueh,  iii.  14  loiv.  1 ;  Enoch,  xlviii.  1 :  Sibvlline,  iii. 
757  ,1  «.</.,  7(i!l.7  Mtf/.,  7S7:  Abot,  vi.  10;  "Pes.  r>4<j ; 
Zeb.  lHt.i:  Mekilta.  (kV— ed.  Wei.ss;  B.  B.  75<i: 
Pesik.  Il)7<i — eil.  Biiber — etc.).  Schlln-r's  remark  is 
to  the  point,  that  fultllment  of  the  Law  anil  hojie 
of  fiiliiie  glory  were  the  two  poles  around  which 
the  wholi'  religious  life  of  later  .Iiidaism  revolved 
("Gesch."  !id  ed.,  ii.  4IMi  it  »<'/•)■  This  also  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  the  apo<alypsis  repeatedly  contain 
legal  inslniclion  and  exposition  of  the  Ijiw  Invsides 
the  revehition  of  the  futun' and  other  supernatural 
my.sleries;  see  Hook  of  .lubilees  aud  Testaments  of 
the  Twelve  Patriarchs  for  the  older  literature,  ami 


Apocalyptic  Literature 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


676 


the  "Alplmluts  of  H.    Akiba"  ami  "Otot"  or  "Mil- 
^aiiiot  Mckk  lui'Mashiah  "  for  tlii'  Noo-Hcbrew. 

Filially,  the  Xeo-Hei>rew  apocalypses  likewise 
show  all  the  external  eharacteristies  of  the  older. 
Like  these,  they  claim  to  be  revelations  made  ihrouirh 
the  medium  of  anfrels,  and  their  authors  conceal 
their  real  identity  by  pseudonyms,  borrowing  for 
this  purpose  the  names  of  celebrated  holy  men  of 
the  past — hence  the  name  Pseu(U'pi<jniph(i  for  the 
apocalyptic  writiiiirs.  The  authors  skilfully  add 
plausibility  to  the  claitu  that  their  writinirs  are  an- 
cient luophecies,  by  making  a  review  of  contempo- 
rary, and  frequently  also  of  past,  his- 
External  tory.  in  the  guise  of  a  vision  of  the 
Charac-  future.  In  this  way  every  apocalypse 
teristics.  contains  the  key  to  the  date  of  its  ori- 
gin, this  date  coinciding  with  that 
period  at  which  such  "  prophecy  after  the  event " 
breaks  off,  and  the  real  iirophecy  of  the  future  be- 
gins, the  prediction  i>f  the  immediate  approach  of 
judgment  for  the  wicked  and  of  salvation  for  the 
good.  This  pious  deception  on  the  part  of  the  wri- 
ters was  for  the  purpose  of  awakening  in  the  hearts 
of  their  readers,  wlio  were  living  in  a  period  of 
gloom  and  bitter  trial,  that  belief  in  the  blissful  fu- 
ture promised  them. which  filled  theirown  souls.  For 
in  times  of  oppression  and  persecution  theapocalypse 
was  essentially  the  literary  mediinu  through  which 
the  minds  of  the  faithful  were  a]>pealed  to.  and  it 
could  attain  such  power  only  through  an  alleged 
sanctity  as  an  ancient  revelation. 

This  leads  to  the  corollary  that  every  age  of  great 
political  agitation  had  its  apocalypses,  and  that  it 
would  seem  impossible  that  all  productive  activity 
in  this  sphere  sliould  have  lain  utterly  dormant  dur- 
ing the  Talmudic  i>eiiod.  The  oldest  apocalyptic 
monument,  the  IJook  of  Daniel,  is  the  direct  fruit 
of  the  fanatical  religious  persecution  exercised  by 
Antiochus  Eiiiphanes  (see  Apocalypse).  When  the 
Jews  came  into  conflict  with  the  Roman  empire,  a 
conflict  lasting  for  two  centuries,  every  phase  of  this 
varying  drama  was  accompanied  by  apocalypses, 
from  the  concjuest  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey  to  the 
despotic  rule  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra  in  Egypt,  and 
down  to  the  last  des]K'rate  struggle  and  bloody  jier- 
sccution  under  Hadrian.  In  like  manner,  as  will  be 
mentioned,  there  arc  apocalypses  contemporaneous 
with  the  great  political  vicissitudes  of  the  Sassanian 
period  (227-642).  But  apart  from  intlepcndent  apoca- 
lypses themselves,  the  Talmud  contains  much  apoc- 
alyptic matter  that  not  only  attests 
In  the  Tal-  the  interest  with  which  the  jews  fol- 
mudic  Age.  lowed  the  wars  against  Rome  waged 
by  Sapor  I.  (died  271)  and  Sapor  II. 
(died  379),  believing  that  these  wars  were  the  un- 
mistakable signs  of  the  inmiinence  of  God's  king- 
dom, but  proves  also  bej'ond  doubt  that  apocalyptic 
writing  flourished  no  less  in  Talnuidic  than  in  post- 
Talnuidic  times.  For  example,  a  passage  in  Yoma, 
10(7,  for  which  Joshua  b.  Levi,  a  contemporary  of 
Sapor  I.,  is  mentioned  as  the  authority,  shows  how, 
in  the  face  of  the  victorious  wars  of  Sapor  I.  against 
Rome,  the  prophecy  contained  in  Dan.  viii.  (about 
the  war  between  the  Medo-Persian  and  the  Grecian 
kingdoms)  was  believed  to  refer  to  Sapor's  wars  with 
Rome.  To  determine  the  ultimate  issue  of  these  wars, 
an  old  and  familiar  apocalj'ptic  tradition  was  there 
cited,  according  to  which,  before  the  advent  of  the 
Jlessiah,  Rome,  the  fourth  and  last  world-monarchy, 
would  extend  her  godless  dominion  over  the  whole 
world  for  the  space  of  nine  months.  Similarly,  in 
Shebu.  64  there  is  a  passage  dating  from  the  time  of 
Sapor  II. 's  wars  with  Rome,  in  which  the  statement 
in  Dan.  vji.  23  about  the  fourth  world-monarchy  is 


(juoted  to  show  conclusively  that  no  other  outcome 
is  possible  than  that  Rome  should  triuinphover  Per- 
sia. In  Sanh.  U7((-i)84  there  are  preservt-d  a  number  of 
apocalyptic  calculations  of  those  times;  also,  among 
other  things,  excerpts  from  revelations  which  the 
above-mentioned  R.  Joshua  b.  Levi — who  also  fig- 
ures as  the  author  of  an  apocalypse  (see  below) — was 
siipi)osed  to  have  received  from  the  mouth  of  the 
prophet  Elijah  as  well  as  from  the  very  Messiah 
himself. 

The  entire  Apocalyptic  Literature  is  of  great  his- 
torical value.  Toward  the  close  of  antiquity  and 
through  the  Middle  Ages  it  exercised  exten.sive  and 
permanent  influence  on  the  thought  of  the  times.  It 
reflects  the  hopes  and  fears  which  swayed  the  masses 
for  over  fifteen  himdred  years,  and  reflects  them 
more  directly  than  any  other  class  of  contemporary 
literature.  All  the  strange  erratic  thotights — which 
seem  now  but  the  otitgrowth  of  a  morbid  fantasy,  so 
grotesqtieand  unmeaning  do  they  appiar — were  once 
full  of  life  and  keen  signiticance,  and  had  the  power 
to  move  the  readers  to  the  depths  of 
Historical  their  being.  The  imea.siness  and  solici- 
'Value.  tude  about  the  approaching  end  of  the 
world,  which  were  of  constant  recur- 
rence during  the  Middle  Ages,  were  nothing  more 
than  the  impression  made  by  the  threats  and  promises 
of  the  apocalypses  upon  minds  already  susceptible 
and  excited  by  external  events.  And  in  the  history  of 
the  Jews  in  particular,  the  apocalypse  was  one  of  the 
most  telling  factors,  contributing,  as  it  did  in  such 
large  meastire,  to  determine  the  uni(|Ue  course  of  its 
development  until  long  after  the  close  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  courage  and  persistency  in  their  belief 
which  the  Jews  have  shown  from  the  time  of  the  Mac- 
cabees down  to  nindern  times,  their  indomitable 
hope  under  persecution,  their  scorn  of  death,  were 
all  nourished  by  the  Apocalyptic  Literature.  The 
darker  their  present  grew,  the  more  desperate  their 
condition  in  the  later  medieval  period,  the  more 
eagerly  did  their  minds  turn  to  the  comfort  of- 
fered by  the  apocalyptic  promises  which  predicted 
the  end  of  their  suffering  and  the  dawn  of  their 
delivery. 

The  followingoutlinesof  the  separate  apocalypses 
will  illustrate  the  characteristics  of  the  Neo-Hebrew 
apocalyptic.  Only  certain  general  points,  however, 
are  treated  here,  as  the  preliminary  investigation, 
upon  which  any  exhaustive  treatment  would  have  to 
be  based,  has  not  yet  been  made  in  this  branch  of 
Apocalyplir  Literature. 

1.  Book  of  Enoch  (Hanok),  lljn  ISO:  Even 
up  to  the  ]ir(scnt  day  this  book  has  been  confounded 
with  "  Pirke  llekalot.''  also  sjiid  to  have  been  written 
by  R.  Ishmael,  and  hence  has  been  called  erroneously 
ni^3'n  "ISD-  That  the  "Book  of  Enoch"  is  the 
original  title  is  established  by  a  manuscript  in  the 
Bodleian  Lil)rary.  and  by  the  fact  that  the  apoca-  • 
lypse  is  quoted  under  that  name  in  the  older  medie- 
val literature.  There  are  two  editions  of  this  book, 
one  by  Jellinek,  bearing  the  title  Nnpjl  nhz'^n  "ISD 
"Iljn  -IDD  p  DJ  ("Bet  ha-Midrash,"  1873,  v.  170- 
Util).  iriving  the  text  of  the  Munich  Codex,  Ko.  40,  f. 
1214-132  (not  f.  94-102.  as  there  described  by  Jelli- 
nek). The  other  appeared  under  the  title  ni73'n  "ISD 
^na  pa  fjsyoc"  'l  X:nnD  (printed  together  with 
a  prayer  attributed  to  R.  Ishmael),  in 

Book  of      fjemberg.  1864,  and  was  reprinted  in 

Enoch.        Warsaw,  187.5.    According  to  the  title- 
page,  the  latter  gives  the  textof  a  very 
old  manuscript,  and  in  many  cases  has  better  read- 
ings than  Jellinek's  edition.    An  unedited  manuscript 
of  this  apocalypse  is  in  the  Bodleian  Library  (Op- 


677 


THE  JEWISU  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Apocalyptic  Literature 


pi'iiliiimcr,  .'i.')0,  old  numliir  lOGl),  and  boars  the  title 
^nj  pD  ^Nyot,'"  1^5  lUn  ISD  (see  Neul)aiRT,  "Cat. 
Bodl.  llebr.  MSS."No.  1050.  2;  MteinscliiK-ider.  "Cat. 
Bodl."  pp.  033  et  seq.).  Both  the  priuted  editions 
are  incomplete,  but  fortunately  they  supplement 
eacli  other. 

After  cliapter  xvi.  of  .Tellinek's  edition  si.\  chap- 
ters are  niis.sing.  The  I.einlxTj;  edition  Ijreaks  off 
suddenly  iu  the  middle  of  the  apocalyp.se,  what  fol- 
lows belonging  to"Hekalot  Habbati  "  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  "addition"  (DSDin)  in  chapter  .\.\i.\.. 
which  is  taken  probably  from  one  of  the  recensions 
of  the  Alphabct-JIidnish  of  H.  Akiba  (sec  below). 
The  number  of  chapters  in  .Tellinek  is  forty-two, 
which,  with  the  si.\  missing  chapters  (supiilied  by 
the  Lcmberg  edition)  makes  forty-eight,  and  this  is 
also  the  numbrr  wljich,  according  to  Jscubauer,  is 
contained  in  the  Bodleian  manuscript. 

This  apocalypse  is  quoted  very  often  in  the  rab- 
binical lit<'rature  of  the  Midille  Ages,  jiarticularly  in 
the  cabalistic  branch.  In  the  Zoii.\u  it  is  even  twice 
called  "Sefer  Kazin  de  Hanok  "  ("The  Book  of  the 
Secrets  of  Enoch  ")  (at  the  beginning  of  section  T<z- 
airiri/i.  ii.  f.  804.  ed.  Amst. :  for  other  passages  in 
the  Zohar  in  which  the  book  is  quoted,  see  Zunz. 
"Etwas  liber  Habbinische  Literatur."  ]>.  13).  E.\- 
ccrpts  of  chaps,  i.  to  xvi.  arc  contained  in  the 
niauuscript  works  of  Eleazar  of  Worms  (Cod.  >Iu- 
nicli,  81)  "with  many  belter  readings"  than  iu  Jel- 
linek  (Steinschneider,  "Ilebr.  Bibl."  xiv.  S'i  et  seq.). 
A  new  critical  edition  is  much  to  be  desired,  and  in 
connection  with  the  lirejiaration  of  such,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  determine  to  what  extent  the  <niola- 
tions  from  the  Boi>k  of  Enoch, in  tlie  rabbinical 
literature  of  the  Middle  Ages  belong  to  the  present 
book,  or  are  taken  from  other  books  of  Enoch. 
There  are,  for  e.vample,  lengthy  ([Uotations  from  the 
Book  of  Enoch  in  the  manuscript  work,  "Mishkan 
ha-'Edut"  of  Jloses  de  Leon,  which  are  not  in  the 
book  under  consideration  (given  by  Jellinek,  "  15. 
H."  ii.  :!1,  ill.  19.5  et  nq..  and  variants  by  Steinschnei- 
der, "Helir.  Bibl.  "  iv.  1.T.J  et  wq.). 

This  book  is  an  interesting  specimen  of  the  apoc- 
alypse, and  illustrates  strikingly  many  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  literature  to  which  it  belongs.  It 
shows  an  intimate  dependence  upon  the"  Book  of  the 
Secrets  of  Enoch"  discovered  some  years  ago  in  a 
Slavonic  translation.  A  brief  synopsis  of  the  book 
will  best  show  the  metamorphosis  which  the  old 
pseudepigraphic  writing  underwent,  and  what  new 
elements  from  other  ajiocalypses  were  addi-d  in  the 
process;  it  will  also  show  that  thireis  juslilication  for 
considering  it  a  geninne  apocalypse  and  treating  it 
altogether  apart  from  the  "llekalot"  litc-rature. 

The  book  opens  with  tlie  verse  Gen.  v.  24  con- 
cerning Enoch's  godly  lire.  H.  Ishniael  imrmtcs 
how  he  ascentled  into  heaven  to  s<'e  the  Mkuk.mi.\m. 
and  how.  after  he  hail  pa.ssed  through  six  hiavenly 
halls,  ^AIk.t.vtkon  came  to  meet  him  at  the  eiilranee 
to  the  Si'vi  nth,  and  condu(  led  him  insiilc,  bailing 
hitu  stndghl  before  the  celeslial  chariot  into  the 
presence  of  Ood  (comimre  "Secrets  of  Enoch,"  .xxi. 
2A-.')).  At  the  sight  of  the  heaveidy  hosts  Ishmael 
fell  unconscious;  l)ut  Ood  motioned  them  back  and 
Jletatron  restored  Ishmael  to  consi  iousnes.s.  Ish- 
mael then  proclainird  the  glory  of  the  l.oril,  and  all 
the  angels  joined  him.  In  chap.  ii.  Metatron  con- 
(|Uers  the  objection  of  the  angrls  to  Ishinai  Is  ap 
proaeli  to  tiod's  throne.  In  chaps,  iii.-v.  and  vii  - 
xvi.  >le(a(ron  relates  to  Ishniael  that  he  is  ICiiocli 
b.  Jareii,  and  that  at  the  time  of  the  Deluge 
Gixl  had  him  translated  to  heaven,  by  his  angel 
'Anpi'el,  in  a  chariot  of  tire,  that  there  he  might 
bear  eternal  witness  against  his  .sinful   contempo- 


rarie.s.  Further,  that  God,  overcoming  the  protests 
of  the  heavenly  hosts,  transfigured  him  with  the  rays 
of  heavenly  glory  and  made  him  as  one  of  theiii- 
,selvcs,  in  order  that  he  might  serve  before  His 
throne  as  one  of  the  highest  angel-princes  (compare 
"Secrelsof  Enoch,"  xxii.  Oi-lO);  that  first,  however, 
the  Angel  of  Wisdom,  at  God's  command,  had  in- 
structed him  in  all  wisdom  and  knowledge  (com- 
pare ih.  xxii.  11,  12  and  xxiii.jand  had  imparli'd 
to  him  all  the  mysteries  of  creation,  of  heaven  and 
earth,  of  past  and  future  things,  and  of  the  world 
to  come  (compare  ih.  xxiv.-xx.xiii.  2).  In  chap.  vi. 
Metatron  tells  Ishmael  that,  after  Ailani  was  driven 
out  of  jiaradise,  God  abode  under  the  tree  of  life, 
and  the  angels  and  heavenly  hosts  descended  to  the 
earth  in  many  divisions.  Adam  and  his  generation, 
.sitting  at  the  entrance  to  paradise,  beheld  the  heav- 
enly glory  until,  in  the  time  of  Enoch,  'Aza  and 
"Azael  led  men  to  idolatry  (comjiare  ih.  xxxi.  2. 
where  it  is  said,  however,"that  at  the  time  Adam 
dwelt  in  jiaradise  "God  made  the  heavens  open 
to  him  that  he  might  behold  the  angels,"  etc.,  and 
the  following  words,  the  meaning  of  wliieli  is  ob- 
scure, occur:  "and  he  was  constantly  in  i>anidi.se"). 

Chaps,  xviii.-xxii.  (not  in  .lellinek's  edition)  de- 
scribe the  seven  heavens  with  their  hosts  of  angels, 
and  the  courses  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  dwell- 
ing with  special  minuteness  on  the  highest  heaven 
and  its  hosts.  This  account  is  an  interesting  mix- 
ture of  the  description  of  the  si-ven  heavens  con- 
tained in  "  Ascensio  Isaia*"  and  of  that  given  in  the 
"Secrets  of  Enoch."  As  in  the  former,  the  seven 
hijivens  are  represented  as  being  iiiliabiiid  by  angels, 
and  as  increasing  in  glory  in  each  successive  heaven  ; 
and  they  are  described  in  the  descend- 
Contenta  of  ing  oriler.  Ami  just  as  recension  A  of 
"Enoch."  " Secrets  of  Enoch  "  mentions,  besides 
the  seven  heavens,  an  eighth  {mmalut) 
and  a  ninth  (kiichaeim)  and  above  them  all  a  tenth 
CariilMt).  the  seat  of  Goil's  glory,  so  this  book  has  a 
separate  heaven  for  the  sun  and  moon,  together  with 
the  stations  of  the  moon  (iiutizuhit).  another  for  the 
stars  (/(//.((W;/!) — with  the  dilTerence,  however,  that 
thesetwoareunderthe  .seven  heavens — anda  highest 
heaven  over  tliini  all.  called  here  also  'iinilx't,  the 
abode  of  God  and  of  the  highest  angelic  hosts. 

In  chap,  xxiii.  iletafron  describes  to  Ishmael  the 
winds  issuing  from  the  cherubim  of  the  heavenly 
chariot,  and  tells  how  these,  after  tmversing  the 
universe,  enter  Jiaradise  to  waft  the  fragrant  odors 
and  exquisite  ]H'rfunies  there  unto  the  ))ious  and 
just,  for  wlioni  paradise  and  the  tree  of  life  are 
prepared  asanelernal  inheritance  (compare  "Secrets 
of  Enoch,"  ix.  and  the  somewhat  obscure  pas.sage  iu 
viii.  5</-(i).  In  chaps,  xxiv.-xxvi.  Enoch  (Me|atron) 
gives  Ishmael  u  description  of  the  chariot  and  of 
the  niany-eyid,  radiant.  Ginl-praising  Of.wim  and 
Skumuiim  (compare  ih.  \\.  1,  xxi.  1).  the  latter  of 
whiih  burn  the  accusations  against  Israel,  which 
Salan,  in  conspiracy  with  the  guardian  aniril  of 
Home  and  the  giiartlian  angel  of  Persia,  coiilinually 
sends  ill.  In  chap,  xxvii.  he  describes  the  arch- 
angel Hadveri'el.  the  heavenly  regislrarand  keeperof 
the  archives  (compare  I'/i.  xxii.  Hi/*'/.);  in  xxviii.- 
xxix.,  the  "Irin  and  Kaddishin,"  who  daily  sit  in 
judgment  with  OikI;  in  xxx.-xxxiv..  the  judgment 
itself:  ill  XXXV. -xl.  he  tells  how  the  heavenly  liosis 
pass  into  the  pnsrnce  of  (iod  to  praise  and  glorify 
llini  with  the  song.  "Holy,  Holy,  Holy  is  the  I.oni 
i^Irbaol ! "  and  how.  at  thai,  the  Ofanlni,  Cheru- 
bim. Hayyol,  and  Seraphim  standing  around  the 
throne  prostrate  lhems<'lves  in  adoration,  respond- 
ing Willi,  "  I'mised  be  the  glory  of  His  Kiugiloiu 
forever!  "  (com|>ure  ih.  xx.  8fr-x.\l.  1). 


Apocalyptic  Literature 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


678 


In  clinps.  xli.-xlvii.  Enoch  (Meta{ron)  reveals  to 
IshiniU'l  the  inysterics  of  creation,  ami  shows  him 
the  repositories  of  the  rain,  snow,  hail,  thunder,  anil 
lii;htnin$;:  the  courses  of  the  stars;  the  spirits  of 
those  anirels  who  were  punished  because  they  iii<l 
not  jrive  praise  to  God  at  the  riirht  time,  and  whose 
liodies  were  turned  to  great  fiery  mountains  (in  stri- 
king analogy  to  Etliiopie  Enoch,  xviii.  Il-Ui.  xxi.): 
the  souls  cif  the  rigliteous  departed,  wlio  Iiover 
around  (Jod's  tlirone  in  the  form  of  liinls.  and  the 
souls  of  the  righteous  yet  unborn;  tlie  (daces  of  pun- 
ishment and  the  tortures  of  the  wicked  in  hell  (com- 
pare "Secrets  of  Enoch."  X.).  Tlien  Ishmael  sees 
how  the  souls  of  the  Patriarchs  and  of  all  the  right- 
eous ascend  out  of  their  graves  to  heaven,  lieseecli- 
iiig  God  to  deliver  His  |ic<iple  Israel  from  their 
bondage  among  the  heathen.  God  answers  them 
tiiat  the  sins  of  the  wicked  hold  back  the  delivery 
of  His  people  and  the  realization  of  His  kingdom. 
While  the  Patriarchs  are  weeping  at  this  dcclariition, 
Michael.  Israel's  guardian  angel,  intervenes.  ]>Iead- 
ing  ft)r  Israel's  flelivery.  Thereupon  dictation  lets 
Ishmael  survey  all  past  and  future  ages  from  Adam 
to  the  end  of  time:  he  sees  Messiah  b.  Joseph  and 
his  age.  and  Jlessiah  b.  David  and  his  age.  together 
with  the  wars  of  Gog  and  .Alagog  an<l  the  other 
events  of  the  Messianic  era.  In  the  conchuling  chap- 
ter (xlviii.).  Jletatron  shows  Ishmael  tlie  glorious 
future  Jerusalem,  where  the  souls  of  the  righteous 
stand  praying  for  its  advent  upon  earth.  At  the 
s;ime  moment  God's  right  hand  pours  forth  five 
streams  of  tears  wliich.  falling  into  the  ocean,  cause 
the  world  to  shake;  and  God  avers,  that,  although 
there  is  no  righteous  man  upon  earth  wliose  inter- 
cession could  bring  aliout  Israel's  delivery,  yet  He 
will  save  them  for  His  own  sake,  for  the  sake  of  His 
justice  and  His  own  goodness.  God  prepares  Him- 
self to  reveal  His  mighty  power  to  the  heathen ; 
whereupon  Israel  will  be  immediately  delivered  and 
the  Messiah  will  appear  to  them,  in  order  to  conduct 
them  to  Jerusalem,  where  they,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  tyrannical  heathen,  will  share  his  kingdom,  and 
God  will  be  king  over  the  whole  earth. 

Apart  from  the  fact  that  R.  Ishmael,  of  the  period 
of  the  Hadrianic  persecution,  tigures  as  the  author, 
and  from  the  allusion  in  the  last  chapter  to  the  de- 
struction of  the  Temple  (through  which  data  the 
earliest  date  possible  is  fixed),  tliere  are  no  definite 
references  to  historical  events  and  condiliims  from 
which  the  date  of  the  composition  of  the  "Book  of 
Eniieh"  could  be  more  exactly  deter- 

Date  of  mined.  There  is,  however,  a  passa,ge 
Composi-  in  Talmud  Berakot  about  U.  Ishmael 
tion.  which  naturally  suggests  itself  in  this 

connection,  and  which  admits  of  the 
adoption  of  at  least  a  latest  possible  date.  The  pas- 
sage (7</)  reads: 

"  R.  Islimael  b.  Elialia  related :  '  Once  I  entered  into  the  inmost 
sanciuary  to  offer  incense;  there  I  saw  Akatriel  Yah  VHWH 
^ebunt  sittin$?  upon  the  hijrh  and  exalted  Ihrone  of  rnerey.  and 
ll<■^alll  to  me :  "  Ishmael.  My  son,  bless  Me!  "  Thereupon  I  siwke : 
"  .Mav  LI  please  Thee  that  Thy  mercy  conquer  Thy  anper  and 
thai  Thy  men-v  push  forth  as  is  the  way  of  merey ;  nuiyest  Thou 
(leal  with  Thy  ehlUlren  aeeordinsr  to  Thy  mercy,  and  requite 
then),  thoiitrh  conlniry  to  the  rules  of  the  rigid  law  tcompai^  the 
version  of  MS.  Munich]." ' " 

Compare  also  the  passage  immediately  preceding: 
"  What  does  God  pray'?  Haba  says,  '  Jlaj'  My  mercy 
conquer  My  anger,  and  may  My  mercy  gush  forth 
as  is  the  way  of  mercy,  and  may  I  deal  with  5Iy 
children  according  to  My  mercy,  and  requite  them, 
though  contrary  to  the  rigid  rules  of  the  Law. '  "  The 
parallel  is  obvious.  The  passages  quoted  compel  the 
conclusion  that  the  Hebrew  Book  of  Enoch  can  not 


have  been  written  later  than  the  time  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Babylonian  Talmud. 

2.  An  apocalyptic  fragment,  in  wliich  I?.  Ishmael 
likewise  tigures  as  the  author,  is  |)reserved  in  the 
"Siddur"  of  R.  Ainram  (Jaon  (of  the  second  half  of 
the  ninth  century).  S!i.  \2I>-Vi'i.  It  is  also  contained 
in  one  of  the  recensions  of  the  "Legend  of  the  Ten 
Martyrs"  (Jillinek.  in  "  B.  11."  vi.  I'J-30),  where, 
however,  it  does  nut  hi  in  natundly.  and  is,  therefori-, 
to  be  considered  as  a  later  insertiini.  Gerson  b. 
Asher  .Scarmela  first  printed  it  in  "'^'ihus  li;i  Zad- 
dikim."  wliich  appeared  in  .Mantua  in  lotil.  but 
with  additi(uis  at  the  begiiiiiitig  and  at  the  end, 
which  additions  in  dilTerint  versions  are  all  to  be 
found  in  the  various  recensions  of  the  "Legend  of 
llie  'I'eii  .Martyrs."  and  are  contained  in  part  also 
in  chaps.  iv.-V.  of  the  "  llekalot  Habbati."  These 
portions  bear  evidence  of  being  later  additions  in 
the  fact  that  the  la.st  of  those  at  the  end  treats  of 
the  preparations  which,  in  the  legend,  preceded  Isli- 
mael's  ascension,  but  which,  in  the  context  here, 
would  sei'in  to  be  events  following  his  return  from 
heaven.  On  account  of  the  relationship  of  these  ad- 
ditions to  chaps.  iv.-V.  of  the  "  Hekalot  Kabliati," 
Jelliiiek  published  them  together  with  the  fragment 
as  "  Ilekalot-Zusiitze  "  in  "  IJ.  H."  v.  KiT-lOi).  Ga.ster 
gives  a  translation  of  the  fragment  in  the  "Journal 
of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society."  1H93,  pp.  009  el  xeq. 

In  this  fragment  R.  Ishmael  relates  that  Ssngir, 
one  of  the  chief  angels,  revealed  to  him  the  suiTer- 
ings  reserved  for  Israel;  and  when  he  expres.sed 
wonder  that  Israel  could evereiidun-  these,  theangel 
showed  him  still  .iireater  sulVerings  in  store — cap- 
tivity, famine,  and  pillage.  As  Ishmael  and  the 
angel  parted,  the  former  heard  a  voice  proclaiming 
in  Aramaic: 

"The  sanctuary  will  be  destroyed,  the  Temple  burned  down, 
and  the  royal  palace  made  destdate :  the  kind's  sons  will  \» 
killed,  his  wife  wiiiuwed,  and  youths  an<l  nmi<lensdrappefl  away 
as  iHKity ;  the  altar  will  he  pn'faned  and  the  table  for  the  show- 
bread  1h'  carried  oIT  by  the  enemy;  Jerusalem  will  be  turned 
into  a  wilderness,  and  the  land  of  Israel  will  l)ecome  a  picture 
of  desolation." 

LTpon  thisannouncement  Ishtiiael  fell  to  the  ground 
tinconscious.  but  was  restored  by  another  of  the  chief 
angels,  of  whom  he  then  asked  if  there  were  no  rem- 
edy for  Israel.  For  answer  the  angel  led  him  to  the 
place  where  salvation  and  comfort  were  prepared; 
and  Ishmael  saw  there  groiiiis  of  angels  weaving 
garments  of  salvation  for  the  lighteous  of  the  fu- 
ture worlil,  and  making  magnificent  crowns  out  of 
precious  St  ones  and  pearls,  jierfumed  witlinectarand 
all  sorts  of  fragrant  odors,  one  of  which  crowns  was 
of  especial  brilliance.  Theangel  informed  Ishmael 
that  the  crowns  were  intended  for  Israel,  the  espe- 
cially magnificent  one  being  for  King  David.  Amid 
the  roar  of  the  motion  of  the  heavens  with  their  ar- 
mies of  stars,  and  all  tlie  hosts  of  angels,  and  amid  the 
sound  of  a  great  mysterious  rustling  which  pro- 
ceeded from  paradise,  Islimael  heard:  "  YIIWH 
reigns  forever:  thy  God,  ()  Zion,  to  all  generations! 
Hidleluiah! "  Ishmael  then  saw  David,  king  of 
Israel,  approach,  followed  by  all  \\w  kings  of  his 
dynasty,  each  one  with  a  crown  on  his  head;  David's 
crown  out.shining  all  the  others,  its  lirilliance  radia- 
ting to  the  ends  of  the  earth.  David  went  up  to  the 
heavenly  Temple,  placed  himself  ui>oii  the  throne  of 
fire  prepared  for  him  near  God's  throne,  and  jire- 
sented  his  homage  to  God  in  hymns  of  praise,  pro- 
claiming the  eternal  duration  of  His  kingdom.  Met- 
atron  with  his  angel-hosts,  heaven  and  earth,  and, 
last  of  all,  the  kings  of  the  house  of  David,  joined 
in  the  shout  of  praise:  "  YHAVII  will  be  king  over 
the  whole  earth;  on  that  day  Y'HWH  will  be  One 
and  His  name  One !  " 


679    . 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apocalyptic  Literature 


Tlic  Messianic  doctrine  in  this  fragment,  in  wliicli 
Davitl  lijrures  as  tlie  Messiah,  is  uniiiiie,  not  only 
as  far  as  the  Xeo-IIebrew,  but  as  far  as  apocalyptic 
in  general  is  concerned.  It  compels  the  conclusion 
that  this  fragment  is  distinct  from  the  "Hook  of 
Enoch  "  (treated  ahove)  as  the  work  of  an  altogether 
ditTerent  author.  Furllur,  it  indicates  a  very  early 
origin,  which  is  fully  conlirmed  by  the  "iirophecy 
after  the  event  "  ;  the  Ishrnael  in  this  apocalypse  too 
can  only  be  the  rabbi  Ishmael,  extolled  in  legend  as  a 
martyr  of  the  Hailrianic  persecution.  Hence  the 
date  of  composition  must  fall  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Temple;  and  the  only  event  which  can  come 
into  consideration  as  making  such  a  prophecy  com- 
preheiisilile  is  the  clisastrous  term  illation  of  I  he  reign 
of  Bar  Kokba.  At  that  juncturi'  the  condilions  and 
events  furnished  a  basis  for  the  "  proiihecy  after  the 
event"  contained  in  the  apocalypse  under  consider- 
ation: that  the  Temidc  would  be  profaned  and 
destroyed,  the  royal  palace  demolished.  .lerusjilem 
turned  into  a  desert,  and  the  whole  hind  of  Israel 
rendered  desolate.  Indeed  the  fragment  reads  as  if 
it  were  written  under  the  immediali'  impression  of 
the  Hadrinnic  |)erseeution.  It  seems  jilausible  that 
this  book  was  the  intermediary  through  which  the 
peculiar  metamorphosis  of  the  "Secrets  of  Enoch," 
into  the  NeoIIebrew  Book  of  Enoch,  was  accom- 
plishid. 

3.  The  Ascension  of  Moses :  The  Latin  ver- 
sion of  "The  AssuiMplinii  nf  Moses,"  which  is  pre- 
served only  as  a  fragment,  must  cerlainly  have 
contained,  in  itsmissing  part,  anaccount  of  Ihedcath 
(if  Moses  and  of  I  be  dispute  bel  ween  the  archangel 
Michael  and  Satan  (or  the  angel  of  death)  over  the 
dead  body.  Among  the  Neo-Hcbrew  apocalypses 
there  is  an  "Ascension  of  Moses,"  as  well  as  a  frag- 
ment which,  besides  revealing  the  future,  tells  of 
the  death  of  Moses  and  of  the  dispute  that  ensued 
after  his  death.  This  apocalypse  was  published  for 
the  lirst  time  in  Salonica  in  1727,  mider  the  title 
nCO  n^nj.  and  lias  been  printed  sevend  times 
since  (in  Amsterdam,  17.")4;  Warsjiw,  1H4U,  etc.).  It 
was  translated  by  Gasler  (/..-.  pp.  .J7-J-r)HS)  uniler 
the  title  "The  Kevelation  of  M<ises."  An  Arabic 
translation  also  exists  in  the  Karaite  manuscript, 
written  in  182«,  discovered  by  Tischendorf  in  the 
library  of  the  University  of  Leipsic  (Codex  Tisch- 
endorf, xliv,),  and  described  by  him  in  ".\needota 
Sacra  et  Profana."  p.  7-1.  and  by  .lellinckin  "  Moiiats- 
schrifl."  ii.  "-U."!.  :Wi>rl  K,i/.,  and  "  H.  II."  ii.  i). /«//., 
19.  This  Arabic  version  has  a  Imigcr  introduction, 
and  varies  somewhat  in  the  text  from  our  version. 
The  contents  of  the  book,  according  to  (Jaster's 
translation,  arc  thus  summarized.  For  the  modesty 
disiilayid  by  Moses  when  summoned  to  appear  be- 
fore I'liaraoh  to  demand  the  libenilion  of  the  Israel- 
ites. God  commands  .Metatron  (Enoch)  to  allow 
Moses  to  ascend  into  heaven.  .Vfter 
Ascension  Metatron  hasli-aiisformed  Moses'  body 
of  Moses,  into  a  llery  figure  like  unloihat  of  ilu' 
angels,  he  leads  him  up  through  the 
seven  heavens.  In  the  lirst  heaven  Moses  sees  waters 
"standing  in  line."  and  windows  to  let  in  and  out  all 
the  things  pertaining  to  human  life  and  its  needs. 
In  the  second  heaven  he  sees  the  angels  who  eoiilrol 
the  clouds,  the  wind,  ami  the  rain:  in  tin-  third,  the 
nngels  placed  over  vegetation;  in  the  foiirlli,  those 
over  the  earl  li.  sun,  moon,  stars,  planels,  and  spheres; 
in  the  liflh,  angels  half  of  lire  and  half  of  snow;  in 
the  siMli.  the  "  Irin  and  Kaddishin  ";  in  the  seventh. 
'Araliot.  he  sees  lirst  the  angels  "  Wralli  and  .\nger," 
then  the  angi'l  of  diath,  Iheii  the  liayyot  slaiiding 
before  (}oil,  and  linally  an  angel  I'ngaged  in  teaeli- 
lug  the  souls  which  were  create<l  by  tSiKl  at  the  time 


of  the  Creation  and  placed  in  paradi.sc.  (At  this 
point  occur  two  passages  of  later  interpolation,  one 
from  Fe.s.  54«-6,  treating  of  Xebiiehadnezzar's  pre- 
sumptuous desire  "  toascend  the  heights  of  thecloud 


and  lobe  like  the  ^Most  High"  Ilsa.  xiv.  14],  and  the 
other  from  the  Zoliar.  intendetl  to  show  tliat  Moses 
really  ascended  to  heaven.) 

God  then  tells  Jlo.ses  that  He  will  confer  on  him 
the  further  ])rivilege  of  seeing  hell  and  jiaradise. 
and,  at  God's  command,  the  angel  Gabriel  conducts 
Moses  to  hell.  There  he  sees  the  manifold  torments 
and  punishments  of  the  dilTerent  cla.sses  of  sinners, 
those  who  were  envious  of  their  fellow  men  and 
bore  false  witness  against  them;  women  whoexposi-d 
their  charms  to  young  men  ;  sinners  who  committed 
adultery,  theft,  and  murder;  tlios<-  who  perjured 
themselves:  those  who  desecrated  the  Sabbath,  de- 
spised the  k»arned,  and  persecuted  orphans;  those 
who  committed  sodomy  and  idolatry,  or  cursed  their 
parents;  those  who  took  bribes,  put  their  fellow 
men  to  shame,  deliver<'d  up  their  brother-Israelite  to 
the  Gentile,  and  denied  the  oral  law;  those  that  ate 
all  kinds  of  forbidden  food;  usurers;  apostates,  and 
blasidiemers;  those  who  wrote  the  inelTable  name 
of  God,  and  those  who  ate  <iii  Yom  Kippur.  Gabriel 
then  leads  Moses  into  paradise.  Hire  he  si'cs  tirst 
the  guardian  angel  of  paradise,  sitting 
Hell  and  under  the  tree  of  life,  who  shows  him 
Paradise,  the  several  costly  thrones  erected  in 
paradise,  each  surrounded  by  seventy 
angels — the  thrones  for  the  Patriarchs,  for  the 
scholars  who  studied  the  Ijiw  day  and  night  for  the 
Siike  of  heaven ;  for  the  pious  men.  for  the  just,  and 
for  the  repentant — and  a  throne  of  copjar,  prepared 
for  the  wicked  whose  sons  are  pious,  as  in  the  case 
of  Terali.  Finally,  he  sees  the  fouulain  of  iife 
welling  forth  from  beneath  Ihi?  tree  of  life,  and 
dividing  itself  into  four  streams,  and  four  rivers 
flowing  under  each  throne,  "the  tirst  of  honev,  the 
second  of  milk,  the  third  of  wine,  and  the  fourth 
of  pure  balsam."  (Here  another  pas.sage  from  the 
Zohar,  interrupting  the  narrative,  is  inserted.)  As 
Moses  is  leaving  paradise  a  voice  calls  from  heaven: 
"Moses,  .  .  .  as  thou  ha.st  seen  the  reward  wliii'h 
is  jirepared  for  the  just  in  the  future  world,  so  also 
in  the  days  to  come  shall  thou  see  the  rebiiildini,'  of 
the  Temple  and  thea<lvent  of  the  Messiah,  and  slialt 
behold  the  beauty  of  the  Lord  and  shalt  meditate  in 
His  Temple." 

Up  to  the  present  no  attempt  has  been  made  to 
ascertain  the  dateof  composition  of  thisapiK-alypse; 
but  the  allusion  in  the  last  ehaiUcr  to  the  rebuilding 
of  the  Temph'  idaees  it  after  that  event.  The  de- 
script  ions  of  the  dilTerent  elas,sesof  sinners  in  hell  and 
their  punishment  are  .strikingly  similar  to  (in  fad. 
are  in  parts  identical  with)  those  found  in  a  iiiim 
ber  of  Christian  apocalypses;  namely,  the  ".\poe- 
alvpseof  Peler."  thill  of  "Pastor  Ihrnias."  and  the 
second  book  of  the  "Sibylline  Onnles"  (all  Ihrei- 
written  in  the  second  century),  and  the  later  apoc 
alypscs  of  Esilras  and  Paul,  both  perhaps  depend- 
ent upon  the  "Apocalypse  of  Peter."  It  is  pos- 
sible that  a  critical  exaniinalion  of  these  n-lalions 
might  throw  further  light  on  Iheilaleof  composition 
of  "The  .\scelision  of  .Moses." 

4.  The  Assumption  of  Moses  :  This  is  a  frag- 
meiil  preserved  ill  llie"Midnish  Itireshil  Itabbati" 
of  |{,  Moses  ha  Marshall  la  manuseripl  in  the  library 
of  the  .lewish  eongn^gation  in  Prague),  which  was 
published  by  .lellinek  in  "  B.  H."  vi.  ^  'ii.  It  is 
intendi'd  as  an  exegesis  to  (ten,  xxviii.  llli.  The 
following  is  a  synopsis  of  its  conlenis: 

As  the  lime  for  Mos»'s'  death  approached,  God 
permitted  him  to  Mscend  into  heaven,  and  uuveiUil 


Apocalyptic  Literature 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


680 


to  liim  tlif  future  world.  There  Miiirlat  lia-Ralmmim 
(the  Attribute  of  Slerey)  came  to  him,  Siiying:  "I 
will  announce  j;'>otl  tidings."  Turning  his  eyes  to 
the  throne  of  mercy.  Moses  saw  God  building  the 
Temple  out  of  precious  stones  and  jiearls;  he  saw 
also  the  rays  of  the  Godhead,  and  Messiali  the  son  of 
David  Willi  the  Torah  in  his  arms:  also  his  own 
brother  Aaron  in  piiestlyrobes.  Aaron  imparted  to 
Moses  that  liis  death  was  near  at  hand,  wlicre\ipou 
Moses  asked  God  for  permission  to  speak  with 
the  Messiah.  Tlie  latter  tlien  revealed  to  him  that 
the  sanctuary  which  God  was  then  constructing 
was  the  Temple  ami  the. Jerusalem,  which  would  l)e 
established  for  Israel  in  the  future  world  to  endure 
for  all  eternity,  and  that  God  had  shown  the  same 
Jerusivlem  to  Jacob  in  his  dream  in  licth-el.  To 
Moses'  question  when  the  new  Jerus;dem  would  de- 
scend to  earth,  God  replied :  "  I  have  not  yet  revealed 
the  end  to  any  one:  should  1  reveal  it  to  theeV" 
Thereupon  Moses  said,  "Give  me  at  least  a  hint 
from  the  events  of  liistory."  and  God  answered: 
"After  I  havescattered  Israel  among  all  the  nations, 
I  will  stretch  out  My  hand  to  gather  them  in  a  sec- 
ond time  from  all  the  ends  of  the  earth."  Moses 
then  joyfully  departed  from  heaven,  followed  liy 
the  angel  of  death,  who  demanded  his  soul.  Jloses 
refused  to  yield  it:  but  tiuallj'God  appeared  to  him, 
and  he  surrendered  his  soul  to  God  willingly  and 
cheerfully. 

5.  The  Revelation  of  R.  Joshua  b.  Levi: 
It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud tells  of  revelations  which  K.  Joshua  b.  Levi 
was  supposed  to  have  received  from  the  iirojihet 
Elijah  and  from  the  Messiah.  In  this  ajiocalypse 
R.  Joshua  himself  figures  as  the  author.  The  book 
first  ajipearcd  in  the  collection  "Likkiitim  81ionim," 
published  in  1519  at  Constantinople,  under  the  title 

^ib  p  yL"in'  'ni_n:;'J?0  (The  story  of  Rabbi  Joshua 
ben  Levi),  and  it  has  since  been  reprinted  several 
times,  under  the  same  title:  subsequently  by  Jelli- 
nek  in  "B.  11."  ii.  48-51.  Gaster  published  a  trans- 
lation of  it  (/.<•.  pp.  591-596)  with  the  correct  title, 
"  The  Revelation  of  R.  Joshua  b.  Levi  "  ;  for  the  con- 
tents leave  no  doubt  that  it  really  is  an  apocalypse. 
An  Aramaic  version  also  existed,  a  fragment  of  which 
is  preserved  in  Moses  b.  Nahman's  "  Torat  ha-Adani  " 
(it  is  to  be  found  in  different  editions  of  the  book  and 
also  in  Jellinek's  "B.  H."  v.  43  et  scq.).  Jellinek 
points  out  that  this  Aramaic  version  is  a  proof  of  the 
ancient  origin  of  the  apocalypse  (I.e.  ii.  18),  of  which 
the  following  is  a  sununary : 

As  the  time  of  H.  Joshua  b.  Levi's  death  was 
drawing  near,  God  sent  the  angel  of  death  to  him, 
commissioning  him  to  fulfil  whatever  R.  Joshua 
might  wish.  The  latter  requested  to  be  shown  the 
place  awaiting  him  in  paradise,  and  desired  the  angel 
to  give  his  sword  to  him.  Upon  arriving  in  para- 
dise. Joshua,  against  the  will  of  the  angel,  leaped 
over  the  wall:   God  allowed  him   to 


Contents  of 
"Revela- 


tion." 


remain  there,  but  commanded  him  to 
return  the  sword.  Elijah  called  out : 
"  JIako  way  for  the  son  of  Levi !  "  The 
angel  of  death  thereupon  related  the  incident  to  R. 
Gamaliel,  who  sent  him  back  to  R.  Joshua  with  the 
request  that  he  explore  both  paradise  and  hell  and 
send  liim  a  description  of  them.  R.  Joshua  carried 
out  this  request.  Here  follows  a  description  of  the 
different  compartments  of  paradise,  .seven  in  num- 
ber. In  the  tirst  dwell  the  proselytes  to  Judaism; 
in  the  second,  repentant  sinners  with  King  JIauas.seh 
presiding  over  them:  in  the  third,  the  Patriarchs 
and  the  Israelites  who  came  out  of  Egypt,  David 
and  Solomon,  and  all  the  kings  of  their  house;  in  the 
fourth,  the  perfectly  righteous.     In  the  fifth,  which 


is  of  special  splendor  and  exquisite  beauty,  are  the 
Messiah  and  Elijah,  the  latter  cares.sing  the  Messiah 
and  sayingtohim.  "Be  comforted,  forTheeud  draw- 
elh  nigh!"  The  Patriarchs  also  speak  in  the  same 
stniin  at  certain  times,  as  do  Mosesand  Aaron,  David 
and  Solomon,  and  all  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah, 
In  the  sixth,  dwell  those  who  died  in  |)iety ;  and  in 
the  seventh,  those  w  ho  died  for  the  sins  of  Israel. 

To  his  question,  whether  any  of  the  heathen,  or 
even  any  of  his  brother  Esau's  descendants,  were  in 
Jiaradisc,  R.  Joshua  received  the  answer,  that  they 
obtained  the  reward  for  their  good  works  in  this 
world,  and  therefore  in  the  other  world  must  dwell 
in  hell:  in  the  ca.se  of  the  sinners  in  Israel,  however, 
just  the  op]iosite  jirinciplc  is  followed.  Hell  could 
not  be  viewed  inunedialely.  for  just  at  that  momi-nt 
the  news  reached  heaven  of  tlie  execution  of  the 
Ten  Martyrs. 

When  l"{.  Joshua  entered  hell  some  time  later,  he 
saw  there  ten  heathen  nations,  over  whom,  as  a 
punishment  for  his  disobedience  to  his  father,  Absa- 
lom, the  .son  of  David,  is  compelled  to  preside.  Seven 
times  a  day  these  heathen  are  burned  by  angels  in  pits 
of  lire,  being  brought  out  whole  a,i:ain  every  time. 
Absalom  alone  is  excepted  from  this  punishment: 
he  sits  upon  a  throne,  honored  as  a  king. 

6.  The  Alphabets  of  R.  Akiba  (sn'a  ND^X 
"!■  N2'pV  '311  ni'niSt  ("Miprise  a  number  of  wri- 
tings treating  the  same  theme.  The  chief  center  of 
thought  of  all  of  them  is  the  mystical  signification, 
already  mentioned  in  the  Tahuud,  of  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet  and  of  their  written  forms,  and  the 
mysteries  of  the  names  of  God  made  U])  of  four, 
twelve,  and  forty-two  letters.  In  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud  (Hag.  ii.  77c)  there  is  a  dissertation  on  the 
letters  by  means  of  which  the  world  was  created; 
and  there,  as  in  these  writings,  it  is  stated  that  the 
present  world  was  created  with  He  (n)  and  the  future 
with  Yod  (V),  and  eschatological  theories  are  built 
up  out  of  the  forms  of  these  letters.  In  the  Baby- 
lonian Talnuid  (Shab.  104'().  also,  all  sorts  of  similar 
interpretations  are  given  in  regard  to  the  names, 
forms,  and  combinations  of  the  various  letters,  and 
are  made  to  bear  ujion  eschatological 
Theme  of  questions  in  the  Siime  way  as  in  these 
the  apocalypses.     In  Kid.  71(;,  it  is  said 

Alphabets,  that  the  mysteries  of  the  three  names  of 
God  were  treated  as  esoteric  doctrine, 
and  that  whoever  became  thoroughly  initiated  into 
ilie  mystery  of  the  name  consisting  of  forty-two 
letters  might  be  sure  of  inheriting  both  the  jiresent 
and  the  future  world.  Similarly,  R.  Akiba.  the  re- 
puted author  of  the  "Alphabets,"  is  esjiecially  com- 
mended in  the  Talmud  as  interpreter  of  the  strokes, 
dots,  and  tlourishes  of  the  letters  (compare,  for  ex- 
ample. j\Ien.  29/^:  see  also  Akih.v  iiKX  Josi.pii).  L'p 
to  the  jiresent  time,  the  pseude])igrapha  in  question 
have  been  generally  considered  mystical  writings 
treating  ujKin  some  eschatological  points,  not  as  real 
apocalypses;  but  the  different  compositions,  as  faras 
they  are  known,  show  clearly  that  the  real  theme  of 
all  is  the  eschatological  problem,  and  that  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  other  supernatural  mysteries  only 
.iroes  hand  in  hand  with  this,  as  in  the  apocalypses 
liitherto  noticed. 

So  far.  two  of  the  alphabets  have  appeared  in 
print,  one  of  which  is  three  times  as  long  as  the 
other:  the  longer  was  published  first  in  Constanti- 
nople. 1519  (in  the  above-mentioned  collection),  and 
again  in  Venice,  l.'>46.  Both  editions  are  incomplete ; 
but  the  gaps  are  filled  in  part  by  the  Cracow  edition, 
which  was  published  in  1579,  was  reprinted  in  Am- 
sterdam, 1708,  and  which  contains  also  the  shorter 
version.     Jellinek  published  both  in  "B.  H."iii.  12- 


681 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apocalyptic  Liiterature 


49,  50-04;  the  longer,  based  ou  the  incomplete  Con- 
stantinople-Venice edition.  Several  manuscripts  of 
both  have  been  preserved ;  as,  forexample,  in  tlie  Mu- 
nich Codex  22,  folio  70-103,  which  supplies  the  gaps 
purposely  left  in  the  longer  eoniposition  in  the  Cra 
cow -Anisl<'nliiiu  edit  ion  ;  in  the  Vatican  Codex,  2vS,  IJ 
(see  Wolf,  "Bihl.  Helir."  ii.  12.")!^,  and  Steinschneider, 
"  Hebr.  IJibl."  xiv.  7);  and  one  manuscript  in  thcHod- 
leian  Lil)rarv  which  is  described  in  Xcubauer.  "Cat. 
Bodl.  Hebr.'JISS."  No.  1927  (of  this  no  exact  in- 
formation is  given,  but  according  to  the  inunber 
of  its  pages,  it  is  prol)al)ly  the  .shorter  al|)liabet), 
A  fragment  of  the  shorter  is  contained  in  the  Bod- 
leian Library  manuscript,  "No.  1822  (Neubavu'r,  ih.). 
There  are,  besides,  three  other  manusiripis  in  the 
Bodleian  Library  containing  alphabets  of  1{.  Akilja 
(compare  ib.  Nos.  1104,  3;  2287,  11;  228!),  7).  The 
catalogue  does  not  give  any  details  of  their  contents; 
but  the  fait  that  none  of  them  is  marked  •■]>rinted" 
would  indicate  that  they  are  not  identical  with  the 
published  "Alphabets,"  A  fragment  consisting  of 
two  leaves  n'3  ^V.  TID'  ("  Mysterium  "),  also  differ- 
ing from  the  published  alphabets,  is  in  the  Almanzi 
Library  (Codex  19"),  xiv. ),  and  deserves  special  notice 
because  it  furiiish<'S  strong  support  to  the  theory  that 
the  writings  under  the  present  heading  are  genuine 
apocalyp.ses.  It  begins  "  Alepli  stands  for  the  ^Most 
High,  who  i.s  the  First"  (which,  in  the  Constanti- 
nople-Venice edition,  is  the  beginning  of  ^  10),  and 
the  conclusion  contains  the  following  passage: 

"  Elt'litt't'ii  liiiniirt'ii  yi'jiis  :ifti*r  rtie  destruction  of  llie  soonnii 
Teiii^ili-,  till' Ki'ilim-Tii's  will  (li-iriiisi- 111  niinil>ei-s;  .  .  .  ut  tliceiul 
of  ail)  ycuis,  iii-ccniliii;  to  tin'  iiili-iiiliii- of  the  (ientlles  [tile  lle- 
Iflra  Is  iiii'uiit  hi'ivl.  tlii'lr  klnk''liiin  will  vaiilsli  fiiiin  iln'uirtb; 
...  Ill  111!'  i-iid  i><  :iiM  v.-ars.  arcordlni.'  to  tluir  riili-nclur.  the  wm 
of  Duvlil  will  loiiii'.  I, oil  wllllin;!"  (Si-.-.su-insrhiii-lil.-i-.  "  llebr. 
BIbl."  V.  IIW,  uuil  "  AiHxalypsen,"  etc.,  In  "Z.  1).  M.  Ii."  .vxvlll. 
en,  note  6.) 

This  fragment  originated  in  the  Orient,  as  is  shown 
by  the  words  "the  calendar  of  the  Gentiles."  which 
signify  "dating  from  the  llegiia";  more  exactly,  it 
maybe  inferred  from  the  concluding  words  wliieli 
quote  a  Persian  expression,  that  it  originated  in 
Persia. 

Jellinck's  distinction  of  the  two  published  alpha- 
bets as  "  First  Recension  "  and  "  Second  Recension  " 
("B.  H."iii.,  pp.  xiv.  H  neq. ;  vi.,  pp.  xl.  tt  neq.)  is  mis- 
leading; for  in  respect  notoidyof  the  length  but  also 
of  the  contents,  they  dilTerso  mdically  that  they  must 
be  considered  as  altogether  distinct  and  iiidrpendent 
of  each  other.  In  the  longerof  the  |)ublisliril  alplia- 
bets,  as  in  the  Hebrew  Book  of  Knoch,  Jletull'oii 
(Enoch)  is  represented  as  the  revealer  of  the  secrets 
disclosed  in  these  writings.  There  is  also  a  very 
brief  and  conden.sed  narration  of  Knoch 'sa.ssuinption 
into  heaven,  of  his  Ininsforination  into  one  of  the 
nngels  at  the  heaveidy  tlirone,  and  of  his  initiation 
into  all  the  mysteries  of  heaven  and  earth.  This 
piece  is  not  in  the  Constantinople-Venice  edition. 
but  istobe  found  inihe  ('nicow-Amsterdain edition. 
and  also  in  the  Munich  Codex.  The  latter  has  also 
the  seventy  or  seventv-two  names  of  God  and  the 
ninety-two  names  of  "Me(alron,  which,  from  relig- 
ions .sfrnples,  were  omitted  in  the  Cmcow-Amsler- 
(1am  edition.  The  names  of  God  are  obtained  from 
combinalionsiif  IhedilTelenl  leltersof  Iheiilphabets, 
already  alluded  to  as  eharacteristic  of  this  group  of 
writings. 

Clo.sely  bound  up  with  the  relation  of  the  above 
mysteries  is  the  glorillcationof  the  Torali  as  the  aim 
Qiul  end  of  creation  and  the  center  of  future  bliss. 
Because  of  its  observance  Israel  will  inherit  the 
joys  of  panidise.  whereas  the  heathen,  having  disre- 
garded it,  will  be  given  over  to  hell,     (ioil  Himself. 


surrounded  by  Ilis  host  of  angels,  will  expound  the 
Torah  to  the  righteous  in  paradise,  whereupon  Ze- 
rubbabel  will  i)roclaim  God's  glorj-,  so 
Their         that    it  will   resound  over  the  w"hole 
Parenetic     world ;  the  sinners  of  Israel  and  the 
Character,    jiious  among  the  heathen  in  hell  will 
add  their  "amen  "  to  this  glorification 
and  will  be  found  worthy  of  admittance  to  para- 
dise.    The  pleasures  of  the  righteous  in  paradise  are 
described  in  a  glowing,  sensuous  style:   God  Him- 
self dwells  among  and  a.s.sociates  with  them  like  one 
of  themselves,  contributing  actively  to  their  enter- 
tainment.    (Asthemateriali/ingof  God  in  this  gross 
manner  has  hitherto  been  considered  a  sure  proof  of 
the  later  origin  of  a  work,  it  may  be  well  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  there  is  a"  parallel  to  this  de- 
scription in  the  oldest  Jlidrash.  Sifra.  ed.  Malbim, 
22.>);  compare  also  Ta'anit,  31«.)  The  circumstance, 
that  in  these  writings  the  Torah  is  placed  in  such 
prominence,  explains,  too,  their  eminently  parenetic 
character. 

In  regard  to  R.  Akiba's  alleged  authorship  of  these 
writings,  it  may  be  recalled,  that,  as  early  as  the 
.lerusalem  Talmud,  a  legenil  was  current  that  R. 
Akiba  enjoyed  the  superliuman  ijiivilege  of  ascend- 
ing to  heaven  and  having  the  secrets  of  God  revealed 
to  him  (Yer.  Hag.  ii.  77i:  compare  Talmud  Bab.  ib. 
14i).  Further,  it  .seems  worthy  of  notice,  that,  in 
the  fragment  of  an  "Alphabet"  of  R.  Akiba"  con- 
tained in  the  Lemberg  edition  of  the  Book  of  Enoch, 
xxix.  2,  and  referred  to  above,  the  story  of  Enoch's 
asstimption.  etc.  (there  condensed  to  a  few  sentences), 
is  narrated  as  if  Akiba  had  heard  it  in  heaven.  To 
conclude,  with  Jellinek  and  Steinsehneider (compare 
"B.  H."  iii.  17.  No.  2,  and  "Hebr.  Bibl."  xiv.  7), 
from  the  quotations  which  are  found  in  the  medieval 
literature — but  which  arc  not  in  the  printed  editions 
— anything  more  than  that  the  "  Alphabets  of  R. 
Akiba"  are  incomplete  to  theextent  suggested  here, 
would  be  premature  until  all  the  manuscripts  have 
been  published. 

Hrief  relirence  may  again  be  made  to  the  views 
of  Znii/.  and  Graetz  regarding  the  origin  of  the  the- 
o.sopliiial  speculation  contained  in  the  apocalypsi-s 
which  have  been  discussed  thus  far.  If  both"  hold 
Islam  responsible  for  the  theosophy  in  these  Neo- 
Hebrew  apocalypses,  because  similar  vagaries  and 
stretches  of  imagination  are  found  in  its  literature 
(see  Ziuiz,  "G.  V."  p.  171,  and  especially  in  "Mo- 
natsschrift,"  viii.  11.')  ,t  k,(/.).  the  reply  may  \k-  nnide 
that,  as  Steinsehneider  well  observed — iind  Nocl- 
deke,  the  foremost  Arabist  of  the  present  time,  cor- 
robonited  him — later  .lewish  lilemlurehad  the  widest 
and  deepest  inlluenceon  the  formation  and  develop- 
ment of  the  views  and  teachings  of  Islam  (see  "  Hebr. 
Bibl."  iv.  (\'J,I  mij. ;  "GiMliuger  (Jeleiirle  Anzeigeu," 
18t(2,  i)p.  7"iO  it  iK-r/.).  From  the  presence  of  mys- 
tical speculations  about  the  i-^M'iue  and  beini;  of 
God,  etc.,  in  the  Andiic  lileniluie.  similar  to  those 
in  the  NeoHebrew.  it  is  ipiiie  impossible  to  con- 
clude that  they  found  their  way  from  (he  former  into 
the  latter;  rather  would  the  opposite  conclusion  be 
jusiitied. 

7.  The  Hebrew  Elijah  Apocalypse :  This 
apocalypse.  i,T7X  ied  appeared  lir^t  in  Saloidca 
in  1743,  printed  in  tlie  same  volume  with  severjil 
other  pieces,  and  was  reprinted  by  Jellinek  in 
"  H.  H  "  iii.  O.Vtls  A  critical  edition,  iicconling  to  a 
Munich  manuscript,  witli  translation,  explanatory 
notes,  and  an  attempt  to  ascertain  the  date  of 
ciimposition,  was  published  bv  Mo.ses  Butteuwie.ser 
("Die  Hebrillsrhe  EliiLs-Apoi-alypse."  etc.).  The 
ii'sidt  arrived  at  in  this  essay  was  that  in  this  book 
it  is  neces.sury  to  distinguish  between  the  original 


Apocalyptic  liiterature 


THE  JEWISH   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


682 


apocalypse  and  a  later  addition,  which  consists  of 
a  dispute  among  tlie  doctors  of  the  Law  of  the 
second  and  third  centuries,  concerning  the  name  of 
the  last  king  of  Persia.  Tlie  original 
Date  and  apocalypse  was  written  amid  the 
Where  confusion  of  the  year  2()1,  caused  by 
Written,  the  wars  of  Sapor  I.  against  Rome 
and  his  capture  of  Valerian ;  but  in 
its  original  form  it  was  probably  miire  viiluminous. 
In  all  probability  the  author  lived  in  Palestine. 
During  the  exciting  period  of  the  Perso  Roman  wars 
wage(i  by  Chosroes  1.  (540-562)  or  C'hosroes  II.  (604- 
628),  the  apocalyi)sc  was  furnished  with  the  addition 
mentioned  above,  in  order  to  make  the  prophecies 
appear  to  accord  with  the  clianged  times  and  condi- 
tions, for  the  outcome  of  the  dispute  is  that  "  Kesra  " 
(tlie  Arabic  form  of  "Chosroes")  must  be  the  name 
of  the  last  Persian  king.  The  contents  of  the  book 
are  as  follows:  Michael  reveals  the  end  of  lime  to 
Elijah  on  Mt.  Cainiel.  Elijah  is  first  conducted 
through  various  heavenly  regions,  and  the  revela- 
tions regarding  the  end  are  imparted  to  him.  The 
last  king  of  Persia  will  march  to  war  against  Rome 
in  three  successive  years,  and  will  finally  take  three 
military  leaders  prisoner.  Then  Gigit  will  advance 
against  him,  "the  [little]  horn,"  the  last  king  hostile 
to  God  who  will  rule  upon  earth,  as  Daniel  beheld. 
This  king  will  instigate  three  wars  and 
Book  of  will  "also  stretch  out  his  arm  against 
Elijah.  Israel."  The  three  wars  and  the  at- 
tack upon  Israel  are  described  in  de 
tail  in  the  following  part.  Then  the  Messiah,  whose 
name  is  Winon,  will  appear  from  heaven,  accom- 
panied by  hosts  of  angels,  and  engage  in  a  series  of 
battles — first  to  annihilate  the  armies  waging  these 
wars,  and  secondly  to  vanquish  all  the  remaining 
heathen.  After  this,  Israel  will  enjoy  the  blessings 
of  the  Messianic  kingdom  for  forty  years,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  Gog  and  Magog  will  muster  the 
heathen  to  war  around  .Jerusalem:  but  they  will  be 
annihilated,  and  all  the  heathen  cities  will  be  de- 
stroyed. The  day  of  doom  will  then  come  and  last 
forty  days;  then  the  dead  will  be  awakened  and 
brought  to  judgment.  The  wicked  will  be  deliv- 
ered over  to  the  torments  of  liell:  but  to  the  good 
the  tree  of  life  will  be  given:  and  for  them  the 
glorious  Jerusalem  will  descend  from  heaven,  and 
among  them  shall  reign  peace  and  knowledge  of  the 
Law. 

From  this  summary  will  be  noticed  how  closely  the 
picture  of  the  future  world  given  in  this  apocalypse 
resembles  the  Revelation  of  John ;  the  description 
also  of  Elijah's  transportation  through  the  heavenly 
regions  shows  a  striking  relation  to  the  Ethiopic 
Book  of  Enoch  (compare  ih.  xiv.  8,  9,  13-19,  22(f, 
xviii.  13-15,  xxii.  1.  11).  Worthy  of  attention  is  the 
descriptionof  the  adversary  of  the  Messiah,  the  Anti- 
christ, who  before  the  advent  of  the  Messiah  shall 
subdue  the  world  and  persecute  Israel.  This  de- 
scription is  a  conventional  feature  of  a  great  number 
of  Neo-Hebrew  apocalypses.  It  is  found,  for  ex- 
ample, in  much  the  stiine  form  in  all  those  treated 
belf)w.  In  the  latter,  however,  the  adversary  is 
called  Annilus  (Romulus);  while  in  the  Elijah  apoc- 
alypse he  is  called  Gigit,  which  is  an  enigmatical 
designation  of  Odhenat  the  duke  of  Palmyra  (.see 
Buttenwieser,  I.e.  p.  72). 

The  description  of  the  adversary  in  the  present 
apocalypse  shows  also,  as  Bousset  has  pointed  out 
(I.e.  p.  57),  striking  parallels  to  the  description  of 
the  Antichrist  in  the  Coptic  Elijah  apocalypse,  dis- 
covered a  few  years  ago,  the  manuscript  of  which 
can  in  no  case  be  later  than  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century  (see  Steindorff,  "  Apocalypse  des  Elias, " 


p.  Ul;  while  the  apocalypse  itself  is  probably  of  the 
third  or  fourth  century.  Of  oilier  Christian  apoca- 
lypsi-s  with  descriptions  of  the  Antichrist,  offering 
no  less  remarkable  parallels  to  the  aiiocalypses  in 
the  writings  presently  to  be  mentioned,  and  also  in 
part  to  the  Elijah  apocalypse,  may  be  enumerated: 
" The  Testament  of  the  Lord,"  "Apocalypse  of  Es- 
dnis,"  the  "Pseudo-Johaniiis  .Vpocalypse."  and  the 
Armenian  "  Seventh  Vision  of  Daniel  "  (compare  also 
Ho>is.set,  I.e.  pp.  101  et  .itij.  Descriptions  of  the 
Antichrist  in  these  apocalypses — except  the  "Sev- 
enth Vision  of  Daniel " — mav  be  found  in  James, 
"Apocrypha  Anecdota,"  in  ""Texts  and  Studies,"  ii. 
3,  151  it  w//.). 

8.  The  Apocalypse  of  Zerubbabel  (IDD 
paant):  TIktc  arc  Viiriiiiis  rereiisioiis  ipf  this  ajioc- 
alypse.  <Jne  was  jiriMtcd  in  Ciinstantinoplc  in  1519 
in  the  collection  mentioned  above,  and  was  reprinted 
in  Wilna.  1819.  tog<ther  with  "Seter  Malkiel"  (ex- 
cerpts from  this  edition  are  to  be  found  in  Eisen- 
menger.  ii.  H)'!i  et  tieq.):  another  was  edited  by  Jelli- 
nek  ("B.  H."  ii.  .54-57).  based  on  two  manuscripts 
in  the  Leipsie  rity  Library,  which,  however,  an  ex- 
amination of  the  manuscripts  by  Buttenwieser  proved 
to  be  inexact ;  and  a  third  recension,  difTering  from 
both  of  the  above,  is  in  manuscript  in  the  Bodleian 
Library  (Neiibauer,  "Cat.  Bodl.  Ilebr.  ilSS."  No. 
160,  2).  Besides  these,  the  Bodleian  contains  a  manu- 
script of  one  of  t  he  jirinted  editions  (ihul.  No.  2287,  4). 
A  new  edition  is  most  desirable.  As  this  book  fore- 
tells the  year  990  or  970  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  by  Titus  as  the  time  of  delivery,  it  must 
have  been  written  in  the  eleventh  century  at  the 
very  latest.  This  aiioculypse  describes  how  Zerub- 
babel is  carried  in  sjjirit  to  Nineveh, 
Book  of  Ze-  the  City  of  Blood,  the  Great  Rome, 
rubbabel.  where  Jletatron  reveals  to  him  the 
occurrences  at  the  end  of  time.  He 
sees  the  Messiah  there,  whose  name  is  Alenahem  b. 
'Amiel.  and  who  wasl)ornat  the  time  of  King  David, 
but  was  brought  thither  by  the  Spirit  to  remain  con- 
cealed until  the  end  of  time.  Apart  from  a  few  de- 
tails, the  description  of  the  course  of  events  in  the 
end  of  time  is  very  much  the  same  as  that  in  "The 
Wars  of  King  Jlessiah,"  "Revelations  of  R.  Simon 
b.  Yohai,"  and  "Prayer  of  R.  Simon  1).  Yohai."  In 
all  of  them,  the  name  of  the  "Evil  Adversary"  is 
Armilus,  the  Aramaic  form  of  Romulus.  Except 
the  "  Revelations,"  they  all  contain  the  curious  fancy 
that  he  is  to  be  bom  of  a  marble  statue  in  Rome. 
According  to  the  "  Apocah'pse  of  Zerubbabel,"  he 
will  be  begotten  out  of  the  statue  by  Satan:  in  the 
"Revelations  of  R.  Simon  b.  Yohai,"  he  is  repre- 
sented as  a  creation  of  Satan  and  Diabolus.  In  "  The 
Wars  of  King  Messiah"  the  epithet  "Satan"  is 
applied  to  him.  The  description  of  Armilus  in  the 
"  Revelations  of  R.  Simon  b.  Yohai "  has  more  re- 
semblance to  that  in  the  Elijah  apocalyjise.  whereas 
in  the"  Apocalypse  of  Zerulibabel,"in  "TheWarsof 
King  Messiah  "  and  "Prayer  of  R.  Simon  b.  Yohai," 
he  is  described  as  a  human  monstrosity. 

"  The  Wars  of  King  Messiah  "  and  the  "  Prayer  of 
R.  Simon  b.  Yohai "  also  state  that  he  will  claim  to 
be  the  >Ie.ssiah  and  a  god,  and  that  he  will  be  ac- 
cepted by  the  heathen  as  such,  whereas  Israel  will 
refuse  to  acknowledge  him.  In  the  Constantinople 
edition  of  the  "Apocalypse  of  Zerubbabel,"  as  Bous- 
set has  observed  ( I.e.  p.  86,  note  3),  Satan  is  called 
bv'h'^-  "Belial,"  the  name  by  which  the  Antichrist  is 
called  in  the  "  Sibylline  Oracles,"  ii.  67,  iii,  63;  "  Tes- 
tament of  the  Patriarchs"  (Dan)  and  "Ascensio 
Isaire."  This  circumstance  is  of  great  importance, 
inasmuch  as  by  its  means  the  Armilus  legend,  as  it 
is  found  in  the  above-mentioned  apocalypses,  seems 


683 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Apocalyptic  Literature 


particularly  adapted  to  throw  liglit  upon  various 
points  in  the  Antichrist  legend.  All  four  apnea 
lypscs  contain  the  legend  of  ^lessiah  I).  Joseph  in 
common.  The_v  state  that  he  will  gather  Israelites 
around  him  (among  whom  in  "The  Wars  nf  King 
M<'ssiah  "  and  "  Prayer  of  H.  Simon  li 
Legend  of  Yohai  "  a  part  of  the  Ten  Trilies  w  ill 
Messiah  he  found),  march  up  to  Jerusalem  and 
b.  Joseph,  there,  after  overcoming  the  hostile 
powers  (in  the  "  Apocalyp.sctof  Zerub- 
babel "  the  king  of  Persia  is  tlio  hostili!  power:  in 
"The  Wars  of  King  Messiah"  and  "Prayer  of  R. 
Simon  b.  Yohai,"  the  Roman  empire:  in  the  "Reve 
lations  of  R.  Simon  b.  Yohai."  there  is  no  drtinite 
statement  on  this  ])oint),  reintroiluce  tin'  wnrship  of 
the  Temple,  and  establish  his  own  domininn.  This, 
however,  will  bo  of  short  duration;  for  Arndlus, 
with  the  heathen,  will  apjicar  before  Jerusalem  to 
battleagainst  him  and  will  slay  him.  Then  the  time 
of  the  last  extreme  suffering  and  persecution  for 
Israel  will  begin,  from  which  escajio  will  besought  by 
flight  into  the  wildcrnes.s.  There  Jlessiah  b.  David 
and  the  prophet  Elijah  will  appear  to  them  (in  the 
"Revelations  of  1{.  Simon  b.  Yohai  "  the  lallcris  not 
mentioned),  and  leail  them  up  to  Jerusalem,  where 
the  Messiah  will  destroy  Armilus  and  all  the  armies 
of  the  heathen.  In  the  "  Apoealypseof  Zerubbabel," 
as  well  as  in  "The  Wars  of  King  Messiah."  the  Mes- 
siah b.  David,  in  company  with  Elijah,  will  resurrect 
Messiah  b.  Joseph,  who  lies  slain  at  the  gates  of 
Jerusalem. 

Another  point  common  to  the  "Apocalypse  of 
Zerubbabel"  and  the  "  Kevelations  of  1{.  Simon  b. 
Y'ohai "  is,  that  on  bis  advent  the  Israelites  will 
not  acknowledge  Messiah  b.  David.  The  one  i)oint 
menti<med  which  only  the  "Apocaly]isc  of  Zerub- 
l)aber'  contains  is  that  besides  the  two  Messiahs 
there  is  to  be  a  woman,  Ilephzibah,  the  mother 
of  JIes.siah  b.  David.  According  to  the  te.\t  in  Jel- 
linek's  edition,  she  will  come  upon  the  scene  five 
years l)efore  Messiah  b.  Joseidi:  and  a  great  starwill 
light  up  her  path.  She  will  slay  two  kings,  and 
us.sist  Messiah  b.  Joseph  in  his  war  against  the  king 
of  Persia;  and  during  tlw  flight  into  the  wilderness 
she  will  shelter  Israel  from  the  pi-rsecution  of  Ar 
niilus.  This  last  feature  of  the  descri|ition  calls  to 
mind  the  flight  of  the  woman,  as  described  in  the 
Revelatiiin  of  John,  .\ii.  13-17,  and  the  description  of 
Tabilhain  the  Coptic  "Apoealypseof  Klijah."  The 
picture  of  the  future  world  in  the  Zerubbabel  apoca 
lvi).se  is  also  distinctive;  for  in  addition  tothe  cslab- 
lislimentof  the  lieavenly  Jeru.sidem  upon  live  nioun- 
tainsd.ebanon,  Moriah.  Tabor,  Carmel,  and  llermon), 
nothing  more  is  mentioned  than  the  resurrection  of 
the  generation  buried  in  the  wilderness,  and  of  the 
faithful  wlio  met  death  during  the  giiiend  persecu 
tion  ("  the  ocean,"  which  is  spoken  of  in  this  connec- 
tion, must  be  understooil  in  its  symbolical  significa- 
tion;  as  it  is  \iscd  as  early  as  Dan.  vii.  ;{ it  mi/.). 

9.  The  Wars  of  King  Hessiah  C]^^  mon^D 
n'L"D).  (called  also  n  PICn^D  "ISD  "The  linnk  of  the 
Wars  of  YIIWH,"  and  |nX'33  I^NJn'  iC'Sl  DiniX 
n'C'On  "()c<'urrences  at  the  Time  of  the  Advent  of 
Messiah."  and,  tlnallv,  "The  Wars  of  Gog  ninl  Ma 
gog,  of  Messiah  1).  Joseph,  Messiah  b.  David,  ami 
Elijah  the  Prophet"):  This  apocalypse  must  liave 
had  a  very  wide  circulali<in.  as  evidenced  by  the 
many  manuscripts  in  wliirli  it  is  prcsirved.  It  is 
contained  in  a  Parisian  manuscript  (Codex  llel)r. 
710);  in  oncin  Leipsic  (Codex  Ilebr.  12l.  andanolher 
nt  Ilalberstamin,  and  in  three  manuscripts  at  the 
Bodleian  Library  (see  Nculiauer.  "Catalogue,"  Kos. 
1460.   l.T;   •."-'7-1,  C;   aiiOO,   «.     The   lirst   of   these  is 


complete ;  in  the  second  the  introduction  and  conclu- 
sion are  missing;  the  third  .seems  to  be  only  a  fnig- 
ment) — in  a  Munich  manuscript  (Codex  Hebr.  313; 
the  introduction  and  conclusion  are  also  omitted 
in  this);  and  it  was  also  included  in  the  "Mah/or 
Vilry,"  in  which,  however,  as  some  pages  in  the 
manuscript  are  missing,  only  the  first  anil  last  parts 
are  preserved.  This  work  was  printed  in  the  Con- 
stantinople collection  mentioned  above,  in  l.")19,  and 
also  in  "  Abkat  Rokel  "  (Pedler's  Spice- 
Its  Wide  Box)  by  Jacob  Machir.  Eromthclat- 
Circulation.  ter,  .leflinek  reprinted  it  in  "  B.  H."  ii. 
58-63,  omitting,  however,  the  intro- 
duction and  the  conclusion,  which  he  added  in  vi>l. 
vi.  117-120.  The  >Iunich  mamiscript  was  found  by 
the  luesent  writer,  who  collated  it  with  the  text  iu 
"Abkat  Rokel,"  and  with  .lellinek.  to  contain  a  num- 
berof  better  readings  and  variants  than  the  latter. 

The  following  may  be  added  to  what  has  been  re- 
lated above  as  explanatory  of  the  contents  of  this 
book: 

A  parenetic  discourse  forms  the  introduction; 
after  which  the  unusual  phenomena  that  will  usher 
in  the  end — lumalural  and  iiestileuce-prfKlueing  hi'at, 
poisonous  dew,  and  an  eclipse  of  tiw  siui  lasting 
thirty  days — arc  depicted.  The  Roman  "  kingdom  " 
will  spread  its  dominion  over  the  whole  world,  and 
will  persecute  Israel  most  cruelly  for  the  space  of 
nine  months,  at  the  end  of  which  time  Messiah  b. 
Joseph  will  appear.  From  here  on.  the  description 
continuesasoutlinedabove.  After  Messiah  b.  David 
shall  have  destroyed  Armilus  and  the  heathen  armies, 
together  with  the  "wicked"  Home,  then  the  dead 
will  ari.se,  and  the  Israelites,  dispersed  overall  lands, 
will  be  gathered  into  Jerusjilem.  The  heathen  will 
convey  them  thither,  and  will  offer  homage  to  Israel; 
also,  the  Ten  Tribes,  together  with  the  descendants 
of  Moses,  will  return,  enveloped  in  clouds,  from  the 
regions  of  Chaboras  and  Ilalach  and  from  Media; 
and  as  they  march,  the  earth  will  be  transformed 
before  them  into  a  paradise.  The  conclusion  con- 
tains the  description  of  the  glinious  new  Jerusalem 
and  of  the  other  bles-sings  of  the  future  world,  which 
are  here  of  a  more  spiritinil  character.  According 
to  the  various  editions,  it  is  said  of  Armilus,  that 
"the  nations  call  him  Antichrist."  But  the  Munich 
manuscript  reads  here,  "He  is  called  Gog  and  Ma- 
,u'og";  and  for  "palace  of  Julian,"  it  reads  "palace 
of  Hadrian." 

10.  The  Kevelations  of  B.  Simon  b.  Tol^ai 
("nr  p  PV!:L"  I  minCJi  :  This  apocalyiise  w;is 
lirinled  at  Sahaiica  in  17-13.  in  the  collection  already 
menlioncd,  and  was  reprinted  from  it  by  Jellimk 
in  "  B.  H."  iii.  li^itaii/.  It  is  presj'rved  also  in  the 
Munich  manuscript  (Codex  Hebr.  2"2".?),  which  con- 
tains better  readings  in  simie  places.  The  apoc- 
alypse really  ends  with  "Thy  people  shall  all  be 
righteous,"  81,  13  in  Jellinek;  what  follows,  as 
Graetz  already  recogniziil  ("tiescli.  der  Juden."  v. 
•1-16).  was  addeil  later,  probably  from  the  "Prayer 
of  R.  Simon  b.  Yohai."  As  (Jraet/.  shows  {Hi.),  this 
apocalypse  was  written  during  the  stormy  period  of 
the  deposition  of  the  Dmmiads  (7.'i(U. 

Written  It  descrilws  plainly  the  wars  of  Mer- 
About  760.  wan  II  ,  who  is  mentioned  by  nnnu'. 
his  flight  aftir  the  battle  on  the  bank 
of  the  Great  Zab.  his  capture,  and  his  ii.s.sassi nation. 
The  revelations  about  Iheciul  arc  made  by  Mepitron 
to  l{.  .Simon  b.  Yohai.  while  the  latt<'r  is  dwelling 
in  a  cavi',  hiding  from  tlw  Ronain  emperor.  The 
history  of  Islam  is  reviewed  from  the  appearance  of 
the  prophet  up  to  the  events  just  mentioned.  Fnuu 
this  jioint  on.  the  real  prophecy  of  the  future  Ivgins. 
It  opens  with  the  prediction  that  after  Mcrwana 


Apocalyptic  Literature 


THE  JEWISH  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


684 


successor  has  reigned  three  months,  the  nine  months' 
(lomiuion  of  the  "wicked  empire"  will  set  in  for 
Israel;  tlicn  the  course  of  events  is  described  us  be- 
fore set  forth  under  the  "  Apocaly  pse  of  Zerubbiibel "  ; 
and.  liniilly,  the  picture  of  tlie  future  world  is 
dniwn.  After  tlie  dispersed  Isnielites  are  cuthered 
to;;ether,  and  the  eartldy  Jerusalem  in  addition  to 
the  heathen  part  of  its  population  is  consumed  by 
fire  from  liraven.  the  glorious  new  Jcrusaleni  will 
descend  from  heaven:  Israel  will  dwell  in  it  for 
2,000  years  in  perfect  peace,  and  as  in  the  "Apoca- 
lypse of  Baruch  "  (xxix.  4),  and  IV  Esdras  ( vi.  52), 
will  feast  on  the  Behemoth  and  the  Leviathan.  At 
the  end  of  this  time  God  will  descend  into  the  vallcj" 
of  Jehiisliaiihat  to  hold  judgment,  and  heaven  and 
earth  will  ilisajiiiear;  the  heathen  will  be  put  into 
hell;  Israel  will  enter  into  paradise;  and  for  a  year 
the  sinners  in  Israel  will  sntfer  the  tortures  of  hell 
and  then  be  admitted  to  paradise. 

11.  The  Prayer  of  R.  Simon  b.  Yoljiai 
OnV  p  I'J;Dl"  n  n^Sn):  This  ajioealypse  was  pub- 
lislied  by  Jellinek  in  "B.  H."  iv.  117-126,  according 
to  a  manuscript  of  Mortara.  It  shows  the  closest 
relation  to  the  preceding ;  and  begins  with  a  similar 
retrospect  of  the  Mohammedan  history,  but  carries 
it  on  to  a  later  date,  and  finally  refers  to  events 
which.  Jelliuek  observes  {ih.  p.  8),  may  be  unmis- 
takably recognized  as  the  Crusades.  Graetz  thought 
that  this  apocalypse  contained  allusions  to  the  in- 
roads of  the  Mongols  in  1258-GO,  and  believed  that 
these  events  led  directly  to  Its  composition  (I.e.  vii. 
139,  449  et  seq.).  But  this  is  out  of  the  question; 
for  the  passage  about  the  appearance  of  deformed, 
swift-footed  men  from  the  far  East,  upon  which 
Graetz  founded  his  argument,  occurs  in  the  middle 
of  the  historical  retrospect,  and  not  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  events  immediately  preceding  the  end. 
In  this  part  of  the  apocalyp.se  the  reference  is  solelj- 
to  the  Crusades,  and  could  hardlj-  be  plainer.     The 

point  in  question  is  a  favorite  one  in 
Mention     apocalyptic  description,  and  is  simply 
of  the        taken  from  older  writings;  "The  Wars 
Crusades,     of  King  Messiah  "  also  contains  it ;  but 
in  the  latter  the  picture  of  the  mon- 
strosities is  still  more  horrible  and  bears  more  resem- 
blance to  the  description  in  the  Revelation  of  John, 
ix.  13  et  seq.,  which  is  the  oldest  example  of  the  sort. 
JITJ — written  erroneously  in  one  place  jn'J,  and  in 
another  pTi'jn — the  collapse  of  which  is  taken  in 
the  "Revelations  of  R.  Simon  b.  Yohai"  and  in  the 
"Prayer  of  R.  Simon  b.  Yohai,"  as  well  as  in  the 
ajjocalypse  treated  below  (tlie  "Midrash  of  the  Ten 
Kings"  which  also  has  the  corruption  jlTJ).  as  an 
ominous  prognostication  of  the  inuninent  fall  of  the 
Islamic  kingdom,  is  nothing  else,  as  Steinschueider 
clearly  proves  ("  Apocalypsen,"  ])p.  639,  599),  than 
the  famous  eastern  gate,  Bfib  Girun,  of  the  Mosque 
in  Damascus. 

12.  The  Midrash  of  the  Ten  Kings  (tmo 
D'37Dn  mtJ'V)'  This  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  the 
two  preceding  apocalj'pses.  It  has  been  published 
b}^  C.  M.  Horowitz  in  "Sammlung  Kleiner  ]Mid- 
raschim"  ("Bet  'Oked  Agadot  "),  i.  3''7-.55,  according 
to  a  manuscript  of  De  Rossi's.  The  ajiocalypse 
begins  with  a  very  diffuse  description  of  the  eight 
kings  who  have  already  ruled — the  first  being  God  ; 
the  last,  Alexander  the  Great — and  relates,  in  con- 
nection with  this  subject,  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  bj'  Titus  and  the  Hadrianic  persecution,  and 
leads  over  in  this  way  to  Simon  b.  Yohai's  hiding 
from  the  Roman  emperor  in  a  cave,  and  to  the  reve- 
lations regarding  the  end,  which  he  received  while 
there.     As  in  the  two  preceding  books,  the  different 


Islamic  rulers,  beginning  with  Mohanuued,  are 
described.  The  two  rulers  menlioiii-d  at  the  begin- 
ning of  ])age  .")3  are  beyond  doubt  llisham  and  his 
successor,  Walid  II.  The  references  to  the  six  follow- 
ing rulers  are  so  vague  that  no  certain  conclusions 
can  be  drawn  regarding  their  identity.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  book  is  taken  up  with  prophecy  of 
the  future,  in  which,  at  first,  occasional  allusions  to 
historical  events  seem  to  be  intcrsi)crs(il.  Here  also 
the  iirojiheiiesof  the  future  begin  with 

Describes  the  announcement  of  the  period  of  nine 
Islamic  months  of  iuten.sc  persecution,  where- 
Rulers.  ujion  Armilus  will  reign  forty  daj'S. 
At  the  termination  of  his  reign.  Mes- 
siah b.  .loseph  will  apjiear  and  restore  the  Temple 
in  Jerusalem,  and  will  estnblish  fur  Israel  an  ejioch 
of  peace.  At  the  conclusion  of  thisiieriod.  Gog  and 
^lagog  will  march  upon  Jerusalem,  and  ^Messiah  b. 
Joseph  will  fall  in  battleagaiust  him.  Three-fourths 
of  the  Isiiielites  will  wander  into  exile.  God  will 
then  destroy  the  armies  of  Gog  and  JIagog;  and 
Israel,  including  the  "nine  and  a  half  tril)es,''  will 
return  to  Jerusalem.  The  rulcrshij)  will  recur  to 
the  house  of  David;  Messiah  b.  David  will  rule  as 
the  ninth  king  over  the  whole  world  ;  and  Israel  will 
enjoy  the  Ijlessings  of  the  Messianic  kingdom.  At 
the  end  of  2,000  years  God  will  Himself  descend  to 
judgment. 

13.  The  Persian  Apocalypse  of  Daniel: 
This  apocalyjise  was  ]iublished  and  translated  by 
Zotenberg  in  Merx,  "Archiv,"  i.  386-427.  It  also 
belongs  to  the  group  just  treated;  but  at  the  same 
time  it  occupies,  as  Bousset  observes  {I.e.  p.  69),  a 
peculiar  jiliice  within  the  Neo-Hebrew  aiiocalypse, 
by  reason  of  the  role  which  Messiah  b.  Josejih  Jilays 
in  it.  The  account,  however,  is  not  perfectly  clear. 
First  comes  a  very  diffuse  legendary  narrative  of  the 
events  of  the  time  of  Daniel;  that  is,  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  prophet  Jeremiah  down  to  the  time 
of  King  Darius  I.,  Hystaspes  (n.c.  485).  Then  it 
relates  how  Daniel  mourns  and  fasts  because  of  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple,  and  how  an  angel  ajipears 
to  unveil  the  future  to  him.  Here  follows  abruptly, 
regardless  of  the  thousand  interwniug  years,  a  f  rans- 
jiareut  description  of  Mohammed  and  the  Islamic 
rulers  following  him.  In  the  ruler  with  three  .sons 
(p.  411,  1.  12  from  the  bottom),  as  Bousset  observes, 
Hardn  al-Raschid  and  his  three  .sons  are  with  cer- 
taintv  recognizable. 

Two  further  rulers  are  mentioned,  and  then  the 
prophecy  of  the  future  begins.  The  nine  months' 
sovereignty  of  Rome  is  predicted,  and  the  appearance 
of  one  who  is  not  mentioned  by  name,  but  whose 
description  corresponds  exactly  with  that  of  Armilus 
in  the  preceding  ajwcalypses.  The  army  of  Gog 
and  Magog  will  unite  with  him.  and,  as  in  "The 
Warsof  King  Jlessiah  "and  the  "  Prayer  of  R.  Simon 
b.  Yohai."  he  will  claim  to  be  the  Jlessiah.  He  will 
subdue  the  world  an<l  persecute  Israel.  "A  man  of 
the  children  of  Epiiraim  "  will  then  appear;  and  the 
Israelites  will  all  gatherarouud  him  and  go  with  him 
to  "  that  wicked  one."  and  demand  from  him  that  he 
lirove  by  miracles,  particularly  b_v  waking  the  dead, 
that  he  is  the  Messiah.  Enraged  at  this  demand,  he 
will  persecute  them  anew,  and  the  Israelites  will  flee 
before  him  into  the  wilderness.  There  Michael  and 
Gabriel  will  appear  and  forthwith  au- 
Describes  nouuce  to  them  their  delivery.  Then 
the  Resur-    they  will  kill  him  who  claims  to  be  the 

rection.       Messiah ;  and  also  the  Messiah  ben  Jo- 
seph will  be  killed,  and  the  flag  of  Mes- 
siah b.  David  will  be  raised.    The  latter  will  destroy 
the  whole  army  of  Gog  and  Magog.     Then  Elijah 
will  appear;  the  dead  will  arise;  and  the  Israelites 


685 


THE  JEAVISH  E>X'YCLOP£DIA 


Apocaljrptic  Literature 


will  come  to  tlie  Messiah  from  all  (luarters  of  the 
world  on  the  wings  of  Siiniiri,'.  The  Messianic  king- 
dom will  endure  for  1.800  years.  The  descripliou  of  it 
and  of  the  last  judgment,  wliich  succeeds  it,  does 
not  differ  materially  from  that  in  the  preceding 
apocalyi>ses.  Certain  details  in  the  description  of 
the  last  judgment  occur  also  in  the  alphabets  of  H. 
Akiba.  Thea|)ocalypse  has,  besides,  a  brief  accoimt 
of  the  ditTerent  divisions  of  hell.  On  the  basis  of 
the  historical  setting  of  this  apocalypse,  it  is  safe 
to  conclude,  with  Bousset,  that  it  was  written  in  the 
tirst  hair  of  the  ninth  ei-ntury. 

14.  Eschatological  Descriptions :  In  conclu- 
sion the  foUiiwing  ischalnlogical  descriptions  may 
he  nientionid:  The  one  in  Pesikta  Zuttarta,  section 
Balak  (ed.  liuher,  iv.  2.W  ft  .w/.),  inchuled  by  Jelli- 
nekin-n.  II."iii.  141-143,  underthe  title  n"L"0  mJX 
(Haggadah  of  the  Messiah):  the  conclusidii  of  "  .Mid- 
rash  V'ayosha',"  in  the  reccnsicm  edited  by  Jellinck 
C'B.  II."  ii.  5.5-57);  n't73  'pi3  (Chaplers  on  Mes- 
siah), in  Jellinck,  "B.  11."  iii.  tJH,  TS;  contained  also 
with  many  better  readings  in  the  Munich  Codex.  No. 
222  (see  in  regard  to  the  beginning  of  this  piece  as 
given  here,   Butlenwieser,  "Elias  Apocalypse,"  p. 

10);  pVJJ  miVD  (Repast  in  Paradise).  ]n"l^  miVD 
(The  Feast  on  the  Leviathan),  in.lellinek.  "1!.  H."v. 
45etse(/.,  vi.  150<7«-7. ;  n^nV^  DITDX  (Prophecies  of 
the  Fut\ire),  existing  only  in  manuscript  form  in 
Codex  de  Rossi,  Nos.  1246  and  541  (compare  Zunz, 
"L.  G."  p.  604  and  Steinschneider,  "  Aijoealypsen," 


p.  635,  note  18);  the  description  of  Saadia  in  his 
"  EmunotVedeOt,"  viii. ;  that  of  Hai  Gaon  iu"Taam 
Zekenim,"pp.  o9et  serj..  Frank  fort  on  t  he-Main,  18.54; 
and  that  of  Meir  Aldabi  in  "Shebile  Emmiah."  Of 
the  above-mentioned,  the  "Haggadah  of  the  Mes- 
siah" is  the  only  one  which  contains  a  description 
difl'ering  somewhat  from  all  the  other  presentations 
met  witii  in  the  course  of  tliis  article:  From  the  wil- 
derness, whither  the  Israelites  will  Hee  after  the  fall 
of  the  Messiah,  they  will  march  to  Rome  at  the  com- 
mand of  a  voice  from  heaven,  and  seize  the  city, 
whereupon  Messiah  b.  David  will  reveal  himself  to 
them. 

It  isalso  worthy  of  note  that  the  burning  of  Death 
and  Satan  in  the  lake  of  tire  at  the  last  judgment 
forms  part  of  the  descriiition  in  "The  Feast  of 
the  Leviathan"  as  in  the  Revelation  of  John.  All 
the  others  offer  nothing  new.  "Chapters  on  Mes- 
siah "  is  a  very  late  compilation  (compare  Jellinck, 
"B.  H."iii.  19), as  isalso  "Prophecicsof  the  Future." 

Bibliography  :  Kiseomenger.  E>itilcckti»  Jutlnithum.  II.  .W, 
,57, 1.  4S-49:  Griltz,  Gench.  iterjudcn,  HI.  S5f(  w<;.;  Jellliink, 
B.  H.  II.  .T.V57.  lit.  08  et  wi/..  U-lpslc-Vlenna,  lK3:i-77:  Slerx, 
Arvhip  fllr  n'itmin.vhat'lliche  hrf(ir>tclniii{i  ilix  Alt.  7V,i(. 
I.  3>i« .(  set/. :  .Schiirtr,  Gfxrli.  :M  ed.,  II.  4(>K  i(  w</..  III.  Isi  ct 
aeq.:  Stelnsthnelder. .lf«)('<j(v|wi  n  mil  PiikmischrrTnulrin, 
in  Z.  D.  M.  CI.  xx\Hi.<a7 •  I  sn/..  \x\x.li)ictficq.:  Welllmii'M-n, 
I.  J.  O.  pp.  12J  et  »(•</.,  liH  I  (  .«.  •;.,  2,53  ft  acq..  BtTllii.  l-'.'4 : 
Idem,  iikizzco  nnd  ViirarlKUcn.  vl.  i»t  it  «f;.;  saieiul. 
Uclnr  Jiiilixche  Aii'ihaliiptih  In  Z.  A.  T.  II'.  v.  Si.' .(  xiq.; 
H.  J.  Hdltziimn,  .Vcii  TrMam.  Tliniliiuif.  I.  IW:  Boussft, 
Dcr  Anticlirusl  in  dcr  L'eljerlicfcrunu  (its  Judentliunm. 

M.  Bu. 


END  OF  VOL.   L 


LIST  OF  PATRONS 


LIST  OF  PATROXS 


Tlio  production  of  The  Jewish  Encyci.opkdia  has  bci-ii  miulc  practicable  bj-  the  cooperation  which 
the  publishers  have  received  not  ouly  from  editors  and  contributors  the  world  over,  but  also  from  the  thou- 
Siinds  of  suliseriliers,  Jews  and  uou-Jews,  whose  names  appear  lielow  us  Patrons  of  the  work.  But  for  the 
faith  of  these  thousands  in  the  promises  of  the  editors  and  ])ulilisliers,  and  but  for  the  company's  reliance 
upon  the  pledges  made  by  them  in  consequence,  it  is  certain  tliat  tlie  Encyclopedia,  while  it  might  have 
been  published,  could  not  have  been  produced  with  anything  like  the  present  standard  of  completeness.  To 
the  Jewish  public,  therefore,  as  represented  in  the  names  that  follow,  no  less  than  to  the  Jewish  scholar- 
ship as  represented  on  the  BoAtsDs  ok  Editoks.  is  due  whatever  degree  of  excellence  has  been  attained  in 
this  work. 

This  list  of  names,  with  anj'  corrections  that  may  be  fimnd  necessary,  will  be  repeated  in  the  twelfth 
(and  final)  volume  of  the  series. 

FUNK  &  WAGNALLS  COMPAXY. 

Xew  Yokk,  May  1,  1901. 


NORTH    AND   SOUTH    AMERICA 


Aaron,   Adolph New    York   City 

Aaron.    Isidor    M Brooklyn,    N.    \ . 

Aaron,    Louis New    Vork   City 

Aaron,    Louis    I Allegheny    City,    l*a. 

Aaron,   Wolf New    Vork   Citv 

Aaronson,     Reuben Baltimore.    Md. 

Abeles,    Frederick New    Vork    City 

Abels.    S Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Ablowich,    R New    Vork    Citv 

Abraham,    A Brooklyn,    N.    \  . 

Abraham,   Joseph Patcrson.    N.   J. 

Abrahams,    J Philadclnhia,    Pa. 

Abrahams,    Julius New    ^  ork    City 

Abrahams.    M Denver.    Colo. 

Abrahams,    Nathan New    Vork   City 

Abrahams.   R..   M.U New  S'ork  City 

Abrahamson,    Joseph,    M.U Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Abrahamsun.    Julius Duluth,    .Minn. 

Abrahamson,    Ala.x,    M.D New    Vork   City 

Abrahamson,    Rev.    Robert Portland.    Ore. 

Abramowitz,   A Providence.    R.    I. 

Abramowitz   &   Hautcharoud New   Vork  City 

Abramson,    H.    S Shelbyville.    Ky. 

Abremovitch.    Manuel   H New   Vork   City 

Ackerman,    Henry New    Vork    City 

Ackerman,    Leon.   M.D New   Vork   City 

Ackerman,    S.,    Ph.Ci New    Vork    City 

Acker mann.    Ignatz New    York    City 

Adamt.    Saul Stamford,    Conn. 

Adelberg.    A Rochester.    N.    V. 

Adelman,    Rev.   A.   J Boston,    Mass. 

Adetman.    L Providence,    R.    I. 

Adelstein,     Michael Montreal,     Canada 

Adier,   Harris   B..    .\LD New   York  Citv 

Adier,   Julius.    M.D New    York    City 

Adlcr.     Leopold New    York    Cil v 

Adier.    Levi Rochester,    N.    V. 

Adlcr,    Louis New    Vork   City 

Adlcr.   Mrs.    M.   D New    Vork  City 

Adit-r.    Max New    York    City 

Adier.    Max New    Hnven,    Conn. 

Ailler,     Paul St.     Louis,     .Mo. 

Adlcr,   Kdelstein  &  Thomaachcwsky New  York  City 

Adlerman,   Israel   P New   Vork   Citv 

A  gat.    Henry Chicago.    Ilf. 

Agat,    Rev.    Isaiah,   Ph.B Chicago,    III. 

Agoos.    L Chelsea,     M.i*s. 

Ablcrtz.    Henry New   York    City 

Aiken,    Rev.   S.   J.,   D.D New   York   Citv 

Aisensladi,    A Chicago.    HI. 

Aizcnman.    R New   York  City 

Albert.    Charles Cincinn.it i,    Ohio 


Albert stamm,   Jacob   D Boston,    Mass. 

Aibinger,    Frank    E Bloomfield,   N.   J. 

Alch.  tieorge   IL.   M.D St.    Louis,   Mo. 

.Alexander,   A New   York   City 

Alexander,    Bernard,   A.M .New    Vork    City 

Alexander,    David Cincinnati,    Ohio 

.Alexander.    Kmil New    ^'ork    City 

.Alexander,  Jacob New    Vork   City 

.Alexander,   James   R Bloomfield.    N.    J. 

.Alexander,    Joseph New    Vork    City 

Alexander.    Leo New    York    City 

.Alexander,    Leopold New    York   City 

Alexander,   Louis New   York   City 

Alexander,    Nestor  A New   York  City 

.Alexander,    Simon Boston.    Mass. 

.Alknwitz,    Frances New   Vork  City 

.Alkus,     Morris Philadelphia.     Pa. 

A 1  pern,    .Aaron    H Pittsburg,    Pa. 

.Mpern,    1 ) Pittsburg,    Pa- 

.Msberg,   Irving  N New  York  City 

.Mtrr,    Benzion Philadelphia,    Pa. 

.\lter,    Jacob New    \  ork    City 

.Mter,    Rev.    M.    A Pittsburg,    Pa. 

.Mterman,    A San    .Antonio,    Te-x. 

Alicrman,   N New   York  City 

.Mtheimer,   Ben St.    Louis,   Mo. 

.Alt man.     F Maiden.    Mass. 

.Altnian.    Mrs.    Louis Portland,    Ore. 

.Allmnn,    .Max New   York   City 

Altmnn.    Max,    M.D New    York   City 

•Mi mann.    .A .N'cw    York    City 

.Allmaycr,    Max New    York   City 

.\,lt\rhul.    Samuel New   York    City 

.Mtschulcr.    Jacob New    York    City 

.Mi'.hul,    \ictor    I Jersey  Citv,    N.   J. 

,\mbuter.    .Abram Lowell,    Mass. 

Amdur.    Rev.    Bernard Buffalo,    N.    Y. 

Amdur.    Louis New    York    City 

.Amdursky,    B Pittsburg,    Pa. 

.Vmdur-^ky.    F.    .A Pittsburg.    Pa. 

.Amdursky.     Henry Pittsburg.     Pa. 

.\mcrican.    Sadie New    York    CitT 

.American    Creditors'  Agency Chicago,    111. 

;\mram.    Mi^s   Carrie   E Philadelphia.    Pa. 

.\mr.Tm.    I Kivid    Wcrhcr Phitadcl^d^ia.    Pa. 

Am-inck.   C New    \  ork    City 

.Xm-iter.    Moses Richmond,    Va. 

Andrew-*.   Rev.    R.    M Ktttrcll,    N.   C. 

Anr.idc,   Jacob   .A Jamaica.    \V.    1. 

Anmpacher,    Rev.    .Abraham  S Scranton.    Pa. 

Antme.    L.    J Taunton.    Mast, 

Anfelewiif,   Abraham New    York   Cily 


LIST  OF  PATRONS 


Apfct,   Ignace  Irving New  York  City 

Apfcl.    M.    Marion,   M.D Brooklyn.    X.    V. 

Apftlb.-iiim.   Kdward   E New    York  City 

Apk-Ibaum,    Herman New    York    City 

Apothckcr.    D Philadelphia,    l*a. 

Appclbauni,    I-sidor New   \  ork   City 

Appcll.   Nathan New   York   City 

Applebaum,   A.  C Detroit.    Mich. 

April.  .1 New   York  City 

Apt.    Morris Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Arbecly.  N.  J New  York  City 

Arbib,     Alexander New  York  City 

Arent,   Herman Jersey   City,   N.   J. 

Arkin,    Henry Washington.    1).   C. 

Aikin.    M New    York    City 

Arkin.    M Boston,     Mass. 

Arkin.    Simon Chicago.    HI. 

Arkin.  William,  D.D.S New  York  Citv 

Arkowsky,    B Brooklyn.    N.    V  . 

Arnold.    A.    B.,   M.D Baltimore.    Md. 

Arnold,  Arthur  Straus Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Arnold.  J Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Arnstein.    Kmanuel New    York   City 

Arons,    Adolph New    York   City 

Aronsobn,   Samuel   J Paterson.   N.   J. 

Aronson.    H.  J New    York   City 

Arcnson,   I.    Leonard Pittsburg.   Pa. 

Aronson.   J Chelsea.    Mass. 

Aronson.    Jacob New    York    City 

Aronson,    Morris Boston,    Mass. 

Aronson,    Oscar New    York    City 

Aronson.    S New    York    City 

Aronson.   Saul Brooklyn,  N.   Y. 

Aronstam,    J Springfield,    Mass. 

Aronstam.   N.   E.,   M.D Detroit.   Mich. 

Aschheim,    Mayer  S New   York  City 

Ash,   Louis New  York  City 

Ash.    Mark New  York  City 

Asher,    A.    I Worcester.    Mass. 

Asber,   Jacob San    Francisco.   Cal. 

Asher,  Joseph   Mayor New   York   City 

Asher,   Maurice,   M.D Newark,    N.   J. 

Asikowitz.    E Boston,    Mass. 

Asinof,   Morris New  York  City 

Asnis,  E.  J.,  M.D Newark.  N.  J. 

Atlas,    S Washington.   D.    C. 

Aucr,    M Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Auerhaim,    S Bradford,    Pa. 

Auguss.   Samuel New   York   City 

Augustus.    N.    G Holly  Springs,   Miss. 

Augyal,    Sam New    York    City 

Autcriff,   Herman New  York  City 

Averbach.    H Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Avner.   Maurice   Louis Pittsburg.   Pa. 

Avrutis,   A New   York  City 

Axilrod,  J Cumberland,   Wis. 

Babad,  Nathan  M.,  M.D New  York  City 

Babst,   Charles New  York   City 

Bach,  A.   T New   York   City 

Bache.   Mrs.   Scmon New   York  City 

Bacbracb.  Chief  Rabbi  David Providence.  R.  L 

Bacbracb,    Julius New    York    City 

Bacbracb,   S.   L New  York   City 

Bachrach.    Simon Oakland.    Cal. 

Bachs.    Herman New   York   City 

Backer,   George New  York  City 

Backs,  Harry  H New  York  City 

Bacon,    I.   R New   York   City 

Baer,    Morris Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Baerlo,    M Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Baermann,  J.    B New    York   City 

Bahr,    Davis New   York   City 

Baitler.    Charles  A..; Boston,    Mass. 

Baiz,  Jacob New   York   City 

Baker,    Isaac Erie,    Pa. 

Bakst,    Joseph New    York    City 

Balajty,  Samuel New  York  City 

Dalcbowsky,    C.   H Frankfort    Station,   111. 

Baldauf.    Morris Henderson,    Ky. 

Balogh.   M New   York   City 

I^.alser,    Joshua    S Baltimore.    Md. 

Balzcr,    Max New   York   City 

Bamberger,    Jacob Baltimore,    Md. 

Bamberg'-T.    Jacob Baltimore,    Md. 

Bamberger,  Mrs.  Jacob Salt  Lake  City,  LUah 

Bamberger,    Louis Newark,    N.    J. 

B.imbcrger.   Mrs.  Simon Salt  Lake  City.   LTtah 

Bame.    Abram Pliiladclpliia,    Pa. 

Bandman.   Albert,  D.D.S New   York   City 

Bank.  A.   M New  York  City 

Bank,    Meyer  Sorech Minneapolis,    Minn. 

Bank.  Sam New  York  City 

P.arabas,  J.  A New  York  City 

Barabas,   Joseph New   York   City 

Barach.    7, Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Baracs,    Henry Cleveland.    Ohio 


Barash,   S New    York   City 

Barchan.   Nathan   M Newark,    N.  J. 

Barcus.   A.    L..   M.D Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Barenblatl,    Mich New    \  ork    City 

Barknian.    A East    Tawas.    Mich. 

Barna.  (iustav New    York   City 

Barnet,   H.   M Minneapolis.    Minn. 

Barnett.   Benjamin New   \'ork  City 

Itatnett.  Hynian  I New   York  City 

Barnstein.    Rev.    H..    Ph.D Houston.   Tex. 

Bnron.   B Sioux   City.   Iowa 

Baron.    Paul New    York    City 

Barondess.  Joseph New   York  City 

Barron,    Hvman Boston.    Mass. 

Barth.    M.   A Paterson.   N.  J. 

Barton,   (icorge  A Bryn  Mawr,    Pa. 

Barucb.    B.    M New   York   City 

Baruch.    L New    York    City 

Basch,    G. Columbus.    Ohio 

Basch,  G New   York  City 

liash.    Charles Trenton.    N.    J. 

Basblow,   Louis New   ^*ork  City 

I'askin.    Jacob Springfield,    Ohio 

Baskind,   Joseph Chicago.    111. 

Bass,   Mayer Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Basset,    M New    York    City 

Batt,   Joseph New   ^*ork   Ctty 

Bauer,   Leopold New   York  City 

Bauer,    Rev.    Sol Chicago.    III. 

Baum,   Abraham New   York   City 

I'aum,   Henry New  York  City 

Baum,   J Kansas   City,    Mo. 

Baum,  Joseph,  M.D New  York  City 

Baum,   Julius New    York   City 

Baum,  Samuel New   York  City 

Baum,    Samuel New    York    City 

Baum,    Rev.   Solomon New   York   City 

Bauman.  A New   York   City 

Baumann,    Leo New   York    City 

Baumgart,    Isidor Brooklyn,    N.   Y. 

Baumgarten.    Herman Washington,    D.    C. 

Itaumoll.    Mark Bucyrus.    Ohio 

Baumstcin,    H Lawrence.    Mass. 

Baumwarzel   &   Schneeberg New    York   City 

Bawer,    Simon New    York    City 

Eaxt,    B Topeka,    Kan. 

Bayer,   E New   York   City 

Bearg    Brothers Springfield.    Mass. 

Bearman,    Henry Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Beck,    Ben New   York    City 

Beck,    Louis New   York   City 

Becker.    A.    G Chicago,    111. 

Beckhardt,    Moses New    York   City 

Beckman.    S Beaver    Falls,    Pa. 

Beer,   Bcrtrand New   Orleans,   La. 

Beer,  Sophia New  York  City 

Bccrger,    Bernhard Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Behren.  Louis  D New  York  City 

Behrend.    Jacob Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Behren s.    Siegmund New    ^  ork    City 

Beiirmann.  J.  A New   York   City 

Beisman,  Joseph,   M.D Detroit.    Mich. 

Beit,   Julius New   York   City 

Belais,    David New    York    City 

Belasco.    David New   York    City 

Belber,   M.   Y..    D.D.S Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Beikowsky,    Isidor,    M.D Cleveland.    Ohio 

Bell.   Victor  C New   York  City 

Beller,   Jacob New    York    City 

Eeller,   M New  York   City 

Beman,    Tobias New   York   City 

Bcnari.  S.   L Brooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Benatar.    Louis Arlington.    N.   J. 

Benchman,   S New   York   City 

i'.endcr,    Charles New    York  City 

Bender.    Emanuel Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Bendetsnn.  Samuel   Kingston New  York  City 

licndheim.    Ferdinand Altoona.    Pa. 

Bendiner,  William New  York  City 

Bendon.    George Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Benedict,   Julian New   York   City 

Bencrofe.    Abraham New    York    City 

Bengis,    M New   Haven.    Conn. 

Benjamin,   Abraham New   York  City 

Benjamin.    E.   A New  York   City 

Btfnjamin.  J New  York  City 

Benjamin,    M New   York    City 

Benjamin,    M.    M Minneapolis.    Minn. 

Benjamin.    Samuel Providence.    R.    I. 

Benn.   Marcus   A Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Bennett.    L.    W New    York    City 

Bennett.   Richard    M Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Benovitz.    S-    L Memphis.    Tenn. 

Bensdorf.    Herman Memphis,    Tenn. 

P.erdy.    Louis New   York   City 

Beren.   H New  York  City 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


Bcrcnberg.   Bcrnhard Brooklyn.  N.  Y. 

Berg,    Gertrude Philadel^ihia,    Pa. 

Berg.    Nicholas New    \  ork    City 

Berg,    Simon New    York    Ci!y 

Berge.    Samuel Holyoke.    Mass. 

Bciger,    .-X Olyphant.    l*a. 

Berger.    B.    H New    York    City 

Berger,    Benjamin Bridgeport,  Conn. 

Berger,    Charles Brooklyn,    X.    Y. 

Berger.  J.   C Elmira.   .N.   Y. 

Berger.   Samuel New   York   City 

Berger.    Samuel Yonkers.    N.    Y. 

Berger.   Tobias.    M.l) New    York   City 

Bergman.    Joseph    L Boston.    Mass. 

Bergman,    Samuel New    York    City 

Bergstein.    Uavid New    York   City 

Bcrmger,    Leopold New   York   City 

Bcrkenstadt.    Samuel   J Chicago,    111. 

Beikovits,   G.    U New   York   City 

Berkovitz,    Adolph Philadelphia,    Fa. 

Berkovitz,    Joseph Philadel^)hia.    Pa. 

Berkowich.    Louis   I New    \  ork   City 

Btrkowitz.    .Xrmin Hamilton.    Ohio 

Bcrkowitz.  Rev.   Henry Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Bcrkowilz,    I Utica.    N.    Y. 

Bcrkowitz,  Josef New   York   City 

Berkowitz.  Leon  M Newark.   N.  J. 

Bcrkowitz.   Morris Brooklyn.  N.  Y. 

Berliner,    D New    York  City 

Berliner,    Herman New    York   City 

Berliner,   Joseph .New    York   City 

Berlingcr.   Kobert.   M.U New   York   City 

Bcrman,    B Detroit,    Mich. 

Bcrman,    Dagobert New    York    City 

Bcrman,    Isidor New    York   Citv 

Berman.    Joseph Baltimore,    Md. 

Bcrman,  Nathan  A New   York  City 

Bermon.    .Monist New    York    City 

Bern.   Philip  S..  D.U.S New  York  City 

Bernays.    Ely New    York    City 

Bernfeld.    Philip New    York   City 

Bcrnfcld.   .Samuel  J New  York   City 

Bcrnhard.    -Max New    York    City 

Bernheim.    B Louisville.    Ky. 

Bernheim.   Isaac  W Louisville,   Ky. 

Bernheim,   S New   York    Cily 

Bcrnheimcr,    Max  E New   York  City 

Bernheimer.   Mayer  S New   York  City 

Bernitz.  Joseph St.    Louis.   Mo. 

Bernsohn,    .\1 New    York    Cilv 

Bernstein.    .\ Chicago.    III. 

Bernstein.   A New    York   City 

Bernstein,    Adolph Marshalltown.    Iowa 

Bernstein,    liarnet New    York    Cily 

Bernstein,     Benjamin New    York    City 

Bernstein,    Bennett New    York   City 

Bernstein,    C.    L Utica.    N.    Y. 

Bernstein,     Charles Marshalltown.     Iowa 

Bernstein,    D.    S Evansville,    Ind. 

Bernstein,    David New    York   Cily 

Bernstein,    Ernest   Ralph Shrcveport,   La. 

Bernstein.    Eugene   A New    \  ork    Citv 

Bernstein.    G Lowell.    Mass. 

Bernstein.   H New    York  City 

Bernstein.  II New   York  City 

Bernstein.   II.   A..   .M.D New  York  City 

Bern-tein.     Harry Cleveland.    Ohio 

Bernstein.     Harry Chicago.    III. 

Bernstein.    1 Chelsea.    Mass. 

Bernstein,  Mrs.  Ida  M New  York  City 

Bernstein,    Isaac New   York    City 

Bernstein,  Julius  A New  York   Citv 

Bernstein,  L.   B Brooklyn.   N.  V. 

Bernstein.    L.   I.,    D.D.S Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Bernstein.  L.  J New    N  ork  City 

Bernstein.    M.    M Charleston,   S.    C. 

Bernstein,    Max New    York  Cily 

Bernstein,   Morris New   York   Cily 

Bernstein,   S.    L.,   M.D Cleveland.   Ohio 

Berry.    Harris Brooklvn,    N.    Y. 

Bertzer.    Max New    York   City 

Bcrxon.  }.    B New   York   Cily 

Iteskin.    Samuel Minneapolis.     Minn. 

Besser.   Herman.   M.D New   York  Cily 

Bettellleim.    Frederick New    York   Cily 

Better.   .M New  York  City 

Binlosky.    Louis Cleveland.    Ohio 

Bialostosky,    S New    York    City 

Bitber,    Leopold New    York    City 

Biegeleisen.    N..   M.D New   York  Citv 

Bienenfeld.   Bernard San   Francisco,   Cat. 

Bier.   Isidor New    York   City 

Bierman.  A.    E New   York  City 

Bierman.    Frederick New   York   Cily 

Bijur.    Nathan New    York   City 

Billig.   Adolph New   York   City 


Binswanger,    Barnett Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Binswanger,    Edward Denver.    Colo. 

Birkenleld.    Ben New    York   City 

Birkhahn.   Charles  D New   York  City 

Bischof.    Louis Crawfordsville.    Ind. 

Bischoff,    I.   L New  York  City 

I'.iscow,    B New   York   City 

Biskind.    I.  J.,   M.D Cleveland,   Ohio 

Blachschleger,   Abe Cincinnati,   Ohio 

Blachschleger,    Nathan Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Black,    E.   -Martin New    York   City 

Black,  Jacob New   York   City 

Blaine,    L New    York   City 

lilank,  Jacob  Z Camden.    N.   .1. 

Blank,    Joseph New    York    City 

Blankfort,    Bernard New    York   City 

Blatt.    Isidor Austin.    Tex. 

Blattner.   I.  S McKeesport.    Pa. 

Blau.  John New    ^'ork   City 

Blau,   Philip Coney   Island.    N.    \. 

Blau.    William New    York    City 

Blaustein,  Joseph New   York   City 

Blaustein,     Solomon Baltimore.     Md. 

Blech.  Gustavus   M.,  M.D Chicago,   III. 

Blectstein.    M New   York   City 

Bleiman,   A..  M.D New  York   City 

Blender    Brothers Chicago,    III. 

BIcltstein.    M New    York   City 

BIcyer.   Leo New  York  City 

Blicden.   Guslave    L Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Blinnauer,    Louis Portland,    Ore. 

Bliss,    Barnett.    D.D.S New   York  City 

Bliss,    Benjamin New    York    City 

Bloch,    .Abe Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Bloch,    Bcrnhard New    York    City 

Bloch,    David New    York    City 

llloch,    Edward Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Bloch,   Joseph   C Cleveland,    Ohio 

Bloch,  N St.  Louis.  Mo. 

Bloch.   S Brooklyn,   N.    Y. 

Itlochman,    A San   Diego,   Cal. 

Block.    .Mexander,   M.D Pueblo.   Colo. 

Block,    David Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Block,    David New   York  City 

Block,    H Chicago.    111. 

Block,    Harris Chicago.    111. 

Block,   J Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Block,   Joseph St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Block.  Joseph   H Scranton,   Pa. 

Block.   Louis St.   Louis.   Mo. 

Bloom,    Benjamin New   York   City 

Bloom,   David New   York   City 

Bloom,    Rev.   Julius Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Bloom,    M.    L Baltimore.    Md. 

Bloom.   .Max  J Brooklyn,    N.   Y. 

Bloom.   Moses New    S'ork  City 

Bloom.   U New   York  City 

llloom.    Simon Fall    River.    Mass. 

I'.loom.  \'.   Bluman New  York  City 

Itloomgarden,    Henry   B Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Bloomingdale.    Lyman  G New  York  City 

Blotcky.  Joseph East   Desiloines.   Iowa 

Bluestone,    Hannah New    York    City 

Illuestone,  J.   I..   M.D New  York  City 

I'.luestone.   Aliss  Jennie  G New  York  City 

Blum,   Kev.  Dr.  A New  York  City 

Blum,    -Mbert New    York   City 

Blum,    Edward   C Brooklyn.    .N.   Y. 

Blum,   Eugene Passaic.    N.  J. 

Blum.  F.  S.  M New  York  City 

Blum,    r New   York  City 

Blum.   Ijjuis New  York  City 

Blum,   .M New  York  City 

Blum,    .Marrick New   York   City 

Blum.    Samuel New    York   City 

Blum    Brothers Bellaire.    Ohio 

Blumauer.    Simon New    York    City 

Blumberg,    A Detroit,     Mich. 

Blumberg.    B Bridgeport.    Conn. 

Blumberg.    M Washington.   D.    C. 

Blumberg.   Siegfried New   York   I.  ily 

Illume.    .V.    K Brooklyn.    N.    \. 

Illume.    S Nashua.    N.    II. 

Illumenberg.   Marc  A New   York  City 

lllumenleld.    D Minneapolis,    Minn. 

Illumenlrld.     M Cleveland.     Ohio 

lllumenlelv.    I New   York   City 

lllumrnt^el.l,   M New   ^  ork   City 

Blumenstiel,    A New    York    City 

Blumenlhal.    F..    E New    \  ork    City 

Blumrnlhal.    Hermon Washington.    D.    C. 

Biumcnlbal.    lacob Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Illuinrnlhal.    1<o»e New    \  ork    City 

Bliinicnihal.    Rev.    S Chicago.    111. 

Blomenthnl.  Sig New   N  ork  City 

Blumenlhal,    Sol Philadelphia,    Pa. 


LIST   OF    PATRONS 


nUimgart,    Louis New    York    City 

Ulumroscn.    M Manistiquc,    Mich. 

Itodcsch.   Adolf New    York  City 

Itodys,  A.   C Washington.    U.   C. 

lioehm,    A New    York    City 

Bochm,    N New    York   City 

Ilochm.   Samuel  C New  York  City 

I'.oemcrwald,    Wolf New    York   City 

Uogcn.    kev.   Joseph,    LL.D Greenville.    Miss. 

Bohlcn.   H.  J New   York  City 

Bcjarsky,   E.   II Berwick,   La. 

Bolovsky,   Henry Fall  River.   Mass. 

Bolstow.    Louis Providence.   R.   L 

Be  mash.    Louis Chicago,    III. 

Bomtild.    IMiilip New    York   City 

Bondi,    August Salina.    Kan. 

Bondy,    Adolnh Chicago.    111. 

Bonner.   Adolph,    M.D New    York   City 

Bonnheim.    A Sacramento,    Caf. 

Bonnheim,  Benjamin  A Las  \cgas.   N.  Mex. 

Bonotif,   Elias   Td New   S'ork   City 

Bonwil.   Paul  J New   York   City 

Borchardt,    M New  York  City 

Borchardt,    Max New    York   City 

Borcherd.   Henry New   York  City 

Borg,   Mrs,  Simon New  York  City 

Bornstein,    S Denver,    Colo. 

Borofsky,   Samuel   H Boston.    Mass. 

Borsodi,    William New  York   City 

Borsody,   Frank,  M.D New  York  City 

Borsuk.    Max New    York    City 

Bortin.    Morris Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Botcin.   H.  W.,    D.D.S New    York  City 

Bottigheimer,  Rev.  S.  G Natchez,   Miss. 

Botwick,    Myer New    Haven.    Conn. 

Boudcr,    Isaac Providence,    R.^  I. 

Boudin,   L.   Boudianoflf New   York  City 

Bowman,   William Brooklyn.    N.    \. 

Erach,    S New   York  City 

Bragin,  Myron  W New  York  City 

Brand,    Adolph New    ^'ork    City 

Brandon.   H.    H Panama,  Colombia,  S.   A. 

Brandon.   Kmanuel Steinway,   L.   I..  N.  Y. 

Brnndon,   Isaac New   York   City 

Brann,   Herman New    York   City 

Braslan,  A..   M.D New  York  City 

Braudc,    Rev.    Moses  J Baltimore.    Md. 

Braude,    Paul Chicago,    111. 

Braudy,   Rev.  Joseph Brooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Brauer,    Robert New    York    City 

Brauerman,    Marcus New   York   City 

Brnun,    Marcus New    York   City 

Braun,    Rosa West    Newton,    Pa. 

Braunstein,    W.    S New    York   City 

Brav,  Herman  A.,  M.D Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Braveman,    Isidor .Clifton,   N.  J. 

Breakstone,    Isaac New   York   City 

Ercitstein,    Elias San    Francisco,    Cal. 

Breizen,    Fritz New    York   City 

Brener,  Jacob New   Orleans,  La. 

Brenner,    George Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Brenner,   Jacob Newport    News.   ^'a. 

Brenner,  Morris  E Brooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Brenner.  S.   H Kansas  City,   Mo. 

Brcntano,   August Evansville.    Ind. 

Breschel,    Adolph Scranton.    Pa. 

Bresler,    Abraham New    York   City 

Bresler,  Simon  L.,  Ph.D.,  Ph.G Denver.  Colo. 

Brcssler,    David   M New   York   City 

Bressler,   Max  L New  York  City 

Brez.   Colman Washington.    D.  C. 

Bricker,    L Denver.    Colo. 

Bricks,    Fritz New   York   City 

Brteger.   Adolph New   York   City 

Brill,    Abraham New    York    City 

Brill,    Rev.    Abram Helena,   Ark. 

Brill,    Henry New   York   City 

Brill,    Rev.   Nathan Helena,   Ark. 

Broch,   William New    York  City 

Broder,  Julius,  M.D New  York  City 

Brodcy,    Ike Toronto,    Canada 

Brodezky,    Rudolph New  York  City 

Brodezky,    S New    York    City 

Brodie.   Harris   N Baltimore,   Md. 

Brodkey.    Sol Omaha.    Neb. 

Brody,    Bertha  R New   York  City 

Brody,   F Des  Moines.  Iowa 

Brody,   Henry   A New   York    City 

Brody,  Henry  \Y New   York  City 

Brody,    Max New    York   City 

Brody.  Morris  W New  York  City 

Broido,    George \e\v   S'ork   City 

Broido.   Mrs.   Helen San  Antonio.  Tex. 

Bromberg.    Boris Newark.    N.   J. 

Bronde.    Joseph Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Brondv,    Ely New  \''ork   City 


Bionenberg.   Abraham Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Bronncr,    Harvey Keyport,   N.   J. 

Bronncr.    Leonard New    York   City 

Bronstein,     Max Baltimore,     Md. 

Bronslein,   Wtlham Providence,  R.    I. 

Brook,   H.,    M.D St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Brooks,   E.    F New  York   City 

Brooks,   George   B Providence,   R.   I. 

Browarsky,     Alarks Pittsburg,     Pa. 

Browarsky,    Sol Chicago,    III. 

Brow  n.    A Lawrence,    Mass. 

Brown,   A.    B Pittslon.    Pa. 

Bruwn,   .\be Mc Keesport.    Pa. 

Brown.    Adolph Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Brown,    Albert Pittston,    Pa. 

Brown,  Charles  R Galveston.  Tex. 

Brown,    George New   York   City 

Brown,    Rev.   Isidor New    York   City 

Brown,  J New   S'ork  City 

Brown.    Lewis McKccsnort,    Pa. 

Brow  n.    M New    \  ork    City 

Brownstcin,  J.   B New   Haven.   Conn. 

P.rownstein,    S.,    M.D Chicago,   111. 

Brozen,    I New    York   City 

P.ruck,   George New  York  City 

Brucke,  Charles   H New  York   City 

Bruckheimer,   M..   M.D Washington,   D.    C. 

Bruder,  Joseph.    M.D New    York   City 

Bruenn,    Bernard New    Orleans,    La. 

Bruenn,  J.   B New   York   City 

Brumbcrg,  Abram New  York  City 

Brumberg.    Israel Portland.    Ore. 

Brunengraber,  Charles New   York  City 

Brunn.   A.   W..   New   S'ork  City 

Bryan,  R.  W.  D Albuquerque.  N.   ^Iex. 

Bryan,  W.  J Lincoln,   Neb. 

Brylawski,    Aaron Baltimore.    Md. 

Buchanan.   S.    H.,    D.D McGregor,    Tex. 

Buchhaltcr,  S New  ^  ork  City 

Buchman,   R New  York   City 

Buchner.   D.   M Portland,   Ore'. 

Buchsbaum,   A New    York  City 

Buck,    L New    York    City 

Buckman,    R West  Superior,   Wis. 

lUidd.   L'nderhill Carthage  Landing.   N.   Y. 

Budge,    Henry New    York    City 

Buegeleisen,    Samuel New    York   City 

Buff.  William Utica.   N.   Y. 

Buhr.    Fannie Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Bulishnik,    Max Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Burg,  S.,    M.D San   Antonio,   Tex. 

Burger,  Joseph New   York   City 

Burger,    M New  York  City 

Burgunder,    Bcrnhard Wilkesbarre.    Pa. 

Burk,    Charles Baltimore.    Md. 

Burk.    Edward New   York  City 

Burkes,   Leon New   York  City 

Burnce,   M.    L Boston.   Mass. 

Pturner.  George  A Minneapolis.   Minn. 

Burnett.    M St.  Joseph,    Mo. 

Burnstine,   Bernard Washington,    D.  C. 

Burros.    Joseph Scranton.    Pa. 

Burst ein,    Benjamin Brooklyn,    N.   Y. 

Burstein,   S.   P..    >LD New  Haven.   Conn. 

Burstein,   Samuel   H New  \'ork  City 

Burtsell,   Richard   L New   York   City 

Busch,    S Chicago,    III. 

Bush,    David  W New    York   City 

P>utler,    Abram Washington,   D.    C. 

Butler.   S.    B Denver.  Colo. 

BntK^r.  William  L New  York  City 

Buttenmeser,   Joseph  L New   York  City 

Buitenwieser,    Dr.    Moses Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Butter,    Samuel Boston,    Mass. 

Butlner,    Albert New    York    City 

Butiner,   S New  York   City 

Buttncr,    Simon New    York    City 

Buxbaum,   Sam New  York   City 

Bychower,    Victor,    M.D Boston,    Mass. 

Byer.    Alexander Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Byron.    Marcus Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Cabelinsky,   Simon Boston,    Mass. 

Cahen,    S New    York    City 

Cahn,   Rev.    David New  York  City 

Cahn,  Edgar  M New  Orleans.   La. 

Cahn.  Sigmund Richmond  Hill.   L.   I.,  N.   Y. 

Calisch,   Rev.  Edward  N Richmond,  Va. 

Callahan.  James  J New  York  City 

Callmann.   Carl New    York    City 

Calmenson.    Moses St.    Paul,    Minn. 

Caminez.   lacob Brooklyn,  N.   Y. 

Camnitzer,   A..   M.D New   York  City 

Canister,    P.,   M.D New   York  City 

Canncr,    L Boston.    Ma*^s. 

Cannold,    H Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Canlarow,   Jacob Hartford,    Conn. 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Canlor,    B Brooklyn.    N,    Y. 

Cantor,    Kev.    H Manchtrslcr,    X.    H. 

Cantor,    Isidor New    ^'ork   City 

Cantor,    Julius Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Cantor,  Samuel,    M.D New   Vork   City 

Caplan,    (1 Fittsbiirg,    Pa. 

Caplan,   H.    L Baltimore,    Md. 

Caplin,    I Baltimore,    Md. 

Caplin,     M  yer Baltimore,    M  d. 

Caplin,    Stephen New    York    City 

Cardozo,   Michael  H New  York  City 

Caro,   Kev.   \' Milwaukee.   Wis. 

Carr,  Sydney   H New    York   City 

Casanowicz,    I.    M Washington,    D.    C. 

Casin,   M New   York  City 

Caspe,  A.,  M.D New  York  City 

Caspe,   M.,    M.D New  York  Citv 

Casslcr,  Isidore  A Schenectady,  N.    Y. 

Castelberg,    Joseph Baltimore,    Md. 

Cator.    George Baltimore.   Md. 

Ccbulsky.    Israel   B New  York  City 

Chaitovitz,  Sam. New    York    City 

Chajes.    Herman Bayonnc,    N.    f. 

Chalmers,    Kev.   Thomas   M Chicago,    III. 

Chalmers.   Thomas    M Chicago,    111. 

ChalolT.    Kev.   Israel Boston.   Mass. 

Chambers,    B New    York  City 

Chameides,    Wolf New   York   City 

Chapman,   Ilalla  Kinlcy,  D.D.S Fort  Scott.  Kan. 

Chapman,    Kev.  J.   Wilbur,    D.D New   York  City 

Chappell,   E.  T New  York  City 

Charak,    Isaac Boston,    Mass. 

Cbarak,   Jacob Boston,    Mass. 

Charak.    Jacob Cambridgeport.    Mass. 

Charosh,    Israel New    York   City 

Chasin,  S.  L New  York  City 

Chaska,    S Fort   Wayne.    Ind. 

Chelimer,  Morris  B New  York  City 

Chcrashny,    Harry Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Cherey.  Louis  O New  York  City 

ChertolT,    J Cleveland.    Ohio 

Cherurg,  Leon,  M.D New  York  City 

Chctkin.   Philip.   M.D Brooklyn.  N.  Y. 

Chideckel,     Maurice Baltimore.     Md. 

Chidwick,   Rev.  John  P.,  U.  S.  N Brooklyn.  N.   Y. 

Chirurg.    Charles.    M.D Manchester.    N.    H. 

Chobotsky,   Adolph New   \'ork  City 

ChodotT,    William Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Christlieb,    I.   C Hutchinson,    Minn. 

Chutjian,    H.    P New    York    City 

Cisin.   M..   M.D New   York  City 

Citron.   Dr.   G.   B New   York  City 

Citron,    Israel    M Boston,    Mass. 

Citron,    S.    I Boston,    Nlass. 

Clark,   Walter New   York  City 

Clug.    Simon.    M.D New   York   City 

Cobe.    M.    H Boston.   Mass. 

Coftce.    Kudolph  I New   York  City 

Cogan,    Henry,    LL.B New  York  City 

Cohen,   A.   A Florence,   S.   C. 

Cohen,   A.    B Scranton,    Pa. 

Cohen.    A.    T Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Cohen,   A.   S Minneapolis,   Minn. 

Cohen,  Aaron New   York  City 

Cohen,    Abraham Boston,    Mass. 

Cohen,   B Washington,  D.  C. 

Cohen,    Barnclt New    Ynrk   Cilv 

Cohen,    Benjamin Baltimore,    Md. 

Cohen,    Benjamin    L Boston,    Mass. 

Cohen,   Benno Jersey  City.   N.J. 

Cohen,    Bernard New    York    City 

Cohen,    D.    Solis Portland,    Ore. 

Cohen,    David Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Cohen,    K.  T New    Vork   City 

Cohen,    F.ninnuel M  inneapolis.    M  inn. 

Cohen,    Hphraim Bo<.t<>n,    Ma-*s. 

Cohen,   Ci.   Arnsdorff Sedalin.   Mo. 

Cohen.   Gustav New   York  City 

Cohen,   II..   Kansas  City.  Mo. 

Cohen,    H Mcriden,    Conn. 

Cohen,   Harry New   York  City 

Cohen,  Harry New   Vork  City 

Cohen,    Kev.    Henry Galveston.   Tex. 

Cohen,    Herman New    \'ork    City 

Cohen.    Ilyman Philadrtnhia,    Pa. 

Cohen,    Hyman New   \  ork   City 

Cohen,    Itanc New    York    City 

Cohen,   Nidor New   York  City 

Cohen,    I  sidor Sacramento.    Cal. 

Cohen,    Isidor Miami,     Fla. 

Cohen,   J Brooklyn.    N.   V. 

Cohrn,    T CheUen.    Mn»i. 

Cohen,  Jacob St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Cohen.    Jacob Chicago,    III. 

Cohen.    Jacob   M Carbondalc,    Pa. 

Cohen.  Jacques New  York  City 


Cohen,   James Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Cohen.  Joseph New   York  City 

Cohen,  Joseph  H New  York  City 

Cohen.  J.   Solis,    M.D Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Cohen,   Josiah Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Cohen,    Julius New    York    City 

Cohen,  Julius   C Pittsburg,    Pa, 

Cohen,  Julius New  York  City 

Cohen,    Kalmon   Joshua Paddock,    M  inn. 

Cohen,    L New   York  City 

Cohen,    L Washington,    D.   C. 

Cohen,    L.    P Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Cohen,    Lewis Bloomsburg.    Pa. 

Cohen,   Lewis  J Baltimore,    Md. 

Cchen,    Louis Baltimore,    Md. 

Cohen,   Louis New   York  City 

Cohen,    Louis    B Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Cohen,   M Brooklyn,   N.    Y. 

Cohen,    M.    A New    York    City 

Cohen,    M.   J Scranton,    Pa. 

Cohen,    Miss    Mary  M Philadel])hia,    Pa. 

Cohen,   Mathias New    \  ork   City 

Cohen,    Max Cleveland,   Ohio 

Cohen,    Max New    York   City 

Cohen,    .Max Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Cohen,    Mendes Baltimore,    Md. 

Cohen,    Morris Windbcr.     Pa, 

Cohen,    .Morris New    Haven.    Conn. 

Cohen,    Morris Worcester,    Mass. 

Cohen,    Nathan New    York   City 

Cohen.    Nathaniel New   York   City 

Coht-n,   Kev.  Oscar  J Dallas.  Tex. 

Cohen,  Philip Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Cohen,   Reuben  M New  York  City 

Cohen,    Mrs.   Robert  I Galveston,  Tex. 

Cohen,    S Windber.    Pa. 

Cohen,   S.  J Stafford   Springs.  Conn. 

Cohen,   S.    .M Fitzgerald,    Ga. 

Cohen,    S.    M Lowell,    Mass, 

Cohen,    Samuel New    Vork    City 

Cohen,    Sidney New  York  City 

Cohen.    Siegfried New   York   City 

Cohen,    Simon Boston.    Mass. 

Cohen,   Solomon  Solis Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Cohen,   The   Misses Baltimore,    Md. 

Cohn,    A Springfield.    Mass. 

Cohn,   Abe New   York  Citv 

C<'hn,  Alexander Salt  Lake  City.   L^tan 

Cohn,   .Alfred   E New  York  City 

C*>hn,    B.   H New  York  City 

Cohn,    Benjamin Patcrson.    N.    J. 

Cohn,    n New    Vork   City 

Cohn,    Emil Chicago,    1 11. 

Cohn,  Rev.    Frederick,  M.A Fort  Wayne,   Ind. 

Cohn,  George New  \  ork  City 

Cohn,    Isaac    K New    York   City 

Cohn.   Miss  Josephine .\'cw  Vork  City 

Cohn,    Leo New   York  City 

Cohn,    Leopold Brooklyn.    N.    \ . 

Cohn,    M New    Vork  City 

Cchn,    M .New   York  City 

Cohn,  .M St.   Louis.   Mo. 

Cohn,   M .New   Vork  City 

Cohn,   Max San    Francisco,   Cal, 

Cihn.    Mich.icl   A.,    M.D Brooklyn.   N.    Y. 

Cohn,   Morris New    Vork   City 

Cohn,   .Morris  M Little   Rock.  Ark. 

Cohn,   Morris New   York  City 

Cohn,    Nathan Nashville,    Tenn. 

Cohn.    Samuel New    York    City 

Cohn,    Samuel San    Francisci).   Cal, 

Ci>hn,   Samuel .Vcw    Vork    City 

Cthn,   William New   Vurk  City 

Cohn,    William    H Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Collins.   Kev.  G.  T.  D Buena  \  iMa,  Va. 

Collins.   S Fall    River.   Mass. 

Ccndory,   V.,   M.U San   Francisco,  Cal. 

Cone,    M rs.    Herman Baltimore.    Md. 

Conheini.    Hermann New    York   City 

Conn.    H Vonkers,    N.    \  . 

Content.    H New    V«>rk   City 

Cotini.   Mrs.   Eva I'hilndclphia,   Pa, 

C<M>n^.    Jn»eph    D W  ilke-tharre.    Pa. 

Cooper,    Abe New   Vork   Ciiy 

Cooper.   Kev.  John  W New  Vork  City 

Cooper,   Leon New   York  City 

Cooper.   -M New   York   City 

Cooper,    S Pitt^burR.    Pa. 

CopHtein.   A.   M New   Y*>rk   City. 

Cordi<ih,    I Baltimore.    Md. 

Cowcn,   Mrs.    Bertha Chicago,   111. 

C<iwen.    Israel Chicago,    HI. 

Cowen.   .V New  York   City 

Coylr.  Jnmm  T..  O.D.S New  York  City 

Cfonheim,   Siegfried Newark,   N.  J. 


LIST  OF  PATRONS 


Cronin,  Rev.  Edmund  \V New  York  City 

Crooks.    lUn New   York   City 

Crowe,  James  J Ntw   York  City 

Crowntr.  J Nfw   York  Citv 

Crystal,     I Ualtimurc,    .Md. 

Cukor.    .\Iorris Ntw    York   City 

Cunningham.  F.  J New  York  City 

Cunnion.    Kt-v.   M.  A New   York  City 

Currick.    Max   C Fort   Smith.   Ark. 

Currv,    Rev.   James    IJ Cornwall-on-lludson,    N.    Y. 

Cush'er,  Louis  M.,   M.D Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Custin.    li Manchester,    N.    H. 

Cytron.   Ciustav St.    Louis,   Mo. 

Dahlman,   David New   York  City 

Dalanii.  Kcv.  William  C.  D.D Lconardsvillc.  N.   Y. 

Daly.    Kev.   William  J.   B New   York   City 

Danciger,  Mrs.  Annie Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Daniel.   Gustav New  York  City 

Daniels,    Abraham    G Host  on,    Mass. 

Danishrvsky,    Myer Itoston,    Mass. 

Dann.    J.    J Worcester.    Mass. 

Dannenbaum.   Ilcnry  J Houston.  Tex. 

Danson,    It Toronto.    Canada 

Danson,  Louis New  York  City 

Dantzig,    L Kansas   City.    Mo. 

Danziger,    Adolph New    York   City 

Danzigcr.   Henrv.  Jr Syracuse,  N.   Y. 

Danzis.   M.,    M.b Newark.   N.   J. 

Daust,    Adolph St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Dautoff,    I Portland.   Ore. 

Davidow.   A.   D.,  M.D Trov.    N.   Y. 

Davidson,    IJ Kansas  City,   Mo. 

Davidson.    Benjamin Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Davidson.    David New  York  City 

Davidson,    Gustav Kansas  City,    Mo. 

Davidson,    Isaac Baltimore,    Md. 

Davidson,   K.    M.,  M.D Boston.   Mass. 

Davidson,    L.  L.,   iLD New   York  City 

Davidson,   L.  S New  York  City 

Davidson,   yi.  I Brooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Davidson,    Rev.   R Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Davidson,    S New    York   City 

Davis,   B Pittsburg.  Pa. 

Davis,    Benjamin Chicago,   111. 

Davis,    Benjamin New    York    City 

Davis,    C Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Davis,   D.   H.  M New   York  City 

Davis,   D.   S San    Francisco.   Cal. 

Davis.   H.    I.,   M.D Chicago.    III. 

Davis,  Ike Las  Vegas.  N.   Mex. 

Davis,  James Chicago,   111. 

Davis,     Lewis Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Davis,    M Minneapolis,    Minn. 

Davis,  Solomon Washington,   D.   C. 

Dean,   William   II Beaumont,   Tex. 

De   Kofskv,    Frank Chicago,   111. 

Deland.   Rev.  William  C.  D.D Leonardsville,   N.   Y. 

Deligdifvh,   Frederick Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Dcmbitz.    Lewis  N Louisville,   Ky. 

Demby.  Alexander,  M.D Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Denelitzer,    Louis New   York   City 

Dencmark.   Henry New   York  City 

De  Pinna.  Alfred \ew  York  City 

De    Roy,    Emanuel Allegheny.    Pa. 

Dessauer.    Max New    York    City 

Dessel,  Jeanne Salem,  W.   \'a. 

Deues,    Rev.    Francis  C New   York   City 

Deutelbaum.    Leopold Chicago,    111. 

Deutscb,   I'rof.  Gotthard,  Ph.D Cincinnati,   Ohio 

Dcutsch,   I New   York   City 

Deutsch,    I.   W Cleveland,    Ohio 

Deutsch,  Joseph New  York   City 

Deutsch,   Leo Xew   York  City 

Deutsch,  Louis  L.,  M.D New   York  City 

Deutsch,   M Xew  York  City 

Dcutsch,    Max New   York    Citv 

Dc  X'orkin,  M.  L,  ^LD St.  Louis,   Mo. 

Dexner.   John San    Francisco.   Cal. 

Dey,   Anthony New    York    City 

Diamant.    Louis Xew    York    City 

Diamond.    J Montreal.    Canada 

Dickelman,    L.    H Forest.   Ohio 

Dickinson.  Charles  H Grand  Ranids,   Minn. 

Dilshcimer,    F Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Dimond,   Tute Bayonne,    N.   J. 

Dine,   Joseph Boston.    Mass. 

Dine,    Philip Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Dinkelspiel,    Melville San    Francisco,    Cal. 

Dintenfass,    Jacob Philadelphia.     Pa. 

Diringer.    X' New  York  City 

Dischler.    M Baltimore.    Md. 

Disraelly.    S Denver.    Colo. 

Dittcnhofcr.   Jacob St.    Paul,   Minn. 

Dittman.   Charlotte New   York   Citv 

Dix.  Henry  A Millville.  N.  J. 

Dlugasch,    M New   York   City 


Dobkiti,  Nicholas,  M.D New  York  City 

Docmpkc,    E New    York   Citv 

Dokiorsky.    H Chicago,    III. 

Duminilz.    Arnold New    York    City 

Doniger.    Henry New   York   City 

Doob,   Irving  Ephram New  York  City 

liorfmann,   S.   A.,    ^LD New   York   City 

Douglass,  S.  D.,  M.D New  York  City 

Douglis.  Charles New  York  City 

Dover,    Max Anguilla,   iliss. 

Drab.   Ignatz New   York  City 

Drachman,    Benjamin Jersey  City,   N.  J. 

l-»rachman.   Rev.    Bernard,    Ph.D New    York  City 

Drechsler,   Rev.  Sigmund Cleveland,   Ohio 

Dreinel,   Adolph Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Dresner,   Oscar New   York  City 

Dreyer,   Moritz   W..  M.D Brooklyn,   N.    Y. 

Dreyfus,    William,   D.Sc New    York   City 

Drey  fuss,    Sol Paducah,    Ky. 

Drucker,  A.   P New   York  City 

Drucker.    Max Bridgeport,    Conn. 

Druckman.    B .Montreal.    Canada 

Dubman,  Charles New    York   Citv 

Ducey.    Rev.  Thomas  I New   York  City 

Ducker,  Sol New   York  City 

Duckman,    Moses,   M.D New   York  City 

Dudley,  Charles   B Altoona.    Pa. 

Dulhergcr.   Herman  W New   York  City 

Dulberger,    Martin New    York    City 

Dunkclblau.   Sam Newark,    N.   J. 

Dunkirk,    Miss  Wolphine New    York  City 

Dvorkin,  J New   York  City 

Dwork.  J.   H.,  &  Brother New  York  City 

Dworkovitz.    Louis Kansas   City.    Mo. 

Ebtling.   William   F New   York   City 

Echikson.    L Newark,    N.   J. 

Edclmuth,   Alfred New   York  City 

Edelson    N Washington,   D.  C. 

Edclstein,   A Paterson.    N.   J. 

Edelstein,   Adler New   York  City 

Edelstein,    B Rockaway   Beach,   N.    Y. 

Edclstein,    Marcus Paterson,   N.   J. 

Edelstein.    Samuel    O Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Edlavitch,  J.    L Upper   Marlboro.   Md. 

Edlavitch,    Levi Baltimore,    .Md. 

Edlis,    Adulph Pittsburg.    P.i. 

Edman.    Morris   L New  York   City 

Edmon.   Solomon New   York   City 

Edwards.   Mrs.    D New    York   City 

Effron.    Leon   A.,    M.D Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Egelskie,   S Rochester,   N.   Y. 

Ehrenfreund,    B X'ew   York  City 

F.hrenrcich.    Rev.   Bernard  C Atlantic  City.    N.   J. 

Ehrich,  Hon.   Louis  R Colorado  Springs,  Colo. 

Ehrlich,    Abraham Springfield,    Mass. 

Ehrlich.    Joseph Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Ehrlich,    M Philadelphia,    Pa. 

IChrlich.    Newman New    Haven,    Conn. 

Ehrman,    II San    Francisco,    Cal. 

Eichberg.   Joseph   T Atlanta.  Ga. 

Eichler,    Rev.    M.    M Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Eidman,    N.    II.    S New    York    Cilv 

E-nfeld.  William  J Philadelphia,    I'a. 

Einstein.   I.    D New   York  City 

Einstein,   Sidney X'ew   York   City 

Einstein,   Mrs.   William New   York    City 

Eintracht,    S New   York    City 

Ei?eman,   Henry Salt  Lake  City.  L'tah 

Eisemann,   E New  York  City 

Eisen,    M. New   York   City 

Eisen,    Nathan St.  Joseph,   Mo. 

Eisenberg,    B Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Eisenberg.   Charles Newark,   N.  J. 

Eisenberg.    Isidor   C,   M.D New   York   City 

Eisenberg,  Joseph New   York   City 

Eisenberg.    Louis New    York   City 

Eisenberg.    M New  York   City 

Eisenberg,    Sam Newark,   N.   J. 

Eisenberg.   William  S New   York  City 

Eisendrath.    B.    D Racine.    Wis. 

Eisendrath,   Henry  J Chicago,  111. 

Eisenstadt,    S New   ^'ork    City 

E'senstacdt,    Isidore Chicago.    111. 

Eisenstein,    Harry New   York    City 

Eisenstein,  J.   D New  York  City 

Eisler,    Isaac New   York  City 

Eisler,   Morris New  York   City 

Eisner,    L New   York  Citv 

Elbert,   H St.   Louis,   Mo. 

Elbogen,   A New   York   City 

Elentuch.   Morris New   York  City 

Elias,  A.  J BuflFalo.   N.   Y. 

Elias,   Mrs.   Catherine New   York   City 

Elias,    Ely Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Eliassof,    Herman Chicago,    111. 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


Elin,  S New  Vork  City 

Elisbcrg.    E New    York   City 

KIkan,    llcrrmann New    York   City 

lilkin,    Ktv.    M Hartford,   Conn. 

Klkind,    H.   J Worcester,    Mass. 

Elkus,   Abram   I New    York   City 

Ellbogen.    -M Chicago,    111. 

ElUnbogcn,    Isidor New    York    City 

Ellenbogen,  M.  H Palerson,   N.  J. 

Ellenzwtig.    H New    York   City 

Eller,    Morris Chicago.   III. 

p;ilinger,    Kcv.    Emil Jonesboro.    Ark. 

Ellingir,    M -New    York   City 

Kllis,  James   M San   Francisco,   Cat. 

Ellison,    H .Montrial,    Canada 

Elmalch,    Rev.    Leon   H Philadelphia,    I'a. 

Elovitz,   \V Providence,   K.    I. 

Elsas,    Herman New    York   City 

Eisner,    Prof.  John,   M.D Uenver,  Colo. 

Elting,    Ely Poughkcepsie,    N.    Y. 

Elzas,   Barnetl   A Charleston,  S.  C. 

Emanuel,    K.    H New   York  City 

Emanuel,   Harry  N New  York  City 

Emanuel.  Sol  H St.    Paul,    Minn. 

Embrocht.   S New   York   City 

Emelin,    .Mark/.,   D.D.S New   York   City 

Enelow,    Kcv.   H.  G.,  D.D Louisville,   Kj,-. 

Engel,  J.   G Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Engclhardt,    M New    York   City 

Engelman,    H Bridgeport.   Conn. 

Engclman,  Sam New   York  City 

Engl,    W New   York   City 

Englandcr,   B New  Y'ork  City 

Englander,    J New    York    City 

Englander,   L New    York    City 

Engleman,  S Des   Moines,   Iowa 

Enkel,    Louis .New    York   City 

Enklewicz,   Charles New  York  City 

Entin,   A.,   M.D Fall    Kivcr,  Mass. 

Eppinger,  Herman San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Eppstein,    Rev.    E Ouincy,    III. 

Epstein,    Rev.    .Abbey  A Haverslraw,   N.    V. 

Epstein,    U.,    M.D Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Epstein,    Elias Chicago,    III. 

Epstein,  H lirooklvn,  N.  Y. 

Epstein,  I New  York  City 

Epstein,    Louis    B New   York   City 

Epstein.    Meyer New  Vork  City 

Epstein,    Rev.   Morris New  York  City 

Epstein,  Samuel New  York  City 

Epstein,    Samuel St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Epstein,    Solomon Brooklyn,    N.   Y. 

Ernst,    N.    H Chicago,   111. 

Ernstthal,  Julius Brooklvn,    .\'.    \'. 

Eron,  J.  E New  York  City 

Eschwcge,    S Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Essenson,  O.  S.,  .M.D New  York  City 

Essenson,  S.   J.,    >I.D New   York   City 

Esser,  Fritz New  York  City 

F.ssner,    Herman Scranton,    l*a. 

Eslcs,   Louis New   York   City 

Estrin,   H.,  &  Company Chicago,   III. 

Ettinger,    I.    B New   York  City 

Eltinger,    Rev.    T.    E New    York    City 

Euphrat,    Ernest   J New   York    City 

Evslin,   Leo  E.,   D.D.S New   ^'ork  City 

Ewald,   L.  A..   M.D New  York  City 

Ewing,   Hampton   D Yonkcrs,   X.   Y. 

Exl,    Samuel New    York    City 

Faber,    Rev.    M Tyler.    Tex. 

Faber.  William  S New  S'ork  City 

Fabian,    Jacob Paterson,    N.    J. 

Faeber,    R Stockton,   Cal. 

Faggen,    Nathan Frankford,    Pa. 

Fain,  A Brooklyn,  N.   Y. 

Fain,   A Providence,    R.    I. 

Fain,   B Providence.   R.   I. 

Fain,   E.   loscph Brooklyn,   N.  Y. 

Faick,    Auolph New   York  City 

Falk,   H.  J New  York  City 

Falk,    Henry New    Vork   City 

l-'alkenhcim,   Charles New    ^'ork   City 

Falkenstcin,    M New    Vork   City 

Fanauer,    Henry New    York  City 

Fanto,    A New    York    City 

Farber.    R.,    Ph.D Denver,    Colo. 

Fass,    Joseph New    Vork   C'lty 

Fayman,   S St.   Joseph,   Mo. 

Fentherman,    Louis ConnelUvillr,    Pa. 

F'cdcr,    .Marcus Cleveland,    Ohio 

Fcderlcicht.    Louis Baltimi>rc,    Md. 

Fchlauer,    Max   H New   Yi.rk   Ciiy 

Feiga.    Max Worcester,    Mats. 

Fcigelson,    Havman Montreal,    Cinnda 

Feiffenbaum,   IS New   Vork  City 

Feikin,    M Baltimore,    Md. 


Fein,   B Brooklyn,  N.  >'. 

Feinberg,  Aaron   A New   Vork   City 

F'cinberg,    David Brooklyn,    N.    \. 

I'cinberg,   Israel  L.,   M.D New   Vork   City 

Feinberg,    .Max Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Feinberg,  S.   E.,   M.D Scranton.   Pa. 

Feiner,   A Providence,    R.   I. 

Feiner,    .-Xdolph Pittsfield,    Mass. 

Feingold.    Abraham Worcester.    Mass. 

Feingold,   Joseph Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Feingold.    Louis Worcester.    Mass. 

I'eingold.    Simon Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Fcinstcin,   Jacob Providence,    R.    I. 

Ffinstein,    S Baltimore,     Md. 

Fcinstein,    Simon Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Feitelberg,   Jacob Fall    River,    Mass. 

Fcitclberg,   Morris Fall   River,   Mass. 

Feitler,    .M Pittsburg,   Pa. 

Fclberbaum,   Henry  J New   York   City 

Feldblum,   Adolph Brooklyn,   N.    ^. 

Feldheim,   L Brooklyn,   N.   Y'. 

Fcldman,    B .New    York    City 

Fcldman,    David Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Fcldman,    Prof.    Ephraim Norwood,   Ohio 

Fcldman,   Jacob New    York   City 

F'eldnian,    Louis New   Y'ork   City 

Fcldman.    S Denver.    Colo. 

Fcldman.   Samuel New    Y'ork   City 

Feldmann,    D Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Fcldmann.    Jonas Chillicothe,    Ohio 

Fcldslein,    .\ron Uniontown,    Pa. 

Fcldstcin,    Charles Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Fcldstien,    Mrs.   Clara Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Fclcky,    Charles New   York  City 

Felix,    .Abraham New   York   City 

Felix,    I New    Vork   City 

Felix,  Jacob Rockaway  Beach,  N.  Y. 

Felix,    Julius -New    York    City 

Feller,   .Mbcrt New   York   City 

F'eller,    Isidore New   York  City 

Fcllman,    J Detroit,    Mich. 

Pels,   D Montreal,    Canada 

Felscnthal,    .M New    York    City 

Fclscr,    Joseph Baltimore,    Md. 

Felstincr,   M New   York  City 

Feltenstein.   Joel St.   Joseph,    Mo. 

Feltman,    Simon Baltimore,    Md. 

Ferer,    A...; Omaha.    Xeb. 

Ferguson.    H.    B Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Fergusson,    David Seattle,    Wash. 

Fcrtig,   .M.   B New  York  City 

Fcuchtwanger,   S New   Y'ork   City 

Fcuerlicht,    Albert New   York   City 

Fcucrlicht,    Emanuel New    Vork   City 

Fcuerlicht,   Rev.   J .Xugusta,  Ga. 

Feuerlicht,    I^dislaus New    York    City 

Fcuerlicht,    Morris    M Cincinnati,   Ohio 

Fcustmann,    Mrs.    B.   H Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Fichman,    J St.    Joseph,    Mo. 

Filer.    William    B New    Vork   City 

Filostrat,  J.>hn Fort  Hamilton,  N.  Y. 

I'"inbcrg,    Benjamin Philadcljihia,    Pa. 

Fine,    .Abraham New    \  ork    City 

Fine,    M Maxton,    N.    C. 

Fine,    Morris  S Worcester,    Mass. 

Fine,    S New    Vork   City 

Fine,    Samuel Boston,    Mass. 

line.  A.,  .t  Sons New  Vork  City 

Fincberg.    Z Montreal.    Canada 

Fincgold,    Louis Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Fineman.    Leon Bait imore.    Md. 

Fineman.    Solomon Baltimore,    Md. 

Fineshriber,   Rev.  William  11 Davenport.    Iowa 

Fink,    A Chicago,    III. 

Fink,   K.   L Brooklvn.   N.   Y. 

Finkel,    Morris .New   York   City 

Finkclpearl,    H.,    M.D Pittsburg.   P«. 

Finkclpcarl.  Joseph Pittsbura.    P«. 

Finkclstein.   Charles Buffalo,    X.    V. 

Finkelslein,   Kmil,   M.D New   Vork   t  ity 

Finkclstein.  H New   Vork  City 

Finkclstein.    Isadore Scranton.    Pa. 

Finkclstein.   Israel New   ^  "t''   ^  "X 

Finkclstein.   J New    )  ork    City 

Finkclslcin.  J.    V New    \  ork   City 

FinkcUlcin.  Joseph Brooklvn.    N-  >• 

FinkcKtein.  M..    M.D New    \  ork   City 

FinkclHlein,     X W  llkc^ba^rc,     P». 

IinkcNtrin,    .Sam .■^'»'.  ^ '"^    Si'" 

FinkclHtcin.    Rev.    William Philadelphia.    Pa. 

FinkcNtien,    Mrs.    H.    V ''.";"".••'"• 

Finn.   Louis  S New   \  ork  City 

Finn.    M Knche.icr.   Pa. 

Firestone,    Henry McKeesport,    Pa. 

Firestone.    Samuel Mc  Keesiiort,    Pj. 

Fisch.  Adolph Newark.   N.  J. 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


Fisch,  Joseph Newark,   N.  J. 

Fischcl,    Harry New   York    City 

Fischelis,    I'hilipp,   M.D I'hiladilphia.    I'a. 

Fischer,   Edward New  York  City 

Fischer,    H Detroit.   Mich. 

Fischer,   I.   F Brooklyn.   N.   V. 

Fischer,  J.  L ' Coney  Island,  N.  Y. 

Fischer,  M New   York  City 

Fischer,  M.  A Xcw  York  City 

Fischer,  Stanislaus  A.,  D.D.S New  York  City 

Fischer.    Wolf Mt.    X'crnon,    N.    Y. 

Fischgrund,   Joseph New    York   City 

Fischgrund,   Sigmund Newark.    N.  J. 

FischI,  Sigmund New   York  City 

Fischlowitz.   Ciustav   G.,    JI.D New    York    City 

Fischlowitz.    Isidore St.    Louis.    Mo. 

Fischman,    Isidor New   York   City 

Fischman.    S Chicago.    III. 

Fischmann,   Leopold New    York   City 

Fish,    Israel Boston.    Mass. 

Fish.   \V New    York   City 

Fishherg.   Maurice,  M.D .N'ew  York   City 

Fisher.   Kev.  Charles Mountain  Lake  Park.  Md. 

Fisher.   H.   S New   Haven.   Conn. 

Fisher.   William Hayonne,   N.  J. 

Fishman.   J Lawrence.    Mass. 

Fishmann,  Arthur,   M.D New  York  City 

Fiterman.    Sam .Minneapolis.    Minn. 

Fitzgerald.    Kev.   Joseph   N .Mbany.    N.    Y. 

Fladel.   Louis Xevv   York  City 

Plaster.    W  ilhelm .New    York   City 

Flatow.    I New   York   City 

Flaumenbaum.    Max New    Y'ork   City 

Flaxman,    Max Houston.   Tex. 

F  i^ck.    !• Cincinnati.   Ohio 

Fleck.   Samuel,  Jr New    York   City 

Fecker,  Henry Xew   York  Citv 

Flcgenheimer.    Adolph New    York    City 

Fleischer.   Charles Boston,   Mass. 

Fleischer.    Nathan Paterson,    N.    I. 

Fleischman.   Henry.   M.D New   York  City 

Flcischman.  S.   M Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Fleischmann.    H Xew   York   City 

Fleischmann,    Hon.  Julius Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Fleischmann,  William New    York    City 

Fleischner,   I.    N Portland.   Ore. 

Fleishman,    B Baltimore,    Md. 

F  eishman.    E Omaha.    Neb. 

Fleishmann.    Israel St.    Louis,   Mo. 

Flershcim.  A.  S Kansas  City.   Mo. 

Fliegelman,   \'ictor New  York  City 

Flmker.    L Columbus,    Ohio 

fodor.    Sigmund Xew    York    City 

FonarofF.  Mark  M New  Y'ork  City 

Foreman,    E.    G Chicago.    III. 

Foreman.    Oscar   G Chicago.    111. 

Forsichbaums,    M New    York    City 

Foster,    Solomon Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Fox,    F.,   M.D Haltimore,    Md. 

Fox,    George Cincinnati.    Ohio 

F'"'.  I New  York  City 

Fox,    Isaac Stamford.   Conn. 

Fox,  Joseph Fall   River,   Mass. 

Fo".   L Buffalo.  N.   Y. 

Fox,    Leo  Xew   York   City 

Fox,    Michael Denver.    Colo. 

I;ox,    Sol Cincinnati.    Ohio 

F"ad,   p Xew   York    City 

Braad,  S.  Xew   York  City 

Fradkin,    Israel Xew    York  City 

Prank.    Alexander Baltimore.    Md. 

Irank.  Mrs.   B Buffalo.   N.   Y. 

Frank,    Eli Haltimore,    Md. 

Frank,    Henry   Xatchez,    Miss. 

l;rank,   Kev.   Henry Xew   York  City 

Frank.   Henry  L. Chicago,   111. 

Frank,   Henry   M Xew   Y'ork   City 

i-^,'  }■  J Akron.    Ohio 

trank,  I.   S...     Xew  York  City 

Frank,    Isaac   W Allegheny.    Pa. 

Frank.  J.   H Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Frank,  Jeno New   York   City 

Frank,  Joseph   A Xew   York  City 

Frank,   Louis  J Xew  York  City 

Frank,    Marcus    M Philadelphia,    P.i. 

Frank,   Nathan Ogdensburg,    N     Y 

Frank,    Nathan New    York    City 

};"",'<.    R ■• New   York    City 

Frank,    Mrs.    Rose Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Franke,   A.   H Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Franke,  B...  Xew  York  City 

Franke,  Lee  H.,  Ph.D New  York  City 

Franke,    M     J     Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Franke,    Mandel New    York   City 

Frankel,   Moritz Xew  Y'ork   City 


Frankcl,  Morris  George New  York  City 

Frankel,    Nathan Xew    York    City 

Prankel,   S Xew   York   City 

Trankcl,    .Samuel Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Frankel,   Samuel   .M Xew    York   City 

Franken,    D Xew   York  City 

I-rankfort,    Frank Xew    York    City 

frankfurter,   B Xew   York  City 

hrankfurter,    Leopold Xew    York    City 

Frankfurter,    Max Xew    York   City 

Frank],   Albert  A Xew  York   City 

Frankle.   A.    .M Voungstown,   Ohio 

1-rankhn,    Henry   L .New    York   City 

Iranklin.   Julius New   York   City 

tranklin,  Julius Xew   York   City 

Franklin,   Kev.    Leo  M Detroit,   Mich. 

I-ranklin,    M.,    M.D Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Pranks,    J Roxbury,    Mass. 

l-raiiz,  Jacob Jersey  City,   N.  J. 

I-rcdcrick,   Carl Xew    York   City 

Iredland,    A Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Freed     L.   A... San  Antonio,  Tex. 

Freedberger,    Henry Xew    York  City 

Freedman,    B Baltimore.    Md. 

iMcedman.   t  harles  I Xew-    York   City 

Freedman,    Fritz New    York    City 

Freedman,    Harry Baltimore,     Md. 


Freedman.    Irving .'..'.'.New    ^ork   City 

Freedman.  Joseph New   York    ""■ 

rrcedman.  Julius Forest   City, 


'ork  City 

,.        ,  •,       .  .--..   City,   Pa. 

I-ree(lm.in.    Louis Xew   York   City 

Preedman.    M New   York   City 

freedman.    R Xew   York   City 

Freedman,   Robert  Samuel,  M.D Xew  York  City 

Freedman.    S Montreal.    Canada 

hreedm.in,   \  ictor Xew   York   City 

Freedman,   X.,  &    Brother Boston,   Mass. 

Freedom.    Adolph   G.,    M.D Baltimore,    Md. 

Preeman.    Victor New    York    City 

Frees,    I- New    York   City 

Ireiberger.    David New    York  City 

rreicks.    Samuel    L New    York    City 

Freidberg     .S . . . .   Topcka,    Kan. 

Fre.nian.   Edward New   York  City 

treistadtl.  Leo  M New  York  City 

Preudcnthal,    Leo Baltimore,    Md. 

Freund.   Rev.  Charles  J Toledo,  Ohio 

I-rennd.    Guslav Chicago.    III. 

Preund.    Henry New   York   City 

Freund    Isidor.   Xew  York  City 

Freundhch.    Isidor Xew  York   City 

Prey.    Philip    W     Evansville,    Ind. 

Irey.   Rev.   Dr.  Sigmund Leavenworth,  Kan. 

trick,    Louis New   York   City 

Fried,    Ignatz New  York  City 

Fritd,    Isaac. Newark,    .\.   J. 

Fried,   Joseph New    York    Citv 

Pried.    Kalman Xewark,   X.  J. 

?"'i'   ,-i'   ■••,•,■ New    York   Citv 

Pried.  Rev.   Max        Xew  York  City 

Fried,    Rev.    Michael Pittsburg,    I'a. 

Fried     Samson New    York    City 

Friedberg,  A New  York  City 

Friedberg,    J Detroit,    Mich. 

Priedberg.    Joseph Uniontown,    Pa. 

Pried. crger.   Benjamin New  York  City 

Friedburg.    Herman Xew    York   City 

Friede,   J     S....     New    York   City 

Priedc     Marcus   Sergey New   York   City 

Pricdelson.   Sam..   New   York  City 

Friedenberg,  Charles  A New   York   City 

Friedenheit,  Isaac New  York  City 

Friedenstein,   Simon New  York  City 

Friedentha  ,    Nathan New   Y'ork   City 

Pncdenthal,     Solomon Seattle      Wash 

Friedenwald,    Herbert Philadelphia,    Pa" 

Priedenwald,    Harry,    M.D Baltimore.    Md. 

Pneder,    Kev.   Samuel New   York  City 

Friedland.   Elias  J.,  M.D.,  D.D.S Xew  York  City 

F;riedandcr.   Rev.    E .Montreal,    Canada 

Pried  ander,    Isidor Xew  Y'ork   City 

Priedander.    M Cleveland.    Ohio 

Fried  ander,   M Xew   York   City 

Priedander,    Morns Xew    Y'ork   City 

Pncdler,  J.   L.,   M.D New  York  City 

Friedman,    A Xew    York   City 

Priedman,    B.    C Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Friedman,   Ben,   M.D New   York   City 

Friedman.    Benjamin Xew   York   City 

Friedman.    David   L Xew   Y'ork   City 

Friedman,    D.    S Montreal.    Canada 

Friedman.    H Xew   York    City 

Friedman.    H.,    M.D New   Y'ork    City 

Friedman,    H.    S Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Priedman,    Hyman New   York   City 

Friedman,  Hyman Las  Vegas,   N.   Mex. 


LIST  OF   PATliONS 


Friedman,    I San    Francisco,    Cal. 

Friedman,   Isaac New   York  City 

Friedman,  J.    L Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Friedman,    Jacob Minneapolis,    .Minn. 

Friedman,   Josef New   V'ork  City 

Friedman,   Joseph .\ew    York   City 

Friedman,    L New    York    City 

Friedman,    L Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Friedman,   L New   York  City 

Friedman,   Leo New   York  City 

Friedman,  Louis Kidgelield  Park,   N.  J. 

Friedman,   Louis,  M.D New   York  City 

Friedman,    .\I.    E Tawas   City,    Midi. 

Friedman,    .Max Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Friedman,    Morris Schenectady,   N.    Y. 

Friedman,   .Myer Las  Vegas,  N.  Mex. 

Friedman,    Nathan New    York    City 

Friedman,   S Yonkcrs,  N.   Y. 

Friedman,   Samuel New   York  City 

Friedman,    Samuel Cleveland,    Ohio 

Friedman,    Samuel New    York    City 

Friedman,    Kcv.   Samuel Ilarrisburg,   Pa. 

Friedman,   Samuel,   M.D New   York  City 

Friedman,    William New   York   City 

Friedman,   William    Jl Philadelphia,    Pa. 

FViedman.    Kcv.   Dr.   William  S Denver,   Colo. 

Friedmann,  Ignatz,   M.D Cleveland,  Ohio 

Fricdson,    M Worcester,    Mass. 

Friger.  J New   York  City 

Frinblatt.   B New   York  City 

Frisch,   F'rcderick New  York  City 

Fritz,   S Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Froehlich,    A .\cw    York   Citv 

Froelilich,    Joseph Davenport,    Iowa 

Frohman,    Daniel New    York   City 

Fromenson,    A.    II New   York   City 

Fromer,    Samuel Baltimore,    .Md. 

Fruchs,  Samuel   L New   York  City 

Fruchter,    Albert New    York   City 

Fuchs,   A New    York    City 

Hichs,   O.    I New  York   City 

f]"<=''»'  I --A-- •.:■■•■■, •">'<'»    Vork  City 

Fuechsl.    Ferdinand Baltimore,    Md. 

Fueschel,  Simon New  York  City 

Tubman,    Nathan Camden     N    J 

Fuhrm,nn,  Abe Camden,   N.  ). 

tubs    J.     M.D Brooklyn,    N.   Y. 

Fulchinsky.    W...... New   York   City 

Funk,   Kev    Rudolph New  Haven,  Conn. 

Turst,    .Michael Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Furth.    Emanuel Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Gadrich.    diaries..... New   York    City 

Gacbelcin,  Kev.  A.  C New  York  City 

Gaantiere,  J.      Chicago.   III. 

lialbenewitz,  Benjamin  G.,  M.D Boston,  .Mass. 

Galinsky,  A.   L Sioux  City,  Iowa 

(.all,   Charles   G Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Gam.son.    Emil,    M.D Bayonnc,    .\.    J. 

Cans,  Louis New  York  City 

Ganz,   A New   York  City 

Gardner,    .M .Montreal.    Canada 

Garfiel,    Charles New    York    City 

Garlunkcl,    Aaron New   York    City 

(iarlunkel.    Kev.  Joseph Brooklyn.   .\,   Y. 

Garland.   O Philadelphia,    Pa. 

(".arms,   l)r    P New  V'ork  City 

(Jarsson,   .M New   York  City 

Garten.    Ignali New    York   City 

Garlenstein,   Jacob Chicago,    HI. 

Garlman,   Leo   N.,    M.D Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Gartner,  Isidore New  York  City 

Gassner.  L New  York  City 

Gassner,   I^opnld New   York   City 

Gates,   Ferdinand Memphis,  Tinn. 

Gatty.  William Jersey  City.   N.  J. 

GautM.-hcr.  A New  York  City 

Geduld,    Harris New   York   City 

Geiger,   Julius New   York   City 

Geigerman,  Charles New  York  City 

(iclbcr,     L Toronto,    ("anada 

Gelbman,    M New   York  Ciiy 

Geldzaeler.    M Toronto.    Cana.la 

Gelin,   William   H Springfield.    Mai-. 

Geller.    Emanuel Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Gcllcr.    Max Si.    Tosrph.    Mo. 

Gemeiner,  S New  York  City 

Gcnser,   Miss   Bessie   B Montreal,   Canada 

Gerbcr,   Morili New   York  City 

Germansky,  .\.   U New  York  City 

Gcrmansky,   .\braham New  S'ork  City 

Germansky,    II.    B Philadrlnbia,    I'«. 

Gcrman^ky,    I New   York   Cilv 

Germansky,    Max New   York  City 

Germanus,    I) Portland.    Ore. 

Gernslicimer.    R New   S'ork  City 

Gershel,  George New  S'ork  City 


Gerstein,  Maurice,  M.D Boston,   Mass. 

(ierstengang    Brothers .New   York  City 

Gerstle,    Lewis San    Francisco,    Cal. 

Gcrstley,    William Philadelphia,    I'x. 

Gcrstman,  H.  J Buffalo,  N.   Y. 

Gcrzog,    George Bayonne,   N.   J. 

Gctlag,    Selig   Richard .New    York  City 

Ghcriler,  Max,  M.D .New  Y'ork  City 

Gibbons,   His  Eminence  James  Cardinal.. Baltimore,   .\ld. 

Gibson,  H.  M Chicago,  III. 

Giesen,   .Major .New   York  City 

Gillcs,  .M.  S Philadelphia,  I'a. 

Gilman.    B Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

C.ingold   &  Weissman New   Haven,   Conn. 

Gin>berg,    Adolph Baltimore,    JId. 

Ginsberg,  Elias New  York  City 

Ginsberg,   George New   York   City 

Ginsberg,  II New  York  City 

Ginsberg,    J Springfield,    .Mass. 

Ginsberg,  S Buffalo,   N.    Y. 

Ginsberg,  S Baltimore,   Md. 

Ginsburg,   -\braham .\ew   Y'ork  City 

Ginsburg,    Bernard Detroit,    .Mich. 

Ginsberg,  David New  York  City 

Ginsburg,  Isaac Denver,  Colo. 

Ginsburg,   J Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Ginsburg,    Jacob Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Ginsburg,  Joshua.    M.D Chicago,    III. 

Ginsburg,  t'hilip  H New  York  City 

Ginsburg,  S.  L New  ^'ork  City 

Ginsburg,  Simon New  York  City 

(Jinzberg,  -Mbcrt  A Boston,   Mass. 

Ginzberg,   Louis.   Ph.D New   York   City 

Ginzburg,   Alexander -New   York  City 

Ginzburg,    Bcrnhard New   York   City 

Ginzburg,   M..   Ph Chicago,    III. 

Ginsburgcr,   Emil New  York  City 

Girsdansky,   Louis  W New   York  City 

Girsdansky,   .Max,   M.D New   York   City 

Gittelson,  Jacob New  York  City 

Gitlelson,    N.    L Montreal,    Canada 

Gittelson,    Samuel  J.,   M.D Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Glanzman.    A Washington.    D.    C. 

Glascr,    Kev.    Hyinan Boston.    .Mass. 

Glaser,  Isaac New  ^  ork  City 

c;iasrr,    lakob Montclair,   N.J. 

Glascr,  'M Boston.    Mass. 

Glasner.    .N Bridgeport,    Ccnn. 

Glass,  Henry New  York  City 

Glass,  L.   B Chicago,    III. 

Glassberg.    -Max  U New    >  ork   City 

Glasschcib,  E New  \  ork  City 

Glatt.    Morris Baltimore,    .Md. 

Glattsteine,  Joseph Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Glazier,    Louis Syracuse,    N.   Y. 

Glcich,    .\ New    York    City 

Glcichman.   Herman New   York   City 

Click,    Mrs.    A Utica.    N.    Y. 

Click.   Bernard .New  'i  ork  City 

Clickman.    .M Nc*   ^  orjs   C"/ 

Clickman.    Moses Montreal,    Canada 

Clickman.    P Montreal,    Canada 

Clickman.    T Montreal.    Canada 

tilt.u,    Isidor Plymouth.    Pa. 

Glover,  Rev.  A.  Kingsley Wells.  Minn. 

Cluces,    David New    York    City 

(iluck.   Rev.    Dr.    B Newark.   N.  J. 

Cluck.  David .New  York  City 

Cluck,  David  J New  York  City 

Cluck,    Ignatz New    York   City 

Cluck,   Louis New   York   City 

(iluck,  Louis  L New  York  City 

Cluck,   .Sam New   York   City 

Cluck.  Samuel New  York  City 

Cluckman,    Louis New    York    Ciljf 

Cluckman,    Saul Jersey    (;ly,    N.   J. 

Gluckstein.    S New    ^  nrk    City 

Cluskin.  E..  D.D.S New  Y.irk  City 

Gluiistein.  J:>seph   G Pittshurg.   Pa. 

Godcbaux.    Albert New   Orleans.    L.1. 

Coiling.    I.    Q Worcester,    Mass. 

(7odinski,    S.    M Worcester,    Mass. 

Coebricbrr.    M Conneaut,   Ohio 

Goepp.    Judith Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Ci>es,  George  \V Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Goetz,   Joseph Newark,    N.    I. 

r..^^.  John  T New   York  City 

Coido.  Isaac New  York  City 

C,ild,    Isidore Jersrv  Ciiv.  N.   I. 

Gold.    I.mii« New    Vork    Citv 

Colli.   Morris New   Vork   City 

Goldbauni.  MaK New  York   City 

Goldberg.   A Bri>.>Hyn.    \.    Y. 

CiiIdlHTg,   .Abraham New   York   Ciiy 

(.nldherg,    Ren Chicago,    III. 

Goldberg,    Benjamin New  Vork   City 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Goldberg,    Ucnjamin Lawrence,    Mass. 

Uoldhcrg,  David New  York  City 

Goldberg,   Frank Springfield,   Ohio 

Goldberg,  G Uall.is.   I  ix. 

Goldberg.    II Chicago,    111. 

Goldberg,    U.    S     W Chicago.    111. 

Goldberg,  Harris Boston,  M.iss. 

Goldberg,  Henry,  M.U .New   York  City 

Goldberg,  I New  York  City 

(Joldberg,    Isaac New   \  ork  City 

Goldberg,    liidorE Hartford.   Conn. 

Goldberg,  J New  York  City 

Goldberg,   J Baltimore,    Md. 

Goldberg,   Jacob Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Goldberg,  Jacob New    York   Citj- 

Cioldberg,  Jacob  A Brooklyn.   .\.    \. 

Goldberg,   Joseph Chicago,    II!. 

Goldberg,    L New    York    City 

Goldberg,  Lewis New  York   City 

C.oldhcrg.   M Brooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Goblberg,     M Baltimore.     .Md. 

Goldberg,   Manuel New  York  City 

lioldberg.   Max New  York  City 

GoMbL-rg,    Max Pittsburg.    V^. 

Cioldberg,  Morris New  York  City 

Goldberg,  Robert New  ^  ork  City 

Goldberg,   S New   \  ork  City 

Goldberg,   S.   D ...  Baltimore,   Md. 

Goldberg,   S.   \V East  pr.inge.    .\.    1. 

Goldberg,    Samuel Cinciniiati,    Ohio 

Goldberg,   Samuel   B ...Chicago.    111. 

Goldberg     W  Hamilton.   Canada 

Goldberg!   William  Victor New   York  City 

Goldberger,   David V,- ■  ■ ;  ^  ^'V*  °    x-    t^' 

Goldbergcr,  Jacob Terth  Amboy.  N.J. 

Goldb=rger,    M.,    M.D New    \ork   Ci  y 

Goldberger,    Max New    York   Ciy 

Goldbergcr.   Samuel -New  V  ork  City 

Goldburg,    E Cinc.niiati,   Ohio 

Goldburg,  Morris  L •  ■ Chicago.   HI. 

Goldblum.    K '^''RV'-",^''?',"'l  •      t. 

Golden,    Henry,    M.D Philadclphn.   la. 

Goldcnberg,   Coral Brooklyn.   NY. 

Goldenberg,    M ..Omaha,   Neb. 

Goldenberg,    Mrs.    Moses Ealtinicre.    Md. 

(ioldfarb,  Abraham ;.-.'^?V   ^°''''  S!  ^' 

Goldf,irb,    Rev.    Jacob ^Vl''"V^'3"' ni  ?' 

Goldfinger,    J.,    M.D C  eveland     Ohio 

Goldfogle,   Hon.   Henry  M New  ^  ork  City 

Goldinberg,  S i'  '-?,"'■','•  ,,"'"■ 

Goldish    S  St.    Paul.    Minn. 

Goldman,    a'. Minneapolis,    M  inn. 

Goldman.    Aaron •  Bef?."-  /''9f ■ 

Goldman,   Alexander N  ew  \  ork  Citv 

Goldman.   II New  Y  crk  City 

Goldman.    H St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Goldman.     Harry x.^'"\''"''f '  J^?' 

Goldmm,    Henry   E ••^«»'   V?''''   Vi  ^ 

Goldman.    I ^^"^^%  f  ">'V     v°' 

Goldman.    lacob .Buffalo,   N.    \. 

Goldman,   Joseph Baltimore.    Md. 

Goldman,    Leon Montreal,    Canada 

Goldman,    Louis  J Cincinnati     Ohio 

Goldman,   M v;^^"'  V-''''  ^i'^ 

Goldman,   M.  S I-^jn^as   City,  AIo. 

Goldman.    Marcus ;,'>?,"■,,  °,''-     '"A"'' 

Goldman.    S Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Goldman,  Sam ■.%■  ^"'  ,\  °';''  T''*' 

Goldman,    Simon New   ^  ork   City 

Goldmann,   S.,    M.D .Pittsburg     Pa. 

G<.ldm.irk,    Leo Patcrson,    N.   J. 

GoldofT.    Benjamin .Lynn.    Mass. 

Goldonskv.   H lJ^«"^.";  S?'°- 

Goldschm'idt,  Bernhard New  >"«  City 

Goldschmidt,  Gabriel New  \  ork  Oty 

Goldschmidt,    Max .New  \  ork  City 

Goldschmidt,   William New    \  ork    City 

Goldshea,  Abraham New   \  ork   City 

Goldsmith,   Adolph New  York   City 

Goldimith,    August New   York  City 

Goldsmith,   B.    M Carnegie     Pa. 

Goldsmith,  Benjamin  J Saratoga  Sprmgs.  N.  V. 

Goldsmith.  Charles  Jakob.  LL.D.,  M.D... New  \ork  City 

Goldsmith,    Frederick New  ^ork   City 

Goldsmith.   Henry New  York  City 

Goldsmith,    Joseph    J Arlington.    Mass. 

GokUmith,    M Cleveland.    Ohio 

Goldsmith,   Meyer  B Baltimore.    Md. 

Goldsmith,  S.  j New  York  City 

Goldsmith,    Theresa New    York    Citv 

Goldstein,  A Pittshorg.  Pa. 

Goldstein,    Ciharles   J New   York    City 

Goldstein,  David New  York  City 

Goldstein,   Elias New  York   City 

Goldstein,    Gustavc New    York    City 

Goldstein,    H.    I Pittsburg.   Pa. 

Goldstein,  Hyman New  York  City 


Goldstein,    I Portland,    Ore. 

Goldstein,   1.   S Montreal,  Canada 

Goldstein,   J New    \'ork    Citv 

Goldstein,  Jacob Newark,   N.  J. 

Goldstein,  Jacob,  M.D New  York  City 

Goldstein,    lacob    W Minneapolis,    Minn. 

Cioldstcin,  Joseph New  ^'ork  City 

Goldstein,   Joseph Hammond,    La. 

Goldstein.   L New    York   City 

Goldstein,    Lazar ^Boston,    .Mass. 

Goldstein,    Louis .\cw   \'ork   I'ity 

Goldstein,    Louis    L New    York    City 

Cioldstein,  Louis  S New  York  CJily 

Goldstein,    Max Youngstown,    Ohio 

Goldstein,    r)r.    Maxwell New   York  City 

Cioldslein,  Meyer  A New  \'ork  Cily 

Goldstein,   .\ New   ^ork  Cily 

Goldstein,    N Dallas,    Tex. 

Goldstein,    Nathan Greenville,    Miss. 

Goldstein,    Philip Newark.    N.    J. 

Goldstein.  Rubein Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Goldstein,   S Detroit,    Mich. 

Cioldstein,    Rev.   S Montreal,    Canada 

(joldstein,    Sam Allegheny,    Pa. 

Goldstein,  Sam  I Worcester,   .Mass. 

Goldstein,   Samuel Rochester,    N.    Y. 

Goldstein,  Samuel  J Rochester,  N.   Y. 

Goldstein,   Samuel    L Youngstown,    Ohio 

Goldstein,  Zcbi  Hirsh Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Goldston.    Israel   J Homestead,    Pa. 

Goldstone,  D New  Haven,  Conn. 

Goldstone,  Hairy Cohoes,   N.    V. 

Goldvogel,  John'. New  York  Citv 

(ioldvogel,  "S New   \'ork  City 

Cioldwasser.   M St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Goldwater,  Ephraim  Bert New  York  City 

GoUmbe,  L New  York  City 

Golilbirv.  Samuel Cincinn.iti.  Ohio 

Golland,'  M.,   M.D St.    Louis,   Mo. 

Gollbng,   Rev.   Charles Minneapolis,   Minn. 

Gomherg,   .Max  B.,  M.D Providence,   R.   I. 

Gombossy,  Max New  York  City 

Gombosy,  Ignatz New  York  City 

Gombotz.    Ignatz New   York   City 

Gomez.  Horatio,  M.D New  York  City 

Gonsior.  Nathan Chicago.  111. 

Goodelman.  Simeon New  York  City 

Goodfried.  Ignatius  L.,  M.D New  York  City 

Gooilfriend.  Jacob New  York  City 

Cioodfriend.  M.  II Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Goodfriend.  Meyer New  York  City 

Goodhart.  Philip  M New  York  City 

Goodman.  .\.  H New  York  City 

Goodman.  Abraham New  York_C:ly 

(ioodman,    D Rochester,    N.    \. 

Goodman.  David  N Cleveland.  Ohio 

Goodman.   E Seattle.   Wash. 

Goodman.  Emanuel New  Y.^rk  City 

Goodman.  Henry Scranton.   Pa. 

Goodman,  J Brooklyn.  N.  V. 

Goodman.    I Kansas   Citv,   Mo. 

Goodman,   M Youngstown.    Ohio 

Goodman,  M Denver.  Colo. 

Goodman,  Maurice New  \  ork  City 

Goodman.  Max  P Cleveland,  Ohio 

Goodman.  Philip New  ^  ork  Citv 

Goodman,  S •  •  I'ayonnc    N    J. 

Goodman.    S.    M Connellsville.    Pa. 

Goodman.  Samuel New  \  ork  City 

Goodstein.  D .Uniontown,  Pa. 

Goodstcin.  Esther S'.'^"!'^  ''V"'  „  ' 

Goodstein.  Isaiah Philadelphia.  Pa. 

Goodstein,  Louis Nexy  \ork  City 

Goodstone,    Morris  A.,  M.D Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Goorin,  C.  E Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Gordee,  Alexander  B Revere,  Mass. 

Gordin,  lacob  M Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Gordon.  "Abraham New  London.  Conn. 

Gordon.  Rev.  B ■  •  -Chicago,  111. 

(Gordon.    Benjamin   L.,  M.D Philadelphia.  Pa. 

Gordon.  Elias  D New  York  City 

Gordon.  George  J.,  M.D Minneapolis.  Minn. 

Gordon.  II.  B ■•  Boston.  Mass. 

Gordon.    lacob -New    York    City 

Gordon,    M Beaver   Falls     Pa. 

Gordon,  M.  G ..Boston.  Mass. 

Gordon.  Michael .N  onkers.   NY. 

Gordon.  Moses Cmcinnati    fjhio 

Gordon.  Paul Baltimore.  Md. 

Gordon.  Phineas -New-  N  ork  City 

Gordon.  Samuel Philadelphia.  Pa. 

Gorfinkell,   L •i"'=?''"="\',  '^*- 

Gorfinkle.  Joseph  I Chelsea.  Mass. 

Gorfinkle.   Rev.   M J"™,"'"-  ^^t    v 

Gorovitz.  Rev.  A Ncwburg.   N    .\  . 

Gossman.  A New  \  ork  City 

Gotberg.  H New  \  ork  City 


LIST  OF  PATRONS 


Gothberg,    H New    York   City 

Gottdicncr,  H Gallon.  Ohio 

Gottcsman,  M.,  M.D New  York  City 

Gottlicimcr,  Mayor New  York  City 

GottlioHcr.   Jacol) New    Yorii    City 

Gottlii-b,  lidward N'lw  York  City 

Gottlictj,  I'M  ward  () New  York  City 

Gottlieb,  Uinry New  \  ork  City 

Gottlieb,  Herman New  York   City 

Gottlieb.   Isaac Newburn,   N.   Y. 

Gottlieb.    I New   Yurk  City 

Gottlieb.  L .New   Y..rk  City 

Gottlieb.   Louis  S New   \nr\i  City 

(ioiilieb.    I'ruf.  .M.   U .\ew  Yurk  City 

Gottsclialk.    Morris lirooklvn.   \',    Y. 

Gottschall.  .Simon New  York  City 

Gotlilein.    K Seattle.    \\  ash. 

Gould.  J.  P..  M.D l!ulT:.lo.   \.  Y. 

Gouldie.  Max New  S'ork  City 

Gourse,  Simon Fall   River.  Mass. 

Goward.  George Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Grabfclder.  S Louisville.  Ky. 

Grabosky.    Ilyman    Leo Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Graf.   Felix Newark.   N.J. 

Grafman.  Kev.  Saul IJaltimorc.   .\Id. 

Granstcin.   Kphraim Chicopee.  M.iss. 

Gram,  Alexander lirooklvn.  N.  Y. 

Grau.  .Mrs.   Lillie New  Vo^-k  City 

Graubart.  Samuel New  S*t  rk  City 

Grauer,   William .\ltoona.    Pa. 

Graupner,    Kdward  W .\ew    ^'ork   City 

Grean.  .Mcxandre  M New  ^'ork  City 

Green.  Abe New  York  City 

Green,    Mrs.    Luise Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Green.    Max Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Green.   M New   \'ork   City 

Green.   Max PhilaiU-b^hia.   Pa. 

Green.  Samuel New  York  City 

Grcenl>aum,  Leon  E Baltimore.  Md. 

Greenbautn.   M Cleveland.  Ohio 

Grcenbaum,  Samuel New    ^'o^k   City 

Greenberg.  A New  \'ork  City 

Greenberg.  Abram Rochester.   N.   Y. 

Greenberg.    U Prooklvn.    N.   V. 

Greenberg,    C.    A Republic.    Wash. 

Greenberg.   Carol Boston.    Mass. 

Greenberg,    Harry New    York   City 

Greenberg.  Henry New  York  City 

Greenberg.    Herman New    York    City 

Greenberg.   J New   York   City 

Greenberg.  Jacob New  York  City 

Greenberg.   Joseph.    M.D New    York   City 

Greenberg.     M Toronto.    Canada 

Greenberg,    Max New   N'ork   City 

Greenberg.  Philip St.   Paul.  Minn. 

Greenberg.  S.  .S St.   Paul.  .Minn. 

Greenberg.  Samuel New  York  City 

Greenberg.    Simon Brooklyn.    N.   \. 

Greenberg.    Samuel New    S'ork^City 

Greenberg.  William Brooklyn.   N.    Y. 

Grccnbergcr.  Rev.  D New  York  Ciiy 

Greenblatt.  Rev.   M Philadelphia.  Pa. 

Greenburg.   Rev.   Dr.  William  H Sacramento,  Cal. 

Grecnebaum,  Emil San   Francisco,  C.->l. 

Greenebaum,    K New   York    City 

Grcencbaum,  Henry Chicigo,  III. 

Greenebaum,  I San  Francisco.  Cal. 

Greenebaum,  Dr.   Leo New  York  Cilv 

Greenebaum,  M .San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Grceneliaum,  Sigmund San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Greenewald.   David  C Bradford.   Pa. 

Greenewnhl.  Hon.  Joseph  C Brailford,  P.T, 

Grcenfell.   Samuel New   \"'tik  Citv 

Greenlielil.  llernard   H..  M.D Nevark.   N.  J. 

Greenfu-ld.  Fmma  \'ossen .Mbanv,  Gn. 

Greenfield.  .Max New  ^'o^k  City 

GreenfM-Irl.   Rev.   Sanmel New  ^'ork  Cilv 

Greengard.    Ben Chicago.    III. 

Grecngaril.    Harry *• Denver.    Colo. 

Greenh-iod.  M.  E llaltimorr.  Md. 

Greensidr.  D New  York  City 

Grecnstein.  B Bridgeport,  Conn. 

Greenslcin.    Marx   B New   York  City 

Grienstein.    Maurice    M New   York    City 

Grecnstein.  Michael New  York  City 

Greenstrin.  William New  York  City 

Grernsione.  Kev.  Julius  H New   York  City 

Greenstone.    Mver    I Piiisburg.    Pa. 

GirrnwaM.    Henry Akron.   Ohio 

Greenwald.   loseph New   Yoik  Cilv 

GrcenwaM.   Morris Rochester.   N.  Y. 

Greenwood.   Julius   H Akron.    Ohio 

Gretsch.    Mme.  J New   York  City 

Gribbel.  John Philadelphia.  I"n. 

Cries.    Rev.    Moses  J Cleveland.    Ohio 

Griffith,  Rev.  G Columbus    Wis. 

Grinbcrg,  H Piltsburii.  P«. 


Grinberg.   S McKecsport.   Pa. 

Grodberg,  H Worcester,  .Mass. 

(iroden,  Morris Brooklyn.  N.  V. 

Grodjeski,  J Paterson,  N.  J. 

Grodsky,    A.,    D.D.S Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Grodzinsky,    Jacob Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Grollman.  Louis New  York  City 

Grollnick,  William New  York  City 

Gronbart,  Samuel Albany,  N.  Y. 

Grosberg.  John New  York  City 

Grosner.  Joel,  M.D New  York  City 

Cirosncr.  Morris New  York  City 

Gross,  ICmanuel Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Gross,  Herman New  York  Citv 

Gross,   LB New  York  City 

Gross,   Ignatz Scrantcn,  Pa. 

Gross,  Ignatz New  York  Citv 

Ciross,    Kalman Chicago,    111. 

Gross.   M Brooklyn,  N.   Y. 

Gross,  M New  York  City 

Gross,   Marcus Chicago,    111. 

Gross,  Maurice New  York  City 

Gross,  Max New  York  City 

Gross,  Max Pittston.  Pa. 

Gross,  Max New  York  City 

Gross,   Michael   C New   York   City 

Gross,  Oscar New  York  City 

Gross,   S New  York   City 

Gross,  Samuel New  York  City 

(iross,  Samuel Philadelphia.  Pa. 

Gross.   Miss  Sarah New   \  ork   City 

Gross.    William New   York    City 

Grossman,  Edward New  N'ork  City 

Grossman,    Edward .New    York    City 

Grossman.  H Cincinnati.  Crnio 

Grossman,     I Waynesburg.     Pa. 

Grossman.    Isidore New    N'ork   City 

Grossman,   Jacob New   York   City 

Grossman,  Jacob  M Syracuse,  N.  V. 

Grossman,  Louis New  ^Vrk  City 

Grossman,   Louis Cincinnati.   Ohio 

Grossman,   Rev.   Rudolph,  D.D New  York   Cil^ 

Grossman,  S BufTalo,  N,  ^  . 

Grossmann.  Henry New  York  City 

Grover.  .\lbert New  York  City 

Grubman.  .-Vdolph  J New  York  City 

( '.rudinsky,    .Nathan .Montreal.     Canada 

Gruinliui.    M.    I Atchison,    Kan. 

Crunauer.    Reuben New    York   City 

('■runbaum,  Josef New  York  C'ty 

Grunberg,   Abraham,    D.D.S Baltimore.    Ma. 

C.runzeug.  L New  >'ork  Citv 

Gruskin.   R.   B New   York  City 

Gue<lalia,  Jacob  M New  Yrrk  City 

C.uggenheim.  Mrs.  Daniel New  \V>rk  City 

("iuggenheim.    Isaac New   York  City 

Guggenheim.  Mun-y New  York  City 

Ciuggenheim.  S.    K New   York  City 

Guggenheimer.  J.  C New  York  City 

Guinsburg.  Rev.  Theodore New  York  City 

Gumbel,  S New  Orleans.   Ui. 

Cumble.  Henry Columbus.  Ohio 

Gunsherg.  M.  C New  Vork  City 

Gunlzler.    Theodore   L St.    Louis.    Mo. 

Gurofsky,    Louis Toronto.    Canada 

GusinolT.  Simon New   York  City 

Gulfreund.  Guslav Des  Moines,   Iowa 

Gulfreund,  Joseph.  M.D New  York  City 

Cutfreund.   Sigmund   Hugo New   ^  ork  I  ity 

(iuihman.  Leo Youngstown.  Ohio 

Guthrie.   Rev.   Donald Ballim.re,   Md. 

(oilman.    B Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Gulman,    David Wheelinp.   W.   Y». 

Gutman.  Mrs.  Joel Baltimore.  Md. 

Gutman.    Leopold New    York   City 

Gutman.   Max New    York  Citv 

Gutman.  Nathan Baltimore.  Md. 

Gulman.    Rudolph,   LL.D New    York   City 

Gutman.    Sinlcn New    York    City 

Cullag.    J New    York    Cil^ 

Gutirnlierg.   Mitchell R.x-hester.   N.   \. 

Glitter.  It New  York  City 

Gutter,   jiavid New  York  City 

Gutter.    Fredrick New    York    City 

Guttniaclier.    Rev.    .Adolf BaUinn>re.    Md. 

Ciuitman.  Rev.  .\doll,  Ph.D Syracuse.  N.  Y. 

Haas.    Giislave Chicagn.    111. 

Haas,    Ignatius llulT«lo.   N.    Y. 

Haas,   I. New  York  City 

Hans.    Mark New    York   City 

1 1  .ias.    M  orris PilisliurR.    Pa. 

Haas.    .Moses New    York   City 

Haa.e.    Charles ^■         '  Tenn. 

Hnekentiurg.    William   B I  >.    Pa. 

Hagedorn.  J.  J I  ■.   P». 


LIST   OF  PATRONS 


Hagetcr.  A.   G New  York  City 

Ilahn.   Aaron.    M.D Cleveland.    Ohio 

Hahn.  Abraham New  York  City 

Hahn.   George   H.,   D.D.S Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Hahn.   Henry Newark.   N.  J. 

H.-ihn.    loseph New    York    City 

Hahn.  (>lto New  York  City 

Haini.    Marc  J New  York  City 

H.iimowitz,  Joseph New   York   City 

Halbcrstam,    Rev.   Louis New   York   City 

llalfonson.     L Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Halle,   Julius New    \  ork   City 

Halkr.   Robert New  York  City 

HaliK-rin,  Charles New  York  Cit^ 

Halpcrin.   Jacob Brooklyn.   N.    ^. 

Halpcrin,    L New    York   City 

Halptrin,  R.  L.,  D.D.S Chicago,  111. 

Halpcrn.  C.   S New   York   City 

Hatpern.    David Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Hal  pern.    Rev.    I Toronto.    Canada 

Ilalptrn.  J.  M New  York  City 

Halpcrn,  S New  York  City 

Halpcrt,    Henry.   M.D Scranton.    Pa 

HalptTt,   Joseph New   York  City 

Halpin,    Henry New    Haven.    Conn. 

Hamburger,    Aiexsis Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Hamburger,    Nathan Paterson,    N.    J. 

Hamburger,   Samuel   B New   York   City 

Hamel.   Israel New  York  City 

Hamill.   V.   P Temple,   Tex. 

Hanimcl,   Joshua Springfield,    Mass. 

Hammer,   Jacob   \V New   York   City 

Ham.merschlag,    Nathan Newark,    N.   J. 

Hanau,    Rudolph Washington,    Pa. 

Hanauer.    A Beaver    Falls,    Pa. 

Hanauer.    Henry New    York    City 

Hanaw,    Henry Mobile,    Ala. 

Handel,  Jacob New   York   City 

Hanline,    Alexander    M Baltimore.    Md. 

Hannah,    George New    York   City 

Hano,  Jacob    L New  York   City 

Hano,    Mrs.    Louis Brookline,    Mass. 

Hano,    Philip New   York   City 

Hanower,   Louis  N Arlington.   N.   J. 

Hansburg.    Max New   York    City 

Hansen.   Salomon New  York   City 

Hansher,    M Montreal.    Canada 

Happ,    Paul New  York  City 

Harburger,  Hon.  Julius New  York  City 

Hardman.  Charles New   York   City 

Hark.  Joseph New  York  City 

Harkavy,  Alexander New  York  City 

Harkavy,   Dr.   Samuel New  York  City 

Harlowe,    David Milwaukee,    \\' is. 

Harmel,    Paul Washington.    D.    C. 

Harper,  William  H Brewton,   Ala. 

Harris,    A Ottawa,    Canada 

Harris,  Arthur   N New  York  City 

Harris,    Bernard Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Harris,  Charles  N New  York  City 

Harris,   D.   H San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Harris,    David Scranton,    Pa. 

Harris,    Frances  Amsterdam New  York  City 

Harris,   Harry Pittsburg,   Pa. 

Harris,  J.   G.,   M.D Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Plarris,  Jacob New  York  City 

Harris,  Jacob Montclair,   N.  J. 

Harris,   Louis Montclair.   N.  J. 

Harris,   Rev.  Dr.   Maurice  H New  York  City 

Harris,    Max Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Harris,    Solomon New   York   City 

Harrison,  Aaron  E New  York  City 

Harrison,   Jacob New    York  City 

Harrison,  Joseph  H Denver,   Colo. 

Harrison,    Meyer Denver,    Colo. 

H.Trriss.    Herman New    York    City 

Harrowich,   M New    York   City 

Harsh,  Mrs.  M.  A Baltimore,  Md. 

Hart.   Frederick  A Bath  Beach.   N.   Y. 

Hart.    M Bridgeport,    Conn. 

Hartman,    B New   York   City 

Hartman,   Josef Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Hartman,    Sam New    York    City 

Hartmann.  J.   S Chicago.   111. 

Hartzell.    E Voungstown,    Ohio 

Harvitt,  Joseph,    D.D.S New   York  City 

Haskell,  A.  H New  York  City 

Hassenbusch,   Samuel St.  Joseph,   Mo. 

Hasslcr,    Isaac Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Hast.  A.    M Allegheny  Citv.   Pa. 

Hatkin.   Philip New  York  City 

Hatowski.    Benjamin Chicago,    III. 

Hatowski.    Phillip Chicago,    111. 

Haupt,    Herman Homestead,    Pa. 

Hauptman.  Joseph New    York    City 

Hauser,   Mrs.    Bella New  York   City 


Hauser.  J Galveston,  Tex. 

Hauser.  J.    D New   York  City 

Haveson.    Harry Trenton.    N.   J. 

Haydn.   Rev.   H.   C,   D.D Cleveland,  Ohio 

Hayman.   A..    M.D Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Hays,   Daniel   P New   York   City 

Healy,  Clarence   L Newark,   N.  J. 

Hecht,   Adolph New   York   City 

Hccht,  Jacob New   York   City 

Hecht,  Jacob   H Boston,   Mass. 

Hecht.    Monie Baltimore,    Md. 

Hecht,  Rev.   Dr.  Sigmund Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

lleckin.  J Brooklyn.   N.    Y. 

Heer,    Henry New    S'ork    City 

Hefler.    Louis New    York   City 

Heflich,    Sam New    York    City 

Heidenheimer,    Louis New    York    City 

Hcilbron,  Henry  H Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Heilbrun,    David New    York   City 

Heim,   Louis New  York  City 

Ilcim.   Marcus New  York  City 

Heimann,    Julius New    York    City 

Heimberger,    D..    M.D Denver,   Colo. 

Heimlich.   Daniel,   M.D Cleveland.   Ohio 

Heimovitz,  Joseph,   M.D New  York  City 

Hein,  George New  York  City 

Heinbcrg.    Rev.   Israel Monroe,    La. 

Heine,    Morris New   York   Citv 

Heineman.    Sam Baltimore,    Md. 

PIcinemann,    Herman New    York   City 

Pleiner,  Charles New  York  City 

Hcinsheimer,   Edward   L Cincinnati,   Ohio 

Heinz.    Maurice Wilkcsbarre,    Pa. 

Heiseman,  A.  M Little  Rock.  Ark. 

Heisne.    I saac Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Heitlinger,    A New    York    City 

Helfand,     Marcus.   LL.B New   York   City 

Helfgott.    Sigmond New    York   City 

Hellenstein.    Herman New  York   City 

Heller,   Charies Long  Island  City.   N.   Y. 

Hellef,  Charies  I New  York  City 

Heller.    Isaac East    Boston.    Mass. 

Heller.    Tacob,    M.D New   York  City 

Heller.  Jacob  L.,  M.D Philadelphia.  Pa. 

Heller,   Alax New  Orleans,   La. 

Heller,  Richard New  York  City 

Heller,   S.   W New  York  City 

Heller.    W Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Hellerman,    Benjamin New   York   City 

Hellinger,    Leopold New  York    City 

Hellinger,   Paul New   York   City 

Hellman,    Herman   W Los  Angeles,   Cal. 

Ilellman,  Isaias  W San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Helmanowitch.    Louis New   York   City 

Helper.    Moses Barberton.    Ohio 

Henderson,    D Santa   Clara.    Cal. 

Henderson.  Joseph  J Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Henry.   William New   York   City 

Herbert.    George New    York    City 

Hermalin,  D.  M New  York  City 

Herman,    David New   York    City 

Herman,    Gabriel New   York   City 

Herman,  H.  F Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

Herman,    Harry New   York    City 

Herman,    Jacob Bayonne.    N.    J. 

fferman,    Leopold New   York   City 

Herman,    Maeyer New   York   City 

Herman,    S Buffalo.    N.    Y. 

Herman.   Simon New   York   City 

Hermann.     Bruno Lincoln.    Neb. 

Hermann,    Eschel Boston,    Mass. 

Hermann.   L New  York  City 

Hermann.  Solomon.  M.D New  York  City 

ITcrnbute.    Bernhard New  York  City 

Hernsheim.   Isidore New   York   City 

Herrings.  J New   York  City 

Hcrrman.    S.    M Hazleton,    Pa. 

Herrmann,   Maurice New   York   City 

Hersh field,    David New   York    City 

Hershfield.    Isidore New   York   City 

Hershfield,   Levi New  York   City 

Hershfinkel.    M Chicago.    HI. 

Ilershick.   Sam Bridgeport,  Conn. 

Hcrshovitz.    Herman New    York   City 

Herskovits,   Albert New   York   City 

Herskovits,    Henry Plymouth.    Pa. 

Herskovitz,    Adolph Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Hcrskovitz,    M New    York   City 

Hertz.    Emanuel New   York   City 

Hertz,   Tacob New  York  City 

Hertz,   Tulius  J New  York  City 

Herz.    Berthold New   York   City 

Herz,   Rev.    Joseph Columbus.   Miss. 

Herzberg,    Max Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Herzman.   D Washington.   D.   C. 

Herzog,    Joshua New    York   City 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


XV 


Herzog,  Leo New  York  City 

Herzog,  Louis New  York  City 

HerzoK.    Max New    York   City 

Hess,  Ferdinand Xew  York  City 

Hess,   Julius New  York   City 

Hess,    Simon New    York    City 

Hess,  Simon New   London.  Conn. 

Hesselbcrg,    N St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Hcssler,   Jacob New   York   City 

Hewitt,   Hon.   Abram  S New   York  City 

Hey  man.    David New    York   City 

Heyman,    KmanucI    S Chicago,    III. 

Heyman,    Kev.    Dr.    Hugo Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Heyman,  Joseph New  York  City 

Heyman,     Solomon Hahimorc,     M<1. 

Heymann,   Henry   M New   York  City 

Heymann,   Max New   York  City 

Heymann,   S.    M New    York    City 

Hickey.    Leo..    Haiti  more.    Ma. 

Hierheim,    Julius New    York   City 

Hilfman.    A Passaic,    N.    f. 

Hillilsun.    J Toronto,    Canaaa 

Hillkowitz.    Philip,    M.D Denver.    Colo. 

Hillman,    Charles Baltimore,    Md. 

HiHman,   I.   N San  Francisco,   Cal. 

Hillman,    Louis Baltimore,    Md. 

Hilschman,  Charles Uockaway  Beach.  N.  Y. 

Himmel,    Loon   \V Baltimore,    Md. 

Hirsch,    B New    York    City 

Hirsch,    Benjamin Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Hirsch,    B.   J New   York  City 

Hirsch,  Cclia   R Des   Moines,    Iowa 

Hirsch,    David New    York   City 

Hirsch,  Harry New   York  City 

Hirsch,    Henry Archbold.   Ohio 

Hirsch,    Isaac New    York    City 

Hirsch,   Julius Newark,    N.    J. 

Hirsch,    Leon New   York  City 

Hirsch,    M New    York    City 

Hirsch,    M Holyoke,    Mass. 

Hirsch,    M New    York    City 

Hirsch,   Samuel Niagara    Falls,    N.   Y. 

Hirsch.   Samuel,    M.D New   York   City 

Hirsch,   Solomon Portland.   Ore. 

Hirsch  berg.    Abram Chicago.     III. 

Hirsch  berg,    A.    S Roxbury,    ^Iass. 

Hirschberg,    B Youngstown,    Ohio 

Hirschberg,   Hon.    M.    H Ncwburg,   N.   Y. 

Hirschberg,  Robert  A New   \  ork  City 

Hirschberg,    S Bridgeport,    Conn. 

Hirschfeld,   Louis  A New   York  City 

Hirschheimer,   A La  Crosse.    Wis. 

Hirschhorn,    Randolph New   York   City 

Hirschman,   Arnold   E .Niagara   Falls,   N.    Y. 

Hirschman,    David,    M.D New    York    City 

Hirschman.   Leopold,  M.D New   York  City 

Hirschman,    M.,    M.D Baltimore,    Ma. 

Hirschman.    Moses Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Hirschmann,   O.    G Mt.   \'ernon,   N.    Y. 

Hirsdansky,    Simon New    York    City 

Hirsh.    Alfred    Curtin Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Hirsh,     B Akron,    Ohio 

Hirsh,    George Austin,    Minn. 

Hirsh,    Hugo Brooklyn,   N.    Y. 

Hirsh.  Jacob  F Alioona,   Pa. 

Hirshbcrg,    Leonard    Kcene Baltimore.    Md. 

Hirshbcrg.    S E.    Boston,    Mass. 

Hirshberg,    Rev.    Samuel Rrookline,    Mass. 

Hobson.    Rev.  J.   E Water  Valley,   Mins. 

Hochdrjrf.    .Maxwell   Harold New    York   City 

Hochfcldcr,    David New    York    City 

Hochheimer,    Fmanuel.   M.D New   York  City 

Hochlcrner.    U.,    M.D New    York    City 

Hochman,    E New  S'ork  City 

Hochman,   S .' New  York  City 

Hochstndler.   Albert   F New   York   City 

Hockel,    Jackof New    York    City 

Hnextcr,    David New    York   City 

HofT.    Max Baltimore.    Md. 

Hoffman.    .Augustus New    York    City 

Hoffman,   C.    II New    York   City 

Hoffman.   Charles  S New  York  Citv 

Hoffman.    Harry San    Francisco,   Cal. 

Hoffman,    I Chicago,    III. 

Hoffman,    I.   M Manistimie,    M ich. 

Hoffman.  Inaiah  Louis,  M.D New  York  City 

Hoffman.    I New   York   City 

Hoffman.    .Mark New   S'ork  City 

Hoffman,    .'samuel New    York    City 

Hoffman.    W  illiam    H Pitinhurg.    I 'a. 

Iloltandcr.    S.    C Baltimore.    Md 

Hollcndcr.    H New    York  City 

Hollcy.   Enoch New    York   Cily 

Hnlmquist,    F.    L New    York    City 

Holofcener.    Israel    Dobis Montreal.   Canada 

Holtz.    Lipman Kocheftter.  N.    Y. 


HoltzotT.  S.  S New  York  Cit/ 

Ilolywasser.    S Brooklyn,    N.    \  . 

Holzman,    Frederick Patcrson,    N.   J. 

Holzman,  Joseph,   M.D Boston,   Mass. 

Holzman,   N New   York  Cily 

Holzmark.    W Kansas    City,    Mo. 

Hcnigstock,  Sigraund Xew   York  City 

Hood.    Mycr   S Newark.    N,   J. 

Hopcroit.   W.    N New  York   City 

Horchow,    Samuel Portsmouth,    Ohio 

Horiwitz,  Judah Rochester.    N.    Y. 

Horn,    Henry New   York   City 

Horn,    Pincus Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Hornbein,    J Denver.    Colo. 

Hornbein,    Samuel Denver,    Colo. 

Home.    Daniel New    York   City 

Horowitz,   A New  York   City 

Horowitz,    George New    York    City 

Horowitz.    Isaac Brooklyn,   N.    Y. 

Horowitz,    Israel Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Horowitz,  J New   York   City 

Horowitz,   Joseph New    York    City 

Horowitz,    Alax,   M.D New   York    City 

Horowitz,    Prof.    Moses Brooklyn.    N.    \. 

Horschdorfer,   A New    York   City 

Horifcldt.   David New  York  City 

Horwich.     B Chicago,     III. 

Horwich,   Henr>'  J Chicago,    III. 

Horwitz.   Ary New   York   City 

Horwitz,    I Paierson.    N.    J. 

Horwitz,   Israel New   York   City 

Horwitz.    R... St.   Louis,    Mo. 

Horwitz,   William New    York    City 

Hostetter,   Louis Las  Cruccs.   N.    ^Iex. 

Hourwich,    I.   A New    York   City 

Houston   Instalment   Company Houston.   Tex. 

Howitz.    B Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Hubbard.    C.    L Bradford.    Pa. 

Hubcr.    Henry ,\ew   York   City 

Hue.    Frederick New   ^'ork   City 

Hummel,  .\.    H Xew   York  City 

Hunfaivy,    Hugo New    York    City 

llurowitz,    Samuel .New   York   City 

Hurwitz.    A New    York    City 

Hurwitz,    Abraham  J.,    Ph.G Boston,    Mass. 

Hurwitz,    Rev.    Isaac   S Hartford.   Conn. 

Hurwitz,  Jacob  S Auburn.    N.    Y. 

Hurwitz,    Max New   York   City 

Hurwitz,    Samuel New    \'ork   City 

Husch,    Daniel New    York    Cily 

Husik.    Isaac Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Hultner,    Samuel    J Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Hiitzler,    Charles Richmond,    \*a. 

Hyams.   William New   York   City 

Hydn.    Henry Pierccton.    <_)kla.    T. 

Ilyland,   C.   A East   Lake.    Ala. 

Ilyman,   A.   Z Syracuse.    N.    Y. 

Hyman.   D.  J..   M.D New  York  City 

Hyman,    Gerson New   York   City 

Ilyman.    Isaac New   York   City 

Hyman,    Joseph New    York    City 

Hyman,    Joseph.  ..^ New    S'ork    Cily 

Hyman,    Slaurice   S New   York  City 

Hyman,    Mortimer New    York    Cily 

Hyman,    Samuel New    York   City 

Ilyman.  Saniuel   I New   York   City 

Hyman.    Sol Summit.    .Miss. 

Hymanson.  A..   M.D New   York  Cily 

Hyvcrnal.    Henry Washington.    D.   C. 

1  gel,   Charles   .M .MIeghrny.    Pa. 

llfeld.   Charles Las   Wgns.    N.    .Mex. 

Imber,    Aaron Philadelphia,    Pa. 

1  mbcr.    Mayer Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Imhof.    A.   C New    York    City 

Immt-rman,   Joseph New    York  Cily 

Is.Tac.   Jacob New   York   Cily 

Isaacs,    Mrs.   G.    L Vicksburg.    Mms. 

Isaacs,    Isaac  S New   York   City 

Isaacs,    J.    L St.    Louis.    Mo. 

I^.iacs,   Sl'trri* Brooklyn.   N.    Y. 

Isaacs,    Moses New    S'ork   City 

Is.iac4.  Max.  &  Brother I.onisville.  Ky. 

Nacowitz.    Julius Chicago.     111. 

Isrnlterg,    (  ae^ar New    York    City 

Iscnberg.    UracI Wheeling.    W.    Va. 

Israel.    Julius New    York    Cily 

liraclit,     K .McKeesport.     Pa. 

I>r.i.  K-ii.    Isaac  S Brooklvn.    N.    Y. 

'  Adolnh .\fw    York    Cily 

i-h  I..  M.D New  York  City 

'  pold , New  Y  irk  City 

UvU^v.n.    Henry Pittsburg.    Pa. 

lactdi.   Toseph ,  Tacomi.   Wa*h. 

Jacob,   M Vrw   Haven.  Conn. 

Jacob.  M .  .Detroit,  Mich. 

Jacob,    Meyer .Tacoma,    Was'.i. 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


Jacobi,  Henry New  York  City 

lacobi,  J.  L Florence.  S.  C. 

Ticobs.  ilrs.  A Itrooklvn.  N.  Y. 

Jacobs,  A.  L Salt  Lake  Oitv,  Utah 

Jacobs,  Daniel  C Newark.  N.  J. 

Jacobs,  -Mrs.  Fannie New  York  City 

Jacobs,   Harry  A Williamsport.   I'a. 

Jacobs,  I.  L Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Jacobs.  James  I.,  C.E Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Jacobs,   M New  York  C.  ity 

Jacobs,  M.  S Portland,  Ore. 

Jacobs.   Max Oil  City,   Pa. 

Jacobs.  Max New  York  Cily 

Jacobs.   S Montreal.   Canada 

Jacobs,  S.  W .Montreal,  Canada 

Jacobs.  Key.  Samuel  B Philadelnliia.  Pa. 

Jacobs.  Samuel  E New  York  Cily 

Jacobs.  Samuel  K New  York  City 

Jacobs.    William New    York    City 

Jacobson.  A Peoria.  III. 

Jaobson.  A New  York  City 

Jacobson,  Abe Topeka.   Kan. 

Jacobson,  B.  \V New  York  City 

Jacobson.  H Utica.  N.  Y. 

Jacobson,    H.    M Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Jacobson,    Jacob .New    York    City 

Jacobson,    Joseph New    York    City 

Jacobson,     L St.    Joseph.     Mo. 

Jacobson,    L New    York  City 

Jacobson,  Leonard  L.,  M.D .New  York  City 

Jacobson,   K .Montreal.    Canada 

Jacobson,    S Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Jacobson,    S Buffalo,    N.    Y. 

Jacobson,    Samuel Charlestown.    .Mass. 

Jacobus.   Solly New   York  City 

Jacoby.  .Albert New   York  City 

Jacoby,    Bernard New   York   City 

Jacoby,    Herman Ne\y    York    City 

Jaffa,    Godfrey New    York   City 

Jaffa,  Joseph New   York   City 

Jaffe,    A New    York    City 

Jaffe,  Joseph New  York  City 

Jaffe,    JI .Memphis,    Tenn. 

Jaffe.    M Denyer,    Colo. 

Jafie,    Dr.    M.   S Sacramento,   Cal. 

Jaffe.  Max New  York  City 

Jafie,    Moses New    York    City 

Jaffe.   SimDn New  York  City 

Jaffer,  L.  .A New  York  City 

Jager,   Philip,   M.D New  York  City 

James,    Peter   H Jersey   City,    N.   J. 

Jancower.  Joseph Jersey  City.   N.  J. 

Janko.   Nehemiah,   M.D New   York   City 

Janowitz.    H Titusville.    Pa. 

Jarmulowsky,    Louis New    York   City 

Jarmulo\ysky,   Meyer Ne\y   York   City 

Jarmulowsky,    S Xe\y    York    City 

Jaslow,   Harry Montreal.    Canada 

Jasnogradsky,    N Montreal.    Canada 

Jastrow,    Marcus,    Ph.D Germantown,    Pa. 

.laug.   M.   de New   York   City 

Jaulurz.   H.  J New  York  City 

Jaulusy.   Henry  J New   York   City 

Jedel.  Aaron .Ne\yark.  N.  J. 

Jcllenik.   Felix Ne\y   York  City 

Jersawitz,    Louis Neiy    York    City 

Jeshurun,  George,   D.D.S New  York  City 

Joachim,    B Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Joblin,    Hyman Baltimore.    Md. 

.Tohbn,    Louis Baltimore.    Md. 

Joffe,   Harris Rochester.   N.    Y. 

JotTe,   Julius  New    York   City 

Joffe,  Leon  .S..  D.D.S Philadelphia.   Pa. 

•lo  es,    Charles Boston.    .Mass. 

Jol  es,    Edward Boston.    Mass. 

Jo  es,   Leo   S Boston,    Mass. 

Jolles,    Louis Boston.    Mass. 

Tonap,    H......     Cincinnati.   Ohio 

Jordan,   Louis  H^.   Toronto.   Canada 

Torsch,   Abel,   M.D.S New  York  City 

Joseph,  Mrs.  Frederick New  York  City 

Joseph,    Isaac Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Joseph,   Solomon .New   York  City 

Joseph.    IJey.    Theodore   F Seattle.    Wash. 

Josephi.   Isaiah New   York   City 

Josephs,  I... Buffalo.   N.   Y. 

Josephs.   Isaiah  New   York   City 

Joscphson,  J.   C,   M.D Baltimore.   Md. 

lu  len,   Stanley New    York  City 

.Tubus.    George..         New    York    City 

.Tiirim.    Tobias     M.D New    York    City 

Kabatchnick.  D.     Plymouth.  Pa. 

fe^-j!'\  ^V   '^-    ■ Chicago.    111. 

Kadisch.  Max.    ...    New  York  City 

KatTeman.   Frederick New  York  City 

Kafka.  Jacob New  York  City 


Kahane.    Leo.. Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Isahanowiiz     F Grcensburg,    Pa. 

Kahn.   L.   .M...    Dallas,   Tex. 

Kahn,    hmanuel Faston     Pa 

Kalm.  Emanuel. '. Cincinnati, 'Ohio 

Kain.  Joseph  M Philadelphia,   Pa. 

vilhn'  -i"'"' •'^■"="'  "''^'^  City 

Kahn.    luhus Chicago.    Ill 

h-^  '"■    ',-"""•  u N««'    VoFk   City 

Knhn'   -vl-?!"  " New  York  CitJ 

Kahn     William  Charlestown,    W.    Va. 

Kahnheimer,    Joseph Cardingion,    Ohio 

Kaiser,    Alois Baltimore,    Md. 

b^!'"'  Si N<^w  Vork  City 

K.iiser,    Hermann New    York   City 

Kaiser,  Jacob Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Kaintzky     M..    Nj„.    York   City 

Ka  isch.    Samuel  Newark,    N.   J. 

Kaish.    Louis    P Chicago,    III. 

Ka  iski     Ilyman K^^    York    City 

Kalmuth.   Leo.. Brooklyn.   N.   Y. 

Kamher.    .Mmnie New    York    Ciiv 

Kamin,  William.   D.D.S i ! ! . .'  .?Chicago,   Ilf. 

Kaminer.   K     i£as,  gt.   Louis,  111. 

Kaminsky.    Herman New    York    City 

Kaminsky,   Maurice New   York   City 

b      P';^' ,?"■•  f^"*"" New  York  City 

Kandell,    Gustav Philadelj.bia,    Pa. 

hi'^lf;   \\^?,':.- Toledo.   Ohio 

KjndUr     Will^m New    York    City 

Kane.   II      M.D Brooklyn.  N.   Y 

^='""'  ,^'- -^^ Washington.  D.  C. 

W^T     'r,^-W ^'"^^    Vork    City 

Kantor,    Dayid New    York    riit 

Kamor.   William  L.,   M.D -.New  York  CiJy 

Kantrowitz.    J. .Minneapolis.    Minn. 

K.introwitz.    .^igmund New    York    City 

Kapelman    Rey.  H Hartford.  Conn. 

t^P^".   ■> Proyidence.    R.    I. 

Kapan.    A....    McKeesport,   Pa. 

Kapan.   Key.   Bernard  M .Montreal.  Canada 

Kapan.    Irank Passaic.    N.    J 

^-•''I'""-   " Chicago.   III. 

Ji^P^""'    ' •; S.vracuse.  N.    Y. 

Kapan.   Isaac  .M Brooklyn.   N.  Y 

h^P^"'.    L Buffalo,    N.    Y. 

Kapan.    L... Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Kaplan.    Louis Chicago.    111. 

Kapan.  Morns   Boston.  Mass. 

Kapan.    Key.   .Morns Worcester.  Mass. 

Kapan.   Paul.   .M.D New  York  City 

Kapan,  .S. .  .      Rochester.  N.  Y. 

Kapan.    S.    H Anniston.   Ala. 

Kap  an.  Samuel  New  York  City 

Kap  an.    Samuel Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Kaplan    Samuel New  York  City 

Kap  and.    Samuel New    York    City 

Kaplansky.   A.    L .Montreal.    Canada 

Kapner     C     J Houston.    T<  x. 

Kapp.  Jacob New   York  City 

Kappelbaum,    I New  York  City 

Karlsbcrg.   Key.  Julius Providence.    R.   I. 

Karmeinski.    II New   York   City 

Karmer.    Gabriel New    York    City 

Karnct.    Isaiah New  York  City 

Karotkin.   M San  Antonio.  Tex. 

Karoer.    Simon Jersey   City.    X.    T. 

Karpuss,    L Pittsburg,    Pa. 

J>aT-    Jacob    A Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Kaskel,     Paul New     ^'ork    City 

Kassel,  Abe New   York   City 

Kassel,    Morris New    York    City 

Kassler,    F New    York    Cily 

Kastenbaum.    Nathan Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Kastor.    Mrs.    I Eyanston,    Wyo. 

Katchen,  Julius  L.,  Ph.G Newark.   N.    I. 

Katlinsky.     Lemuel Chic^co.     111. 

Katten.    Leyi Allegheny.    Pa. 

J^atz.    H Memphis.    Tenn. 

*^alz,    J Jacksonyille.    Fla. 

Katz.    Julius Manchester.    N.    H. 

Katz.    Leopold New    York    City 

Katz.    M New   York    Citv 

Katz.  Mark  J New  York  City 

Katz,    Samuel Omaha.    Neb. 

Katz.    William Newark.    N.   J. 

Katz.  William  H New  York  City 

Katzel.    Leon  J..   Ph.G Denver.   Colo. 

Kat/enelenbogen.    J New    York   City 

Kalzinger.    Edward Chicago,    111. 

Katzman.    T New    York    City 

Kauffman.    .\be Galveston.    Tex. 

KaufTman.   Morris Detroit.   Mich. 

Kauffman.  Moses Detroit.  Mich. 

Kauffman  &  Krueger Sioux  Citv.   Iowa 

Kaufler.    Solomon Philadelphia,    Pa. 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


Kaufman,    H New    York    City 

Kaufman,   (justave Xcw   York   City 

Kaufman,    I..    .M.D Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Kaufman.  Isaac Portland.  Ore. 

Kaufman.    .[.    M Champaign,    HI. 

Kaufman,  ,S ^ Hrooklyn,   N.   Y, 

Kaufman.    Kev.    S Lawrence,    Mass. 

Kaufnjan.    Samuel IMiiladelplua,     I'a. 

Kaufman.    William Montreal.    Canada 

Kaufmann.   Oavid  J ,\ew  York  City 

Kaufmann.    Isaac IMttsburK,    i'a. 

Kaufmann,    Mrs.   Jennie New   York   City 

Kaufmann.  Theodore PittsLurg.  Pa. 

Kayser.    Leopold New    Ynrh   Ciiy 

Kearney,   Kev.  John  F Xcw  York  City 

Keenes.    Leo Boston.    .Mass. 

Keiler.   John   W I*adi;cah.    Ky. 

Keiser,    L Buffalo.    N.   Y. 

KclbiT,   Gabriel New    Yi.rk   City 

Keller,    Charles    E .Shelbyville,    111. 

Keller,   Isidor New  York   City 

Kcllert,    S Montreal,    Canada 

Kclman,    Jacob ButTalo.    N.    Y. 

Kemp.  Abraham IMiiladelphia.   Pa. 

Kemper,    S.    .\ Jcrs:;y    City,    N.    J. 

Kempinski.    Herman Bridgeport,    Conn. 

Kcmpner,  Julius New    York    City 

Kcnt-n,    I'lmanuel    1 Boston,    Mass. 

Kenner.  Elijah Duluth.  .Minn. 

Keppich.   .\doIph New  N'ork   City 

Kepyreich.   .Adolph New   York  City 

Kerncr.   Jacob New    York    City 

Keroes,  Jacob Washington.  D.  C. 

Kert.    L M^)nlreal.    Canada 

Kessler,    Herman New    York   (^ity 

Kcst,  Max New  York  City 

Kestenbaum,    Kmanuel New    Bedford,    Mass. 

Kestin,    Joseph Milwaukee,    Wis. 

Kestlcr,   Joseph Passaic.    N     J. 

Kind.  I).  L New  York  City 

Kinestlich,    D..    M.D Passaic,    N.    J. 

King.    Harry Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

King.  Dr.  M New  York  City 

King.    .M.,   D.D.S New  York   City 

Kirsch.  L .Manchester.  N.  H. 

Kirsch.    Leo New    York    City 

Kirschberg,    J .Montreal.    Canacla 

Kirshberg.  Elias New  York  City 

Kiss,    Frank New    York   City 

Kissick,    W.    A Brooklyn,    .\.    V. 

Klammer,  Isidor New  York  City 

Klasky,    .A Newport    News.    \'a. 

Klatt.    Fricdrich Milford.   Conn. 

Klauber,    Ignati New    York    City 

Klauber,    S!    J Orange,    N.    J. 

Klausner,  (iustav Philadelphia.   I'a. 

Klausner.   Julius New    N  ork    City 

Klawiltcr  &    Butzer Ilenning.    .Minn. 

Kleban,    Isidor    H Denver,    Colo. 

Klebransky.    Wolf Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Klein,    .\dolph New   York   City 

Kit  in.   .Alexander New    York   City 

Klein,    .\rnim New   York    City 

Klein,  Uev.  Beriihard New  York  Ciiv 

Klein,   Rev.    David,    B.Ph.,   M.A Columbus,    f>hio 

Klein,   E Cincinnati.  Ohio 

Klein,    Emanuel New    York    City 

Klein,  Ciutman Philadelphia,   P.i. 

Klein,    Harry Baltimore,    Md. 

Klein,    I East    Boston.     Aia-s. 

Klein,  Jacob New    York    City 

Klein,  Jacob Cleveland.   Ohio 

Klein,   Joseph New    ^  crk    C  ily 

Klein,  Joseph Bridgeport.   Conn. 

Klein,  Joseph  Alexander New  \  ork  City 

Klein,    Julius New    ^  "•'''>,'?>' 

Klein,    M Cleveland,    flliio 

Klein,     M •>>«■    \':"^  S"/ 

Klein.  M.arcus Jer«.y  C^ilv.  N    J. 

Klein.  Moses Philad.ljih.i,  Pa. 

Klein,  Rev.  Dr.  Philip New  \"rk  City 

Klein,    Solomon New   ^  ork   City 

Klein,   William    New  N  .irk   City 

Kleiner,  Nathan  I New  Haven,  c  mm. 

Kleinert,  I.  B N"""'  X'^','"  T'*'' 

Kleinfeld,   Rev.   A.   S ..New   N  ork  City 

Kleinfelil.    Solomon Philadelphia,     Pn. 

Kleinhaus.   S.imuel Jersey   Cily.    N.    I. 

Kleinhnlr.    Hyman Brooklvn.    N-    >• 

Kleinman.    D New    \  ork    City 

Kleinman.   ^L.    M.D Nrw   J.ork  City 

Kleinman,    Samuel New    \ork   Cily 

KUinm.inn.    Emanuel New    \  .rk   Cmv 

Klcpper.  S.   I Nfw  ^■'rl<  f^,',')' 

Kline.    Charles Alleniown.     I  a. 

Kline,    Henry   S H -^^'C"";!- .^l' 

Klingenstein,   Jacob New   ^  ork   City 


Klinger,   Abram West   Somerville,    Mass. 

KlingholTer.    U New    York    City 

Klinkowstein,   .Abraham New   York   City 

KlolT,    Morilz    \\ Chicago,    III. 

Klonick,    Isaac  E Rochester,    .\.   Y. 

Klopfer,    .Albert New   York   City 

Knobloch.    I .New   York   City 

Knoch.    Ike Susanville,    Caf. 

Knollenber^.    CJ.    B Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Kno|ifler,    Charles New    York    City 

Knflpfer,    August New    Sork    Cily 

Kobacker,   .Mi  rris Connellsville,   I'a. 

Kublitz,   Custav New  York   City 

Kobre,    Max New    York    Ci'.y 

Koch,    Henry New    York    Ciiv 

Koch,   Joseph .New   York  (Tiiy 

Koch,   Louis New   York   Cily 

Koch.    Samuel Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Koenig,  Samuel  S .New  York  City 

Koenig.   Simon Brooklvn.    N.    \. 

Koevessy.    Maximilian   Lichtenstein New    S'ork   City 

Kotlen,   .Mcrilz New   S'ork  Citv 

Kohlcr,    .Max   J New   York    City 

Kohn,    A.    B Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Kohn,    .Arnold Philadelphia,    I'a. 

Kohn,   Charles Nev    York    City 

Kohn,  David Philadelphia,  I'a. 

Kohn,    Edmund New    York    C'ly 

Kohn,    H Yonkors,    N.    \. 

Kohn,    Ignatz New    S'ork   City 

Ktihn,   J .Xlempbis,    Tenn. 

Kohn.  Josef New  York  Ci:y 

Kohn,    Leo Seattle.    Wash. 

Kohn,   Ludwig,   M.D New   York   City 

Kohn,    Martin Philadeliihia.    Pa. 

Kohn.     S Cleveland.     Ohio 

Koh  n,  Samuel Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Kohn,    .Sigmund   W New    York    City 

Kohn,   Simon  1 Philadelphia,  -Pa. 

Kohns,    D .New    York    City 

Kohns.    Lee New   York    Cily 

Kolasky,   M New    York   City 

Kolber,    S Montreal,    Canada 

Kolbert,  Rev.    Benjamin New   York   City 

Kolelzki,   M Syracuse.  N.    Y. 

Kolsky,  .Abrah.-m Philadelphia.  Pa. 

Komie,   Emanuel Chicago,    111. 

Komiss.   David  S Chicago,   HI. 

Konimel.   B New  York   City 

Kommel.    Isaac New   Y'ork    Cily 

Koinpert.   Gustav,   M.D New  York  City 

Konner,   J Patcrson,    N.    J. 

Koolish.    M Sioux   City,    Iowa 

Koonz,  P.  J.,  D.D.S New  York  City 

Kopald,  Joseith New  York  City 

Kopald,   V.    11 Brooklvn,   N.   Y. 

Kopfstein.    !l New   York    City 

Koplik,   Joseph    B New    York   C'ily 

Koplin,    J I'hiladelphia,     Pa. 

Koplowitz.  .Abraham,  M.D Brooklyn.   N.   Y. 

Kopman,    Ike St    Louis,   Mo. 

Kopold.    Jacob     N C>molia.     Neb. 

Kops.   Daniel New   York  City 

Kopskin,    Emit New    York    City 

Koransky.    Dr.   II New   York   City 

Koraiisky,    Samuel New    York    City 

Koref,   Ignatz New  Y'ork  City 

Kiirnian.    H.    W New   York   Cily 

Korman,    S New    Ytirk   City 

Kornian,   Samuel New   Y'.irk   Cily 

Korn,    Leil New    Y'ork    City 

Kornblum,   Curl New    Y'.-rk   City 

Kornfeld,    Ignaz New  York   City 

KonifeM,    Joseph    Saul I'inc    Uluif,    .Ark. 

Korngut.    .Samuel,    M.D Eliubelh,    N.    J. 

Kornhauser,   S New    Y<Tk    City 

Kornlioiiscr,  Sr.m New   York   C  ty 

Kornreich.  C.   P.,  M.D New  York  Ciiy 

Kors.  Charles  li Philadelphia.  Pa. 

Kotinskv.   Julius ..BroiUvii.    N.    Y. 

Keilowiiz,    .Morris P.rookSn.    N.    Y. 

Ki  llar-kv.  Simnel Philadeljihia.  Pa. 

K.illek.    1acoh New    York    Cny 

K..var.  Henry  L New  York  City 

Kraft.   William Fowler,    InJ. 

Krainin,    rhrodrrc New  Y'ork  City 

Krnkauer.  Jicquf» New  Y'ork  City 

Krakiiwer.    Max BffKiklyn.    N.    Y. 

Kramer,  II Cliieago,  III. 

Krimer.  Ji.cnb New   York  Citjr 

Kramer.    M Raltiniorr,    Mil. 

Kr.nier.   Nalhin Philadelphia.   P«. 

Kr.imrr.    Nnihnn   L. New   York   Ci'y 

Kr.imer.    Philip New  Vnrk   City 

Kramock.  H Brooklvn.   .V.  Y. 

Krampner,  Sol New  York  City 


LIST  OF  PATRONS 


Kraus.   Ignatz New  York  City 

b^i'S  S.- N'tiv  York  City 

Krausc.  J. St.   LouU.   Mo. 

Krauskopf.    Joseph Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Krauskopf,  Rev.  Marcus New  York  City 

Krauss,    Henry New   York  City 

}>"U5S,     I Pittsburg.     Pa. 

Kr:!usl.    Max New    York    City 

Kreinson,  J Bradford.    Pa. 

Krcllcnstein.   Sam New    ^nrk    City 

Krcmir.  C...   M.D New  York  City 

Krcmer.  Juhus New   York   City 

KrcssolTsky,  M New  York  City 

J';''!^''';    ','•'"■'■15 Washington.    D.    C. 

Kridcl.    bamuel New    York   Citv 

Knmsky.  G. New  York  Cit'v 

Knonlon.   Arnold New   York   City 

Knstelier,  Julius Newark.    N.    J. 

Ji"".   I Baltimore.    Md. 

Kroenstand.    M New    York   City 

Krokover.    D Pittsburg,    Pa. 

h..-  h New  York   City 

Kroll.    Lazar New    Yo'k    City 

Kromer.    S New   York    City 

Kroncnbcrg.   Simon New  York  City 

Kroningold.  Adolph Brooklyn.  \.  V 

Kronman.    J Buffalo.    N.    Y. 

Kronthal,  Ma.-c New  York  City 

Kroog,   John New  York  Citv 

KroV.   John New    York   Citv 

Krucgcr.     Herman Baltimore.     Md. 

Krueger.    J.    N Sioux    Citv.    Iowa 

Kruger.   H New  York  City 

Krulansky   &   Son Patcrson.    N.   J. 

Krulewilch.    Bernard Baltimore.    Md. 

Krulewitch.  Isaac  A New  \*ork  City 

Krumhoh.   Sigmund,   M.D New   York  City 

Kubcr,    Ktta New  York  City 

Kubic.   Samuel New  York  City 

Kuder.    M.   A Parker.^burg.    W.    \'a. 

Kuff,    M.    S Baltimore.    Md. 

Kugel.   Julius  J New   York  City 

Kuhl.  E New  Y'ork   Citv 

Kuhn,    Max New  York   City 

Kulakofsky,  M Omaha,   Neb, 

Kun,    Lorenz Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Kuns,    Michael Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Kuntz,  Henry New  York  City 

Kuntz.    S Worcester,    Mass. 

Kuposky,    Barnett Boston,    Mass. 

Kupperman,    L New   York   City 

Kuraner,    D.    D New   York   City 

Kurtz.  Gustavus  E Roxburv,  Mas*. 

Kurtz.   R.   M Cleveland.   Ohio 

Kurzman,    Charles New    York    City 

Kussy,  Joseph,  D,D.S Newark,  N.  J. 

Kusy.    Sigmund New    York   City 

Kuthy,   Rev.   Zoltan New   York   City 

Lachman,   Hon.   Samson New  York  City 

Lachmann,   G New  York   Citv 

Lachmann,   Solomon New   York   Citv 

Lack,    Morris New   York    Citv 

Ladinski,   L.  J.,  M.D New  York  City 

Lambert,  Jules  J New  York  City 

Lambie,     Mrs Pittsburg,     Pa. 

Land,  Samuel New  Haven,  Conn. 

Landau,    B Denver,    Colo. 

Landau,   Rev.   E.   A Albany,    Ga. 

Landau,  J New   York   City 

Landau,    K Chicago,    111. 

Landau,    Morris New   York  City 

Landau,    Salomon New   York   City 

Landau,   Wolf Bay  City,   Mich. 

Landaw,    Hyman Pittston.    Pa. 

Landberg,   Max Rochester,   N.  Y. 

Lande,    I New    York   City 

Lande,    Marcus Roxbury,    Mass. 

Landes,    Leonard,  M.D New  York  City 

Landman.   Louis  H.,  M.D Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Lando,    M Baltimore,    Md. 

Landon,   Amos  W Baltimore,   Md. 

Landsberg,  George Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

Landsberg,    Louis Penaconning,    Mich. 

Landsberg,    Max.    Ph.D Rochester,   N.    Y. 

Landsman,   S.   M.,  M.D New   York  City 

Lane.    Rev.    Abel Chicago,    111. 

Langer,    D.    S Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Langer,  Louis  M New  York  City 

Lanski,    Mrs.    S Peoria.    111. 

Lapidus,   H..         New  York  City 

Lapidus,  Jacob  L New  York  Citv 

Larner    John   B Washington.   D.   C. 

Lasdusky      Max Pittsburg.     Pa. 

Laske,    Alexander   de New    York   City 

Lasker,   Rev.   Raphael Boston,    Mass. 

^^^^y-    H Haverhill,    Mass. 


Lasky.    Jacob St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Laubheim.   Julius New    York  City 

Lauchheimcr.  Jacob   M Baltimore,   Md. 

Lauchheimer,    Sylvan    Hayes Baltimore,    Md. 

Laucr.    Leon Baltimore,    Md. 

Laufman,   G Cleveland,    Ohio 

Laufman,    T. . .   Cleveland,    Ohio 

Lauterbach,    Edward New    York  City 

Laven,    Aaron Baltimore,    Md. 

Lavine,    Charles Worcester,    Mass. 

I.avinc,    Sam  New   York    City 

Lawrence,    Alexander  A New   York    City 

Lawrence,    Benjamin   B.,   M.D Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Lazarevitz     P. Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Lazarus,   1-rederick Columbus,   Ohio 

iViti    ?--V.V^ Pittsburg,    Pa. 

,!•  '^!.,>-  -^'.-^ Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Leaf,    William    R New    York    City 

Lcavitt,    b..     Montreal,    Canada 

Leavitt,    S.    H Boston.    .Mass. 

Leavy,    Henry. Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Lcbenthal,    Bernhardt    S Bridgeport,    Conn. 

Leberecht,  Adolph  G New  York  City 

Lcbins,   Rev.  A Paterson,   N,  J. 

Lebovitz,    Bernard Brooklvn,    N.    V. 

Lebovitz     Jacob Chicago,    III. 

Lebowich     Max Boston,    Mass. 

I.echter    Rev    Joseph   H Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Leder,   Joseph. New   York  City 

Ledcr,    Samuel.. New   York   City 

Lederer,    Lphraim Philadelphia,    Pa. 

I    J  "■■"■•  i?"^''"** •^■"-    York  City 

P^"?/'.  I*-, ■i New   York  City 

J-<^dnitzky,   Joseph  L New   York  City 

Leffler,    Louis... New   York  City 

l.efkovics,    D.    B  New   York  City 

Lefkovits.    Dr.    M.....   Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Lefkowitz,    Rev.    David Dayton,    Ohio 

Lefkowitz,    George.     New    York  City 

Lefkowitz,   Hyman   B New  York  City 

Lefkowitz,   Joseph New   York  City 

Lefkowitz,  Max   I New  York  City 

Lefkowitz     S, New   York  City 

Lehing,   William New    York  City 

L''^'"^"'    A Peru,  Ind. 

Lehman,     E  Scranton.  Pa. 

Lehman,   Edgar New    York  City 

Lehman,    Irving New    York  City 

rt™""'   l?-?P^ New   York   City 

Lehnng     William..  New    York    City 

Leiber,   S.    Philip,   D.D.S Pittsburg,    Pa. 

I.eibowitcli.  Leon,  M.D New  York  City 

Le.desdorf,   A New    York    City 

Leiler.    Max.... New   York   City 

Lemkin.    Morris Lowell,    Mass. 

Leipheimer     N  Colorado   Springs,    Colo, 

Leipziger     Emil  William Terre  Haute,    Ind. 

Leiser.    Rev.    Joseph Lafayette,    Ind. 

Ltisersohn     Leonard New    York    City 

Ltlewer     D  Chicago,    Iir 

Lemanoff,    L New   York  City 

I.emberg,  Leon,   M.D New  York  City 

Lemberg.    William New   York   City 

Lcmelson,   Joseph New  York   City 

Len,   Solomon Amsterdam.    N.   Y. 

I.enchner,    S        Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Lenin    Z     M.D San  Francisco,  Cal. 

T!^:,-'i?KV Montreal,    Canada 

Leon.  Albert Newark,   N.  J. 

New   York   City 

New   York   City 


Leon.    David... 
Leonder.    Harry 


■.-..    ..^,,;  i^ew    vorK   (_ity 

Leonhard    Dr.  EM Pittsburg,   Pa 

Leopod,  Isaac,  M.D Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Leopold,    Simon Berwick,    La. 

Lerner.    Leo  New   York   City 

Leroy,    B     M New   York   City 

pskes,    L New    York    City 

L'5"""'    A Washington,    D.    C. 

Lesser,    George,   M.D New   York   City 

Lesser,   Henry New   York   City 

Lesser,   J.    H Omaha,    Neb. 

Lesser,    L Baltimore,    Md. 

Lesser,    M.   H Denver,    Colo. 

Letinsk,    A...  New    York   City 

Lcucht,  Rev.  I.  L New  Orleans.  La. 

I.eucht.   Rev.  Joseph Newark,   N.   J. 

Leuw,   Maurice Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Levenberg,   Dr.    B Cleveland,   Ohio 

Levensohn,    Max Worcester,    Mass. 

Levenson,    Abe Pittsburg,     Pa. 

Levenson,   D.    F New   York  City 

Levenson,   Henry  H Boston,   Mass. 

Levenson,   Joseph Boston,   Mass. 

Levenson,    Joseph New   York   City 

Levenson,   M.   D San  Francisco.  Cal. 

I.eventhal,  M Kansas  City,  Mo, 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Leventritt,  W.  R New  York  City 

Levi,    11 Scranton,    Pa. 

Levi,    Beno    C Scranton,    Pa. 

Levi,    Berth New   York   City 

Levi,   Kcv.   Dr.  Charles  S Peoria,   III. 

Levi,    ICmil   S New    York   Citv 

Levi,    Miss  Frances Syracuse.   N.    Y. 

Levi,  Gcrshon   B Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Levi,   Kev.    Harry WhcelinK,   W.   \'a. 

Levi,    Henlein New    York   City 

Levi,    Isaac Cleveland,    Ohio 

Levi,   Joseph Oil    City.    Pa. 

Levi,    Leo   N New  York   City 

Levi,    Leon New    York    City 

Levi,   Louis New   York  City 

Levi,    M.    A Chicago,    III. 

Levi,    Paul Toronto.     Canada 

Lcvias,    Prof.    C Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Levien,   Henry,  M.D New   York  City 

Levin,   Abe New   York  City 

Levin,    Abraham .Montreal.    Canada 

Levin,  Bartle New   York  City 

Levin,     Ben Chicago,    111. 

Levin,    Benjamin Pawtuxet,    H.    I. 

Levin,   Kllis New   Haven,   Conn. 

Levin,   Hyman New   York  City 

Levin,   J.    S New    York   Ciiy 

Levin,  J.,  &  Son Baltimore.   Md. 

Levin,    L Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Levin,    Louis    H '. Baltimore,    Md. 

Levin,    Louis   H New    York    City 

Levin,  Louis   L New   York  Citv 

Levin,    Menekil Brooklyn,    N.   Y. 

Levin,    Dr.    Michael Kochesicr.    N.    Y. 

Levin,    Nathan    B New    York    City 

Levin,    S.    I Dulutli.    Minn. 

Levin,    \\'iniam Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Levine,    A Holyoke.    Mass. 

Lcvine,    Barnet St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Levine.    Charles New    York    City 

Levine,    David New    York   City 

Levine,    Gregory New    York    Citv 

Levine,    Isaac Schenectady.    N.    Y. 

Lcvine,    L Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Lcvine.    Max    Samuel New    York    City 

Lcvingston,   Annie St.    Louis.   Mo. 

Levinsky,   Irene   Ida New   York  City 

Lcvinsky,   L Toronto.   Canada 

Levinson,    Alexander New    York   City 

Lcvinson.   Harris  T Rochester,   N.    Y. 

Levinson,    Isaac New    York   City 

Lcvinson.    James Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Lcvinson,    Leo New    York    City 

Levinson.    M.J New   S'ork   City 

Levinson,   M.  Z New  York  City 

Lcvinson,    Samuel Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Levinstein,    Israel Baltimore.    Md. 

Levinthal.   Rev.   B.   L Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Levinthal,    Rev.    Isidore Nashville.    Tenn. 

Lcvitan.    Isidor   S Baltimore.    Md. 

Lcvitan,    M.    M Washington,    D.    C. 

Lcviton,  .'\.    H.,   M.D Chicago.    111. 

Lcvilon,    .Aaron New    York    City 

Levitsky.    ,M New    York   City 

Levitt,   Charles  L New  York  City 

Levitt,   M.  J..   M.D New   York   City 

Levitt,    Solomon New    York    Cit>' 

Lcvitta,  A.  S Washington.  D.  C. 

Lcvittan,    Nathan    W New    York    City 

Lcvkowitz,    S New    York    Citv 

Lever,    Mrs.    L.    S Attica.    Ind. 

Levy,   A New    York    City 

Levy,    A New    York   City 

Levy.  A.,  M.D I'erth  Amboy.   N.  J. 

Levy.    A.    G Mobile.    Ala. 

Levy.   A.   M New   Yt)rk  Citv 

Levy,   Rev.   Dr.   A.  R Chicago.   111. 

I*cvy,   Aaron Brooklvn.    N.    Y. 

Levy,    Abraham New    S'ork    City 

Levy,    Alexander New    York    City 

Levy,    Arthur   G Rutland.    Vt. 

Levy.    B. Pater«on.    N.    J. 

Levy.    Benjamin    F Elmira,    N.    Y. 

Levy,   Charles  S New  York  Citv 

Levy.     D Baltimore.    Md. 

Levy,    Elias   Henry New   York  City 

Levy,    Ferdinand New    York    Citv 

Levy,   H.,    M.D Rochester.    N.    \. 

Levy,    Herman New    York    City 

Levy.    1 1  iram Montreal.    C.in.id.i 

Levy.   Hyman New    York   City 

levy     I.    D Nfw    York    City 

Levy!  Isaac ;-.:-Nfw  ^'"^**  <^''r 

Levy,   Isaac Washington,  D.  C. 

Levy.   Isaac Brooklyn.    N.    \. 

Levy.    Isaac New   York  Cily 


Levy,  Isaac New  York  City 

Levy,   Israel New   York   City 

Levy,    1 So.    Omaha.    Neb. 

Levy.  J.    F New    York   City 

Levy,   Rev.  J.  Leonard Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Levy,   Jacob New    \  ork    City 

Levy,    Jacques St.    Louis.    Mo. 

Levy,    Joseph Rutland.    \"t. 

Levy,    Julius Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Levy,  Julius New    York   City 

Levy,   Kalman Scranton.    Pa. 

Levy,    L.    D New    York   City 

Levy,  I*   .N'apolcon New  York  City 

Levy,    Lesser Denver,    Colo. 

Levy,    Lipman Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Levy,    Louis Denver.    Colo. 

Levy.    Louis New   York   Cit^ 

Levy,   Louis  A Troy,   N.   \. 

Levy,   Louis   D New  \  ork  City 

Levy,    Louis    Eduard Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Levy,   M.    B San   Francisco,   Cal. 

Levy,  M.   G New  York  City 

Levy.    M.    H Rochester,    N.    Y. 

Levy,    Rev.   M.   S San    Francisco.  Cal. 

Levy,   Magnus New   York  City 

Levy,    .Max New    York    City 

Levy,    Max Rockaway  Beach.    N.    Y. 

Levy,    Max S'ew    York   City 

Levy,    Meyer New    York    City 

Levy,   Michael   S Baltimore.   Md. 

Levy,   Morris New   York  Cily 

Levy,    Morris Omaha,    Neb. 

Levy.   Morris,  A.B.,  M.D New   York  City 

Levy,    Morris,  M.D New   York  City 

Levy,    N New  York  City 

Levy,    N.    B Scranton,    Pa. 

Levy,    Nathan McKeesport,    Pa. 

Levy,   Paul   S Baltimore.    Md. 

Levy,    Robert.    M.D Denver.    Colo. 

Levy,    Rev.    Dr.   Samuel Waco.   Tex. 

Levy,   Samuel    .-\ New    York  City 

Levy,  Samuel  D New  York  City 

Levy,  Simeon  S TitusvlUe,   Pa. 

Levy,    Thomas New    York    City 

Levy,   \' New   York  City 

Levy,    William Batlimore.    Mil. 

Levyn.    Jacob .\lpcna,    Mich. 

Lewande,    S.,   M.D Providence.    R.    I. 

Lcwengood,    Lewis New    York   City 

Lewi.    F.    L Newark.    N.J. 

Lewin.    Rev.    Dr.    J.    M Jersey   City,    N.    J. 

Lewin.    S St.    Joseph.    Mo. 

Ivcwin,   S Washington.    D.    C. 

Lewinc.    Leopold  E.,   M.D New    York  City 

I.cwinnek,    Lesser Denver.    Colo. 

Lcwinski.   M..    M.D New   York  Citv 

Lcwinsohn,    Lewis Chicago,    111. 

Lcwinsohn,    Salomon New   York   Cily 

I.cwinsnn.    Benno New    York   City 

Lt-winthal,     Max Brookhaven,     Miss. 

Lewis,  .Vdolph   M New  York  City 

Lewis.    .Mphons New    York    City 

Lewis.     Benjamin IMiiladelnhia,     Pa. 

Lewis.   I.    N Salt   Lake  City,   Utah 

Lewis,  M.  A Washington.  D.  C. 

Lewis,    Roman  G Chicago,    III. 

Lewis,    Ruben Dubuque,    Iowa 

!..cwis.    Samuel Houston.    Tex. 

Lewisohn.   .\dolph New  York   City 

Lcwisohn.    Leonard New    York   City 

Lewitt.   .-\tssak  ...New   York   Cily 

Levvkowicz,    M New    York    City 

Lewy,   .\ San  Antonio.  Tex. 

Lewy,    B Scranton.    Pa. 

I.cwy,   Raphael.   M.D New  York  City 

Ltwy.    Solomon New    Yi^rk    City 

Libcrman,   Naac New    York   Cily 

Librriuan,    Louis New    York    City 

Libernian.    .Myron  S I'tici.   N.   %  . 

Liberman.    Uudolph New   York   City 

Libman.    W Br.n.kUn.    N.    Y. 

I.ichirn.    William Philadelphia,    I*a. 

Lichtrnntadt.    Dr.  Carl New    N  ork   City 

Licbtenstein,    1> Tarboro.   N.   C. 

Ltchteniilein.    Edward    N Baltimore,    Md. 

i.iciiten^trin.  Jacob,   M.D New   York  City 

I.icbtcn»tein.   Joseph Richmond.    Va. 

I.ichtig.    Henry New    Y»>rk    Cily 

i.ubtman.   Julius New    York  City 

I.Kblnian.   S Buffalo.    N.    Y. 

i.nUchin.    I Chicago.    HI. 

i.uU,    Israel New    York    City 

Licb,    Henry New  York   City 

I.ieben.    Max New   York    Cily 

Liebcr.    F New    York    City 

Lieherman.   C.   M.D Brooklyn.   N.   Y. 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


Licbcrman.    H Chicairo     til 

L,.bcrman.    Kvv     M . , Nashv.lle?°f  en"; 

Liebc-rman.    habbatha. St.    Joseph.    Mo. 

f'±™i:2"'     .  ■ -; V ■  N'w    York   City 


Licbcrmann,  Jeremiah 
Liebciklnd,  Abraham 

Licbman,    L 

Liebman.    Louis 

Lifschuctz,    Louis 

Liifeiy.    Aaron 


-ity 

Brooklyn.    X.    Y. 

New    \'ork   City 

Hamilton.    Ohio 

.  .Youngstown,    Ohio 

Xfw    York    City 

.Xcw    York    City 


T   C     "  I'l       .    li -^'•■"'     Jork    City 

L.ke>.  Albtrt   H  liallimore.    .\I<f^ 

L.kna.lz.   Rev.    David Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

L.I.enthal     Joseph I'ottsville.    Pa. 

l-'^'r  '^  ^ New    York    City 

Linch.    X r;r„.. .:     r>u:. 


Linderall,    Max... 

Lindner.    A 

Lindner.    AI 

Linenthal,  Julius. 
Linetzky,  tlirsch. 
Liniherman,    M. . . 

Lion,   Julius 

I.ipinsky,    S 

Lipnick,    R 

Lippe.    Charles 


Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Xcw    ^'ork    City 

Vonkcrs.    X.    Y. 

New    York    City 

Chicago,    111. 

Xew   York   City 

Albany.    X.    Y. 

New    York    City 

Asheville,    X,    C. 

Baltimore.    Md. 


Lipschutz,   Adolph 
Lipschutz,    f:mil... 

Lipshitz.   M.    L 

Lipsky,    Rev.    J.. .  . 
Lipsky,    Louis 


.    da 

Xew  York  City 
.Brooklyn.  X.  Y. 
..New  York  City 
Rochester.   X.   V. 


Lssmon,  Edward Brooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Litowich,    B.   A ........ .v. ^  I'Ti^i  °'\-'^'" 


Littauer, 


-ity 

LittaueV"'  x"'  c' : : : : Salma.    Kans. 

'    c        New   York   City 

Littmann,  m:::;: ^^y  S'"''--  -''I?''- 

'        .ot.    Louis,    Mo. 

Xew    York    City 
..New    Y'ork    City 


Loeb.  Mrs.  Bertha... .:::::::;:::::;:: i'- x.^'^i^^s-'''  -'"■ 

Loeb,   ^"    •  *   " 
Loeb, 


n-ivid    I  ^"^    Yo?k    City 

•  TZl.r^ ^'"^   '^'°'-k  City 

•  U,^„.  <xy<ri< Philadelphia,    Pa. 

P/"J"  W.,  M.D St.  Louis    Mo. 

{f"" Xew    York    City 

T  ;;■  ■  A .\kron.    Ohio 

h^°.  ^ Chicago.    111. 

h°'i'\; Xew  YofkCiy 

\V';.\"'' u.N."v  York  City 


Loeb,    Leo    A 

Loeb, 

Loebi 

Loeb,    Marx  B 

Loeb,    Maurice 

Loeb, 

Loeb, 


Philadelphia.    Pa 

,     Morr,-.;         Philadelphia.    Pa. 

■    p-.n,in; ^^^^"    ^'o'-k   City 

Loeb!  so^t^n:::::::;:: slZXZl^^'/ 

Loebj^e.Hu.oj.,M.D;;::::::::::..;:^^^^^ 

Washington.    D.    C, 


Loeffler.    S 

Loesberg.   Prof.  J.   P... 
Loescr,    David 


Loeve,    Henry 

Loew,  ' 

Loewe, 

LoeweL _, „,„, 

Loewcnheim,  Aron  A, 


..Worcester,   Mass. 
..Montclair.    X'.    J. 


Loew^vnSN::::::::::::::::::;:;:;;v^;;vorkcijy 

Lo.::^i^^^^l Brook«^^ 


fork  City 

,n,   X.    Y. 

.Philadelphia,    Pa. 


i-uovciiiieim,    /\ron    A.,    fti.U Chin.ro      Til 

Loewenheim,   Jacob New   York   Civ 

tenS  S^!-.;.v;.v;. iiWtW 

^-^^ei;!^^!:  i^:;;;:;:: ■■=lBPiP 

jith^n       -KI         -Vf    T-»  •-O'^W       1  OrK     Ulty 


Loew 

Loewenth; 

Lcew 

Lcewithan,   M.,  M.D.. 

Loewy,   Henry 


_.ty 
..X'ew   York  City 


London,  Meyer. .  V 

■'  i>  I 


Sale 


Mass. 


ew  Y'ork  City 


London   Brothers »i,_,  v.,i.  r--. 

h™;:  Jl'i:;:::::::::::- .■:;;!■£■■"/«. <;s 

New   York  City 

New    \'ork   City 

New   York   City 

New  Y'ork  City 

Brooklyn.    X.    Y. 

Boston.    Mass. 

New    Y'ork    City 

New   Y'ork    City 

New    Y'ork    City 

New  Y'ork  City 

New    York   City 

.Philadelphia,    Pa. 


ing,   ^imon 

Lorsch,    Henry 

Lorsch,    Solomon 

Loucks,   Leonard,  M.D..i 

Louis.  Mrs.   .Minnie  D.... 

Louria.    Leon,    .M.D 

Lourie,    David    A 

Low,    Adolph '.' 

Lowenhcim,   Jacob .'...', 

Lowensohn,    Simon .'.*. 

Lt»wenstcin,   .Max ,'.* 

Lowenstcin,   N.   A........ 

Lowenthal,     H * 

Lowenthal,  J v         v-     i'^- 

Lowenthal,    L .' 'p^f";  >"':''  Cw 

Lowenthal!   .Max. . .....'.' ,?!"!=''':'?'"?•.  K\- 

Lowcntritt,    Rachel.. 

Lowcry,  Rev.  John  F.,  LL.D  ' " 

Lowinstein.    E 

Lowy,    Philip ■  ■ 

Luber,    Harry 

Luberoff,    Solomon. 


..Rochester,   N.    Y 

Oil   City.    Pa. 

Troy,  N.   Y. 

..Wilkcsbarre,  Pa. 
Newark,    N.  J. 

.Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 


j-"«i.,ijii     joiomon \u;^„^       \f     T 

Lubetkin.   Max....         <?"'^"5''' ,-^V  ■'■ 

Lubin,  David ^'^   >."^''  £.'/ 

Lubin,   Isaac  H       v"''  }-°'^  *^"y 

Lubinsky,  Rev.  Mo;;iV ^?"'    \P'^   City 

Lubiintz, ..Kudoiph.":r::;;;.v.v.;;;.- •■■.••• -^^8!^  Si!?' 


L' 

Lucas,   Albert 

Liichs,  M.  S 

Ludwig,  Joseph  B 
Ludwin,  Charles.. 
Luft.    K.    Leon.... 

Luftig,   Adolph 

Lupin.  E.  J..  .M.D 
Luiiovitz,  \\  illiam 


Knoxville,    Pa". 

New   Y'ork    City 

Marietta,  Ohio 

Paterson,  N.  J. 

.....New   York   City 

Brooklyn,    X.   Y. 

New   Y'ork   City 

.....Philadelphia,  Pa. 
.Coney  Island,   "" 


Luria,   Samuel. Coney  Island.  NY. 

I.urie,  Herman  I...     'v^'"  ^"""^  City 

Lurie.    Louis....... •'><^«' .^.  ^'•k  City 

Lurrie.    Marcus    S..    New   York    City 


...Boston,    Mass 

Lustgarten,    O..  ft^"'   }°'Y  "^"y 

Lustgarten,    Sigmund'.' .■.'.■.'.■. v""  ^°'^  £!'>" 

I-ustig,    Joseph  ^5r    ^ork   C.ty 

Lustig,   Joseph •<•?,! "v '■•l,  S?  °- 

Lustig,   Joseph..  ...New   Y  ork   City 

I.ustig    N.  S        V  ^  oungstown.    Ohio 

Lutzky,    Louis. Long  Branch.   N.  J. 

Luwey,    A....  Baltimore,    Md. 

Lyon,    H p'^<^.«;-   ^ork  Cil 

Lyon,  Miss  Harry.       i;.:; "x^?"  v"' i.'V  ' 

Lyons.   Alexander ^^.^  ^  o-'t  City 

Lycns,    B....  .Albany,    X.    Y. 

Lyons,    D...        N^"'   ^  ork   City 

Lyons,   E....       '\«»'    yorlt    City 

Lyons,    M..        New   York   City 

Lyons,   Max Appleton,    Wis. 

Lyons,   Phillip... V.'. L"ea.   N.   Y. 

Lyons,    Solomon ii'    ."■'?,"•    """l- 

.McCabe.  Rev.  Charles  C Huntsville,   Ala. 

McCarthy,  Hon.   lohn  Henr'v ^u'"","-''"'''^"'' 

Mccready,  Rev.  tiJVJi  "TLb:;:;:;;;;;;^;::  \-t]^  ^ 


„  "y 

R.   I. 


-McGe 


.W.J 


McCinnis,    John   J Washington,    D.    C. 

McXamara,    Tohn  W a!1"'°'    S?-"^^,* 

Mc^^'uhy^^^y  ^^^-  •^i«-"p-j.:-v.G;:;Brt\^,^.^-.  ^••.  I. 

ilaagct.  Israel  H. v^"'^v-"''F'  J"^' 

M.ial.  Rev.  A    fs.i::: SnL\°'^  9,7 

^fachol.   M..    m:d.    ■' r,°°1^'°i'*'A^'.''- 

Mack.    T.iroh  \v     Cleveland.    Ohio 


Mack.   Jacob  W 

.^L-'.claire,    Raphael 

Macowsky,    Isaac 

Madden.  James  Thoma 


..X'ew   Yjik    Citv 
..X'ew    York    City 
Xew   Y'ork    City 


.Madill.   ciorg"  a"°?!'! 1^, ''°^''  ^1'^ 

Maduro,  Mrs.  Esther  L. . . .  1 1 ! !  :.■.•.■.•.•. ! ;  .Pa^nL^.^T'  of '& 

Malcn:  Edwa;d::;;::;-.v.;v.: ^"^  ^nrk  ci.y 

^t^EEB^E:E^3m§, 

M=       r'   A     f '""I- ; ^'"^  "^'"■■k  City 

Mahler    Gustav  A Long  Island  Citv.  N.   Y. 

Mainoff,   Louis Denver,   Colo 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Maisil,    T.   J..   M.D New    York   City 

MaiscI,  Louis Buffalo,  N.   Y. 

Maisner,    kev.    Moses New    ^'ork    City 

Maizcl,    Alcxanrler  J New    York   Citv 

MaizncT.    Herman St.    Louis,    ,\lo. 

Makovcr,    llcrnard Baltimore.    Nld. 

Malino,  J New  Nork  City 

Malisoff,  A.,   M.D New  York  City 

Malloy,   A \\  .ishingt..n.    U.    C. 

Maltinsky.  S Hradil  jck.    Pa. 

Maltzer,    B New    York    City 

Manam,    Emanuel New   ^■ork   City 

Manassevitz,    .Simon Kochester,    N.    Y. 

Mandel.   Adolf New   Vc.rkCity 

Mandel,    .Alexander New    York    City 

Mandil.    Hdward New    York   City 

Mandel,    Mr.«.    Emanuel Chicago.    111. 

Mandelbaum,  11 New  York  City 

Mandclhanm,    M.,    M.I) Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Mandelbaum,    Seymour Baltimore.    Md. 

Mandelkern,  J New   York  City 

Mandell,    .M Albuquerque,    N.    Mex. 

Mandelskoren.    Morris New    York    City 

Mandolstam.  Isaac  \V East  Boston.  Mass. 

Mandelstamm,    M New    ^'orU    City 

Mandel stamni,    N.,    M.D New    York   City 

Mandiberg,    Max Brooklyn,    N.    V. 

Mandl,    Elias New   York   City 

.Mandl,  Nicholas  .M.,  M.D New  York  City 

Manheim,    Frederick New    York    City 

Manilla.   Selig Dobbs   Ferry,    N.    Y. 

Maniloff,  Jacob Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Manishewitz.    Miss    Mamie    F Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Manisof,  J.,  M.D New  York  Citv 

Mann,   Samuel New   Y<irk   City 

Manne,   S New   S'ork    City 

Manning,   Julius I'tica.    N.    V. 

Maroon,   NIrs.  J New  %'ork  Citv 

Marcow,    II Newark,    .V.    J. 

Marculesen,   Maurice New   \'L»rk  Ciiy 

.Marcus,    .Adolph Scranit.n,    i*a. 

Marcus,    Herman New    \'i>rk   City 

Marcus,  I Pitt9!)urg.   Pa. 

Marcus,    Rev.  Jacob Elmirn.    N.    Y. 

Marcus,  Joseph  S New  York  City 

Marcus,    Louis New    ^'ork    City 

Marcuson.    Kev.   Isaac  £ Macon,  Ga. 

Marget.  H Boston.  ^Ia^s. 

Margoles.   Louis    L Montreal,    Canada 

Margolies,   Rev.    M.   S Boston.    .Mass. 

Margolin,    .-Xbraham   J Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Margolin,    Harry New   \  ork   City 

Margolis,    Abraham Chicago.    111. 

Margolis,     Elias Cincinnati,    Ohio 

^largolis.   Rev.   H Baltimore.    Md. 

Margolis,   Jacob Chicago,    111. 

Margulies,    P New    York   City 

Marf^ulies,    S Portland,    f »re. 

Marinoff,    J Denver,    C.do. 

Mark,    .\aron St.    Paul,    Minn. 

JIarkelcvich,    .Moses Fall    River,    Mass. 

Markell,    W Chelsea.    Mass. 

>larkowitz,    I) Albany,    N.    Y. 

Markowitz,  H New  York  City 

Markowiiz.    M Chicago,     III. 

Marks,  Albert  S Philadelphia,  Pa. 

NIarks,     Bernliard Dos    P.alis.    tal. 

>Iarks,    Isaac    L Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Slarks,    J Omaha,    Neb. 

>I»rks,  Jacob   1 Boston,    ^lasb. 

Marks,    Louis St.    Paul.    Minn. 

Marks,    Louis New  York  City 

Marks,   M.,   M.D Phibdeluhia,   Pa. 

Marks.    M.   L New    Y.rk   Citv 

Marks,    Martin    .\ Cleveland.    Ohio 

Marks,    Maurice New    York   City 

Marks.  Rudolph X^w  York  City 

Marks,     Rev.    Samuel San    .Antonii),    Tex. 

M armor,   Jacob   D Baltimore,    Md. 

Marnii.r,  Lazarus New  York  City 

Marshall,  Louis New  York  City 

Martindale,  Jr.,   S La   Cros.e,   \\i». 

Martinson,    H New    York    City 

M.irtinson,    loseph .' New    York    City 

Martin«on,  Julius.   M.D New   York  City 

M.arx,    .Mbert    I Albany.    N.    Y 

Marx,    Kev.    David _.  ..\tliinia,    r,n. 

Slarx.    Samuel New    ^'ork   City 

^iarx,    Simon Tuskejiee,    .Ma. 

JLTrvmont,    .\ Detroit,    Mich. 

Maslibir.   E.  S New   York  City 

NIasliansky,    Rev.    H New    York    City 

Slasliner.    Isaac New    York    Ci'v 

^Iason.   Samuel Providence.    R     f. 

>Inssell.   Jacob New    York    City 

Massell,    loseph,    M.D Boston.    Mass. 

Master,   Harris rhitidelphia.    Pa. 


.Mathany,   H New  York  City 

Mathews,    H New   York   City 

.Matz,  Israrl New  York  Citv 

.Matzkind,   Samuel Rochester.    N.    V. 

Maumlnr^,  Elkan New  York  City 

Maurcr.    tmil.   M.D Philadelphia,    Pa. 

May,   David  Denver,  Colo. 

Mayer,    .Andrew Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Mayer,  Mrs.  B New     York    City 

.Mayer,  C.   .\ New  York   City 

Mayer,   David New  York   City 

Maytr,    Eli Cincinnati,    Ohio 

.Mayer,    Harry    H Kansas    City,    Mo. 

Mayer,    Ja^ob New    York    C:ty 

Mayer,    Levi Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Mayer,  Lewis Demopolis,  Ala. 

May^-r,    .Magdalene New    York    City 

Mayer,   Max New   York   City 

Mayer,  I'rof.   M New  York  City 

Mayer,    Oscar  J New   York   City 

Mayer,  Olio  if New  York  City 

Mayer,    Theodore Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Mayers,   Moritz Brooklyn,   N.    Y. 

Mayers,   .M.    H Denver,   Colo. 

Mayers,   Sam New   York  City 

Marer,   Joseph New   York    Citv 

Meadow,  Jacob Brooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Meadow.  Samuel New  York  City 

Mears,    Rev.   D.  O Albany.   N.    Y. 

Mcdvcder.   Paul Ncv.-   York  C'ty 

Medvcduff.  .M.  E New  York  City 

Mehrenlender,   A.    N.,   -M.D New    Y..rk   City 

Meickel.  .Mrs.   Henry New  York  City 

Meisels.    Raphael Brooklyn,   N.    N. 

Meixler,    Jacob New     Vork    Guy 

Mellors,    Joseph PhiUdelnhia,    Pa. 

Meltsner,  Joseph New    York  City 

Meltzer.   J New  York   City 

Meltzner.  .\I.  T Boston,  Mass. 

Melzer.  Joseph New   York  City 

Mendelowitz,    J New   York    City 

.Mendelsohn,    Herman   T New    York   City 

Mendelsohn,    L New    York  City 

Mendelsohn,  Rev.  Dr.  S Wilmington.  K.  C. 

Mendelsun,    D Mayfield.    Pa. 

Mendelson,   II New  York  City 

Mendelson,    Leon Wilkesbarre.    Pa. 

Mendelson.   Moses Chicago,   III. 

.Mendcs,  Rev.   Frederick  de  Sola,  Ph.D. ..New  York  City 

.Mendes,  Rev.   H.   Pereira.  M.D New  York  City 

.Menken,  Pcreival  S..  Ph.D.,  LUB New    York    City 

Menline,  Joseph   Spencer New  York  City 

Merdes,  Rev.   Dr.   Isaac  P Sav.innah,  Gx 

Merritt,   Max  J Omaha,   Neb. 

Mervis,   Harry ConnrlKviUe,    I'a. 

Merz.  Daniel Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Meseritz,    Isaac Brooklyn,    N.    ). 

Mesirow,   E.   B..   XLD Chicago.   111. 

Messrr.    L New    \  ork    City 

Messcr,   S New    York   City 

Messing.   .Aron  J..   Ph.D Chicago.   III. 

Messing.  Jr..   Rev.  A.  J Montgomery,  Ala. 

Nlessing.    Rev.    Henry  J St.    Louis.    Mo. 

Slessing,  M Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Messnier,    S.    G Green     Bay,    Wis. 

Metzenbaum,  Joseph Cleveland,   Ohio 

NIetzger,    David New   York   City 

Meyer,    A Baltimore,     Md. 

Meyer,    .\tlolph    11 Nashville,    Tenn. 

Meyer,    Emanuel New    York    City 

NIeyer,    Isaac    A Kansas    City,    Mo. 

NIeyer.    lacol New   York  City 

Meyer.  Key.  Julius  H Milwaukee.  \N'is. 

Meyer.    Karl Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Meyer.    Leo  B.,  AM.,   M.D New   York  City 

Meyer.    Levy New    Y.-^rk   City 

.Meyer,    Louis '  :k   City 

Meyer,    M \     Y. 

Meyer,    Max >     Ct-r 

Mever.   N N 

Meyer.  O N. 

NIeyer.   Rev.   Samuel Nr 

Meyer.  Sarah  E NV 

Meyer.    .S..I ' 

Meyer.    Theoilor .i 

Meyer,  Theodore,  M.D Salt  Ijike  Lu,.   Li.,h 

Meyers.    .Narc.n ButTalo.    N.    Y. 

Meyers,    Louis Toir.,'..     \      N" 

Meyers.    M 

.Meyer*.    Max •*., 

M,  1,  r.   -r,      Mri.r         

.MkImiIs,  Jat..l) Nt»    Y.-ik   Ciiv 

Michaelson,  Alexander New  York  City 


LIST   OK   PATRONS 


Mtchaclson,   Barnct Xew  York  City 

Michaclson,    N.    I Baltimorf,    Md. 

Michel,    Frederick New    York    City 

MicheUon,  S.    M St.  Joseph,    JIo. 

Middleman,   S Olyphant,    Pa. 

Miclziner,   Benjamin Cincinnati,   Ohio 

Miclzincr.    Benjamin   G CleveK'ind,   Ohio 

Miercnberg,   Harry New  York  City 

Mihalovitch,    B Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Milch.    David New    ^'ork    City 

Mildorf.  S New  York  City 

Milgroun,  Abraham Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Miller,   A New   York  City 

Miller,   A.  L New  York  City 

Miller,  Albert,   M.L) New  York  City 

Miller,    Alexander Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Miller,    B Kansas    Citv,    Mo. 

Miller,    Charles Fronklip,    Pa. 

Miller,    H Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Miller,    Isaac Washington,   D.    C. 

Miller.   Joseph   H Cleveland,   Ohio 

Miller,  Louis Baltimore,  -Md. 

Miller,    Louis    M Baltimore.    Md. 

Miller,   Morris }!rooklvn.    N.    Y. 

Miller,    P.    .\L,    M.D New   York   City 

Miller,  Raphael  W.,  M.D Cincinnati.  Ohio 

Miller.    S Montreal.    Canada 

Miller,    Simon Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Miller,    Solomon    V Baltimore,    Md. 

Miller,   Mrs.  Will-am  K Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Millman,    L Montreal,    Canada 

Milstein,    Joseph Montclair.    N.    J. 

Mincowsky.    Philip Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Mindlin.  H New    York  City 

Minneman,    L Noxen,    Pa. 

Mintz,  Jacob  J.,  D.D.S New  York  City 

Mintz.   M New  York  City 

Mintz.    ^L,    M.D New   York    City 

Mintz,   Nathan New  York  City 

Mintz,    Brody  &  (^o New   York  City 

Mirontz,    Julius New    York    City 

Mi;;hkin,    I New    York    City 

Mishkong.    IJernhard New   York   City 

Misko,   Joseph '.New  ^'ork   City 

Mitchell,    Edwin    Knox Hartford.    Conn. 

Mitchell,  Ilarley  B La  Grange,    111. 

Mitchell,   S.   W New  York  Ciiy 

Mitshkun.    M Detroit,    Mich. 

Mittelman,    Israel Middletown,    Conn. 

Mittleman,  J.  H.,  M.D New  York  City 

Moch,    M.    E Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Modjeska,   Isidore  I Kansas  City,   Mo. 

Moelkr,    Herman New    York    City 

MoRulesko,    Sigmund New    \'ork    City 

Moldawer,   M Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Monash.    I.    Morris Charleston.   S.    C. 

Monfried,    Max New    York    City 

Monheit,    M Omaha,    Neb. 

Monroe.  J.    M New   \'ork   City 

Monteser,    Max New    York    City 

Moolten,  Raphael  J.,  D.D.S New  York  City 

Mooney,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Joseph  F.,  \'.G New  York  City 

Moore,    .\dolph New    York    City 

Moore,  Prof.  George  F Andover.  Mass. 

Moore,    Minnie New   York   City 

Mord,    George,    M.D Rosehank,   S.    I.,    N.    Y. 

Mord,  M New  Brighton,  S.   I.,   N.   Y. 

Mord,    R Stapleton,   S    I.,    N.    Y. 

Morgenthau,    Henry New  Y'ork  City 

Morin,  J Jersey  City  Heights.   N.  J. 

Moritz,    Max New    ^'or^    City 

Morris,    Louis,    M.D New    York    City 

Morris,    L.    Z Richmond.    \'a. 

Morris,    M Trenton,    Tcnn. 

Morris.   M.    L Montreal,   Canada 

Morris.   W Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Morrison,   Isidore  D New    York  City 

Morrison,    Nathan New    York    City 

Morrison.    Solomon New   "N'ork    City 

Morton.  E.   S Nev.'  ^'ork  City 

Moschcowitz,    Leo New   York   City 

Moschkowitz.    Mcrris New    York    City 

Moscovitz,    Albert New   Haven.   Conn. 

Moscovitz,   M New   York   City 

Moses,    Adolph Chicago,    111. 

Moses,   C.    L New   York   City 

Moses,   Miss   Hannah New   York   City 

Moses,  J.   B..   M.D Crestlvne.  Ohio 

Mosessohn,    Rev.    Dr.    N Portland     Ore 

Moscsson,    S.,    M.D New    York    City 

Moskiewitz,    M..    M.D New   Yor'<    City 

Moskovitz,   David New  York   City 

Moskowitz,    B Greenpoint.    N.    Y. 

Moskowitz,    Joseph New    York    City 

Moskowitz.   L Pittsburg,    T'a 

Moss,   H.   \V..  Akron.    Ohio 

Moss,  M.   L.,   D.D.S New  York  Citv 


Moss.   Max  J New  York  City 

Mosson,   Hermann New  York  City 

Muc  inick     M Philadelphia,    Pa. 

J  "J' ''^■:^  Charles. New    York   City 

Muhlfeldcr,   Uavid Albany,   N.    Y. 

Muhr,    lannic Philadelphia,    Pa. 

m"   "•  -v"";"' Denver,   Colo. 

>1"   "•   -X"^" ''^■">    Vork  City 

Muller,   Osias New     York    City 

Murstein    A BuTalo,   N.    Y. 

xl"'f'"'  '^!'''," Brooklyn,  N.   Y. 

m""l-'   •V"'??r; ^''^^»-    """'^   City 

Musikin,   J.,    M.D Philadelphi:,,    Pa. 

Musliner    Isaac New    Vork   City 

Myers,    A.    U Montreal,    Canada 

Myers,   Aurair.e J^.rsey   City,    N.   J. 

Myers,  Angelo.    Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Myers,    Henry    \    Xew    ^^rk   City 

Myers,    Rev.    Isidore San   Francisco,    Cal. 

Myers,  Lillian  Alvena Baltimore,  Md. 

Myers.  Mandel  K Colorado  Springs,  Colo. 

.\  ycrs,  Morris  II Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Myers,    Mrs...      n^w    York    City 

Myers,    Simon   P Montreal,   Canada 

Myerson,  L.   I NVw  York  City 

Myerson     Phihp St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Myres,    R.    M Xew   York   City 

Naftalin.    D Rothsay,    Minn 

N  aiman,    N . Baltimore,    Md. 

Nanian,    Morris Xew    York   Citv 

Napelb-aum     Moses New    York    City 

Naphtaly,    Joseph  San    Francisco,    Caf. 

Nasanowitz    Abraham Baltimore,   Md 

Nassauer.     F...   Baltimore,     Md. 

Natanson..C.    H.     New    York    City 

Natelson,  S.imuel  M New  York  Citv 

Nathan,    Alfred... New    York   City 

Nathan.    Frederick New    York    City 

Nathan.    Henry New    York    Citv 

Nathan.    Isaac New   York  City 

Nathan,    Laz,irus New    York    City 

Nathan.     Philip.     Omahn,     Neb. 

Nathan,   Robert  F New   York  City 

Nathan,    S..... New    York    Cily 

Aathansohn,    Osias New    ^'ork   City 

Nathanson,    Benjion Newark     \'     J. 

Nathanson,    H New    ^'ork' City 

Nathanson,    N New    York    City 

Nalkin,    Dr.    David Boston,    Mass. 

Natkin.    Isador Piano,    III. 

Nauhaus.    Louis Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Nauheim,    Benjamin New    York    City 

Navison,  Joseph Bostor,  Ma-^s. 

Needle,   M Olvphant,   Pa. 

N  eff,  Louis Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Negbaur,    Max Newark,    .N.    J. 

Nciman,    Bennie Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Neinian,  M.  S McKccsport,  Pa. 

Nelson.    Abraham New    York    City 

Nelson,   Elias New   York   City 

Nelson,   John Providence,    R.    I. 

Nelson.    Rev.    Leon   M Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

N'emser,  William New  York  City 

Neubergcr,    H.    P Chicago,    III. 

Neufeld,  Emil New  York  City 

Neugass.    C Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Neuman,  A New   York  City 

Neuman,    David,    M.D Denver.    Colo. 

Neuman.    Emanuel New    York    City 

Neuman,   Emanuel New  York  City 

Neuman,    II Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Neuman.   Jacob Chicago.    111. 

Neumann,    Louis New    'N'ork   City 

Neumann,   Dr.  R.   S New  York  City 

Neumark,    S.    E New    Y'ork    City 

Neuschatz.  A New  York  City 

Neustaedter,    M.,    M.D New    York    City 

Neuwclt.    Ignatz New    York    City 

Neuwirth,    Max New   York    City 

Neuwirth,    Morris New    Y'ork    City 

Newberger,    Louis Indianapolis,    Tnd. 

Newburger,   Bernhard St.   Joseph,   Mo. 

Newburger,  Hon.  Joseph  E New  Y'ork  City 

Newburger.    Morris Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Newfield,  Morris Birmingham,  Ala 

Newhall,   D.   H New   Y'ork   City 

Newman.    B.    S Hawkinsville.   Ga. 

Newman,    Eernath New  York  City 

Newman.    D New   Y'ork    City 

Newman,    David    D Paterson.    N.    J. 

Newman.    Edward  D New   York   City 

Newman.    G New   York    City 

Newman,   Joseph New   Y'ork    City 

Newman,    Julius Chicago.    III. 

Newman.    M.    M Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Newman,    Michael Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Newman,    Moritz Ts^ew    York    City 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Newman.    Sg..... V         v^?w'ri 

Newman.    Samuel. N.<;«'    \o'Jf   C 

Newman,   Sigmund New   \ork   Ci 

Ncwmark,    11 ,->'<^V'    ^  »' "^    V. 


Ncwmark,   Hams 

Newmark,   Tobias 
Nidrrec,    Henry 


111. 
ity 
ity 
ity 

...Los  .Xngeles,  Cal. 

New   York  City 

New    York  Cily 


Nodcll.   Charles ^     ,       .. 

Sr;.'^r^.v;::;;;.;;.\:::::::.v.wa^i;:^5o^J^^c 

Nov.ck.    Abraham ■  —  -■.::.V.:i^t:    wil   ^ 

Nuffltr.    A...... UratUord,    Pa. 

Nusbaum,    .M.    A „'    ,,      ,  '   r>^ 

Nusbaum,     Philip Si!!.     V     Y 

Nussbaum.   Myer W^^'w?"''   V     Y 

Nussbaum.  Samuel "ve^^    York   CiW 

Obcrtelder,    Max "  vi  .l^r^     I'a 

8H^J?X-Kl^'S^rV:;;;.:.".-.-.v.;.-.;.>f»^v: 
8&t.^S^";^A-i^:s:j::.-^r:!.|e;2^fc^J 

Oeltinger.  .Mrs.  Henry n;^^ll\.T  N     Y 

8L"''G?or«  '""■^' .::■.: •.•.•.•.•.•.•.     Ne°w\"irk^CiV 

Ornn,  Ucorgc rhi^iCTn     III 

85?c^fet;cr;.v.v; ^^^^^^^c^, 

8pp^:|>v;d.-.-.v.v:.v.v.v::  ...... j^ew^vori^^n 

nLr^v     OusVav    F Bridgeport.    Conn. 

&Jii;;!'?^i;.:M:D.; -^^J^^l'^i 

8i;^e;;&fc.v;.-.-.v.:::.v.::.- Grce^^w^  pa. 

O  .penheim,  Jacob N^w    York  0^0 

Oppenhe.m.  Jacob JJ^w    i,orK  i,    y 

Oppenhe.m,  Jul.us rj'w    Y^orK  l     y 

Oppenheim.  Louis. .^<:w    ,    r  , 

Oppenhe.m.  Ludw.g •.•.•.■.■.;:  iiNew   Yo^t  City 

J^iT!:!!;::™'  ^,\;.i: :::.:: ::.:.:::: New  York  aty 

New  York  City 

New    York    City 


Oppenheini,   Samuel 
Oppenhcim,  Victor. 


Oppenheim.    William... ^e^   ^^     ^  ^.-.^ 

Oppenhcimer,    .Xdolf   F ^ew     i  i 

Oppcnheimer.    Mrs.   Anton \V„h1Lton     I)     C 

oUl^enheimer.   (justavus ^  ash  ngton     I)^  C 

Oppenhcimer.   II •• Chicaao     111. 

Oppenhcimer,    """V.p^ ■^■'-'"S'"^?: 


Ohhenhei^eJ;  U^^f  M-b!:  i;:::  "Z vJi:;  VorU  gUy 

Oppenhcimer,    Sigmund 


New    York    City 
Washington,    D.   C. 


Op^enhe.mcr,    Simon /^^^'tSnlrg   \^ 

Opplcman,    J ^        Moines,    low; 

J''f"'u^'«  O'V'f New   York   Cit: 

"'•'»':''•   Y     ■  ....New    York    Cit 

Ordner,    Leo ^^^   Y„,k    ^  j,, 

O""    y'    i\ :      New    York    Cit, 

Orently.    'J- •.••.  — New    York   City 

Ornsinn.    William Washingl.m,  D.  C. 

Orth.   Henry.    ...New-  York  City 

Ortman.    M.   U. Philadelphi.!.   Pa. 


Oner.  Harris  E 
Oscr.  Maurice  Henry. 

Osgood,  S 

0»hin:iky,  Joseph 

Oshlag.    J.,    M.D 

O-ias.   .M.,   M.D.... 


.Philadelp 
..New  York  City 

Pittsburg.  Pa. 

.  .New    Yrrk   City 

New    York    Cily 

...New   York  City 

Philadelphia,   Pa. 


Osl.    M... Porllind.  Ore. 

Oslrow,  M.... ...Newark.  N.  J. 

Olesky,  Morrn ^j^.  v„,i,  city 

Oilinger.  Marx ^^^   York   Cily 

l'.uliman.   T. '...'.N^w    York   City 


I'achier,  Carl 
I'acknrd.  N.  K... 
Packard  Itrothers 
I'ailgug,    Louit 


ork   City 

Syracuse,   N.   V. 

.Syracuse.   N.   Y. 
.New   York  City 


I'adgug,   Loun j;,    I  „„j,,    Mo. 

I!"!"-     iiV™.;; !;!;;!!!!.".New   York  City 

■^ey.  }I"m»" ■,,............ New  York  City 

laley.  Jacob tirooklvn.    N.    Y. 


Paley,    John... 

I'alley.    Samuel 

I'.ilmhauni.  Cicorge.. 

Palter.    Kphrnim 

I'anush,    Morris 


Paper,   Lewis 

ParelhofI,  Kev.  Samuel 

I'argcs,    B.   F.. 


St.   Paul,  Minn. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Chicago,    111. 


i.,,U     \i  New    York  City 

Par!u,'.Max... Brooklyn     N.   \ 

Parsonnet,  Victor,  M.D O*^"?.'''',, \}- 

Pasternack.    K v'-^'u  <"   n/ 

Patton,    W  alter  .\1 New-    Haven,   Conn. 

Pav.cs,   Morris New  ^ork  C.  y 

Pearl,  .\braham  J New  ^  ork  City 

karlman,  Jacob. -New   Y  ork  City 

Pearlman,   S.  J .Milwaukee,   \\  is. 

Pearson,   Samuel   S //."aK-niore     Md. 

Pcinstcin,    N W  orccster,    Ma,» 

Peiser,  Louis,   M.D New   York  C    y 

Peiser,  Magnus  L New  \  ork  City 

Peiser,    Rev.    Simon • • .^"''  A^ 

Peixotto,    Raphael San    Francisco     Cal. 

Pellmon,   Louis r New   Wk   C   y 

Pellmon,  S.   M New   York  C   y 

Pels,    Alfred ^,'T.^  m7 

Pels,    Julius Baltiinore^    Md. 

Peltz,  Simon "New  \ork  Ci  y 

Pennv,  Rev.  William  L..  LL.D New  York  City 

Pensdk,    Meyer •  •  •  ■  ■  ■  fhrooP,    Pa. 

Pepp,     Rubin Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Pci-czel,   Adalbert New    Y  ork   City 

Perel,    A Baltimore,    Md. 

l>cTc\      M  Baltimore,     Md. 

Pereles,'  James  M Milwaukee    Wis. 

Perelson,    L New    Vork    C,,y 

Peres,    Israel    H Memphis,    Tenn. 

Peritz,  Prof.  Ismar  J..  Ph.D Syracuse.  N.Y. 

Perla,    Josenh K^^i^j  ) ''/''      p/ 

Perlberg.    ii Philadelphia     Pa. 

Perlman,    Israel Brooklyn,    .N.    Y. 

Perlman,    William Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Perlstein,  Rev.   M v'^^!'"*l°'r    : 

Perlstein,    M -New    1  ork   City 

Perry,   Edwin '^'■"''^•"v   r^  ,;; 

Perskey,   Samuel   P New   ^  ork   City 

Persky,    Rev.    L v^'^v  Vk   rf.v 

Pesenberg,  Abraham P,"^  }  °',^  A,^l 

Peskind,   .V,   M.D - Cleveland.  Ohio 


.Brooklyn.   N.    Y. 

Brooklyn.   N.   Y. 

Charlrstown,  W.   Va. 

Tornnlo.    Canitdn 

Chicugn,     III. 


Philipson,    Rev.    David,    D.U clV^fn,,!     Conn 

l-l-il'U   Albert ^A'ew'°York*'cit"y 


»-{J" v;;:;:::::::::::::::""Scnlc;rcX 

Phillips,    Nathan -^e.       , 

^ll'i--  ^'=''--'," ::::::^  XlX  cily 

Phillips,   Sam   J.... Chicaco     III. 

Phillipson.    Joseph \kr"n    Ohio 

Philo.   Rev.   Isador   E •.••■.■    iv»v 

■tiilo     Rev.   Solomon '^"v ""^^Ynrk  Ci^^ 

Piecozonka,   Albert ;;::::;::Mon»cal"can'ad!: 

g^^y,V;:  Ar.hu/ t:;d^ ^^^^^S^^^ 

l-t:  lC^?i^Lm.v.-.v.-:::::::::::::::: New  York  c..r 

l.;l,-l        \l^rt    n  ^**     }^*'r     ^"' 


ikel     Merlin .V... ......      ..  .New   York    City 

11  :  f*n' Boston.  Ma... 

.;^[^^N*n^i.v.v;;:;;:::;;:::: New  York  c,.y 

New  \  ork  t  ity 


•;!"'!"'•   ? ■.■.■.■.■.■.■.".■.'.New   York  City 

.!"'"•    V ■■.■.■.■■.... Montreal.    Canada 


Pin.ler,    P ,.  „ 

Pirodi,     Berthold,     M.D 

Pi.ko,    Kmanuel 

IM.tner,   I.eon 

Pi.lner,    Max 

Pitkow.kv.    Max.... 
I 


Chicago,    III. 

New    YorT<   City 

....New   York  City 

New   York   City 

....New    York    City 


■tkow.itv.    .M.x •  York   City 

;'"'''•  J"" .•;:::■.::  New  York  otj 

riattcr.    A v—   v.irk    Tiiv 

Pla.rek.   M.  W.rley \'ew.rk     N     / 

Plaui,   Loui. k/w  York  Cilr 

Ple.ket,    I-oui... ^t.l.lZ.     pI. 


iMe«.et,    Benjamin   M.... 

Plon.kv,    Henry 

Plon.ky,  Nathan  M.... 
Ploli.  l..iac  I..  M.D.... 
Plumer.    Samuel 


ritt.hurg.   P»- 

Denver.    Colo. 

New    York    Cily 

New  York  City 

..New   York  City 


Plumer.    Samuel... ni,ri.,l,lnhl.     Pa. 

Pockra...    Bernard Hll.   ttcitr 

Polachek.    lohn, New   ^.    'J    f.    » 

Polac.ek.    Maurice f-i,i,l.„    i  f 

f»  i.i....«r     ti  tnicago.    in. 

Polakon.     _ll ■/■Ill   ■  jI    C„i...      Tnl/i 


Polin.  S.  ]. 


.....Colorido  Springs,  Colo. 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


I'ollak,  Bcrthold  S.,  M.D Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

I'ollak,    Emil Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Tollak,   Leopold New   York  City 

rollak,    Sigmund Bridgeport,    Conn. 

I'ollitzcr,    David New   York  City 

roUock.  (iregory  O New   York   City 

rollock,   Henry Jersey  City,    N.  J. 

Pollock,   Simon  O New   York  City 

Pollock,    Walter New    York    City 

Polstcin,  Joseph New    York   City 

Pc'pkin,    Isaac Franklin,    La. 

Popper,   Simon New    York   City 

Porgcs,   Emil New    York    City 

Porter.  F.  C New  Haven.  Conn. 

Posert,    Henry.   M.D Jlemphis.   Tenn. 

Posner,    Louis  S New   York   City 

Posner.    Samuel Tacoma,    Wash. 

Poss,    Louis New    York    City 

Potash,   Philip New  Y'ork   City 

Potter.  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  C,  D.D New  York  City 

Poiiski,  S.  C Ashland.  Wis. 

Prager.   William New   York  City 

Prago.   William  L New   York   City 

Preiser.  J New  York  City 

Prcnsky,    Joseph New    Y'ork    City 

Prensky,   Nathan Brooklyn,   .\.   Y. 

Present,   Philip Rochester,    N.    Y. 

I'ress.   M.  J Springfield.    Mass. 

Pressler.  Josef Baltimore.    Md. 

Pressman,    Max Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Price,   Barnett  L New  York  City 

Price,    Barnett   L New   York  City 

price,   Ira   Maurice Chicago,   111. 

Price,  John  A..   'Sl.D New   York  City 

Pr'ce.  ilorris  J New  S'ork  City 

Price.  W.   Gordon,   M.U New  York  City 

Priess,    Abraham Chicago.    111. 

Prince.    Felix New    York   City 

Prince,  Dr.  John  Dyneley New   York  City 

Prince,  John  J New  York  City 

Printz,     M Cleveland,    Ohio 

Prinz,   Emanuel Brooklyn,   N.  Y. 

Prockter,   J.    M Montreal,    Canada 

Proctor.    George  H Paxton,    III. 

Prokesch.  Jacob New   York  City 

Prckesch.  Samuel  J New  York  City 

Propper.  .\.   H New   York   City 

Prowler.    David New    \'ork  City 

Pruzan.    Barnett Kansas    City,    Mo. 

Pruzan.    I.    M Baltimore,    Md. 

Publisher.^'    Printing  Company New   York    City 

Pulaski.    Frank Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Pullan,    E Ottawa.    Canada 

Pye.   Saul   M New   ^'o^k   City 

Raab,  Joseph New   York   City 

Rabinovich.    F Chicago.    111'. 

Rabinovitch.  Morris  A.,  LL.B New  York  City 

Rabinovitch,   William New  ^*ork   City 

Rabinovitz,    II Baltimore,    Md. 

Rabinovitz.  M..   M.D New  York  City 

Rabinovitz.    Osias New   Haven,   Conn. 

Rabinowich.    Israel    B Worcester.    Mass. 

Rabinowich,  Julius New   York  City 

Rabinowitz,    A Stamford,    Conn. 

Kabinowitz.   Abraham New   Y'ork   City 

Rabinowitz.    Barnet New   Y'ork    City 

Rabinowitz,    David Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Rabinowitz.   Isaac New   York  City 

Rabinowitz,   J New   York    City 

Rabinowitz.  J San   Francisco.   Cal. 

Rabinowitz.  Jacob New   York  City 

Rabinowitz.   Louis New  York  City 

Rabinowitz.    S New   York   City 

Rabinowitz,   Zelig Kansas  City.   ilo. 

Rachamowitz.  David   M New  York  City 

Rachlin,    David Brooklvn,   N.    Y. 

Rachlin,   Morris Newark.    N.   J. 

Rachlin.   William,   M.D Brooklvn.    N.   V. 

Rachlis,    Ascher New    York  City 

Kaden,     L McKeesport.    Pa. 

Rader,   David New  York  City 

Radezsky,   Simon Yonkers,    N.    Y. 

Radin,  Adolph  M..   Ph.D New  York   City 

Radm.    Oscar Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Radin.    Samuel    P Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Rado,  Julius New   'S'ork  City 

Raduzincr.  Adolph New   York  City 

Raedel.  Max   F New  York  Citv 

Raff,   Henry  D Chicago,   111. 

Raff  el,    Israel Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Raffel.    Jacob    M Baltimore.    Md. 

Rahenovitch.  Joseph  M Pater<ion.  N.    T. 

Rains,   L.    E New   York   City 

Raism,    Max Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Rakcn.  Simon  C Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Ralter.    K Olvphant,    Pa. 


Raker.    M Olyphant.    Pa. 

Rambach,   Hyroan   M Boston,  Mass. 

Ramirez,  Juan  Jose New   York   Citv 

Randlieb.  Albert New   York   City 

Raphael,   Joseph New   York   City 

Kaphaelson.    Rev.    Barnet Toledo,   Ohio 

Rappaport,   Naftaly New   York  City 

Rappaport,    Solomon New   York   City 

Rappoport.    Rev.    Julius Chicago,    III. 

Raspanti,   Sam New   York   City 

Raincr,  Aaron New  York  City 

Ralner,    Leo.   M.D Brooklyn.    .\.    \. 

RatnolT.    -Nathan New   York   City 

Ratzersdorfcr.    Paul Chicago,    111. 

Raub,    Solomon Dayton.   Ohio 

Ranch,  Samuel New   York  City 

Rauh,     Frederick Cincinnati,    Ohio 

k,iuhoIz,    Fredrich    Philip Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Rayner,    Albert    W Baltimore,    Md. 

Reader,    .Meyer New   Haven,    Conn. 

Rech  iS:  Son,  C Newark,  N.  J. 

Reck,  Leon New  York  City 

Keder,    Ike Akron,    Ohio 

keder,    Jake Crestline,    Ohio 

Keed,    D.    F Cleveland,    Ohio 

Keicb,    .\dolph    B Bridgeport,   Conn. 

Keich,   David New  York  City 

Reich,  Gertrude  K Pittsburg,   Pa. 

Reich,    Isidor Bridgeport.    Conn. 

Reich,    Leo,   M.D Cleveland,   Ohio 

Reich,    -Morris St.    Joseph.    -Mo. 

Reich,   S.   -Moses Bradford,    Pa. 

Reich,   Samuel   D New  York   City 

Reichert,   Rev.   Isador Brooklvn.  -N.    Y. 

Reichman,   William New    York   City 

Reichstcin,    B Connellsville.    Pa. 

Reife.   Harris New   York  City 

Rcimer,   Max New  York   City 

Rein.    Oscar New   York    City 

Rtmach.  .M New  York  City 

Reiner,    P Xew   York   City 

Reiner,    Philip New    York    City 

Remguld,    B Sioux   City,    Iowa 

Reinhardt,    A New   York   City 

Reinhardt,    Maurice New   York   City 

Reinherz,    I.    B Boston,    Mass. 

Reinherz,    P New   York   City 

Reinking,   \'.  J New^  York  City 

Reirman.   M Buffalo,   N.    Y. 

Rcis,  Benedict New  York  Citv 

Reiser,    -M New   Y'ork    Cilv 

Reisl,    H New   York  Citv 

Reisner,   Sam Newark,    N.   J. 

Rtiss,    Bert Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Rciss,   Julius New    York    City 

Kei.'s,    Max New    York    City 

Reiter.  Henry.   M.D New    York  City 

Rembetschck.    Adolf Pittsburg      Pa 

Renard,  II.   R New  York  Citv 

Renner,   .Miss  R.  S.  La  Bell Toronto,  Canada 

Reshower,  J Kcw  York  City 

Resnik,   J Manchester,    N.    II. 

Resnik,    Philip Hartford.    Conn. 

Rethy.    Morris New   York   Cily 

Uetow.    L.   A Providence,   R.   I. 

Keynolds,   Rev.  Louis  G Salt   Lake  City,   Utah 

Rhine,   Louis New   York  Citv 

Rice,   -\braham New  York  City 

Rice,    Henry New    York   Citv 

Rice.    Isaac  L New   York   City 

Rice.  S.   M Wheeling.  W.   \a'. 

Rich.  Charles  S New  York  City 

Rich,  Joseph   S New   York  Cit'y 

Rich,   Mrs.    Matilda New   York   City 

Richman.    Max New    York   City 

Richter,    Belle New    York  City 

Richter,    liernhard New  York  City 

Richter,    Daniel New    York    City 

Riegelhaupt.    S..   M.D Cleveland.  Ohio 

Rieger.    .M.    S Chicago.    III. 

Riemer.    William Brooklvn.    N.    Y. 

Rieser,   Willy.   M.D New   York   City 

Rifkin.    B Cincinn,iti.    Ohio 

Rifkind.   D New   York  City 

Riglander,   M.    M New   York  City 

Ring.    Leopold Fairfield.    Conn. 

Ringolsky.   I.  J Kansas  City.   Mo. 

Rippe,  Aiaurice   L New  York  City 

Riser,    Charles    L Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Rish.  Dr.  Oscar New  Y'ork  City 

Ritav,    H.    B Patersnn.    N.   J. 

Ritch.    Morris Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Ritscr.    K New   York   City 

Ritt.    Edward New    York    City 

Rivkin,   Rev.    B Rochester.    N.    Y. 

Robbin.   Samuel   B Washington.   D.    C. 


LIST   OF   PATUUNS 


Robbins,  J.  D New  York  City 

Uobbins,    M.,    Ph.G Ntw   York   Lily 

Kobbins,    Max   U New   York   City 

Kobbins.    Samuel Itoston,    Mass. 

Roberts,    Harry Boston,    Mass. 

Roberts,    S Iloston,    Nlass. 

Robin.    Peter I'iltsburg.    Pa. 

Robinovitz,  H New   York   City 

Robins,    Joseph Mahanoy    City,    Pa. 

Robins,    Leo New    York  City 

Robinson,  .\ New  York  City 

Robinson,  Abraham New  York  City 

Robinson,    I Detroit,    Mich. 

Robinson,  Isaac.  &  Brother Baltimore,  M*l. 

Robinson,   J.   L Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Robinson,  Max New  Haven.  Conn. 

Robinson,   Samuel New   York   City 

Robinson,    Samuel New    York    City 

Robinion.   Getz New   York   City 

Robison.    Gerson New    York   City 

Robison.   Lazarus New   N'nrk  City 

Rochlctz,   Juhus   \V New    York    City 

Rochliz,    J.    W New    York   City 

Rodler,    hilward New  York   City 

Rodman,    H..    M.D New    York   City 

Rodriguicz,  Adolph New   York  City 

Rotdel,    Charles   F New   York  City 

Roemcr,    Rudolf New    York  Citj' 

Roff,   Samuel Newark.    N.   J. 

Rogawaz,    PhiHp  T Portland.    Ore. 

Rogers,   Charles  A New   York   City 

Rogers,   Mark  H New   York  Citv 

Rogers,    I'rof.   Robert  W Madison,   N.   J. 

Roggen,    Albert New    York    City 

Roggen,    Nathan New    York   City 

Rohberger,    Moritz New   York    City 

Rohrheimcr,    Moses Philadelphia,    I'a. 

Rollnick.   Rev.  Jacob Phila<lelj)hia.    Pa. 

KomanotT,    Isidor    L New    \  ork    City 

Romansky,    J Greenville,     Miss. 

Romansky,  Joseph St.    Louis.    NIo. 

Rome,    IT Paterson.    N.   J. 

Romm,  M.,  M.D New  York  City 

Komm,    Max Baltimore,    Md. 

Komm,    Morris Chicago.    III. 

Kommell,   Adolph New    York    City 

Ronsensky,  A.  J.,  M.D New  York   City 

Kuum,    Samuel Philadcl^)hia,    Pa. 

Kc'oth,   Julius    L New    \  ork   City 

Ropes,    James    II Cambridge.    .Mass. 

Rosanburg,    H Minneapolis.    Minn. 

Rose,   A.    E New   York   City 

Rose,   A.   James Providence.   R.    I. 

Rose,   Abie  and  Willie New   York  City 

Rose,    Adolph \'icksburg.    Miss. 

Rose,    Harry New    York    City 

Rose,    Hurry Mani>tique,    Mich. 

Rose,    Ike Providence,    R.    I. 

Rose,    1  saac Montreal,    Canada 

Rose,  Isaac  N..  D.D.S New  York  City 

Rose.    S Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Roseman,    S San   Antonio.   Tex. 

ko'-tman.    W New    York  City 

K .  sen,    H Toledo.    Ohio 

I^»^en,   L New   York   City 

lvo-*cn.    Max New    York   City 

Ro-tcn,    Nathan Baltimore.    Mci. 

{•'.•"■n.    Scholim New    York    City 

I'     .ii.nu,    Rev.  Dr.   William Baltimore,   Md. 

I: i'  '  nhaum.    Adolph Newport    New*,    \'o. 

k  -.  rili.iunj.    Herman Vonker-*,    N.    V. 

K^siribauni,   Herman  S New   S'ork  City 

|\      .  iitiauni,    Meyer   II Polt^villc,    Pa. 

1;      ■  iihaum,    Morris New    York  City 

Rm  .  .iLaiim,  S.   D New   York  City 

I         -ibtrg,    A New    York    City 

I      -   iil.erg.    Rev.    A Brooklyn.   N.    Y. 

]v  '-.  iiht-rg.  Abraham  H New   York  City 

K  .  .nherg.   B New   York  City 

U-'--<  nlierg.    Benjamin New    York   City 

lv<>^<  iihrrg,    C Montreal.    Canada 

Iv',.  <  nlurg,    C.   S New    York   City 

R.-  .nberg.    I) New    York    City 

Ri  ■>'  nlierg,     1> McKrrtport.     Pa. 

Iv'.i^t  nherg,    I)r.    E Cleveland.    <  >hio 

K> -<«  nhtrg,    IC Seattle.    \\  a^h. 

h'o-rnlitrg.     Pelix Cleveland,    Ohio 

R.>s(  nlicrg,    Ike ,     New    York   City 

Rosenberg,    I , Pill«hurf|,    Pa. 

Ri>M-nherg,  Jacob.  &  Sons Pitt«hnrg.   Pa. 

RuTn(>erg.    lames Cleveland,    Ohio 

Rosenberg,    Mrs.   Joseph Bradfonl.    I'a- 

R<  senberg,    lotcph New    N'ork    City 

RosenlrerK.    Joseph Philadelt>hia,    Pa. 

Rosenberg.    K Pttt»burff.    Pa. 

Rosenberg,    K.   Henry New  York  City 


Rosenberg.   Koppcl Washington,  D.  C. 

Rosenberg.    Leo,   M.D New    York  City 

Rost-nberg.    Louis   L,   LL.B Detroit,    Mich. 

Rosenberg,  M..  M.D New  York  City 

Rosenberg,    Morris Baltimore,    Md. 

Rosenberg,   Rev.  Omiin Brooklyn,  N.  V. 

Rosenberg,    Samuel New    York   City 

Rosenberg.    Samuel Cincinnati.   Ohio 

Rosenberg,    Samuel New    York  ^  Citv 

Rosenberg.    Simon Rochester,    N.    Y. 

Rosenberg  Brothers Manchester.   N.  H. 

Rosenblatt.   H New  York  City 

Rosenblatt,   J New  York   Citv 

Rosenblatt,    J Baltimore.    Ma. 

Rosenblatt,    loseph BufTalo.    N.    V. 

Rosenblatt.    Leon New   York  City 

Rosenblatt.    Rev.   Levi St.   Louis,  Mo. 

Rosvnbloom.    Daniel Syracuse,   N.  Y. 

RosenhhM.ni,   Henry New   York  City 

Roscnbloom.    Louis Allegheny,    Pa. 

Rosenbloom,  Max  Z Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Rosenblolt,    Benjamin Washington,    D.   C. 

RosenbUim,    Henry New    York   City 

Rosenblum,    Louis New  ^'ork  City 

Rosen blum,    Nathan Sharon,    Pa. 

Rosenblum,    William Philade]|)hia,    Pa. 

Rtisenhluth,  Miles New   York  City 

Rosendale,    Simon   W Albany,    N.    \. 

Rosener,  Sol New   Vork  City 

Rosenfeld,    B Tucson,    Ariz. 

Rosenf'.ld.    Bertie New    York    City 

Rosenfeld.   D New   York  City 

Rosenfeld,    Daniel St.   Louis,   Mo. 

Rosenfehl,    G New    York    Citv 

Rosenfeld,   Mrs.   Rosa  W Baltimore,   Md. 

Rosenfeld,    S Voungstown,    Ohio 

Rosenfeld.  S.  M New  York  City 

Rofenfeli,    Kmil New    York   City 

Rosenfelt.   J.    II New   York   City 

Rosenfield.    Louis Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Rosengard,     Kli Haverhill.    Slass. 

Rosengard.    H Chicago,    111. 

Roseng.irten.    L New    \'ork   City 

Rosenheck,   I Brooklyn,    N.    \. 

Rosensohn.    Hyman F'assaic.    N.  J. 

Rosenson.   (ieorge New  York  City 

Rosensiin.   Mrs.   L New  S'ork  City 

Rosenspiiz.    Rev.    Dr.   Alexander Alexandria,   I-a. 

Rosenstein.    Harry New    York   Cityp 

Rosenstein.    Henry Brooklyn,    N.    \  . 

Rosenstein.    Joseph Philadelphia,    Pa, 

Rosenstein.    Louis Moline,    111. 

Rosenstein,    Rev.    M.    W Baltimore.    Md. 

Rosenthal,   A Ml.   Vernon.   N.   V. 

Rosenthal,    A Dalla*.    Tex. 

Rosenthal,    Adolph New    York    City 

Rosenthal,    .Adolph Boston,     Ma«A. 

Rosenthal,   .Mexander  S New    Vork   City 

Rosenthal,    Benjamin Yonkers,    N.    \  . 

Rosenthal,   Charles   S New    York   City 

Rosenthal,  D.  A Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Rosenthal,    F.dward  J New    \  ork   City 

Rosenthal,   Klias New   York  City 

Rosenthal,    KIi.ircr  Lieberman Montreal.   Canada 

Rosenthal,    Rev.    F.    I Hot   Spring*.    Ark. 

Rosenthal.   George   D St.    Louis.    Mo. 

Rosenthal,    H Chelsea,    Ma«». 

Rosenthal,   Rev.  Harris New    York   City 

Rosenthal.     Herman Charlest»»wn.     Ma»». 

Rosenthal.    Ignalz New    York   City 

Rosenthal.   Isaic   .M Pittsfield.   Ma*t. 

Rosenthal,    Isidore Ijincasicr,    Pa. 

thai.   J Worcester.    M.i«». 

Si     \.-^r:.h_    Mo. 

-     .-    N  '  .ty 

Rnienthal,     Laiaru* Mm  >  h, 

Roj-cnthal.    Levi    M Mui.: ida 

Ro-»rnthnl,   M ButUlo.   N.   Y. 

Rotrnthol,   Max.  M.D New   York  Cit;r 

Rosenthal,    .Meyer Svracu»e.    N.    \. 

Rn*cnthoI,   Mich.iel.  M.D New   Vork  City 

Rosenthal.    Philip .\u    Sable.    Mich. 

Rojenlhol.    Rachel Pi*'     •    ■■-      ^'  nn. 

Ro»enthol.   S ^  tjr 


Koseninai,  ismorc 

Ro-*enthal.  J 

Kcsenthal.  J 

Rosenthal.  1.,.    M.D.. 


Roirnthorn.    Ilerin 

R.  It.    MurrtM. 

K  \ 

R.  l»r.  C.  A.. 

R  II 

U  M 

R  Rev.      Bftfe^ 

R 

R 

R. 

Rnsrn/ W  rijj,  !,..■* 

RrKcniweig,  Loui« 


ly 

7. 

<r 

lO 

ll. 

"r 

•   ly 

A    Ilk    I  My 

...Eric.    P«. 


LIST  OF  PATRONS 


Rosett,    L New   York   City 

Rosett,   Moritz New  York  City 

Rosier,  XI.,   M.D New  York  City 

Rosin,  F New  Haven,   Conn. 

Rosing,   Jacob ButTalo,    N.    Y. 

Rosner,    Sam New   York   City 

Rosnosky,    Isaac Boston,    Mass. 

Rcss,   Samuel Newark,   N.    T. 

Rostow,  Clarence,  M.D Newark,  N.  J. 

Rosuck,   I St.  Joseph,   Mo. 

Rosskam,    Isaac Philadelphia,    I'a. 

Roth,  A Brooklyn.   N.  Y. 

Roth,  A.   L New   York   City 

Koth,  Aaron New  York  City 

Roth,   Adolph Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Roth,    B Marshall,    Tex. 

Roth,   Mrs.  C New   York  City 

Uolh,   Edward New   York   City 

Koth,    Emery New  York   City 

Koth,    Fernando New   York    City 

Roth,   Henry,  M.U New  York  City 

Roth,    Ignatz New    York   City 

Roth,  Ignatz New   York  City 

Roth,   Mrs.  J New   York   City 

Roth,    Joseph New    York   City 

Roih,  M.  L New  York  City 

Kcthberg.    Benjamin New    York   City 

Rolhblum.    Saul Dorchester,    Boston,    Mass. 

Rothburger,  P New  York  City 

Kothchild,    S New    York   City 

Kothenberg,    Leon New    York    City 

Rothkowitz,  Harris  B New  York  City 

Rothschild,  Edward  L Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Rothschild,  Jacob New   York   City 

Rothschild,   Jacob Cawker   City,    Kan. 

Rothschild,    .Meyer  D New   York   City 

Rothschild,   S.   F Brooklyn,  N.    Y. 

Rotlischild.    Saul .\'ew    York   City 

Rothschild,    Solomon New    York    City 

Kothstein,    Myer Bradford,     Pa. 

Rottell,    J New    York    City 

Rottenberg,   Dr.   Ignatz  Morvay New  York  City 

Rotter,    Sigmund    S New   York   City 

Rotter.    William Boston.     Mass. 

Routman,    Harry Sharon,    Pa. 

Rovno,     Pinkas Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Rozsa,    Louis New   York   City 

Rubenstein,    C.    A Baltimore,    Md. 

Rubcnstein,  Isaac New    York  City 

Rubenstein,   Jacob Boston,    Mass. 

Rubenstein,   Louis  G.,   M.D.,  Ph.G Braddock.   Pa. 

Rubenstein,    Samuel Boston,    Mass. 

Rubenstein,    Sol Buffalo.    N.    Y. 

Rubilinsky,   A Buffalo,    N.    Y. 

Rubin,    Edward New    York    City 

Rubin,    H Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Rubin,    Ike New    York    City 

Rubm,  Jacob New   York  City 

Rubin,  Joseph   H Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Rubin,   M New  York  City 

Rubin,    Max New   York   City 

Rubm,    Morris Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Rubm,    S Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Rubin,   Samuel   H Bayonne,    N.  J. 

Rubin,   William Syracuse,    N.   Y. 

Rubinson   Brothers Brooklyn,    N.   Y. 

Rubinstein,    B New   York  City 

Rudawsky,   S St.    Paul.    Minn. 

Rudolf,   Robert New   York  City 

Rudolph,   A Montreal.    Canada 

Rudomm,    Joseph New    York    City 

Rugoff,   Abe New   York   City 

Ruslander,    Moses Du  Bois.    Pa. 

Russ,    B New    York    City 

Russotto,   H.   A New  York  City 

Rutenberg,    Charles New   York    City 

Rypms.    Isaac    L St.    Paul,    .Minn. 

Sabetti,    Frank  C New   York   City 

Sachader,  Louis Brooklyn.   N.   Y 

Sachs,    Charles   H Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Sachs,   E...    Chicago,   III. 

Sachs,    H.    M Bayonne,    N.    J. 

Sachs,    I Washmgton,    D.    C. 

Sachs,    Isidor New   York    City 

Sachs,  Julius New  York  City 

Sachs,    Julius   A New    York    City 

Sachs,    Morris .\evv    York    City 

Sachs,  Moses  A New  York   City 

Sachs,   Philip New  York  City 

Sackheim,   G Baltimore,    Md. 

Sacks,    Harris New    York    City 

Sacks.   Paul New   York  City 

Sacks,    Samuel Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Sadowitz,  M Haverhill,  Mass. 

Sadvoranskv,  J Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Safer,  Jacob Milwaukee,    Wis. 


Safowitz,    F New   York  City 

Safro.  Aaron New  York  City 

Sahud,    Dr.    M Chicago,    III. 

Sakowitz,  Solomon New  York  City 

Salabcs,  Joseph Baltimore,    Md. 

.Salamont.  Oscar  H Boston,   Mass. 

^^lant,  S New  York  City 

Salaway,    A.    .M Boston,    Mass. 

Saldin,  M New  York  City 

Salinger,   Julius New   York   City 

Salinger,  Lewis Centervilic,   Iowa 

Sahnger,  N Goshen.  Ind. 

Salk,    M Chicago.    III. 

.Salkovilz,    David Paterson,    N.    J. 

.Salmon,   1.  Citron Nova  Scotia 

.Salmon.    .\I Beaver   Falls.    Pa. 

Salomon,    H.   A New   York   City 

.Salomon,    I New   York   City 

.Salomon,    M.    L Greenville,    Miss. 

Salosen,  Israel Philadelphia,  Pa. 

.Salpeler,  Jacob Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Salsburg.   Abram Wilkesbarre,    Pa. 

.Sallz,    Max New    York    City 

Salyman,  Rev.  Tobias Baltimore,  Mil. 

Salzman,   Rev.    Marcus Wilkesbarre,   Pa. 

Samcth,    Max New   York   City 

.Samodovitz,    Sigmund New   York   City 

.Samoloff,   Louis New   York   City 

Sampliner,    Joseph    H Cleveland.    Ohio 

Samuel,  A Pittsburg,   Pa. 

Samuels.   Peter New   York  City 

.Samuelson,  H San  Francisco.  Cat. 

Samuelson,    Nathan New   York   City 

Sanders,    Frank    K New   Haven.    Conn. 

.Sanders,    Leon New   York    City 

Sandtield.  A San  Antonio,  Tex. 

Sands.  Jacob X'ictor.  Colo. 

Sanguinetti,  Percy  A New  York  City 

.Santer,    Bernard    New    York   City 

Saperston,    Julius    L Buffalo.     N.     Y. 

Sapliirstcin,  Jacob New  York  City 

Sapire,   C New  York   City 

Sapirstein,    N.    L.,    M.D Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Sapper,  Jacob  L Pittsburg,   Pa. 

.Sarasohn,   Sam Detroit,   Mich. 

.Sarasohn  vS:   Son New  York  City 

Sarason,  B Nev  Haven,  Conn. 

Sarsar,    Isidore Memphis,    Tenn. 

Saruya,   .Abraham  L , New  York  City 

Saslavsky,    Alexander New   York   City 

Satz,  Abraham New  York  City 

Sauber,    Adolph Baltimore,    Md. 

.Saubcr.    Robert Syracuse,    N.    Y. 

Saudoniire,    P Pittsburg,   Pa. 

Saner,   Bernard New    York    City 

Saul,  Samuel Allegheny,  Pa. 

Saulson,    William Detroit,    Mich. 

Savage,  Moses,  M.D Baltimore,  Md. 

.Sawin,  Rev.  T.   P Troy.   N.   Y. 

Sax,    Louis Chicago,    III. 

Saxon,  Louis New  Haven,  Conn. 

Sayles,  Solomon  Breslin Berkeley  Heights,  N.  T. 

Saylin,    S.,    M.D Buffalo,    N.    Y. 

Schaap.   Michael New   York   City 

Schadel.   J Springfield,    Ohio 

.Schaengold.  Charles Cincinnati.  Ohio 

Schaffer,   M New   York  City 

Schaffer,   M Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Schafler  &   Susman New   V  ork  City 

Schagrin,  --\dolph Yonkers.  N.  Y. 

Schalbe,   S New   York  City 

Schamberg,   Jay   F.,    M.D Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Schanfarber,   Rev.   T Mobile,  Ala. 

Schannan,  Adolph  M Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Schapira,   S.  William New  York  City 

Schapiro,   M New  "N^ork  City 

Scharf,   M New   York   City 

Scharlin,  J.  A San   Francisco.   Cal. 

Scharlin,   S New   York   City 

Scliatzer,    Louis Rockaway  ^Beach,    N.    Y. 

Schatzkin,   S.   M New  York  City 

Schauer,    Julius New    York    City 

Schaul,    Lewis   J Augusta,    Ga. 

Schaumberg,  Rev.  S Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

Scheer,    Sam New    York    City 

Scheffreen.  Jacob Boston,    Mass. 

Scheib,    Henry New    York    City 

Schein,  Jacob Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Schcinman.   Isaac New   York  City 

Schellenberg.  Charles  B Brooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Schem.   Simon New   York  City 

Schenbaum.   Morris  S New   York  City 

Schenkes,    Israel   W New    York   City 

Schepnorris,    Dr New    York    City 

Scherer.    Jacob New    York    City 

Scheuer,    Jacob Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Scheuer,  Simon Newark,    N.  J. 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Schick,   Philip   I New  York  City 

Schiff,   Jacob    H New    York    City 

Schiff,    L New    York    City 

SchilT,    Simon New    York    City 

Schiffcr,  Joseph New  York  City 

Schiffcr.    Walter  A New    York    City 

Schiller.    E.   li New   York   City 

Schiller,    L New   Y^rk    City 

Schiller,    Dr.    Michael New   York   City 

Schinasi    lirothers New    York   City 

Schinze,   N New  York  City 

Schlachetzky,  Dr.  J New  York  City 

Schlachter,     M New    York    City 

Schlansky,    Harry   P.,    M.D New   York  City 

Schlepel,    Rev.    S New    York  City 

Schlein,    S Phjladelphia,    Pa. 

Schleistein,    M New    \  ork  City 

SchlesinKer,  A St.   Louis,   ^lo. 

Schlesinger,  .Anthony New  York  City 

Schlesinger,   B.  J New   York   City 

Schlesinger.  Jacob Newark,  N.  J. 

Schlesinger,  Lc  Roy San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Schlesinger,    Louis Newark,    N.    J. 

Schlesinger.    M Albany,    N.    Y. 

Schlesinger,    Max New   York    City 

Schlesinger,    Morris New    York    City 

Schlesinger,   Simon New  York  City 

Schleuker.   Rudolph New   York  City 

Schlivinski,    Ilyman Brooklyn,    N.    \. 

Schlockow,    Oswald New    York    City 

Schloss,  Max New   York  City 

Schloss,    Nathan Baltimore.    Md. 

Schloss.   Seligman Detroit,    ^f^ch. 

Schmeidler,   Leopold New   York   City 

Schmidt,    Bernard New   York   City 

Schmidt,    Moritz Paterson,    N.   J. 

Schmidt,  Nathaniel Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Schmidt.   Rev.   S Providence.   R.   I. 

Schmidt.   S.    H Turtle   Creek,    Pa. 

Schmookler.  Henry  B.,  M.D Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Schneider.   C.   H Augusla.   Ga. 

Schneider.    Frank New  York  City 

Schnitzer.  Henry  J New  York  City 

Schnur,    B New    York    City 

Schocn,   ,\dolph,   M.D New  York  City 

Schoen,    Henry New    York    City 

Schocn,  Jacob New   Vork   City 

Schoen,  Joseph New  York   City 

Schocn,    Nathan Paterson.    N.  J. 

Schoenberg.   H New  York  City 

Schoenberg,  Isidor Baltimore.   Md. 

Schoenberg,    L Providence,    R.    L 

Schoenbrad,  T Kansas  Citv,  Mo. 

Schocnfeld.    llugo New    York    City 

Schoenfcld.    L Seattle.    Wash. 

Schoenfield.  Tacob New  York  t  ity 

Schoenthal.   Vienry Washington.    Pa. 

Schomer.    .\braham   S New    York   City 

Schon,    S Boston.    Mass. 

Schonbaum,    David New   York   City 

Schonheim,    Bcrnath New    York    City 

Schonthal,  Joseph Columbus,    Ohio 

Schooner,  Joseph   Y Boston,    Mass. 

Schraltmoy.  .Arnold New  York  City 

Schreiber.   Rev.   Dr.  Emanuel Chicago.   111. 

Schrciber.  L New  York  City 

Schreiber,    Max New   York   City 

Schreiber,  William Chicauo.  HI. 

Schreier,    Kli    S New    %  ork    City 

Schreyker,  S Cloversville,  N.  Y. 

Schrier,    Benjamin New    York   City 

Schroeder,  C.corge  J New   York  City 

Schulman,    David Brooklvn,    N.    V. 

Schulman.  Harris  W New  York  City 

Schulman.   I Minneapolis.  Mmn. 

Schulman,    Louis Brooklyn.    NY. 

Schulman.  Louis ^"*.  ^  "^'i,  *-','/ 

Schulman.    Louis Brooklyn,    NY. 

Schulman.   Samuel New   %  ork  City 

Schulsinger.   Marcus New   >ork   tity 

Schultz,    Frederick Great    Neck,    N.    Y. 

Schultz,   T Olvphani.   P«. 

Schultz,  M V  •*^'V."'?  "■,■'■ 

Schultz,  S.  R.,  M.D New  \  ork  Ciiv 

Schultz.  Samuel  D Victoria.   B.  C. 

Schupack,   Charles   B.,   D.D.S Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Schupper.  Solomon  M Brooklvn.  N.  \  . 

.•^churalh,  Henrv New  York  City 

.Schuslcrminn.  Adolph New  N  nrk  <  ilv 

Schvarlz.    S New    York    (  ity 

Schwab.     Mrs.     Flora Cleveland.    Ohio 

Schwab.   Isaac St.    Loun.    Mo. 

Schwab,    Louis Chicago.    III. 

Schwab.  Solomon  S New  \  ork  City 

Schwahe.   A New   York   City 

Schwack.  Sam New  York  Cit» 

Schwnlb.  H Vonkert,  N.  Y. 


Schwalbe,   Max  J New   York   City 

Schwalber,  Max New  Yjrk  City 

Schwarcz,  Max  .M Brooklyn,   N.  Y. 

Schwartz.    Mrs.    A Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Schw.irtz.  A.  J New  York  City 

Schwartz.  Aaron P'.yipouih,  Pa. 

Schwartz,    Adolph New    ^'ork    City 

Schwartz,    B New   York   City 

Schwartz.    B New    York    City 

Schwartz,    B.    M tast    Boston,    Mass. 

Schwartz.  Charles Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Schwartz,  Charles,  NLD New  \  ork  City 

Schwartz,    David New    York   City 

Schwartz,    H.    J Denver,    Colo. 

Schwartz,    Joseph New    York    City 

Schwartz,  Joseph Scranlon,  Pa. 

Schwartz.  Joseph New   York  City 

Schwailz.    Julius New    York   City 

Schwartz,  L New  York  City 

Schwartz.    Leon Greenville,    Miss. 

-Schwartz.  M Utica.   N.   Y. 

Schwaitz.    M Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Schwartz.   Mrs.   M.   M New  \  ork  City 

Schwartz,    .Max New    York    City 

Sclwariz,    Mayer New    York    City 

Schwartz,    .Moses Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Schwartz.    Rosa Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Schwartz.   Samuel Perth    .\mboy,    N.   J. 

Schwartz.   Solomon  S New   York  Citv 

Schwartzberg.   .Maurice Baltimore.  Md. 

Schwarz,   Louis Rutland.   Vt. 

Schwarz.  R.  M Linden.  Ala. 

Schwarz.  Sam New  York  City 

Schwarzberger,    Max New    York    City 

Schwarzschild,  Samuel New   York  City 

Schwed.   Adolph New    York   City 

Schweitzer,    .Vlrs.  Jacob San    Francisco.  Cal. 

Schweitzer,    Joseph New    York    City 

.Schweitzer,  Julius New  York  City 

Schweitzer,    Samuel Chicago,    HI. 

Sehwob,  .Adolj'hc New  York  City 

Scott,    J Greenville,    Miss. 

Scott,  Louis Bridgeport,  Conn. 

Scully,  P.  J New  York  City 

.Seadler.   B.   F New  York  City 

Seasongood,  A.  J Cincinnati.  Ohio 

Secol,    S New   Haven,    Conn. 

Seder,    I Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Sedler.   Barnet .Mlegheny,   Pa. 

Seelig.   Henry New    N  ork   City 

Seelig.    William New    York    City 

Seernian.   B New   York  City 

SetT.  Samuel Baltimore.  MJ. 

Segal.  Bernhard,  M.D Philadeli.hia.  Pa. 

Segal.   Myer Fort  Scott.    Kan. 

Segel.    Ike New   York   City 

Seidel,    Rev.   Jacob  M \\  ilkesbarre.    Pa. 

Seidenberg,    E New    Yark    City 

Seidenman,    Harry New    \  urk   City 

Seidenman,  Sclig,  &  Brother Baltimore.  Md. 

Seidler,    J .Denver.    Colo. 

Seidnian,  S Biltiniore.  Md. 

Seidman.    Rev.    S Ballimorc.    Md. 

Seiilmann.    Marcus,   M.D .Sev\ark.    N._  J. 

SeilTert,   Max ^^"1:  .^  "'K.'-'i/ 

Scider.   Frederick Brooklvn,    N-„.Y. 

Scigel.  L Nc*   ^'ifK  City 

Seigel.   .Max  A New   York  City 

Seiger.  L'luis Piti«biirg.  Pi. 

Sein.heimer,    Henry   A Cincinnati.    Ohio 

S,ll,y,  J Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Seldiii.  Nathan  A New  York  City 

Selenken.   M.   E Baltimore.   Md. 

Selicovilch.    Loui« New    York    City 

Selig.   Moses New   York  City 

Selig.   Samuel New    York   City 

Seliger,  Sr>lomon Baltimore,   Md. 

Seligman,   .\aron New    V.irk  City 

Seligman,  -Abe New  York  City 

Seligman,   Kdwin   R.  .A New   York  Cily 

Seligman,  Isaac  N New  York  Cily 

.Seligman.    Max New    York    City 

Seligman.  S.    H New   York  Cily 

Selig'>ohn,    Aaron Cleveland.    Ohio 

Selker.   J Toledo.    Ohio 

Sellers.    Maurice    M Lvnn.    Ma«v 

Sellmnn,  Jacob Bin-.-' V     Y. 

Seliicr.   .\brani....* ....1  V     V. 

Selt/rr.    Itarnetl '    mn. 

.'^enian.   Philip   L .-.-     ■      -   City 

.Lemuel.  J trie.    Pa. 

Seniller.  Jacob   K New   Y..rli   Ciijr 

Sepirofl.    M ^ ■       N     J 

Srrkau,    I.oul« Chortllt,    M  "»d» 

Sestler,  .Arnold City 

.Sessler,  Kev.   M V.>,-..u.r.    .\lirt. 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Scttrll,  Abraham New  York  City 

Settle,    Isidore New    York   City 

Shabad,    Henry   M Chicago.    111. 

Shaber,  S Nashua,   N.    H. 

Shabei.   Kev.   M Baltimore.   Md. 

Shackter,    1.    M Jersey   City.    N.    I. 

ShaetTcr.  Samuel  J Chicago.    Ill, 

Shaff,   Carl New   York   City 

Shatter,    Simon Chicigo,    HI. 

Shaievitch.  M New  York  City 

Shalcit,  S.  Joseph Minneapolis.   Minn. 

Shalitte,  Aria  L. Minneapolis,   Minn. 

Shalitle,  J.   L Minneapolis,   Minn. 

Shaphrane,   B Greenville,    -Miss. 

Shapira,    D Montreal,   Canada 

Shapira,   I.  J.   E,,   M.D Boiton,   Mas=. 

Shapira,  Isaac Boston,  Mass. 

Shapiro,  Aaron  S New   York  City 

Shapiro,  Abraham New  York  City 

Shapiro,  Adolph New  ^■ork  City 

Shapiro,    D Chicago,    III. 

Shapiro,   H New   \'ork  City 

Shapiro,   II Chicago,   111. 

Shapiro,    Harris New    York   City 

Shapiro,  Mrs.  Helen Colorado  Springs,  Colo. 

Shapiro,    I Cleveland,    Ohio 

Shapiro,    Isaac Chicaeo,    111. 

Shapiro,  J New  York  City 

Shapiro,    I Salt    Lake    City,    Utah 

Shapiro,  Jacob Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Shapiro,  Jenny N'ew  York  City 

Shapiro.    Toshua  S New   ^'ork  City 

Shapiro,   Lemuel Brooklyn,   N.    Y. 

Shapiro.    M Montreal,    Canada 

Shapiro,   S New    York   City 

Shapiro,  S.  N New  York  City 

Shapiro,    W Lawrence,    Mass. 

Shappiro,  Jacob Washington.   I),   C. 

Shar,   Aaron Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Shaskan,    SamueU New    York   City 

Shatz,    Lewis  A Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Shatzkin,    M.    B New    York  City 

Shatzkin,    N.   J Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Shefflcr,    Samuel Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Sheftelson,    Solomon Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Sheinberg,  B Pittsburg,   Pa. 

Shenken,   Julius,    M.D Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Shenkman,   Samuel New   "S'ork  City 

Sher,    Bennett Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Sher,   Edward New   York   City 

Sherbow,    Rev.  Jacob   S Philadeliihia,    Pa. 

Shereshevsky,  M,  M.D New  York  City 

Sherman,   Louis  I New   York  City 

Sherman,    Oscar Jersey   City,    N.   J. 

Shershefsky,    Rev,    Abram   M Boston,    Mass. 

Shewitz,  Mrs,  J New  York  Citv 

Shield,  Jacob   S Warsaw,    Ind. 

Shinkman,   Samuel New  York   City 

Ship.    F Montreal,    Canada 

Shitzkins,  Adolph  S • Brooklyn,   N.   Y. 

Shlachetsky,   Louis,  M.U New  York   Citv 

Shless,    A.    L Chicago,    111. 

Shlickerman,   Alfred  A New   York   City 

Shmulewitz,   Henry New  York  City 

Shcob,   Leo New  York  City 

Shoolman.  Joseph Charlestoun,    Mass. 

Shopiro,  J New  Yoik  City 

Shorr,    Rev.    Israel Newark.    N.    J. 

Shramek,  Carl New  York  City 

Shufro,    Jacob  J New   York    City 

Shuklansky,  Jacob  I New   Castle,   Pa. 

Shulhof,    K.    L Montreal,    Canada 

Shulman,   Abraham Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Shulman,  Isaac New  YDrk  City 

Shulman.   M New  Haven.   Conn. 

Shulman.  Nathan Baltimore.  .Md. 

Shumberg.   George New   York   City 

Shure,    Mandel Chicago,    III. 

Shurr,  Mark  J Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Sibeibel,   A New  York   City 

Sichel,  Sigmund Portland,  Ore. 

Sickels,    H.    M Worcester,    Mass. 

Sickerman.  David New   York  City 

Sickles.    Gustavus Philadelphia.    I'a. 

Sideman.   Ben New  "S  ork  City 

Sidenberg.  Charles New  York   City 

Siebler,    Benjamin Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Siegel,   Hermann New   \'ork  City 

Siegel,   M New  York   City 

Siegel,  M St.   Louis.   Mo. 

Siegel,   M Providence,   R.    I. 

Siegel,    Rachel    U Salt    Lake    City,   Utah 

Siegel,   Samuel New   York   City 

Siegelman,  Julius New   York   Citv 

Siegelstein,   L.   E.,   M.D Cleveland,    Ohio 

Siegmeister.   William New   York   City 

Sigmnnd,  S New  York  City    ' 


Signal.    Benjamin New    York    City 

Silberberg.    .Vnron Oil   Citj,    Pa, 

Silberberg,  I.  L New  York  City 

Silberberg,    Nathan New    York    City 

Silberberg,    Siegfried New    ^  ork    City 

Silhcrblatt,  S New  York  City 

Silberfcld,  Rev.  Julius Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Silberman,   David New   York  City 

Silberman,  I New  York  City 

Silberman,  J New  York   City 

Silberman,  Jacob New  York  City 

Silberman,    L Baltimore,    Mcf. 

Silberman,  .Morris New  York  City 

Silberman,   Moses Baltimore,   Md. 

Silberman.  Moses  P Baltimore.  Md. 

SilbtTman.    Sam New    York    City 

Silberman.  Samuel  J New  \'ork  City 

Silberman.    Samuel    L Boston.    .Mass. 

Silberman.    Tanchum Baltimore.    Md. 

Silberstein.    Bernard Duluth.    .Minn. 

Silberstein.   George New   ^'ork   City 

Silberstein.    M r)envcr.    Colo. 

Silbtrsl'-in.    Solomon Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Silberstein.    Solomon    D New    ^  ork    City 

Silver.   Isidor .-\ugusta.  Ga. 

Silverberg.    E.    Myers Pittsburg.    I'a. 

Silverberg.  George  M.,  M.D Chicago,   111. 

Silverglade,    M Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Silverman,    A Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Silverman,    George  Morris Uniontown,   Pa. 

Silverman,   Joseph,    D.D New    York    City 

Silverman,  L.  L Syracuse,  N.  ^. 

Silverman,   M.   J.,    M.D New   York   City 

Silverman,    Max New    York    City 

Silverman,  Moses Boston,  Mass. 

Silverman,  Samuel New  ^*o^k  City 

Silverman,    William Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Silverstein,  J New  York  City 

Silverstein,    Louis New   York   City 

Silverstein,  Morris ^.  Boston,  Mass. 

Silverstone,    Louis New    York    City 

Silvert,    Manuel Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Silverthau,  Abraham New   \  ork  City 

Simmons,    David New    York   City 

.Simmons,  G.   H Columbus.  Ohio 

Simon.  A Brooklyn.  N.  Y. 

Simon.    Rev.  Abram Omaha.    Neb. 

Simon.   David New   York  City 

Simon.    E Nashua.    N.    H. 

Simon.    Gustav .\ltoona.    Pa. 

Simon.    Gustave .Mtoona.    Pa. 

Simon.  H Manchester.   N.   H. 

Simon.    Isidor New    York    City 

Simon,    Hon.  Joseph Portland.   Ore. 

Simjn.  Kassel New  York  I'ity 

Simon.  Sig Salt  Lake  City.  Utah 

Simonoff.    H New    York    City 

SimDns.    A Bradford.    Pa. 

Simcns.    David  W Detroit,    Mich. 

Simons.    Louis Rochester,    N.    Y. 

Simonskv.    S Toronto,    Canada 

Simpson!  Simon   I New  Haven.  Conn. 

Simsohn.  Joseph  S..   M.D Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Sinchawitz.    Charles New    York    City 

Sindler.    A Baltimore.    Md. 

Singer,    B Montreal,    Canada 

Singer,   Charles New   York   City 

Singer.    Fritz New   \  ork   City 

Singer,    Henry   B New   York   City 

Singer,  Herman   B.,   M.D Buffalo,   N.   Y. 

Singer,  Isidor New  York  City 

Singer    T Toronto,   Canada 

Singer',    iVcob Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Singer,  Julius New   \  ork  City 

Singer.   Marcus New   York   City 

Singer.  Mayer New  York  City 

Singer.   Dr.    Michael New   York    City 

Singer.  Moses New  York  Cily 

Singer.    S C.'irbondale,    Pa. 

Singer!  Samuel  M Baltimore.   Md. 

Singerman,    Paul Seattle.    Wash. 

Sinsheimer.   Charles New   >  ork   City 

Sinsheimer.    Joseph New    York    City 

Siravich.    Rev.    Tacob New    York    City 

Sirvan.    Harrv    C Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Sivin  Brothers New  York  City 

Sivitz.    Rev.    M.    S Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Skaller.   George New   York   City 

Skidelskv.    Simon    S Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Skutch.   Ma.x Baltimore.    Md. 

Slater.   H.    D New   York  City 

Slatzsky.   John  J Boston.    Mass. 

Slizak.   C Fall   River.    Mass. 

Sloan.   Morton  Worthaus Huntingdon.  W.  Va. 

Slobodkin.   Harris  A Boston.    Mass. 

Sloman.    Sam New   York   City 

Slomka.  Adolf New  York  City 


LIST  OF  JPATUONS 


Slomka,  Jacob New  York  City 

Slonimsky,   Dr.   George riiiladclphia.    I'a. 

Slonimjky,    I Montr  al.    Canada 

Slonimsky,  Dr.  Joseph  T Philadelphia,  l*a. 

Slonimsky,    Solomon Philadelphia,    l*a. 

Sloss,   Mrs.   M.   C San    Trancisco.   Cal. 

Slote,  Sanuiel   H.,   M.D lirooUlyn.    .\.    Y. 

Slolkin  &   I'raglin .New    Vork   City 

Sieves,    N Montreal.    Canada 

Slusky,    Daniel Augujta,    (Ja. 

Slutzker,     M Alloona,     Ta. 

Slutzker,    II .Mto(>na,    Pa. 

Smickler,    Solcmcn Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Smilansky,     M Detrt.il,     Mich. 

Smith,   Abraham New    ^'ork    City 

Smith,    It Washington,    D.    C. 

Smith,    It New    York   City 

Smith,  J St.   I.juis,  Mo. 

Smith,    Marks Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Smith,    Morris New    \  ork   City 

Smith,  Robert New  York  City 

Smith,   Samuel New  Y^ork  City 

Smithkline.   Jacob,    M.D New    York   City 

Smolian,  Oscar New  York  City 

Smolinsky,   I.   D New   York   City 

Smukler,    H Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Smulcwitz,    Rev.   S New    \  ork   City 

Snitkin,  Leonard  A New  York  City 

Sobel,    Isador Eric,    Pa. 

Sobel,  Jacob Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Sobel,   Jacob,    M.D .New    N  ork    City 

Sobel.    Max New    York    City 

Sobel,    S.    R Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Sobelman,  Joseph Baltimore,    Md. 

Sobin,   D lirooklvn,   N.   Y. 

Sohn,    L New   S'ork   City 

Sohr,  Max Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Sokolow,   Bernhard .New    Vork   City 

Sokolowcr,   J New   York   City 

Sokolsky,    Rev.    Solomon New   York   City 

Sola,   Clarence  I,   de Montreal,   Canada 

Sollod,    Nathan Baltimore,    .Md. 

Soloff,  S.  N Brooklyn.  N.   Y. 

Solomon,    A.    A Philadeli>hia.    Pa. 

Solomon,   D Schenectady.   N.   Y. 

Solomon,    George \icksburg.    Miss. 

Solomon,    Mrs.    Henry Chicago,    III. 

Solomon,  I.   P New  Y.>rk  City 

Solomon,  J Allegheiiv,   la. 

Solomon,    J Brooklyn,   N.    Y. 

Solomon,  Joseph  J New  York   City 

Solomon,  L New  York  City 

Solomon,   Louis Great  Falls.   Mont. 

Solomon,    Louis New    York    City 

Solomon,   Marcus Scranton,    Pa. 

Solomon,   Max Beaver  lalls.   Pa. 

Solomon,    Mortimer  Wald New   York  City 

Solomon,  Oscar Cedar  Rapids.  Iowa 

Solomon,    S Scranton.    I'.i. 

Solomon.  S.  D.,  A.B Syracuse,    N.   Y. 

Solomon,    Sam New    ^■n^k    City 

Solomon,   Samuel New  York  City 

Solomon,  Samuel  E New  York  City 

Solomon,    Saul Mimtreiil.    Canada 

Solomon,    William New    York    City 

Solomons,  Joseph  R„  D.D.S New   Vork  City 

Solomont,  Simon Boston.  Ma»s. 

Solon,     Moses Chicago,     III. 

SolotarofI,  H.,   M.D -^ '^.  ^  "'K.'^ '.V 

Solotovsky,  Joseph Brooklvn,  N.  Y. 

Solovey,  Jacob Oil   <- 'ly-    Pj- 

Soloweitzik,  Solomon Westerly,   R.    I. 

Solzman.  II New  Haven,  Conil. 

Sommerfeldt,   M Yonkrrs,   N .    V  . 

Sommcrl.    M :,^'"' .  ^  <"■''   9."' 

SomoNkv,   Jacob UashinKion,    la. 

Sonenberg,    AdoU Monireal.    Canada 

Sonneborn.    Henry .Ballimnre.    Md. 

Sonneborn.  Jonas N.e"    Vork   City 

Sonneborn,   Mrs.    Leo Ne»    Vork  City 

Sonneborn,    M Wheeling     W.    \  a. 

Sonnentelt.    I.    B New    ^t   ^'I" 

Sonnen-^chein.   Ignall u:^'*.   >  "'•<   City 

Sonnenschein,  Rev.  S.  H Des  Moinrs.  low. 

Sonstcin.    I McKee^port,    Pa. 

Sookne,    loseph,  D.D.S New   N  ork  City 

Soper,   Carl New   ^  ork  (  ity 

Sossniti.    Isaac.    M.D New    York    City 

SoupcolT,  J.,   M.n Pittsburg,    P«. 

Sovatskin,    Joseph    S Lowell,    Mast. 

Spann.  Rev.   Philio Allri;heny,  Pa. 

Spar.'.    .Nristoph,    M.D Chicago,    III. 

Sparenberjj.    E New    York    Citv 

Sparger.    Rev.    William New    York   City 

Spark.    M New  Vork  City 

Speaker,   Henry   M Phila<lel|>liia.    Pa. 

Specter.  A.    B Lawrence.   M»««. 


Spector.   Leon Manchester.   N.  H. 

Sjiector.  I^on .New   Vork  City 

Spectre.    L Washington.    I).    C. 

Speiser,   Louis Rochester.   .N.  Y. 

Spektorsky,   Hyman New   York  City 

.Spcktorsky,    Jacob Boston,    Mass. 

Sptrber,    David Montreal,   Canada 

Speyer,    Leo New    Virk    City 

Spiegel,   Rev.  Adolph New  York  City 

Spiegel,   Adolph,   &   Company New   York   City 

Spiegel,  Judge  Frederick  S Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Spiegel,    Jonas .New    York    City 

Spiegel,   .S Cleveland,  Ohio 

S|)iegel,   Samuel,   M.D New   York  (,'ity 

Spiegclberg.    F .New    York    City 

Spiegclberg.  I.  N New  York  City 

Spiegelberg,    Levi .New    York    City 

Spielberg,    A New    York    City 

Spiclberger,  Adolph New  York  City 

Spiclberger,  Jacob New  ^'ork  City 

Spiermann,  Herman Rockaway  Beach,  N.  Y. 

Spigil,    Julius New    ^'ork    City 

Spilman.    Louis East    Bost^m,    Mass. 

Spiro,    .\ Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Spiro,    Abraham    C Montpelirr,    \*t. 

Spiro,  .Abraham    I New   York   C'ty 

Spiro.    XL.    .M.D Alleghenv,    Pa. 

Spitz,  Anton New   ^'ork  City 

Spitz,  Daniel New  York  City 

Spit/.    George Olyphant.    Pa. 

Spitz.    Josfph Appleton.    Wis. 

Spitz.    Samuel Chicago,    III. 

Spitrer,    Harry Brooklyn,    N.   \. 

Spivacke,  Dr.  Charles  A New  York  City 

Spivak,  C.  1)..  .M.D Denver.  Colo. 

Sprey,   Benjamin New  York  City 

Spring.   Sam St.  Joseph.    Mo. 

Srenco.  Henry Rochester.  N.  Y, 

Srolovitz.    Max    L Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Stalbcrg.    B Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Staller.  Max.  M.D Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Stand.    Leon .New   York   City 

Stander,  .Vnna New  York  City 

Stark,    E.   J San    Francisco,    Cal. 

Starr,   David Boston.   Mass. 

Starr,  Hyman New  Vork  City 

Starr,    R.du-rt New   York  City 

Starr.    Rev.    William    E Baltimore,    Md. 

.Steckler,  .Mfred New  York  City 

Steif,  W Chicag..,   HI. 

Steiger,  E.,  &  Company New  Vork  City 

Stein.   .Xbraham Pittsburg.   Pa. 

Stein,    Abram New  York   City 

Stein,  Adolph New  York  City 

Stein,    Bernhard New    Vork   City 

Stein.  Charles New  York  City 

Stein.  Charles  I Greenwood.   MisJ. 

Stein.   Edward New  York  City 

Stein,  Herman New  York  City 

Stein,  Isi-dorc  A New   York  City 

Stein,    loseph New   York  City 

Stein.    loseph New    York    City 

Stein,  Julius Brooklvn.   N.  V. 

Stein.   Leo New    Vork   City 

Strin.    Louis Philadeliihia,    Pa. 

Stein,  M.,  M.D..  D.D.S New  York  City 

Stein.    M.    P Stockton,    Cat. 

Stein,  Max New  Vo'k  City 

Stein,    S Nr«    \     rV    (  ity 

.Stein.  Samuel ^  '  'ty 

Stcinbach,    I..    W.,    M.D PI  !'a. 

Steinberg,  Charlei  J I  11«- 

Steinberg,     D New     Il.i%cn.     I.  ..nn. 

Steinberg,    lacob Detroit.    Mich. 

Steinberg    llrotherl Toledo.    Clhio 

Stctnbcrgtr.    F Bradford,   Pa. 

Strindirr,   Max New  York   City 

Steincr,   .Mfred Bmoklvn.    N.   Y. 

Steinrr.   G New    York   City 

Steiner.   Mrs.    I Newark,    .N.    T. 

Steiner,   Io«cph N'v,    \,,l    Cty 

Steincr,!... '  'ty 

.Steiner,    I.ajns t  'lio 

Steiner.    Samuel.    M.D Ph. I'a. 

Steiner.    Victor New    S'ork    City 

Sieinhardt.   Rev.   Hcinrich New    York  City 

Steinhardi.   Kalman New  York  City 

Steiniti,  .Samuel New  York  City 

.Steinmann,    M New  York  City 

.Steinmann,    S     B New    Vork    Ctly 

Stenchevrr.    Meyer Palrr»<'n.    N.   J. 

Stengel.    Kniil I*itt«tiurff.    Pa. 

Stern,   David N' •    ^    -'    C'tr 

Stern.    David HI. 

Stern.    David    F N  ijr 

Stern.    G .N. ...,,.      ',     J. 

Stern.  I New  Vork  City 


LIST  OF  PATRONS 


!""•  {■■, New  York  City 

§,'""■  Z-    f Cumberland,    Md. 

§!""■  \\'^°^ New   Vork  City 

Stern'  L  ( ^^   ^"^sas.    N.    Mcx 

?""■  i°^'-l- Nov  V  ,rk  Cit) 


ty 

ty 

G*I^^'   T        ''"I'j'i'i New    York    City 

!""•  Leopold  H .N,.,,,   York  City 

Stern,    Louis Brooklyn,    N.    v' 

i,'""' J-ouis... >,Vw    Vork    City 

item.  Rev.  Lou.s Washington,  D.  C. 

New   York   City 


Stern,    Leopold.  . 


Stern,    M 

Stern,   .M    H Philadelphi.i,   Pa'. 

§""•   ^.'""'** New    \-'ork    City 

Sent,   Nathan Xe„   y^,,,   (■■/ 

l,^^'    «    ^■■, McKeesport.    Pa. 

Stern,    Samuel    Uniontown,    I'a. 

i;"";^'i"°7'^-: Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Sternbach,    Charles .Ve,^    York    City 

Sernbatz.  Asher New   York   City 

Sernberg.    Marc Philadelphia,   Pa 

S  ernberger,    B         . . . .    Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Sternbergtr,  Mrs.  Pauline New  York  City 

il""f'  u.""t°" ,•,••,; '^'«»-   Vork  City 

Sternlicht    Isaac,   M.D Kew   York  City 

Sterns,    Charles Rutland.    Vt 

|'"'>-  F  ^'«"-   Vork  City 

Stewart,    E.    B Chicago.    Ilf, 

|!!<^'"^  Hermaijn Xew  York  City 

Stiefel.    Alexander Salt    Lake   Citv.    Utah 

I  'ffl    r-i?'°i'"d ^'••»'    Virk   City 

Stiffl,  Charles  S Little  Rock.  Ark. 

btillpass    Louis Xew  Yr.rk  City 

Mme,   Albert Xew  York  City 

Stinc,  MarciH. .     Xew  Vork  City 

Stiner,  Joseph  H Xew   York  City 

i'"'"'>-u^'l''-V ^'"^    Vork    City 

I'"'-    C.l?"'es   A St.    Louis.    Mo. 

Stix    William St.   Louis,   Mo. 

Stock.    Bane Xew   H.ivon.    Conn. 

Stockcr.  Jujius.  . .    Detroit.  Mich. 

Stoergtr    Sigmund Brooklyn.   N.   Y. 

Stol.    Sebastian.    M.D Chicago.    111. 

Stoarsky.  M. Chicago.  III. 

Molz,    Benjamin Syracuse.    N     Y 

Stolz.  Joseph ...Chicago,   III. 

S  one.   A  St.   Joseph,    Mo. 

Stone,    Alfred    Holt Greenville,    Miss. 

Stone,    E.    V Pueblo.    Co'o. 

Stone,  Oeorge St.  Louis.  Mo. 

Stone,  H.   M  Columbus.   Ohio 

Stone,  Rev.  John  Timothy Baltimore,   Md. 

Stone.   Meyer..     Xew  Vork  Citv 

Stoneman,   David Boston.    Mass. 

Stoneman.    Samuel Providence.    R.    I. 

Stott.   A    J.      Xew   York   Citv 

Stotter,  Dr.  Henry  B Cleveland.  Ohib 

Stottcr,    J.,    M.D Cleveland.    Ohio 

Strashun.   A..    M.D Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Straus,     •  •        •  - 

Straus, 

Straus, 

Straus, 

Straus, 

Straus, 

Straus, 

Strauss, 


Alexander    L Baltimore.    Md. 

li-idor Xew  Vork  City 

Joseph  L Baltimore.    Md. 

>>'athan New  Vork  City 

Hon.  Oscar  S Xew  York  City 

S'inon   \V Chica<ro,    III. 

Solomon Baltimore.    MJ. 

" Newark.    N. 


M.... 
M.D.. 
A 


Strauss,  Herman 
Strauss,  Meyer. . 
Strauss,  S.  J. . . . 
Strauss,  Samuel. 
Straussberg.  Dr. 
Streiffer,  Henrv. 
Strcitfeld,   Harry 

Strom,  Jacob 

Stromberg.    Philip 

Strouse.   Mrs.   Hennie.. 

Strouse,    Isaac 

Strouse,   Isaac,  Jr 

Strouse,  Leopold 

Strouie,    Samuel 

Strouss,    Isaac 

Strudler.  Ansel 

Stnilman.    A 

Strunsky.  Klias 

Stulman.    M 

Sturim.  Count 

Sturka,   Mrs.   Anni 
.Sturm.  Maurice  A 

Sturz,   Joseph 

Subrensky.  Noah. 
Suchman.  Israel.  .. 
Suesskind,   Adolph 

Sugar.  A.  J 

Sugarman,  A.   D.. 


H... 
.M.D. 


Denver,    Colo. 

Hamilton.    Ohio 

W'ilkesb^rre.    Pa. 

.  . .  .  Des  Moines.  Iowa 
Newark.    N.    J. 

New   York   Citv 

Philadelphia.    P.i. 

New  "S'ork  Citv 

Nr^w   York   Citv 

Baltimore.   Md. 

Baltimore.    Md. 

Baltimore.    Md. 

Baltimore.   Md. 

_.  .Baltirrore.     Md. 

Voungstown.    Ohio 

New   York   City 

New    York    City 

...San  Frnnclsco,  Cal. 

Baltimore.    Md. 

New  York   Citv 

New    York    City 

New   York  Citv 

New    York    City 

...Atlantic  Ci«y.   N.  J. 

New   ^'ork    City 

New  York  City 

Baltimore.  Md. 

New   York  City 


Omaha.   Neb. 

.Berlin,   C)ntario,    Canada 

Baltimore.    Md. 

Harrisonville.   ,Mo. 


Sugarman,  .Samuel 

Sugarman,    William 

Sugarman.     William 

Sullivan.    Uev.  J.   W 

Sulzbacher.  Joseph    H. .■.'.■.' New    York   Citv 

Su  zberger.  Cyrus  L \ew  York  C  Iv 

Sulzberger.    l4rdinand ..New    York  Citv 

St"  zberf  r-   I'?" Philadelphia,    Pa^ 

Jiulzberger,  Solomon Xew   Nort   r.t,; 

-Summerleld.   Moses St    I  oui^    \]J^ 

Sundelon.    Adolph.   M.D .■.•.•.•.■.•.■New    York   C  ty 

iupJII^:^.^;------------- 

luss!;;^;r^ak:::;::;:;:;-:;-.v;;;::';5i^^p:;ir-^ 


Sussnim.    H. 

Svarcz.  .\Iano.... 
Swartz.  -Vbraham 
Swartz,    .Miss    An 


New    Vork    City 

Baltimore,   Md. 

.  .New   York    City 


g    :  n;!^-f;.-.-:;:::;v.;:;:::::-;ij<-;^?;  K: 
|w  g;  r^a5i.n■^^--:;:;-;;-:;;^..\?I^  Si^ 

g"  f  "•    ^■\, Portland.    Ore. 

SvHe„°,^'„  ■  'r ^■<^"-  Vork  Citv 

Sydeman,    .A Boston.    Mass. 

Sylvester,    H Xew    York   Cit^ 

SvrTn ''  \"''7/ ■'^■<'"-    Vork    City 

.Syrkin,  .Xrnolcf Xew  York  CitI 

^fylil'  i" N"ew    Vork    City 

T^nT  •    i'k-. ; Mrntreal.  Canada 

T      u  •  U"  'l:"''''"",  ^  V,-  K ^■"-■»-   Vork  City 

landlich.  .Samuel,  M.D New   Vork  City 

fanenbaum.    L  Xew    York  City 

lannenbaum,   .\ Xew   Vork  City 

Tannenbaum,    D..     Xew   Vork  City 

Tannenbaum,   Jacob Xew    York    City 

Tannenbaum,    L Xew   York  City 

tannenbaum,  Simon,   M.D Xew  Vork  City 

?''"Ti"-« -^■•^"-  Vork  City 

Tapolsky,    Harry Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Tarantons    Jacob Xew    Vork   City 

Tarbish     Max  S..  Xew  Vork  City 

Tarler,  Sigmiind  A.,  M.D Xew  York  City 

Taschman.    Max Xew    York    City 

Tatelman    John    Manchester,    N.    H. 

Tauber,    Bernard Xew   Vork   rit» 

T:=»I°1-    n-id ......Seattle?   WaL^ 

Tea     Joseph.......     Xew    York    City 

T^nn'-nh      '^""4"   ^ Philadelphia,    Pa. 

nvn^       rr    ^ Cincinnati,    Ohio 

rZT/r    t'''"=••^ ^■ew  Vo/k  City 

I^"""'    5'g'"°"d New   York    City 

fepiz,    Abe..... McKeesport.    Pa. 

Teplitz.     Benjamin Pittsburir      Pa 

?:rTac^^r:";..^°-^ ■■•■^rH# 

?:-,Lou,s ■::::-:::.:::::::l!:^^^ 

Tessler,    XL.    M.D •.•.■.■.;; ^."kur Mfn'n'^ 

ThX;    V°"'k ^■"^-    Vork    City 

1  ha  er.   Jacob    Xew   York   City 

Th?!lmLri^^'" Baltitnore.    ^a 

1  liomashel 
Thompson. 

Thurman,  Jacob 

Ticktin.    Charles 

Tiefenbnin.   B 

Tieger.    Morris 

Ticrkel.    David    B 

Till.   Mrs.   Otto 

Tillinger,   B 

Tillman.   I.   R..   M.D.!." 

Tilzer.  A..  M.D 

Timbel.  Jscob 

Tinturer,    Leonard 

Tischler,   Adolph 

Tischler.    Samuel 

Tillebaum.  Xathan  j.... 

Tivol.    Nathan 

Tobochnacoff,   M.  D 

Toch.    Henry    M 

Todchaux.    Albert 

Todes,    Solomon 

Tolzers,   A.    M. 


'■,V    ^ri ^'ew    York   City 

l^'^J'^ New  York  City 

'%?•  ^^ ^••-^>v  York  a/y 


.East  Boston,  Mass. 

Chicago,    III. 

Baltimore.   Md. 

New    Vork   City 

Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Brooklyn,   N.  V. 

New  Vork  City 

BufTalo.   N.  Y. 

Portland.   Ore. 

New  York  City 

Pittsburg,    Pa. 

New  York   City 

New   York  City 

Boston.  Mass. 

Kansas    City.    Mo. 

New  York  City 

Xew  York  City 

New   Orleans,    La. 

Baltimore.    Md. 

Montreal.    Canada 


Tonkonogy,  Nathaniel,  M.D. ... . 

J°P':'^''>'V J^-^ob Toronto,    Canada 

lorghen,   Samuel \\' 


..  .New  York  City 

'^oronto,    Canada 

orcester,    Mass. 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


Tour,    Jacob Pueblo,    Colo. 

Toy.  Prof.  C.  H.,  D.D.,  LL.D Cambridge.  .Mass. 

Trachman,  Henry  J.,  M.D Baltimore,   Md. 

'i  rager.    Isidore Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Trainiim,    Kev.    \\\    H .Manor.    Tex. 

Trapp.  Kdward  .A New  \'r.'k  City 

Trau.    Frank New    N'ork    City 

'1  rau.    Gus Pittsburg.    Pa. 

Traugott,   Kev.  Abraham Springtield,    111. 

Travis,    P.   H College.   Ga. 

Tre   Pethren.   K.    IJ Ipswich,    S.    U. 

Trcumann.    Edward   E New    \'ork   City 

Tritellauin.    H Uerry   Station.    Pa. 

Tropp,    II.,    IJ.D.S Hartford,    Conn, 

Trost,    Kd'.vard Pittslmrg.    Pa. 

Trust,    Samuel    W Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Trounner,    Sigmund New    ^'ork   City 

Trouse.    Paul New    York   City 

Tubelisen.    O New    Salem.    Pa. 

Tuchfeld,    Leopold New    York    City 

Tucker,  Leopold New  York  City 

Tuedberg,    A New    York    Citv 

Tutrk,    Robert  J New  York  City 

Tulin.    .Abraham Hartford.    Conn. 

Tunitzky.    Jacob Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Turk.    Robert   L New    "^  ork    City 

Turkel,    B New    York    City 

Turner,    A Chicago,     HI. 

Turner,   Rev.   George   H Mount   X'ernon,   111. 

Tutelman,     Nathan Philadelphia.     Pa. 

Tutelman,    William Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Twining,    Prof.    N.    C Nipomo,    Cal. 

Ufland.    Abraham New    York   City 

Uhlmann.    Simon New   York    City 

Ulanov.   Prof.  Nathan New  York  City 

Ullian,    .\ Lawrence,    Mass. 

Ullman,    Nathan New    York   City 

Ulman.   Alfred  J San    Francisco,   Cal. 

Ulmann,   -Mbert New   York   City 

Ungar,   Carl St.    Louis,    Slo. 

Unger,    Emil New    ^'o^k    City 

Ungcr,    Henry   \V New    York    City 

Ungerleider,    J Newark,    N.    J. 

Ungerleider,    ^lax Newark,    N.   J. 

Unruli,   M.   L New  York  City 

Unterberg,    Israel New    York    City 

L'tslein   Oi   Trumkin New    S'ork   City 

L'ttal,    Lippnian New   ^'ork   City 

\'alenstein,    M New    York    Citv 

\'anamee,    William , . . .  .Newburg.    N.    \. 

Van  Gelder,   Isidore New  York   City 

Yan    Leer,    Charles Seaford,    Del. 

\'an    Leer,    Mrs.    Hannah Baltimore,    Md. 

\'an    Ronkel,   Jo Greenville,    Tex. 

Van    \'een,   Joshua New    York    City 

\'asa.    Max Newark,   N.   J. 

X'aserberg,    T Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Veld,   Rev.   H Newburg,   .\.   Y. 

Vcllcman,    Joshua New    York    City 

Verne,    Kmile Chicago.    III'. 

Vetter.   Henry  H Philadelphia,   Pa. 

\'ictor,    David,    &   Sons Philadeliihia,    Pa. 

Vincberg,   Hiram   N.,   M.D New   \  ork   City 

\  ineberg,    .M Winnipeg,   Manitoba.  Canada 

Vinissky.    B.    W Chicago.    111. 

X'ogel,    Ileinrich,    M.D New    York   City 

Vogcl,  Joseph New  York  City 

\'ogel.    Morris New   X'ork  City 

X'ollberg,    Joseph New    York    City 

N'oipe,    Harold    D New    York    City 

\*on  Taube,  G Monlvalc,  N.  J. 

\'oorsanger,   Jacob San    Francisco,   Cal. 

W'achs.    ,\ Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Wachsmann,    Louis San    Francisco,    Cal. 

Wadr.    O.    J Fl    Dorado.    Ark. 

Wagner.    Isidor Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Wainstock.    Morris New    S'ork    City 

Waisman,    M New    \'ork    City 

Walh,     Lasar Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Wald,   II.,    .M.D New    York   Citv 

Waldcrman,     I ICmmilsburg,     Mrl. 

Waldman.    B New    York    City 

Waldman,    I New   York  City 

Waldman,    Louis Toronto,    Canatia 

Waldman,   Louis  1 .Mbany,   N.    Y. 

Waldmann,    I) New    York    City 

Waldstein.    .-\braham   S Boston,    Mass. 

Walk,    Benjamin Chelsea,    Slass. 

Walker,    Adolph Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

Walker,    Robert    M McNairy.    Tenn. 

Walkin.    H Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Wallach,   .\braham New    X  ork   City 

Wallach.    Karl   W New   York  City 

\Vallcr,    H Philadelphia.     Pa. 

\\  alsey.   Rev.   Louis Little   Rock.  Ark. 

Walsh,   Hcv.  John Troy,   N.    Y. 


Walter,    Bernhard .New    York    City 

Walter.    M.   K Baltimore.    .Md. 

Wallhcr.    W New    York    City 

Waltotf,  D.  de,  M.D Brooklyn,  N.   Y, 

Wange,    Klias San    Francisco,    Cal. 

\\'ank,   Capl.   Albert New    York  City 

Warburg,    Felix New    York   City 

Ward,    Harry New    York    City 

Ward,     -M Bridgeport,     Conn. 

Warkinan,     1 New     York     City 

W  arsawski,    Benjamin Jersey    City,    N.    J. 

Wartell,    Isaac New    \  ork    City 

Wartell,    S.    H New    York  City 

Wassernagel,    Adolf New    York    City 

Watmar,    Alexander Bayonne,    N.    J. 

Weber,    A Dallas,    Tex. 

Weber,    David Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Wechselman,    Solomon New    \  ork    City 

Wechsler,  .V    H Brooklyn,   N.    Y. 

W  tchsler,   Isaac .New   York  City 

Wechsler,    Louis    \'ictor Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Wechsler,   Kev.   Dr.   M New  York  City 

Wehart,    Mrs.    Charles Peoria,    111. 

W  ehlau,    L..    M.D Scranton,   Pa. 

\\'eidenbaum.    Leon New    York   City 

Weil,    A.    Leo Fast    Liberty,    Pa. 

Weil,    Edward New    York    City 

Weil,    Henry Goldsboro,    N.    C. 

Weil,    J.     B Jonesboro,    Ark. 

Weil,   Jacob   A New    York    City 

Weil,    Jonas New    York    City 

Weil,    Leon New    York   City 

Weil,   Leopold .New   York  City 

Weil,    Samuel Youngstown,    Ohio 

Weil,    Samuel New    York    City 

Weil,   Sigmund New    York   City 

Weill,   Isaac Somervillc.    N.  J. 

Weill,   L.  W New  York  City 

Weill,   Sol New   York   City 

Weiller,    K New  York  City 

Weinberg,    B .New   York   City 

Weinberg,     Benjamin    L Minneapolis,    Minn. 

Weinberg,    Charles New    York    City 

Weinberg,     I) Baltimore,     Md. 

Weinberg,    (Jeorge New    York   City 

Weinberg,  Jacob Perth  .\mboy,    N.  J. 

Weinberg,    Joseph Greenville.    Miss. 

Weinberg,  Julius Atlantic   City,   N.   J. 

Weinberg,    .Nathan Newark,    N.    J. 

Weinberg,   Nicholas  J New   York  City 

Weinberger,    B .New   York  City 

Weinberger,    Eugene New    York    City 

Weinberger,    Ignatz New    York    City 

Weinberger,   Joseph Coney    Island,    N.    \. 

Weinberger,    .Max .New    York    City 

Wcinblatt,    Charles New    York    City 

Weinblatt,    Israel Rosenhavn,    N,   J. 

Weiner,  Alexander Rockaway  Beach,  N.  Y'. 

Weiner,    Isaac    N Rondout.    N.    V. 

Weiner,    Leopold    S New    York   City 

Wcingart,    Sol Scranton,     Pa. 

Weinhandler,   Adolph New    York    City 

Wcinig,    S New    York   City 

Weinreb,  .Arthur New  York  City 

Weinrib.    J Rochester,     N.    V. 

Weinshenker,    Tobias Chicago,    III. 

Weinstein,    A New    York    City 

Wcinsiein,   .Abraham Philadelphia,   Pa. 

Weinstein,     B Chicago,     III. 

Weinstein,     Charles Worcester,     Mass. 

Weinstein,    Harris,    M.D New    York    City 

Weinstein,     Henry New    York    City 

Weinstein,   Joseph,    M.D New    York   City 

Weinstein,    .Morris New   \or\i   City 

Weinstein,    S .New    York    City 

Weinstein,    Solomon Minneapolis,    Minn. 

Weinstock,    Harris S.icramento,    Cal. 

Weinlraub.    II.    H Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Weintraub.    Max    M New    \  ork    City 

Weintrc.b,  Joseph   S New    York  City 

Weis,    Edward Scranton,    Pa. 

W  cisbart,     .M Hob.iken.     N.    J. 

Weisberg.    S Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Weisberger,    David Wilkesbarre.    Pa. 

Weiskopf,    Henry Minneapolis,    Minn. 

Weisman.  .Aaron .M inncapobs.  Minn. 

Wtisman,    I) New    York    Citv 

Weisman,    Isidore .Minneapolis,    Minii. 

Weisman.      Mayer BiMton.      Mass. 

Weiss,     .Abe New     York    City 

Weiss,    .Abraham New    York    City 

Weiss.    .Abnham New     York     City 

Weiss,    Adolf \ci,.    York   City 

Weiss,      .Mier Philadelphia,      Pa. 

Weiss,     Charles Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Weiss,    H Cleveland.    Ohio 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


Wtiss,    Rev,    Harry i;' -^"v!"'";    S?'. 

Weiss,     Henry New     York     City 

Weiss,    Herman New    >.ork    Ci  y 

Weiss,    Herman New    \ork   City 

Weiss.    Hermann -New    York    C.ty 

Weiss,    Isaac I-hiladelphia,    Pa. 

Wci>s.    Isadore •  ■■■*-'l'."?Ov- 

Wci>s.    Jacob New    York    City 

Weiss.    lacob .....New    \ork    C.ty 

Weiss.  Josenh   \V Coney   Island.   N\. 

Weiss.    L.    1- New    Wk    Ci  y 

Weiss,    Leopold -New    V^"*    9'^^ 

Weiss.     Leopold New     York     C.ty 

Weiss,   Levi   F I'liiladelpliia,    1  a. 

Weiss.    .Max New    York    City 

Weiss,     .Minnie New     York     Cty 

Weiss.    Moritz bcranton,    la. 

Weiss,   Moses  B New  York  City 

Weiss,  S.,  M.D New  Y  ork  City 

Weiss,  S New  Haven,  Conn. 

Weiss]  Samuel New  York  City 

Weiss.   Sigmund New   York  City 

Weissager,    William    H Baltimore,    Md. 

Weissbcrg,   J Long   Island   City,    N.    Y  . 

Wfissburg.   Philip  H New   York  City 

Weissman,    Frederick New    Y  ork   Lity 

Weissman.    George New    Haven.    Corin. 

Weissman,  Reuben New  York  City 

Weisz     J   New    York    City 

Weiszlovits,   Jonas -New   York   City 

Weizenhoffer,   L New   Y  ork   City 

Welcher,    Harry Chicago,    111. 

Weltner.   Armirv   H New   York   City 

Weltner.    Ignatius New    York   City 

Weltner.    Moritz New    York    City 

Wener     H  Montreal.    Canada 

Wcner!   J U^T,  ^'°'^,  '"v/ 

YVerbelowsky.     David Brooklyn.    NY. 

Wcrdenschlag.    David New    Y  ork   City 

YVerner,  A.,  &   Brother Philadelphia,   la. 

Werner,    .Ylexander Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Werner,    Charles St.    Lou.s,    Mo. 

YVerner,   Edward   M New   York  City 

Werner,    H New    York    City 

Werner,  Harry Boston,  Mass. 

Werner,   M.    F New   York   City 

Wersberg,   Louis Ponce.  Porto  Kico 

Wcrshinski,    Johanna New    York    Cjty 

Wertheim.  B..  &  -Son New  York  tity 

Wertheim,    Sol New    York    City 

Weslock,    Morris New    York    City 

YY'essly.     Nathan New     Haven.     Conn. 

YVest.    William Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Westerman.    Herman New    Y'ork    City 

Wetstein      R       Montreal.    Canada 

YVexler.   S.   W A?'-?'^'.  >' '?'■•''   '"A"' 

Wevl.    Maurice    N Philadelphia,    Pa. 

YVheeler.     Myer Chicago.     111. 

White.    Abraham New    York    City 

White.     Alexander Chicago.     111. 

White,     Edmund New     York     City 

Y\hite.   H.    O..    M.D Chicago,    111. 

YVhite.   Louis   Dederich New    York   City 

YVhitehill.    Edward Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Whitlock.    Philip Richmond.    Y'a. 

Whitman.    Esther Boston.    Mass. 

Whitteker.  Rev.  W.  F Ancram.  N.  Y. 

Whynman.    B..    M.D New    York   City 

Y\  idder.    Simon New    York    City 

YVielfspelal.    Simon New    Y'ork    City 

YViener.    David Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Wiener.   Henry New   York   City 

Wienstein.  H New  Y'ork  City 

YViernik.    Peter New   Y'ork    City 

Wies    Brothers Boston,    Mass. 

Wiesen.     E Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Wiesen,     Harry Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Wiesen,    L Philadelphia.    Pa. 

YViesen.    Max Philadelphia.    Pa. 

YViesen.   ^Io^ris Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Wiessbrot  &  Steinberg New  Y'ork  City 

YVilbush.    Benjamin Houston.    Tex. 

Wilcox.    E.    L Peoria.    111. 

YVilder.    Charles New   York   Citv 

Wilder.   Morris.    M.D New   Y'ork   City 

Wilder.  Y'.  A Warwick.   N.   Y. 

YVildfesser.    Philip New    Y'ork   City 

Wile.   Herman Buffalo.    N.    Y. 

Wilenzig,   Myer Baltimore.   Md. 

Wilfson.    D Baltimore.    Md 

Wilkoflf.   William Youngstown.    Oluo 

Willbur.    T.    M New    Y'ork   City 

YVilliams.   Rev.   Dr.   Leighton New  York  City 

YVillner.    Rev.    W Meridian.    Miss. 

YVilner.    Abraham New    Y'ork    City 

Wilner,  Samuel New  Y'ork  City 


Wilson,  Jerome  J New  Y  ork  City 

Wiltscheck,    Joseph -New    Y'ork    City 

Wimenitz,    Ralph,    .YI.U Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Wincland.    Elias Philadelphia,    Pa. 

\\  iner.  Elias Olean,   N.  Y. 

Winer.   Herman   L New  Y  ork  City 

Winkelman.    .YIoscs    Philip Manistiqiie.    Mich. 

Winkelstein,    Levi Syracuse.    N.    Y. 

Winkleman.    Sol Rochester.    N.    Y. 

Winkler.    Isaac Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Winokur.     .\I Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Winstein.    Louis Portland.    Me. 

Winternitz.  David Las  Vegas,   N.  Mex. 

\\  inters.    A Erie.    Pa. 

W  interstein.   Oscar New   Y  ork   City 

Wintncr.   Rev.   Leopold,   Ph.I) Brooklyn.   N.   Y. 

Wintrob.  J.   .YI Philadelphia.  Pa. 

W  ischauski.   Samuel   L New    York   City 

Wise,    Barnat Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Wise.   Henry  E New   York  City 

Wise,  Otto   Irving San    Francisco,   Cal. 

Wise,    Solomon Abbeville.    La. 

Wise.  Rev.   Dr.  Stephen  S New  York  City 

Wiseman.    Harry    S Blut>ton.    Ind. 

Wissner,    George New    York    City 

Witkind,   Isidore New  York  City 

Witt,  Emanuel New  York  City 

Witt,    Henry New   Y  ork  City 

Witt,    Samuel New    York    City 

Wittels.    M St.    Louis.    .Mo. 

Wittenberg.    Rev.    David    H Toronto.   Canada 

Wittenberg.  Joseph.    .YI.D .New   York   City 

Wittenberg.    Louis Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Wittner.   Abraham New   Y  ork  City 

Wittstein,    Max Bridgeport.    Conn. 

Wohl,  Charles New  York  City 

Wohl,   Hyman New  York  City 

Wohl,  L New  York  City 

Wohl.  Lazar New  Y  ork  City 

Wohlberg.    Rev.    B ......Waco     Ttx. 

Wohles.   Georges N  ew    Y  ork   C.ty 

Wolbarsht.    Hyman Baltimore.    Md. 

Woldman.   Henry   E ?'i'.,'"','''.''l"'"'   l> 

Wolf,  Mrs.  Abraham  S Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Wolf.    Albert Philadelphi.!.    la. 

Wolf.    Carl Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Wolf.  Charles  I -New  York  City 

Wolf.    Emanuel Bayou   Sara.    La. 

Wolf.   Gessel.    M.D 'D^rj  >  u'        p/ 

Wolf.    Herman Philadelphia.,   Pa 

Wolf,   Herman Y  onkers,    N.    Y. 

Wolf.    Hyman   S ^'i '*^V'T'n? 

Wolf.   Mrs.   L.  J Cleveland.   C) h  o 

Wolf,    Louis nuV'j  ^  °i  J^    SV/ 

Wolf.    Louis Philadeljihia.    la. 

Wolf.  Louis -^J^'A"^^  S'.7 

Wolf.   Louis Ph-latlelphia.  Pa. 

Wolf.  M ^.'^^■,^°''\,*^'y 

Wolf,  M..  M.D 'I;^?"J'"i'■l••i^•p;■ 

Wolf,    Miriam    H Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Wolf     P       Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Wolf.'  Simon .Washington,   D.  C. 

Wnlf    W         Washington.    D.C. 

Wo   ;     Yd  .   .he Portland,    Ore. 

Wolfe;    F?ank     Shelburne,   Ontario.    Canada 

Wolfe,    Morris Brooklyn     N     Y 

Wnlf/    P  New   York    City 

\V°olfensfeinV  Dr.-  S Cleveland     Clhio 

Wolfert    Mrs.  Lena ] i;.'. •.•.•.:; J. "^e w  Y^'^k  C^ 

\v^ff    :\N New  York  City 

\\°  "■  -^^   If Xew  York  City 

li~;::EE;:-;:::::::;:.|rHs; 

H-„iff     \i  New   York    cuy 

•off!   Mr;.RoberV.::-.; New   York   City 

Wolff     Samuel    E..    D.D.S New    York    City 

Wolff.     Solomon New    Orleans.     La. 

Wolffner,  Henry  L.,  M.D St.  Louis.  Mo. 

Wolfnir.    Mrs.    W.    L '^i^"^'    {    ' 

Wclfsohn.    Jacob    M i;'^'"^-^^C' r   U 

Wolfsohn.    M New   YorkC   y 

Wolfson.   Alexander -New   Y  ork   City 

Wolfson.   .Mfred Nf    \9'^S'^^ 

Wolfsoi.    Rev.    G i;  •,'"7'i'  i,-       I'f' 

Wolfson.    Dr,   J ^iV.'^i'','''^"'    p 

Wolfson.    L..    M.D Philadelphia.    Pa. 

Wolfson.    Morris New   York   C.ty 

Wolfson,    Samuel ^^'''-.  \  '"■\t    '^ 

Wolkind,   R ...Buffalo.  N.   Y. 

Wolkowich.  B \\  orcestcr.  Mass. 

Wollmin.    H Brooklyn.    N     Y 

Wollner.  David -^^"^  ^°'}'  rJ 

Wollowitz.   L New  York  City 

Wollstein.   Louis New    Y  ork    City 

W'olper.    A ...Boston.    Mass. 

Wolpert,    Mayer Minneapolis.   Minn. 


LIST  OF  PATROXS 


Wolsey,  William ■  •  •  •  C1"C-  ^  '9,'V 

Wood,   A.   G Iv-^""  .^"'S,''  y 

Woodward.    Frederick   E Washington,    DC. 

Woolf,  Coleman ■S"''"  i"'t  r'\^ 

Woolf    Louis New  York  C.  y 

Woolf     l.ouis  C ^--V^^   ^.°'^   ^=7 

Woolf.  M.  J.  H.,  M.D San   I-ranc,9co,  Cal 

Woolfson,    H ^''",.1^°    M     y 

Woolfson    L "'■""'T' i?'- in' 

Woolner.    Mrs.    Samuel,   »r Peoria.    1 1. 

Woolner.    Mrs.    W.    15 .Peoria,        . 

Worm«r,    David c*^'"""^'    j."' 

Wormser.    F.    L W^'^m    '"v    V 

Wornow,   Max   N Brooklyn.    N.    \. 

Wrinberg,    .\rorris ■  •  "^IR""""^'.,  ^'.I' 

^i^J^s" .---v-f^^ii^S;  ohil: 

iS^Hss-Eudfce ;;:::^!^jif;?-„?'^a: 

??:is::.viiif::-.:::;.v.-.-;:::;.:::::: \'-„l°\'^'7 

v^'!-  r""  ^ ;:;;:;:.v.Mini^3s'j^;n,;; 

V        V;,!,.; N"-  Vork  City 

Vo^cl     Adolph Rockaway    Leac ,     N .    V 

?s;J;:;^;^ha^e;:;;:;::;.v;;::":: vonk--.>^ci^y 

X'lZf  mJT°" :;:.-:::::::--.New  York  cll^ 

WmK,    Max    1- ...New    York    Citv 

YounKman     M .■.•.:;  New   York   City 

v"m     ^  .'m nel   Uttle   Rock,  Ark. 

\  out.   ^■'"'»f  ■■ (Mvrhant,   I'a. 

?=''<""•   h''"'Ul ..... .Alamed.-,,  Cal. 

Zander.   C.ustav  y  ^   ^■ 

Zaremlm.v.tz     A :•.•.'.■;        .New    York    City 

Zav.    (  orneMus. .         Vnrk   Citv 

Zechnovi,^.  Samuel .    •  •  • ;  ^ K^^;,  "  cVlo'! 

Zederbaum.    A       M.D .       ..New    York   City 

Zeiger.    .Vdolph v_„.,,i,     v     t 

Zeigcr,   Charles Newark,    *N.    J. 


Zeisler,    D >•«*  ^."1'   ?' ^ 

Zeisler,    Moritz -V*    \.°'''',,  S:'!'' 

Zeisler,  Samuel New  \  ork  City 

Zeisler,     T Chicago,     HI. 

Zeitlin.    N i.r^^l!"- J'?-t 

Zelenko,   Joseph New   Vork    City 

Zelezny,    Morris New  ,^  "];'' ,W 

Zchqzon,  Ur.   Maurice Cleveland,  Ohio 

Zemansky,    N Sj'^PJ^rJ?'   S?J" 

Zentner,    Charles •,.r';''^'''='''^'\,!^2" 

Zepin,    Rev.   George Ka  amazoo,   Mich. 

Zellin,    B New    Vork    City 

Zimman,   Harry  B Omaha.   Neb. 

Zimmerman.    C.    L.,    D.D.S nl,-iS*","5°'    pi' 

Zimmerman.    M.    L.,    D.D.S Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Zimmerman   Brothers -Nf*  ^  ork  City 

Zinman,    Morris Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Zins,  Morris -Nf*  }  °'.^  ^''^ 

Zion.   Louis Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Ziporkes,    J N^w     \?"'''.    £!  " 

Zippert,   L,  M.D vj"=*  0  °',^  rl  ^ 

Zippert.    Max ^'\,^°'\:*^7 

Zifn,    Harry Brooklyn.    N.    Y. 

ZofT^r,    Henry ^^rl'-",2'A    hI" 

Zoline     Elijah   N..   LL.B rh  "f n'  II 

Zolotkoff,    Leon,    LL.B v    ''''v^fl.  Vi  O 

Zousmer,   Wolf? N'"   ^ork  C    y 

iS;;^nI;:'r'^:D;s:::;;.-.v.v.-:::;.-."|i:i,^j!:| 

^^:^-']-:::::::::::::::::::-::^f%^ 
p^=n,^Ma„VrVd.-::;;.--.;v.;;.;yN:w^^rk^cu. 

i;;^n' Su;i;M:D.::::v.;.-.v.-.san  Fg.ncisco,^i 

Zwetow.    Samuel    R vP' "' \v;k  C  w 

Zwishon,  L.  W.,  M.D New  \ork  City 


EUROPE,  ASIA,  AFRICA,  AND  AUSTRALIA 


A-,„„     n     H  London,    Englanc 

ilX:„  '^Uev  •  VoiAua.-  B.  A Bristol,   England 

Abi 
Abraha 

^htZ-   hT' V.V.V.V:rS^.   Eli^land 

P  hSl.:rE:::::=::^  ijg 

Abrahams,    Kev.    M n  "  Vi-i-     I,  .u     in     \lriri 

Abrahams     M       Port   Elizabeth.   So.   Alrica 

HEU'rs:::::::::::::::::::,:^?v:gS 

Ade.man.    |oseph ..Manche_s.er.    England 

Adler",    H..    Ph.i).'.    M.A..    Hon.    LL.D.,  St.   Andrews 


fa  am:  jL^.^::;;:;;:::::::::::: Lon£,  Engund 

brahams,    B,   Lionel ;  ••■•■; ••.■.•.ahrgfw:!'  l-c-oflalid 

"     .London,   England 

.London.    England 


University;    Chief    Kabbi    United    Hebrew   Congrc 
gallons  of  British  Empire 


M.A. 


London,  England 

London.    England 

London,   England 

London,    England 

London,    England 

Glasgow.     Scollaml 


Adler.     .Marcus    .Nathan 

Aguilar,  The  Misses 

Ailion,    Max 

Aitchison,    G.,    R.A 

.Alexander,     Henry -  -  s.      :  i.-,,.,i  ,„,i 

Alexander,    Louis •  • ?r     *      >i„      A  r,r, 

Alexander,    Morris ..Cape    Town,    So     Africa 

Alford.   Rev.  George,   M.A Leamington  Spa.  Eng  and 

AInrovich     H          South   Shields.  Eng  and 

nTade    •Kebecca'  Da  Costc London,  Eng  and 

Andrade,    S.    V.  dc   Costa London.  Eng  and 

A   n  nberg.   Mark L°"<lo".  Eng  and 

A,,„,.ll      IM                         London,  England 

KISS'S*,.:::::::::::::::::::::"*"  a:  I 

Ai.rrbnrh    S  Liverpool,    h.ngianu 

Bache?.     i-.^>f.'  ■  ijr;    Wilhelm Budapest.    Hungary 

ij'r' :     i>,...„   p  Gasgow,  Scotland 

IS\^"IX^T;-A::;::::"::::::^rb?;:lg^>4nd 
Ka  on '-nernhv;.;:::; ::::::: Aiaga.e,  England 

Baron,    Kev.    David London,      ^ng h^n 

{,"    '       II  London.    Englam 

Bash,    Phillip Birmingham,    England 


nattersea     Lord London     England 

Sst^n"^.- Jane::::::::::::::::::: ^ondon,  England 
lleimr^c  r-"  ^•::-.:::::::::::::::H^''K"n»n 

n  V  h^'   vihert  i  London,  Englan. 

E^llsH^:  l^J  i:.-.-:v.::::: ..Manche.^.  Eng,an 


-as^'Lag;r^.a.s.a^e,7;K    Ljve.^    E^ 

enscher.    Martin •  ■       ^   „j„„     England 

r.enscher,    \\ • .••U'V'i   c  i  r 

Bensusan,  Messrs.  Jacob  S.  L.  &  Samuel  J.. ^^^    ^^^^^^^ 

Bentwich    Herbert,   LC.B London,   England 

e&sJLnonjacl^b ^^^^^I  i^^^ 

l;e^^"'5an^'":::::V.;p•,.■.^y.•.•.^.anchefter,    England 
Uickersteth,   Rt.   Rev.   Edward  Henry,   D.R.^^^     ^^^^^^^ 

i!;„;n    S    B                Manchester.  England 

B  ?;^a.fm.°i.e;nard .    London,  England 

Birnstingl.    Avigdor    L London.  Eng  and 

sdioffsheim,  ^Irs.    Clarisse         .London,  Eng  and 

Black.  William   George.   F.S.A.S .•.•^■'"*K°» •  .^.""'""i 

Blau,    Prof.    Dr.    Ludwig Budapest,  ""ngary 

liiHustein.    Tobias .London.  EngTand 

Bloch.     Armand.    Grand     Rabbin    dc     Belgique 


Brussels,    Belgium 
Middlesborough,    England 

Manchester.    England 

Dublin.    Ireland 

Cardiff.    Wales 

London.    England 

Chingford,   England 

London.    England 

London.    England 

Cambridge.  England 

,,,„„„      ..  Manchester.    England 

ilrewn     ill Sheffield.    England 

Bucks.'    Morri. i-\.Hu^^^'    r"5l^nd 

Buetow,   Max South  Shields,   England 

Camrass.    Hyman ..Leeds,    Eng  and 

Cantor.    L. .    London.    Eng -and 

Castello,    James If"^"?^     ^"-3 

Chaikin,  Ccorge,  B.A Sheffield.  England 


Bloom,    Isadore 

Blumberg.   Harris 

Blumenau.     Louis 

Ilomast,   T.    S 

Bowman,    Laurence  G....... 

Box,   Kev.  George  H.,  M.A 

Brill.     .V 

Brilliant,     H 

Broming,  Prof.  Osc«r 

llrown,    .'X. 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Chapman,   Rev.  John Ealinir  Fnirlanrl 

ctliV'   '"r'-pf-n"-   °-^ ..•.■.■.•.■.•.Oxt?l;  i"|a"d 

THff  TVJ-  l"'° Kamsgat..  England 

UatT.    bamud Manchester.  England 

^ili'"""?'    '."\<^.- ■:.■  •  •  •  •  • London.  England 


nd 
nd 
nd 
nd 

Cohen  ■  V  fr'"r  I  -^'"Lar.n London  England 

g    :  ^i^f ^•i:;M:p;.v.;.-.;.v.-.::i-:i-  i-l-^i 
:  |v^f^;^u-L:v.;;;;;;.v.v.-t^  ^ 

cShnife'i'M Birmingham.'   England 

Cohen     Israel    .:::::: C,Miff-"v?^"'' 

Cohen.    Louis   S....         iiver,?^'    i"^'^"1 

Cohen    Rev    M     IRA ••Li%erpool     England 

Cohen  Nathaniel  L;     L3o'„''°r  '^{"'^^ 

Cohen  Philin  •■.   .London.    England 

Cohen  Phi  iS v "',™'nKham,  England 

Coten":  Samu'elV.: ! ! !  .•.•.•.-.■ " " " '  '^'""^""romC'   P'^!^"'! 

Cohen,  Samuel VlWn.h     ,     '    r"^  ""iJ 

Cohen  Samuel    i         l I  n^lon'    p"^^"^ 

Cnh^n  x?^„     c       London.    Eng  and 

Cohen'  ,?."•„  S"^™^" .....London.    England 

Col;:";  VV-oo»- hV.V.V.V. """L''o„'!j'of  "r  'Y'^ 

Cohn,    Albert I  o„  ?„„  '  r"^^"j 

Collins,    H.    H...   .  j"i"'    ?-"8='"d 

Cope,   J.   G..   .. ^°"h""'    r"^='"^ 

Corfield,  Prof.   William- h:,--m:a.;- M.ii.^°Stn.)  ^"'^''"•' 


Cotton,  Aaron.. 


(Oxon.), 
London,    England 


Co    on'    KM nirmingham,  Eniland 

Coven'  M-,,,^;; Birmingham,    Eniland 

&  A?;^;^E:;iiodieUn- Liirar^'^-^^d:  l^^^i 
Craigie,  Mrs.  P.  M.  T.   ("John  Oliver  Hobhes™),     ^ 

Daltroff.  Albert ^"{-1%  ^vfiZt 

R,\"'S'"- .  -^J'"    M»^8""    G- •  •".■.".'.■.■■.■.■.Beccles,   'England 

Davis,  'a    hV .•.■;:; ;,.,.. London,    England 

Davis,   Mrs.   Eliza.. 


...Birmingham,    Englan 


!■».,. .;.-■    T>    "     F'""T^'"'i>' V London,    England 

n^v='    ?"■■    *^-    ^-   **-^ London,    England 

Davis,    Isaac I  r,nH„„      ir„Si,_j 

Davis,     Israel.... 

Davison,  Rev.  W.  T., 


D.D. 


.  London,  England 

London,  England 

n„   «,„.     pj       i  ";■ Birmingham,  England 

n^nfsch  '  P-  r"""*   ^ London,  England 

nZlT.h     P     " """"•  Germany 

D  u      h';   "^l::: L-^--  Eng.anJ 

i-\^„*.^u     -i-       London,  England 

E^S.  Vacob.:: :.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.■ ^'i«e1c%\Te?'  fZT.', 

Do?f™',„      T        Birmingham,    England 

Dorfman,    J Liverpool,    England 

^-:  ga^::;::::;;::;::;;;:::Ma-£^?:  ^ 
&^R^i°'l'!n:n:-Regiusl;^^^--<«f[r- 
FdS^?--  ■?'-'"'^"-'<-  inl"^ 

EddsTa?n      in';'!- ^™''^"   "'"'   ^■<^«-   South    Wales 

|a;r'T^^cKa;iv.-b:b::::::::^^r^kf^^)^fi^ 

Ehrman",^'u^-?ir;' R-d'„g.  England 

Emanuel    P.„    r^    T     i>"«-^      .....London,    England 

Emanud     Mrs'    C  ^i  ^'^ Birmingham.   England 

lEF  t:?- ^■■^■:- ■■::■::■  :::::'^S^:  i^t:i 

Ezekiel.  Dr.  Abraham 
Ezckiel,  Jos 
Farkas,   Dr. 


. .  Strassburg.    Germany 
EzeWieJ;  rose^":''.':^":; SZt'']¥ 


Felber.    Morres.... ToTh  r     T "  'i 

Feldman.    A...... "lI°M-    1"^^"!^ 

Feldman,   Rev.  A      BA iA   \      '   ?"^^"^ 

Fersht     Ro™.;.    ii,     if  London.   England 

Pfers     L  Abraham ...London,    England 

p,_i„'  „.  ■  ■  c ■, Birmingham.    England 

Fnesto^ne'    T  ^T " '' Manchester,   England 

Fnn     Sam„^1      ' i Sheffidd,    England 

p  "h  •       Moss S""""  Shidds,    England 

Fh'o":    '/acobi  •  \vVonicer. Bir^mingham.    England 

Fowler,  T.  T.,  D.C.L.,  F.l. 
Frankenburg,  J.,  Alderman,  j.'p 


Fowler'   f ~T'""n'ri""r'c"; Dc\vsbury.    England 


FranS  i'n";   S^"".- ^iZ"^^''^^    ^"'^ 


Franklin,   Ellis  A.  r  «-j—  r     i     j 

Franklin    Frederick  S London,  Eng  and 

Franklin    llenr>    A       ^""'^""'  ^""^"^ 

Franklin,  Jacob  M K  n1      '  fe"^i'''"^ 

Franks,    Lawrence.       ■.•.•.: h°"t"-  fe"8^"4 


id 

and 

igland 

[-„,,.._„  - *-wiiuoii,  England 

Franks,  ^d^ir::;::::::;::;: .;:;-. :a-  i-j-^ 

fc^?^HVv;bawdL;ii.A''r.5{;e;!;e'iv^^u^Sit 


Ficcdman.    L. 


•■,.,•,.^..1 c       ..London,    England 


Friedeberg,   S Vu-  ,        i'    i?"^  "" 

Friend.   B    J,... Liverpool,    Eng  am 

F'riencl     H.-nr.-     V  ■  London,  Lnglan 

Gal^ta^^-M^;;  k;:::;.v.v.v.v.v.--"---^Kii^-  g"?l-^ 


(jauticr,   Lucicn. . .. 


...London.  England 


Geflfen,  J.    L       Geneva    Switcrlaznd 

Gdlmann,    Uernard ^"[;1°"■    r"*i'^"^ 

Cembitsk  .  E.  D. .  Man^h     ,""•   ^"''^'"l 

(ienussow     M     L ••Manchester    England 

(icsundhei't,  s. . : ::;;:; ^°"n\T.];f-J"y  -^'r^i 

Ginzbe^g,   U. London,    England 

(iluckstein,    -Myer. ...;.■ lo^fc^'r    ?'i 

Goldberg.    Barnetl T^"^.     '    ^"K^"""! 

Goldberg     E.    II     h"A°"-    Jr"8='"1 

Goldberg:  Hy:^..-;;;:;:;.;:;;;:::::::;:;L-don,  Lngand 


Goldsm.d,  Co'lond  A.'  'e Vonfc    p"^!^"') 

r^l  !,'"■  dI. .*■•,■:,•::.■:••. Sydney,  New  South   Wales 


Goldstein    Rev    S    A.V. Auckland     V^,  V^^"1 

n„ij.. „     A  Auckland,  iNew  Zealand 


^\?^^-  S'^- ^^ •■••.■.•.•.■.•;.-.:.;.-;.VL;Pon.-  Engii,;d 

Gollancz,  ReV.   Dr! '  Hermann; ' ii : Cuti']^'!' 


ISps  £r-:::::::::;;::;;;s!i£  Egj 

Sordon'  &ud Birmingham:    Enfland 

cfoll'    \V    ^■"•^■'^-  London Loncfon,   England 

grue^IfSe--"-------"----^^ 

Gubbay,   Reuben..::..... •.■.■.■.■.:;: Paris    pf-liee 

Sulnsbe"!'  ^  ■  H ^  "  Joha-'^burL'To.   Afric" 

a^^th^s:.v.v.::::::::.v.;:-;^P^^ 

llarHs     A  ^t.   Petersburg.    Russi 

llarris.    A r.l=.o„...     c._.i._ 


ermany 

d 

-   „.   sia 

H.™.  E.h,.i™.-->i:;c;;,v;;;;;;;:j/S,S:l1,"S 

i_r__,-       T     -13      J  : London.    England 

Harrjs,  J     Rendal Cambridge,    England 

Harril:  ^^l^^^iVi- ;- iv::: ^clX-  iifj 

Harris     Rpv     R  London,    England 


Har5'  ^Tn7v'-'-^-  ^•»^- of  •CanVerburyrDoTr',  L^nd 
fitrt    Sir  Israel t London,   England 

Has'sid.T.^iberV.::::::: ■''"'trnYea^"^'t"'' 

iii;;^:^1va?ii!:;;r'p„3;dewrors-;tz-;a^-^ 

il:il^[l;,'^:^^ev:-,sa^,-b:a:n.c:L"^-'--- 

TT  T  ■  ,  Weston-super-Mare.    Eneland 

H^™"8r I^'do'- i.- ^London!    England 

Henry,    Charles   S London.    England 

H^^bT;,    n    P   ^ London.   England 

H^rso^'  1^-  •' London.   England 

H"5°":   S-- London.    England 

H^rt^W?'    j'Vf Brisbane.   Australia 

H^rl    R  *•    n     ^'■■••i.••iI• Brisbane.  Australia 

H^r^i    Th     !?'■■  ■'°?fP''  " Johannesburg.  So.  Africa 

H^v J,',  J      m"'"-   °' \-ienna.  Austria 

S-l^Z      •<  ^- """" i; London.    England 

H  m?nn'  i-^^-'A ^""H'  P°"t'  C-  C.  So.  Africa 

Himann,  Sigmund  Johannesburg.  So.  Africa 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Hirsch.    Benjamin Halberstadt,    Germany 

Hoffman,    tlustav London,    Ensland 

HolTnung,    A London,    England 

Ilolbirg.  Frederick Birmingham,    England 

Hyam,  Joseph  C Algiers.   No.   Africa 

Hymans,    Henry London,    England 

Isaacs.    Abraham London,    England 

Isaacs,    Henry Leeds,    England 

Isaacs,  Sir  Henry  A Sydenham,   England 

Isaacs.   Isaac  A Manchester.    England 

Isaacs,  J London,   England 

Isaacs,   Maurice London.    England 

Isaacs.    Moss Brighton.    England 

Isaacs.  Kufus  D London.  England 

Israelstaim,  A Johannesburg.  So.  Africa 

Jacob,    Kt.    Rev.    Edgar,    D.D.,    Uxon..N'ewcastle-on- 

Tyne,    England 

Jacobs.  A London.    England 

Jacobs,  Rev.  A.  C Brighton.   Englaml 

Jacobs,    Abe Sunderland,    England 

Jacobs,    Benjamin Sheffield,    England 

Jacobs,  Bertram,    LL.B London,   England 

Jacobs,   Herbert  Levi London,   England 

Jacobs,   Joseph Plymouth,    England 

Jacobs,    Nathan London.    England 

Jaffc,    Sir   Otto Belfast.    Ireland 

jaflfc  Brothers,  Ltd Limerick,  Ireland 

Jonas,    J Birmingham,    England 

Jones,  Albert  Victor London,    England 

Jones,  R.  Eifion .\nglcsey,  Wales 

Joseph,    Uev.   D Berlin,   Germany 

Joseph,    Lewis London,    England 

Joseph,    Morris    G London,    England 

Kahn,   A..    M.A London,    England 

Kahn.   Zadoc,  Grand  Rabbin  de  France. ...  Paris,    France 

Kaitccr,    Ilyman Dublin,    Ireland 

Kaliski,    Isaac London,    England 

Kaufman,  S Hartlepool,   England 

Kayserling,   Ur.   M Budapest,    Hungary 

Kelvin,  Lord,  G.C.V.O.,  etc London,  England 

Kenhard,   E.  A Wick,   England 

Kirschbaum,    Isaac London,    England 

Kisch,    B Maida   \ale,    England 

Klein,   Hermann,   F.J.I London,    England 

Klein,    Louis Leyton,    England 

Kleinfeld,    Oisia London,    England 

Klingenstcin,    William London,    England 

Krailsheimer,    Julius London,    England 

Krakauer.    Solomon Barnsley,    England 

Krauss.   Dr.    Prof.  Samuel Budapest,   Hungary 

KricgsfcKI.    Ben London.    England 

Kroner.    Dr.  Theador. .. .Kirchenrath,  Stuttgart,   Germany 

Landan,    H London,    England 

Landan,    Marcus London,    England 

Landau,    .Annie   E Jerusalem,    Palestine 

Lander.    Julius London,    England 

Landman,    Julius Leeds,    England 

Larkinson,    Samuel Wolverhampton,    England 

Laserson,   S.    M Manchester,    England 

Lasry,  Solomon Tunis.   No.  .Mrica 

Lazare,    Bernard Paris.    France 

Lazarus,  Abraham London.  England 

Lazarus,    Prof.    M.,    Gchcimer    Regierungsrath, 

Meran,    .\ustria 

Lee,  Edward,  C.C.,  D.L London.   England 

Lees.   Robert  James Plymouth,   England 

Letter,    I Manchester,   England 

Ltuw,    Sidney London,    England 

Levene,   John   M London.    England 

Levi.    Louis Hull,    England 

Levin,   Julius London,    England 

Levinson,   Aaron Manchester,    England 

Levinson.   Rev.    Isaac London,  Englaml 

Levy,  .Abraham London.   England 

Levy.  J.  H London,  England 

Levy,  Jacob Newcastle-on-Tvne,   England 

Levy,  Joseph London",    England 

Levy,   Joseph ...Manchester,    England 

Levy,  Joseph London,    England 

Levy,    Tudah Londim,    England 

Levy,    M,   C London,    England 

Levy,  Rev.  S London,   England 

I-evy,   Simon Glasgow,   Scotland 

Lewis.    Lady   Elizabeth London.    Englan.l 

Lewis.  Harry  Reginald London.   England 

Lichfield,  Rt.  Rev.  and  Hon.  Bishop  of  .Lichficlil.  England 

Licbstcr.   L.,  M.D.,   L.J. A London,    Ivngland 

l.ipinski,   I>avid Hull,   Englaiul 

I.ipkind,   Rev.   G London,    England 

Lipmann,   Dr.   M Zurich,  Switzerland 

Liverman,    Philip Birkenhead,    England 

I.ocwc,  James   H London.    England 

Lorie.    M Pentre   r.Iam.    \Vale» 

Li'iw,    Emmanuel Szegedin,   Hungary 

Lilwy,  Ernest  D London,  England 

Luby,   L London,   England 


I.unti,   M Birmingham,   England 

Lyons,   Abraham London,   England 

Lyons,    Frank   1 London,    England 

Lyons,    Marks Monmouth,    England 

Lyons,   Marks  J.  S Ebbrovale,  Wales 

Lyttelton,  Rev.  Hon.  Canon  Edward,  M.  A.. 

Hertford,   England 

McKiUiam.  Robert  M.,  M.D London.  England 

Magnus.  Sir  Philip London,   England 

Mandelstamm,    Dr.    Med Kiev,    Russia 

Marcus.    loseph London,   England 

Marcus,   Sir  Samuel London,   England 

Marcus,    Theodore Liverpool,    England 

Margowski,    Max London,    England 

Marks,    Daniel London,    England 

Marks,  G.  S London,   England 

Marks,  Harry  H.,  J.P London.  England 

Marks,  Jacob Cape  Town.   So.   Africa 

^larks,    Morris Newcastlc-on-Tync,    England 

Marks,    Moss London,    England 

Marmorek,   Alexander Paris,    France 

Marmorek.    Oscar Vienna.   Austria 

Marsden,    Rodolph  J London.    England 

Marshall.   Rev.  J.  T..  M.A Manchester,   England 

Martin,   Richard  Biddulph London,   England 

Martinez.    E.   N Maida  \alc,    England 

Marx,    Herman London,    England 

Marx,    Herrmann London,    England 

^Iarx,    L London,    England 

Mayer,    Naphtali London,    England 

Mayor,  Rev.  J.  B.,  M.A London.  England 

Melcher.    Lewis Cardiff.    Wales 

Mendelsohn,    M Birmingham,    England 

Mendelssohn,    E Hampstead,    England 

NIer,  M.   F London,  England 

Mesquita.   David  Buena  de London.   England 

Michael.   Gustave,   M.B London.   England 

Michelson.   M.   D Gratz,   Austria 

Micklcr,    Aba Newcastle-on-Tyne,    England 

Miller,    Wolfe London,    England 

Mindelsohn,    Justinian Birmingham,    England 

Mocatta,   F.  D London,   England 

Montagu,  Sir  Samuel,  Bart London,   England 

Montefiore.  C.  G London.  England 

Montgomery.    Mrs Bray,    Ireland 

Morris,  B.,  M.D London,  England 

Moser,  Jacob  (J.  P.) Bradford.  England 

Moses,    David London,    England 

Moses,   Samuel,   M.A London,    England 

Moses,  Hon.  Silas  Meyer Bombay,  India 

}VIess,  A London,  England 

Sloss',    N London,    England 

Myers,  Arthur  M Auckland,    New  Zealand 

Mvers,  Isaac Birmingham,  England 

Myers,    Rev.  J.   E Belfast,    Ireland 

Mvers,   Moss  S London,   England 

Myers,    Phineas Hove,   Sussex,    England 

Myers.   Samuel   Peel,  J.P Ilklcy,   England 

Myers,   Solomon London,    England 

flyers,   A'ictor London,   England 

Myers',  Wolf London,   England 

Nachim,   Rev.  Michael London,   England 

Nahon,    Raphael London.    England 

Napier.  Rev.  F.  P Guildford.  England 

Nathan.  J.    E London.    England 

Nathan,  Mver    S.,  LL.B London,  England 

Nathan,   Nathan  Alfred Auckland,   New  Zealand 

Nathanson.    Leopold Copenhagen,   Denmark 

Needleman,    Simon London,    Eng  and 

Neubauer,    Prof.    .Adolf Oxford,    England 

Neumann,    Dr.    Eduard Nagy-Kanizsa,   Hungary 

Newgass    II     London,   England 

Nntt,   Alfred Harrow,    England 

Ochs.   James   F London.   England 

Olswang.  D.  A Sunderland.   Eng  and 

Ol'wang.    Simon Sunderland,    hng  and 

Oppenheim.   Samuel   S London.    Eng  and 

Orkin.    Hcvman London.    Eng  and 

Palmer,   George   William,    M.P Newbury,    England 

Pariser.    Lewis   A Manchester,    England 

Pass.   Daniel    de London,   England 

Pearlman.    Benno Hull,    England 

Phillips,    Rev.    Isaac Porisea.    England 

Phillips,    loseph Kew,   England 

Phillips,  'M.    David London.    England 

Phillips.    Philip Cardiff.    Wales 

Pinn,   Benjamin Cape  Town,  So.  Africa 

Pinn.  I- Cape  Town,  So.  Africa 

Pinna.    .Montague   1.   de London.    England 

Polach.    Rev.   J.,    D.A Bristol,   England 

IVIitzcr.    loseph London,   England 

Pozner.    Montague London.    F.ngland 

Prag.   Joseph London,    England 

Preece,  Sir  William  H.,  K.C.B.,  etc London,  England 

Price,    Maurice Manchester.    England 

I'ykt,  Joseph London,    England 


LIST  OF   PATRONS 


Ramsay.  Prof.  W.  M Aberdeen,  Scotland 

Kamsdcn,  Sir  John  \V.,  Bart Slough.  England 

Raphael,  Albert   I* Cape  Town,  So.  Africa 

Richt^anwult,    Dr Essen,    Germany 

Rtinach.    Shlomm I'aris,    France 

Rcinach.   Dr.  Theodore I'aris,   France 

Rcitlingcr.    Albert London,    England 

Ricardo.    Joseph London,    England 

Richardson.   Harry London.    England 

Ripen,   .Marquis  of London,    England 

Robertson,   James,   D.D Glasgow,   Scotland 

Rodcr.   S.   S Malabar  Coast,   India 

Rosenbaum,    D Liverpool,    England 

Rosenbaum,    Henry London.    England 

Rosenbaum,   Rev.  M Xewcastle-on-Tync,    England 

Rosenberg,    Louis Manchester.    England 

Rosenberg.    Morris    Levy Brighton,    England 

Rosenberg,    Simeon Xewcastle-on-Tyne,    England 

Rosengard,  Rev.  IJ.  H Grimsbv,  England 

Rosenheim,    Herman Hampstead,    England 

Roscnstock,   Julius London,    England 

Rosenthal,    Falke Glasgow,    Scotland 

Rosenthal,    Israel Birmingham,    England 

Koscnthali,    A Manchester,    England 

Rossdalc,   Mrs.   Nellie London,   England 

Roth,   Joseph London,    England 

Rothschild.   Alfred London,  England 

Rothschild.    Leopold  de London,   Englan<l 

Rothschild,   Lord London,    England 

Saalfield,    A Manchester,    England 

Sachs,    Leopold    Katzinelbogen London,    England 

Saffer,    Nathan Leeds,    England 

Safterty,   Private  A Charlton,   England 

Sagar,    A Xewcastle-on-Tync,     England 

Sager,  Judah   L Cambridge,   England 

Salinger,  M.  S London,  England 

Salmen.    Albert   Berl London,  England 

Salomon,    li Manchester,   England 

Salomon,   Fr.   E Copenhagen,   Denmark 

Salomon,    Frederick Southport.    England 

Salomon,  Louis London,  England 

Samson,  Samuel Maida  \'ale,  England 

Samson-Siems,   F.   D London,    England 

Samuel,    Charles London.    England 

Samuel,    Isaac Cardiff.    Wales 

Samuel,    Rev.   Isaac London,    England 

Samuel,  Sir  Marcus London,  England 

Samuels,    S.    11 Manchester,    England 

Sandeman,   Albert   G London,    England 

Saqui,    Horatio London,    England 

Sassoon,   Charles  Isaac Drooklands,  England 

Sassoon,  Sir  Edward,  M.P.,  D.L... London,  England 

Schishka,   David London,   England 

Schlom,    Morris Folkestone,    England 

SchmidI,  Chevalier  De  Maximilian,  M.D., London.  England 

Schmidt,    A Hull,    England 

Schwab,    Dr.    Moise Paris,    France 

Schwartz.  \V London,  England 

Schwarzman,    M London.    England 

Scott,  Very  Rev.  Archibald,  D.D Edinburgh,   Scotland 

Seeligmann.    Sigmund Amsterdam,    Holland 

Seligman.    Isaac London,    England 

Selvcr,    Dr.    Rabbi Darmstadt.   Germany 

Shaffer,    Mendle Manchester,    England 

Shane,   Isaac   Minden Stroud.   England 

Shapiro,  S Johannesburg.  So.  Africa 

Sharpe.   Rev.  T.  \V London,    England 

Shonman,   X London,   England 

Shonnian,  S.  J London,   England 

Silverman.    M London,   England 

Silverstone,    Mark London,    England 

Simmons,  Bernard  Rintel Birmingham,  England 

Simmons,    George  Alexander London.    England 

Simmons,    Henry Clifton,    England 

Simon,    Isidore Manchester,    England 

Simons,    Moss London,    England 

Simonsen.  Chief  Rabbi  D Copenhagen,   Denmark 

Singer,   Rev.    S London,    England 

Sliufko,    E Middlesborough,    England 

Snowman,  J.,   M.D London,   England 

Solomon,    David London,   England 


Solomon,   Harriss   B Xewcastle-on-Tync,    England 

Solomon,  James London,    England 

Solomon,    Joseph London,    England 

Solomon,  Joseph    Bernard London,    England 

Solomon,  Solomon  J.,  A.R.A London,   England 

Solomons,    Israel London,    England 

Sotheran,  H.,  &  Company London,  England 

SiK'culand,    Isaac   Mayer Glasgow,   Scotland 

Spielman.  Miss  M London.   England 

Spielmann,   Isidore,   F.S.A London,    England 

Spiclmann,    M.    H London,   England 

Spiers.  Rev.   It London,  England 

Spiers,    Lionel Birmingham,    England 

Stein.   C.   A London,    England 

Steinhart.   B London,  England 

Stern,  Edward  David,  B.A London,  England 

Stern,    (justav Eastbourne,    England 

Stern,   Rev.  J.   F London,    England 

Slettaucr.  C London,   England 

Stone,    Abraham   Solomon Leeds,    England 

Stone.  Rev.   Darwell Wallingford.    England 

Strnck,   Prof.   Hermann  L Berlin,  Germany 

Si  rump,    Benjamin Glasgow,    Scotland 

Surowicz,  Saul  Sevcrin Ciechanowicc,   Russia 

Susman,   Joseph Manchester,    England 

Sydney.   Algernon   E London,    England 

Tannenbaum.   A London,   England 

Taylor,    C.    D.D Cambridge,    England 

Taylor.  Rev.  Charles,   D.D.,  LL.D..  .Cambridge,   England 

Thomas,    Isaac Birmingham,    England 

Thomas,   Rev.   William X.  .Aberdare.   U'alcs 

Tobias,    Mark London.    England 

Tobins.  J London,    England 

Tom.    M London,    England 

Toohey,   Philip  M Limerick,   Ireland 

Torres,   E.    D Manchester,    England 

Tuck,    Adolph London.    England 

Tuck.    Gustave London,    England 

Tuck,   Herman London.  England 

Turok,   H Woodstock,  So.  Africa 

Vandamm.    George London,    England 

Van   Menlz,   Abranam London,   England 

\'an  Thai,   Si London,   England 

Visetti.   Cavalier  Albert London,   England 

\'ivante.   M.   di  Sabbatai Manchester,    England 

Wace,  Rev.   Henry.  D.D London,   England 

Waislowitah,  Dr.  Joseph Kamentz  Podolsky,   Russia 

Wartski,    Isidore Bangor,    Xo.    Wales 

Warwick,   Countess  of Warwick  Castle,   England 

Wasserzug.  Rev.  D.,  B.A Johannesburg,  So.  Africa 

Wechsler,    B London.    England 

Weil,   B.   B London,    England 

Weinberg.  H.  J Xottingham,   England 

Weinberg,    Israel London,    England 

Weinberg.    Marcus London.    England 

Weiner.    Samuel London.    England 

Wharman,    Samuel London.    England 

Wilenski.    Henry London.    England 

Wilkinson.  Rev.   Samuel  H Brentwood,  England 

Wolf,    Rev.  A.,   M.A Cambridge,   England 

Wolf,    -Xlbert Dresden,    Germany 

Wolf.    Lucien London,   England 

Wolfe,    Alexander Sunderland,    England 

Wolfe,    Baron Manchester.    England 

Wolfers,   Rev.   Philip... Cardiff.  Wales 

Wolffe.   David Birmingham.    England 

Wolfsbcrgen.    Henry London,    England 

Woolf,  Abraham London,  England 

Woolf,  Albert  M London,   England 

Woolf,    B.   A London,   England 

Woolf,  Gabriel Ncwcastle-on-Tyne,    England 

Woolf,    Lewis Birmingham,    England 

Woolf,    Rev.   William Cape  Town.   So.   Africa 

Woolf e,    John London.    England 

Woolstone.    Eugene London,    England 

Worms,   Baron  de,   F.S.A,,  V.P.R.S.L.. London,   England 

Wright.  W.   Aldis,   M.A Cambridge,    England 

Zangwill,   Israel London,   England 

Zeffert,    Isaac   David Leicester,   England 

Ziman,    Harris London.    England 

Zossenheim,  Maximilian Harrowgate,  England 


LIBRARIES,  CLUBS,  SOCIETIES,  INSTITUTIONS,  ETC. 


Abraham  Lincoln   Lodge,   I.    O.   B.   B.,   X'o.   190, 

Bloomington,    III. 
Adath  Veshurun  Congregation  Sunday-School, 

Syracuse,    X.    Y. 

Aguilar  Free  Library Xew   York   City 

Alliance  Israelite  Universelle Paris.   France 

Andover    Theological    Seminary Andover,    ilass. 

Appleton    Library,    Lawrence   University.. Appleton,   Wis. 


Augustinian  College  of  St.  Thomas  of  Villanova, 

\'illanova.    Pa. 

Bangor  Theological   Seminary Bangor,   Me. 

Baptist    College Manchester,    England 

Berkshire  Athensum Pittsfield,   Mass. 

Beth   Elohim  Sunday-School Brooklvn.   X.   V. 

Eeth-El  Sabbath-School Xew  York  City 

Bibliotheca    Rosenthaliana Amsterdam.    Holland 


LIST   OF   PATRONS 


B'nai  B'rith  Library San  Francisco,  Cal. 

B'nai     Yeshurun     Congregation     Sunday-School, 

Des   Moines,   Iowa 

B'nai    Yeshurun     (Kahal    Kadosh) Dayton,    Ohio 

Jt'ne   Jeshurun   Library Milwaukee,  ,\Vis. 

Board  of  Education Newburg.   N.   Y. 

Bootle   Free   Public  Library  and  Museum,   Liverpool. 

England 

Boston    Athcnxum Boston,    Slass. 

Boston   Public   Library Boston,   Mass. 

Boston  University Boston,  Mass. 

Bowdoin  College Brunswick,  Mc. 

Bradford    Free    Library Bradford,    England 

Brighton    Public   Library Brighton,    Enj^land 

Brooklyn   Library,   The Brooklyn,   ^.    Y. 

Buffalo  Public  Library.  The Buffalo.   N.   Y. 

Bureau    of    American    Ethnology Washington.    D.    C. 

Bureau   of   Education Washington,    D.   C. 

Bureau   of    Rolls   and    Library,    Department   of    Slate, 

Washington,  D.  C 

Carnegie    Library Pittsburg,    Pa. 

Charleston    Library Charleston.    S.    C. 

Chicago    Theological    Seminary,    Hammond    Library, 

Cliicapo.    111. 

Christ's   College Cambridge,    England 

Church    House    Library,    Westminster,    London,    England 

City  Library Lowell,    Mass. 

City  Library  Association,   The Springfield,   Mass. 

Colgate     University Hamilton.     X.     Y. 

Columbia    Seminary Columbia,    S.    C. 

Columbia    University New    York    City 

Congregational    Library Boston,    Mass. 

Cornell    University Ithaca,    N.    Y. 

Croydon   Public   Libraries London,    England 

Crozcr    Theological    Seminary,    Bucknell    Library. 

Chester,    Pa. 

Detroit  Public  Library Detroit,  Micli. 

Dcutsch-Jiidische    Gemeindebund Berlin,    Germany 

Divinity    School Cambridge.     England 

Divinity  School   of  the   Protestant   Episcopal   Church, 

Philadelphia,   Pa. 

I.noch   Pratt  Free   Library Baltimore,    Md. 

E^ras  Chovevi   Zion Baltimore,   Md. 

Evelina  de   Rothschild  School Jerusalem.    Palestine 

Fall   River  Public  Library Fall  River,   Mass. 

Forbes     Library Northampton,     Mass. 

Free   Church  College Glasgow,   Scotland 

Free   Library  of   Philadelphia,   The Philadelphia,    Pa. 

Free    Public    Library Worcester,    Mass. 

Freundschaft  Society,  The New  York  City 

Friends    of   Zion Philadelphia,    Pa. 

General  Theological  Seminary New  \  ork  City 

Gratz    College Philadelphia.     Pa. 

Grosvcnor  Gallery   Library London,   England 

Grosvenor     Library Buffalo,     N.     Y. 

Hampstead  Public  Libraries London,  England 

riarvard.    College Cambridge,     Mass. 

Haverford    College Ilaverford,    Pa. 

llcadingly    College Leeds,    England 

Hebrew    Literary    Association Chicago.    111. 

Hebrew  Literature  Society Philadelphia.   Pa. 

Hebrew    National    Association Boston.    Mass. 

Hebrew   Orphan   Home Atlanta.    Ga. 

Hebrew     School,    The Birmingham,     England 

Hebrew  Sheltering  Guardian  Society New  York  City 

Hibrew    L^nion    College Cincinnati.    Ohio 

Independent  Order  B'nai   B'rith New  York  City 

Indianapolis   Hebrew   Congregation   Sabbath-School. 

Indianapolis.    Ind. 

Iroquois  Social  Club Utica,  N.    Y. 

Isaiah  Congregation  Sabbath-School Chicago.   111. 

Israel    Cultusgemeinde Briinn,    Austria 

iL-lTt-rson     Club.     The Richmond.     \'a. 

V-wish   Congregation,    The Copenhagen,    Denmark 

Jewish   Orphans'   Home New   Orleans,    La. 

Jewish   Theological   Seminary Budapest,    Hungary 

Jews'    College London,    Engtantl 

John    Rylands    Library Manchester.    England 

Kansas   Ciiy   Public    Library Kansas   City.    Mo. 

Kcblc  College Uxfurdi   England 


Kmg  s  College Cambridge,   England 

Liverpool    Free    Public    Library Liverpool,    England 

Maimonides   Free   Library New   York   City 

Manchester   College Oxford,    England 

Milwaukee   Public   Library Milwaukee,    Wis. 

Minnesota  Historical  Society,  The St.   Paul.   Minn. 

Missionary    College Dorchester,    England 

Mitchell    Library Glasgow,    Scotland 

Mcnteriore    Club Montreal,    Canada 

Montefiore   College,   The Ramsgatc,   England 

National    Library   of   Ireland Dublin,    Ireland 

Newberry    Library,    The Chicago,    III. 

New    College Edinburgh,    Scotland 

Newton   l-rec  Library Newton.   Mass. 

New-  York    Public   Library    (Astor.   Lenox,   and   Til- 
den  Foundations),  The New  York  City 

New     York     Slate    Library Albany,     N.     Y, 

Ohavei   Zion New    York   City 

Ohaway   Zion    Literary  Association,   The, 

Minneapolis,    Minn. 

Oslerhout    Free   Library Wilkesbarre,    Pa. 

Owens    College    Christie    Library,    The,    Manchester, 

England 

Pensacola  Library  Association Pcnsacola,    Fla. 

Peoria   Public   Library Peoria,   111. 

Pratt    Institute    Free    Library Brooklyn,    N.    Y. 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary Princeton,   N.  T. 

Princeton  University Princeton,   N.  J. 

Progress    Club New     York     City 

Progress     Club Philadelphia,     Pa. 

Public   Library Utica,    N.    Y. 

Public  Library  and  Reading  Room...  .Bridgeport,   Conn. 

(Jueen's    University Kingston,    Canada 

Reform    Club,    The London,    England 

Religious  School  Temple   Beth   Israel Portland,   Ore. 

Religious  School  Temple   Emanu-El New   York   City 

Riggs    Library,  Georgetown  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Rodcf   Sholeni    Congregation   Sabbath-School, 

Youngstown,  Ohio 
St.   Deniol's  Library Hawarden,    England 

St.    Louis    Public    Library St.    Louis,     Mo. 

.St.  Michael's  Passionist  Monastery,  West  Hobokcn,  N.  J. 

Seattle   Public    Library Seattle,    Wash. 

Sir   Montefiore   Association Cincinnati,    Ohio 

Smithsonian  Institution,  U.  S.   National   Museum, 

Washington,    D.    C. 

Southern    Baptist    Theological    Seminary.. Louisville,    Ky. 

Synagogengemeinde   zu    Breslau Breslau.    Germany 

Syracuse   Public  Library Syracuse.   N.   Y. 

Temple    Library,    The Cleveland,    Ohio 

Theological   College Bala.    N.    Wales 

Tiphereth    Zion    Society Pittsburg,     Pa. 

Trefecca    College Talgarth.    Wales 

Trinity    College Cambridge,    England 

Trowbridge  Reference  Library,   Yale  Divinity  School, 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

T'nion  Theological  Seminary New  York  City 

Unitarian     Home     Missionary     College, 

Manchester,  England 

University     Library Durham.    England 

University  of  California  (Semitic) Berkeley,  Cal. 

IT^niversity   of    Leyden Ley  den,    Netherlands 

University  of   Pennsylvania,  The Philadelphia,    Pa. 

University  of  Rostock,  The Rostock.   Germany 

\'anderbilt    University Nashville,    Tenn. 

\'assar    College Poughkccpsie,    N.    Y. 

Washington  and  Jefferson  College Wasliington,    Pa. 

Western    Theological    Seminary Allegheny,    Pa. 

Westminster  College Cambridge,   England 

William's    Library.    Dr London.    England 

Wilmington  InstUute  Free  Library Wilmington,   Del. 

Yale     University New     Haven.     Conn. 

Young  Hebrew  Zionists  of  Syracuse Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Young  Men's  Hebrew  Association New  Orleans,  La. 

Young  Men's  Hebrew   Association New  York  City 

Young   >Ien's   Hebrew  Association Bradford,   Pa. 

Young   Slen's   Hebrew  Association Philadelphia,    Pa. 

S'oung   Zionists   of    St.    Paul St.    Paul,    Minn. 

Zion    Society    of    Rochester Rochester,    N.    Y. 


